This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project
to make the world's books discoverable online.
It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject
to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books
are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.
Marks, notations and other marginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the
publisher to a library and finally to you.
Usage guidelines
Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing this resource, we have taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:
+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.
+ Refrain from automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.
+ Maintain attribution The Google "watermark" you see on each file is essential for informing people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.
+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liability can be quite severe.
About Google Book Search
Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web
at http : //books . google . com/|
HOOVER INSTITUTION
on War, Revolution, and Peace
FOUNDED ev HtR8EkT HOOVE ft. \9i9
THE
ENCYCLOPiEDCA BRITANNICA
ELEVENfH EDITION
nnsT
edition, publiikcd in thrcn nAuum,
I768-I77I.
SECOND
!•
••
ten
M
1777—1784.
THIRD
M
n
•ichtMB
It
I78S--I797.
FOURTH
It
M
tmnty
»•
1801— iSia
«FTH
•»
ft
tmntf
••
iSi$— 1817.
SIXTH
»•
N
twinty
I*
1823—1314-
SEVENTH
M
ft
t^*nty^n#
H
iSjo— 1841.
EIGHTH
M
tl
tutnty-two
If
i8s3-iMa
NINTH
»l
*M
Ciraniy.fiT«
II
1875— itt9*.
TENTH
N
Bintli
•ditlon and dttra
•n
1901—1903.
ELEVENTH
It
■•■•
1910— 1911*
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS. SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XX
ODE to PAYMENT OF MEMBERS
NEW YORK
THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY
1911
Copyright, in the United Sutet of America, 1911,
by
TheSncydopcdia Briunnica Cdmptny.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XX. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,* WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
L C Siw AiAKRT Craxlcs Sewakd, M.A., F.R.S.
Proressor o( BoUny in the University oT CambridsB. Hon. Fdlov of Emmanuel i MMOboluy: Uemok.
CoUe^e. Cambridge. President o( the Yorkahiie Naturaiista' Union, 1910-
L P. F. Au»ERT Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.ILH1ST.S.
A.S,^«.
Professor of English History in the University of London. Felbw of All Soub* I
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary^ National Biography, 1893- i FMrkar. VatOllW.
1^1. Lothian Prixeman. Oxford, itoa; Arnold Prixeman, 1898. Author of
Engfand under Uu Protector Somerset; Utnry VllLi L^4 oj Thomas Crammer \ Ac
A. 6. OU Abthur George Doughty. M. A., tiTT.D., C.M.G.
Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada.
Author of The Cradte of New France; 8uu Joint-editor of DocnmenU reiatini to the
Constitutional History of Canada.
1. Q. H» Albert George Hadoock. f nirtiieniM Ruiw a^ Cnm
Uta ItA. Manager. Gun Department. Eliwick Worki, Newcastte-on-Tyne. J T^TJ^*****^ ^^
Lieut.-Col. commanding ist Northumbrian Brigade. R.F.A. (TerritMial Faeces). I efruawn,
Joint-author of Artillery: its Progress and Present PosiUom\ Ac t
A. Bh. Adolf Harnack.
See the biographical article : Harmacx* Adolf.
A. X, L Amduw Jackson LAMotJRBUx.
Librarian. College of Agriculture. Cornell University. Focmcfly Editor o£ the
NewSt Rio de Janeiro.
!.£«. ACHILLE LuCHAHB. Pmm^tm* w,Jh^r^0.
See the biographical article : Lucbairb. Dbnis J. Acbills. ^ »»»fif • '087-1^^
A. lb. AxxxANDER Macauster, M.A.. M.D., LL.D.. D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.A.
Professor of Anatomy In the University of Cambridge, and Fellov of St John's ^ . 'alltiy.
College. Author of Text-Book of Human Anatomy; &c. {
4. K. CL Acnes Muriel Clay (Mrs Wilde).
Formeriy Resident Tutor of La ' '
•/ Roman History, /jj-79 B.C.
r Oriole; Ornitkotoiy (fo part);
A m AURED Newton, F.R.S. 22!S^ft.2!!I??L-i.
^ See the biographical article: Newton. Atrtsn. 1 gy L'?*" "/ .""•
1 Ovn; Oystw-catoMr;
^OriiM.
jpinA.
ECES Muriel Clay (Mrs Wilde). f .
Formeriy Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall. OxfonL JciBt-mtfaor of Sourtes \ FSstTOB nd CBmI (m ptrtU
of Roman History, /jj-79 B.C. I
^ p. S. AtftEO Peter Hillier, M.D., M.P. r
Author of South African Studies'; The Commomweal'. ftc Served in Kaffir War, OnnCB Tim Stelt: History
1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in mcdnal practin in South African /.• ^,^\
till 1896. Member of Reform Committee. Johannesburg, and Political Prieoaer at I ^'" r^'-
Pretona, 1893-189^ M.P. ior Hitchia divisioa of Hctta, 1910W I
AMhoroiHistoireMonusHentaUdelaPhaice. jflMlK History (m fart).
■UR SioTB Woodward. LL.D.
Keeper of Geology, Natural Hi
the Geological Society, London.
AtTWUR SioTB Woodward. LL.D.. F.R.S. f V!'"*" "?
K^eger of Geojkygy, Natural History Mnseam. South KeMiagtoa. Seeictaiy of i < Wg^ y
Akhor Wauch, M.A. f
New College. Oxford. Newdinte Prize. t88S. Author of Gordon in Africa; Alfred, 1 Mtr, WaNw;
Lord Tennyson. Editor of Johnson's Uees of the Po^; and of editiona of Didieut, 1 Pfelmon* Oofiilbiy.
nnttysoUt Amoldt Lamb; Ac L
AnauR WouAM Holland. f Otto ol IMilaf;
Formeriy Scholar of St John's CoUefe. Oxford. Baooo Scholar of Griy*a Ina, 1900. \ FMtoB LiMhi.
* A complete list, showii^ all Individual oontributor^ appcart ia the final voluaa.
c.w«.
JHK
D.O.
D.F.T.
D.O.IL
D.H.
D.H.8.
D.J.IL
B.A.F.
*B.T.
£.CB.
▼i INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. W. R. Alexander Wood Renton, M.A., LL.B.
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceyloa. Editor of Encyclopaedia of Iko Laws
of England,
A. W. W. AooLPRUS WnxiAM Wasd. Litt.D., LL.D.
See the biographical article : Ward, A. W.
B. B. Sir Boverton Redwood, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C.. Assoc.Inst.C.E.,
M.INST.M E.
Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office. India Office, Corporation of
London, and Port of London Authonty President of the Society ol Chemical
Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of
Institute of Chemistry. Author of "Cantor" Lectures on Petrtdeumi PetroUnm
and its Products; Chemical Teckntdogy; &c.
0. B.* Cbarles Bvbritt, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.6., F.R.A.S.
Formerly Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford.
C. F. A. Charles Francis Atkinson.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, ist City of London (Royal
FusiUers). Author <fiTha WUdcmest and Cold Barbour.
C. H. Ha. Carlton Hitntley Hayes, A.M., Pn.D.
Aasisunt Professor of History in Columbia Univeruty. New York City. Member of
the American Historical Association.
0. L. K. Charles Lethbridge Kingspord, M.A., F.R.Hist.S., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor
of Chronicles iff London; and Stow's Snroey ef London,
C. B. Clevent Red, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.
District Geologist on H.M. Geological Survey of England and Wales. Author of
Origin of the British Flora; &c. Joint-author of Fro-Glacial Flora of Britain;
Fossil Flora of Tegelen.
C. B. B. Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S.
Professor of Modem History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of
Merton College. Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography.
Lothian Prixeman, Oxford. 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston. 1908. Author m Henry
Ike Navigator; The Dawn of Modem Geography; &c
CkCIL WEAIBERLY.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College. Oxford. Barrister-at-taw.
Henri db Blowitz.
See the biographical article: Blowitz. H. G. S. A. db.
DnoAio Clerk. M.Inst.CE^ F.R.S.
Director of the National Gas Engine Co.. Ltd. Inventor of the Ckik Cyde Gas
DoMALD Francis Tovey.
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical ComertOt The
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of aany othitt Haiaical works.
David George Hogarth. M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolcan Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College. Oxford.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Faphos, 1888: Naucratis, 1 899
and 1903: Ephesus. 1904-1905^; Assiut. 1906-1907; Director, British School at
Athens, 1897-1900. Duector, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
David Hannay.
Formeriy British Vtcc-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal
Naoy; Ufe of Emilio Castdar; &c
D uKiNj r u i L D Henry Scott, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
President of the Linnean Society. Author of Structural Botany; Studies in Fossil
Botany; &c
David James Hamilton, M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.) (1849-1909).
Professor of Pathology, Aberdeen University. 1 882-1907. Author of Texl-Booh of
Pathology; Ac
Edward Augustus Frecvan, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: Freeman. E. A.
Edward Burnett Tylor, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article : Tylor, Edward Burnbty.
Riosr Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, M.A., O.S.B., D.Litt.
Abbot o< Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius,"
in Cambridge Texts and Studies.
B. C Q. Edmund Crosby Quiggin, M.A.
Fellow, Lecturer in Modem Laofuagea. and Monro LectuRr in Celtic, Goovflle and
Caius College, Cambridge.
B. 0« Edmund Oosse, LL.D.
See the biographical article: GossB, Edmund.
B. Or. Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A.
Sec the biographical article: GaRdner. PbrCY.
(pifaHl
Opiam: CkemUnf^AaOpmtm
Alkaloids.
Orleans: Camfaips of 1870.
Oiaiiam; FMdal IL;
PMil U H. {popes).
OldctsOs, Sir Jolm;
Oxford, 18tli EBri of.
P BlBSOfcotaaj; Tertiary*
Odorto {in part);
OdMUifw; OrtoUok
PMIMOt
HtHt History (In ^or^.
oai
Open; Oittorlo; Ovwtqrt;
FMsstriin {in part).
Oronies; Psunpliylla.
Orford, Btfl ol(Btf«ai«
FalMobotaoy: Palatm oic
VMkolQKy (In parO.
Mtnao {HtparO*
QitaL
ODvataos; Vwiibmam, 8t
PBWdc St
Ods; OUeosehUicir;
pttevB Bimt; OfBitay;
FtfndMi*nmisr; BMtonl,
OlympiB (m part);
FUflMDOIL
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ^
JSuM Rovnx Mnnn, M.A. f •, ^
University Lectiucr in Plakeoeiapliy, OuilbrfdBb Lecturer and Aaaftaot Libcartan i OlMa (Ettxifu),
at Pembroke CoUcga. Cambridge. Fonnefly FtUov of Pembroke CoUege- I
EbcABD Meyer, Pb.D., D.Lnr. (Oxon.). LL.D. f 2^' 9P*!?' ^■'•^
Profcttor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of GeukiekU iti < rMom; ntftala;
AlUrikums'. Cuckicku dts atttm Atgyptens', Dm JsrvdiUn und Hut Naekbvstdmm*, I Puyntto; Pisargl^
Puyntto; PisarpdM.
Curator of the Muieum of the PharnMeutieal Society, Loodoiu
'^FfttaMgimpliy:
LM.B. Edwaid MoxELL Holmes. ^ _ . .^ . •fopfnm.
L M. TL Sn EowAEO Maundb Tbompson, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L , Litt.D., LL.D.
Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum. 1808-1909. Sandara Reader in
Bibliography, Cambridge, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow 01 University College. Oxford.
PAper: Hishryx
OBvetni lliiltiKS
Correspondent of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian Academy of'
Sciences. Author of Handbook of Crteh a»d Latin PoUuovaphy. Editor of
Ckromem An^iae. Joint-editor of publications of the Palaeogiaphical Society,
the New Palaeographical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian Sophodea.
I. ■. W« Rxv. Edward Mewbxten Walker, M.A. /oiriifliiii.
Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. I
1. 0»* Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surseon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Orroond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Examiner'
in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge. Londdn and Dutfiam. Author of
A Manwal of Anatomy for Strior Students,
Wi R; SDOAR PRRStAGB.
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Lifeemture in the Unlvcnity of Manchester.
uaminer in Portuguese in the Univeruties of London, Manchester, Ac. Com-
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon
Royal Academy of Sciences. Lisbon Geographical Society; Ac. Editor of Lttton
of a Foftngnoso Nnn; Asurara's CkronkU of Cnuuoi Ac
f. CL CL FkEDERXCK CORNWALUS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tfet. (GtCSSCS).
Fellow of the British Academy. Formeriv Fellow of University College, Oxford.
Editor of Tho Ancient Armenian Tests of AristoUe. Author of Uylkt MagU ^'^
Morals; Ac.
r. Q» F. FkZDERicx Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., FJLS., F.R.AnthropJn8t.
Vice-President, Anatomkal Society of Great Briuin and Ireland. Lecturar on J OU^Mtoiy
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women,
London. Formeriy Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.
f • K>^ FnNAND Khnopft. / Pnliiltan itsd^rm lUUiam
See the biographical article: Kunopff, F. E. J. M. 1 """»* Mmem ifetgtaM
'- B.CL FkANK R. CaNA. fiVnnra VMa Mnte (U a^)
Author of 5dtil*it/rtca /rem OeCfcairrc* 10 Ike IfnsM. -J^WMgi Kit 5Wi Vn partj.
r. Wi» rtuatoM Watt, M.A. f
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of Lam's Lttmber Roam. \
F. W. Hoi. Frederick Walker Mott, F.R.S.
foitl.J
:and^
Ben,|
DERicK Walker Mott, F.R.S.. M.D. f
Phyucian to Charing Cross Hospital. Pathologist to the London County Asyluma. <{ Fut|yi
FuUeriao Professor of Physiology at the Royal Institution. L
DERICK William Rudler, l.S.C, r.G.S, f ©■«•
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. 1879-1903. 'j Z~Zm^
President of the Geok)gist8' Association, 1887-1889. (. QP*^
F. X. K» FkANz Xaver Rravs (1840-1901). f
Professor of Church History, University of Freibttif-in^Brdii^, iS78-l90l.-{ Flutty: ti9&-tooo»
Author dGestkidaederehrisOiekenKnnstidtc* [ ^^ ' "^
a. A. Otm George Abraham Grierson, CLE., Ph.D., D.Litt.
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-190A. In charge of Unguistic Survey
of India. 1898-1903. Gold MedalUst. Royal Aamtic Sodety. 1909. Vice-President ^
of the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fdlow of CakutU Umvenity. Author of
The Laninages of I-adia; Ac.
Q. ^ CU* Kxv. George Albert Cooke, D.D. (
Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture, and Fellow of Oriel College, X
Oxford. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathediml, Edinbuigh. L
6. B. B^ GiRARD Baldwin Brown, M.A.
Professor of Fine Art, University of Eifinbutgh. Formedy Fellow of Brasenooe
CoUege, Oxford. Author of The Fine Arts; The Arts m Barty JSagfantf ; Ac.
{■
>RCE Brown Goods (i8^x-i896). f _
Asustant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institotioii, Washington. l8<7-tfl96b ifhthor < QfllV (l» port),
of American Fishes, L
>RCE Chrystal, M.A., LL.D. f . ^. .
Professor of Mathematks and Dean of the Faculty of Arts. Ediabuigh Univef^. \ FHOBI (fm pmO.
Hon. Fellow and formeriy Fellow and Lecturer of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge* I
C €L W. George Cbarles Williamson, LrrT.D. r
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Uiniatnres; Life of Richard J ODflT* 1
Cesway, R,A.; Ckorje Entlekeart; Portrait Dramngs; Ac Editor of the New] OHfV* ffilM!*
Edition of Bo'an's Dictionary of Painters and Eitffaoere. L
via INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
G. B. Rbv. Geoxce Eduukdson, M.A., F.R.Hxst.S. ' f niflinlMjmwMt
PormeHy Felfcw and Tutor of BcueiKMe Collefie. Oxfocd. FoMl'a Lcctttier, 1909. J Jw^^^TViS^Zl^.
Hon. Member. Dutch Historical Socitty. and Foreign Member. Netherlaodt AmoSi 1 Jf °? CHOW of);
tkmofUteiature. I Oitend Cbmpuj.
O.B.a GeOXGE EaXL CBUICB. ScMn^m
Sm the biographical etticle: Cen»CH. G. E. \ """WO,
G. H. C GxoBOB Hebbcst Caipentek, B.Sc. f
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College o< Sdeaoe. DubUa. Author of /»mcIi:-{ Orthopltll.
Iknr Struaurt and Lif€. [
G. 8a. George Saimtsbusy, LL.D., D.C.L. /Orieaas, Charles, Doki of;
See the biographical article: Saiktsbury, Georcb E. B. \ Pasod (m ^art).
0. 8. W. German Sims Woodhead, M.A., M.D.. F.R.S. (Edin.). f
Professor of Pathology. Cambridge University. Fellow of Trinity Hall. Cambridge. ^ FailSltle Diieasot.
Member of Royal Commission on Tubcrculoeis, 1903. I
H. A. B. Henry Arthur Betbell. r
Lteut.-Col. Commanding 40th Brigade R.F.A. Associate Member of R.A. Com- 1 Ordnaoeee
mittee. Awarded Lefroy Medal for Contributions to Artillery Science. Author of 1 FUld ArtHUrv Bouihm^ntt
Modern Guns and Gunneryi The Emphymenl of ArtilUryi Ac. I Anii#ery M^qutfmtnss,
ray Bbabley. M.A., Pa.D. f
Joint-editor of the ^JVw English piclumar^iOxUxd). Fellow of the British "jOlTn.
H. Br. Hbney Bbabley. M.A., Pa.D.
Joint-editor of the New English Diclionary {L _ . . _
Academy. Author of The Story of the Goths: Tko Haking of EnfjlUh ; &c.
H. Gh. Hugh Chisholm, M.A. r
Formeriy Scholar of Corpus Christi College. Oxford. Editor of the iith edition of< ParilamMit (At Oorl).
the Encyclopaedia Brilanniea. Co-editor of the loth edition.
I Institute. Formeriy
Mr inatat etc, joint-autnor 01 A utaumary of
H. B. Karl Hermann Etr£, M.A., Pn.D.
H. CL Sn Hugh Charles Cuttord, R.C.M.G.
Colonial Secretary. Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Formeriy
Resident. Fahang. Colonial Secretary. Trinidad and Tobago, igoj^loOT. Author of
Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India, &c. Joint-author of A Diaionary 0/
Ihe Malay Lauguant,
X Hermann Etre, M.A., Pn.D. r
Professor of Oriental Languages. University College. Aberystwyth (University of J a»»«» w..»s«k /• ^^^\
Wales). Author of Catalogue 0/ Persian MaMuscnpu in the India Office LibraryA "'"*' Kliaijam (m port)
£<Ni4oi»(ClaicadonPresfe); Ac ..r- , ^
{pastov.
H. B. S. Sir Henry ENnELD Roscoe, LL.D. f
See the biographical article: Roscob, Sir Henry Enhbld. \
H. F. BL HoRAno Robert Forbes Brown, LL.D.
Editor of the Calendar of Venetian StaU Papers, for the Public Record Office, 1 b.j«.
London. Author of Life on the Lagoons; Venetian Studies; John Addington] nana.
Symandi^ a Biography; &c. t
H. F. 0. Hans Frxedrxch Gadow, F.R.S., Pb.D. f
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. -{
Author of " Amphibia and Reptllca,'* io the Cambridge Natural History, [
H. F. 0. Henry FAtRncu) Osborn, LL.D.. D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.).
Da Cosu Professor of Zoology, Columbia University, New York. President,
American Museum of Natural tlistoiy, New York. Curator of Department of
Vertebrate Palaeontok>gy. Palaeontologist U.S. Geological Survey. Author of
From theCreehs to Darwtn; &c.
H. F. P. Henry Francis Pelham, LL.D., D.C.L. / ^,. _,^ _
See the biographical article: Pelham, Hbnry Francis. \ "™®» ■»wus 8.
H. Ja. Henry Jackeon. Litt.D., LL.D., O.Bf. r
Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Trinity! «-— - tju^ § *l^
College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of TexU to illustrate the History of\ nnaeOIMS 01 BM«
Gruh Philosophy from ThaUs to Aristotle. I
H. L. H. Harriet L. Hennessy. M.D. (Broz.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.L /ouaelory System: ZHsmmx.
•(■
H. M. G. Hector Munro Chadwice, M.A.
Librarian and Fellow of Clare College. Cambridge. Reader in Scandinavian,
Cainbrklge University. Author of Stmies on An^o^Saxon Institutions.
H. M. D. Henry Newton Dickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. /
Professor of Geography at University College, Reeding. Formeriy VKe-Presklent, I «_ .. «. ,. %
Royal^Meteor^(^lSociet;^.^I^tureriri^(^ Author of 1 P>«Ul0 Ooeail (m part}.
Meteorology; BlemenU of Weather and Gimale; Ac.
H. R. T. Henry Richard Tedder, F.S.A.
Secretary and Ubnrian of the Athcoaeum Qub, Londoa.
•[ Famphlefs.
H. W. CD. Henry William Carless Davis, M.A. frwiA a? RaMn**
Fellow and Tutor of BalHol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, i AlL^ SSKfa
1895-1903. Author of Eng^nd under the Normans and Anemnt; Charlemagne, { OMerie VltalB.
H. T. Sir Henry Yule, K.C.S.I. f odorio (in tart)
See the bwgraphical artkle, Yulb, Sir Henry. \ "^™ ^"* '^''
J. A. C. Sn Josepb Archer Crowe. K.C.M.G. IrM*am tim a/.w^
See the biographical article: Crowb, Sir Josefh ArCHBR. ywam u» pon).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
IX
J.A.B.
J.Bn.
J.Bt
J.B.A.
J.O.fuiD.
J.&A.H.
J.H.P.
J.IL1L
J.m.B.
I.U.
J.LH.
Lib.
J. P.-B.
J.F.B.
ri*BMiMU, j>i.A.| A^.ov., r.n..o.
Mor of Electrioa Engiiweripq in the UnIvtMhy of Loodoa.
r Coilese. London. Formerly Fellow of St Joha^s CoUege, Cai
Bt of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. Author tdTkeP
. Fellow
Cambffidte.
PrindpUs
JOBN Amsbose Flsmimg, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Pender Profew - ' "• -• • "--^ '— •
of University ( „.
Vice-President of the Institution of Electrical Engineers.
tf Electric Worn Tdegrapky; Magnets and Electric CutraUs; &c
fOHN Allen Howe, B.Sc.
Curator and Libiarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of
Geology pf Building Stones.
lOSKPH BEAUM, S.J. /
Author of Die LitMrgische (kmanduni fte. 1
lAMES BaBTLETT. f
Lectueer on Gmstniction. Architecture. Sanitation. Quantities* Ac, at Kin|[*s J
Collfge* London. Member of Society of Aichitects. Member of Institute of Junior |
Eiq;ineers. L
^OSEFH BEAVxircToir Ateinson.
Formerly art<ritic of the Saturday Review. Author xA An AH Tow in tke Northern •
Capitals of Europe \ Schools of Modem Art in Germany.
OHN Charles van Dyke.
Professor of the History of Art. Rutgers CoOege. New Brunswick, N.T. Formerly
Editor of The Studio and the Art Reotew. Author ci Art for ArCs Som; History if
Painting; Old Eugfish Masters i Sec.
fOHN Edwin Sandys. M.A., Lrrr.D., LL.D.
Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's College, Oam-
bridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author ci History of Classical Scholarship;
Ac.
fOBN FlSEE, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Fiseb, John.
AMES FnOCAVEICE-KELLY, LlTT.D., F.R.HXST.S.
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Languaee and Literature. Lhreipoot University.
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambrid^ Univetsity. Fdlow of the British Academy.
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of
Alphonso XH. Author of A History of Spanish LUeraturei dec
fOHN Heney Astrdr Habt, M.A.
Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge.
foBN Henby Feeese. M.A.
Formeriy Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
fOHN HENEY MlDDLETON, M.A., llTT.D., F.S.A., D.CL. (1846-X896).
Slade Professor of Fine Arts in the Univeruty of Cambridge. 1886-189^ Director
o( the Fitawilliam Museum. Cambridge, 1889-1893. Art Director ot the South
Kensington Museum. 1892-1896. Author of The Engraotd Garni of Clasiical Times;
JUmmiHoled Manuscripts in Classical and Medieval Times,
OBN Holland Rose, M.A., Lxtt.D. ^
Christ's College. Cambridge. Lectum- on Modem History of the Cambridge
University Local Lectures Syndvafee. Author of Life of Na p o l eon /.; "^ *
Studies; The Development of the European Nations', The Life efPiltiiuu
Oolttt; Ordofielui
Wbattagt UnUtd Stales,
r/vMUcr.
|V!UkBUlt
nikeio Valdii. AfBaaiai
Puto Buin.
Bitlaiy {in pmi)»
cm Jacobs. Lrrr.D.
Profenor of EiuUah Utcratme in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York
Formeriy President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corresponding-
Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin
England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c.
ULius Lewsowxtsch, M.A., Ph.D.
Examiner to the Dty and Guilds of London Institute. Vice-President of Chemical
Society. Member of Council of Chemical Society: Institute c^ Chemistry; and'
Sodety of Public Analysts. Author of Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils,
Fats, and Waxes; 3tc
fovN Linton Mybes, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. f
Wykeham Professor of Andcnt History in the University of Oxford and Fellow I
of Magdalen College. Formerly Gladstone Professor of Gieek and Lecturer in J Bl^bBB.
Ancient Geography, University of UvcrpooL Lecturer of Classical Archaeology I
in the University of Oxford. [
[AMES MUIBHSAD, LL.D^ (183I-18S0).
Scotch Advocate; Professor of Civil Law in the University of Edinbuigh, i86»-
1889. Author of Historic^ Introduction to the Private Law of Rome, and of an edition •
of the /iu<ifiiler of Gains and Rules of Ulpian.
[OON ilACPHEBSON, M A., M.D.. M.R.C.S. (1817-1800).
Formerly Inspector-General cl Hospitals. Beai^ Author of The Balhi and Weils ,
ef Europe, Ac
fOHN MaLOOUI MnCBELL.
Sometime Schobr of Oueen's Collegv, Oxford. Lecturer In Classics. East London .
CoUege (University oiLondoa). Joint-editor of Groie's History ^ Greeu.
AMES GfeOBCB J08BFB PENDBEEL-BEOmniBCT.
Editor of the Guardian (London).
JEAN Paul Hippolytb Emmanuel AoniMAE Esmein.
PTofesaor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of ''
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Ce«r> Mm
frantaisiduc
{in part).
X
J.B.J.J.
J.R.T.
J. 8. Co.
J.T.Be.
J.T.a
J.V.B.
J.W.W.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OP ARTICLES
K.8.
L.D*
L.V.P.
L.P.D.
L.J.B.
I..J.S.
L.B.P.
■.o.a
■.&&
■.■.Bh,
■.1I.T.
--{
JouAN RoBEiT John Jocelyn.
Cotoncl. R.A. Formeily Member of the Ordiumoe Committee, Commandant
Ordnance Collefce. and Commandaot. School of Gunnery. Author of Noles
Tattks and Recoututtssances: &c.
James Rjcharo Thursfielo, M.A. J
Honorary Fellow of Jesus College. Oxford. Formerly Dean. Fellow, Lcctunrr and ]
Tutor of Jesus Collcse- Author of P«e(: Ac. I
James StrraERLAio) Cotton, M.A.
Editor of the Imperiat Gaaetteer of India. Hon. Secrctaiy of the Egyptian Ex-
ploration Fund. Fonnerly FeUow axKl Lecturer of Queen's College. Oxfora. Author
of India; &c.
John Thomas Bealby.
Joint-author of Stanford's Eurobe. Formerly Editor of the ScoUish Geographiral -
MagftMin€. Translator of Sven Hedin's Tkrouih Asia, Central Asia and Tibet', &c.
JosEFH Thomas Cunningham, M.A., F2..S.
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Westcm Polytechnic. London. Formerly.
Fellow of Universi^ College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in
The University of Edinbuigh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association.
Tee Rev. James Vebnon Bartlet, MA., D.D.
Prafesaor of Church History, Mansfield College. Oxford. Author of Tfie Apostolic
Age;&c,
J. W. Wyatt, A.M.INST.C.E.
Author of The AH of Making Paper; &c
Seny Field eni
Siege Equipments, Carrisem
HouiUimti
Omiehniid;
Oral; OreBbiUK.
Oyster (m pari),
ntpias;
Pftul tiM ApoHte.
•[pUpeR UatmfaOtire.
Kathleen Schlesinceil
Editor of the Port/olio of Musical Arckaeolot^.
Orchestra; &c
Author of The Instruments of the .
Ophldeide (m pari);
Orehestn; OrclMstifon;
Orsan: Ancient HiUoryi
Organlstnim; Fuldnis;
FuiifftlJ
f Papa^ to toSj;
ir - -
LioNCC BfNfom. r
Kccper of the Mus6e National du Luxembouiig. Professor at the £cole du Louvie. J ^^.^^ - - , «
President of the Society des Peintres Orientalistes fiancais. Author of Histoire 1 nmOBS! Modem PremdL
du Beaux Arts; &c. [
Iaub Duchesne.
Sec the biographical article: Duchesne, L. M. O. \ Pasehal L
LuDWio von Pastoi, Ph.D. j
Director of the Austrian Institute of Historical Studies at Rome. Professor of
Hbtory and Director of the^ Historical Seminaiy in the University of Innsbruck. -S Fspaqr: IJOf-1500.
Author ciGeschuJUe der I
Lewis Foreman Day, F.S.A. (1845-1909).
Formeriy Vice-President of the Society of Arts. Pkst Master of the Art Workers* •
GikL Author of Window^ a booh about Stained Glass ; &c ^
LaWBSNCS JfOHNtTON BUU»EE. (*
Public Librarian of the City of Ottawa. Author of The Search for the Western Sea; i Ottawa (Canada)
&c Joint-author of Camadian Life in Tomn and Country; Ac I "*"^ K^anaaaj,
Hofrat'of the Austrian Empire. Commander of the Order of Francis Joseph; &c.
' rPdpste; due Editor cA ^tue Acta pontificum Romanortun. t
Leonaso Jamzs Spencer, M.A. f ^
AsaisUnt in Department of Mineralogy. British Museum. Formerly Scholar J Ollfemte; OlivUM;
of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Haricness Scholar. Editor of the | Orthoolase;
Mineralogical Magazine, [ Pailslte.
Lewis Richaso Farnell, M.A., Lirr.D. e
Fellow and Senk>r Tutor of Exeter College, Ojdord ; Univernty Lecturer in Classical J t
Archaeology; Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion. Author of CiJ^ of Creeh'\
States ; EMution of Religion, [
Rt. Hon. Sn Mountstuaxt Elpbinstone Grant Dutf, G.C.S.I., F.R.S.
^^829-15)06),
. for the Elgin Buigha, 1857*1881. Under-Secrrtary of State for India, 1868-
1874. Under-Secretary of State for the Cdlooica, 1 880-1881. Governor of Madras,
I88i-t886. President of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889-1893. President
of the Royal Historical Society, 1892-1899. Author of Stiidies in European Politics;
Notes from a Diary; ftc
liARioN H. Spieimann. F.S.A.
Fomeriy Editor of the Magasine ef Art, Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter-
national Exhibitions of Brussels. Paris. Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco-
British Exhibition, London. Author of History of "Punch**; British Portrait
" * " - Works of G, P, Watts, R.A.;
Painting to the Opening t^ the Nineteenth Centt^;
BriUsk Sadpture and Sculptors of To^y; HenrieUe Ronneri
MoRRB Jastrow, Pk.D.
Professor of Semitk Langua^. University of Pennsytvaob. Author of Religion
ef tke Babylonians and Assyrians; &c
Snt Makcheriee Merwanjee Bhownaggree.
FeUov of Bombay University. M.P. for N.-E. Bethnal Green, 1895-1906W Author
of History of tke Constitution ef tke East India Company; &c
Marcus Niebuhr Too, M.A.
FeUow and Tutor of Orid College. Oxford. University Lecttirer in Epigraphy.
Joint-authpr of Catalopie ef tk^^parta Mt
Oliphant. Lannnea.
Baintiog: Rteeni BriHski
I*asteL«
FMeL
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XI
O.Bk
0. J. B. B.
O.T.
P.A.K.
p.av.
P.OL
P.O.K.
ILA.S.H.
B.C.J.
B.O.
ILH.H.B.
ILH.R.
ILJ.O.
ILJ.H.
ILK.D.
R.Hr.
B.1I.B.
B.P.&
Lioif Jacques Maxdce Punct.
Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of the Institute of J
France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). Author of VlmduslrU duuleH]
Framcke-Comti ; Franfois J,eiU cemti de Bourgoffu ; &c. I
OswAiD Bakbon. F.S.A. I
Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Sunding Council of the H
Honourable Society of the Baronetage. I
Ortoans. fUrtiatad* Dukt ol:
Orlaaiii* Gaston, Dote of;
OriMun, PhOlp L and n,
of.
OSBtVT JOBH RAOCUm HOWABTH, M^.
Christ Chttich. Oxford. Geographical Scholar. 1901.
British Association.
AMistant Secntaiy of the'
Ptaki: Family,
Oitad.
OioniiLo Tbouas, F.R-S., F.Z.S.
Senior Assistant, Natural History Department of the British Museum. Author of
Cdla/o{M of Marsupialia in Uu British Museum.
Panics Prrsa ALEXEivncB KaoponiN.
See the biographical article: Kropotxin, PantCB P. A.
PsTCR Chaucees MrrcHKix. M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com-
parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxiocd, 188S-1891. Author
of Outlines of Biohgy; &c
Pbtes Giles, M.A., LL.D., Lm.D.
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmattnel College, Cambridge, and Univcnity
Reader in Comparative Philology. Fonneriy Secretary of the Cambridge Philo-
iogkal Society. Author of Manual of Comparatm FkiMotyi Ac
VAVh GcoacE KONOOY.
Art Critic of the Observer and the DaUy Mail, Formeriy Editor of The ArHsL
Author of The Art of Walter Crane ; Velasquea, Ufe and Worh ; &c
RoBEaT AuxANDER Stswaet Macaustee, M.A., F.S.A.
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Pdestlae Explon-
tionFuofd.
Ronald Bbvnlbes McKekbow, M.A.
Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of the Warhs of Thomaa Nashe; Ac.
Sn RicBAXD Clavebbousb Jebb, LL.D., D.CX.
See the biographical article: Jbbb, Sir Ricbabo Clavbbboubb.
RxcHABO Gabnett, LL.D., D.CL.
See the biographical article: Gabmbtt, Ricbabo.
RoBEBT HocroBO Macdowall Bosanquet. M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., P.C.S.
Fellow of St John's College, Oxford. Autaor of Musical Temperameni; &c.
Robebt Halloweu. Richabos, LL.D.
Prdfesaorof Mining and Metallunry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Boston.
Pfcsident American Institute of Mining Enginoera, 1886. Author of Ore-dreuimg; &c.
R. J. Gbewxno, Captain, Reserve of Oflficen.
Ronald Joiai McNeill, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Fonneriy Editor of the 51 James's
Caaelle, London.
Sni Robebt Kennaway Douglas.
Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. in the British Museum; and
Professor of Cninese* King's College. London. Author of The Languate and Litera-
ture of China; Ac
RiCBABD Lydbkxxb, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of
Catalogues of FossU Mammals, ReptUes and Birds im Brihsh Museum: The Deer 0/
aU Lands; The Came AnimaUefAfneai&c
.RjCBABD MOTBEB (1860-I909).
Professor of the History of Art, Breslau University, 1895-1909. Author of Us
History of Modem Fainting.
i PBBgollB (m parth
OdBssa; Onega;
Oiel; Onabnig.
Ornittiolocy (m part);
Ophlr;
(IB parii.
{in fart).
sPkya.
(iB^arO.
PUinL
O'Donnell; PamSfyi
O'MB: FaiBsly.
Plutes» fir H. 8.
of Pathologkal aad Becflolu gk al Tedmiqae, UalveniCy of I
RlCBABD MDIB.
Demonstrator
Edinburgh.
ROBSBT NltBET BaXN (d. IQOp).
Assisunt Librarian. British Museum, 1885-1909. Author of Seaudiuaeia, the
Political History of Denmarh, Norway and Smedeu, ifij-1900: The First Hammmme, ,
f^'J^Vi Slmfouic Europe, the Politieal History tff PoUud and Russia from 1469
to xTpv > fte. i
Sn RiCBABD Owen, K.C.B.
See the biographical article: OWBM. Sib RiCBABD. \
R. Pbbm< Spiexs, F.S:A.. F.R J.B.A.
Okavl: < .
Otter (in part);
01; PalaeotheriBm;
PiBfOlbi (m part).
PlMttdBi: Ktcent Dutch, Gp-
MMN, Anstrian^ IlaUan,
Narwegiom, Rutsins^ and
Baikal^ States,
HOioloa {m part).
Ohf; OIgM;
OrdBlB-
OriOY;
Fonnerfy Master of tke Arehlteetufa! School. Royal Academy. London. Pkst
President ol Architectural Assodatbn. Associate and Fellow of King's College.
Umdon. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History tf Architectmre. Author of Aeekiteciura: East aud Westi Ac
Ofier,
ILTt.
A.A.a
S.ft.
S.G.O.
1.11.
f.B
T.Ab.
T.A.L
T.BiL
T.E.H.
T.F.a
T.H.
T. H. H.*
T.K.a
Th.ll.
T.L.H.
T.O.
T. W. R. IK
V.H.
W.Ar.
W.A.B.a
W.A.H.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Robert Szymoue Conway, M.A., DXirr. (CanUb.).
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the Univeraity of MancKester.
Formeriy Professor of Latin in Univeruty Coliqre. Cardiff; and Fellow of ConviI]e
and CaiusCoUege, Cambridge. Author ci The ItalieDiaUas.
Roland Tkuslove, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Fellow, Dean and Lecturer in Claasict
at Worcester College, Oxford.
Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A.
Lecturrr in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caiut College,
Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Expbration Fund. Escaminer in Hebrew
and Aramaic, London Univcrsit)*. 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Ammaic
Inscriptions', The Law of Moses and the Cods of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on
Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine : Sue.
Sydney R. Fremantle.
Captain, R.N. Naval Mobilization Department, Admiralty, London.
Sidney George Owen, M.A.
Student and Tutor of Christ Chuich, Oxford.
SmoN Newcomb, D.Sc., LL.D.
See the biographical article: Newcomb, Simon.
Stephen Paget, F.R.C.S.
Surgeon to Throat and Ear Department, Middlesex Hospital. Hon. ^,
Research Defence Society. Author of Memoirs and Letters of Sir James Paget; &c.
Parii: Ceoff^pky atd
SUUisiia.
Omil;
Ffttostiae: Old Talammi
History
rOrdmiM: Natal Gmu a$ti
\ Gunnery.
{oyM.
fOiMt;
:|
Secretary, i PSngBt* Sir
OIUa: Sardinia;
Thomas Asbby, M.A., D.Lrrr.
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow. 1897. Conineton Prizeman. 1906. Member oh
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The ClassKol Topograpky
of the Koman Campagna,
THOMAS Allan Ingram, M.A.» LL.D.
Trinity College. Dublin.
Sit THOMAS Barclay.
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of .
the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of ProUems of
Intemaltanal Practice and Diplomacy; Ac MJP. for Blackburn, 191a
Rt.
Ortona a Han;
Otnnlo; PiMfm;
(w part);
{m port).
r Oruf*: Prana;
Pftul ia» IV, V. iPapu).
'{
Oxoi;
Puniis.
AiUmtL
Hon. Lord Farnborougb.
See the biographical article: Farnborough, Thomas Erssinb May, Baron j
Tbeodore Freyunchuysen Collier, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of History, Williams Colkge, WUIiamstown, Mass.
Tbomas Hodgkin. Litt. D., LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: Hodcun, T.
Sir Thomas Hungerford Holdicr, R.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc.
Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India. 1893-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S..
London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King'
Award; India; Tibet,
Rev. Thomas Kelly Cheyne, M.A., D.D., LLJ>.
See the biographical article: Cusynb, T. K.
TUEODOR NOloeke.
See the biographical article: NAldbkb, Thbodob.
Sib Tbomas Little Heath, K.C.B., D Sc. / o__-^
Assisunt Secreury to the Treasury. Formeriy Fellow of Trinity College. Cambridge. \ '^rPn i
Thomas Okey. f.
Examiner in Basket Work for the City and GuiMs of London Institute. \ ^
Thomas Willum Rhys Davtos, LL.D., Ph.D
Professor of Comparative Religion. Manchester University. President of the
Pall Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of-
Royal Asiatic Society. 1 885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Bbohs of the
Buddhists ; Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; DuOogfies of the Buddha; &c.
Victor Charles Mahillon.
Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brusseb. Chevalier of the .
Legion of Honour.
Sir Walter Armstrong.
Director of National Gallery of Ireland. Author U AH in ike Brkish Isles; ftc. .
Joint-editor of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters; &c.
Rev. Wiluam AuGtJSTVs Brevoort Cooudce, M.A., F.R.G.S.. Ph.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College. Oxford. Professor of English History. St Davld*s
College. Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphini; The Ranee,
of the Tbdi; Guide to CrindelwaJd; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in /' ' *^
t» History; Stc. Editor to The Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 -, &c.
WnuAM Alfred Hinds. i ^^-m. r^«»«.i««
Pre«dent of the Oneida Community, Ltd.; Author of AmeHtam CmsmmiUeii ftc |<»Wda ComnmU^.
I Nature and
PUL
iimparii.
Orthirdson.
onvtar, 1. D.;
0ru» Uksef;
Ortlsr.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xin
^ Paris: Hiawy {in part),
Ollletn: United States,
PaUssy.
Orter, Enig.
Paper: India Paper.
{
{
-[otter (m part).
W. A. F. Waltei Alison Phillips, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner ot Mcrton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College.
Oxfocxl. Author oi Modem Europe i Ac
W. A. S. WiLUAii Augustus Simpson.
Colonel and Acting Adjutant-Cenenl, U.S. Army.
W. B.* WiLLiAif Button, M.A., F.C.S.
Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain. Author of -
Em^isk Stoneware and Earthenware; Ac.
W. B. A.* Rev. William E. Addis, M.A.
Professor of Old Tesument Criticism. Manchester College. Oxford. Author of
Christianity and the Raman Empire; &c.
W. B. G. F. William Edwaxd Gaxsett Fishek, M.A.
Author of The Tranteaal and the Boers,
W. H. F. Sn William Henky Flower, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: Flower, Sir W.H.
W. L. 0. Willum Lawson Grant, M.A.
Professor at Queen's University, Kingston. Canada. Formeriy Beit Lecturrr in
Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council (Colonial
Series); Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration).
W. H. R. William Michael Rossetti.
See the biographical article: Rossetti, Dante Gabriel.
W. P. A. Lbut.-Colonel William Patrick Anderson^ M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S.
Chief Engineer. Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the
Geographic Board ol Canada. Past President of Canadian Society of Civil Engineers.
W. P. C William Piodeaux CotRTNEY.
See the biographical article: Courtney, L. H., Baron.
W. S. R. William Smyth Rocxstro. f
Author of A General flistery of Music from the Infancy of the Creek Drama to the < PftliStrilll (in part).
Present Period; and other works on the history of music.
V. W. B.* WnuAM Walebr Rockwell, Lic.Treol.
Assutant Professor of Church History. Union Theological Seminary, New York.
Ontario.
r Palma, Jaeopo;
L Paul Veroneie.
I Ontario, Lake.
Orf ord, 1st Bad of (Sir Robert
Walpole); Osford, 1st Bad oL
fPapaey: t $90-1870',
LPasekallll.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
CM Afs
CM
Olhw.
Oporto.
Oiao.
Onogt.
OnffOB.
Oriciaal Paokafo.
Orleans.
Panama CanaL
Pkrdon.
Orthodox Butem Church.
Pan-Ameriean Conferences.
Paris, Tnatiet ot
Oxfordshire.
Panathenaea.
Parish.
Oxygen.
Pannonla.
Park. Mni«o.
Paelfle Oeean: Islands.
Pansy.
Parma.
Paisley.
Panthobm.
Parsees.
Palatinate.
Pari iStau),
Partnenhl^
PaUlom.
Parabola.
PasslonHower.
Palm.
Paraeelsus.
Patagonia.
Palmerston, Vlseoont
Panehnto.
Patmos.
Palm Sunday.
Paraffin.
Pataa.
Pampas.
Paraguay.
PWL
Panama {RepuUU).
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XX
ODB (Gr. (|!84i from Ac{9ety, to sing), a form of stately and
daborate lyrical vcne. As its name shows, the original significa-
tion of an ode was a chant, a poem arranged to be sung to an
instrumental accompaniment. There were two great divisions
of the Greek mdos or song; the one the personal utterance of
the poet, the other, as Professor G. G. Murray says, ** ihe choric
song of his band of trained dancers." Each of these culminated
in what have been called odes, but the former, in the hands
of Alcaeus, Anacreon and Sappho, came closer to what modern
criticism knows as lyric, pure and simple. On the other hand,
the choir-song, in which the poet spoke for himself, but always
supported, or interpreted, by a chorus, led up to what is now
known as ode proper. It was Alcman, as is supposed, who
first gave to his poems a strophic arrangement, and the strophe
has come to be essential to an ode. Stcsichorus, Ibycus and
Simonides of Ceos led the way to the two great masters of ode
among the ancients, Pindar and Bacchylides. The form and
verse-arrangement of Pindar's great lyrics have regulated the
t>'pe of the heroic ode. It is now perceived that they an: con-
sciously composed in very elaborate measures, and that each is
the result of a separate act of creative ingenuity, but each
preserving an absolute consistency of form. So far from being,
as critics down to Cowley and Boileau, and indeed to the time
of August BQckh, supposed, utterly licentious in their irregu-
larity, they are more like the canzos and jimfft/^j of the medieval
Uoubadours than any modern verse. The Latins themselves
seem to have lost the secret of these complicated harmonies,
and they made no serious attempt to imitate the odes of Pindar
and Bacchylides. It Is probable that the Greek odes gradually
k>st their musical character; they were accompanied on the
flute, and then declaimed without any music at all. The ode,
as It was practised by the Romans, returned to the personally
lyrical form of the Lesbian lyrists. This was exempUfied. in
the most exquisite way, by Horace and Catullus; the former
imitated, and even translated, Alcaeus and Anacreon, the latter
was directly inspired by Sappho.
The earliest modem writer to perceive the value of the antique
ode was Ronsard, who attempted with as much energy as he
could eiercise to recover the fire and volume of Pindar; his
principal experiments date from 1550 to 1552. The poets of
the Pleiad recognized in the ode one of the forms of verse with
which French prosody should be enriched, but they went too
far, and in their use of Greek words crudely introduced, and in
their quantitative experiments, they offended the genius of
the French language. The ode, ho-xcvcr, died in France almost
as rapidly as it had come to life; it hardly survived the i6th
century, and neither the examples of J. B. Rousseau nor of
Saint-Amant nor of Malherbe possessed much poetic life. Early
in the 19th century the form was resumed, and we have the
Odts composed between 1817 and 1824 by Victor Hugo, the
philosophical and religious odes of Lamartine, those of Victor
de Laprade (collected in 1844), and the brilliant Oda funam-
bulesques of Thiodore de BanviUe (1857).
The earliest odes in the English language, using the word
in its strict form, were the magnificent Epithaiamium and
Prothalamium of Spenser. Ben Jonson introduced a kind of
elaborate lyric, in stanzas of rhymed irregular verse, to which
he gave the name of ode; and some of his disdples, in particular
Randolph, Cartwright and Hcrrick, followed him. The great
'• Hymn on the Morm'ng of Christ's Nativity," begun by Milton
in 1629, may be considered an ode, and his lyrics " On Time "
and " At a Solemn Music " may claim to belong to the same
category. But it was Cowley who introduced into English
poetry the ode consciously built up, on a solemn theme and as
definitely as possible on the ancient Greek pattern. Being in
exile in France about 1645, and at a place where the only book
was the text of Pindar, Cowley set himself to study and to
imitate the Epintkia. He conceived, he says, that this was
" the noblest and the highest kind of writing in verse," but
he was no more perspicacious than others in observing what
the rules were which I^ndar had foUowed. He supposed the
Greek poet to be carried away on a storm of heroic emotion,
in which all the discipline of prosody was disregarded. In 1656
Cowley published his Pindaric odes, in which be had not even
regarded the elements of the Greek structure, with strophe,
antistrophe and epode. His idea of an ode, which he Impressed
with such success upon the British nation that it has never
been entirely removed, was of a lofty and tempestuous piece
of indefinite poetry, conducted ** without sail or oar " in whatever
direction the enthusiasm of the poet chose to take it. These
shapeless pieces became very popular after the Restoration,
and enjoyed the sanation of Dryden in three or four irregular
odes which are the best of their kind in the English language.
Prior, in a humorous ode on the taking of Namur (1695). imitated
the French type of this poem, as cultiv'ated by Boileau. In
1705 Congreve published a Disccurse on the Pindariquf Ode,
in which many of the critical errors of Cowley wcreco'-'- ^
and Congreve wrote odes, io strophe, antistrophe '
ODENKIRCHEN— ODER
which were the earliest of their kind in English; unhappily
they were not very poetical. He was imitated by Ambrose
Philips, but then the tide of Cowley-Pindarism rose again and
swept the reform away. The attempts of Gilbert West (1703-
1756) to explain the prosody of Pindar (1749) inspired Gray
to write his "Progress of Poesy" (1754) and "The Bard"
(1756). Collins, meanwhile, had in 1747 published a collection
of odes devised in the Aeolian or Lesbian manner. The odes
of Mason and Akenside were more correctly Pindaric, but
frigid and formal. The odes of Wordsworth, Coleridge and
Tennyson are entirely irregular. Shelley desired to revive the
pure manner of the Greeks, but he understood the principle of
the form so little that he began his noble " Ode to Naples "
with two epodes, passed on to two strophes, and then indulged
in four successive anttstrophes. Coventry Patmorc, in 1868^
printed a volume of Odes, which he afterwards enlarged; these
were irregularly built up on a muucal system, the exact con-
sistency of which is not always apparent. Finally Swinburne,
although some of his odes, like those of Keats, are really elaborate
lyrics, written in a succession of stanzas identical in form, has
cultivated the Greek form also, and some of his political odes
follow very closely the type of Bacchylides and Pindar.
See Philipp August Bdckh. De mttris Pindari (1811); Wilhelm
Christ, iietfik der Criecken und Rdrntr (1874); Edmund Gosac,
EHgfish Odu (1881}. (E. G.)
ODENKIRCHENi a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, 21 m. by rail S.W. of Dilsscldorf, and at the junction
of lines to Munich, Gladbach and Stolberg. Pop. (rgos) 16,808.
It has a Roman Catholic church, an Evangelical one. a synagogue
and several schools. Its principal industries are spinning, weav-
ing, tanning and dyeing. Odenkirchcn became a town in 1856.
See Wiedemann. Ceschichie der ehemalig^m Herrschafl und, des
Hauses Odenkirchtn (Odenkirchcn, 1879).
ODENSB, a city of Denmark, the chief town of the ami (county)
of its name, which forms the northern part of the island of
FUnen (Fyen). Pop. (1901) 40,138. The city lies 4 m. from
Odense Fjord on the Odense Aa, the main portion on the north
side of the stream, and the industrial Albani quarter on the
south side. It has a station on the railway route between
Copenhagen and Jutland and Schleswig-Holstein via Kors6r.
A canal, 15} to ai ft. deep, gives access to the town from the
fjord. St Canute^s cathedral, formerly connected with the
great Benedictine monastery of the same name, is one of the
largest and finest buildings of its kind in Denmark. It is con-
structed of brick in a pure Gothic style. Originally dating
from Z081-1093, it was rebuilt in the 13th century. Under
the altar lies Canute (Knud), the patron saint of Denmark,
who intended to dispute with William of Normandy the posses-
sion of England, but was slain in an insurrection at Odense in
1086; Kings John and Christian II. are also buried within the
walls. Our Lady's church, built in the 13th century and re-
stored in 1851-1852 and again in 1864, contains a carved altar-
piece (i6th century) by Claus Berg of LQbeck. Odense Castle
was erected by Frederick IV., who died there in 1730- In
Albani are tanneries, iron-foundries and machine-shops. Ex-
ports, mostly agricultural produce (butter, bacon, eggs); im-
ports, iron, petroleum, coal, yam and timber.
Odense, or Odinsey, originally Odinsoe, t.e. Odin's island,
IS one of the oldest cities of Denmark. St Canute's shrine was
a great resort of pilgrims throughout the middle ages. In the
16th century the town was the meeting-place of several parlia-
ments, and down to 1805 it was the seat of the provincial
assembly of Fiinen.
ODENWALD, a wooded mountainous region of Germany,
almost entirely in the grand duchy of Hesse, «ith small portions
In Bavaria and Baden. It stretches between the Neckar and the
Main, and is some 50 m. long by ao to 30 broad. Its highest
points are the Katzenbuckel (2057 ft.), the Neunkircher Hohe
(198s ft.) and the Kr&hberg (1965 ft.). The wooded heights
overlooking the Bergstrasse are studded with castles and medieval
ruins, some of which are associated with some of the most
memorable adventures of German tradition. Among them are
Rodenstein, the reputed home of the wild huntsman, and near
Grasellenbach, the spot where Siegfried of the NibeiuHgat^ied
Is said to have been slain.
See F. Montanus, Der Odemoald (Mainz. 1884) ; T. Lorentsen. Der
OdenwaU in Wort und BUd (Stuttgart, 190k) ; G. Volk, Der Odenwaid
und seiHe Nackbareebiet* (Stuttgart. 1900), and Windhaus, Ftikrtr
durch de» Odtnwaid (Darmsudt, 1903).
ODER (Lat. Viadua; Slavonic, Vjodr), a river of Germany,
rises in Austria on the Odergebirge in the Moravian tableland
at a height of 1950 ft. above the sea, and 14 m. to the east of
OlmUta. From its source to its mouth in the Baltic it has
a total length of 560 m., of which 480 m. are navigable for barges,
and it drains an area of 43i3oo sq. m. The first 45 m. of its
course lie within Moravia; for the next 15 m. it forms' the
frontier between Prussian and Austrian Silesia^ while the re-
maining 500 m. belong to Prussia, where it traverses the provinces
of Silesia, Brandenburg and Pomerania. It flows at first,
towards the south-east, but on quitting Austria turns towards
the north-west, maintaining this direction as far as Frankfort -on-
Oder, beyond which its general course is neariy due north. As far
as the frontier the Oder flows through a well-defined valley,
but, after passing through the gap between the Moravian
mountains, and the Carpathians and entering the Sileaian plain,
its valley is wide and shallow and its banks generally low. In
its lower course it is divided into numerous branches, forming
many islands. The main channel follows the left side of the
valley and finally expands into the Pommersches, or Stettiner
Haff, which is connected with the sea by three arms, the Peene,
the Swine and the Dievenow, forming the islands of Usedom
and Wotlin. The Swine, in the middle, is the main channel
for navigation. The chief tributaries of the Oder on the left
bank are the Oppa, Glatzer Ncisse, Katzbach, Bober and
Lausitzer Neisse; on the right bank the Malapane, Bartsch
and Warthe. Of these the only one of importance for
navigation is the Warthe, which throu^ the Netze is brought
into communication with the Vistula. The Oder is also connected
by canals with the Havel and the Spree. The most important*
towns on its banks are Ratibor, Oppein, Brieg, Brcslau, Glogau,
Frankfort, CUstrin and Stettin, with the seaport of Swinemilnde
at its mouth. Glogau, Ctistrin and Swincmdnde are strongly
fortified.
The earliest important undertaking with a view of improving
the waterway was due to the initiative of Frederick the Great,
who recommended the diversion of the river into a new and
straight channel in the swampy tract of land known as the
Oderbruch, near Ctistrin. The work was carried out in the years
1746-1753, a large tract of marshland being brought under
cultivation, a considerable detour cut off, and the main stream
successfully confined to the canal, X2 m. in length, which is
known as the New Oder. The river at present begins to be
navigable for barges at Ratibor, where it is about 100 ft. wide,
and for larger vessels at Breslau, and great exertions are made
by the government to deepen and keep open the channel, which
still shows a strong tendency to choke itself with sand in certain
places. The alterations made of late years con»st of three
systems of works: — (i) The canalization of the main stream
(4 m.) at Brcslau, and from the confluence of the Glatzer Neisse to
the mouth of the KJodnitz canal, a distance of over 50 m. These
engineering works were completed in 1896. (2) In 1887-1891
the Oder-Spree canal was made to connect the two rivers named.
The canal leaves the Oder at FUrstenberg (132 m. above its
mouth) at an altitude of 93 ft, and after 15 m. enters the
Friedrich- Wilhelm canal (134 ft.). After coinciding with this
for 7 m., it makes another cut of 5 m. to the Spree at Filrstenwalde
(126 ft.). Then it follows the Spree for 12 m., and at Gross
Tr^ke (121 ft.) passes out and goes to Lake Seddin (106 ft.), 15
m. (3) The deepening and regulation of the mouth and lower
course of the stream, consisting of the Kaiserfahrt, 3 m. long,
affording a waterway between the Stettiner Haff and the river
Swine for the largest ocean-going vessels; a new cut, 4I m.
long, from Vietzig on the Stettiner Haff to Wollin Island; the
Parnitz-Dunzig and Dunzig-Oder canals, together i m. long;
ODERBERG— ODESSA
amsUtutiiis the Immediate approach to Stettin. Vessels dnwing
24 f t< are now able to go right up to Stettin. In 1005 a project
was sanctioned for improving the communication between
Berlin and Stettin by widening and deepening the lower course
of the river and then connecting this by a canal with Berlin.
Another project, bom at the same time, Is one for the canalization
of the upper coune of the Oder. About 4,000,000 tons of
merchandise pass through Breslau (up and down) on the Oder
in the year.
See Der Oderstrom, sein Slromgebiet und seine wichiigUen Nehen-
ifartUihmi^tiUa, 1696).
ODERBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
el Brandenburg, on the Alte Oder, 2 m. from Bralita, a station
44 m. N.W. from Frankfort-on-Oder, by the railnray to Anger-
ffltinde. Pop. (1905)4,015. It has a fine Gothic church, dedicated
to St Nicholas, and the ruins of an ancient castle, called B&ren-
kasten. Oderberg is an important emporium for the Russian
timber trade.
ODESCAiCBI-ERBA, the name of a Roman princely family
of great antiquity. They are supposed to be descended from
Enrico Erba, imperial vicar in Milan in X165. Alessandro
Ert>a married Lucrezia Odescalchl, sister of Pope Innocent
IX., in 1709, who is believed to have been descended from
Girjrgio Odescalchi {floruit Kt Comoin 1290)'. The title of prince
of the Holy Roman Empire was conferred on Alessandro in
1714, and that of duke of Syrmium in Hungary In 1714, with the
qualification of "serene highness." The head of the family
now bears the titles of Filrst Odescalchl, duke of Syrmium,
prince of Bassano, &c., and he is an hereditary magnate of
Hungary and a grandee of Spain; the family, which is one
of ihe most important In Italy, owns the Palazzo Odescalchi
in Rome, the magnificent castk of Dracdano, besides large
estates in Italy and Hungary.
See A. von Rtumont. CesthichU der Sladt Rom (Berlin. 1868).
and the Almanack do Gotka,
ODESSA, one of the most important seaports of Russia,
ruiking by its population and foreign trade after St Petersburg,
Moscow and Warsaw. It is situated in 46^ a8' N. and 30* 44'
E., on the southern shore of a semi-circular bay, at the north-west
angle of the Black Sea, and is by rail 1017 m. S.S. W. from Moscow
and 610 S. from Kiev. Odessa is the seaport for the basins
of two great rivers of Russia, the Dnieper, with its tributary
the Bug, and the Dniester (20 m. to S). The entrances to the
mouths of both these offering many di faculties for navigation,
trade has from the remotest antiquity selected this spot, which
Is situated half-way between the two estuaries, while the level
surface of the neighbouring steppe allows easy communication
with the lower parts of both rivers. The bay of Odessa, which
has an area of 14 sq- m, and a depth of 30 ft. with a soft bottom,
h a dangerous anchorage on account of its exposure to easterly
winds. But inside it are six harbours—the quarantine harbour,
new harbour, coal harbour and "practicol" harbour, the
first and last, on the S. and N. respectively, protected by moles,
and the two middle harbours by a breakwater. Besides these,
there are the harbour of the principal shipping company— the
Russian Company for Navigation and Commerce, and the
petroleum harbour. The harbours freeze for a few days In winter,
as abo does the bay occasionally, navigation being interrupted
cvesy year for an average of sisieen days; though this b
materially shortened by the use of an ice-breaker. Odessa
ciperiences the inlhicnce of the continental climate of the
orighbouring steppes; its winters arc cold (the average tempera^
tare for January being 23- *• P., and the isotherm for the enlh*
season that of Konigsberg). its summers are hot (7'*8" in July),
and the yearly average temperature » 48*^* The rainfall is
scanty (14 in. per annum). The city is built on a terrace 100 to
15$ ft. in height, which descends by steep crags to the sea. and
on the other side is continuous with the level of the " black
earth " steppe. Catacombs, whence sandstone for building
ktt been f «ken, extend underneath the tonn and suburbs, not
without aonic danger to the buildings.
The general aspect of Odena fa that of a wealthy west*
European city. Its chief embankment, the Nikolai boulevard,
bordered with taU and handsome houses, forms a fine promenade.
The centra] square is adorned with a statue of Armand, due de
Richdieu (1826), who was governor of Odessa in 1803-1814.
A little btok fr>m the sea stands a fine bronze statue of Catherine
II. (1900). A magnificent flight of nearly aoo granite steps leads
from the Richelieu monument down to the harbours. The
central parts of the dty have broad streets and squares, bordered
with fine buildings and mansions in the Italian style, and with
good shops. The cathedral, founded in 1794 and finbhed in
1809, and thoroughly restored fai 1903, can accommodate 5000
persons; it contains the tomb of Count Michael Vorontsov,
governor-general from 1823 to 1854, who contributed much
towards the development and embellishment of the city. The
" Palais Royal," with its parterre and founuins, and the spadous
public park aie fine pleasure-grounds, whibt in the ravines that
lead down to the sea duster the houses of the poorer classes.
The shore b occupied by immense granaries, some of which look
like pahoes, and large storehouses take up a broad space in the
west of the city. Odessa oonsbts (i.) of the dty proper, contain-
ing the old fort (now a quarantine establbhment) and surrounded
by a boulevard, where was formerly a wall marking the limits of
the free port; (iL) of the suburbs Novaya and Peresyp, extending
northward along the lower shore of the bay; and (ill.) of Molda-
vanka to the south-west. The dty, being in a treeless region,
is proud of the avenues of trees that line several of its streets
and of its parks, espedally of the Alexander Park, with a statue
of Alexander II. (1891), and of the summer resorts of Fontaine,'
Arcadia and Langeron along the bay. Odesn b rising in repute
as a summer sea-bathing resort, and its mud-baths (from the
mud of the limans or lagoons) are considered to be efficacious
in cases of rheumalbm, gout, nervous affections and akin
diseases. The German colonics liebenthal and Lostdorf are
bothing-placcs.
Odessa b the real capital, Intellectual and commercial, of
so-called Novorossia, or New Russia, which includes the govern-
ments of Bessarabia and Khenon. It b the see of an archbishop
of the Orthodox Greek Church, and the headquarters of the
VIII. army corps, and constitutes an independent " mnnldpal
district " or captaincy, which covers 195 sq. m. and indudes a
dozen villages, tome of which have aooo to 3000 inhabitants
each. It is abo the chief town of the Novorossian (New Russian)
educational dbtrict, and has a university, which replaced the
Richelieu Lyceum in 1865, and now has over 1700 students.
In 1795 the town had only 1250 inhabitants; in 1814. twenty
years after Its foundation, it had as,ooa The population has
steadily increased from 100^000 in 1850, 185.000 in 1873, 125,000
in 1884, to 449>673 in 1900. The great majority of inhabitants
are Great RussUns and Little Russians; but there are also
large numbers of Jews (133.000, exclusive of Karaites), to weU
a& of Italians, Greeks, Germans and French (to which nation-
aliiies the chief merchants belong), as abo of Rumanians,
Servians, Bulgarians. Tatars, Armenians, Laces, Georgians. A
numerous floating population of labourers, attracted at certain
periods by pressing work in the port, and afterwards left on-
empk>yed owing to the enormous fluctuations in the com trade,
b one of the features of Odessa. It b estimated that there are
no less than 35,000 people living from hand to mouth in the utmost
misery, partly in the extensive catacombs beneath the dty.
The leading occupations are cormccted with exporting,
shipping and manufactures. The industrial devdopnent has
been rather slow: sugar-refineries, tea-packing, oil-mills,
tanneries, steam flour-mllb, iron and mechanical works, factories
of jute sacks, chemical works, tin-phte works, paper^ctories
are the chief. Commerdally the city b the chief seaport of
Russia for exports, which in favourable years are twice as high
as those of St Petersburg, while as regards the value of the
imports Odessa b second only to the northern capital The
total returns amount to 16 to 20 millions steriing a year, lepre*
srnring about one-ninth of the entire Russian foreign trade,
and 14% if the coast trade be included as well. The total
ODEUM— ODO
exports are valued at lo to ix milUont sterling annually, and
the imporU at 6 to 9 millions sterling, about 8|% of all the
imports into Russia. Grain, and especially wheat, is the chief
article of export. The chief imports are raw cotton, iron,
agricultural machinery, coal, chemicals, jute, copra and lead.
A new and spacious harbour, especially for the petroleum trade,
was constructed in x894-i9oa
History.—The bay of Odessa was colonized by Greeks at a very
early period, and their ports — Istrianorum Partus and Isiaeorum
Porlus on the shores of the bay, and Odessus at the mouth of the
Tiligul /ima»-~carried on a lively trade with the neighbouring
steppes. These towns disappeared in the 3rd and 4th centuries,
and for ten centuries no setUementa in these tracts arc mentioned.
In the 14th century this region belonged to the Lithuanians, and
in 1396 Olgerd, prince of Lithuania, defeated in battle three
Tatar chiefs, one of whom, Khaji Beg or Bey, had recently
founded, at the place now occupied by Odessa, a fort which
received his name. The Lithuanians, and subsequently the
Poles, kept the country under their dominion until the i6Lh
century, when it was seized by the Tatars, who still permitted,
however, the Lithuanians to gather salt in the neighbouring
lakes. Later on the Turks left a garrison here, and founded in
1764 the fortress Yani-dunya. In 1789 the Russians, under the
French captain de Ribas, took the fortress by assault. In 1791
Khaji-bey and the Ochakov region were ceded to Russia. Dc
Ribas and the French engineer Voland were entrusted in 1794
with the erection of a town and the constructioa of a port at
Khaji-bey. In 1803 Odessa became the chief town of a separate
municipal district or captaincy, the first captain being Armand,
due de Richelieu, who (Ud very much for the development of the
young city and its improvement as a seaport. In 1824 Odessa
became the seat of die governors-general of Novorossia and
Bessarabia. In 1866 it was brought into railway connexion with
Kiev and Kharkov via Balu, and with Jassy in Rumania. In
1854 it was unsuccessfully attacked by the Anglo-Russian fleet,
and in 1876-1877 by the Turkish, alsounsuccessfuUy. In 1905-
1906 ihe city was the scene of violent revolutionary disorders,
marked by a naval insurrection. (P« A. K.; J. T. Be.)
ODEUM (Or. Odtion), the name given to a concert hall in
ancient Greece. In a general way its construction was similar to
that of a theatre, but it was only a quarter of the siae and was
provided with a roof for acoustic purposes, a characteristic
diiTcrcnce. The oldest known Odeum in Greece was the Skias
at Sparta, so called from its resemblance to the top of a parasol,
said lo have been erected by Theodorus of Samos (600 B.C.);
in Athens an Odeum near the spring Enncacrunus on the.Ilissas
was referred to the age of Peisistratus, and appears to have been
rebuilt or restored by Lycurgus {c. 330 B.C.). This is probably
the building which, according to Aristophanes {Waspa, 1x09),
was used for judicial purposes, for the distribution of corn,
and even for the billeting of soldiers. The building which served
as a model for later similar constructions was the Odeum of
Pericles (completed c. 445) on the>>uth-easlern slope of the rock
of the Acropolis, whose conical roof, a supposed imitation of the-
tent of Xerxes, was made of the masts of captured Persian sliips.
It was destroyed by Aristion, the so-called tyrant of Athens,
at the time of the rising against SuUa (87), and rebuilt by Ario>
barzanes II., king of Cappadocia (Appian, Uiibrid. 38). The
most magnificent example of its kind, however, was the Odeum
built on the south-west cliff of the Acropolis at Athens about
A J). 160 by the wealthy sophist and rhetorician Hcrodes Atticus
in memory of his wife, considerable remains of which are still
to be seen. It had accommodation for 8000 persons, and the
ceiling was constructed of beautifully carved beams of cedar
wood, probably with an open space in the centre to admit
the light. It vras also profusely decorated with pictures
and other works of art. Similar buildings also existed in
other parts of Greece; at Corinth, also the gift of Ucrodcs
Atticus; at Palrae, where there was a famous statue of
ApoUo; at Smjrma, Tralles, and other towns in Asia Minor.
Tlie fint Odeum in Rome was built by Domitian, a second by
Trajan.
ODIURHBBRO. or 0itiu£nb££A (called AUUona in the 8tb
century), a peak of the Vosges Mountains in Germany, in the
imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, immediately W. of the towi>
of Barr. Its crest (3500 ft.) is surmounted by tjie ruins of the
ancient Roman wall, the Heidenmauer, and by the convent and
church of St Odilia, or Ottilia, the paUon saint of Alsace, whose
remains rest within. It is thus the objca of frequent pilgrimages.
The convent is said to have been founded by Duke Eiicho I.,
in honour of his daughter St Odilia, about the end of the 7th
century, and it is certain that it existed at the time of Charle-
magne. Destroyed during the wars of the middle ages, it was
rebuilt by the Premonstranls at the beginning of the 17th century,
and was acquired btcr by the bishop of Strassbuig, who restored
the building and the adjoining church, in X853. Since 1899
the convent has contained a museum of antiquities.
See Rcinhard. Le Ifont SU OdOt (Strassburg, x888); Pfistcr, Ic
Duchi nUronneicn d' Alsace et !a legend* de Siinte OdQe (Nancy,
1892) ; and R. Forrer, Der Odilienbcri (StraBsbuig, 1899).
ODIN, or Othin (0. Norse OiSinn), the chief god of the Northern
pantheon. He is represented as an old man with one eye.
Frigg is his wife, and several of the gods, including Thor and
Balder, are his sons. He is also said to have been the father of
several legendary kings, and more than one princely family
claimed descent from him. His exploits and adventures form
the theme of a number of the Eddaic poems, and also of several
stories in the prose Edda. In all these stories his character is
distinguished rather by wisdom and cunning than by martial
prowess, and reference is very frequently made to his skill in
poetry and magic. In YngHnga Saga he is represented as reigning
in Sweden, where he established laws for his people. In notices
relating to religious observances Odin appears chiefly as the
giver of victory or as the god of tlie dead. He is frequently
introduced in legendary sagas, generally in disguise, imparting
secret instructions to his favourites or presenting them with
weapons by which victory is assured. In return he .receives
the souls of the slain who in his palace, Valhalla (9.V.), live a
life of fighting and feasting, similar to that which has been their
desire on earth. Human sacrifices were very frequently offered
to Odin, especially prisoners taken in battle. The commonest
method of sacrifice was by hanging the victim on a tree; and
In the poem Hdoomdl the god himself is represented as sacrificed
in this way. The worship of Odin seems to have prevailed
chiefly, if not solely, in miUtary circles, i.e. among princdy
families and the retinues of warriors attached to them. It is
probable, however, that the worship of Odin was once common to
most of the Teutonic peoples. To the Anglo-Saxons he was
known as Woden {q.v.) and to the Germans as Wodan (Wuotan),
which arc the regular forms of the same name in those languages.
It is largely owing to the peculiar character of this god and the
prominent position which he occupies that the mythology of
the north presents so striking a contrast to that of Greece.
Sec Teutonic Peoples, ad fin. ; and VVodbk. (H. M. C)
ODO, or EuDES (d. c. 736), king, or duke, of Aquitaine, obtained
this dignity about 715, and his territory included the south-
western part of Gaul frqm the Loire to the Pyrenees. In 7x8
he appears as the ally of Chllperic II., king of NeusUia, who was
fighting against the Austrasian mayor of the palace, Charles
Martel; but after the defeat of Chilperic at Soissons in 7x9 he
probably made peace with Charles by surrendering to him the
Neustrian king and his treasures. Odo was also obliged to fight
the ^racens who invaded the southern part of his kingdom,
and inflicted a severe defeat upon them at Toukxise in 721.
When, however, he was again attacked by Charles Martel, the
Saracens renewed their ravages, and Odo was defeated near
Bordeaux; he was compelled to crave protection from Charles,
who took up this struggle and gained his momentous victory
at Poitiers in 73t. In 735 the king abdicated, and was succeeded
by his son Hunold.
ODO, or Etn>ES (d. 898), king of the Franks, was a son of
Robert the Strong, count of Anjou (d. 866), and is sometimes
referred to as duke of France and also as count of Paris. Fox
his skill and bravery in resisting the attacks of the Normans
ODO OF BAYEUX— ODOACER
Odo was chosen king by th« western Franks when the emperor
Charles the Fat was deposed in 887, and was crowned at Compi^gne
in February 8S8. He continued to battle against the Normans,
whom be defeated at Montfaucon and elsewhere, but was soon
i&v<^ved In a struggle with some powerful nobles, who supported
the claim of Charles, afterwards King Charles III., to the Frankish
kingdom. To gain prestige and support Odo owned himself
a vassal of the German king, Amulf , but in 894 Amulf declared
for Charles. Eventually, after a struggle which Usted for three
years, Odo was compelled to come to terms with bis rival, and to
furrender to him a district north of the Seine. He died at La
Fere on the xst of January 898.
See E. Lavisse, Hisloin de Franet, tomeU. (Paris, igtn); and
E. Favre, Fjtdts, tomU dt Paris titoiit Fraate (Paris, 1893}.
ODO* OF BAYEUX (c. 1036-1097) , Norman bishop and
Eikgtish earl, was a uterine brother of William the Conqueror,
from whom he received, while still a youth, the see of Bayeuz
(X049). But his active career was that of a warrior and states-
man. He found ships for the invasion of England and fought
in person at Senlac; in X067 he became earl of Kent, and for
some years he was a trusted royal minister. At times he acted
as viceroy in William's absence; at times he led the royal
fcwces to chastise rebellions. But in X083 he was suddenly
dis g raced and imprisoned for having planned a military expedi-
tion to Italy. He was accused of desiring to make himself pope;
more probably he thought of serving as a papal condotticre
against the emperor Henry IV. The Conqueror, when on his
dnth-bcd, reluctantly permitted Odo's release (X087). The
bishop returned to his earldom and soon oiganized a rebellion
with the object of handing over England to hia^ eldest nephew,
Duke Robert. William Rufus, to the disgust of his supporters,
permitted Odo to leave the kingdom after the collapse of this
design (xo88), and thenceforward Odo was the right-hand man
of Robert in Normandy^ He took part in the agiution for the
First Crusade, and started in the duke's company for Palestine,
hut died on the way, at Palermo (February 1097). Uttle
good is recorded of Odo. His vast wealth was gained by
extortion and robbery. His ambitions were boundless and his
owrals lax. But he was a patron of learning and, like most
inUtes of his age, a great architect. He rebuilt the cathedral
of bis see, and may perhaps have commissioned the unkaovn
artist of the celebrated Bayeux tapestry.
See the authorities cited for WaLiAM I. and WaUAM H.. the
bbgraphical sketch in QtUia Christiana, 3d, 353-360; H. Whartoo
AKgliG Sacra, I 334-339 (1691); and F. RTFowke. TUe Baytux
Upt'try (LondonrSSs). (H. W. C. D.)
ODOACER, or Odovacas (e. 434-493), the first barSarian
ruler of Italy on the downfall of the Western empire, was bom
ia the district bordering on the middle Danube about the year
434. In this district the once rich and fertile provinces of
Noricum and Fannonia were being torn piecemeal from the
Roman empire by a crowd of German trib<s, among whom we
discern four, who seem to have hovered over the Danube from
Pusau to Pest, lumely, the Rugii, Scyrri, Turcilingi and HenUi.
With all of these Odoacer was connected by his subsequent
career, and all seem, more or less, to have claimed him as be-
bcging to them by birth; the evidence slightly preponderates
in favour of his descent from the Scyrri.
His father was Aedico or Idico, a name which suggests Edeco
the Hun, who was suborned by the Bysantine court to pk>t
Uk assassination of his master Attila. There are, however,
'(Xk> most be distinguished from two English prelates of the
uatt nan>e and also frooi an English eari. Odo or Oda (d. 959)>
wrhbMiop of Canterbury, was bishop of Ramsbury from 927 to
9|2. and went with Kina iEthclstan to the battle of Bninanburh in
937. In 94a he succeecfcd WuUhelro as archbishop of Canterbury.
i *ai be appears to have been an able and conscientious ruler of the
vet. He nad great influence with King Edwy, whom he had crowned
m 956. Odo (d. I >oo) , abbot of Battle, was a monk of Christ Church .
Ca4te(bary, and was prior of this house at the time when Thomas
Bffket was murdered. In 1175 he was chosen abbot of Banle. and
00 two occasions the efforts of Henry II. alone prevented him from
bong elected archbishop of Canterbury. Odo or Odda (d. 1056). a
ftUtivc of Edward the Confessor, during whose nign he was an earl in
the west of England, built the minster at Deer hursi in GhHicestershiie.
some strong arguments against this identification. A certain
Edica, chief of the Scyrri, of whom Jordanes speaks n defeated
by the Ostrogoths, may more probably have been the father of
ddoacer, though even in this theory there are some difficulties,
chiefly connected with the low estate in which he appears before
us in the next scene of his life, when as a tall young recruit for the
Roman armies, dressed in a sordid vesture of skins, on his way
to Italy, he enters the cell of Severinus, a noted hermit-saint of
Norictun, to ask his blessing. The saint had an inward premoni-
tion of his future greatness, and In blessing him said, " Fare
onward into Italy. Thou who art now clothed in vile raiment
wilt soon give precious gifts unto many."
Odoacer was probably about thirty years of age when he thut
left his country and entered the imperial service. By the year
473 he had risen to some eminence, since it is expressly recorded
that he sided with the patrician Ridmer in his quarrel with the
emperor Anthemiua. In the year 47 5i by one of the endless re-
volutions which ixiarked the dose of the Western empire, the
emperor Nepos was driven into exile, and the succeasftil rebel
Orestes was enabled to array in the purple his son, a handsome
boy of fourteen or fifteen, who was named Romulus after his
grandfather, and nickiuuned Augustulus, from his inability to
play the part of the great Augustus. Before this puppet emperor
had been a year on the throne the barbarian mercenaries, who
were chiefly drawn from the Danubian tribes before mentioned,
rose in mutiny, demanding to be made proprieton of one-third of
the son of Italy. To this request Orestes returned a peremptory
negative. Odoacer now offered his feUow-soldiers to obtain for
them all that they desired if they would seat him on the throne.
On the 33rd of August 476 he was prodaitned king; five days
later Orestes was naade prisoner at Placentia and beheaded; and
on the 4th of September his brother Paulus was defeated and slain
near Ravenna. Rome at once accepted the new ruler. Augustulus
was compelled to descend from the throne, but his life was spared.
Odoacer was forty-two jrean of age when he thus became
chief ruler of Italy, and he reigned thirteen years with undisputed
sway. Our information as to this period is very slender, but
we can perceive that the administration was conducted as much
as possible on the lines of the old imperial government. The
settlement o( the barbarian soldiers on the lands of Italy pn.>b*
ably affected the great landowners rather than the labouring
class. To the herd of cohni and «rv», by whom in their various
degrees the land was actually cultivated, it probably made little
difference, except as a matter of sentiment, whether the master
whom they served called himself Roman or Rugian. We have
one moat interesting example, though in a small way, of such a
transfer of laiul with its appurtenant slaves and cattle, in the dona-
tion made by Odoacer himself to his faithful follower Paerius.*
Few things bring more vividly before the reader the continuity
of legal and social life in the midst of the tremeiHlous ethnical
dianges of the 5th century than the perusal of such a record.
The same fact, from a slightly different point of view, is Ulus-
traled by the curious history (recorded by Malchus) of the
embassies to Constantinople. The dethroned emperor Nepos
sent ambassadors (in 477 or 47B) to Zeno, emperor of the East,
begging his aid in the reoonquest of Italy. These ambassadors
met a deputation from the Roman senate, sent nominally by the
command of Augustulus, really no doubt by that of Odoacer,
the purport of whose oommiaaion was that they did not need
a separate emperor. One was sufficient to defend the bordeis of
either realm. The senate had chosen Odoacer, whose knowledge
of miiitaiy affain and whcae sutesmanship admirably fitted
him for preserving order in that part of the world, and they there-
fore prayed Zeno to confer upon him the dignity of patridan,
and entrust the ** diocese '* of Italy to hb care. Zeno returned a
harsh answer to the senate, lequixing them to rettim to their
allegiance to Nepoe. In fact, however, he did nothing for the
fallen emperor, but accepted the new order of things, and even
addreased Odoaea as patridaiL On the other band, the latter
• PubHshed in Marini\ Papiri diplomaiUi CRotat, iPiS. Nos. 83
and 83) and in Spancenberr's Juris Romani Tabmta* (Leipsi^ l8ax
PP- 164-173)* And well worthy of careful study.
ODOPREDUSl-O'DONNELL (FAMILY)
sent the ornaments of empire, the diadem and purple robe, to
Constantinople as an acknowledgment of the fact that he did
not claim supreme power. Our information as to the actual
title assumed by the new ruler is somewhat confused. He
does not appear to have called himself king of Italy. His king-
ship seems to have marked only his relation to his Teutonic
followers, among whom he was " king of the Turcilingi," " king
of the Heruli," and so forth, according to the nationality with
which he was dealing. By the Roman inhabitants of Italy he
was addressed as " domtous noster," but his right to exercise
power would in their eyes rest, in theory, on his recognition as
patricius by the Byzantine Augustus. At the same time he
marked hb own high pretensions by assuming the prefix Flavius,
a reminiscence of the early emperors, to which the barbarian
rulers of realms formed out of the Roman state seem to have been
peculiarly partial. His internal administration was probably,
upon the whole, wise and moderate, though we hear some
complaints of financial oppression, and he may be looked upon
as a not altogether unworthy predecessor of Theodoric.
In the history of the papacy Odoacer figures as the author of
a decree promulgated at the election of Felix II. in 483, forbidding
the pope to alienate any of the lands or ornaments of the Roman
Church, and threatening any pope who should infringe this
edict with anathema. This decree was loudly condemned in
a synod held by Pope Symmachus (502) as an unwarrantable
interference of the civil power with the concerns of the church.
The chief events in the foreign policy of Odoacer were his
Dalmatian and Rugian wars. In the year 480 the cz«emperor
Nepoft, who ruled Dalmatia, was traitorously assassinated in
Diocletian's palace at Spalato by the counu Viator and Ovida.
In the following year Odoacer invaded Dalmaiia, slew the
murderer Ovida, and reannexed Dalmatia to the Western state.
In 487 he appeared as an invader in his own native Danubian
lands. War broke out between him and Feletheus, king of the
Rugians. Odoacer entered the Rugian territory, defeated
Feletheus, and carried him and " his noxious wife " Gisa prisoners
to Ravenna. In the following year Frederick, son of the captive
king, endeavoured to raise again the fallen fortunes of his house,
but was defeated by Onulf , brother of Odoacer, and, being forced
to flee, took refuge at the court of Theodoric the Ostrogoth, at
Sistova on the lower Danube.
This Rugian war was probably an indirect cause of the fall
of Odoacer. His increasing power rendered him too formidable
to the Byxantine court, with whom his relations had for some
time been growing less friendly. At the same time, Zeno was
embarrassed by the formidable neighbourhood of Theodoric
and his Ostrogothic warriors, who were almost equally burden-
some as enemies or as allies. In these circumstances arose the
plan of Tbeodoric's invasion of Italy, a plan by whom originated
it would be difficult to say. Whether the land when conquered
was to be held by the Ostrogoth in full sovereignty, or ad-
ministered by him as lieutenant of Zeno, is a point upon which
our information is ambiguous, and which was perhaps intention-
ally left vague by the two contracting parties, whose chief
anxiety was not to see one another's faces again. The details
of the Ostrogothic invasion of Italy belong properly to the life
of Theodoric. It is sufficient to state here that he entered Italy
in August 489, defeated Odoacer at the Isontius (Isonzo) on the
18th of August, and at Verona on the 30th of September. Odoacer
then shut himself up in Ravenna, and there maintained himself
for four years, with one brief gleam of success, during which he
emerged from his hiding-place and fought the battle of the
Addua (itth August 490), in which he was again defeated. A
sally from Ravenna (loth July 491) was again the occauon of a
murderous defeat. At length, the famine in Ravenna having
become almost intolerable, and the Goths despairing of ever
taking the city by assault, negotiations were opened for a
compromise < a 5th February 493). John, archbishop of Ravenna ,
acted as mediator. It was stipulated that Ravenna should be
surrendered, that Odoacer's life should be spared, and that he
and Theodoric should be recognized as joint rulers of the Roman
state. The arrangement was evidently a precarious one, and
was soon terminated by the treachery of Theodoric. He invited
his rival to a banquet in the palace of the Lauretum on the istb
of March, and there slew him with his own hand. " Where is
God? " cried Odoacer when he perceived the ambush into which
he had fallen. " Thus didst thou deal with my kinsmen,"
shouted Theodoric, and clove his rival with the broadsword from
shoulder to flank. Onulf, the brother of the murdered king, was
shot down while attempting to escape through the palace garden,
and TheUr. his son, was not long after put to death by order
of the conqueror. Thus perished the whole race of Odoacer.
LiTERATuaK.— The chief authorities for the life of Odoacer are the
■o-cailcd *■ Anonymus Valesii," generally printed at the end of
AmmianuB Marcellinus: the Lift of Severinm, by Eufippius: the
chroniclers, Cassiodonis and " Cuspiniant Anonymus (both in
RoncaUi's collection); and the Byzantine historiana, Malcaua and
John of Antioch. A fragment of the latter historian, unknown
when Gibbon wrote, is to be found In the fifth volume of M tiller's
Frapntnta Historicorum Crascorum. There is a thorough invrsti-
gatioa of the history of Odoaoer in R. Pallmann's GesekicMit der
VdlkenvaHderuMg, vol. ii. (Weimar. 1864). See also T. Hodgkio,
lUUy and her Invaders, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1885). (T. H.)
ODOPREDUS. an Italian jurist of the i3lh century. He was
bom at Bologna and studied law under Balduinus and Accursius.
After having practised as an advocate both in ItaJy and France,
he became professor at Bologna in 1228. The commentaries
on Roman law attributed to him are valuable as showing the
growth of the study of law in Italy, and for their biographical
details of the jurists of the laih and ijlh centuries. Odolrcdus
died at Bologna on the 3rd of December 1 265.
Over his name appeared Lecturae in codicem (Lyons, 1480)
Lecturae in digestum vetus (Paris, 1504). Summa de libeUit Jormandis
^Strassburg, 1510}. Lecturae in tret ttbros (Venice, 1514), and Lulurae
\n diitstmm tunum (Lyons, iSP)*
O'DONNBLL, the name of an ancient and powerful Irisl\
family, lords of Tyrconnel In early times, and the chief rivals
of the O'Neills in Ulster. Like the family of O'Neill {q.t.), that
of O'Donnell was descended from NiaH of the Nine Hostages,
king of Ireland at the beginning of the sih century; the O'Neills,
or Cinel^ Owen, tracing their pedigree to Owen (Eoghan), and
the O'Donnells, or Cinel Conneli, to Conall Gulban, both sons
of Niall. Tyrconnel, the district named after the Cinel Connell.
where the O'Donnells held sway, comprised the greater part of
the modem county of Donegal except the peninsula of Inishowen ;
and since it lay conterminous with the territory ruled by the
O'Neills of Tyrone, who were continually attempting to assert
their supremacy over it, the history of the O'DonnelU is for the
most part a record of tribal warfare with their powerful
neighbours, and of their own efforts to make good their <Uims
to the overlordship of northern Connaught.
The first chieftain of mark in the family was Coffraidh
(Godfrey), son of Donnell Mor O'Donnell (d. 1 241). Goflraidh,
who was " inaugurated " as " The O'Donnell," %.e. chief of the
clan, in 1348, made a successful inroad into Tyrone against
Brian O'Neill in 1252. In 1257 he drove the English out of
nonhern Connaught, after a single combat with Maurice Fits-
gerald in which both warriors were wounded. O'Donnell while
still incapacitated by his wound was summoned by Brian
O'Neill to give hostages in token of submission. Carried on a
litter at the head of his clan he gave battle to O'Neill, whom
he defeated with severe loss in prisoners and cattle; but he died
of his wound immediately afterwards near Letterkenny, and was
succeeded in the chieftainship by his brother Donnell Oge, who
returned from Scotland in time to withstand successfully the
demands of O'Neill.
In the i6th century, when the English began to make deter-
mined efforts to bring the whole of Ireland under subjection 10
the crown, the O'Donnells of Tyrconnel played a leading part;
co-operating at times with the English, especially when such
co-operation appeared to promise triumph over their ancient
enemies the O'Neills, at other times joining with the latter
against the English authorities.
^ The Cinel. or Kinel. was a group of related clans occupyinc an
extensive district. See P. W. Joyce, A Social History of iroami
(London, 1903), i. 166.
O'DONNELL (FAMILY)
MAirvs O'DONNBU. (d. 1364), ton of Htt|h Dubh O'Doondl,
WM left by his father to rule Tyrcoanel, though ftill a mere
youili, when Hugh Dubh went on a pUgrimage to Rome about
151s. Hugh Dubh had been chief of the O'DonneUs during
one of the biticresi and moat protracted of the feuds between
his clan and the CNeiUs, which in 1491 led to a war lasting
more than ten years. On his return from Rome in broken
health after two years' absence, his son Manus, who had proved
himself a capable leader in defending his country against the
O'Neills, retained the chief authority. A family quarrel ensued,
nnd when Hugh Dubh appesled for aid against hik son to the
Maguircs, Manus made an alliance with the O'Neills, by whose
assistance he established his hold over TyrconneL But in 1533
the two great northern chms were again at war. Conn Bacach
O'Neill, ist earl of Tyrone, determined to bring the O'Donnells
under thorough subjection. Supported by several septs of
Munsterand Connaughi, ind assisted slso by English contingents
and by the MacDonnells of Antrim, O'Neill took the castle of
Ballyshaonoo, and after devastating a large part of Tyrconnel
he encamped at Knockavoe, near Strabane. Here he was
surprised at night by Hugh Dubh and Manus O'Donnell, and
routed with the loss of 900 men and an immense quantity of
booty. Although this was one of the bloodiest fights that ever
took place between the O'Neills and the O'DonneUs, it did not
bring the war to an end; and in i$ji O'Donnell applied to the
En^sh government forprotection.givingassuimcesof allegiance
to Henry VHI. In 1537 Lord Thomas Fitsgerald and his five
uncles were executed for rebellion in Munster, and the English
government made every effort to lay hands also on Gerald, the
youthful heir to the earldom of Kildare, a boy of twelve years
of age who was in the secret custody of his aunt Lady Eleanor
McCarthy. This Udy, in order to secure a powerful protector
for the boy, accepted an offer of marriage by Manus O'Donnell,
who on the death of Hugh Dubh in July 1537 was inaugurated
The O'Donnell. Conn O'Neill was arelati ve of Gerakl FitsgeraU,
and this event accordingly led to the formation of the Ceraldine
League, a f ederat ion which combined the O'Neills, the O'Donnells,
the 0*Bricns of Thomond, and other powerful clans; the primary
object of which was to restore Gerald to the earldom of Kildare,
but which afterwards aimed at the complete overthrow of English
rule in Ireland. In August 1539 Manus O'Donnell and Conn
O'Neill were defeated with heavy loss by the lord deputy at
Lake BcUahoe, in Monaghan, which crippled their power for
nany years. In the west Manus made unceasing efforts to
•sscrt the supremacy of the O'Donnells in north Connaught,
where he compelled O'Conor SKgo to scknowledge his ovcr-
lordship In 1539. In 1542 he went to England and presented
himself, together with Conn O'Neill and other Irish chiefs,
before Hcniy VIII., who promised to make him earl of Tyrconnel,
though he refused O'Donnell's request to be made earl of Sligo.
In his later years Manus was troubled by quarrels between his
sons Catva^ and Hugh MacManus; in 1555 be was made
prisoner by Calvagh, who deposed him from all authority m
Tyrconnel, and he died in 1 564. Manus O'Donnell, though a
fierce warrior, was hospitable and generous to the poor and the
Churrh. He is described by the Four Masters as ** a learned
Dun. skilled In many arts, gifted with a profound intellect, and
ike knowledge of every science." At hb castle of Portnatrynod
near Strsbaoc be supervised if he did not actually dictate the
writing of the LifeofSmint C^umbkitt* in Irish, which is preserved
in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Manus was several times
married. Hisfirst wife, Joan O'ReUly, was thenotbcrof Calvagh,
and two daughters, both of whom married 0*Neills; the younger,
Margaret, was wife of the famous rebel Shane O'Ndll. His
•econd wife, Hugh^ mother, by whom he was ancestor of the
carfs of Tyrconnel (see below), was Judith, sister of Conn Bacach
OTfelll, tst eari of Tyrone, and aunt of Shane 0*NelIL
CiavAca O'Donnell (d. 1 566), eldest son of Manus O'Donnell.
ia the course of his above-mentioned rniarrel with his father
mad his half-brother Hugh, sought aid in Scotland from the
MacDonnells, who assisted him In deposing Manus and securing
the lordship of lyrconnd for himself. Hugh then appealed
to Shane 077eill, who invaded Tyrconnel at the head of a large
army in i5S7» desiring to make himself supreme throughout
Ulster, and encamped on the shore of Lough S willy. Calvagh,
acting apparently on the advice of his father, who was his
prisoner and who remembered the successful night attack on
Coon O'Neill at Knockavoe in 1532, surprised the O'Neills in
their camp at night and routed them with the lose of all their
spoils. Calvagh was then recognised by the English govern-
ment as lord of Tyrconnel; but in X561 he and his wife were
captured by Shane O'Neill in the monastery of Kildonnell.
His wtfe, Catherine Maclean, who had previously been the wife
of the eari of Argyll, was kept by Shane O'Neill as his mistress
and bore him several children, though grossly ill-treated by her
savage captor; Calvagh himself was subjected to atrocious
torture during the three years that he remained O'Neill's prisoner.
He wu released in 1564 on conditions which he had no intention
of fulfilling; and crossing to England he threw himself on the
mercy of Queen Elisabeth. In 1566 Sir Henry Sidney by the
queen's orders marched to Tyrconnel and restored Calvagh
to his rights. Calvagh, however, died in the same year, and
as his soa Conn was a prisoner in the hands of Shane O'Neill,
his half-brother Hugh MacManus was inaugurated The O'Donnell
in his place. Hugh, who in the family feud with Calvagh had
allied himself with O'Neill, now turned round and combined
with the English to crash the hereditary enemy of his family;
and in 1567 he utterly rooted Shane at Letterkenny with the
loss of 1300 men, compelling him to seek refuge with the Mac-
Donnells of Antrim, by whom he was treacherously put todeath.
In 1 593 Hugh abdicated in favour of his son Hugh Roe O'Donndl
(see below); but there was a member of the elder branch of
the family who resented the passmg of the chieftainship to
the descendants of Manus O'Donnell's second marriage. This
was Niall Garve, second son of Calvagh's son Conn. His ekler
brother was Hugh of Ramdton, whose son John, an officer in
the Spanish army, was father of Hugh Baldcaig O'Donnell
(d. t704), known in Spain as Count O'Donnell, who commanded
an Irish regiment as brigadier in the Spanish service. This
officer came to Ireland in 1690 and raised an amy in Ulster
for the service of James II., afterwards deserting to the side
of William III., from whom he accepted a pension.
NiALL Gauvb O'DoNNtLL (1569-1636), who was incensed
at the elevation of his cousin Hugh Roe to the chieftainship
in 1593, was further alienated when the latter deprived him
of his castle of liflord, and a bitter feud between the two O'Don-
neUs was the result. Niall Garve made terms with the English
government, to whom he rendered valuable service both against
the O'Neills and against his cousin. But in i6ot he quarrelled
with the lord deputy, who, though willing to establish Niall
Garve in the lordship of Tyrconnel, would not perftiit Urn to
enforce his supremacy over Cahir O'Dogherty in Inlshowen.
After the departure of Hugh Roe from Ireland In 1603, Niall
Garve and Hugh Roe's brother Rory went to London, where
the privy council endeavoured to arrange the family cpiarrel.
but failed to satisfy NiaU. Charged wiih complicity in Cahir
O'Dogherty's rebellion in 1608, Niall Garve was sent to the
Tower of London, where he remained till his death in t6t6.
He married his cousin Nuala, sister of Hugh Roe and Rory
O'DonneU. When Rory fied with the eari of Tyrone to Rome
in 1607. Nuala, who had deserted her husband when he joined
the English against her brother, accompanied him, taking
with her her daughter Grania. She was the subject of an Irish
poem, of which an English version was written by James Mangsn
from a prose translation by Eugene OTtorry.
HucB Roe O'Donnell (1573-1603), eldest son of Hugh
MacManus 0*Donnell, snd grandson ct Manus O'DonneH by
his second marriage with Judith O'NeiD, was the most celebrated
member of his clan. His mother was Incen Dubh, daughter
of James MacDonnell of Kini>Te; his sister was the second
wife of Hugh O'Neill. 3nd eari of Tyrone. These famDy con-
nexions with the Hebridean Scots and with the O'Neills made
the lord deputy. Sir John Penot. afraid of a powerful com-
bination against the English fovcmmettt, and induced Un to
8
O'PONNELL, H. J.
CBUfalish girrisoos in Tyrconnd aiid to demand hosta^ei from
Hugh MftcManus O'Donnell, which the Uitter refused to hand
over. In 1587 Perrot conceived a plan for kidnapping Hugh
Roe (Hugh the Red), now a youth of fifteen, who had ah«ady
given proof of exceptional manlinesa and sagadty. A merchant
vessel laden with Spanish wines was sent tio Lough Swilly, and
anchoring off RathmuUan, where the boy was residing in the
castle of MacSweeny his foster parent, Hugh Roe with some
youthful companions was enticed on board, when the ship
immediately set sail and conveyed the party to Dublin. The
boys were kept in prison for more than three years In 1591
young O'Donnell made two attempts to escape, the second of
which proved successful; and after enduring terrible privations
from exposure in the mountains he made his way to Tyrconnd,
where in the following year his father handed the chieftainship
over to him. Red Hugh lost no time in leading an expedition
against Turiough Luineach O'Neill, then at war with bis kinsman
Hugh, earl of Tyrone, with whom O'Donnell was in alliance.
At the same time he sent assurances of loyalty to the lord
deputy, whom he met in person at Dundalk in the summer of
1592. But being determined to vindicate the traditional
daima of his family in north Connaught, he aided Hugh Maguire
against the English, though on the advice of Tyrone he ab>
stained for a time from committing himself too far. When,
however, in 1594 Enniskillen castle was taken and the women
and children flung into the river from its walls by order of Sir
Richard Bingham, the English governor of Connaught, O'Donnell
sent urgent messages to Tyrone for help, and while he himself
hurried to Deny to withsund an invasion of Scots from the
isles, Maguire defeated the English with heavy loss at Bellana-
briska (The Ford of the Biscuits). In 1595 Red Hugh again
invaded Connaught, putting to the swonl every soul above
fifteen years of age unable to speak Irish; he captured Longford
and soon afterwards gained possession of SUgo, which pkoed
north Connaught at hb mercy. In 1596 he agreed in conjunction
with Tyrone to a cessation of hostilities with the English, and
consented to meet commissioners from the government near
Dundalk. The terms he demanded were, however, refused;
and his determination to continue the struggle was strengthened
by the prospect of help from Philip II. of Spain, with whom
he and Tyrone had been in correspondence. In the beginning
of 1597 be made another inroad into Connaught, where O'Conor
Sligo had been set up by the English as a counterpoise to O'Don-
nell. He devastated the country and returned to Tyrconnel
with rich spoils; in the following year he shared in Tyrone's
victory over the English at the Yellow Ford on the Blackwater;
and in 1599 he defeated an attempt by the English under Sir
Conyers Clifford, governor of Connaught, to suocour O'Conor
Sligo in CoUooney castle, which O'Donnell captured, fordng
Sligo to submission. The government now sent Sir Henry
Docwra to Deny, and O'Donnell entrusted to his cousin Niall
Carve the task of opposing him. Niall Carve, however, went
over to the English, making himself master of O'Donnell's
fortresses of Lifford and Donegal While Hugh Roe was at-
tempting to retake the latter place In 1601, he heard that a
Spanish force had landed in Munster. He marched rapidly to
the south, and was joined by Tyrone at Bandon; but a night-
attack on the English besieging the Spaniards in Kinsale having
utterly failed, O'Donnell, who attributed the disaster to the
incapadty of the Spanish commander, todc ship to Spain
on the 6th of January 1602 to lay his complaint before
Philip III. He was favourably recdved by the Spanish king,
but he died at Simsnras 00 the xoth of September in the
same year.
Roav O'Donnell, xat earl of Tyrconnel (i57S~i6o8)i second
•on of Hugh MacManus O'Donnell, and younger brother of
Hugh Roe, accompanied the hitter in the above-mentioned
expedition to Kinsale; and when his brother sailed for Spain
he transferred his authority as chief to R^, who led the
O'Donnell contingent back to the north. In 1602 Rory gave
in his allegiance to Lord Mounijoy, the k>rd deputy; and in
the foUowiog summer he went to London with the earl of Tyrone.
where he was tecdved with favour by James I., who cmted
him earl of Tyrconnel. In 1605 he was invested with authority
as lieutenant of the king in Donegal But the arrangemeiit
between Rory and Niall Carve insisted upon by the govcmnoent
was displeasing to both O'Donnells, and Rory, like Hugh Roc
bdore him, entered into negotiations with Spain. His country
had been reduced to a desert by famine and war, and his own
reckless extravagance had pltmged him deeply in debt. Tlicse
circumstances as much as the fear that his designs were known
to the government may have persuaded him to leave Irdand.
In Septemtib- 1607 " the fli^t of the earis " (see O'Neill) took
place, Tyrconnd and Tyrone reaching Rome in April 1608,
where T^nvonnd died on the 28th of July. His wife, the beautiful
daughter of the eari of KJldare, was Idt behind in the haste
of Tyroonnd's flight, and Kved to many NicboUs Bamewell,
Lord Kingshuid. By Tyrconnd she had a son Hugh; and
among other diildren a chiughter Mary Stuart O'DonneU, who,
bom after her father's flight from Ireland, was so named by
James I. after his mother. This lady, after nutny romantic
adventures disguised in male attire, married a nan called
O'Gallaghcr and died in poverty on the continent.
Rory O'Donnell was attainted by the Irish padtamcnt in
x6x4, but his son Hugh, who lived at the Spanish Court, assumed
the title of earl; and the last titular eari of Tyrconnd was this
Hugh's son Hugh Albert, who died without heirs in 164a, and
who by his will appointed Hugh Balldearg O'Donnell (see above)
his hdr, thus restoring the chieftainship to the dder branch of
the family. To a still dder branch belonged Danid O'Donnell
(1666-1735), a general of the famous Irish brigade in the Frendi
service, whose father, Turiough, was • ton of Hugh Dubh
O'Donnell, elder brother of Manus, son of an earlier Hugh
Dubh mentioned above. Danid served in the French army
in the wars of the period, fighting against Marlborough at
Oudenarde and Malplaquet at the h&idof an O'DonneU regiment.
He died in 173 s.
The famous Cathach. or Battle-Book of the O'DonneRs. was ia
the ponesuon of General Danid O'DonneU, from whom it pa»cd
to more modem repreaenutives of the family, who presented it to
the Royal Irish Academy, where it is preserved. This relic, of which
a curious legend is told (see P. W. Joyce, A Social History of Ancient
Irdand, vol i. p. 501), is a Psalter said to have belong to Saiirt
Columba. a kinsman oif the O'Donnells, which was earned by them
in battle as a charm or talisman to secure victory. Two other
circumstances connecting the O'Donnells with ancient Irish literature
may be mentioned. The family of O'Clcry, to which three of the
celebrated " Four Mastere " belonged, were hereditary Ollavca
{doctors of history, music, bw. Sec.) attached to the family of
VDonnell; while the " Book of the Dun Cow " (Ubor-na-k Uidkn),
one of the most ancient Irish MSS., was in the posseaston of the
O'Donnells in the 14th centurv; and the estimation in which h
was held at that time is proved oy the fact that it was given to the
O'Conors of Connaught as renaom for an important priaoncr, and
was forcibly recovered some years later.
See O'Neill, and the authorities there cited. (Rt J. M.)
ITDOiniBLL, HENRY JOSEPH (1769-1834). count of U
Bi&bal, Spanish soldier, was descended from the O'Donneik
who left Irdand after the battle of the Boyne.' Bora in Spain,
he early entered the Spanish army, and in 1810 became general,
recdving a command in Catalonia, where in that year he earned
his title and the rank of field-marshal He afterwards held
posts of great responsibility under Ferdinand VII.» whom he
served on the whole with constancy; the evenuof 1823 compelled
his flight Into France, where he was interned at Limoges, and
where he died in 1834. His second son Leopolo O'DonneU
(1809-1867), duke of Tetuan, Spanish general and statesman,
was born at Santa Cms, Teneriffe, on the lath ol January 1809.
He fought in the army of (^een Christina, where he attained
the rank of general of division; and in 1840 he accompanied
the queen into exile. He failed in an attempt to eflea a isiag
in her favour at Pamplona in 1841, but tooJt a more successful
part in the movement which led to the overthrow and eodle of
» A branch of thf family settled in Austria, and Genera! KaH
O'Donnell, count of Tyrconnd ( 1 71 5* » 7rt ). hdd important commairii
r. The name of a descendant ligvres in
Hungarian camoaignsof 1848 and 184^
during the Seven Years' War.
the history of the Italian and I
O'DONOVAN, E.--ODONTORNITHES
Espartero in 1843- From 1844 to 184S he served the new
fovemncnt ia Cuba; after bis rctum he entered the senate.
In 1854 he became war minister under Espartero, and ia 1856 he
plotted successfully against his chief, becoming head of the
cabinet from the July revolution until October. This rank
he again reached in July 1858; and in December 1859 he took
command of the expedition to Morocco, and received the title
of dttke after the surrender of Tctuan. Quitting office in 1863,
he again resumed it in June 1865, but was compelled to resign
b favour of Narvaez in 1866^ He died at Bayoni^e on the sth
of November 1867.
There is a Life of Leopold O'Donaell in La Corona do taurd, by
Manuel Ibo AUaio (Madnd, i860).
(TOOIIOVAM, BDMUKD (1844-1883), British war-corre-
spondent, was bom at Dublin on the 13th of September 1844.
the son of John (^Donovan (1809-1861), a weU>known Irish
archaeologist and topographer. In 1866 he began to contribute
to the Irish Timoi and other Dublin papers. After the battle
of Sedan he joined the Foreign Legion of the French army,
and was wounded and taken prisoner by the Germans. In 1873
the Cadist rising attracted him to Spain, and he wrote many
newspaper letters on the campaign. In 1876 he represented
the London DaUy News during the rising of Bosnia and
Uenegovina against the Turksr and in t879i iot the same paper,
made his adventurous and famous Journey to Merv. On his
arrival at Merv, the Turcomans, suspecting him to be a Russian
spy, detained him. It was only after several months' captivity
that O'Doaovan managed to get a message to his principals
through to Persia, whence it was telegraphed to England. These
adventures he described In Tka lion Oasis (i88a). In 1883
O'DoDOvaa accompanied the ill-fated expedition of Hicks
Pasha to the Egyptian Sudan, and perished with iL
COCHOVAN, WILUAM RUDOLP (1844- ), American
sculptor, was bom in Preston county, ^^rginia, on the 38th
of March 1844. He had no technical art tnining» but after
the Civil War, ia which he served in the Confederate army,
he opened a studio ia New York City and became a well-known
sculptor, especially of memorial pieces. Among these are
statues of George Washington (in Caracas), Lincoln and Grant
(Prospect Fftrk, Brooklyn), the captors of Major Andr6 (Tany-
town> N.Y.), and Archbishop Hughes (Fordham University,
Fordfaam, N.Y.), and a memorial tablet to Basrard Taybr
(Cornell University). In 1878 he become an associate of the
Natio nal A cademy of Design.
ODOilTORinTHEg, the term proposed by O. C. Marsh {Am.
Joum. Soi, wet 3, v. (1873) pp« x6x*x6a) for birds possessed of
teeth (Or. tfofo, tooth, Apvtt, flpntfot. bird), notably the
genera Hesperomis and Icktkyomis from the Cretaceous deposits
of Kansas. In 1875 {op. dL x. pp. 403-408) he divided the
'^ sttlidass " into Odontolcao, with the teeth standing in grooves,
and OdontoiormaOt with the teeth in separate alveoles or sockets.
In his magnificent work, (Montornitkes: A monograph on the
ojUind looUud birds oj North America, New Haven, Connecticut,
1880, he logically added the Saurume, represented by
ArchaoopteryXf as a third order. As it usually happens with
the selection of a single anatomical character, the resulting
dassiGcation was unnatnraL la the present case the Odont-
ocnithes are a hetero g e n eous assembly, and the fact of their,
possessing teeth proves nothing but that birds, possibly all of
them, still had these organs during the Cretaceous epoch. This,
by itscU, is a very interesting point, showing that birds, as a
class, are the descendants of welt-toothed reptalo, to the complete
csclusiftn of the Chelonla with which various authors penistently
try to connect them. No fossil birds of later than Cretaceous
age are known to have teeth, and concerning recent birds they
possess not even embryonic vestiges.
E. Geoflr^ St Hilaire sUtcd in x8st (Ann. Gin. Scu Phys,
^^ PP« 373*380) that he had found a considerable number
of tooth-feims in the upper and lower jaws of the parrot
FaUeomis torquaius. £. Blanchard (" Observations sur le sys-
time dentaire ches les oiseaux," CompUs remdus 50, x86o, pp.
340-543) felt justified in recognaxiog Hakes of dentine. However,
M. Braun {Arbeii Zooi. tnst., Wacebuig, v. 1879) ud especially
P. Fraiase {Phys. Med. Ces., Wttrsburg, z88o) have showa that
the structures ia question are of the same kind as the well-known
serrated " teeth " of the bill of anserine birds. In fact the
papillae observed in the embryonic birds are the soft cutaneous
extensions into the surrounding homy sheath of the bill, compar-
able to the well-known nutritive papillae in a horse's hool.
They are easily exposed in the well-macerated under jaw of a
parrot, after removal of the homy sheath. tfVra^tnwaiiy ^Vj<i^-
tion occurs in or around these papillae, as it does regulariy in
the " egg-tooth " of the embryos of all birds.
The best known of the Odontomiihes are Hesperomis reiolis,
standing about 3 fL high, and the somewhat taller if . erassipes*
Both show the general configuration of a diver, but it is only by
analogy that Hesperomis can be looked upon as ancestral to
the Colymbiformcs. There are about fourteen teeth in a groove
of the maxilla and about twenty-one in the mandible; the
vertebrae axe typically heterocoelous; of the wing-bones only
the very slender and long humerus is known; chivides slightly
reduced; coraooids short and broad, movably connected with
the scapula; sternum very long, broad and quite flat, without
thetraceofakeeL Hind limbs very strong and of the Colymbine
type, but the outer or fourth capitulum of the metatarsus b the
strongest and longest, an unique arrangement ia an othvwise
typically stegsnopodous foot. The pelvis shows much resem-
blance to that of the divers, but there is still an indsunischiadica
instead of a foramen. Tlie tail is composed of about twelve
vertebrae, without a pygostyle. EnaUomis of the Cambridge
Greensaad of England, and Bapiomis of the mid-Cretaceous of
North America, are probably allied, but imperfectly known.
The vertebrae are biconcave, with heterocoelous indicatk>ns m
the cervicals; the metatarsal bones appear still somewhat
imperfectly anchylosed. The absence of a keel misled Marsh who
suspected relatioosMp of Hesperomis with the Ratitae, and
L. DoUo went so far as to call it a camivoRMis, aquatic ostrich
{BnU. Seu Dipart. du Nord, ser. s, iv. 1881, p. 300), and this
mistaken notioa of the " swinmidBg ostrich *' was popularised by
various authois. B. Vetter (Festsehr, Ces. Isis., Dresden, r88s)
rightly poiated out that Hesperomis was a descendaat of
Carinatae, but adapted to aquatic life, implying reduction of
the keeL Lastly, M. Fdrbringer {Unlersnchungen, Amsterdam,
1888, pp. XS43, XS05, X 580) relegated it, together with JSaa/wriMf
and the Co^ymbo-Podidpedes, to his suborder Podicipitiformes.
The present writer does o9t feel justified in going so far. On
account of their various, deddodly primitive charaaers, ha
prefers to look upon the Cidontokae as a separate group, one of
the three divisions of the Neomithes, as birds which form aa
early offshoot from the later Colymbo-Pelargomorphons stock;
in adaptation to a marine, swimming life they have lost the
power of flight, as is shown by the absence of the ked and
by the great xcduction of the wing-skeleton, just as ia
aaother direction, away from the later AUctoromorphous
stock the Ratitae have specialized ss ruaaeis. It is oaly ia
so far as the loss of flight is correlated with the absence of
the ked that the Odontolcae and the Ratitae bear analogy to
each other.
There remain the Odonlotormaot notably Ichikyomis nctor^
I. dispart Apatomis and Craemlamu of the middle and upper
Cretaceous of Kansas. The teeth stand in separate alveoles;
the two halves of the mandible are, as in Hesperomis, without
a symphysis. The vertebrae are amphicodous, but at least the
third cervical has somewhat saddle-shaped articular facets.
Tan composed of five free vertebrae, followed by a rather small
pygostyl^ Shoulder girdle and sternum well devdoped and
of the typical carinate type. Pdvis still with tndsura iacbiadtca.
Marsh based the restoration of Ickthyomis, which was obviously a
well-flying aquatic bird, upon the skeleton of a tern, a rdat ion-
ship which cannot be supported. The teeth, vertebrae, pelvis
and the small brain are all so many low characters that tbe
Odontotormac may well form a separate, and very k>w, order
of the typical Carinatae, of course near the Colymbomorphous
Ugioa. (H. F. G.^
CO
ODORIC— ODYLIC FORCE
OOORIC (c. ia86-i33z), styled "of Pordenone," one of the
chief traveUen of the later middle ages, and a Bcaius of the
Roman Church, was born at Villa Nuova, a hamlet near the town
of Pordenone in Friuli, in or about ia86. According to the
ecclesiastical biographers, in early years he took the vows of
the Franciscan order and joined their convent at Udine, the
capital of Friuli.
Friar Odoric was despatched to the East, where a remarkable
extension of missionary action was then taking place, about
1316-1318, and did not return till the end of 1329 or beginning
of 1330; but, as regards intermediate dates, all that we can
deduce from his narrative or other evidence is that he was in
western India soon after 1331 (pretty certainly in 1333) and that
he spent three years in China between the opening of 1333 and
the close of 1338. His route to the East lay by Trebizond and
Erzerum to Tabriz and Suluuiieh, in all of which places the order
had houses. From Sultanich he proceeded by Kashan and
Y&ad, and turning thence followed a somewhat devious route by
Persepolis and the Shiraz and Bagdad regions, to the Persian
Gulf. At Honnux he embarked for India, landing at Thana,
near Bombay. At this city four brethren of his order, three of
them Italians and the fourth a Georgian, had shortly before
met death at the hands of the Mahommedan governor. The
bones of the martyred friars had been collected by Friar Jordanus
of S6verac, a Dominican, who carried them to Supera — the
Suppara of the ancient geographers, near the modem Bassein,
about a6 m. north of Bombay— and buried them there Odoric
tells that he disinterred these relics and carried them with
him on his further travels. In the course of these he visited
Malabar, touching at P&ndarani (30 m. north of Calicut), at
Cranganore, and at Kulam or Quilon, proceeding thence^ appar-
ently, to Ceylon and to the shrine of St Thomas at Maylapur
near Madras. From India he sailed in a Junk to Sumatra,
visiting various ports on the northern coast of that island, and
thence to Java, to the coast (it would seem) of Borneo, to
Champa (South Cochin-China), and to Canton, at that time
known to western Asiatics as Ckin-Kalan or Great China (Maha-
chln). From Canton he travelled overland to the great ports
of Fukien, at one of which, Zayton or Amoy harbour, he found
two houses of hk order; in one of these he deposited the bones
of the brethren who had suffered in India. From Fuchow he
struck across the mountains into Cheh-kiang and Visited Hang-
chow, then renowned, under the name of Cansay, Khamai,
or Quinsai (i.e. Kingsu or royal residence), as the greatest dty
in the worid, of whose splendours Odoric, like Marco Polo,
MarignoUi, or Ibn Batuta, gives notable details. Passing
northward by Nanking and crossing the Yangtsze-kiang, Odoric
embarked on the Great Canal and travelled to CambaUe (other-
wise Cambalelh, Cambaluc, &c.) or Peking, where he remained for
three years, attached, no doubt, to one of the churches founded by
Archbishop John of Monte Corvino, at this time in extreme old
age. Returning overland across Asia, through the Land of Prester
John and through Casan, the adventurous traveller seems to
have entered Tibet, and even perhaps to have visited Lhasa.
After this we trace the friar in northern Penia, in MiUestorte,
once famous as the Land of the Assassins in the Elburz highlands*
No further indications of his homeward route (to Venice) are given,
though it is almost certain that he passed through Tabriz.
The vague and fragmentary character of the tuirrative, in this
section, forcibly contrasts with the clear and careful tracing of
the outward %ray. During a part at least of these long Journeys
the compam'on of Odoric was Friar James, an Irishman, as
appears from a record in the public books of Udlne, showing that
shortly after (Moric's death a present of two marks was made
to this Irish friar, Socio heoH Frairis Od^fki, amore Dei el Odorid.
Shortly after his return Odoric betook himself to the Minorite
house attached to St Anthony's at Padua, and it was there that
In May 1330 he related the story of his travels, which was taken
down in homely Latin by Friar William of Solagna. Travelling
towards the papal court at Avignon, Odoric fell ill at Pisa, and
turning back to Udinc, the capital of his native province, died
in the convent there on the t4th of January 1331. The fame of
his vast Journeys appears to have made a much greater impressSoo
on the laity of his native territory than on his Franciscan brethren.
The latter were about to bury him without delay or ceremony,
but the gaslald or chief magistrate of the city interfered and
appointed a public funeral; rumours of his wondrous traveb and
of posthumous miracles were diffused, and excitement spread
like wildfire over Friuli and Camiola; the ceremony had to be
deferred more than once, and at last took place in presence of the
patriarch of Aquileia and all the local dignitaries. Popular
acclamation made him an object of devotion, the municipality
erected a noble shrine for his body, and his fame as samt and
traveller had spread far and wide before the middle of the
century, but it was not till four centuries later (1755) that the
papal authority formally sanctioned his beatification. A bast
of Odoric was set up at Pordenone in i88r.
The numerous copies of Odoric's narrative (both of the original
text and of the versions in French, Italian, &c.) that have come
down to our time, chiefly from the X4th century, show how
speedily and widely it acquired popularity. It docs not deserve
the charge of mendacity brought against it by some, though
the adulation of others is nearly as injudicious. Odoric's credit
was not benefited by the liberties which Sir John MandeviUe
took with it The substance of that knight's alleged traveb
in India and Cathay is stolen from Odoric, though amplified
with fables from other sources and from his own Invention, and
garnished with his own unusually clear astrononucal notions.
We may indicate a few passages which stamp Odoric as a genuine
and original traveller. He is the first European, after Marco
Polo, who distinctly mentions the name of Sumatra. The
cannibalism and community of wives which he attributes to
ceruin races of that island do certainly belong to it, or to islands
closely adjoining. His description of sago in the archipelago
is not free from errors, but they are the errors of an eye-witness.
In China his mention of Canton by the name of Censeolam or
CenscaXam (Chin-Kalan), and his descriptions of the custom
of fishing with tame cormorants, of the habit of letting the
finger-nails grow extravagantly, and of the compression of
women's feet, are peculiar to him among the travellers of that
age; Marco Polo omits them aO.
Sex'cnty-three MSS. of Odoric*s narrative are known to exist in
Latin, French and Italian: of these the chief is in i^ris. National
Library. MSS. Lat. 3584, fola. 118 r.-i37 v., of about 1350. Tbe
narrative was fint printed at Pcsaro in 1313. m what Apostolo Zcno
calls lingua incuUa e rotxa. Ramusio's co^ection first contains it
in the 3nd vol. of the 3nd edition (1374) (Italian version), in which
are given two versions. diAering cunousfy from one another, but
without any prefatory matter or explanation. (See abo edition of
1583. vol. u. iols. 24s r.-3s6 r.) Another (Latin) vcnion is given in
the Acta Sanctorum (Bollandist) under the I4tb of January. The
curious discussion beloro the papal court respecting the beatificatkm
of Odoric rorms a kind of blue-book issued ex Motr^kn no.
cameno aposMiau (Rome. 1755). Profcasor Friedndi Kunstniaan
of Munich devoted one of his valuable oapers to Odoric'e narrative
{Histor.-polit. Bt&ller von Phillips und G^irres, vol. axxviii. pp. y>7-
Si7). Tne best editions of Odoric are by C. Vcnni, £tofto storico
aiU resia del Beato Odoriro (Venice, 1761); H. Yule in CuAay and
Ike Way Thitker, vol. i. pp. i-i63, vol. ii. appendix, pp. 1^ (Loodoo,
1866), Hakluyt Society: and H. Coidier. Les VoyaM$ , ,'.dm , , .
frhre Odoric . . . (Pari.s, 1891) (edition of Old French version of
c. 1350). The edition by T. IXimenichcUi (Prato, 1881) may also be
mentioned: likewise those texts of Odoric embedded in the Slorim
mmioersQle detto Missiom Francoscam, liL 739*781. and in HaUuyt'a
, , ,-^,9lf ii- 39-67. See also John of Viktring
(Joannes Victoriensis) in Pontes rerum Cermanicarum^ ed. J. F.
Principal Nmigaliom (1599). ii- 39-67*
Boehmcr; vol. 1. cd. by J . G. Cotta (Stuttgart, 1843). p. 391;
Wadding, Annalei Jiinomm, A.D. I33ti vo). vii. pp. 113-126;
Barthokmiew AlbisB, Opus couformmStm . . . B. frsnctici ....
bk. I par. ii. ooof. 8 (fol. 134 of Milan, edituo of i^rj): John of
Winterthur in Eccard. Corpus kistoricum medii aevt^ vol. i. cols.
1 894- 1 897. especially 1894: C. R. Beaxley. Davn of Uodtm Geo-
graphy, m. 350487. 548-549* 554. 585*566. 613-613. *c- ^ „ -, .
(H. Y.s C« R* Ob)
ODTUC PORCB, a term once in vogue to expbhii the pheao>
menon of hypnotism (^.v.). In 1845 considerable attentson
was drawn to the announcement by Baron von Rckheabacb
of a so<alled new " imponderable " or " influence " developed
by certain crystals, magnets, the human body, associated with
heat, chemical action, or dectridty, and existing thiwicbMit
ODYSSEUS— OEOOLAMPADIUS
II
the ttnivene, to which he g»vQ the name of 9dyl,
•ensitive to odyl taw InininouB phenomena near the poles of
macnett, or even around the hands or heads o( certain persons
hi whose bodies the force wsa supposed to be concentrated.
In Britain an impetus was given to this view of the subject by
the transhition in 1850 of Reichenboch's Researches m UagneHsm,
&€., im retoHom to Vital Farce, by Df Gregory, professor of
chemistry in the university of Edinburgh. These JUtearckes
show many of the phenomena to be of the same nature as those,
described previously by F. A. Mesmer, and even long before
Mcsmer's time by Swedenborg.
0DYSSB08 (in Latin Ulixes, incorrecUy written Ulysses),
in Greek legend, son of LaSrtes and Antideia, king of Ithaca, a
famous hero and typical representative of the Greek race. In
Homer he is one of the best and bmvcst of the heroes, and the
favourite of Athena, whereas in later legend he is cowardly and
deceitful. Soon after his marriage to Penelope he was summoned
to the Trojan war. Unwilling to go, he feigned madness,
pk>ughing a field sown with salt with an os and an ass yoked
together; but Palamedes discovered his deceit by placing his
infant child Telemachus in front of the plough; Odysseus
afterwards revenged himself by compassing the death of Pala-
medes. During the war, he distinguished himself as the wisest
adviser of the Greeks, and finally^ the capture of Troy, which
the bravery of Achilles could not accomplish, was attained by
Odysseus' stratagem of the wooden horse. After the death of
Achilles the Greeks adjudged his armour to Odysseus as the man
who had done most to end the war successfully. When Troy
was captured he set sail for Ithaca, but was carried by unfa\'our-
able winds to the coast of Africa. After encountering many
adventures in all parts of the unknown seas, among the lotus-
caters and the Cyclopes, in the isles of Aeolus and Circe and the
perils of Scylla and Charybdis, among the Lacurygones, and even
in the world of the dead, having lost all his ships and companions,
he barely escaped with his Kfe to the island of Calypso, where he
was detained eight years, an unwilling lover of the beautiful
nymph. Then at the command of Zeus he was sent homewards,
but was again wrecked on the island of Phaeacia, whence he
was conveyed to Ithaca in one of the wondrous Pfaaeacian ships.
Here he found that a host of suitors, taking advantage of the
youth of his son Telemachus, were wasting his property and
trying to force Penelope to marry one of them. The stratagems
and disguises by which with the help of a f'rw faithful friends
be slew the suitors are described at length in the Odyssey. The
only allusion to his death is contained in the prophecy of Teiresias,
who promised him a happy old age and a peaceful death from
the sea. According to a later legend, Telcgonus, the son of
Odysseus by Grce, was sent by her in search of his father. Cast
ashore on Ithaca by a storm, he plundered the island to get pro*
visk>ns, and was attacked by Odysseus, whom he slew. The
prophecy was thus fulfilled. Tclegonuy, accompanied by
Penelope and Telemachus, returned to his home with the body
of his father, whcse identity he had discovered.
According to E. Meyer {Hermes, axx. p. 767). Odysseus is an
old Arcadian nature god identical with Poseidon, who dies at
the approach of winter (retires to the western sea or is carried
away to the underworld) to revive in spring (but sec E. Rohde.
Rkein. Mus. I. p. 631) A more suitable identification would
be Hermes. Mannhardt and others regard Odysseus as a solar
or summer divinity, who withdraws to the underworld during
the winter, and returns in spring to free his wife from the suitors
(the powers of winter) A. Gercke (Neue JakrbtUker jUr das
klassiscke AUtrtum, sv. p. 351) takes htm to be an agricultural
divinity akin to the sun god, whose wife is the moon-goddess
Pendope, from whom he is separated and reunited to her on
the day of the new moon. His cult early disappeared: in
Arcadia his place was taken by Pbaeidon. But although the
personality of Odysseus may have had its origin In some primitive
reUgiotts myth, chief intercft attaches to him as (he typical
r a pe cjcn utive of the old saik>r-race r/hose adventurous voyages
educated and moulded the Hellenic race. The period when the
character of Odysseas took shape among the Ionian bards
was when the Ionian ships were beginning to penetrate to the
farthest shores of the Black Sea and to the western side of Italy,
but when Egypt had not yet been freely opened to foreign
intercourse. The adventxires of Odysseus were a favourite subject
in ancient art, in which he may usually be recognised by his
oooical sailor'a cap.
See article by J. Schmidt in Roschcr'e Lmhan der Mjtkdope
(where the different forms of the name and its etymok)gy are fully
diacuaBed); O. Gnippe, Cnechische UythclogUt it. pp. 624, 705-718:
J. E. Harrison, Myths of the Odyssey in Art and Liierature (1881).
with appendix on authorities. W. Mannhardt, Waid- und feldkutte
(1905), iL p. 106: O. Seeck, Geseh. det Unkrtanrs der asUiken Weil,
ii. p. JS76; G. FouKires, MantuUe el VArcadu arientale (1898).
according to whom Odysaeus is an Arcadian chthonian divinity and
Penelope a goddeas of flocks and herds, akin to the Arcadian Artemis;
S. Eitrem, Die tflUlichen ZvriUinge bei den Grieehem (1902), who
identifies Odysseus with one of the Dioscuri ('OXurm- I1o)^«I«<iisk) :
V. B^rd. ^ef Phinieieus et POdyssit (1902-1903). who n^ards the
Odyssey as " the integration in a Grccic wtcrot (home-commg) of a
Semitic pcfiplus,** in the form of a poem written 900-850 B.c. by an
lonk poet at the court of one of the Neleid kings of Miletus. For an
estimate of this work, the interest of which is mainly geographical,
see Classieai Review (April 1904) and Quarleriy Review (April 1905).
It consists of two biige volumes, with 240 illustrations and maps.
OBBSN, JEAN FRANCIS, French s8th-centuiy cabinet-
maker, is belaeved to have been of German or Flemish origin;
the date of his birth Is unknown, but he was dead before 1767.
In 1 7521 twenty years after Boulle's death, we find him occupying
an apartment in the Louvre sublet to him by Charles Joseph
Boulle, whose pupil he may have been. He has sometimes been
confused with Simon Oeben, presumably a relative, who signed
a fine bureau in the Jones collection at the Victoria and Albert
Museum. J. F. Oebcn is also represented In that collection by
a pair of Ixdaid comer<upboards. These with a bureau and a
chiffonier In the Garde Mcuble in which bouquets of Howcrs are
delicately inhud in choice woods are his best-known and most
admirable achievements. He appears to have worked extensively
for the marquise de Pompadour by whose influence he was
granted lodgings at the Gobdins and the title of " £biniste
du Roi " in 1 754. There he remained until 1 760, when he obtained
an apartment and workshops at the ArscnaL His work in
marquetry is of very great distinction, but he would probably
never have enjoyed so great a reputation had it not been for his
connexion with the famous Bureau du Roi, made for Louis XV.,
which appears to have owed its inception to him, notwithstand-
ing that it was not completed until some considerable time after
his death and is sigfted by J. H. Rieseller (q.t,) only. Docu-
mentary evidence imder the hand of the king shows that it was
ordered from Oeben in 1760, the year in which he moved to the
Arsenal. The known work of Oeben possesses genuine grace and
beauty; as craftsmanship it is of the first rank, and it is remark-
able that, despite his Teutonic or Flemish origin, it is typically
French in character.
OECOUMPADIUS. JOHN (1482-1531), German Reformer,
whose real name was Hussgen or Heussgen,* was born at Weins-
bcrg, a small town in the north of the modem kingdom of
WUrttembcrg, but then belonging to the Palatinate. He went
to school at Wefnsberg and Heilbnmn, and then, intending to
study law, he went to Bologna, but soon returned to Heidelberg
and betook himself to theology. He became a zealots student
of the new learning and passed from the study of Greek to that
of Hebrew, taking his bachelor's degree in 1503. He became
cathedral preacher at Basel in 1515. serving under Christopher
von Uttenheim, the evangelical bishop of Bssel. From the
beginning the sermons of Oecolampadius centred in the Atone-
ment, ami his first reformatory zeal showed itself in a protest
(/V risM pasihati, 1518) against the introduction of htnnorous
stories into Easter sermons. In 1520 he published his Crnk
Grammar. The same year he was asked to become preacher
in the high church in Augsburg. Germany was then abbze
with the questions raised by Luther's theses, and his introduction
into this new world, when at first he championed Luther's
position especially in his anonymous Coiieictct imdaeti (1510),
seems to have compelled Oecolampadtus to severe self-examina'
I Changed to Hausschcin and then into the Creek eqsivalnit.
12
OECOLOGY— OEDIPUS
Uon, wUch ended to his entering t convent end becoming a
monk. A short experience convinced him that this was not for
him the ideal Christian life (" amisi monachum, invcni Christia-
num "), and in February 1532 he made his way to Ebembufg,
near C^euxnach, where he acted as chaplain to the little group
of men holding the new opinions who had settled there under
the leadership of Franz von Sickingen.
The second period of Oecolampadios's life opens with his
return to Basel in November 1533, as vicar of St Martin's and
(in X523) reader of the Holy Scripture at the univenity. Lectur-
ing on Isaiah he condemned current ecclesiastical abuses, and
in a public disputation (20th of August 1533) was so successful
that Erasmus writing to Zurich said " Oecolampadius has
the upper hand amongst us." . He became Zwingli's best helper,
and after more than a year of earnest preaching and four public
dispuutions in which the popular verdict had been given in
favour of Oecolampadius and his friends, the authorities of
Basel b^an to see the necessity of some reformation. They
began with the convents, and Oecolampadius was able to refrain
in public worship on certain festival days from some practices
he believed to be superstitious. Basel was slow to accept
the Reformation; the news of the Peasants' War and the
inroads of Anabaptists prevented progress; but at last, in
1535, it seemed as if the authorities were resolved to listen to
schemes for restoring the purity of worship and teaching. In
the midst of these hopes and difficulties Oecolampadius married,
in the beginning of 2528, Wilibrandis RosenblaU, the widow
of Ludwig Kello', who proved to be hoh rixosa vd garrtda vel
fOffl, he says, and made him a good wife. After his death she
married Capito, and, when Capito died, Buoer. She died in 1564.
In January 1528 Oecolampadius and Zwingli took part in the
disputation at Berne which led to the adoption of the new faith
in that canton, and in the following year to the discontinuance
of the mass at Basel. The Anabaptists claimed Oecolampadius
for their views, but in a disputation with them he dissociated
himself from most of their positions. He died on the 24th of
November 1531.
Oecolampadius was not a great theologian, like Luther,
Zwingti or Calvin, and yet he was a trusted theological leader.
With Zwingli he represented the Swiss views at the unfortunate
inference at Marburg. His views on the Eucharist upheld
the metaphorical against the literal interpretation of the word
** body." but he asserted that believers partook of the sacrament
more for the sake of Others than for their own, though later he
emphasized it as a means of grace for the Christian life. To
Luther's doctrine of the ubiquity of Christ's body he opposed
that of the presence and activity of the Holy Spirit in the church.
He did not minutely analyse the doctrine of predcslinalion as
Luther, Calvin and Zwingli did, contenting himself with the
summary " Our Salvation is of God, our perdition of ourselves."
See J. J. HcrzoK, Leben Joh. Oecotampads u. die Reformation der
Kircke tu Basel (1843): K. R. Hagcnlxich. Johann Oecotampad u.
Osvald Myconius, dtt Reformaloren Basels (1859)- For other
literature see W. Hadorn's art. in Hcriog-Hauck's RnlemyUoptdte
fur prol. Rel. u. Kircke.
OECOLOGY. or Ecolocy (from Gr. oTsof, house, and X&Yot.
department of science), that part of the science of biology which
treats of the adaptation of plants or animals to their environ-
ment (see Plants: Ecology),
OBCUHENICAL (through the Lat. from Gr. cUouttmiek,
universal, belonging to the whole inhabited world, 4 UKovidyti
sc. vi, o^miy, to dwell), a word chiefly used in the sense of
bck>nging to the universal Christian Church. It is thus speciA-
cally applied to the general councils of the early church (sec
CouNaL). In the Roman Church a council is regarded as
oecumenical when it has been summoned from the whole church
under the presidency of the pope or his legates; the decrees
confirmed by the pope are binding. The word has also been
applied to assemblies of other religious bodies, such as the
Oecumenical Methodist Conferences, which met for the first
time in 1881. " Oecumenical " has also been the title of the
patriarch of Constantinople since the 6th century (see Obthooox
Eastekn Cuvftca)*
0BCD8, the Lttfailsed fonn of Gr. atm, home, usd by
Vitnivius for the principal hall or saloon in a, Roman house,
which was used occasionally as a triclinium forbanqueU. When
of great size it became necessary to support its ceiling with
columns; thus, according to Vitnivius, the tetrastyle oecot
had four columns; in the (Corinthian oecus there was a row
of columns on each side, virtually therefore dividing the room
into nave and aisles, the former being covered over with a aemi-
circular ceiling. The Egyptian oecus had a similar plan, but
the aisles were of less height, so that clerestory wiadiows were
introduced to light the room, which, as Vitnivius states, presents
more the appearance of a basilica than of a tridinium.
0BDIPU8 (OiSiTOK, 0(5cff6aqt. (Mtm, from Gr. ettfir sweli.
and nbt foot, U. " the swoUen-footed ") ^ in Greek legend, son
of Lalus, king of Thebes, and Jocasta (locastC). Lalus, having
been warned by an oracle that he would be killed by his son,
ordered him to be exposed, with his feet piereed, immediately
after his birth. Thus Oedipus grew up ignorant of his parentage,
and, meeting Lalus in a narrow way, quarrelled with him and
slew hiuL The country was ravaged by a monster, the Sphinx;
Oedipus solved the riddle which it proposed to iu victims,
freed the country, and married his own mother. In the Odyssey
it is said that the gods disclosed the impiety. EpicastC (as
Jocasta is called in Homer) hanged herself, and Oedipus lived
as king in Thebes tormented by the Erinyes of his mother. In
the tragic poets the tale takes a different form. Oedipus fulfils
an ancient prophecy in killing his father; he is the bimd instru-
ment in the hands of fate. The further treatment of the tale
by Aeschylus is unknown. Sophocles describes in his Oedipm
Tyranuus how Oedipus was resolved to pursue to the end the
mystery of the death of Lalus, and thus unravelled the dark
tale, and in horror put out his own eyes. The sequel of the laie is
told in the Oedipus CvioHtus. Banished by his sons, he is tended
by the loving care of his daughters. He oomes to Attica and
dies in the grove of the Eumenides at Colonus, in bis death
welcomed and pardoned by the fate which had pursued him
throughout his life. In addition to the two tragedies of Sophocles,
the legend formed the subject of a trilogy by Aeschylus, of which
only the Settn againsl Thebes is extant; of the Picenissae of
Euripides; and of the Oedipus and Pkoenissat of Seneca.
See A. Hfifer '• exhaustive article in Roicher's Latikem der Mytko-
fie: F. W. Schoeidewio, Die Sate mn Oedipus (1852); D. Com-
parctit, Edij^ e la mitologia comparata (1867): M. Br£al, " Le
Nlythe d'CEdlpc," in Jd&anfes de mylholoiie (1878). who oxpbins
Oraiput as a pcraoniHcation of light, and hta bhnding as the di»-
Appearance of the cun at the end of the day; J. Paulson in Eruuos.
Acta pbilohtica Suecana, i. (Upaala, 1896) places theo«igin*l home
of the legend in Egyptian Thcbca, and klentifies Oedipus with the
Egyptian ^od Scth, represented as the hippopotamus " with swollen
loot." which was said to kill its father in order to take its place
with the mother. O. Cruaus {BeitrSge tur gneekiscken Mytkclagte,
1886. p. 21) iccs in the marriage of Oedipus with his mother aa
agrarian myth (with special reference to Oed. Tyr. 1407). while
Horer (in Roschcr's Lexikon) suggests that the episodes of the murder
of his father and of his marriage are reminiscences of the overthrow
of Cronus by Zcvs and of the union of Zeus with hb own sister.
Medieval Legends.— \n the Coldeu Letfud of Jacobus de Voragine
(i3ih century) and the Mysore de la Passion ot Jean Michel (15th
century) and Arnoul Gr6ban (iMh century), the story of Oedipus is
associated with the name of Judas. The main idea is ch« same
as in the classical account. The Judas legend, however, never really
became popular, whereas that oif Oedipus was handed down bocii
oralljf and in written national tales (Alt»anian. Finnish. Cvpriote).
One incident (the incest unwillingly committed) frequently recurs
in connexion with the life of Gregory the Great. The Theban lr{(cnd.
which reached its fullest development in the TkebaU of Stattus and
in Seneca, reappeared in the Reman de Tktbes (the work of an un-
known imitator of Bcnott de Sainte-More). Oedipus is also the
subject of an anonymous medieval romance (1 jsthcentunr), Le Roman
d'(Edipus,Jlih de Layus, in which the sphinx is depicteti as a cunning
and ferocious giant. The Oedinus legend was handed down to the
period of the Renaissance by tnc Roman and its imitations, which
then fell into oblivion. Even to the present day the legend has
< If is probable that the story of the piercing of his feet is a subse>
?|uent invention to explain the name, or is due to a false etymolccy
from elMw). oIMvom in reality meaning the " wise " (from •Ual,
chiefly in reference to his having ai»lvcd the riddle, the syllabM
•sMt naving no significaaoe.
OEHLER--OELSNITZ
'3
tnnfind amansic the nodcni Greeka, vithout any tnoct of the
t of Chriaciamty (B. Schmidt. Grieckiscfu Udrekem, 1877).
The workt of the aocknt tiafedians (especially Seneca, in preference
to the Greek) came into vogue, and were slavishly followed by
French and Italian imitaton down to the 17th century.
See L. Cooftaos, La Ligtmde d'CEdipe dans fantigutU, au wioytn du,
at dansU* ttmft modenus (iMi): D. Comparetti** Eiipa and Jebb's
iatroduction for the Oedi^ of Oryden. Comcille and Voltaire;
A. Heintxe. Creiprius auj dem Steine, der mittdaUerlicke Otdtpus
(pro^., Stolp, 1877) ; V. Diedericha. " Russische Verwandte der
Lefende von Grcgor auf dem Stein nnd der Sage von Judas Itchariot.'*
in Russiuka Rama (1880): S. Novakovitch, " Die Oedipuancein
der sikdilaviachea VoUcididitung*" UkATchaJur siaviscka Fkilciogie
Jd. (1888).
OBBiBB. GUSTAV FBIEDRICH (i8x»-i873), German theo-
logian, was bom on the xoth of June x8ia at Ebingen, Wilrtteni-
berg, and was educated privately and at Tubingen where he
was much influenced by J. C. F. Steudel, professor of Old TcsU-
ment Theology. In 1837, after a term of Oriental study at
Berlin, he went to Tiibingen as Rtfttent^ becoming in 1840
professor at the seminary and pastor in SchdnthaL In 1845
he published his Prolegomena sur The^hgie des Allen Testameytis,
accepted an invitation to Brcslau and received the degree of
doctor from Bonn. In 1852 he returned to Tubingen as director
of the seminary and professor of Old Testament Theology at
tbe oniversity. He declined a call to Erlangcn as successor to
Frans Delitzach (1867), and died at Tiibingen on the 19th of
February 1872. Oehler admitted the composite authorship of
the Pentateuch and the Book of Isaiah, and did much to counter-
act the antipathy against the Old Testament that had been
fostered by Schleiermacher. In church polity he was Lutheran
rather than Reformed. Besides his Old Testament Tkeciogy
(Eng. trans., a vols., Edinburgh, 1874-1875), his works were
CesammetU Seminarreden (1872) and Lekrhttch Symbolik
(1876), both published posthumously, and about forty artidea
for the first edition of Heraog's RealencykhpSdie which were
lar gely re tained by Delitzsch and von Orelli in the second.
OBRRINQEIf, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wflrt*
temberg, agreeably situated in a fertile country, on the Ohm^
12 m. E. from Heilbronn by the railways to Hall and Crailshcim.
Pop. (1905) 3r450. It is a quaint medieval place, and, among
its andent buildinp, boasts a fine Evangelical church, con-
taining carvings in cedar-wood of the xsth century and numerous
interesting tombs and monuments; a Renaissance town hall;
the bufldhig, now used as a library, which formorly bdonged
to a monastery, erected in X034; and a palace, the residence
of the princes of Hohenlohe-Oehringen.
Oehringen is the Viau AnreHi of the Romans. Eastwards
of it ran the old Roman frontier wall, and numerous remains
and inscriptions dating from the days of the Roman settle-
ment have been recently discovered, induding traces of three
See Keller, Vleus AtmOi, oder Okringen war Zeii der Rimer (Bonn,
187a).
OSU. a town of Germany, in the Pnisrian province of Silesia,
fonoeriy the capital of a mediatized prindpality of its own
name. It lies in a sandy plain on the Oebbach, 90 m. N.E.
of Breslaa by raO. Pop. (1905) 10,940. The princdy chAteau,
now the property of the crown prince of Pnxssia, dating from
1558 and beantifuUy restored in 1891-1894, contains a good
library and a collection of pictures. Of its three Evangelical
churches, the Schlosskixche dates from the 13th oeatury and
the Propstkirche from the t4th. The inhabitants are chiefly
engaged in making shoes and growtaig vegetables for the Breslau
market.
Dels was founded about 940, and became a town in 1955.
It appears as the capital of an independent prindpality at the
begiiining of the X4th century. The prindpality, with an area
of 700 sq. m. tad about 130,000 inhabitants, passed through
vailoQS hands and was inherited by the ducal family of Bruns-
wkfc in 1799. Then on the extinction of this family in 1884
it lapsed to the crown of Prussia.
Sc* W. Hiualtr. GasOikkU des FUrOeaiums OU U$ mm Ams^
sterhen der pta^ischen Hermgdimie (Bredau. 1883); aad Schube,
Pia Saecauton im Fttrstentum Ols (Brc^au, 1884).
OBL8CIIIJ.QER [Oleauds], ADAM (1600-167X), German
traveller and Orientalist, was born at Ascbcrsleben, near Magde-
burg, in t599 or 1600. After studying at Leipzig he became
librarian and court mathematician to Duke Frederick III. of
Holstein-Gottorp, and in 1633 he was appointed secreUry to
the ambassadors Philip Crusius, jurisconsult, and Otto firUgge-
mann or Brugman, merchant, sent by the duke to Muscovy
and Persia in the hope of making arrangements by which his
newly-founded dty of Friedrichstadi should become the terminus
of an overland silk-trade. This embassy surtcd from Gottorp
on the 22nd of October 1633, and travelled by Hamburg, Lubeck,
Riga, Dorpat (five months' stay), Revel, Narva, Ladoga and
Novgorod to Moscow (August 14, 1634). Here they con-
cluded an advantageous treaty with Michael Romanov,
and returned forthwith bo Gottorp (December 14, 1634-
April 7, 1635) to procure the ratification of this arrange-
ment from the duke, before proceeding to Persia. This accom-
plished, they started afresh from Hamburg on the ajnd of
October X635, arrived at Moscow 00 the 29th of March 1636;
and left Moscow on the 3olh of June for Nizhniy Novgorod,
whither they had already sent agents (in X634-X635) to prepare
a vcssd for their descent of the Volga. Their voyage down
the great river and over the Caspian was slow and hindered
by acddents, espedally by grounding, as near Derbent on the
X4th of November 1636; buf at last, by way of Shemakha
(three months' dday here), Ardebil, Sidtanieh and Kasvio,
they reached the Persian court at Isfahan (August 3, 1637),
and were received by the shah (August x6). Negotiations
here were not as succoaful as at Moscow, and the embassy Idt
Isfahan on the 21st of December X637, and returned home by
Resht, Lenkoran, Astrakhan, Kazan* Moscow, &c. At Revel
Oelscfaliger parted from his colleagues (April 15, 1639) *ai
embarked direct for LObccfc. On his way he had made a chart
of the Volga, and partly for this reason the tsar Micbad wished
to persuade, or compd, him to enter his service. Once back
at Gottorp, Oelachliger became librarian to the duke, who also
made him keeper of his Cabinet of Curiosities, and induced the
tsar to excuse his (promised) return to Moscow. Under his care
the Gottorp library and cabinet were greatly enriched in MSS.,
books, and oriental and other works of art: in x6sx he pur-
chased, for this purpose, the collection of the Dutch scholar and
physician, Bernard ten Broecke C Paludanus" ). He died
at Gottorp on the 32nd of February 1671.
It is by his admirable narrative of the Russian and the Persian
legation (BesckreUmng der muscawitischen vnd persiscken Reise,
Sodeswig, i(j47» aad afterwards in several enlarged editions, i6s6,
&c.) that. Oclachl^cr is best known, though he also published a
history of Holstein {Kuriter Begriff einer kolsUinisckcn Chronit,
Schleswig, 1663), a famous catalogue of the HoUtria-Gottorp
cabinet T1666), and a translation of the GuUstan {Fertianiukes
Rfsenikas. Schleswig. 1654), to which was appended a transbtion
of the fables of Lokman. A French version of the BescMreibung
was published by Abraham de Wicciuefort {Voyages en Moscerie,
Torlarie tff Perse, par Adam OUarius. Paris, 1656). an English
ade by John Dnries of Kidwelly iTravels of the Am-
bassadars sent by Frederic, Duke oj Holstein, to the Great Duke of
Ifnscovy and the King of Persia, London. 1662; 2nd cd., 1669),
and a l5utch transbtion b^ Dieterius van Wagcninfrn iBesekriffriHif*
•an de niemse Farciaenstke ofU Orientaelseke Reyse, Utrecht. 1631) ;
an Italian translation of the Rus«an sections also appeared ( V:a(t>
di Moseoeia, Viterbo and Rome, 1658). Paul Flcminb^ the poet
and I. A. de Mandclslo. whose travels to thr> Fast lndi<fs arc usually
Eubhshed with those of Oelschligcr. accompanied the embassy,
fnder OelschMger's direction the oelebiated flc^ of Gottorp
(it ft. in diameter) and armillafy sphere were eucuted in 1654-
1664; the globe was given to Peter the Great of Russia in 1713 bv
Duke Fn^crick's grandson. Christian Augti^tus. Oelxhiagers
unpublished works Include a Lexiton Persieum and several other
Persian studies. (C. K. B.)
OELSNITZ, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxcny,
on the Wcisse Elstcr, »6 m. by rail S.W. of Zwickau. Pop.
(1905) 13.966. It has two EvaogcliLal churches, one of them
being the old Gothic Jakobikirche, and several schools. Tbcrre
are various manufactories. Oelsnitx belonged in the X4th and
15th centuries to the roaxgravcs of Meissen, and later to the
electors of Saxony. Near It is the village of VoijitsbcTg, with
H
OELWEIN— OETINGER
iht remaini of a castle, oace a residence oC the governor CVogt)
oC the Vogtland.
See Jahn. Ckronik der SUtdt OUnUz (1875).
OELWEIN. a city of Fayette county, Iowa, U^.A.^ in the
N.E. pan of the state, about 132 m. N.E. of Des Moines. Pop.
(1890) 830; (1900) 5x4a, of whom 789 were foreign-bom;
(1910 U.S. census) 6028. It is served by the Chicago, Rock
Island & Pacific and the 'Chicago Great Western railways, the
latter having large repair shops here, where four lines of its
road converge. Odwein was named in honour of its founder,
August Odwein, who* settled here m 1873; it was .incorporated
in 1888, and chartered as a city in 1897.
OBNOMAOS, in Greek legend, son of Arcs and Harpinna,
king of Pisa in EUs and father of Hippodameia. It was pre-
dicted that he shodd be slain by his daughter's husband. His
father, the god Ares-Hippius, gave him winged horses swift
as the wind, and Oenomaito promised his .daughter to the nuui
who could outstrip him in the chariot race, hoping thus to
prevent her marriage altogether. Pelops, by the treachery of
Myrtilus, the charioteer of OenomaOs, won the race and married
Hippodameia. The defeat of Oenomaito by Pek>ps, a stranger
from Asia Minor, points to the conquest of native Ares-
worshippeis by immigrants who introduced the new religion of
Zeus.
See Died. Sic iv. 73: Pausanias vL ai, and elsewhere: Sophocles,
Electro, 504; Hyginus. Fab. 84. 253. Fig. 33 in article Gieek Art
represents the preparations for the chariot race.
OBNONB, in Greek legend, daughter of the river-god Kebren
and wife of Paris. Possessing the gift of divination, she warned
her husband of the evils that would result from his journey
to Greece. The sequel was the rape of Helen and the Trojan
War. Just before the capture of the dty, Paris, wounded by
Philoctetes with one of the arrows of Heracles, sought the aid of
the deserted Oenone, who had told him that she alone could
heal him if wounded. Indignant at his faithlessness, she refused
to help him, and Paris returned to Troy ^d died of his wound.
Oenone soon repented and hastened after him, but finding that
she was too late to save him slew herself from grief at the sight
of his dead body. Ovid (Herctdes, 5) gives a pathetic description
of Oenone's grief when she found herself deserted.
OERLAMS, the name (said to be a corruption of the; Dutch
Oberlanders) for a Hottentot tribal group living in Great Nam-
aqualand. They came originally from Little Namaqualand
in Cape Colony. They are of very mixed Hottentot-Bantu
blood.
OEBBL (in Esthonian Kure-saare or Saare'ma), a Russian
island in the Baltic, forming with Worms, Mohn and RunO,
a district of the government of Livonia, and lying across the
mouth of the Gulf of Riga, 106 m. N.N.W. of the dty of Riga.
It has a length of 45 m., and an area of xoxo sq. m. The coasts
are bold and steep, and, espcdally towards the north and west,
form precipitous limestone diffs. Like those of Shetland, the
Ocsd ponies arc small, but prized for their q>irit and endurance.
The popiilation, numbering 50,566 in 1870 and 60,000 in 1900,
is mainly Protestant in creed, and, with the exception of the
German nobility, dergy and some of the townsfolk, Esthonian
by race. The chief town, Arensburg, on the south coast, is a
place of 4600 inhabitants, with summer sea-bathing, mud baths
and a trade in grain, potatoes, whisky and fish. In 1227 Ocsel
was conquered by the Knights of the Sword, and was governed
by its own bishops till 1561, when it passed into the hands of the
Danes. By them it was surrendered to the Swedes by the peace
of BriSmsebro (1645), u<^ along ^th Livonia, it was united
to Russia in 1721.
OESOPHAGUS (Gr. Oou^l will carry, and 4>ttyup, to eat),
in anatomy, the gullet; see Auuentaxy Caval for comparative
anatomy. The human oesophagus is peculiarly liable to certain
accidents and diseases, due both to its function as a tube to
carry food to the stomach and to its anatomical situation (see
generally Digestive Organs). One of the commonest accidents
i the lodgment of foreign bodies in some part of the tube. The
iituatioDS in which they are arrested vary with the nature of the
body» whether it be a coin, fishbone, tootbplaU or a portion of
food. An impacted substance may be removed by the oesop^geal
forceps, or by a coin-catcher; if it should be impossible to draw
it up it may be pushed down into the stomach. When it is is
the stomach a purgative should never be given, but soft food
such as porridge. Should gastric symptoms develop it may
have to be removed by the operation of gastrotomy. Chaxring
and ulceration of the oesophagus may occur from the swallowing
of corrosive liquids, strong adds or alkalis, or even of boiling
water. Stricture of the oesophagus is a dosing of the tube so
that neither solids nor liquids are able to pass down into the
stomach. There are three varieties of striaura; spasmodic,
fibrous and malignant. Spasmodic stricture usually occurs in
young hysterical women; diffioilty in swallowing is complained
of, and a bougie may not be able to be passed, but tmder an
anaesthetic will slip down quite easily. Fibrous stricture is
usually situated near the commencement of the oesophagus,
generally just behind the cricoid cartilage, and usually results
from swallowing corrosive fluids, but may also result from the
healing of a syphilitic idcer. Occasioiially it is congenitaL
The ordinary treatment is repeated dibtation by bougies.
Occasionally division of a fibrous stricture has been practised,
or a Symond's tube inserted. Mikulicz recommends dilatation
of the stricture by the fingers from inside after an incision into
the stomach or a permanent gastric fistula may have to be made.
Malignanl strictures are usually epithdiomatous in structure,
and fiiay be situated in any part of the oesophagus. Tliey
nearly always occur in males between the ages of 40 and 70 years.
An X-ray phbtograph taken after the patient has swaOowed
a preparation of bismuth will show the situation of the growth,
and Killian and Brdnig have introduced an instrument called
the oesophagoscope, which makes direct examination possible.
The remedy of constant dilatation by bougies must ix>t be
attempted here, the walls of the oesophagus bdng so aoftei»ed
by disease and ulceration that severe haemorrhage or perforation
of the walls of the tube might take place. The patient should
be fed with purdy liquid and concentrated nourishment in order
to give the oesophagus as much rest as possible, or if the stricture
be too tight rectal feeding may be necessary. Symond's method
of tubagc is well borne by some patients, the tube having attached
to it a long string which is secured to the cheek or ear. The
most satisfactory treatment, however, is the operation of gastro-
tomy, a permanent artificial opening being made mto the
stomach tluough which the patient can be fed.
OETA (mod. Kotavotkra), a mountain to the south of Thessaly,
in Greece, forming a boundary between the valleys of the
Spercheius and the Boeotian Cephissus. It is an offshoot of the
Pindus range, 7080 fL high. In its eastern portion, called
Callidromus, it comes dose to the sea, leaving only a narrow
passage known as the famous pass of Thermopylae (^.t .). There
was also a high pass to the west of Callidromus leading over into
the upper Cephissus valley. In mythology OeUis chiefly
celebrated as the scene of the funeral pyre on which Hexades
burnt himself before his admission to (Mympus.
OETINOER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1702-1782), German
divine and theosophist, was bom at Gi^ingen on the 6th of
May X702. He studied theology at Tabmgcn (1722-1728),
and was much impressed by the works of Jakob Bdhme. On
the completion of his university course, Octinger spent some
years in travd» In 1 730 he visited Count Zinzendoif at Hermhut,
remaining there some months as teacher of Hebrew and Greek.
During his travels, in his eager search for knowledge, he made
the acquaintance of mystics and separatists* Christians aiMi
learned Jews, theologians and physicians alike. At Halle he
studied medicine. After some dday he was ordained to the
ministry, and hdd several pastorates. While pastor (from 1 746)
at Waldorf near Berlin, he studied alchemy and made many
experiments, his idea bdng to use his knowledge for QrmboUc
purposes. These practices exposed him to the attacks of pctsons
who misunderstood him. "My reUgioD," he once said, *'is
the paralldism of Nature and Grace." Oetinger translated
Swedenborg's philosophy of heaven and earth, and added notes
OEYNHAUSEN— OFFENBACH, J.
of bk oim. EvctitvaUy (itM) he bec«i&e pnelate at MuirhARU,
iriieie he died on Uw zoth of February 1 78»«
Oetiogir's autobiocFftpby was pubUahed bv J. Hanbenter in 1849.
He pubushed about wYeoty m-orks, in wnkh he enmunded ms
thco«ophic views. A collected edition, S&mUkht SckrHicn (ist
■ection, Hamiletiscke Schriften, 5 vols., 1858-1866; 2nd section,
Tkeosopkisckt W^rks, 6 vols.. 1858-1863). was prepared by K. F. C.
Ehmana. who aho wroca Oetinser'a Ltben vnd Brief e (1899). See
abo C. A. Auberlen, Die Tkttawphit Friedr. Clut. OtUnw's (1847;
2nd ed.. 1859), and Herzog, Friearich Ckrislopk 0tingtr\\ijQ2),
ObynHAUSEN, a town and watering-place of Germany, in
the Pnttaisa province of Wfetphaiia, on the Wene, situated
jnst above its influence with the Weser, 9 m. W. from Mioden
by the maia line of raflway from Hanover to Cologne, with a
station on the Lbhnc-Kameln line. Pop. (1905) 3894- The
place, which was formerly called Rchme, owes its developmettt
to the discovery in 1830 of its five famous sail springi, which
are heavily changed with carbonic acid gas. The waters are used
both lor bathing and drinking, and are particulariy efficacious
for nervous disordeis, rheumatism, gout and feminine compjlaints.
QWWK the most famous hero of the eariy AngU. He is said
by the A«glo-Saxon poem WidtUk to have ruled over Angel,
and the poem refen briefly to his victorious single combat,
a story which is related at loigth by the Danish historians Saxo
and Svend Aagesen. Offa (Uffo) is said to have been dumb or
sHent during his early 3Peazs, and to have only recovered his
speech when his aged father Wermund was threatened by the
Saxons, who insolently demanded the cession of his kingdom.
Offa undertook to fight against both the Saxon king 's son and
a chosen champion at once. The combat took place at Rendsburg
on an island in the Eider, and Offa succeeded in killing both his
opponents. According to WHsUh Offa's opponents bebnged
to a tribe or dynasty called Myrginsas, but both accounts state
that he won a great kingdom as the result of his victory. A
somewhat corrupt verrion of the same stoiy is preserved in the
YUae iumntm Ojfarum, where, however, the scene is transferred
to England. It is very probable that the Offa whose marriage
with a lady of murderous disposition is mentioned in Beowulf
is the same person; and this story also appeals in the ViUt€
dmantm OJarmm, though it is erroneously told of a bter Offa,
the famous king of Merda. Offa of Mercia, however, was a
descendant in the lath gcneiation of Offa, king of Angel. It is
probable from this and other considerations that the early Offa
lived in the latter part of the 4th century.
Sc« H. M. Chadwick. Oripn of the Endish Nation (Cambridse,
1907), where lefereiices to the original authorities will be found.
OFFA (d. 796), king of Mercia, obtained that kingdom in a.d.
757, after driving out Beomred, who had succeeded a few
months earlier on the murder of iEthelbald. He traced his
descent from Pybba, the father of Penda, through Eowa, brother
of that king, his own father's name being Thingfcrth. In 779
he was at war with Cynewulf of Wessea from whom he wrested
Bensington. It is net unlikely that the Thames became the
boundary of the two kingdoms about this time. In 787 the
power of Offa was displayed in a synod held at a pkice called
Ccakhyth. He deprived Jaenberht, archbishop of Canterbury,
of severs] of his suffragan sees, and assigned them to Lichfield,
which, with the leave of the pope, he constituted as a separate
archbishopric under Hygeberht. He also took advantage
oi this meeting to have his son Ecgferth consecrated as bis
colleague, and that prince subsequently signed charters as
JUx kterciorum. In 789 Offa secured the alliance of Berhtric
of Wessex by giving him his daughter Eadburg in marriage.
In 794 he appeals to have caused the death of ^helberbt of
East AngMa, though some accounts ascribe the murder to
Cynethryth, the wife of Offa. In 796 Offa died after a reign of
thirty-nine years and was succeeded by his son Ecgferth. It
is customary to ascribe to Offa a policy of limited scope, namely
the establishment of Mercia in a position equal to that of Wessex
and of Northumbria. This is supposed to be illustrated by his
measures with regard to the see of Lichfield. It cannot be
doubted, however, that al this time Mercia was a much more
(ormtdable power t han Wessex. Offa, like most of hispredeccssors.
»5
probably held a kind of supremacy over all kingdoms south of
the Humber. He seems, however, not to have been contented
with this position, and to have entertained the design of putting
an end to the dependent kingdoms. At all events we hear of
no kings of the Hwicce after about 780, and the kings of Sussex
seem to have given up the royal title about the same time.
Further, there is no evidence for any kings in Kent from 784
untU after Offa's death. To Offa is ascribed by Asser, in his
life of Alfred, the great fortification against the Welsh which
is still known aa " Offa's dike." It stretched from sea to sea
and consisted of a wall and a rampart. An account of his Welsh
campaigns is given in the KfttaeJiMrMMOjr<araiii, but it is difficult
to determine how far the stories there given have an historical
See Angfo-Saxon Chronicle^ cd. J. Earle and C. Plummer (Oxford,
1899). *.«. 755. 777. 785. 787. 792. 794. 796, 836; W. de G. Birch.
Cartularittm Saxontaim (London. 1885-1893), vol. i.; Asser, Life of
Aifrod, cd. W. H. Stevenson (Oxford. 1904): Vitae duarum Offamm
(in works of Matthew Paris, cd. W. Wats^ London, 1640).
OFFAL, refuse or waste stuff, the " off fall," that which falls
off (cf. Dutch a/M/, Gcr. AkfaU). The term is applied especially
to the waste parts of an animal that has been slaughtered for
food, to putrid flesh or carrion, and to waste fish, especially
to the little ones that get caught in the nets with the Urger
and better fish, and are thrown away or used as manure. As
applied to grain "offal " is used of grsios too small or light for
use for flour, and also in flour milling of the husk or bran of
wheat with a certain amount of flour attaching, soU for feeding
beasts (see Flour).
OFFENBACH* JACQUBg (1819-X880), French composer of
opira houjfe, was bom at Cologne, of German Jewish parents,
on the 3isl of June 18 19. His talent for music was developed
at a very early age; and In 1833 he was sent to Paris to study
the violoncello at the conservatoire, where, under the care of
Professor Vaslin, be became a fairly good performer. In 1834
he became a member of the orchestra of the Op^ra Comique;
and he turned his opportunities to good account, so that
eventually he was made conductor at the Th£&tre Francais.
There, in 1848, he made his first success as a composer in the
Ckans^n dt Portunio in Alfred de Musset's play U Cka*ddier.
From this time forward his life became a ceaseless struggle
for the attainment of popularity. His power of production was
apparently inexhaustible. His first complete work, Pcpilo^
was produced at the Op^ Comique in 1853. This was followed
by a crowd of dramatic pieces of a light character, which daily
gained in favour with Parisian audiences, and eventually effected
a complete revolution in the popular taste of the period. En-
couraged by these early successes, Offenbach boldly undertook
the delicate task of entirely remodeUing both the form and the
style of the light musical pieces which had so long been welcomed
with acclamation by the frequenters of the smaller theatres in
Paris. With this purpose in view he obtained a lease of the
Thttlre Cbmte in the Passage Choiseul, reopened it in 1855 under
the title of the Bouffes Parisiens, and night after night attracted
crowded audiences by a succession of tMrilliant, humorous trifles.
Ludovic Halevy, the librettist, was associated with him from
the fiist, but still more after i860, when HaKvy obtained Henri
Meilhac's collaboration (see HaiIvy). Beginning with Us Deux
A^u^es and U Viohneux, the series of Offenbach's operettas
was rapidly continued, until in 1867 its triumph culminated
in la Crandt DiKktsse d€ CtrtitUim, perhaps the most popular
opira bouffe that ever was written, not excepting even his Orpktt
aux enfers, produced in 1858. From this lime forward the success
of Offenbach's pieces became an absolute certainty, and the
new form of opira boufe, which he had gradually endowed
with as much consistency as it was capable of assuming, was
accepted as the only one worth cultivating. It found imitators
in Lecocq and other aspirants of a younger generation, and
Offenbach's works found their way to every town in Europe
in which a theatre existed. Tuneful, gay and exhilaratiag»
their want of refinement formed no obstacle to their popularity,
and perhaps even contributed to it. In 1866 his own conncsion
with the Bouffes Parisiens ceased, and he wrote for various
i6
OFFENBACH— OFFICERS
theatres. In twenty-five yean Offenbach produced no less
than sixty-nine complete dramatic works, some of which were
in three or even in four acts. Among the latest of these were
Le Docteur Ox, founded on a story by Jules Verne, and La Boite
au hit, both produced in 1877, and Madame Pavart (1879).
Offenbach died at Paris on the 5th of October 1880.
OFFENBACH, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of
Hesse, on the left bank of the Main, 5 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-
Main, with which it b connected by the railway to Bebra and
by a lo^ electric line. Pop. (190s) 58,806, of whom about
30,000 were Roman Catholics and 1400 Jews. The most interest-
ing building in the town is the Renaissance ch&teau of the counts
of Isenburg. Offenbach is the principal industrial town of the
duchy, ana its manufactures are of the most varied description.
Its characteristic industry, however, is the manufacture of
portfolios, pocket-books, albums and other fancy goods in
leather. The earliest mention of Offenbach is in a document
of 970. In i486 it came into the possession of the counts of
Isenburg, who made it their residence in 1685, and in 1816,
when their lands were mediatized, it was assigned to Hesse.
It owes its prosperity in the first place to the industry of the
French Protestant refugees who settled here at the end of the
X7th, and the beginning of the tSth century, and in the
second place to the accession of Hesse to the German ZoUverein
in 1838.
See J6st, Offenbach am Main in Verian^heU und Ceunwarl
(Offenbach, 1901); Hager, Dte LBderwaremndustne in Offenbach
(Karlsruhe, 1905).
OPPBNBURQ, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of
Baden, 37 m. by rail S.W. of Baden, on the river Kinzig. Pop.
(1905) 1 5,434. It contains a statue of Sir Francis Drake, a mark
of honour due to the fact that Drake is sometimes regarded as
having introduced the potato into Europe. The chief industries
of the town are the making of cotton^ linen, hats, malt, machinery,
tobacco and cigars and glass. Offenburg is first mentioned about
xxoo. In 13 33 it became a town^ in 1348 it passed to the bishop
of Strassburg; and in 1389 it became an imperial free dty.
Soon, however, this position was lost, but it was regained about
the middle of the t6th century, and Offenburg remained a free
city until 1802, when it became part of Baden. In 1633 il was
taken by the Swedes, and in 1689 it was destroyed by the French.
See Walter. Kurter Abriss der Ceschickte der Reichsstadt Offenburg
(Offenburg. 1896).
OFFERTORY (from the ecclesiastical Lat. offertorium, Fr.
offertoire, a place to which offerings were brought), the alms of
a congregation collected in church, or at any religious service.
Offertory has also a special sense in the services of both the
English and Roman churches. It forms in both that part of
the Communion service appointed to be said or sung, during
the collection of alms, before the elements are consecrated. In
music, an offertory is the vocal or instrumental setting of the
offertory sentences, or a short instrumental piece played by the
organist while the collection is being made.
OFFICE (from Lat. offkium, " duty," " service," a shortened
form of iffijacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of
opes, " wealth," ** aid," or opus, ** work "), a duty or service,
particularly the special duty cast upon a person by his position;
also a ceremonial duty, as in the rites paid to the dead, the ** last
offices." The term is thus especially used of a religious service,
the " daily office " of the English Church or the " divine office "
of the Roman Church (sec Breviary). It is also used in this
sense of a service for a particular occasion, as the Office for the
Visitation of the Sick, &c. From the sense of duty or function,
the word is transferred to the position or place which lays
on the holder or occupier the performance of such duties.
This leads naturally to the use of the word for the buildings
or the separate rooms in which the duties are performed,
and for the staff carrying on the work or business in such
offices. In the Roman curia the department of the Inquisi-
tion is known as the Holy Office, in full, the Congregation
of the Holy Office of the Inquisition (see iNquismoN and
COUA RaMAMa).
OJicer^PftfjSl.— The phrase'* o£ke of profit uoderthecrown "
is used with a particular application in British parliamenUiy
practice. The holders of such offices 01 profit have been subject in
regard to the occupation of seats in the House of Commons to
certain disabilities which were in their origin due to the fear of
the undue influence exercised by the crown during the constitu-
tional struggles of the 17th century. Attempts to deal with the
danger of the presence of ** place-men " in the House of Commons
were made by the Pkce Bills introduced in 1673-1673, 1694 and
1743. The Act of Settlement 1700 (( 3) laid it down that no
perMn who has an office or pUce of profit under the king or
receives a pension from the crown shall be capable of serving mm
a member of the House of Commons. This drastic clause, which
would have had the disastrous effect of entirely separating the
executive from the legislature, was repealed and the basis of
the present law was laid down in 1706 by 6 Anne (c. 41). This
first disqualifies (§ 34) from membership all holdeis of " new
offices,"* i.e, those created after October 1705; secondly (f 35)
it renders void the dection of a member who shall accept any
office of profit other than " new offices " but allows the nacmber
to stand for re-election. The disqualification attaching to many
" new offices " has been removed by various statutes, and by
§ 53 of the Reform Act 1867 the necessity of rejection is avoided
when a member, having been elected subsequent to the accept-
anoe of any office named in a schedule of that act, is tzansfcrred
to any other office in that schedule. The rules as to what offices
disqualify from membership or render re-dection neccssaxy are
exceedingly complicated, depending as they do on a laigc
number of statutes (see Erskine May, ParliamaOary Practice,
nth ed., pp. 633-645, and Rogers, On Eleeticns, vol. xi., 1906).
The old established rule that a member, once duly elected,
cannot resign his seat is evaded by the acceptance of cxrtain
minor offices (sec CmLTERN Hukdreos).
OFFICERS. Historically the employment of tbe word
" officer " to denote a person holding a military or na^nsl com*
mand as representative of the state, and not as deriving his
authority from his own powers or privileges, marks an entire
change in the character of the armed forces of civilized nations.
Originally signifying an official, one who performs an assigned
duty (Lat offictum), an agent, and in the 15th centuiy actuaUy
meaning the subordinate of such an official(even to-day a constable
is so called), the word seems to have acquired a military signific-
ance late in the x6tb century.* It was at this time that ansies»
though not yet '* standing," came to be constituted almost
exclusively of professional soldiers in the king's pay. Mercen-
aries, and great numbers of mercenaries, had always existed, and
their captains were not feudal magnates. But the bond between
mercenaries and their captains was entirely personal, and the
bond between the captain and the sovereign was of the nature
of a com fact. The non-mercenary portion of tlie older armies was
feudal in character. It was the lord and not a king's officer who
commanded it, and be commanded in virtue of his rights, not
of a warrant or commission.
European history in the Ute 15th centuiy is the story of the
victory of the crown ovef the feudatories. The instrunxnt of
the crown was its army, raised and commanded by iu deputies.
But these deputies were still largely soldiers of fortune and, in the
higher ranks, feudal personages, who created the armies thexn«
selves by thdr personal influence with the would-be aoldier or
the unemployed professional fighting man. Thus the £rst system
to replace the obsolete combination of feudalism and *' free
companies " was what may be called the proprietary system.
Under this the colonel was the proprietor of his regiment, the
captain the proprietor of hb company. The king accefited them
as his officers, and armed them with authority to raise aoen,
but they themsdves raised the men as a rule f rMB esperioaccd
soldiers who were in search of emidoyment, although, like
*This section also disqualifies colonial governan ax>d dqwty
govemora and holders of certain other offices.
'At sea the relatively clear partition of actual duties amongst
the authorities of a ship brougnt about the adopri<»i of the term
" officer " tomewbat earlier.
OFFICERS
«7
FaliUff, Mme ctptaint and colondt " miMsed tbe Ring's press
damnably." AU alike were most rigorously watched lest by
showing Imaginary men on their pay-sheets they should make
undue profits. A " muster " was the production o{ a number of
living men on parade corresponding to the number shown on the
pay-rolL An inspection was an inspection not so much of the
efficiency as of the numbers and the aocounta of units. A fuU
account of these practices, which were neither more nor less
prevalent In England than elsewhere, will be found in J. W.
Fortescue's History of Ike BrUish Army, voL L So faithfully
%'ai the custom observed of requiring the showing of a man for
a man's pay» that the grant oif a special allowance to officers
administering companies was often inade in the form of allowing
them to show imaginary John Does and Richard Roes on the
pay«ftheets.
The next step was taken when armies, instead of being raised
for each campaign and from the qualified men who at each
recmtUng time offered themselves, became " standing ** armies
fed by untrained rccmits. During the late 17th and the x8th
centuries the crown supplied the recruits, and also the money
for maintaining the forces* but the colonels and captains re-
tained in a more or less restricted degree their proprietorship.
Thus, the profits of military office without its earlier burdens
were in time of peace considerable, and an officer's commission
had therefore a " surrender value." The practice of buying and
selling commissions was a natural consequence, and this continued
long after the system of proprietary regiments and companies
had disappeared. In England " purchase " endured until 187^
nearly a hundred years after it had ceased on the continent of
Europe and more than fifty after the clothing, feeding and pay-
ment of the soldiers had been taken out of the colonels' hands.
ITic purchase system, it should be mentioned, did not affect
artillery and engineer officers, either hi England or in the rest
of Europe. These officers, who were rather scmi-dvil than
miliury officials until abotit 1715, executed an office rather than
a command — superintended gun-making, built fortresses and
so on. As late as 1780 the right of a general officer promoted
from the Royal Artillery to command troops of other arms was
challeogrd. In iu original form, therefore, the proprietary system
was a most serious bar to efficiency. So long as war was chronic,
and self-trained recruits were forthcoming, it had been a gpod.
working method of devolving responsibiUty. But when drill
am) 'the V^twtiiwp of arms becune more complicated, and, above
all, when the supply of trained men died away, the state took
recruiting out of the colonels' and captains' hands, and, m» the
individual officer had now nothing to oifer the crown but his own
potential military capacity (part of which resided in his social
ttatus, but by no means all), the crown was able to make him,
in the full sense of the word, an officer of itself. This was most
fully seen in the reorganisation of the French army by Louis
XIV. and Louvois. The colonelcies and captaincies of horse
and foot remained proprietary offices in the bands ol the nobles
bat these offices were sinecures or almost sinecures. The colonels,
in peace at any rate, were not expected to do regimental duty.
They were at liberty to make such profits as th^ could make
under a stringent inspection system. But they wciv expected
to be the influential figure-heads of their regiments and to pay
large sums for the prjv^cge of being propricton. This classifica-
tion of officers into two bodies, the poorer which did the whole
of the work, and the richer upon which the holding of a com-
mission conferred an honour that birth or wealth did not confer,
marks two very notable advances in the history of army organiza-
tion, the professionalisation of the officer and the oration of the
prestige attaching to the holder of a commission beeamse be holds
it and not for any extraneous reason.
The distinction between working and quasi-honorary officers
was much older, of course, than Louvois's reorganisation.
Moreover it extended to the highest ranks. About x6oo the
"general" of a European army* was always a king, prince
or nobleman. The lieutenant-general, by custom the com-
of the cavalry, was also, as a rule, a noble, in
> Except ia the Italiaa npabfics;
XX 1«
virtue ef his command of the aristocratic arm. But the
commander of the foot, the "sergeant-major-general" or
** major-general," was invariably a professional soldier. It was
his duty to draw up the army (not merely the foot) for battle,
and in other respKts to act as chief of staff to the general.
In the infantry regiment, the " sergeant-major " or " major "
was second-in-command and adjutant combined. Often, if not
always, he was promoted from amongst the lieutenants and
not the (propfictaiy) captains. The lieutenants were the back-
bone of the army.
Seventy years later, on the organisation of the first great
standing army by Louvois, the " proprictois," as mentioned
above, were reduced to a minimum both in numbers and in
military importance. The word "major" in its various
meanings had come, in the French service, to imply staff
functions. Thus the sergeant-major of infantry became the
" adjudant>major." The sergeant-majorogeneral, as rommsndur
of the foot, had disappeared and given place to numerous
lieutenant-generals and " brigadiers," but as chief of the staff
he survived for two hundred years. As late as 1870 the
chief of staff of a French army bore the title of " the major-
general."
Moreover a new title had come into prominence, that of
" marshal " or " field marshal." This marks one of the most
Important points in the evolution of the military officer, his
classification by rank and not by the actual command be holds.
In the 1 6th century an officer was a lieutenant 0/, not'tii,
B particular regiment, and the higher officers were general,
Ueutcnaot-geneial and major-general of a, particular army. When
their army was disbanded they had no command and possessed
therefore no rank— except of course when, as was usually the
case, they were colonels of permanent regiments or governors
of fortresses. Thus in the British army it was not until
late in the 18th century that general officers received any
pay as such. The • introduction of a distinctively military
rank* of " marshal " or " field marshal," which took place in
France and the empire in the first years of the 17th century,
meant the establishment of a list of general officers, and the
list spread downwards through the various regimental ranks, in
proportion as the close proprietary system broke up, until it
became the general krmy list of an army of to-day. At first
field marshals were merely officers of high rank and ocperience^
eligible for appointment to the offices of general, lieutenant-
general, &c., in a partictilar army. On an amy being formed,
the list of field marshals was drawn upon, and the necessary
number appointed. Thus an army of Gustavus Adolphus's
time often included 6 or 8 field marshals as subordinate general
officers But soon armies grew larger, more mobile and mora
flexible and more general officers were needed. Thus fresh grades
of general arose. Tbe next rank below that of manhal, in France,
was that of lieutenant-general, which had formerly implied the
second-in-command of an army, and a little further back in
history the king's lieutenant-general or miliury viceroy.* Bdow
the lleutenant-genersl was the moHckal de camp, the heir of the
sergeant-major-general. In the imperial service the ranks were
field manhal and lieutenant field marshal (both of which survive
to the present day) and major-general. A further grade of general
officer was created by I>ouls XIV., that of brigadier, and this
completes the process of evolution, for the regimental system
had already provided the lower titles.
The ranks of a modern army, witk sUght variatiotts in- title,
are therefore as follows:
(a) Fidd marshai: ia Germany, CtneralftldmariduB; in Spda
" captain-Ecncral '*; in France (though the rank is in abevance)
" marKhal.^' The manhals of France, however, were neither ao
few in number nor so mtricted to the highest comnandt as an
marshals elsewhere. In Germany a new rank, ** colonel-sciicfal **
* The title was. of ooone, far older.
*ln Englaod. until after Mmriborough's death, tank followed
command and not vice vcns. The fint field marahaU were the
dnke of Afgyll and the eari of Cadogan. Marlborough's tide, or
father office, was that of captain-general.
x8
OFHCERS
(GMwraMcTfO* h«s ooroe totoei Mte ac c or imther bas been iwived ■
—of late years. Most of the holders of tnis rank have the honorary
•tyle of general-field-marahal.*
ib) Genrral: in Grrmany and Ruwia, "feneral of infantry,**
*' fencral of cavaby." '* general of artittery.** In Aualria ceneiala of
artillery and infantry were known by the hiatoric title oT FeUtemg'
mgisier (ordnance-master) up to 1909, but the grade of genera! of
infantry was created in tnat year, the old title being now restricted
to generals of artillery. In France the highest grade of general
ofRcer is the ** general of diviikMfc.'* In the United Sutes army the
grade of full " leneral '* haa only been held by Washington, Grant,
Sherman and Sneridan.
U) LuuUncnt'^eHeral (except in France) : in Austria the M title
of lieutenant iiela marshal is retained. In the Ifnited States army
the title ** lietttcnant'genefal,'* except within recent years, has been
almost as rare as "generaL** Winfieid Scott was a brevet lieutenant-
general The subsEintive rank was revived for Grant when be was
placed in command of the Union Army in 1864. It was abolished
as an American rank tn 1907.
id) Major-temral (in Francse, general of brigade); thia is the
hifhMt grade normally found in Uie United States Army, gen
and lieutenant-generals being promoted for qMcial service only.*
(r) BriMdier-generai, in tne United Sutes and (as a temporary
rank only) in the British services.
The above are the fiv^ grades of higher officers. To all intents
and purposes, no nation has more than four of these ^ve ranks,
while France and the United Sutes, the great republics, have only
two. The correspondence between rank and functions cannot
be exactly laid down, but in general an officer of the rank of
lieutenant-general commands an army corps and a major-general
a division. Brigades are commanded by major-generals,
brigadier-generals or colonels. Armies are as a rule commanded
by field marshals or full generals. In France generals of division
command divisions, corps, armies and groups of armies.
The above are classed as general officers. The " field officers "
(French oJUien supirkttrs, German Stabsojfizkre) areasfoUows:
(a) Cdomd. — ^Thb rank exists in its primitive significance in every
army. It denotes a regimental commander, or an officer of corre-
sponding status on the staff. In Great Britain, with the " linked
battalion " system, regiments of infantry do not work as units,
and the executive command of battalions, regiments of cavalry
and brigades of field artillery is in the hands of lieutenant-colonels.
Colonels of British regiments who are quasi-honorary (though no
longer proprieury) chiefs arc royal personages or general othcers.
Colonels in active employment as such are cither on the staff,
commanders of brigades or corresponding units, or otherwise cxira-
regimenully employed.
(6) LieuUnant cotond: In Great Briuin "the commanding
officer'* of a unit. Elsewhere, where the regiment and not the
battalion is the executive unit, the licutcnant-colood sometimes
acts as second in cpmmand, sometimes commands one of the bat-
Ultons. In Russia all the batuUon leaders are lieutenant-colonels.
(c) Afofor.— This rank does not exist in Russia, and in France is
replaced by chef de baiaiUcn or chef ^ncadron, colloquially com-
wumdani. In the British infantry he preserves some of the character-
istics of the ancient " sergeant-major," as a second in command
with certain administrative duties. The junior majors command
companies. In the cavalry the majors, other than the second-in-
command, command squadrons; in the artillery they command
batteries. In armies which have the regiment as the executive unit,
majors command battalions (** wings" of cavalry, "groups" of
•rtUlcry).
Lastly the " company officers " (called in France and Germany
mbaltem officers) are as follows: —
(o) Capuin (Germany and Austria, HanpimMn, cavalry RiU-
Mriifrr): in the infantry of all coontrics, the company commander.
In Russia there b a lower grade of captain called " suff-captain,
and in Belgium there is the rank of " second-capuio. In all
countries except Great Britain captains command squadrons and
battcriesb Under the captain, with such commands and powcn as
are delegated to them, are the subalterns, usually graded a>^
» The 16th-century " colonel-general " was the commander of a
whole section of the armed forces. In. France there were several
colonels^eneral. each of whom controlled several regiment^ or
indeed the whole of an " arm." Their functions were rather those
of a war office than those of a troop-leader. If they held high
commands in a field army, it was by lywcial appointment ad kce.
Cobnels-gencral were also |»roprictors in France of one company
in each regiment, whose services they accepted.
* In Russia the rank of marshal has been long In abeyance.
• In the Confederate service the grades were general for army
commanders, lieutenant-general for corps commanders, nujor-
general for divisional commaodere and brigadier-geaenJ for brigade
Jb) UtalmmU (frit B H in VSJL,
I Austria).
ie) Sub-heulematU (second-lieutenant in Great Britain and U.SA^
LemtmOMt in Germany and Austria).
id) Aapiranta, or pnbatkiaary young offiocn, not of full oom-
The continm ul oflioer is oa an average considenbly older,
rank for nak, tluta the BcUisk; bat he is ndther younger
DOT oUcr in respect of wimind la the' huge " univenal
service " anaice of to^iay, the irgiinra l sl officer of Fiance or
Gcnnaay commands, t*« wait, oa an average twice the aumber of
mea that are placed under the British officer of eqoal rank-.
Thus a Cenaaa or French major oC iafaatry hts. about 900
riika to direct, while a British mtjat may have cither half a
battalkm, 450, or a double company, mo; a Gernaa capuin
commands a company of 250 rifles as against an English capcaia'a
no and so 00. At the same time it must be renenbered that
at peace strength the coatinental battalaoa and compaay are
maintained at little more thao half their war strength, and the
uider-officeciag of Eoiopeaa annica oaly makes itself teriously
f elt oa mobiliaatioD.
It b different with tkc questions of pay and prgmoUon, wiiidh
chiefly affect the life of an army in peace. As to the former
(see also Pemsions) tkc Continental officer is paid at a lower rate
than the British, as shown by the table of ordimary pay per
annum (without spedal pay or allowances) below :^ —
Ueutcnaat-oolonel ' . . .
Major*
Captain*
Oberleutnant (Lieutenant) * .
Second Lieutenant (LmlMan/,
Sous4iaUemeMt) * . . .
Great
Britain.
328
210
118
France.
263
224
139 to 200
101 to 120
93
29a
292
150 to 19s
78
4Sto6o
I Infantryr. lowest scale, other arms and branches higher, often
considerably higher.
It must be noted that in France and Germany the major is a
battalion commander, corresponding to the British lieutenant-
colonel. But the significance of this table can only be realiaed
when it is remembered that promotion is rapid in the British
army and very slow in the others. The senior ObaimOmamis
of the German army are men of 37 to 38 years of age; the aeaior
captains 47 to 48. In 1908 the youngest captains were 36, the
youngest majors 45 years of age. As another illostxatkm, the
captain's maximum pay in the French army, £10 per annum
less than a British captain's, is only given after 12 years* service
ia that rank, s.e. to a man of at least twenty yeaa' service.
The coneqwnding times for British regular officers in 1905
(when the effects of rapid promotions during the South African
War were still felt) were 6 to 7I years from first commission to
promotkm to captain, and 14 to 19 years from first oommissioo
to promotioB to major. In 1908, under more normal cenditioas,
the times were 7 to 8^ ytun to captain, 15 to so to major. In
the Royal Engineers and the Indian army a subaltern b auto-
matically promoted captain on completing 9 yeajrs* commiMioiied
service, and a captain similarly promoted major after x8.
The process of development in the case oi naval ofBcen (aecN avt)
presents many points of mmilarity, but also considerable differences.
For from the first the naval officer could only offer to serve on the
king's ship: he did not build a ship as a oobnel raised a vegincot,
and thus there was no proprietary svstem. On the other hand the
naval officer was even more of a simple office-holder than his comrade
ashore. He had no rank apart from that which he held in the
economy of the ship, and when the ship went out of mtrnnissinn
the offioera as wdl as the crew were disbanded. One feature of the
proprietary system, however, appears in the nav^ organixatioa:
there was a marked distinction between the captain and the lieu-
tenant who led the combatants and the master and the master's
mate who sailed the shtow But here there were fewer "vested
interests," and instead of^ remaining in the condition, so to ^icak,
of distinguished passengers, until finally eliminated by the " levellmg
up ** of the working class of officers, the lieutenants and capuins
were (in England) required to educate themselves thorougnly in
the suDJects of the sea officer's profession. When this process had
gone on for two generations, that is. about 1670, the fonnaiioa of a
OFFICERS
19
pcrmaaent staff of navil ofioen wm besun by the institution of
hdf-f»y for the captains, and very soon aftenrards the methods of
sdaussKHi and early trainine of naval oflkcrs were sjrsteniatiaed.
The ranks in the British Royal Navy ace shown with the relative
ranks of the army in the folbwing uble (taken from King's RegM-
htimms), which aJso gives some idea of the complexity of the non-
combaunt bfaoches of naval ofikers.
rratmag oj BrilUh Army Qfic4rs.-^'nM may be conveniently
by the Gvil Service Commlssionen as to thdr educational qualifica-
tions. This examination is competitive in so far that vacancies at
the Royal Military College at Sandhurrt (for Cavalry, Infantry and
Army Service Cotps). or the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich
(<or Engineers and Artillery}, go to those who jmus highest, if physic-
ally fit. Before presenting htmself for this examination, the candidate
must produce a " leaving certificate " from the school at which he
was educated, showing that he already possesses a fair knowledge
Corresponding Ranks.
Army.
Navy.
I. Field Marshals . .
3. Generals .
3. Lieutenant-Generab
4. Major-Generals . .
K. ' Brigadier-Generals
6w Coione
Admirals of the Fleet
Admirals
Vice-Admirals .
Rcar-Admirab .
bnels
7. Lieutenant-Cotonela
8. Majon
9. Captains
Commodores
Captains of 3 years* seniority
Captains under 3 years* seafawity .
C^Mnmanders, but jumor of that rack
LieutenanU of 8 years' seniority .
Lieutenanu under 8 years' seniority
10. Lieutenants ....
11. Second Lieutenants .
12. Higher ranks of Warrant Officers .
Sub-Lieutenants
Eng!neer-in-Chief. if Engineer Vice-AdmiraL
InspcctorB-General of Hospitals and Fleets.
Engineer-in-Chief. if Engineer Rear-AdmiraL
Engineer Rear-Admiral.
Deputy Inspectors-Generalof Hospitals and Fleets.
Secreuries to Admirals of the Fleet.
Paymasters-in-Chicf.
Ennneer Captains of 8 years'sentority in that rank.
Sun Captains of a years' seniority.
Staff Captains under 4 years' seniority (navigating
branch).
Secretaries to Commanders-in-Chief, of 5 years'
service as such.
Engineer Captains under 8 years' oeniority in that
rank.
Fleet-Surgeons.*
Secretaries to Commanders-in-Chief under 5 years*
service.*
Fleet Paymasters.*
Engineer Commanders.*
Naxal Instructors of 15 vears* seniority.*
Engineer Lieutenanu of 8 years' seniority, qualified
and selected.
Staff-Surgeons.
Secretaries to Junior Flag Officer*, Com]Dodores,ist
Class.
Staff Paymasters and Paymaster.
Naval Instructors of 8 years' seniority.
Carpenter Lieutenant of 8 years' seniority.
Surgeons.
Secretaries to Commodores, and Oasa.
Naval Instructors under 8 years' seniority.
Engineer Lieutenant under 8 years' seniority, or
oyer if not duly qualified and selected.
A''.i--'.iflt Pdyni.'-'^ti. f- !if j|. years' seniority.
Carpenter l.ivuncn^iriii jjider 8 year*' seniority.
Aidi^UJit r^yma^tcn under 4 years' seniority.
EnjfiflWf Sub-Ucuicnaots.
Chl<^l Ganfltf '
Chief tkMtawain.*
Cbirf Caryjcntcr,*
Churl Armficff En^necT.'
Chief 5«:hoo?miilcr.i
Mitl-ihipmea.*
Cl^rt*/
Gunner?.*
CaqicnTtrs,* ^
AmficTr EnKinrerA
Held Schoohnaiiw.*
* But junior of the army rank.
t the appointment
vo par . .
to a commission: (II.) that which succeeds it.
I. Omitting those officers who obuin their coromissioas from
Che rsnin, the training which precedes the appointment to a com-
mission is subdivided into: (a) General Education; {b) Technical
Instruction.
(a) Cemerai Edneaiion. — A fairiv high standard of education is
considered essentiat. Candidates from universities approved by the
Army Council must have resided for three academic years at their
nniversity, and have taken a degree in any subject or group of
subjects other than Theology. Medicine, Music and Commerce. A
university candidate for a commission in the Royal Artillery must
further be qualified in Mathematics. The obtaining of first-class
honours is considered equivalent to one year's extra service in the
army, and an officer can count that year for cakulating hb service
towards his pension. University candidates are eligible for com-
missions in the Cavalry, Royal Artillery, Infantry, Indian Army
and Army Ser\^ Corps. For other branches of the service special
tcfttlations are in force.
Those candidates who have not been at a university ate txamiaed
* But senior of the army rank.
of the subjects of examination. Candidates who fail to secure
admission to these institutions, but satisfy the examiners that they
are sufficiently well educated, can obtain commissions in the Special
Candidates for commissions in the Royal Army Medical Corps
and the Army Veterinary Corps are not required to pass an
educational examinatioo, the ordinary course of medical or veterinary
education being deemed sufficient, but the Army Council may reject
a candidate who shows any deficiency in his general educatkm.
Officers of the Cokmial military force* wishing to obtain com>
missions in the British Army must either produce a school or college
" k«ving certificate '* or pass an examination held by the Army
Qualifying Board, or must show that they have passed one of certain
recognixea examinations.
(b) Toiknieai /ajImcftM.— In addition to genersl educational
attainmenta, a fair knowledge of technical matters b expected from
candidates.
For Cavalry. Infantry. Royal Engineers, Royal Artillery and Army
Service Corps, an examination must be passed in administration
and organiaatioo; military history, stcategy and tactics; miliury
20 OFFICERS
- . ,, engliwering and tow. In addition, the following
iitiooa must be complied with; (i) VmntnUy caitdiialts are
required to be membera of the Senior Divt«ion of the Officers'
Training Coipc (see United Kingdom: Army) tbouM there be a
unit of that oonw at the university to which they belong. They
are further required to be attached for six weeks to a Regular unit
during their residence at the university. If there is no Officets'
Training Corps at hb university, the candidate is attached to a
Regular unit for twelve weeks (consecutivel)r or in two stages).
The final examination in miliury subjects is competitive, {i)
Cadets cf the Royal Jlititary CoBege are instructed in the foUowing
additbiial subjects: saniution, French or German (or both).
riding and horse management, musketry, physical training, drill
and signalling. Hindustani may be taken instead of French or
German. (3) Cadeis qf lh« Royal JiiUtary Academy are instructed
in the same subjects as the cadets at the Royal Military College,
with the additbn of artillery, advanced matncmatics, chemistry,
light, heat, electricity and workshop practice. Cadets who pass
highest in the final exam!natk>n for commissions are as a rule
appointed to the Royal EngineerB, the remainder to the Royal
Artillery. (4) Officers 0/ the Special Reserve, Territorial Force and
certain other forces must have completed a continuous period of
attachment of twelve months to a Regular unitofCavalrjr, Artillery,
Engineers or Infantry, and have served and been trained for at least
one year in the force to which they belong, before presenting them-
sdves at the competitive examtnatk>n in military subjects. The
period of attachment to Regular units may be reduced if certain
certificates are obtained. Candidates for commissions in the artillery
must belong to the artillery branches of the above forces and have a
certificate m riding and mathematics. They are not eligible for the
B I c r /-\ Ti i;.i r . rta: ^/ *t- r'^-^j^t
Royal Eneincers.
MuUary Forces are
(5) The conditions for Officers of the Colonial
similar to those for the Special ""
consists partly 01 more detailed instruction in tne subjects already
learned, partly of the practical application of those subjects, and
partly of more advanced instructwn with its practical applkration.
On first joining his unit the young officer is put through a course
of preliminary drills, tosting, as a rule, for from three monthi
(inuntry) to six months (cavalry), though the time depends upon
the individual officer's rate of progress. During this penod, and foi
Reserve, &c.,
except that only two months' attachment to a Regular unit, or unit
of tne Permanent Colonial Forces, is reouired. (6) Commissions
are also given to Cadeis of the Royal Military (MUge, Kingston,
Canada; the training of that establishment being similar to that
at the Royal Military College and the Royal Military Academy.
Candidates for oommisuons in the Royal Army Medical Corps and
Army Veterinary Corps are not examined in military subjects,
but must pcCss in the amNopriate technical subjects; those for the
Royal Army Medical (Jorps fiassing two written and two oral
examinations, one each in medicine and suigery ; those for the Army
Veterinary Corps passing a written and an oral examination in
veterinary medicine, surgery and hygiene. Candidates for the Royal
Army Medical Corps have further to proceed to the Royal Army
Medical College tor instruction in recruiting duties, hygiene,
pathology, tropical medicine, miUtary surgery and military mcdkal
administration.
Royal Engineers attend the School of Military Engineering at
Chatham, where long and elaborate courses of instruction are given
In all aubjecu appertaining to the work of the corps, including
practical work in the field and in fortresses.
II. The training which succeeds the appointment to a commission
consists partly of more detailed instruction in the subjects already
learned, partly of the practical application of those sub' ^
partly of more advanced instructwn with its practical appl
On first joining his unit the young officer is put through a course
•• • •«..... . , , .. nionths
Mn
for
Bome considerable time afterwards, officers are'inatnicted in *' regi-
mental duties," cottsbting of the interior economy of a rvgiment,
euch as financial accounts, storps, correspondence, the minor points
ci military law in their actuad working, customs of the service,
the management of legimcntal institutes. &c., with, in the case of
the mounted branches, equitation and the care and management of
horses. They are required to attend a number of courts-martial,
as supernumerary members, before being permitted to attend one
in the cflFective and official capacities of member or prosecutor,
although from a legal point of view their qualification depends simply
upon their rank and length of service. A oourae a mustetry.
theontical and fMacttcal. n then gone throu^i. Fiekl training
begins with lectures on the various evolutions of the squadron,
battery or company, foUowed by actual pcactioe in the fiekl, arranged
by the commanders of squadrons, batteries or companies.
Before promotkra from the rank of sccond-Kcutenant to lieutenant,
an examinatbn must be passed in " Regunental Duties " (practical,
oral and written) and " Drill and FicM Training " (practical only).
The officer is then taken in hand by the commanding officer of his
regiment, battalion or brigade. He is frequently examined in the
subjects in which he has already been instructed, and is practically
taught the more advanced stages of topography, engineering,
tactics, law and organization. The next stage consists of regimental
drills, which include every kind of practical work in the field which
can be done by a unit under the command of a iieutenant-cok>nel.
After this come brigade, division and army manoeuvres. ^ Officers
have to paa examinatk>ns in military subjects for promotion until
they attain the rank of migor. The chief of these rubjects are
tactics, military topography, military engineering, military law,
administration and military history. For majors, before promotion
to lieutcnant-eotond, an examination in "Tactical Fltneaa fof
Command ** has to be passed. This examination in a teat of ability
in commanding the " tnree arms " in the fiekJ; a course of attach-
ment to the two arms to which the officer does not belong being a
necessary preliminary.
Army Service Csr^.— The officers of this corps have usually served
for at least one year in the cavalry, infantry or Royal Marines,
though oommtsskms are also given to cadets of the Royal Military
College. On joinim, the officer first spends nine months on proba-
tion, during which he attends lectures and practical demonstratbns
in the following subjects: military administratwn and orsanixatiaa
generally; and as regards Army Service Corps work, in detai;
organication of the FieM Army and Lines of Communication; war
orgaoiaation and duties of the A.S.C.: registry and care of corre>
spondenoe; contracts; special purchases; precautions In receiving
supplies, and care and issue of same; accounts, forms, vouchers
and office work in general and in detail : barrack duties (including
all points relating to coal, wood, turf, candles, lamps, eaa, water, Ac ).
A thorough and detaiksd descriptran of all kinds of forage, bread-
stuffs, meat, groceries and other fiekl supplies is given. The kctures
and demonstrations in transport include, beside mounted and di»-
mounted drill, wagon drill; carriages; embarkation and disem>
barkation of men and animals; entraining and detraining: hamcaa
and saddfery; transport by rail and sea, with the office wock
involved. Thb course of instruction u given at the Army Service
Corps Training Establishment at Aldcrshot.
A satisfactoiy examiaatmn having been passed, die officer fa
permanently taken into the corps. Before promotmn to o^Kain he
is eicaminea in acoounta, correspondence and contracts; judging
cattle^ and supplies; duties of an A.S.C ofiicer in charge of a
sub-district; interior economy of a company ; military vehicles
and pack animals; embarkation, disembarication and duties 00
board ship; convoys; duties ot brigade supply and tranMoct
officer in war. Captain^ before promotk>n to major, are examined
in lines of oommunkation of an army in war; method of obtaining
supplies and transport in war, and formation and working of depots;
organization of transport in war; schemes of supply and tjai
for troops operating from a fixed base; duties of a staff-< ^
administering supply, transport and barrack duties at home. Theae
are in addition to general military subjects.
Royal Army Medical Corps.— On completion of the coarse of
instruction at the Royal Army Medical College, lieutenants on pro*
bation proceed to the R.A.M.C. School of Instruction at AMershot
for a two months' course in the technical duties of the corps, and at
the end of the course are examined in the subjects taught. TMa
passed, their commissions are confirmed. After eighteen months*
service, officers are examined in squad, company and corps drills
and exercises; the Geneva (invention; the administration,
organization and eqtiipment of the army in its relation to the medical
aervices; duties of wardmasters and stewards in military hospitals
and returns, accounts and requisitions connected therewith: duties
of executive medical officers; military law. These successful candi-
dates are then eligible for promotion to captain. Before promotioa
to major the folk>wing examination must be passed, after a oourae of
study under such arrangements as the director-general of the Army
Medical Service may determine: (1) modicincj (3) surgery, (3)
hygiene, (4) bacteriolog^(s) one out of seven special subjects named,
and (6) military law. The examination for promotion from major
to lieutenant-colonel embraces army medical oq^anisation in peace
and war; sanitation of towns, camps, transports. &c.; epMeniiofagy
and the management of epidemics; medical history <A important
campaigns; the Army Medical Service of the more important
powers; the laws and customs of war, so far as they relate to the
sick and wounded ; and a tactical problem in field medical admini»'
tratron. Officcra who pass these cxaminationa with distinction are
eligible for accelerated promotion.
Army Ordnance Department. — ^An officer of this department must
have had at least four years' service in other branches of the army
and must have passed for the rank of captain. They are then eligible
to preaent themselves at an elementary examination in inatha.
matics, -after passing which they attend a one year's course at the
Ordnance College. Woolwich. The course comprises the following:
(a) Gunnery Cincluding principles of gun constructu>n and practical
optics): (6) Maliriel, guns, carriages, machine guns, small arms
and ammunition of all descriptions; (c) Army Ordnenco Duties
(functwns of the corps; supply, receipt and issue of stores, &c.);
(<0 Machinery; («) Chemistry and Metattnrgy; (/) Electricity.
An advanced course folk>ws in which officcn take up any two of the
subjects of applied mathematics, chemistry and electricfy, combined
with either small arms, optics or mechanical design. They are then
appointed to the department and hold their appointments for four
years, with a possible extension of an additional throe y«>«rs.
A rmy Veterinary Corps. — ^A candidate on aDpointrocnt as veterinary
officer, on joining at Aidershot, undergoes a course of special training
at the Army Veterinary School. The courw lasts one year, and
consists of (a) hygiene; conformation of the foot and shoeing,
conformation, points, colours, markings; stable construction and
management ; management of horses in the open and of lane bodies
of sick; saddles and sore backs; coUars and sore shoutiwre; bits
and bitting: transport by siea and rail; mules, donkeys, <
OFFICERS
W Diwiwi met with ipedftUy on active aerviee.
ctaquclte and cthica; acooanta and fctnma; - ■ '-
: dfltMts; tnuning of army borwa: marching.
... . t .. , j„ ^^j Military
latiation and
J hoapitala, mofaiUaatioa, map-reading and
law. At the end of the'coune he b enmined, and it found mti»-
bctory« b retained in the tervice. Before promotion to captain
he ia examined in the dittiet of executive veterinary offioeta and in
law: before promotion to major, in medicine, MUfery, hygiene,
bncteriebgy and tropical diaeaaes, and m one epedal eubject aelected
by the candidate; and bcfora promotion to lieuttnant-oolonel,
in law, duties of adminktrative veterinary officers at home and
abroad, management of epizootics, sanitation of stables, horae-lincs
and tranaporta.
transports*
rwn Pay DepaHaumk—OiBatn are appointed to the department ,
' 'id not eaoeeding one year, after serving for
other arms or branches of the service. At
on probation for a .
five yeaf% in one of the of_ __
the end of this period the candidates are examined m the fbtlowing
subieeta: caaounation of company pay lisu and pay and mem
book; method of keeping aocounto and preparing balance-sheets
and monthly estimates; knowledge of nay-wamnt, allowance
regulations and financial instructions, book-keeping, by double entry
and the duties attendii« the payment of sokiien; aptitude for
•oooaitta, and qaickneas and neatnem ia work. On completion of
five years' servxe, officers return to their regiments, untem they
elect to remain with the department or are required by the Army
Council to be permanently attached to it.
Schtob ami CoUeta.'-'U^ tnuninc of the officer in his rmment is
■eoeasarily iaoomiMete, owing to a far wider knowled^ oi hn pro-
fesrion ia fenertl, and of hb own branch of thescrvioe in particular,
beins essential, than can be aoquired within the comparatively
oonmied limits of hb own nnit. Aoconlingty, schools and cdleges
have been established, in which spedal courses of instruction ore
given, dealing moro fully with the genenOitiea and detaib of the
various brMnes of the service.
There b a cavalry school at Nethemvon.
JfMMirtf Infantiy schools have been establbhed at Longmoor.
Bulford and Kalworth, which train both officers and men in mounted
infantry duties. The officers selected to be trained at these schoob
must have at least two years' service, have completed a trained
•oklier'a course of musketry and should have some knowledge of
homemanship and be able to ride. The instnictioa oonsisu for the
most pan of riding school and field training.
The Skkool of Cumnery at Shoeburyness gives five courses of
instnictioa per annum; one " Staff " course lor Ordnance officers,
lasting one month: two courses for senior officers of the Royal
Artillery, listing a fortnight each, and two courses for junior officers
of the same regiment, lasting one month each. For Royal Garrison
Artillery officers there is one " Staff " coune lasting Tor seven months
(thb being • continuation of the previous "Staff " course), and two
counea, lasting four months each, for junior officers. There b also
a school of gunnery at Lydd. where two courses, lasting for three
weeks each, in siege artillery, are given each year.
The OrdaaacM CoUeg^ at WooIwKh provides various courses of
instniction in addition to those intended for officers of the Ordnance
Department. There is a ** Gunnery Suf! Course " for senior officers,
fai gunnery, guns, carriages, ammunition, ebctridtv and machinery;
two courses for junior officers of the Royal Artillery in the mme
subjects ; a course for officers of the Army Service Corps in mechanical
transport, which includes instruction In allied suDJects, such as
ciectncity and chembtry. It also gives courses of instruction to
officers or the Royal Navy.
The Sckaet af MUilary £iifiiMcnfig at Chatham trains officers of
the Royal Engineers, compiles official text-books on field defences,
attack and defence of fortresses, military bridging, mining, encamp-
ments, railways.
The Sckoel of Uuskdry at Hythe (beskles assisting and directing
the musketry training of the army at large by revbing regulatioas,
experiments, Sec.) trains officcn of all branches of the service m
theoretical and practical musketry, the councs lasting about a month
each and embracing fire control, the training of the eye in qukk
perceptioa, fire effect and so on. CbunKs in the Maxim gun usually
The' 5b/ CetUff (see also Staff) at Camberiey b the hmM im-
portant of the military colleges. Only specially selected officera
are eUgiUe to attempt the entrance examination. The course fasts
two yean, and b divided into: (a) military history, strategy,
tactks, imperial strategy, strategic distribution, coast defence,
fortification, war organiiation, reconnaissance; (6) suff duues,
administration, peace lUstribution, mobiliration, movements of
troops by hnd and sea, supply, transport, remounts, ocganixatmn,
law and topographkal reconnaissance. Visits are pakl to workshops,
fortresses, continenul battlefiekb, Ac, and staff toun are earned
out. Ofiicers of the non-mounted branches attend ridine school,
and students can be examined in any foreign bnguages they may
have previously studied. They are also attached lor short periods
CD arms of the service other than those to which they belong, and
attend at staff offices to ensure their being co nver sa nt with the work
done there.
The Army StrvUt Corps Traininc EsUxhiishment at Aldershot
gives coones of instruction to senior officera of the corps at which
21
a limited mimber of officera of other corps may attend, provided
they have passed through or been recommended for the Staff College.
Other courses, in addition to the nine months' course for ofiioen
on probation for the corps are, one of twelve days for senior officera
of the corps in mechanical transport: two (one long and one
short) In the same subject for other officera; one for officera
in other branches of the service in judging orovidotis; and one
for lieutenants of the Royal Army Medtcaf Corps in supply and
transport.
Otfier colleges and schoob are: the BaHoaH School at Fani«
borough, for officera of the Royal Engineere; Schools 0/ Ekctric
Lithtmg at Plymouth and PorUmouth; the School of SigHoUini at
Alderahot, for officera of all branches of the service; the School of
CymaasHeSt also at Akierehot; and the Army Veterinary SchoJ,
where a one month's course b given to officera of the mounted
branches in the main principles of horsemastership, stable manage-
ment and veterinary firat aid, in addition to the one year's course for
officera on probation for the Army Veterinary Corps.
To encourage the study of foreign bnsu^es, officera who pass a
preliminary examination in any bnguage they may select are aUowed
to reside in the foreign country for a period of at least two months.
After such resklence they may present themsdves for examinatkm,
and if successful, receive a grant in aid of the expenses incurred.
The grant b £80 for Russbn, £50 for German, £94 for French and
(^ lor other languages. The final or ** Interpretenhip " examina-
tion for whkh the grant is given Is of a very high standard. In the
case of Russian, £80 b paid to the offioier during hb residence
in Russb, in addition to the grant. Special arrangements are
made with r^ard to the Chinese and Japanese languages; three
officera for the former and four officera for the fatter being selected
annually for a two ycara' residence in those countries. During sudi
residence officera receive £150 per annum, in addition to their pay,
and a reward of £175 on passing the '* Inter p re t erahip " examinatkm.
There has been a tendency of fate yean to give officera facilities
for going through civilbn courses of instruction; for example, at
the London School of Economics and in the w otksli o p s of the
principal railway companies. These coones enable the officer not
only to profit by civilian experience and ttuigw, but also to form
an opinion as to his own knowledge, as compared with the knowledge
of those outMde hb immediate surroundinn.
Promotion from thi Ranhs.-^ln several anriics an&rant officera
may join as privates and pass throuch all gtadea. Thb b hardly
promotion from the ranks, however, because it b understood from
the first that the young aoantatemr, as he b called in Germany, b a
candidate for officer's rank, and he b treated aocordihgt)r, geiinally
living in the officera' mess and spending only a brief period in eaca
of the non-commisnoned ranks. Triie promotkm from the ranks,
won by merit and without any preferential treatment, b practically
unknown in Germany. In France, on the other hand, one-third of
the officera are promoted non-commisskmed officers. In Italy abo
a Urge proportion of the officera comes from the ranks. In Great
Britain, largely owing to the chances of distinction afforded by
frequent colonial expeditkms, a fair number of non-commissioned
officera receive promotion to combatants' oommisMons. The
number is, however, diminishing, as shown by thefoUowingextracts
from a return of 1909 (combatants only):^
1885-1888 annual average 34 (Sudan Wars, Ac)
1889-1892 " " as
1893-1898 " " 19
1899-1903 "' ** 35 (S. African War)
1903-1908 " •* 14
Quartermastera and riding mastera are invariably p ronie t ied from
the lower ranks.
Officera of reserve and second line forces are recruited in Great
Briuin both by direct apiwintment and by transfer from the regular
forces. In universal service armies reserve officera are drawn from
retired regular officers, selected non-commissjoned officers, and
t of all from young men of good sodal standing who are gaaettcd
C their compulsory period as privates m the ranb.
1^ fcavfc >raa«w^a «^ «» a^^w*^** «»■•»« ^ ^aaoa^a « w«»^ ^a^sB%a^
i British ofiicer. Each country necialiaes aoooraiag
reqniremeats, Iwt in the main tim training b much
after serving t
FoKEicN Armies
The training of the officer of a foreign army differa very slightly
from that of the British ofiicer. " '
to its individual teqniremeats, I
the mme.
Gcniiany."The Germans attend more doocly to detail— being even
mi cr oacopical— and it has been said that a little grit in the Gmnan
military nmchine wouM cause a ccsmtion of its working. Unfor-
tunatuy for thb argument, the German army has not yet given any
signs ofcessatkm oT work, so few deviatkms from the smooth working
of the military machine being permitted that the introduction of
grit into this air-tight canng b practically impoasiblc. At the same
time, the German officer fo trained to have initbtiye and to use
that initbtive, but he is e xp ected to be discreet in the use of it and
consequently undue insistence on literal obedience to instructions
(as distinct from formal oiden). and undue retioeace on the part of
senior, especially staff, officera b held to be dangerous, in that the
rmmental officer, if ignorant of the military situation, may. by acn
of initbtive out of harmony with the general plan, seriously prejodica
22
OFFICIAL—OGDENSBURG
the'mm. Tke CcnRsiw attadb ifwial
tht uctkai haiKlliag d aniOcry.
/lo/jr.— Tbe luliMt make a ^icdality of hantmamM^ thnr
cavalry oficcra tuidyiac (or two yean at die cavalry aaiool at
Modeaa; later at the fcbool at Piacrolo, aad '
at Tor di (i^iiiito. They alio attach i
warfaic
/'ranM.— The fomal tfaiaifig of the French officer doe* oot ap|Mar
Co differ lerioualy from that cA the British ofiker. with thia caoepcJoo.
that M^ one-third or io of Freoch oficert are piomot e d from the
noiKommiHioncd lanh*, a i^eat feature of the edocatioaal wyfUm
is the group of •chook compriuag the Saomur (cavalry). St Maixent
fiafaatry) and Vertaillc* (artillery and enginccta). which are intended
lor underHjfficcr Candida tea lor commisMona. The tencrafity of the
officer* comes from the " special fchool " of St Cyr (infantry and
cavalry) and the EuU PUj^Htvu (^rtilleiy and tag^aetn).
(R. J, C.)
UniUd StaUs.^lhe Drindpal soutce from which officers are
wpplied to the army is tne Urooua Military Academy at West Point.
N.Y. The President may appoint forty cadets and feneially chooses
eons of army and navy ctictn. Each senator and each rvpresenu-
tlve and delc^U in Coogrcsa may ap^nt one. These appointmenu
are not made annoally, but as vacancies occur tbrou^ gntduatton of
cadets, or their discharae before sraduatioo. The maximum number of
cadeu under the Twelfth Census is 553. The commanding officer of
the academy has the title of superintendent and commandant. He is
detailed from the army, and haa the temporary lank of cpioneL The
corps of cadeu is organized aa a batuUon, and is commanded by an
officer deuilol from the amy. bavins the title of commandant of
He has the temporary ranK of lieutenant-coloneL An
of eneinoers and ol ordnance are detailed as instructors of
practical miuury enc ioeering and of ordnance and gunnery respec-
tively. The heads 01 the dcpartmenu of instruction have the title
of professors. They are selected generally from officers of the army,
and their positions are permanent. The ofBcers above mentioned
and the profcasore constitute the academic board. The military sulT
and atMstant instructors are officers of the army. Thecoune of
instruction covers four years and is very thorough. Theoretical
instruaion comprises mathematics, French, Spanish, English,
drawing, physics, astronomy, chemistry, ordnance and gunnery, art
of war, dvil and military engineering, law (international, con-
ititutioaal and miliury), liistory and dnll regulations of all arms.
Practical instruction comprises the service drills in infantry, cavalry
and artillery, surveying, reconnaissances, field engineering, construc-
tion of temporary bridges, simple astronomical obacrvatjons, fencing,
gymnastics and swimroipg. Cadets are a part of the armv, and
rank between second lieutenants and the highest grade of non-
commissioned officers. They receive from the government a rate
of pay sufficient to cover all necessary expenses at the academy.
About 50% of those entering are able to complete the course. The
graduating dass each year numbers, on an average, about 60. ,A
class, on graduating, is arranged In order according to merit, and its
members are assigned as second lieutenants to corps and arm.
according to the recommendation of the academic board. A few at
the head of the clais go into the corps of engineers; the next in order
generally go into the artillery, and the rest of the class into the
cavalry and infantry. The choice of graduates as to arm of service
and regiments is consulted as far as practicable. Any enlisted man
who has served honestly and faithfully not less than two vcarn, who
is between twenty-one and thirty years of age, unmamed. a citizen
of the United States and of good moral character, may aspire to a
commission. To obuin it he must pass an educational and physical
anamination before a board of five officers. This board must also
Inquire as to the character, capacity and record of the candidate.
Many welUducafed young men, unable to obuin appointments to
West Point, enlbt in the amiy for the express purpose of obuioing
• commisaion. Vacancies in the grade of second lieutenant remain-
Ing. after the graduates of the MtliUry Academy and quahficd
enlisted men have been appomted. are filled from avil hfe. To be
eligible for appointment a candidate must be a citizen of the United
Sutes, unmarried, between the ages of twenty-one and twenty-
seven yeara, and must be approved by an examining board of five
officwa aa to habits, moral character, physical ability, education
and generml fitness for the aervice. In time of peace very few
appotntmenta from eivU life are made, but in time o< war there u a
1here"are,*in addition to the Engineer School at Washington.
D.C. four service schools for officers. These are: the Coast Artillety
School at Foft Monroe. Virginut the Genetal Service and Staff
College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: the Mounted Service
School at Fort Riley, Kansas; the Army Medical School at Wash-
Ington. The commandanta. staHa »nd matractore at these achools
are oflicere specially selected. The garrison at Fort Monroe is
con*poaed of several companiea of coast artillery.. The lieutenants
of these oompaniea. who constitute the dass. are rebeved and replaced
by othcra on ist September of each year. The couiw of instruction
comprises the following subjects: artillery, balhstics. engmeenng.
BCeam and mechanics, electricity and minea. chemistry and explosives,
miliury science, practical military exercises, photography, tclceraphy
ud oonjage (the use of ropes, the making of various kmda of knots
and bsUan ri^inK sheen. Ao, for the I
July and Augnst oT each year are ondinaffly devoted to nrtillcsy
The ooane at the Ocacinl Service and Scaa
cavalry, and aaeh others as nsav be «ktailed. They are eiisifi il to
the organiiationa c ompr is i ng die garriaon. worwafly a regiment of
ron (ioor tioopa^ of cavalry and a battery of held
■u of JnatnKtioi are: military art.
aanaadron
Tke dep
engiiieefiog.hw,infantiv,cavalry.nBiiitaryfay|;iene. Muchattsntioa
b paid to practical work in the minor o ye sat iu ms cf war, the tsoopa
" * '*■ " ' •- — with. *' "^ '
Ma
reported to titt adjutaat-foienl of the army. Two 1 ram eadt'clnaa
of the Artillery Sdiool, and not aMive than five from each claaa at
the Genccal Service and Staff College, are theteafter. ao loaie aa they
remain in the service, noted in the annaal amy re giat e t aa~* h<Hsowr
paduatca.** The work of the Mounted Service School at Fort Riley
IS mainly practical, and ia canned 00 by the nnlar garnnoa, which
usually, in time of peace, consista of two sqaaidrona of cavalry and
three field batteries.. The goveinraent reaervatioa at Fort Riley
oompnaea aboot 40 aq* as. cf wind tcnam. ao that opportmitiea
^^^- tlddopesatie
afforded, and tahen advantage of . for all loads of held opesatioaa.
The Array Medical School iaeataUiahed at Washington. Tbefacaky
consists of four or more instmctora s el e ct ed from the aenior o ffi cera
of the medical department. The coarse of insCnactioncowen a period
of five months, beginaivaannallv in November. Theatadentoffiaera
are recently appointed medical officeia, and auch other mwdkal
officers, available for detail, aa may desire to take the eomtwe. la-
struction b by lecture and practical work, special atteatkm beb^
given to the lotlowine subjeicta: duties of meidical offioera ia peace
and war; hospital adminiatratinn; militanr m ed icin e, onifcry aad
hygiene; microacopy and ba cter iobgy; hoapital corpa driu aad
first aid to the wounded. (W. A. &)
OFFICIAL (Late Lat. officialise for dass. Lat. apparitor, from
officium, office, duty), in general any holder of office under the
state or a public body. In ecdcsiaatical law the word '* offidal "
has a special technical lenae as applied to the official eaerdsiiic
a diocesan bishop's jurisdiction as hb reprcMatatlye ud ia
hb name (see Ecclesiastical JunsoicnoN), The title of
" official principal," together with that of " vicar-general,'* b in
England now mecsed in that of " chancellor " of a dioceK (see
Chancellob).
OFFICtWAU t term applied in medicine to drugs, plants and
herbs, which are sold in cbemisU' and druggists' shops, and to
medical preparations of such drugs, &c, as are made in accord-
ance with the pcescriptions autboriaed by the pharmacopoeia.
In the htter sense, modem usage tends to supersede *' officinal "
by "offidal." The classical Lat. officina meant a workshop,
manufactory, laboratory, and in medieval monastic Latin was
applied to a general store-room (see Dn Cange, doss,, «.«.);
it thus became applied to a shop where goods were sold rather
than a place where things were made.
OODEN, a dty and the county-seat of Weber county, Utah,
U.S.A., at the confluence of the Ogden and Weber rivers, aad
about 35 m. N. of Salt Lake City. Fop. (1890) 14,889; (xgoo)
16,313, of whom 3302 were fordgn-born; (1910 census)
35,580. It is served by the Union Pacific, the Southern Pacific,
the Oregon Short Line, and the Denver k Rio Grande iailTa>'s.
It b situated at an elevation of about 4300 ft. in the picturesque
region of the Wasatch Range, Qgdcn Caflon and the Great
Salt Lake. Ogden is in an agricultutal and fruit-growing
region, and gold and silver are mined In the vicinity. It has
various manufactures, and the value of the factory product
increased from $1,242,214 in 1900 to $2,997,057 in 1905, or
X4t'3^ Ogden, which is said to have been named in honour
of John Ogden, a trapper, was laid out under the direction of
Brigham Young in 1850, and was incorporated in the next year;
in x86i it recdved a new charter, but since 1898 it has been
governed under a general law of the state.
OODBNSBURO, a dty and port of entry of St Lawrence
county, New York, U.S.A., on the St Lawrence fiver, at the
mouth of the Oswcgatchic, 140 m. N. by E. of Syracuse, New
York. Pop. (1890) 11,662; (1900) 12,633, of whom 3222 were
foreign-born; (1910 census) iSf933- It is served by the New
York Central «r Hudson River and the Rutland railways, and
by several lake and river steamboat lines connecting with ports
on the Great Lakes, the dty bdng at the head of lake oavigaiion
ft
OGEE— OGILBY
43
■n the St Lawreace. Steam ferrict connect Ogdcnibttrg with
pRMott, Ontario. The dty is the scat of tbe St Lawrence Slate
Boapital for the Insane (1890), and has a United Slates Cwtona
Howo and a sute armoury. The dty became the see of a Roman
Catholic bishop in 187s, and here Edgar Philip Wadhams (1817-
1891) Uboured as bishop in 1879-1891. It is the port of entry
of the Oswcgatchie customa district, and haa an extensive
^Mtmnwnmw rm piTticulady in lumbcT and grain. The dty has
Taiio«a manufactures, inchiding lumber, Hour, wooden-ware,
bnsa>ware, sillu, woollens and dothing. The value of the
factory products increased from 9»,9te.889 in 1900 to $3,057,271
in 190S, or 35*3%. The site of Ogdensburg was occupied in
1749 hy the Indian settlement of La Presentation, founded by
the Abb6 Francois liquet (1708*1781) for the Christian converts
of the Iroquoia. At the outbreak of the War of Independence
the British buUt here Fort Presenution, which they hdd until
1796, when, bi accordance with the terms of the Jay Treaty,
the garrisoa was withdrawn. Abraham Ogden (x743~'798)>
a prominent New Jersey lawyer, bought land here, and the
settlement which grew up around the fort was named Ogdensburg.
During the early part of the War of 1819 it was an important
point on the American line of defence. On the 4th of October
1811 Colood Lethbridge, with about 750 men, prepared to
attack Ogdensburg but was driven off hy American troops
under Gmral Jacob Brown. On the 32nd of February 1813
both fort and village -were captured and partially destroyed
by the British. During the Canadian riring of 1837-1838
dfedensbwg became a lendesvous of the insurgents. Ogdensburg
was incorporated as a village in 181 8, and was chartered as a
dty in 1868.
06BB (pfobably an English corruption of Fr. cghe, a diagonal
groin rib, being a moulding commonly employed; equivalents
in other languages are Lat. tyma-rtfersa, Ilal. gda, Fr. eymaUe,
Ger. Kekttti^M), a term given in architecture to a moulding
of a double curvature, convex and concave, in which the former
is the uppermost (see Mouloing). The name ** ogee-arch "
is often applied to an arch formed by the meeting of two con-
trasted ogees (see Abcr).
OOIER THE DAVB. a hero of romance, who is identified with
tbe Frankish warrior Autchar (Autgarius, Auctarius, Otgarius,
Oggerius) of the old chroniclers. In 771 or 772 Autchar accom-
panied Gerberga, widow of Carloman, Charlemagne's brother,
and her children to the court of Desiderius, king of the Lombards,
with whom he marched against Rome. In 773 he submitted
to Charles at Verona. He finally entered the cloister of St Faro
at Meaox, and MabiUon (A€ia SS. crd. St BtnedUli, Paris, 1677)
has left a description of his monument there, which had figures
of Ogier and his friend Benedict or Benolt, with smaller images
of Roland and hi belle Aude and other Carolingian personages.
In the chronicle of the FSeudo Turpin it is stated that innumer-
able ianHlemae were current on the subject of Ogier, and his
deeds were probably sung in German as well as in French. The
Ogier of romance may be definitely associated with the flight
of Gerberga and her children to Lombardy, but it is not safe
to assume tbaf the other scattered references all relate to the
same individual. Colour is lent to the theory of hb Bavarian
origin by the fact that he, with Duke Naimes of Bavaria, led
the Bavarian contingent to battle at Roncesvaux.
In the romances of the CaroKngian cycle he Is, on account
of his revoh against Charlemagne, placed in the family of Doon
de Mayence. being the son of Caufrey de " Dannemarche.**
The Efifamca Oiier of Aden^ le Rois. and the CkaaUHt Ogier
it Dammemanke of Raimbert de Paris, are doubtless based on
eariler chansons. The Ckevalerie is divided into twelve songs or
branches. Ogier, who was the hostage for his father at Charle-
magne*s court, fell into disgrace, but regained the emperor's
favour by bis exploits in Italy. One Easter at the court of Laon,
however, Ms son Balduinet was slain by Charlemagne*s son.
Chariot, with a chess-board (cf. the inddent of Renaud and
Bertholais hi the Qntttrt POs Aymmi). Ogier in his rage shys
the queen's nephew Loher. and would have slain Charlemagne
ktBself b«t for tbe ifilerventmn of the knighu. who connived
at his flight to Lombardy. In his stronghold of Cistelfoft he
resktcd the imperial forces for seven years, but was at last taken
prisoner by Turpin, who incarcerated him at Reims, whfle his
horse Bnridort, the sharer of his exploiu, was made to draw
stones at Meaux. He was eventually released to fight the
Saracen chief Br^us or Braihier, whose armies had ravaged
France, and who had defied Charlemagne to single combat.
Ogier only consented to fight after the surrender of Chartot,
but the prince was saved from his barbarous vengeance by the
intervention of St Michael. The giant Br^hus, despite his
17 ft. of stature, was overthrown, and Ogier, after marrying an
English princess, the daughter of Angart (or Edgard), king of
England, received from Charlemagne the fieb of Hainaut and
Brabant.
A later romance in Alexandrines (Brit. Mus. MS. Royal 1 5 E vl)
contains marveb added from Cdtic romance. Six fairies visit
his cradle, the sixth, Morgan la Fay, promising that he shall
be her lover. He has a conqueror's career in tbe East, and after
two hundred years in the " castle " of Avalon returns to Franco
in the days of Ring Philip, bearing a firebrand on which his life
depends. TMs he destroys when Philip's widowed queen
wbhcs to marry him, and he b again carried off by Morgan H
Fay. The prose romance printed at Paris in 1498 b a versfon
of thb later poem. The fairy element b prominent in the Italian
legend of Uggieri U Dauese, the most famous redaction being
the prose LiUo idt batagfie del Dattae (Milan, 1498), and in the
English Famous and renemned kitlory of if #rTf ne, un to Ogier
Ike Dame, translated by J. M. (London, 1613). Tbe Spanish
Urgel was the hero of Lope de Vega's play, the Uarqua d$
Manima. Ogier occupies the third branch of the Scandinavian
Karlamagnus saga; his fight with Brunamont {Enfamces Og^er^
was the subject of a Danish folk-song; and as Hoiger Donski
he became a Danish national hero, who fought against the
German Dietrich of Bern (Theodoric " of Verona "), and was
invested with the common tradition of the king who sleeps in
a mountain ready to awaken at need. Whether he had originally
anything to do with Denmark seems doubtful. The surnama
le Danob has been explained as a corruption of rArdennob and
Dannemarche as the marches of the Ardennes.
BtBLiocmAmY. — La Ckeoolerie Oper ie Danemarehe, ed. I. B.
Barrob (a voln, Paris. 1843); Le$ Emfonees Ogier, cd. A. Scheler
(Bnmeb, 1874); Hist. iitt. de ta framu, voU xx. and xieL ; C. Paris,
Hist. poH. de Ckcriewiagae (Parii, l8%6) ; L. Cautier. La Epopies
framfaises (2nd cd., 1878-1896): L. Pio. Saguet om Holgier Danske
(Copenhagen, 1870): H. L. Ward, Colalogme of Romamees, voL L
po. 6q4«6io: C. Vofetach, Vber die Sate oem Oper dem Dimem
(Ijalle. 1891): P. Pari^ " Redierchcs lur Ogier le Danob." BM. de
rtcaU des CharUs, vol. iU. ; P. Raina. Le Ongimi deW epopea frameese
(1884): Riczler. ** Naimr* v. Bayem und (^icr der D&ne.** in
Sitxungsberifkte der pkil. kist. Oasu der Id. Akad. d. Wise., vol. iv.
(Municb. 1893).
06IUT, JORll (i6o»-i676), Britbh writer, was bom hi or
near Edinburgh in November 1600. His father was a prisoner
withm the rules of King's Bench, but by speculation the son
found money to apprentice himself to a dancing master and to
obi ain hb father's release. He accompa nicd Thomas Went worth,
earl of Strafford, when he went to Ireland as lord deputy, and
became tutor to hb children. Strafford made him deputy-master
of the rcveb, and he built a little theatre in St Werburgh Street,
Dublin, which was very successful. The outbreak of the Cf\'il
War ruined hb fortunes, and in 1646 he returned to England.
Finding hb way to Cambridge, he learned Latin from itndly
schobrs who had been impressed by hb industr>'. He then
ventured to transbte Vir|^ into English verse (1649-1650),
which brought him a considerable sum of money. The success
of thb attempt encouraged Ogilby to learn Greek from David
Whit ford, who was usher in the Khool kept by James Shlrlo' the
dramatbt. Homer his Hinds tronstatfd . . . appeared in 1660,
and in 1665 Homer his Odysses transtated . . . Anthony 1
Wood asserts that in these undertaLtngs he had the assistance
of Shirley. At the Rc&tora!ion Ogilby received a commission
for the **poetic:il part " of the coronation. Hb property was
destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666. hut he rebuilt hb house
in Iftliitefriars, and set up a pri::ting press, from which be baued
«4
OGILVIE— OGOWfi
nwny nufoUieciii book*, tht mctt importaat of vUdi were a
Htim of oUiMt, wlUi cncmvioft and nupt by Hdbr And
ochon. Ho ttyfed himscU " HI* M«ie>iy'» Cotmograplicf mod
CwgTApUc Friator." Uo diod ia Loodoa on tho 4tb of
S^tombcr 1676.
OgUby olto trandatcd tho fablM of A«top, and wrote three epic
prjcmt. HU bulky output wa» ridiculed by John Orydeo in ii«^'
PlicknM tod by Alexander Pope in the PukuuL
OOltVIB (or Ogilsy). JOHN (e. 1580-1615), English Jeault,
waa boro in Scotland and educated mainly bi Germany, where
he entered the Society of Jesut, being ordained priest at Paria
bi 1613. As an emissary o( the society be returned to Scotland
in this year disguised as a soldier, and in October 16x4 he was
arrested in Glasgow. He defended himself stoutly when he was
tried in Edinburgh, but he was condemAed to death and was
banged on the 38th of February 1615.
A Trui Relation oj the Proce€ainf^t atflinsi John OgUvie, a Jesuit
(Kdlnburgh, 1615^,1^ usually attributed to ArchbifthopSpottiswoodc.
9r^ bIm Iiimct rorbcs, L Eglite catholiqut en Ecosst: martyre de
Jean Otmio (I'arit, 1685); and W. Forbes«Leith, Nanataes of
Stottitk Quhotict (1885).
OOILVY, the name of a celebrated Scottish family of which
the oarl of Alrlie is the head. The family was probably descended
from a certain Gillebrlde, carl of Angus, who received lands from
WlUiam the Uon. Sir Walter Ogllvy (d. 1440) of Lijitrathcn,
lord high treasurer of Scotland from 1415 to Z431, was the son
of Sir Walter Ogilvy of Wester Powrie and Auchterhouse, a
man, layi Andrew of Wyntoun, "stout and manfull, bauld
and wycht," who was killed in 139J. He buQt a castle at Alrlie
in Forfarsliire, and left two sons. The elder of these, Sir John
Ogilvy (d. e, 1484) » was the father of Sir James Ogilvy (c. X430-C.
1504)1 wbo was made a lord of parliament in 1491; and the
younger, Sir Walter Ogilvy, was the ancestor of the earls of
Findtater. The earldom of Findlater. bestowed on James
Ogilvy, Lord Ogilvy of Deskford, in 1638, was united in 1711
with the earldom of Scafteld and became dormant after the
death of James Ogilvy, the 7th earl, in October 18x1 (see Sea-
tiKLO, Earxj or).
Sir James Ogilvy's descendant, James Ogilvy, 5th Lord
Ogilvy of Airlie {c. t54t-t6o6), a son of James Ogilvy, master
of Ogilvyt who was killed at the battle of Pinkie In 1547, took a
leading part In Scottisli politics during the reigns of Mary and
of James VI. His grandson, James Ogilvy (c. 1 593-1666), was
created earl of Alrlie by Charles I. at York in 1639. A loyal
partisan of the king, he Joined Montrose in Scotland in 1644 and
was one of the royalist leaders at the battle of Kilsyilu The
destruction of the earl's castles of Airlie and of Forther in X640
by the earl of Argyll, who " left him not in all his lands a cock
to crow day," gave rise to the song " The bonny house o'Airlie."
His eldest son, James, the and earl (c. 1615-c. 1704) also fought
among the royalists in Scotland; in 1644 he was taken prisoner,
but he was released in the following year as a consequence of
Montrose's victory at Kilsyth. He was again a prisoner after
the battle of Philiphaugh and was sentenced to death in 1646,
but he escaped from his captivity at St Andrews and was aftcr-
wanls pardoned. Serving with the Scots against Crom^KcU
he became a prisoner for the third time in 1651, and was in the
Tonxr of London during most of the years of the Commonwealth.
He was a fairly prominent man under Charles II. and James
H., and in 1689 he ranged himself on the side of William of
OrAngc. This carKs grandson, James Ogilvy (d. I730i took part
in the lacubiie rising of 1715 and was attainted; consequently
on his lather's death in 1717 he was not allowed to succeed
to the carUiom, although he was pardoned in 1735. Wlicn be
dicil his brxHhcr John (d. 1761) became car! JeyuiY, and John'a
son David (17^5-1)^3) jolncil (he standard of Prince Charles
Fdward in 1745. He was attainted, and after the defeat of the
prince at CulKxIen escaped to Norway and Swcticn, afterwards
serving m the French arnty, where he commandcvl ** Ic rcj:im(Kt
Oji^rv " and was known as **U M JEcmmm." In 177S he was
nar\iv>nc(1 and was allowni to return to Scotland, and his family
became extinct when hU son David dicti unmarncil in April
181 1. After this event Daxida cousin, aixothcr David Ogilvy
(i7S5-tS49)« dajned the earldom. He asMiied tbat he was
unaiTf<led by tbe t wo atuinders, but the House of Lords decided
tbat these barred his soccdHon; however, in 1826 the atiaiadcn
were rrvened by act of parliament aiid David became 6(h
carl of Airlie. He died on the aoth of August 1849 aad was
succeeded by his son, David Graham Drummond Ogilvy (1826-
x88i), who was a Scottish rqxesentaiive peer for over thirty
years. The latter's son, David Stanley Wflliam Drummood
Ogilvy, the 8ih carl (1856-1900), served in Egypt in x833 and
1S85, and was killed on the nth of June 1900 during the Boer
War while at the head of his RigiineBt, the lath Lancers. His
titles then passed to his ton, David Lyulph Gore Wobdey
Ogilvy, the 9th earl (b. 1893).
A word may be said about other noteworthy members of the
OgUvy family. John Ogilvy, called Powrie Ogilvy, was a
political adventurer who professed to serve King James VI.
as a spy and who certainly served William Cecil in this capacity.
MarioU Ogilvy (d. 1575) was the mistress of Cardinal Beaton.
Sir George Ogilvy <d. 1663), a supporter of Charles I. during
the struggle with the Covenanters, was created a peer as lord
oi Banff in 1642; this dignity became dormant, or extinct,
on the death of his descendant, William Ogilvy, the 8th lord,
in June 1803. Sir George Ogilvy of Barras (d. c 1679) defended
Dunnottar Castle against Cromwell in 165 r and 1652, and was
instrumental in preventing the regalia of Scotland from falling
into his hands; in 1660 be was created a baronet, the title
becoming extinct in 1837.
See Sir R. Douglas. Pteraat 0/ Scolland» new od. by Sir J. B. Paul
(1904 fol.).
OOIVE (a French term, of which the origin is obscure; oirfe,
trough, from Lat. ovgere, to increase, and an Ambic astrologiGal
word for the " highest point." have been suggested as derivations),
a term applied in architecture to the diagonal ribs of a vault.
In France the name is generally given to the pointed arch,
which has resulted in its acceptance as a title for Gothic arcfai*
tecture, there often called " Ic style ogmd."
OGLETHORPE, JAMES EDWARD (1696-1785). English
general and philanthropist, the founder of the state of Georgia,
was bom in London on the 21st of December 1696, the soa of
Sir Theophilus Oglethorpe (1650-1702) of West brook Place,
Godalming, Surrey. He entered Corpus Christi College, Oxford,
in X714, but in the same year joined the army of Prince Eugdne.
Through the recommendation of the duke of Marlborough he
became aide-de-camp to the prince, and he served with disUoction
in the campaign against the Turks, 27x6-17, more especially* at
the siege and capture of Belgrade. After his return to Engbnd
he was in x 722 chosen member of pailiament for Haslemcre.
He devoted much attention to the improvement of the circum-
stances of poor debtors in London prisons; and for tbe purpose
of providing an asylum for persons who had become insolveni.
and for oppressed ProtesUnts on the continent, he projeaed
ilie settlement of a colony in America between Carolina and
Florida (see Georgia). In 1745 Oglethorpe was promoted to
the rank of major-general. His conduct in connexion with the
Scottish rebellion of that year was the subject of inquiry by court-
martial, but he was acquitted. In 1765 he was raised to the
rank of generaL He died at Cranham HaU. Essex, on the 1st of
July X785.
Sir Theophilus Oglethoipe. the father, had four sons and four
daughters, James bdward bcinj^ the youngest son. and another
iames (b. 1688) ha\Hng died in infancy. Of the daughters. Anne
lenrictta (b. 1680-1683). Flkanor (b. 1684) and Frances Chariotie
(BolingbrDke's " Fanny Oglethorpe '*) may be specified as having
played rather carious parts in tbe Jacobiiism of the lime; tbtv
careers are described in the essay on " Queen Oglethorpe " bv Mik*
A. Shield and A. Lang, in the tatter's Uislortcai Mysteries (1904).
OOOWi; one of the largest of tbe African rivers of the second
class, rising in 3* S. in the highlands known as the Crystal range,
and flowing N.W, and W. to the Allaniic, a little south of the
equator, and some 400 m. following the coast, north of the mouth
of the Congo. Us course, estimated at 750 m., lies wholly within
the ti lony of Gabun, French Congo. In spile of its considerable
si^e, the river {:» of comparatively little use for x^vigatioa, as
OGRE— OHIO
25
lapids coostantly occur as it descends tbe sttcceasive steps of the
interior tablelands. The principal obstructions are the falls of
Dome, in 13* £.; Bunji, in la* js'*, Chengwe, in xa* x6'; Bou£,
in 1 1' 53' ; ud the rapids formed in the passes by which it breaks
throu^ the outer chains of the mountainous zone, between xo}*
and xz}* E. In its lower course the river passes through a
lacustrixM region in which it sends off tecondazy channels.
These rhannris, before reuniting with the main stream, traverse
a series of lakes, one north, the other south, of the river. These
lakes are natuxal regulatoza of the river when in flood. The
Ogow^ has a large number of tributaries, especially in its upper
eourse, but of these few are navigable. The most important are
the Lolo, which joins on the south bank in z a* 20^ E., and the
Ivindo, which enters the Ogow£ a few miles lower down. Below
the Ivindo the krgest tributaries are the Ofowl, 400 yds. wide
at its mouth (ix* 4/ E.), but unnavigable except in the rains,
and the Ngunye, the largest southern tributaiy, navigable for
4o m. to the siunba or Eugenie Falls. Apart from the narrow
coast plain the whole region of the lower Ogow£ is densely
forested. It is fairiy thickly populated by Bantu tribes who
have migrated from the interior. The fauna includes the gorilla
and chimpansee.
The Ogow£ rises In March and April, and again in October and
November; it is navigable for steamers in its low-water condition
as far as the junction of the Ngunye. At flood time the river
can be ascended by steamers for a distance of 235 m. to a place
called N'Jole. The first person to explore the valley of the
Ogow£ was Paul du Chaillu, who travelled in the country during
1857-Z859. The extent of the delta and the immense volume
of water carried by the river gave rise to the belief that it must
cither be a bifurcation of the Congo or one of the leading rivers of
Africa. However, in 1882 Savorgnan de Brazsa (the founder of
French G>ngo) reached the sources of the river in a rugged, sandy
and almost treeless plateau, which forms the watershed between
lu basin and that of the Congo, whose main stream is only 140 m.
distant. Since that time the basin of the Ogow6 has been fully
explored by French travellers.
OOfil^ the name in fairy tales and folk-lore of a malignant
monstrous giant who lives on human flesh. The word is French,
and occurs first in Charles Perrault's Histoins ou €onits du
tempM passS (1697). The first English use is in the translation of
a French version of the Arabian Nights in 1713, where it is spelled
kogrt. Attempts have been made to connea the word with
Ugrit the zadal name of the Magyars or Hungarians, but it is
fenerally accepted that it was adapted into French from the
O. Span, huereo, kuergo, uerge, cognate with Ital. orco, ue. OreuSf
the Latin god of the dead and the infernal regions (see Pluto),
who in Romance folk-lore became a man-eating demon of the
woods.
OOYOBS, or OcYCus. in Greek mythology, the first king of
Thebes. During his reign a great flood, called the Ogygian
deluge, was said to have overwhelmed the bnd. Similar legends
were current in Attica and Phrygla. Ogyges is variously
deM»bed as a Boeotian autochthon, as the son of Cadmus, or
of Poseidon*
irUMM, THOMAS O'HAOAN, isr Bakon (x8^a-z885), lord
chancellor of Ireland, was bom at Belfast, on the a^th of May
z8x2. He was educated at Belfast Academical Institution, and
wascalled to the Irish bar in 1836. In 1840 he removed to Dublin,
where he appeared for the repeal party in many political trials.
His advoocy of a continuance of the union with England,
and his appointment as solicitor-general for Ireland in x86i and
attorney-general in the following year, lost him the support of
the Nationalist party, but he was returned to pariiament as
member for Tralce In 1 863. In x86s he was appointed a judge of
common pleas, and in x868 became lord chancellor of Ireland in
Gladstone's first ministry. He was the first Roman (UthoUc to
hold the chancellorahip since the reign of James II., an act
throwing open the office to Roman Catholics having been passed
Id 1867. In X 870 he was raised to the peerage, and held office until
theresignation of the ministry in X874. Inx88o he again became
locd chancellor 00 Gladstone's return to olfice, but resigned in
z88x. He died in London on the xst of February Z885, and was
succeeded by his eldest son, Thomas Towneley (t878-X9oo),
and then by another son, Maurice Herbert Towneley (b. Z882}.
CHIOGINS, BERNARDO (i77»-i842), one of the foremost
leaders in the Chilean struggle for independence and head of
the first permanent national government, was a natural son of
the Irishman Ambrosio O'Higgins, governor of Chile ( 1 788-1 796),
and was bom at Chilian on the 20th of August 1778. He was
educated in England, and after a visit to Spain he lived quietly
on his estate in Chile till the revolution broke out. Joining the
nationalist party led by Martinez de Rozas, he distinguished
himself in the early fighting against the royalist troops despatched
from Pern, and was appointed in November 1813 to supersede
J. M. Carrera in command of the patriot forces. The ri vab-y that
ensued, in spite of O'Higgins's generous offer to serve under
Carrera, eventually resulted in O'Higgins being isolated and
overwhelmed with the bulk of the Chilean forces at Rancagua
in 18x4. O'Higgins with most of the patriots fled across the
Andes to Mendoza, where Jos£ de San Martin (q.v.) was prepar-
ing a force for the liberation of Chile. San Martin espoused
O'Higgins's part against Carrera, and O'Higgins, recognixing the
superior ability and experience of San Martin, readily consented
to serve as his subordinate. The loyalty and energy with which
he acted under San Martin contributed not a little to the organixa-
tion of the liberating army, to its transportation over the Andes,
and to the defeat of the royalists at Chacabuco (181 7) and Maipo
(1818}. After the battle of Chacabuco O'Higgins was entrusted
with the administration of Chile, and he ruled the country firmly
and well, maintaining the dose connexion with the Argentine,
co-operating loyally with San Martin in the preparation of the
force for the invasion of Peru, and seeking, as far as the confusion
and embarrassments of the time allowed, to improve the welfare
of the people. After the overthrow of the Spanish supremacy
in Peru had freed the Chileans from fear of attack, an agitation
set in for constitutional government. O'Higgins at first tried
to maintain his position by calUng a congress and obtaining a
constitution which Invested him with dictatorial powers. But
popular discontent grew in force; risings took place In Concepdon
and Coquimbo, and on the 28th of January Z823 O'Higgins
was finally patriotic enough to resign his post of director-general,
without attempting to retain it by force. He retired to Peru,
where he was granted an estate and lived quietly till his death on
the 24th of October X842.
See B. Vicufia Machenna, Vida de (TBitffns (Santiago, 188a),
and M. L. Armuniitcgm, La Diciadura de CyHtgiins (Santiago, i8S3} ;
both containini^ good accounts of O'Hinins s career. Abo prB.
Figucfoa, Diccwnario bio^dfico de Cktle, ISKO-18S7 (Santiago.
1888), and J. B. Suarez, Rasgoi Hogjrdficos de Mombra notables de
Chile (Valparaiso, 1886}.
OHIO, a north central state of the United States of America,
lying between latitudes 38* 27' and 41* 57' N. and between
longitudes 80* 34' and 84* 49' W. It is bounded N. by Mlchi^n
and Lake Erie, E. by Pennsylvania and by the Ohio river which
separates it from West Virginia, S. by the Ohio river which
separates it from West Vi^nia and Kentucky^ and W. by
Indiana. The total area is 41,040 sq. m., 300 sq. m. being water
surface.
Physiography. — ^The state lies on the borderiand between
the Prairie Plains and the Alleghany Plateau. The disturbances
among the underlying rocks of Ohio have been slight, and
originally the surface was a plain only slightly undulating;
stream dissecrion changed the region to one of numberless hills
and valleys; glacial dzift then filled up the valleys over brge
broken areas, forming the remarkably level till plains of north-
western Ohio; but at the same time other areas were broken liy
the uneven distribution of the drift, and south-eastern Ohio,
which was ungladated, retains its ragged hilly character, gradu-
ally merging with the typical plateau country farther SX. The
average devation of the state above the sea is about 850 ft,
but extremes vary from 425 ft. at the confluence of the Great
Miami and Ohio rivers in the S.W. comer to 1540 ft. on the
summit of Hogues Hill about i} m. E. of BeDefootidae in the
west central part.
26
OHIO
The main water-parting is formed by a ranfe of hiHs which ans
composed chiefly ot drift and extend W.S.VV. acnws the sute from
Trumbull county in the N.E. to Darke county, or about ^e middle
of the W. border. North of this water-parting the riven# flow into
Lake Erie: S. of it into the Ohio river. Neariy all of the streams
in the N.E. part of the state have a rapid current. Those that flow
directly into the lake are short, but some of the rivers of this region,
such as the Cuyahoga and the Grand, are turned by drift ridges into
circuitous courses and flow through narrow valley with numerous
falls and rapids. Passing the village of Cuyahoga rails the Cuyaho^ja
river desoendb more than aoo ft. in 3 m.; a part of its coune is
between walls of sandstone 100 ft. or more in height, and near its
mouth, at Cleveland, its bed has been cut down through 60 ft. of
drift. In the middle N. part of the state the Black, Vermilion and
Huron rivers have their sources in swamps on the water-parting and
flow directly to the lake through narrow valleys. The till plains of
north-western Ohio are drained chiefly by the Mauroee and Saa-
dusky rivers, with their tributaries, and the average fall of the
Maumee is only i*x ft. per mile, while that of the Sandusky decreases
from about 7 ft. per mile at Upper Sandusky to 3*5 ft. per mile bek>w
Fremont. South of the water-partiiu the averajse length of the
rivers is greater than that of those N. of it, and their average fall per
mile is much less. In the S.W. the Great Miami and Little Miami
rivers have uniform falls through barins that are deddedly rolling
and that contain the extremes of elevatioa for the entire state.
The central and S. middle part is drained by the Scioto river and its
tributaries. The basin of this river is formed mostly in Devonian
shale, and is bounded on the W. by a limestone rim and on the E.
by pregladal valleys filled with gladal drift. In its middle portion
the Daun is about 40 m. wide and only moderatdy rolling, but toward
the mouth of the river the basin becomes narrow and is shut in by
hiah hills. In the E. part of Ohio the Muskingum river and its
tributaries drain an area of about 7750 sq. m. or nearly one-fifth
of the entire state. Much of the ungladal or driftless portion of the
state is embraced within its limits, and although the streams now
have a gentle or even aliwgish flow, they have greatly broken the
surface of the country. The upper portion of the basin is about
100 m. in wklth, bat it becomes quite narrow bebw Zanesville. The
Ohio river flows for 136 m. through a narrow valley on the S. border
of the state, and Lake Erie forms the N. boundary for a distance of
330 ra. At the W. end of the lake are Sandusl^ and Maumee bays,
each with a good natural harbour. In this vionity also are various
small islands of limestone formation which are attractive summer
resorts. On Put-in- Bay Isbnd are some interesting " hydration **
caves, ije. caves formed by the uplifting and folding of the rocks
while gypsum was forming beneath, folkiwed bv the partial coUapse
of those rocks when the gypsum passed into solution, ^lio has no
large lakes within its limits, but there arc several small ones on the
water-parting, especially in the vidnity of Akron and Canton,
and a icw large reservoirs In the W. central section.
, Fauna. — Bears, wolves, bison, deer, wiki turkeys and wild pigeons
were onnmon in the primeval forests of Ohio, but they long a^
disappeared. Foxes are still found in considerable numbers in
suitable habiuts; opossums, skunks and raccoons arc plentiful in
some parts of the state; and rabbits and rauirrcb are stilf numerous.
All the song-birds and birds of prey of the temperate sone are
plentiful. Whitefish, bass, trout and pickerel are an important food
supply obtained from the waters of the Lake, and some perch, catfish
and sunflsh are caught in the rivers and brooks.
Flora,— Ohva is known as the " Buckeye State " on account of
the prevalence of the buckeye iAuadus i^iabra)* The state was
oriainally covered with a dense forest mostl]^ of hardwood timber,
and altMugh the merchantable portion of this has been practically
all cut away, there arc still andergrowths of young timber and a
great variety of trees. The white oalc is the most common, but there
are thirteen other varieties of oak, six of hickory, five of ash, five of
poplar, five of pine, three of elm. throe of bircn, two of locust and
two of cherry. Bocch, black walnut, butternut, chestnut, catalfia,
hemlock and tamarack trees are also common. Among native fruits
are the blackberry, raspberry, elderberry, cranberry, wikl plum and
ewpaw {Asimina triloba). Buttercups, violets, anemones, spring
autics. trilliuffls, arbutus, orchids, columbine, laurel, honeysuckle,
goklen rod and asters arc common wild flowers, and of ferns there
are many varieties.
' C/tmaitf.— The mean annual temperature of Ohk> is about 51* F. ;
in the N., 40*5*, and in the S., 53'$** But except where influenced by
Lake Eria the temperature is simjoct to great extremes: at Coalton.
Jackson county, in the S.E. part of the state, the honest recorded
range of extremes is from 104* to —38* or 14a*; at Wauseon,
Fulton county, near the N.W. corner, it is from 104* to —3a* or I36* :
while at Toledo on the lake shore the range b only from 99* to — 16*
or 1 1 s* F. July is the warmest month, and in roost paru of the sute
January is the coldest; in a few valleys, however, Februarjr has a
colder record than January. The normal annual precipitation for
the entire state is 38*4 in. It is greater in the S,E. and least in the
N.W. At Marietta, tor exatnplc, it is 43*1 in., but at Toledo it is
only 30-8 in. Neariy 60% of it comes in the spring and summer.
The average annual fall 01 snow is about 37 in. in the N. and 23 in.
In the S. The prevailing winds in most parts are westeriy, but
middea changes, as well as the cstremea cf temperature, are caused
mamly by the fnqoent ahiftlnc of the wind from N.W
and from S.W. to N.W. At Cleveland and Cincinnati f- r>
blow mostly from the S.E. *> ,.-*k ^^-*
SoU.— In the driftless area, the S.E. part of the state. tS^ -'"^-
lari^ly a decomposition of the underiying rocks, and itt
vanes according to their composition; there is conr'^ —
stone in the E. central portion, and this renders the _
ductivT. In the valleys alto are strips covered with a U
deposit. In the other parts of the sute the soil is oont
of gladal drift, and ia generally deep and fertile^ It ts
more fertile, however, m the basins of the Great Miaou ,
Miami rivers, where there u a liberal mixture of dooomposcd
and where extensive areas with a clay subsoil are covt
alluvial deporits. North of the lower course of the Maumeei
bdt of sand, but Ohio drift generally oonuina a bige ifiixtu(
Xericii/iKrr.— Ohio ranks high as an agricultural sut<
tout land surface 34.501,820 acres or nearly 94% was,
included in farms ami 785 *A of all the farm tana was i
There were altogether 276,71^ farms; of these 93,038
than w acres, 183.809 oontaiaed less than too acres,
uinea less than 175 acres, 36,659 contained 175 acres
164 conUined 1000 acres or more. The average size
decreased from 135*3 acres in 1850 to 09*2 acres in i
acres in 1900. Neariy seven-tenths of the farms we
1900 by ownera or paitownera, 34,051 were worked by cashjl
51,880 were worked by share tenants, and 1969 were
negroes as owners, tenants or managers. There is a great
produce, but the prindpal crops are Indian com, wheat,
potatoes, apples and tobacco. In 1900 the acreage of
stituted 68*4 % of the acreage of all crops, and the
Indian com, wheat and oau constituted 99*3% of the 1 ._
of cereals. The Indian com crop was 67,501.144 bushels
152.055,390 bushels in 1899 and l53,o63/K)0 in 1909. v '
grown on 3,875,000 acres and the sUte ranked seventh
sutes of the Union in the productkm of thb cereal. The
was 37383,159 bushels in 1870; 50^376.800 bushels ^
3.309,014 acres) in 1899; and 23,532,000 bushels (grown on
acres) in 1909. The oat crop was 35,347,549 bushels
43^50^10 bushds (grown on 1,115,149 acnss) in '
56,331- — • * " '
dope
56,335,000 bush(
crop decreased from 1,71^33
in 1899 and 839,000 bushels in 1909.
on 1.730,000 acres) in 1909. 1 m
I3X bushels in 1870 to i/>53>340
Is in 1909. The number of s^ '
1^064,770 in X850; 3,285,789 in 1900; and 3,047,000
The number of cattle was 1,358,947 in 1850; 3,117^925
and 1,935,000 in 191 o. In 1900 tliere were 868}8j^ and in-
9|7,ooo milch cows in the state. The number of 1
» deq
slightly between 1870 and 1900, when there were 4,o3o,oai
19 10 there were 3,303.000 sheep in the state. The number of I
^f*» 463.397 in 1850; 1^)68,170 in 1000; and 9f7J9QO in
The cuKivatiott of tobacco was of fittle importance mthe state
about 1840; but the product increased from 10454,410 lb i^
to 34>735>3S5 n> in 1880, and to 65,957,100 lb in 1899, when the
was grown on 71433 acres; in X9C9 the crop was 83,350,00
Eown on 90,000 acres. The value of all farm products la 1891
57,065^36. Imltaa com, wheat and oau are grown in all p
but the W. half of the sute producesabout three^ourths of the U
com and two-thirds of the wheat, and in the N. half, especial
the N.W. comer, are the best oat-producing counties. The \
quarter ranks highest in the production of hay. DooMstk axk
are evenly distributed throughout the sUte; in no county waa |
total value, in June 1900, less than $500^)00, and in only t
counties (Licking, Trambull and Wood) did their value ««
their value exc«
liiying and the i
$2,000,000; in 73 counties their value exceeded $1,000,000,'
was less than $3^000.000. Dallying and the production of eg0i
also important industries in alf sectiona. Moat of the toboc*
grown in the counties on or near the S.W. border.
^uAmer.— Commercial fishing is imporunt only in Lake S
In 1903 the total catch there amountecl to 10,748,^ lb, vakied
$317,037. Propagation facilities are being greatly improved, t
.£- J, 1^^ j^ ^1^ proiacrion of lounature mh. Ink
' ■ tl
there area .. ^_
streams and lakes are well supplied with game fish;
prohibit the sale of game fish and thdr bong uken, except «
hook and line.
Mineral Proiueis.-~^Tht mhnenl wealth of Ohk» eonaista U«gtl$
bituminous ooal and petroleura, but the sUte also tanks high iM
producdon of itttoral can, sandstone, Uroestone, grindstone, qi
and gypsum. The ooal fields, comprising a total area of 10,000 sq.
or more, are in the E. half of the sute. Coal was discovered hetii
eariy as 1770, and the mining of it was begun not later than 18I
but no accurate aceount of the outfiot was kept until 1873. in whit
year it waa 5,315,394 short tons; thb was increased to 18,988,1;
short tons ia X900, and to 36,370.639 short tons in i908-;-in i^
it was 32,142419 ^ort tons. There are 39 counties in whu
coal is produced, but 81*4% of it in 1908 came from BeloMm
Athena, Jefferson, Guernsey. Perry, Hocking, Tuscarawas at
Jackson counties. Two of toe most productive petroleum fields %
the United Sutes are in part in Ohio; the Appalachian field in tfe
E. and S. parts of the sUte. and the Lima-Indiana field in the N.^
Krt. Some petroleum was obuined In the S.E. as eariy aa 185^
t the state'e outpvtwas oomperativtly small uatil after pctroleuc
Environs of
COLUMBUS
Scale, iijooiooo
g *■ ^ I S
OHIO
a?
was dBaeevvrad in fhe N.W. te itt4; ia 1883 the ontpot vu only
47,^ teird^ four jreftra ' '^ '"^ *" *" ~~^ *"
iM it was 93^1.169 Uf
Uaited States. Fortheaexl
and ia 1908 die output had
I 4*109.935 barrels (valued at f 7.315.667) from the south-
tncC. andiSd baneb (valued at l9So), mutable for lubricat-
bter it'vas s.o»,632 barrels, and in
banels, or 39% of the total output in the
_e neat ten years, however, there was a decrease,
, jput had fallen to 10.858,707 barrels, of which
6.748,676 barreb (vaJoed at $6,861,885) was obtained in the Lima
district, 4, l< -^ - • - . - - - ....
cast diatnctu
ins Pttrpoaes, from the Mecca-Bdden dutnct in Trumbull and
Loraui counties. Natural (as abounds in the eastern, central and
north-western parts of the state. That in the E. was first used
in 1866, the NlW. field was opened in 1884. and the central field
was opened in 1887. The value of the state's yearly flow increased
steadDy from 1100,000 in 1885 to f5.215.669 in 1889, decreased
from tKe btter year to $1,171,777 ia i807i end then increased to
$8,344,835 fai 190B. Some of the best sandstone in the United States
b oMained from Cuyahoga and Lorain counties; it is exceptionally
pure ia texture (abmit 97 % beings pure silica), durable aiui evenly
coloured Utht buff, grey or blue grey. From the Ohio sandstone
knovn as Berca grit a very large portion of the country's grindstones
and pulpstooes nas been obtained; in 1908 the value of Ohio's
output of these stones was $483,128. Some of the Berea grit b also
suitable for making oibtones and scythestoncs. Although the state
has a great amount of limestone, espedally in Erie and Ottawa
counties, Hs dull colour renders it unsuitable for most building
purposes. It is, however, much used as a flux for melting iron
and for makia^ quick lime. The quantity of Portbnd cement
auule in Ohio mcrcased from S7.000 barrels in 1890 to 563.113
barreb in 190a and to 1.521.764 barreb in 1908. Beds of rock
gypsum extend over an area of 150 acres or more in Ottawa county.
Itere b some iron ore in the eastern and south-eastern parts of the
state, and the mining of it was begun eariy in the 19th century;
' " ■ " ' ^ ' ' ' «ig tons in 1889 to only
Ohio, in 1908, produced
valued at $864,710. Other valuable
but the output decroised from 254.294 bug tons in 1889 to only
36.585 long tons (all carbonate) in 1908. "" ' '
3.437478 barreb of salt valued at $1 . .
nuaerals are cby suitable for making pottery, brick and tile (in
1908 the value of the cby arorking products was $26,622490) and
sand suiuble for making gbss. The total value of the state's
mineral products in 1908 amounted to $134,499,335.
ifanaifaclaref .— The total value of the manufactures increased from
$348,398,^0 in 1880 to $641,688,064 in 1890, and to $832,438,113
in 1900. The value of the factory product was $748,670,855 in 1900
and $960.81 1 .857 in 1905.^ The most important manuiactunnr
industry b that of iron and steel. Thb industry was established
arar Youngstown in 1804. The value of the product increased
from $65,206,828 in 1800 to $138,935,256 in 1900 and to $152,859.12^
in 1905. Foundry and machine-shop products, consisting biroy of
engines, boilers, metal'worldng machinery, wood-working machinery,
pumping machinery, mining machinerv aiul stoves, rank second
among the state's manufactures; their
1905
value
Fiour and
of the
nd grbt
producti
value increased from
$43.61 7£72 in 1890 to $72499.633 in 1900, and to $94«S07>69i in
* list mill producU rank third in the state; the
_. . _ ^ Jucts decreased from $39468,409 in 1890 to
837.390.367 in 1900. and then increased to $40,855.^ in 1905.
Meat (slaughtering and packing) was next in the value ort the product,
and increased from $20,660,780 in 1900 to $28,720,044 m 190$.
Clay oroducts rank fifth in the state; they increaaea in value from
$16480,612 in 1900 to $24,686,870 in 1905. Boots and shoes rank
sixth; their value increased from $6480.728 in 1890 to $17,920,854
in 1900 and to $25,140,220 in 1905. ()thcr leading manufactures are
mak liquors ($21,620,794 in 1905), railway rolling-stock connsting
brvely of cars ($21426,227), men's clothing ($18496.173), pbning
mill products ($17,725,711), carriages and wagons ($16,096,125),
dbtillcd liquors ($I5>976.5>3)' rubber and ebstic goods ($i5.963'6o3).
furniturft ($13,322,608). cigars and cigarettes ($13,241,230), agri-
cultural implements ($12,891,197), women's clothing ($12,803,582),
lumber and timber products ($12,567,992), soap and candles
($11,791,223). electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies
($11,019,230, paper and wood pulp ($10,961,527) and renned
petroleum ($10,948,864).
Ihe great manufacturing centres are Cleveland, Cincinnati,
Youngstown. Toledo, Columbus, Dayton and Akron, and in 1905
the value of the products of these cities amounted to 56-7% 01
that for the entire state. A large portion of the iron and steel b
manufactured in Cleveland, Youngstown, Stcubcnville, Belbire,
Lorain and fronton. Most of the automobiles are manufactured
in Cleveland; most of the cash registers and calcubting machines
in Dayton ; most of the rubber and elastic goods in Akron ; neariy
<mc-half of the liquors and about three-fourths of the men's clothing
in Cincinnati. East Liverpool leads in the manufacture of pottery;
Toledo in flour and grist mill products; Springfield in agncultural
implements; Cincinnati and Columbus in boots and shoes; Cleve-
bnd in women's clothing.
TrantfortoHtn and Cdmmerct,-^T\w most important natural
neaos of traasportation are the Ohk> river on the S. border and Lake
» The statistics of 1905 were taken under the direction of the
United Sutes Census Bureau, but products other than thoae of the
factory system, audi, for example, as those of the hand trades, were
Erie on the N. bonkr. Om of the first great pubBe uBprovemeata
made within the state was the connexion of these waterways by
two canab— the Ohio ft Erie Canal from Ctevebnd to Portsmouth,
and the Miami ft Erie Canal from Toledo to CincionatL The Ohio ft
Erie was opened throughout its entire length (309 m.) in 1832. The
Miamift £rie was completed from Middletown to Cincinnati in tf^*
in 1845 it waa opened to the lake (250 m. from Cinrinaati). The
national government began in 1825 to extend the National Road
across Ohio from Bridgeport, opposite Wheeling, West Virginb.
through Zanesville and Columbus, and completed it to Springfield
in 1837. Before the oompletioo of the Mkmi a Erie Canal to Toledo^
the building of railways was begun in thb reigioo. and in 1836 a
railway was completed from that city to Adnaa, Michigan. By
the dose of 1850 the railway mileage had increased to 575 m.,
and for the next forty years, with the exception of the Civu War
period, more than aooo m. of railwavs weie built duringeach decade.
At the dose of 1908 there waa a total mUcage of o.90O*45su Among
the railways are the Clevebnd, Cincinnati, (Hiicago ft St Louis,
the Baltimore ft Ohio, the Lake Shore ft Michigan Southern, the
New York, Chicago ft St Louis, the Pittsburgh. Cmdnnati. Chicago
ft St Loub (Peansylvanb), the Pittsburgh, Ft Wayne ft Chkago
(Peaaaylvaiua). the Njmaiio (Erie), the wheeling ft Lake Erie, the
Cincinnati, Hamilton ft Dayton, the Detroit, Tobdo ft Irontoo*
and the Norfolk ft Western. As the building of steam railways
lessened, the building of suburban and interurban electric railways
was besnn, and systems of these railways have been rapidly extended
until afl the oioie populaws districts aae connected by thras.
Ohio haa six fwrts of entry. They are Clevebnd, Toledo^ San-
dusky, Cincinnati. CUdumbus and Dayton, and the value of the foreign
commerce passing through these in 1909 amounted to $9483.974
in imports (more than one>half to Cleveland) and $10,920,063 in
exports (nearly eight>nittths from Clewebad). Of far mater volume
than the f ore^ commeroe b t he domestic txade in coau iron, lumber*
&c, largely by way of the Great Lakes.
Potation,— Tht population of Ohio in the various census
ycais was: (x8oo) 45.365; (18x0) 230.760; (1820) 58M34;
(1830) 937,903; (1840) i,5X9»467; (1850) 1,980,339; (i860)
2«339.S"; (1870) 2,665,260; (1880) 3.198^2; (1890)
3,672,3x6; (1900) 4.157.545; (19x0) 4.767,121. In X900 and
X910 it ranked fourth in population among the slates. Of the
total population in 1900, 4,060,204 or 97-6% were white and
97.34I were coloured (96,90x negroes, 37 x Chinese, 27 Japanese
and 42 Indians). Of the same total 3,698,811 or 88-9% were
native-bom and 458.734 '^f^tt foreign-born; 93-8% of the
foreign-bom oonsbtcd of the following: 204,160 natives of
Germany, 65,553 of Great Britain, 55,018 of Ireland, 22,767
of Canada (19,864 English Canadian), 16,822 of Poland. 15,131
of Bohemia, xi.575 of Austria and 11,331 of Italy. In 1906
there were 1,742,873 communicants of different religious de-
nomiiuLtions, over one-third being Roman Catholics and about
one-fifth Methodists. From 189010 1900 the urban popubtion
(t.c. population of incorporated places having 4000 inhabitants
or more) increased from 1,387,884 to 1,864.519, and the semi-
urban (i.e. population of incorporated places having less than
4000 inhabitants) increased from 458,033 to 549J41, but the
rural (t.e. population outside of incorporated places) decreased
from 1,836412 to 1,743,285. The brgest cities arc ClcvcUnd,
Cincinnati, Columbus (the capital), Toledo, Dayton, Youngstown^
Akron, Canton, Spring6cld, Hamilton, Lima and ZoncsvIUc.
Admiuistration.—Otdo b governed under the constitution of
1851 as amended in 1875. 1883, 1885, 1902, 1903, and 1905. An
amendment may be proposed at any time by either branch of the
General Assembly, and if after being approved by thrce-6fths of
the membeis of both branches it a also approved at a general
election by a majority of those voting on the question it b declared
adopted; a constitutional convention may be called after a
favourable two-thirds vote of the members of each branch of
the Assembly and a favourable popular vote— a majority of ihose
voting on the question; and the question of calling such a
convention must be submitted to a popular vote at least once
every twenty years. Under the constitution of 1802 and 1851
the suffrage was limited to " white male " citixens of the
United States, but since the adoption of the Fifteenth Amend-
ment to the Federal Constitution (1870), negroes vote, though
the constitution b unchanged. Since 1894 women who possess
the usual qualifications required of men may vote for and be voted
for as members of boards of education. The constitution requiret
that all elections be by ballot, and the Australian ballot system
was adopted in 1891; regbuation b required in dtki haviof
aS
OHIO
a population of ix,8oo or moie. The executive dqwrtinent
consisu of a governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state,
auditor, treasurer and attorney-general. As a result of the
dispute between Governor Arthur St Clair and the Territorial
leg^ture, the constitution of i8oa conferred nearly all of the
ordinary executive functions on the legislature. The governor's
control over appointments was strengthened by the constitution
of 1851 and by the subsequent creation of statutory offices,
boards and oonunisaions, but the right of veto was not given to
him until the adoption of the constitutional amendments of
1903. • The power as conferred at that time, however, is broader
than utual, for it extends not only to items in appropriation bilb,
but to separate sections in other measures, and, in addition to the
customary provision for passing a bill over the governor's veto
by a two-thirds vote of each house it is required that the votes
for repassage in each bouse must not be less than those given on
the original passage. The governor is elected in November of
even-numbered years for a term of two years, fit is commander-
in-chief of the state's military and naval forces, except when
they are called into the service of the United Sutes. He grants
paidons and reprieves on the recommendation of the state
board of pardons. If he die in office, resign or be impeached, the
officers standing next in succession axe the lieutenant-governor,
the president of the Senate, and the speaker of the House of
Representatives in the order named.
Members of the Senate and House of Representatives are
elected for terms of two years; Uiey must be residents of their
respective counties or districts for one year preceding election,
unless absent on public business of the state or of the United
States. The ratio of representation in the Senate is obtained
by dividing the total population of the state by thirty-five, the
ratio, in the House by dividing the population by one hundred.
The membership in each house, however, is slightly above these
figures, owing to a system of fractional representation and to the
constitutionid amendment of 1903 which allows each county at
least one representative in the House of Representatives. The
constitution provides for a reapportionment every ten years
beginning in 1861. Biennial sessions are held beginning on the
first Monday in January of the even-numbered years. The
powers of the two houses are equal in every respect except
that the Senate passes upon the governor's appointments and
tries impeachment cases brought before it by the House of
Representatives. The constitution prohibits special, local and
retroactive legislation, legislation impairing the obligation of
contracts, and legislation levying a poll tax for county or state
puxposes or a tax on state, munidpifd and public school bonds
(amendment of 1905), and it limits the amount and specifies the
character of public debts which the legislature may contract.
The judicial department in 1910 was composed of a supreme
court of six judges, eight circuit courts^ of three judges each,
ten districu (some with sub-divisions) of the common pleas
court, the superior court of Cincinnati, probate courts, courts
of insolvency in Cuyahoga and Hamilton counties, juvenile
courts (established in 1904)* justice of the peace courts and
municipal courts. Under the constitution of i8oa judges were
chosen by the legislature, but since 1851 they have been elected
by direct popular vote — the judges of the supreme court being
diosen at large. They are removable on complaint by a con-
current resolution approved by a two-thirds majority in each
house of the legislature. The constitution provides that the
terms of supreme and circuit judges shall be such even number
of years not less than six as may be prescribed by the legislature —
the statutory provision is six years — that of the judges of the
common pleas six years, that of the probate judges four years,
that of other judga such even number of years not exceeding
six as may be prescribed by the legislature— the sUtutory
provision is six years-— and that of justices of the peace such
even number of years not exceeding four as may be thus
prescribed— the statutory provision is four years.
Local CtnemmenL-^Tht countv and the township are the units
of the mral. the city and the vfllafe the unitt of the urban local
■ The provision for circuit courts was firat made in the constitution
ty an amendment of 1883.
peace, consubles^ board of education and board
govenunent. The chief county authority Is the boaid ol oo»*
misaioners of three memben elected for terms of two yean. The
other officials are the sheriff, treasurer and coroner, elected for two
yeara; the auditor, recorder, clerk of courts, protecutiog attorney,
surveyor and mfirmary directors, elected for two yean; and the
board of school examinen (three) and the board of county visiton
(bu, of whom three are women), appointed usually by the probate
judge for three years. The chidT township authority is the boaid of
trustees of three memben, elected by popuhur vote for two yean.
In thcparU of the sUte settled by people from New Eaglaad
township mceungt were heU in the early days, but their functioaa
were gradually transferred to the trustees, and by 1820 the meetinga
had been given up ahnoat entirely. The other township oflidals are
the ckrk, treasurer, asseseor, supervisor of roada, justioci of the
* ■ »ard of health. Under
tft^Miehtd
j^rovided
municTpal corporations act," TCefirtt'of iu Idod in theU^ted^ato!
The system of classification adopted in time became ao elaborate
that many municipalities became isoUted, each an a aeparate claaa
and the cvila of special legislation were revived. Of the two chief
cities, Qevcland (under a special act providing for the govemment
of Columbus and Toledo^ also) in 1893-1902 was governed under the
federal ^lan. which cedtralixcd power in the hands of the mayor;
in Qncmnati there was an alrooat hopdesa diffuakm of reaponaibiUty
among the council and various executive boards. The supreme oouct
in June 1903 decided that practically all the existing municipal
legislation was special in character and was therefore unoonetitn-
tionaL (Sute ex. re/. Kniseley vr. Jones. 66 Ohio State Repoita,
45;(. See also 66 Ohio State Reports, 491O A special session of the
legislature waa called, and a new municuxd code waa adopted on
the 22nd of October which went into effect in April 1903; it waa
a compromise between the Clevebnd and the Cincinnati pi«w« ,
with rome additional features necessary to meet the conditions
existing in the smaller dties. In order to comply with the court's
interpretation of the constitution, raunidpalitiea w«re divided into
only two classes, dties and villages, the former having a population
of five thousand or more; the chief officials in both dties and
vUlagea were the mayor, coundl. treasurer and numerous boarda of
commissions. This was an attempt to devise a system of govemment
that would apply to Cleveland, a city of dpofioo inhabitants, and to
Paincsvillc with its 5000 inhabitants. The code was replaced by
the Paine Law of IQ09, which provided for a bcMrd of control (sooue-
thinz like that under the " federal plan " in Cleveland. Columbua
and Toledo) of three memben: the mayor and the directora (ap>
pointed and removable by the mayor) of two munidpal departments
—public service and public safety, the former ioduding pnbUc works
and parks, and the latter police, fire, charities, correction and
buildings. The mayor's apoointments are many, and are seldom
dependent on the consent of the council. A mumdpal civil service
commission of three memben (hddlng office for three years) is' chosen
by the president of the board of education, the prudent <u the city
council, and the president of the board of sinking fund commiasionen:
the pay (if any) of these commissionen is set by each dty. Ihe
city auditor, treasurer and soUdtor are electai, as under the
code.
In i^ a direct primary law was passed providing for party
r>rimaries. those of all oarties in each district to be held at the sane
time (annually) and place, before the same election board, and at
public expense, to nominate candidates for township and municipal
offices and memben of the school board; nominations to be ^
petition signed by at least 2 % of the party voten of the political
division, cxi^t that for United States senaton | of I % is the
minimum. The law does not make the nomination of candidates
for the United Sutes Senate by this method mandatory nor such
choice binding upon the General Assembly.
Laws,— The property rights of husband and wife are nearly equal;
a wife may hold her property the same as if single, and a widower
or a widow is entitled to the use for life of one-thini of the real estate
of which his or her deceased consort was adzed at the time of his or
her death. Among the grounds on which a divorce may be obtained
are adultery, extreme crucltyr. fraud, abandonment for three years,
gross neglect of duty, habitual drunkenness, a former existing
marriage, procurement of divoice without the state 1^ one party,
which continues marriage binding on the other, and imprisonment in
a penitentiary. For every family in which there is a wife, a miaor
son, or an unmarried daughter, a homestead not exceeding Siooo
in value, or personal property not exceeding 8500 in value, is exempt
from sale for the satisfaction of debts.
In 1908 an act was passed providing for local option in regard
to the sale of intoxicating liquors, by an election to be called an
initiative petition, signed by at least 35 % of the decton of a county.
ChantabU and Pemd /lu/itefioiu.— The state chariuble and penal
institutions are supervised by the board of charities of six memben
(" not more thaji three . . . from tha same political party ")
ap^inted by the governor, and local tnsdtutiotts by bosuds 01 county
vwton of su memben appointed by the probate judge; Each state
institution in addition has its own board of trustees appointed by
the governor, and each county infirmary is under the cbaige of thraa
OHIO
29
infirmary directors chosen by popular vote. There are hoqiitals for
«te ioaae at Athena, Columbin, Dayton, Cleveland, Carthage fio m.
from CiadnoaU; Loo^vicw Hoapital), MaMilloii, Toledo mad Lima;
a bciaaital for epileptics at Callipolis, opened in iSgas iaatitutiooa
- -nrr- . 'nrrT^.. ... rr -^ ^^^j aBr for the deaf
^ r epileptics
for faeble-nUndcd, lor the
(opened 1839) at Columbus; a state lanatonum for tuberculous
patienu at Mt. Venon (opened 1909): an institution for crippled
and ddormed children (authorittd in 1907); a soldien' and sailors*
orphans' home at Xenia (ocsaaiaed in 1869 by the C«rand Army of
the Republic); a home for soldiers, sailors, marines, their wives»
mothers and widows, and amny nurses at Madison (established by
the National Women's Relief Corps; taken over by the state, 1904);
and aoldien' and sailon' homesat Sandusky (opened 1888), supported
by the sute. and at I>ayton. suppoited by the United States. The
state penal institutions are the boys* industrial school near Lancaster
(established in 1854 as a Reform Farm), the girls' industrial home
1 1 860) at lUthbone near Delaware, the reformatory at Mansfield
lauthorind 1884, opened 1896) and the penitentiary at Columbus
(1816).
BduaHomj—Coagrtm in 1785 set apart 1 sq. m. in each township
of 36 sq. m. for the support cii education. The public school system,
however, was not established until 1835, and then it developed very
slowly. The oflioe of state oommlssiopcr of common schocrfs was
cieatcd in 1857, abolished in 1840 and revived in 1843. School
districts fall into four classes— ctties. villages, townships and special
districts— each of which has its own board of educattoo elected by
popular vote. Laws passed in 1877. 1890, 189A and 1902 have made
. education compulsory for children between tne ages of eight and
fourteen. The school revenoes an derived from the sale and rental
of publk bnds granted by Congress, and of the salt and swamp lands
devoted by the state to such purposes, from a uniform levy of one
mill on each doHar of taxable property In the state, from kxal levies
(avenging 7*J mUls in township districts and 10^ mills in separate
districts m 1908). from certain fines and lioences, and from tuition
fees paid by non>resklent pupils. The total receipts from ail
in 1908 amounted to 975.987,031; the balance from the preceding
year was It 1.714.735, aira the total expenditures were 924,695,157.
Thnse institutions for higher education are supported in hrge measure
by the sUte: Ohio University at Athens, founded in IM4 on the
pracceda derived from two townships granted by Congress to the
Ohio Company ^ Miami Univeruty (chartered in 1809; at (Mord,
which received the proceeds from a township granted by Congress in
the Symmes purchase; and Ohio Sute University (1873) at Colum-
bus. which reodvcd the proeeeds from the lands granted by Congress
under the act of 186a for the establishment of agricultural and
mechanical colleges, and reorganized as a university in 1878. Wilber-
force University (1856), for negroes, near Xenia. is under the control
of the African Methodist Episcopal Chorch; but the state established
a norssal and industrial department in 1888, and has since contributed
to its maintenance. Underanactof 190a normal coOem, supported
by the state, have also been created in connexion with Onio and
Miami univcrsltieB. Among the numerous other colleges and uni-
versities in tlie state are Western Reserve University (1826) at
ClevelaiKi, the university of (Cincinnati (opened 1873) at Cmcinnati,
and Oberiin College (1833) at Oberiia.
ftna»cr.~-The revenues of the state are classified into four funds:
the seneral re^nue fund, the sinking fund, the state common school
fundf and the university fund. The chief sources of the general
tcvenue fund are taxes on real and personal property, 09 liquors and
dgaiettesg on corporations and on inheritances; la 1909 the net
receipts for this fund were 18,043,257, the disbursements 99.ioa23oi»
and the cash balance at the end of the fiscal year 83,428,705. There
is a tendency to reduce the rate on real property, leaving it as a
basis for local taxation. The rate on collateral inheritances h $%,
on direct inheritanoea a ^ on the excem above 830001 There aiv
state, county and muniapal boards of equalizatkin. A special tax
is levied for the benefit of the sinkine fund— one-tenth 01 a mill in
1009. The qommissioners of the fund are the auditor, the secretary
01 state and the attorney-general. The pubKc debt, which began to
accumulate in 1825, was increassd by the canal expenditures to
9i6.88o.aoo in 184^ The constitution of 1851 practically deprived
the legislature of the power to create new oblisations. The funded
debt ^Aas then gradually reduced until the last Installment was paid
in 190^ There still remains, however, an irredeemable debt due
to the oommnn schoohb Ohio Uaivcnity and Ohio Sute University,
in return for their public lands. About nne-half of theannual common
school fund Is derived from local taxes; the state levy for this fund
in 1909 was one mill, and the total receipts were 92,382.353. The
univenity fund is derived from special Uxes levied for the four
institntiona which receivu aid from the sute; b 1909 the levy was
o-2a^ milla and the total receipts were 9s8a.843« Several banka and
trading houses Vith bonking privileses were incorporated by special
sUtuica btf utu 1803 and 1817. Resentment was aroused by the
establishment of branches of the Bank of the United States at (Hiilti.
ootbe and Ciadnnnti in 1817. and an attempt was made to tax them
out of cmstenoe. Sute oOcials broke into the vaults of the Chilli-
cothe branch in 1819 and took out 8100,000 due for taxes. The
Federal courts compelled a restoration of the money and pronounced
the taxing law unconstitutional. In 1B45 the Icgulature chartered
for twenty years the Sute Bank of Ohio, based on th« mndt^ of the
Sute Bank of Indiana of 1834. It became a guarantee of conservntive
banking, and was highly successful. There were at one time thirty-
six branches. Most of the sute institutions secured Federal charters
after the establishroenU of the national banking system (1863-1864).
but the huh price of government bonds and the Urae amount 01 capital
rcauired kd to a reaction, which was only partially checked by the
reductbn of the minimum capital to 925.000 under the currency aa
of the 14th of March 190a
Hulory.— Ohio was the pfoneer state of the old North-West
Territory, which embraced also what are now the sUtes of
Indiana, IlHoots, Michigan and Wisconsin, and the N.E. comer
of Minnesota. When discovered by Europeans, late in the first
half of the 17th century, the territory faidudcd within what is
now Ohio was mainly a battle-ground of numerous Indian tribes
and the fixed abode of none except the Erics who occupied a
strip along the border of Lake Erie. From the middle to the
dose of the 17th century the French were esuUishbg a claim to
the territory between the Great Lakes and the Ohio river by
discovery and occupation, and althou^ they had provoked
the hostility of the Iroquois Indians they had helped the
Wyandots, Miamis and.Shawnecs to banish them from all
territory W. of the Muskingum river. Up to this time the English
had based their claim to the same territory on the discovery
of the Atlantic Coast by the Cabots and updn the Virginia,
Massachusetts and Connecticut charters under which these
colonies extended westward to the Pacific Ocean. In 170X,
New York, seeking another daim, obtained from the Iroquois
a grant to the king of England of this territory which they claimed
to have conquered but from which they had subsequently been
expelled, and this grant was confirmed in 1726 and again in 1744.
About 1730 English traden from Pennsylvania and Virj^nia
began to visit the eastern and southern parts of the territory
and the crisis approached as a French Canadian expedition under
Celeron de Bienvflle took formal possession of the upper Ohio
VaUey by planting leaden plates alt the mouths of the prindpal
streams. This was in 1749 and in the same year George II.
chartered the first Ohio Company, formed by Virginians and
London merchants trading with Virginia for the purpose of
colonizing the West. This company In 1750 sent Christopher
Gist down the Ohio river to exptore the country as far as the
month of the Sdoto river; and four years later the erection
of a fort was begun hi its interest at the forks of the Ohio. The
French drove the English away and completed the fort (Foit
Dnquesne) for themsdves. The Seven Years' War was the
immediate consequence and this ended in the cession of the entire
North-West to Great Britain. The former Indian allies of the
FicBch, however, immediately rose np in opposition to British
rule in what is known as the Conspiracy of Pontiac (see^ONTXAc),
and the supression of thk was not completed until Colond
Henry Bouquet made an expedition (x 764) into the valley of the
Muskingum and there brought the Shawnces, WyandoU and
Ddawares to terms. With the North-West won from the French
Great Britain no longer recognized those daims of her colonies
to this territory whi<^ she had asserted against that nation, but
in a royal proclamation of the 7th of October 1763 the granting
of land W. of the Alleghanies was forbidden and on the 22nd of
June 1774 parliament passed the (Quebec Act which annexed
the region to the province of Quebec. This was one of the
grievances which brought on the War of Independence and during
that war the North-West was won for the Americans by George
RogeiB Clark (q.v.). During that war also, those sUtes which
had no claims in the West contended that title to these western
lands should pass to the Union and when the Artidcs of Con-
federation were submitted for ratification in 1777, Maryland
refused to ratify them except on that condition. The result
was that New York ceded its dahn to the United States in 1780,
Virghiia in 1784, Massachusetts hi 1785 and Connecticut in 1786.
Connecticut, however, excepted a strip bordering on Lake Erie
for 120 m. and containing 3,250,000 acres. This district, known
as the Western Reserve, was ceded in 1800 on condition that
Congress would guarantee the titles to land already granted by
the state. Vltginia reserved a tract between the Little Miami
and Sdoto rivets, known as the Virginia MlliUry District, fox
lM*r soMiers in the War of Independenre.
so
OHIO
When the war was over tnd these cessions had been made
a great number of war veterans wished an opportunity to repair
their broken fortunes in the West, and Congress, hopeful of
lecetving a large revenue from the sale of lands here, passed an
ordinance on the 20th of May 1785 by which the present national
system of land-surveys into townships 6 m. sq. was inaugurated
in what is now S.W. Ohio in the summer ol 1786. In March
1786 the second Ohio Company iqjo.), composed chiefly of New
England officers and soldiers, was organized in Boston, Massa-
chusetu, with a view to foimding a new state between Lake
Erie and the Ohio river. The famous North- West Ordinance
was passed by Congress on the 13th of July 1787. This instru-
ment provided a temporary government for the Territory with
the undersUnding that, as soon as the population was sufficient,
the representative system should be adopted, and Uter that
states should be formed and admitted into the Union. There
were to be not less than three nor more than five states^ Of
these the easternmost (Ohio) was to be bounded on the N., E.
and S. by the Lakes, Pennsylvania and the Ohio river, and on
the W. by a line drawn due N. from the mouth of the Great Miami
river to the Canadian boundary, if there were to be three states,
or to its intersection with an £. and W. line drawn thsougb the
extreme S. bend of Lake Michigan, if there were to be five.
Slavery was forbidden by the sixth article ol the ordinance;
and the third article read: " Religion, morality and knowledge
being necessary to good government and the bapptness of man-
kind, schoob and the means of education shall for ever be
encouraged." After the adoption of the North- West Ordinance
the work of settlement made rapid progress. There were four
main centres. The Ohio Company founded Marietta at the
mouth of the Muskingum in 1788, and this is regarded as the
oldest permanent settlement in the state. An association of
New Jerseymen, organized by John Qeves Symmes, secured
a grant from Congress in 1788-1 79a to a strip of 348,540 acres
on the Ohio between the Great Miami and the Little Miami, which
came to be known as the Symmes Purchase^ Their chief settle-
ments were Columbia ( j 788) and Cincinnati ( 1 789). The Virginia
Military District, between the Sdoto and tiie Little Miami,
reserved in X784 for bounties to Virginia continental troops,
was colonized in large measure by people f rum that state. Their
chief towns were Massieville or Manchester (1790) and Chillicotbe
(X796). A small company of Connecticut people under Moses
Geaveland founded Cleveland in 1796 and Youngstown was
begun a few years later, but that portion of the state made very
slow progress until after the opening of the Ohio k Erie Cansl
in 183a.
During the Territorial period (1787-1803) Ohio «'as first a
part of the unorganized North-West Territory (x787~x799)i
then a part of the organized North-West Territory (1799-1800),
and then the organized North- West Territory (1800-1803),
Indiana Territory having been detached from it on the W.
in 1800. The first Territorial government was established at
Marietta in July 1788, and General Arthur St Clair (1784-
1818), the governor, had arrived in that month. His ad-
ministration was characterized by the final struggle with the
Indians and by a bitter conflict between the executive and the
legislature, which greatly influenced the constitutional history
of the state. The War of Independence was succeeded by a
series of Indian uprisings. Two campaigns, the first under
General Josiah Harmar (1753-18x5) in X790, and the second
under General St Clair in x 791, failed on account of bad manage-
ment and ignorance of Indian methods of warfare, and in 1793
General Anthony Wayne {q.v.) was sent out in comnuuid oi a
large force of regulars and volunteers. The decisive conflict,
fought on the 20th of August 1794, near the capidsof the Maumee,
is called the battle of Fallen Timbers, because the Indians
concealed themselves behind the trunks of trees which had been
felled by a storm. Wayne's dragoons broke through the brush-
wood, attacked the left flank of the Indians axul soon put them
to flight. In the treaty of Greenville (3rd August X795) the
Indiaxv ceded their claims to the territory E. and S. of the
Cuyahoga, the Tuscarawas, and an irregular line from Fort
Laurens (Bolivar) in Tuscarawas county to Fort Recovery Ir
Mercer county, practically the whole E. and S. Ohio. The
Jay Treaty was ratified in the same year, and in 1796 the British
finally evacuated Detroit and the Maumee and Sandusky forts.
By cessions and purchases in X804, 1808 and x8x7-x8iS the
sute secured allof the lands of the Indians except thdr immediate
homes, and these were finally exchanged for territory W. of the
Mississippi. The last remnant migrated in X84X. General
Wayne's victory was followed by an extensive immigration of
New Englanders, of Germans, Scotch-Irish and Quakeia from
Pennsylvania, and of setllen from Vurgima and Kcntacky,
many of whom came to escape the evils of slavery. This rapid
increase of population led to the establishment of the organized
Territorial government in X799t to the restriction of that govem-
ment in Ohio in x8oo, and to the admission of the sUte into the
Union in 1803.
The Congressional Enabling Act of the 30th of April x8oa
followed that alternative of the North- West Ordinance which
provided for five sutes in determining the boundaries, and in
consequence the Indiana and Michigan districts were detached.
A rigid adherence to the boundary authorized- in 1787, however,
would have resulted In the loss to Ohio of 470 sq.in.oiF territory
in the N.W. part of the state, including the lake port of Toledo.
After a long and bitter dispute—the Toledo War (see Tolsdo)— >
the present line, which is severs^ mUes N. of the S. bend of Lake
Michigan, was definitely fixed in X837, when Michigan came into
the Union. (For the settlement of t^ eastern boundary,. see
P£1INSY7,VAMIA.)
After having been temporarily at Marietta, Cincinnati, Chilli-
cothe and Zanesville the capital was esUbllshed at Columbus
in 18x6.
Since Congress did not pass any formal act of admission tbeie
has been some controversy as to when Ohio became a stnte.
The Enabling Act was passed on the 30th of April 180a, the
first state legislature met on the xst of March 1803, the Territorial
judges gave up their ofltees on the xsth of April 1803, and the
Federal senators and representatives took their seats in Congress
on the X 7th of October 1803. Congress decided in 1806 in
coxmexion with the payment of salaries to Territorial ofidab
that the xst of March 1803 was the date when state government
began. Daring the War of x8xa the Indians under the lead of
Tecumseh were sgain on the side of the British. Battles woe
fought at Fort Meigi (1813) and Fort Stephenson (Fremoot,
1813) and Conmiodore Oliver Hazard Perry's naval victory on
Lake Erie in 18x3 was on the Ohio side of the boundary line.
Owhig to the prohibition of slavery the vast majority of tlae
eariy inmugntnts to Ohio came from the North, but, until the
Mexican War forced the slavery question into the foreground,
the Democrats usually controlled the state, because the prindpUs
of that party were more in harmony with frontier ideas ol
equality. The Whigs were successful in the presidential elections
of 1836 and 1840, partly because of the financial panic and
partly because their candidate, William Henry Harrison, was a
" favourite son," and in the election of X844, because of the
unpopularity of the Texas iisue. Victory waa with the Democzau
in X848 and 1852, but since the organization of the Republican
party in 1854 the state has uniformly given to the Republican
presidential candidates its electoral votes. In the Civil War
Ohio loyally supported the Union, furnishing 3x9,659 men for
the army. Dissatisfaction with the President's emancipation
programme resulted in the dectlon of a Democratic Congrcasiona]
delegation in 1862, but the tide turned again after Gettysburg
and Vicksburg; Qement L. Vallandighan, the Democratic
leader, waa deported from the state by military order, and the
Republicans were successful in the elections of 1863 and 1864.
A detachment of the Confederate cavalry under Cieneral John
Morgan invaded the state in 1863, bnt was badly defeated in the
battle of Buffington's Island Quly x8th). Democratic govcsnoa
were elected in 1873, 1877, 1883, 1889, 1905, 1908 and i9ra
Five presidents have come from Ohio, William Hepiy Harrison*
Rutherford B. Hayes, James A. Garfield, William MfKinliy, Jr.,
and William Howard Taft.
OHIO COMPANY
3>
GOVBKMOBS OF OBIO
Ttnitorial Ftfiod (1787-1803).
Arthur Sc Cbir .... 1787-1802
Cbaries W. Byrd (Acting) . . 1802-1803
Period •/ SlaUkood.
Federaliat
Dem.*Rcpub.
Edwatd Tiffin
Tbomu Kirlcer (Acting)
1 Hantington
Rttnni locMtluuii
Othokl Looket (Actii^)
Thomas Worthington .
Ethan AUen Brown
Alkn Trim ble (Ac ting)
Icreauah Moftow.
XUenTrimble . . .
Duncan McArthur
RobertL4icaa
J«Kpk Vance . . .
Wibon Shanaoa .
Thoowa Corwin .
Wibon Shannon .
Thomas W. Bartlcy (Acting)
Mordecai Bartlcy.
WiUiamBcbb . . .
SeaburyFonI
" ■ iWood
1803-1807 Dem.-Rq>ub.
1807-1800
I809'i8it „
1811-1814 M
1814-181$ „
1815-1819 „
' 181^1822 „
1822^1823
1823-1827 ]
I 827-1 831
1831-1833 ]
1833-1837 1
1837-1839 '
I 839-1841 1
1841-1843 ^
1843-1844 :
1844-1845 ,
1845-1847 '
1847-1849
1849-1831
Democrat.
Nat.-Rcpub.
Democrat
I Whig
Democrat
i Whig
Democrat
'Whig"
William Medill (Acting, 1853) . 1853-1856
Salmon P. Chase .... i8«^i86o
'K\lU
William
• Jr..
1860^862
Democrat
Republican
D»vidTod 1862-1864
lohn Brou^
Charles Anderson (Acting).
Jacob D. Cox
Ktttherfoni B. Hayes .
EdwtttI r. Noyes.
William Alien
Rutherford B. Hayes .
Thomas L. Young (Acting) .
Richard M. Bishop . .
Charica Foster
Caorae Hoadlcy .
loseph B. Forakcr
James E. Campbell
William McKinley, Jr.. .
Asa S. Buahnell . . .
CcoqieiCNaah . . .
Myron T. Herrick.
John M. Pftttiaon >
Andrew Lintncr Harris
Judson Harmon
i864-i86«
1865-1866
i86&-f868
l868-l87a<
i87»-l874
1874-1876
1876-1877
1877-1878
l87i-l8te
1880-1884
1884-1886
1886-1890
1890-1892
1892-1896
1896-1900
1900-1904
1904-1906
1906
1906-1909
1909-
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
BiBtlOCKAPRY.— For a brief but admirable treatment of the
physiography see Stella S. Wtlaon, Okie (New York, 1902), and a
great mm of material on this subject is contained in the publications
of the GcolbgiGal Surviy o( Ohio (1837 et seq.). For the administra-
tion see the CouUiiutwu of Ike StaU of Ohto, adopted June tSsi
(Norwalk, Ohio, 1897), and amendments of 1903 and 1905 published
separately; the annual reports of the sute treasurer, auditor,
board of state charities and commissioner of oomnum schools, the
Ellis munidpal code (1902) and the Harrison school code (1904).
The Civil Code, issued 18&2, the Criminal Code in 1869 and the
Revised Sututes in 1879, nave several times been amended and
published in new editions. There are two excellent secombry
accounts; Samuel P. Orth, Tko CentralitalioH of AdminirtraHom
4m OUo, in the Columbia University Studies in History, Economics
nnd Public Uw. xvi. Now 3 (New Yoric. 1903): and WUbur H.
Siebert, The Gotemmenl of OAio, its History and Administration
(New York, 1904). B. A. Hinsdale's History and ChU Government
of Ohio (Chicago, 1896) b more elemenury. For local government
■ee I. A. Wilmia, ** Evolution of Township Government in Ohio,"
in tac 4miiMi Report of the American Historical Association for
1894. PP- 403-4t» CWashinrton, 1805): D. F. Wikox. Uttniiibal
Cooerument in Michigan and Ohio, in the Colombia University Studies
in Ohio Municipal Government," in the American Political Science
JUoifw for November 1909. On education see George B. Germann.
HoiwntA Legislation coneemini EdmeaHon, Us InJUuneo and Effect
im Iho PmbUt Lands oast of tko Miniuippi Riter, admitted prior to
i8» (New York. 1899); J. J. Bums. EdmattMal History of Ohio
(Columbus. 1905).
Archaeology and History: P. G. Thomson's Bibliography of Ohio
rpncsnnatt. 1880) is an excellent guide to the study of Ohio's history.
For nrcbaeology see Cyrus Thomas's CBlal«fiir of PrAistorie Works
■Disdinc
Bast of Ike Rocky Momilams (Waahinctoa, 1891), nnd his lb*prl on
Ike Mound Explorations of tke Bureau ofEtknolofy in the 12th Report
(1804) of that Bureau, supplementing his eariier bulletins, Problem
of the Okio Mounds and the Circular, Spiare and OetagontU EartkiBorks
of Okio (1889); and W. K. Moorebead, Primitioe Man in OUo
(New York, 1802). The best history is Rufus King, Okio; First
Fruits of tke Ordinance of 1787 (Boston and New York. 1888). in the
" Amencan Commonwealths " series. Alexander Black's Story of
Okio (Boston, 1888) is a short popular account. B. A. Hinsdale,
Tke CHd Northwest (2nd ed.. New Yoric. 1899). i« Rood for the period
before 1803. Of the oUer histories Caleb Atwater, History of Ike Stale
of Okio, Natural and Cunl (Cincinnati, 1838), and James W. Tayk>r,
History «/ (he State of Okio: First Period 1650-1787 (Cincinnati*
1854), ^'^ useful. For the Territorial period, and especially for the
Indan wari of f 790-1 794* tfot W. H. Smith (od.), 7^ St Clair Papere:
Life amd Seroius of ArUutr St Clair (2 vols.. Cincinnati. 1882) ; Jacob
Burnet, Notes on tke Early Settlement of tke Nortk-Westem Territory
(Cincinnati, 1847), written from the Federalist point of view, and
hence rather favourable to St Clair; C. E. Slocum, Okio Country
Je; ,.:. ij^j J.:! :r. , ::': York, 1910); and John Armstrong's
Ltje cj Axthony tf'dTv m ^pir-ks' " Library of American Biopmphy "
(titv^.i.hn, jBv^-t*S3^)t *fTii-5 L vol, iv. See also F. P. Goodwin.
77i^ (^'.-zrsk 'vf OAio (Ciruimi&ti, 1907) and R. E. Chaddock. Ohio
be, Sirw YorV, iijHiH). lliere is considerable material of
VI 11^ for local hittoiv, in the Okio Arekaeologkal and
H I ^f>firUcmf>tr»j (Columbus, 1887), and in Henry Howe,
H-iofi^il LdkaioHi ^j Okw (1st ed., Cincinnati, 1847; Centennial
edit I. m [<?f]bri;edl. 1 vi>U,, C^lurabus, 1889-1891). T. B. Galloway,
•* Tfi- r >hi&^KTk hli^n D. nc t ry Line Dispute,'' m the Okio Arckaeo-
to^tfni nnd //>''. f PuUications, vol. iv. pp. 190-230,
b a ^tjud tri^Luuiu ui Lu^i. uijmplicated question. W. F. Gepoart'a
Tratuportation and Industrial Development in tke Middle West (New
York. 1909), in the Columbia University Studies in History,
Economics and Public Law, b a commerdal history of Ohio.
OHIO OOIIPAIIT, a name of two iSth coitnry crnnpniiift
oifinbed for the coloniatkn of the Ohio Valley. The fint
OMo Cbmpany was organiacd in 1749, partly to aid in feauing
for the Englbh control of the valley, then in dispnte beCweea
Engbnd and France, and partly as a commerdal project for
trade wkh the Indians, llie company was composed of Vir-
ginbns, including Thomas Lee (d. 1750) and the two brothers of
George Washington, Lawrence (who succeeded to the manage
ment npon the death of Lee) and Augustine; and of Englishmen,
Including John Hanboiy, a ncalthy London merchant. Oeorge
II. sanctioned a grant to the company of 500,000 acres generally
N.W. of the Ohio, and to the eastward, between the Monoogaheb
and the Kanawha rivers, but the grant was never actually
issued. In 1 750-1 751 Christopher Cist, a skilftU woodsman and
surveyor, exploccd for the company the Ohio Valley as far as
the mouth of the Sdoto river. In 1752 the company had a
pathway biased between the small fortified posts at Wili*k Creek
(Cumberhmd), Marybad, and at Redstone Creek (Brownsville),
Penasylvanb, which it had established in 1750; but it was
finally merged in the Walpole Company (an organisation in
whitii Benjamin FrankKn was Interated), which in 177 a had
received from the British government a grant of a laige tract
lying ahmg the southern bank of the Ohio as far irest as the
mouth of the Sdoto river. The War of Independence interrapted
colonisation and nothing was accomplished.
The second company, the Ohio Company of Aasodates, was
formed at Boston on the 3rd of March 1786. The leaders io the
movement were General Rufus Putnam, Benjamin Tripper
(173S-1792), Samnd Holdea PUaons (1737-1789) and Manasxh
CttUer. Dr Cutler was selected to negotiate with Coogreas. and
seems to have helped to secure the incoiporatioa id the Ordinance
for the government of the North- West Tcrritoiy of the paragraphs
which prohibited sbvery and provided for public education and
for the support of the ministry. Cutler's original intention was
to buy for the Ohio Company only about 1,500,000 acres, but
on the STth of July Congress authorised a giant of about
5,000,000 acres of land for $3,500,000; a reduction of one-third
was allowed for bad tracts, aiokd it was also provided that the
lands could be paid for in United Sutes securiUes. On the 27th
of October 1787 Cutler and Major Winthrop Saigent (1753-
1820), who had joined him in the negotbtiona, signed two con-
tracts; one was for the absolute purchase for the Okdo Company.
at 66f cents an acre, of 1,500,000 acres of land lying along the
nofth bank of the Ohio river, from a point nesr the site of the
32
OHIO RIVER
present Marietta, to a point nearly opposfle the site of the present
Huntington, Kentucky; the other was for an option to buy ail
the land between the Ohio and the Scioto riven and the western
boundary line of the Ohio Company's tract, extending north of
the tenth township from the Ohio, this tract being preempted by
" Manasseh Cutler and Winthrop Sargent for themselves and
otheis ''—actually for the Sdoto Company (see Galupolis).
On the same day Cutler and Sargent " for themselves and
associates '* transferred to William Duer, then Secretary of the
Treasury Board, and his associates " one equal moiety of the
Sdoto tract of land mentioned in the second contract," it being
provided that both parties were to be equally interested in the
sale of the land, and were to share equally any profit or loss.
Colonists were sent out by the Ohio Company from New England,
and Marietta, the first permanent settlement in the present state
of Ohio, was founded in April 178&
OHIO RIVBB. the prindiMl eastern tributary of the Mississippi
river, VJS.A. It is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny
and Monongaieia rivers at PitUburg, Pennsylvania, and flows
N.W. nearly to the W. border of Pennsylvania, S.S.W. between
Ohio and West Virginia, W. by N. between Ohio and Kentucky,
and W.S.W. between Indiana and lUinoison the N. and Kentucky
on the S. It is the largest of all the tributaries of the Mississippi
in respect to the amount of water discharged (an average of about
158,000 cub. h. per sec.), is first in importance as a highway of
commerce, and in length (967 m.) as well as in the area of its
drainage baain (approximately axo,ooo sq. m.) it is exceeded only
by the Missouri. The slope of the river at low water ranges
from I fL or more per mile in the upper section to about 0-75 ft.
per mile in the middle section and o^ag ft. per mile in the lower
section, and the total fall is appnudmatdy 500 ft. Neariy two>
thirds of the bed is occupied by 187 pools, in which the fall is very
gentle; and the greater part of the descent is made over inter-
vening bars, which are usually composed of sand or gravel but
occasionally of hard pan or rock. The greatest falls are at
Louisville, where the river within a distance of 3*a5 m. descends
23*9 ft. over an irregular mass of limestone. The rock floor of the
vkOey is usually 30 to 50 ft. bdow k)w water levd, and when
it comes to the surface, as it occasionally docs, it extends at this
height only part way across the valley. In the upper port of the
river the bed contains much coarse gravel and numerous boulders,
but lower down a sand bed prevails. The ordinary width of the
upper half of the river is quite uniform, from x 200 to x 500 ft., but
it widens in the pool above Louisville, contracts immediately
bdow the Falb, and then gradually widens again until it reaches
a maximum width of more than a mUe about 30 m. from its
mouth. Islands are numerona and vary in size from an acre or
less to 5000 acres; above Louisville there are fifty or more, and
belowit about thirty. Many of them are cultivated.
Besides its parent streams, the Allegheny and the Monongahela,
the Ohio has numerous4arge branches. On the N. it recdves the
waters of the Muskingum, Sdoto, Miami and Wabash rivers, and
on the S. those of the Kanawha, Big Sandy, Licking, Kentucky,
Green, Cumberland and Tenneaacc rivers.
The drainage basin of the Ohio, in which the annual rainfall
iverages about 43 in., is, especially in the S. part of the river,
of the " quick-spilling " Und| and as the swift mountain streams
in that section are filled in February or March by the storms from
the Gulf of Mexico, while the northern streams are swollen by
mdting snow and rsin, the Ohio rises very suddenly and not
infrequently attains a height of 30 to 50 ft. or more above low
water level, spreads out ten to fifteen times its usual width,
submerges the bottom lands, and often causes great damage to
property in tha lower part of the dries along its banks.
Robert Caveller, Sieur de La Salle, asserted that he discovered
the Ohio and descended it until his course was obstructed by
a fall (thought to be the Falls at Louisville); this was probably
in 1670, bat until the middle of the next century, when its
strategic importance in the struggle of the French and the
Engli^ for the possession of the interior of the continent became
fully reoogniaed, little was generally known of il. By the treaty
of 1763 ending the Seven Years' Wax the English finally ftuned
undisputed control of the territory along its banks. After
Virginia had bought, in 1768, the daims of the Six Nations to the
territory south of the Ohio, immigrants, mostly Virginians, began
to descend the river in considerable numbers, but the Shawnee
Indians, whose title to the land was more plausible than that of
the Six Nations ever was, resisted thdr encroachments until the
Shawnees were ddeated in October 1774 at the battle of Point
Pleasant. By the treaty of 1783 the entire Ohio country became
a part of the United Sutcs and by the famous Ordinance of 1787
the north side was opened to settlement. Most of the settlers
entered the region by the headwaters of the Ohio and carried
much of their market produce, lumber, &c, down, the Ohio and
Mississippi to New Orleans or beyond. Until the successful
navigation of the river by steamboats a considerable poftion of
the imports was carried overland from Philadelphia or Baltimore
to Pittsburg. The first steamboat on the Ohio was the " New
Orleans," which was built in 181 1 by Nicholas J. Rooaev^
and sailed from Pittsburg to New Orleans in Uie same year,
but it remained for Captain Henry M. Shreve (1785-1854) to
demonstrate with the " Washington," which he built in 1816^
the success of this kind of navigarion on the river. From 1820
to the Civil War the steamboat on the system of inland water-
ways of which the Ohio was a part was a dominant factor in the
industrial life of the Middle West. Cndnnati, LouisviSe and
Pittsburg on its banks were exteiksivdy engaged in buildinf
these v^sds. The river was dotted with flrating shopa-~dry-
goods boats fitted with counters, boats containing a tinner's
establishment, a blacksmith's shop, a factory, or a lottery office*
Until the Erie Canal was opened in 1825 the Ohio river was the
chief commercial highway between the East and the West.
It was connected with Lake Erie in 1832 by the Ohio & Erie
Canal from Portsmouth to Qeveland, and in 1845 by the Miami
& Erie Canal from Cindnnati to Toledo.
In the natural state of the river navigation was usually almost
wholly suspended during low water from July to November,
and it was dangerous at all times on account of the numerous
snags. The Federal government in 1827 undertook to remove
the snags and to increase the depth of water on the bars by the
construcUon of contraction works, such as dikes and wing dams,
and appropriations for these purposes as well as for dredging
were continued until 1844 and resumed in 1866; but as the
chaimcl obtained was less than 3 ft. in 1870, locks with movable
dams— that is, dams that can be thrown down on the approach
of a flood— were then advocated, and five years later Congress
made an appropriation for constructing such a dam, the Davis
Island Dam immediately bdow Pittsburg, as an experimenL
This was opened in 18S5 and was a recognized success; and in
1895 the Ohio Valley Improvement Assodation was organized
in an efifort to have the system extended. At first the assodatioB
asked only for a chaimel 6 ft. in depth; and between 1896 and
r905 Congress authorized the necessary surveys and made appro*
priations for thirty-six locks and dams from the Davis Island
Dam to the mouth of the Great Miami river. As the assodation
then urged that the channel be made 9 ft. in depth Congress
authorized the secretary of war to appoint a board of engineeis
which should make a thorough examination and report on the
comparative merits of a channel 9 ft. in depth, and one 6 f L in
depth. The board reported in 1908 in favour of a 9<ft. channel
and stated that fifty-four locks and dams would be ncoessaiy for
such a channd throughout ih& course of the river, and Congress
adopted this project. At the Falls is the Louisvflle & Portland
Canal, orifpinally built by a private corporation, with the United
States as one of the stockholders, and opened in 1830^ with a
width of 50 ft., a length of 200 ft., and three lodes, each with
a lift of about 8} ft. In 1860-187 2 the width was increased
to 90 ft. and the three old k)cks were replaced by two new ones.
The United States gradually increased its holdings of stodc
until in 1855 it became owner of aU but five shares; it assumed
the management of the canal in 1874, abolished tolls in x88o,
and thereafter improved it in many respects. Sixty-eight locks
and dams have been construaed on the prindpal tributaries,
and the Allegheny, Monon^bela, Cumberland, Tennessee,
OHLAU— OHLK^SCHLAGER
33
Muikiiigam, KAiiawha, LUUe Kaaatrha, Big Saady, Wabuh,
and Green now afford a total of about 960 m. of slack-water
navigation.
See the Board of Englncen* Report of BxamincUon (^ Ohio River
with a view to obtainint Channel Depths of 6 and g It. respectively
(Washington, 1908) ; A. B. Hulbert. Wateruays of Westward Ex-
pansion CCIevelaod. 1903) and The Ohio Rwer, a Couru of Empire
(New York. 1906); alao K. G. Thwaites, Afloat on the Oho (New
York. 1900).
0HL4U, a town of Germany, In the Prussian province of Silesia,
16 m. by rail S.E. of Breslau, on the left bank of the Oder. Pop.
(1905) 9253. It has two Roman Catholic and two Evangelical
churches, and a castle. OUau is the centre of a tobacco-growing
district and has manufactures of tobacco and cigars, machinery,
beer, shoes and bricks. It became a town in 1291 and passed
to Prussia in 1742. In the 17th and i8th centuries it was often
the residence of the dukes of Brieg and of the Sobieski family.
See Schuls, AnsOhlausVerianienheit (Ohlau. 1903).
OHUDOCHL&eBR. ADAM OOTTLOB (1779-1850), Danish
poet, was bom in Vesterbro, a suburb of Copenhagen, on the
14th ol November 1779. His father, a Schleswiger by birth,
was at that time organist, and later became keeper, of the royal
palace of Frederiksberg; he was a very brisk aM cheerful man.
The poet'a mother, on the other hand, who was partly German
by extraction, suffered from depressed spirits, which afterwards
deepened into melancholy madness. Adam and hb sister Sofia
weic allowed thdr own way throughout their childhood, and were
taught nothing, except to read and write, until their twelfth
year. At the age of nine Adam began to make fluent verses.
Three years later, while walking in Frederiksberg Gardens, he
attracted the notice ol the poet Edvand Storm, and the result
of the conversation was that he received a nomination to the
college called ** Posterity's High School,'* an important institution
of which Storm was the principal Storm himself taught the class
ol Scandinavian mythology, and thus OhlenschUiger received
hia earliest bias towards the poetical religion of his ancestors.
He was confirmed in 1795, and was to have been apprenticed
to a tradesman in Copenhagen. To his great delight there was
a hitch in the preliminaries, and he returned to his father's
bouse. He now, in his eighteenth year, suddenly took up study
with great seal, but soon again abandoned his books for the stage,
where a small position was offered him. In 1797 he actually
made his appearance on the boards in several successive parts,
but soon discovered that he possessed no real histrionic talent.
The brothers Orsted, with whom he had formed an intimacy
fruitful of profit to him, persuaded him to quit the stage, and in
1800 he entered the university of Copenhagen as a student.
He was doomed, however, to disturbance In his studies, first
from the death of his mother, next from his inveterate tendency
towards poetry, and finally from the attack of the English upon
Copenhagen in April 1801, which, however, inspired a dramatic
sketch (Aprii the Second 1801) which is the first thing of the
kind by OhlenschUlger that we possess. In the summer of
x8o2, when Ohlcnscblftgcr had an old Scandinavian romance,
as well as a volume of lyrics, in the press, the young Norse
philosopher, Henrik Stcflens, came back to Copenhagen after
a long visit to ScheUing in Germany, full of new romantic Ideas.
His lectures at the university. In which Goethe and Schiller
were for the first lime revealed to the l)anish public, created
a great sensation. Steflens and Ohlenschllger met one day at
Dreier's Club, and after a conversation of sixteen hours the latter
went home, suppressed his two coming volumes, and wrote
at a sitting his splendid poem Ciddkarnene^ in a manner totally
new to Danish literature. The result of his new enthusiasm
speedily sho^'ed itself in a somewhat hasty volume of poems,
published in 1803, now chiefly remembered as containing the
lovely piece called Sanct-HansaJten-SpU. The next two years saw
the production of several exquisite works, in particular the
epic of Thors Reise til Jotunheim, the charming poem in hexa-
meters called Langtlandsreisen, and the bcwitdiing piece of
fantasy Aladdin's Lampe (1805). At the age of twenty^six
Ohlenschllger was universally recognized, even by the opponents
ol the ron\antic revival, as the leading poet of Denmark. Ue
now collected hii Poetical Writings in (wo volomet. He found
no difficulty in obtaining a grant lor foreign travel from the
government, and he left his native country for the first time,
joining Steffens at Halle in August 1805. Here he wrote the
first of his great historical tragedies, Hakon Jarl, which he sent
off to Copenhagen, and then proceeded for the winter months
to Berlin, where he associated with Humboldt, Fichte, and
the leading men of the day, and met Goethe for the first time.
In the spring of 1806 he went on to Weimar, where he spent
several months in daily intercouiae with Goethe. The
autumn of the same year he spent with Tieck in Dresden,
and proceeded in December to Paris. Here he resided eighteen
months and wrote his three famous masterpieces, BaUnr km
Code (1808), Palnaioke (1809), and Axd og Valborg (i8to).
In July 1808 he left Paris and spent the autumn and whiter
in Switserland as the guest of Madame de Stacl-Holstein at
Coppet, in the midst of her drcle of wits. In the spring of 180^9
OhienKhUger went to Rome to visit Thorwaldsen, and in hia
house wrote his tragedy of Coneggio, He hurriedly returned
to Denmark in the spring of 1810, partly to take the chair ol
aesthetics at the university of Copenhagen, partly to marry
the sister-in-law of Rahbek, to whom he had been long betrothed.
His first course of lectures dealt with his Danish predecessec
Ewald, the second with SchUler. From this time forward
his literary activity became very great; in 181 1 be published
the Ofientai tale of Ali og CMlkyndi, and in 1813 the last of his
great tragedies, Staerhodder, From 1814 to 1819 he, or rather
his admirecs, were engaged In a long and angry controversy with
Baggesen, who represented the old didactic school. This contest
seems to have disturbed the peace of Ohlenschliger's mind, and
to have undermined his genius. His talent may be said to have
ctilminated in the glorious cycle of verse-romances called Helgt^
published in 1814. The tragedy of Hag^lh og Signe, 1815,
showed a distinct falling-off in style. In 1817 he went back
to Paris, and published Uroars Saga and the tragedy of Fast'
brddrone. In 1818 he was again in Copenhagen, and wrote
the idyll of Den liile Hyrdedreng and the Eddaic cycle called
Nordens Cvder. His next productions were the tragedies ol
Erik og Abd (1820) and Vaerinicnt i Miklagaard (1826), and
the epic of Hrol/ Krake (iSio)* It was in the last-mentioned
year that, being in Sweden, Ohlenschllger was publicly crowned
with laurel in front of the high altar in Lund cathedral by
Bishop Eaaias Tegn^r, as the " Scandinavian King of Song."
His last volumes were Tordenshjold (18I33), Drouning Margretkt
(t833). Sokrata (1835). Oiaf den HeUige (1836), Knud den Stor§
(1838), Dina (184a), Erik Clipping (1843)* tad Kiartan og
Cudrun (1847)* On his seventieth birthday, 14th November
1849. SL public festival was arranged in his honour, and he was
decorated by the king of Denmark under circumstances of great
pomp. He died on the 20th of January 1850, and was buried
in the cemetery of Frederiksberg. Immediately alter his death
his Recollections were published in two volumes.
With the exception of Holberg. there has been no Danish writer
who has exercised so wide an influence as OhlenschUlger. His
great work was to awaken in the breasts of his countrymen an
enthusiasm for the poetry and religion of their ancestors, and this
he performed to so complete an extent that his name remains to
this day synonymous with Scandinavian romance. He supplied
his countrymen with romantic tragedies at the very moment
when all eyes were turned to the stage, and when the old-fashioned
pieces were felt to be inadequate. His plays, partly, no doubt,
in consequence ol his own early familiarity with acting, fulfilled
the stage requirements of the day, and were popular beyond
all expecUtion. The earliest are the best— OhlenschUiger's
dramatic masterpiece being, without doubt his first tragedy,
Hakon JarL In his poems and plays alike his style is limpid,
elevated, profuse; his flight is sustained at a high pitch without
visible excitement. His fluent tenderness and romantic aest have
been the secrets of his extreme popuhirity. Although his
inspiration came from Germany, he is not much like a German
poet, except when he is consciously following Goethe; his
analogy vt much rather to be found among the English poets.
34
OHLIGS— OHMMETER
his ooatemporanes. His mission towards antiquity reminds
us of Scott, but he is, as a poet, a better artist than Scott;
he has sometimes touches o( exquisite diction and of over-
wrought sensibility which recall Coleridge to us. In his wide
ambition and profuseness he possessed some characteristics
of Southey, although his style has far more vitality. ' With all
his faults he was a very great writer, and one of the principal
pioneers of the romantic movement in Europe. (E. G.)
OHUfiS, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province,
27 m. by rail N. of Cologne, on the railway to Elberfeld. Pop.
(1905) 24,264. lu chief manufactures are cutlery and hardware,
and there are iron^fonndries and flour-mills. Other industries
are brewing, dyeing, weaving and brick-making. Before 1891
it was known as Merschetd.
OHM, QBOBO SIMOH (1787-1854), German physicist, was
born at Erlangen on the i6th of March 1787, and was educated
at the university there. He became professor of mathemaUcs
in the Jesuits* college at Cologne In 1817 and in the polytechnic
school of Nuremberg in 1833, and in 1852 professor of experi*
mental physics in the university of Munich, where he died on
the 7th of July 1854. His writings were numerous, but, with
one important exception, not of the first order. The excep-
tion is his pamphlet published in Berlin in 1827, with the
title Die gclvaniscke Kettt matktmatisck hearheiUt. This work,
the germs of which had appeared during the two preceding
years in the journals of Schweigger and Poggendorff , has exerted
most important influence on the whole development Of the
theory and applications of current electricity, and Ohm's name
has l^en incorporated in the terminology of electrical science.
Nowadays *' Ohm's Law," as it is called, in which all that is
most valuable in the pamphlet b summariaed, is as universally
known as anything in physics. The equation for the propaga-
tion of electricity formed on Ohm's principles is identical with
that of J. B. J. Fourier for the propagation of heat; and if, in
Fourier's solution of any problem of heat-conduction, we change
the word " temperature " to " potential " and write " electric
current " instead of ** flux of heat," we have the solution of
a corresponding problem of electric conduction. The basis
of Fourier's work was^his clear conception and definition of
conductivity. But this involves an assumption, undoubtedly
true for small temperature-gradients, but still an assumption,
via. that, all else being the same, the flux of heat is strictly
pn^wrtional to the gradient of temperature. An exactly similar
assumption is made in the statement of Ohm's law, i.e. that,
other things being alike, the strength of the current is at each
point proportional to the gradient of potential. It happens, how-
ever, that with our modern methods it is much more easy to test
the accuracy of the assumption in the cav* of electricity than
in that of heat; and it has accordingly been shown by J. Clerk
Maxwell and George Chrystal that Ohm's law Is true, within the
limits of experimental error, even when the currents are so
powerful as almost to fuse the conducting wire.
OHllllETBR,an electrical instrument employed for measuring
insulation-resistance or other high electrical resistances. For
the purpose of measuring resistances up to a few thousand ohms,
the most convenient appliance is a Wheatstone^ Bridge (9.9),
but when the resistance of the conductor to be measured is
several hundred thousand ohms, or if it b the resistance of a
so-called insulator, such as the insulating covering of the copper
wires employed for distributing electric current in houses and
buildings for electric lighting, then the ohmmeter b more con-
venient. An ohmmeter in one form consbts of two pairs of coils,
one pair called the series coil and the other called the shunt coil.
These coils are placed with their axes at right angles to one
another, and at the point where the axes intersect a small pivoted
needle of soft iron b placed, carrying a longer index needle
moving over a scale.
Suppose it is dedrcd to measufe the insubtion-resistanoe of a
system of electric house wiring; the okrameter circuits are then joined
uu as shown in fin. 1. where W represents a portion of the wiring
01 the building and I a portion of the insulating materials Mirrounding
it. The object of the lest is to discover the resistance of the insulator
1, that is, to determine bow much current flows through thisinsubtor I
by leakage under a certain eleccromotive forae or voltage wlikh must
not be less than that which will be employed in prsctke when the
electfK lights supplied through these wires are in operation. For
this purpose the ohmmeter is provided with a small dynamo D.
contained in a box. uhlch produces a continuous electfXMnotive
force of from 200 to 500 _ _
volts when the handle
of the instrument b
steadily turned. In
making the test, the
whole of the copper
wires belonging to any
section of the wiring and
the test must be con-
nected together at some
point and then con-
nected through the series
coil of the ohmmeter
with one terminal of the
dynamo. The shunt coil
Sh and the series coil Se
are connected together
at one point, and the
remaining termlnab of
Fic. 2.
the dynamo and shunt coil must be connected to a " good
earth, which is generally the gas or water pipes w of the
building. On setung the dynamo in operation, a current passes
through the shunt coil of the ohmmeter proportional to the voltage
of the dynamo, and, if there is any sensible teakage through the-
insulator to earth, at the same lime another current passes through
the series coil proportional to the conductivity of the insulation of
the winng under the electromotive force used. The two coils, the
shunt and the series coil, then produce two magnetic fiekls. with
their lines of force at ri^ht angles to one another. The small pivoted
iron needle ns placed in their common field therefore takes up a
certain position, dependent on the relative value of these fields.
The unjsent of the angle of deflection • of this needle measured from
Its oosition. when the shunt coil b disconnected, b equal to the ratio
of the voltage of the dynamo to the current through the insubtor. If
we call this last resisunce R, the voltage of the working dynamo V
and the current through the insubtor C, then tan •■C/V-R.
Hence the deflection of the needle b proportional to the insubtion
resistance., and the scale can be graduated to show directly thb
resistance m megohms.
^ The Evershed and Vignoles form of the Instrument is much used
in testing the insubtion resistance ol electric wiring in houses.
In this ^M the dynamo and ohmmeter are combined in one instru-
ment. The field magnet of the dynamo has two gaps in it. In one
the excitmg armature b routed, producing the working voluge of
250, 500 or 1000 volts. In the other gap are pivoted two coib
wx>und on an iron core and connected at nearly a right angle to
each other. One of these coils b in aeries with the armature circuit
and with the insubtion or high resbtance to be measured. The other
IS a shunt across the terminals of the armature. When the armature
IS rotated, these two coils endeavour to pbce themselves in certain
directions in the field so as to be perforated by the greatest magnetic
flux. The exact position of the core, and, therefore, of an index
needle connected with it. is dependent on the ratio of the voltage
appUed to the terminab of the high resistance or insulator and the
current passing through it. This, however, b a measure of the
insubtion-reststance. lience the instrument can be graduated to
show thb directly.
In the Nalder ohmmeter the electrostatic principle is employed.
The instrument consists of a high-voltage continuous -current
dynamo which creates a potential difference between the needle
and the two quadrants of a quadrant electrometer (see ELECTna-
MSTB a). These two quadrants are interconnected by the high resist-
ance to be measured, and. therefore, themselves diner in potentiaL
The exact position taken up by the noedte b therefore determined
by the potentbl difference (P.D.) of the quadrants and the P.O.
of the needle snd each quadrant, and. therefore, by the ratios of the
P.D. of the ends of the insubtor and the current flowing through it,
that is, by its insubtion resbunoe.
The ohmmeter recommends itself by its portabflity, but in
default of the possession of an ohmmeter the insulation-resbtasce
can be measured by means of an ordinary mirror galvanometer
(see Galvanometer) and insulated battery of suitable voltage.
In thb case one terminal of the battery b connected to the earth,
and the other terminal is connected through the galvanometer
with the copper wire, the insubtion of which it b desired to test.
If any sensible current flows through thb insubtor the galvano-
meter will show a deflection.
The meaning of this deflection can be interpreted as follows:
If a galvanometer has a resistance R and b shunted by a shunt of
resistance S, and the shunted galvanometer b pboed in aeries with
a large resisunoe Rf of the order of a megohm, and if the same
OHNET— OIL ENGINE
35
FtC. 2,
battery is applied to the shunted galvsnoineter. then the current C
puiiiig through the galvaoonicter w01 be given by the expression
SV
where V is the cfectrainotive force of the battesy. It U possible so
to arrange the value of the shunt and of the high resisunoe R'
that the same or neaHy the same deflection of the galvanometer is
obtained aa when it is used in series with the battery and the insuU-
tion<reatstance. In these circumstances the current passing through
the galvanometer is known, provided that the voltage of the battery
is (tetermined by means of a potentiometer (9-v.). Hence the
res is tance of the insulator can be ascertained, since it is expressed
in obna by the. ratio of the voltage of the battery in volu to the
current through the
C C galvanometer in
amperes. In apply •
ing this method to
test the insulation of
indiarubbcr • covered
or of insulated
copper wire, before
employing it for
electrical purposes,
it is usual to place
the coil of wire W
(fig. 2) in an insulated
tank of water T.
which is connected
to one terminal of
_. jeing connected to the
metallic conductor CC of the wire under test, thrpugh a gah-ano-
mcter C. To prevent leakage over the surface of the insubting
covering of the wire which projects above the surface of the water,
it is necessary to employ a " guard wire " P. which consists of a
piece of fine copper wire, twisted round the extremity of the insu>
toted wire and connected to the battery. This guard wire pre*
vents viy current which leaks over the surface of the insulator
from passing through the galvanometer C. and the galvanometer
indication la therefore only determined bjr the amount of current
which passes through the tosolator, or by its iosulation-reaisunoe.
For farther Information on the measurement of high resistance,
see J. A. Fleming, A Handbettk for the EUctrtcal Laboratory and
TesHng Room (a vols., London, 1904): H. R. Kempe, A Handbook
of Eleetricai TesHni (London. 1900): H. L. Webb, A Practical Guide
io Iko TMmg ofjnsulatad Wwts and Cables (New York. 1903).
tf. A. F.)
Oimr, OSORGB8 (1848- ), French novelist and man of
letterB, was bom in Pam on the 3rd of April 184& After the war
of 1870 ha became editor of the Pays tmd the Comtituthnnd in
auccenion. In eoOaboration with the engineer and dramatist
Louis Denajrrouze (b. 1848) he produced the play Regitia Sar^,
and in 1877 Martke. He was an admirer of Gorges Sand and
bitterly opposed to the realistic modern nOvcL Hebegaaa
series of novels, Les BataiUes delavie,cisL simple and idealistic
character, which, although attacked by the critics as unreal and
commonpbce, were very popular. The scries induded Serge
Pamna^ (1881) which was crowned by the Academy; Ls Mattre
d€ forga (1882), La Grande Mamihe (1885), VdonU (1888),
Dernier amcur (1891). Many of his novels have been dramatised
with great success, LeUatlrede forges, produced at the Gymnase
in 1883, holding the stage for a whole year. His later publications
indude Le Cripuscnle (1902), Le Marchand de poisons (1903)*
La Conquirantt (1905), La Dixiime Muse (1906).
OHRORUr, a town of Germany in the duchy of Saze-Cbbars-
GoCha, II BL by rail &E. of (jotha. Pop. (1905) 6x14. It
has a castle, two Evangelical churches, a technical and other
schools, and manufactores of porcelain, paper, copper
goods, shoes and small wares. Qose by is the summer resort
of Luisentbal. As eariy as 72$ there was a monastery at
Ohrdni^ wMch recdved munidpal rights in i399> With six
ncigbboaring villages it forms the county of Oberi^dchen.
OIHIHART, AHNAUID DB (i59»-i668), Basque historian
and poet, was bom at Maulfon, and studied law at Bordeaux,
where he took hb degree in i6it. He practised first hi his native
town, and after Us marriage with Jeanne d'Erdoy, the heiresa
of a noble iiiinay of Saint-Palais, at the bar of the pariement
of Navanc He spent his leisare and his fortune in the search
for documents bearing on the old Basque and Beamese provinces;
and the fruiUcf histtudieein the archives of Bayonne, Toulouse.
Pau, Perigord and other dties were embodied in forty-five MS.
volumes, which were sent by his son Gabriel to Colbert. Twenty-
three of these are in the Biblioth^ue National; of Paris (Coll.
Duchesne).
Oihcnart published in 1635 a DidaroHon kistorique do Finjuslo
usurbotion et retention de la Nomrrepw Us Esbapuds and a fragment
of a Latin wurk on the same subject u included in Galland's Mimoires
Pour Vhisloire de Navarre (1648). His most important work is
rfotitia ntrius^ue Vasconiae, turn Ihericae, tnm Aqnitanicaef qua
pruetn situm regionis et alia sciln digna^ Navarrae regum eotler*
arunujue: in iis insignum vetustate et dignitate famiUarum . . .
(Paris, 16^ and 1656), a description of Gasconv and Navarre.
His collection of over five hundred Basque proverbs, Atsotisac edo
ftefrovac, included in a volume of his poems O"* Castaroa NevrUriso^
tan, printed in Paris in 1657, was supplemented by a second coUectkMi,
XUoftsni Vrrhenquina, The proverbs were edited by Franciaque
Michel (Paris, 1847)* and the supplement by P. Hariston (Bayonne.
1892} and by V. Stempf (Bordeaux, 1894). See Julicn Vinson, Rssai
ffune biWographie de lalangue basque (Paris, 1891); J. B. E. d«
Jaurgain. Arnaud d'Oihenart etsafatnilU {Pant, 1885).
OIL CITY, a dty of Venango county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
on the Allegheny river, at the mouth of Oil Creek, about 55 m.
S.SJE. of Erie and about 135 m. N. of PilUburg. Pop. (1890)
xo,93a; (1900) X3,364* of whom 2oot were foreign-bom and
184 were negroes; (1910 census) 15,657. It is served by the
Pennsylvania (two lines), the Erie, and the Lake Shore 8[
Michigan Southern railways. The dty lies about 1000 ft. above
the sea, and is divided by the river and the creek into three
sections connected by bridges. The business part of the dly
is on the low ground north of the river; the residential districts
are the South Side, a portion of the flats, the West Side, and
Cottage Hin and Palace Hill 00 the North Skle. Oa City is
the centre and the prindpal market of the Pennsylvania oil
region. It has extensive oil refineries and foundries and machine
shops, and manufactures oil-well supplies and a few other
commodities. The dty's factory products were valued at
$5,164,059 in 1900 and at $3,2x7,208 in 2905, and in the latter
year foundry and machine-shop products were valued at
$2,317,505, or 72% of the total Natural gas is used for power,
heat and light. OH City was founded in x86o^ incorporated as
a borough in 1863 and chartered as a dty in 2874. The dty
was partially destroyed by flood In 2865, and by flood and fire
in z866 and again in 2892; on this last occasion Oil Creek was
swollen by a doud-burst on the 5th of June, and several tanks
farther up the valley, which seem to have been struck by
lightning, gave way and a mass of burning oil was earned by
the creek to Oil City, where some sixty lives were lost and
property valued at more than $1,000,000 was destroyed.
OIL ENGINE. Oil engines, like gas engines (9.*.), are btemal
oombustlon motors in which motive power is produced by the
explosion or expansion of a mixture of inflammab^ material
and air. The inflammable fluid used, however, consists of
vapour produced from oil instead of permanent gas. The
thermodynamic operations are the same as in gas engines, and
the structural and mechanical differences are due to the devices
required to vaporize the oil and supply the measured proportion
of vapour which is to mix with the air in the cyfinderSb
Light and heavy oils are used; light oils may be defined as
those which are readily volatile at ordinary atmospheric tempera-
tures, while heavy oils are those which require spedal heating
or spraying processes in order to produce an inflammable vapour
capable of forming explosive mixture to be supplied to the
cjdioders. Of the light oils the most important is known as
petrol It is not a definite chemical ooMpound. It is a mixture
of various hydrocarbons of the paraffin and define scries p roduced
from the distillation of petroleum and paraffin oils. It consists,
in fact, of the lighter fractions which distil over first in tlie
process of purifying petroleums or paraffins.
The spedfic gravity of the standard petrob of commcfoe
generally ranges between 0-700 to about 0-740; and the heat
value on complete combustkm per iV gallon burned varies
from 14.240 to 24350 British thermal units. Tile thermal
value per gallon thus increases with the density, but the volatiEty
diminishca, Thus, samples of petrol examined by Mr Blount
36
OIL ENGINE
of from -700 10 -739 specific gravity showed that 98% of the
lighter sample distilled over below 120* C. while only 88% of
the heavier came over within the same temperature range.
The heavier petrol is not so easily converted into vapour. The
great modem development of the motor car gives the light oil
engine a most important place as one of the leading sources of
motive power in the world. The total petrol power now applied
to cars on land and to vesseb on sea amounts to at least two
million H.P. The petrol engine has also enabled aeropbnes to
be used in practice.
The earliest proposal to use oil as a means to produce motive
power was made by an English inventoi^-Street — in 1794, but
the firat practical petroleum engine was that of Julius Hock
of Vienna, produced in 1870. Hiis engine, like Lenoir's gas
engine, operated without compression. The piston took in a
charge of air and light petroleum spray which was ignited by
a flame jet and produced a low-pressure explosion. Like all
non-compression engines, Hock*s machine was very cumbrous
and gave little power. In 1873, Brayton, an English engineer,
who had settled in America, produced a light oil engine working
on the constant pressure system without explosion. This
appears to have been the earliest compression engine to use
oil fuel instead of gas.
Shortly after the introduction of the "Otto" gas engine
in 1876, a motor of this type was operated by an inflammable
vapour produced by passing air on its way to the cylinder
through the light oil then known as gasolene. A further air
supply was drawn into the cylinder to form the required explosive
mixture, which was sul)sequenlly compressed and ignited in the
usual way. The Spiel petroleum engine was the first Otto
cycle motor introduced into practice which dispensed with an
Independent vaporizing apparatus. Light hydrocarbon of a
specific gravity of not greater than 0.725 was injected directly
into the cylinder on the suction stroke by means of a pump.
In entering it formed spray mixed with the air, was vaporized,
and on compression an explosion was obtained jtist as in the
gas engine.
UniU the year 1883 the different gas and oil engines constructed
were of a heavy type rotating at about 150 to 250 revolutions
per minute. In that year Daimler conceived the idea of con-
structing very small engines with light moving parts, in order
to enable them to be rotated at such high speeds as 800 and 1000
revolutions per minute. At that time engineers did not consider
it practicable to run engines at such speeds; it was supposed
that low speed was necessary to durability and smooth running.
Daimler showed this idea to be wrong by producing his first
small engine in 1883. In x886 he made his first experiment
with a motor bicycle, and on the 4th of March 1887 he ran foi
the first time a motor car propelled by a petrol engine. Daimler
deserves great credit for realizing the possibility of producing
durable and effective engines rotating at such unusually high
speeds; and, further, for proving that his ideas were right in
actual practice. His little engines contained nothing new in
their cycles of operation, but they provided the first step in the
startlingly rapid development of petrol motive power which
we have seen in the last twenty years. The high speed of
rotation enabled motors to be constructed giving a very large
power for a very small weight.
Fig. 1 is a diaerammatic section of an early Daimler motor. A
is t\w cylinder, B the piston. C the connecting rod, and D the
crank, which b entirely endoeed in a casing. A small fly-wheel is
carried by the crankshaft, and it «erv« the double- piirpo* of a fly-
wheel and a ciucch. d \h iht €0(n,h\i*,tton eisice, E the tangle i^jft,
which serves boL?! Ilpt inlti. ul the cftnxr^c and k»r disc1uTi£t of f^nhjust.
W is the exhaust vjilvc^ F the chn^nfc inlet vaK-c^ fi'hich Is autorn.^tic
in Its action, arvfj h held doietj by a sprinR /. G the cnrburrtior.
H the igniter tuW, 1 the ignkcr tube lamp, K the char|^ ifik-i passage,
L the air fiher r.hambtr. and M fin adju<hULfle air inkt cap br Tifgu-
lating the air inkt an-a. The Utht ulV—vr tctfoL a* it is commonly
calico — is suppliciLl tn the Htnt chamber N of the v^mriB^f by means
of the valve O. !k> Tott^ as the levct of ihcpttnol if% hii:h. t bf float 11 ,
acting; by levers about it, ha1id» iht \i\w O closed ti^iiinst &it lorccd
by air pressure ilans the pipe P ^ When the Icul dilU, h^^fvcr,
the valve opens. aLiid more petrol is admiucd. When tht pJf>ton B
makes its suction «tdIcc^ air pa^isc^ fn&pi the «1niD&phcfC by the
^ssage
Theprcsi
_ K through the valve F. which it opens automatically.
le pressure falls within the passage K, and a spurt of petrol paoaea
by the jet G\ separate air at the Mune time passing by the passage
K* round the ict. The petrol breaks up into spray by impact
against the walU of the passage K, and then it vaporizes and passes
into the cylinder A as an inflammable mixture. When the piston B
returns H oompresaes the charge into a, and upon com|xesflioR the
incandescent igniter tube H fires the charge. H ia a short platinum
tube, which u always open to the compression space It is rendefed
incandescent by the burner I, fed with petrol from the pipe aupplyinjr
the vaporiser. The ofien incandescent tube is found to act wiM
for small engines, and it does not ignite the charge until the com-
•iflat • *
pression takes pliice, because the inflammable mixture cannot oome
into oontaa with the hot part till it is forced up the tube by the
Fig. I.
compression. The engine is aurted by giving the crank-ahaft a
smart turn round by means of a detachable handle. The exhaust is
alone actuated from the valve shaft. The shaft Q is operated by
pinion and a spur-wheel Q* at half the rate of the crank-Miaft. The
governing is accomplished by cutting out explostons as with the n»
engine, but the governor operates by preventing the exhaust valve
that no charge is discharged from the cylinder.
from opening, so \ ^
and therefore no charge is drawn in.
rhe cam R operates the exhaust
valve, the levers shown are so controlled by the governor (not shown)
that the knife edge S is pressed out when speed is too high, and
cannot engage the recess T until it falls. The engine has a water
jacket V. through which water is circulated. Cooling devices are
used to economize water.
6en2 of Mannheim followed dose on the work of Daimkr,
and in France Panhard and Lcvassor, Peugeot, De Dion,
Delahaye and Renault all contributed to the development
of the petrol engine, while Napier, Lancbestcr, Royce and
Austin were the most prominent among the many English
designers.
The modem petrol engine differs in many respects from
the Daimler engine just described both as to general design,
method of carburetting, ignitmg and controlling the power
and speed. The carburettor now used is usually of the float
and jet type shown in fig. x, but altecatioDs have been ouuk to
OIL ENGINE
37
allow of the production of uniform mixture In the cylinder
under widely varying conditions of speed and load. The original
form of carburettor was not well adapted to allow of great
change of volume per suction stroke. Tube ignition has been
abandoned, and the electric system is now supreme. The
favourite type at present is that of the high-tension magneto.
Valves are now all mechanically operated; the automatic inlet
valve has practically disappeared. Engines are no longer
controlled by cutting out impulses; the governing is effected
by throttling the charge, that Is by diminishing the volume
of charge admitted to the cylinder at one stroke. Broadly,
throttling by reducing charge weight reduces pressure of com-
pression and so allows the power of the explosion to be graduated
within wide limits while maintaining continuity of impulses.
The object of the throttle control b to keep up continuous
impulses for each cycle of operation, while graduating the power
produced by each impulse so as to meet the conditions of the
load.
Originany three types of carburettor were employed for
dealing with Ught oil; first, the surface carburettor; second, the
wick carburettor; and third, the jet carburettor. The surface
carburettor has entirely disappeared. Jn it air was passed over
a surface of Ught oil or bubbled through it; the air carried off
a vapour to form explosive mixture. It was found, however,
that the oil remaining in the carburettor graduaUy became
Heavier and heavier, so that ultimately no proper vaporization
took place. This was due to the fractional evaporation of the
oil which tended to carry away the light vapours, leaving in the
vessel the oil, which produced heavy vapours. To avoid this
fractionation the wick carburettor was introduced and here
a complete portion of oil was evaporated at each operation so
that no concentration of heavy oil was possible. The wick
carburettor is still used in some cars, but the jet carburettor
is practically universal. It has the advantage of discharging
separate portions of oQ Into the air entering the engine, each
portion being carried away and evaporated with all its fractions
to produce the charge in the cylinder.
The modem jet carburettor appears to have originated with
Butler, an English engineer, but it was first extensively used
In the modification produced by Maybach as shown in fig. i.
A diagrammatic tection of a cartMirettor of the Maybach type is
shown in a laraer Kale in fig. 2.
Petrol is admlttrd to the chamber A by the vaU'e B which is
controlkd by the float C acting through the levers D, so that the valve
Fic. 2.
B b closed when the float reaches a determined level and opened when
it falls below it. The petrol flows into a iet E and sunds at an
approximately constant level within it. When the engine piston
makes its taction stroke, the air enters from the atmosphere at r and
passes to the cylinder ihixHigh G. The pressure around the jet.E
thus (alls, and the pressure <A the atmoophere in the chamber A
forces the petrol through E as a jet during the greater pan of the
suction stroke. An inflammable mixture is thus formed, which
enters the cylinder by way of G. The area for the passage of air
•round the petrol jet E is constricted to a sufTicient extent to produce
the pressure fall necessary to propel the petrol through the jet E,
and the area of the discharge aperture of the petrol jet E is pfo-
portkmed to give the deahcd volume of petrol to form the proper
mixture with air. The devke in this form works quite well when the
ran^ of speed required from the ensine is not ^reat; that b, within
limits, the volume of petrol thrown by the jet u fairly proportional
to the air passing the }et. When, however the speed range b great,
such as in modern motors, which may vary from 500 to two revolu>
tions per minute under Ught and heavy loads, then it becomes
tmpMsible to secure proportbnality sufficiently accurate for rcguUr
ignition. Thb imphes not only a diange of en^ne speed but
a change of volume entering the cylinder at each stroke as deter-
mined oy the position of the throttle. Thb introduces further
complications. Throttle control implies a change of total charge
volume per stroke, which change may occur either at a low or at a
high speed. To meet thb change the petrol jet should respond in
such manner as to give a constant proportionality of petrol weight
to air weight throughout all the variations- -otherwise sometimes
petrol will be present in excess with no oxygen to bum it, and at
other times the mixture may be so dilute as to miss firing ^together.
To meet these varying conditions many carburettors have beni pn>>
duced which seek by various devices to maintain uniformity of
quality of mixture by the automatic change of throttle around the jet.
Fig. 3 shows in dugramroatic section one of the simplest of
these contrivances, known as the Krebs carburettor. The petrol
enters from the float u
chamber to the jet "^
E; .and,^ while the
engine is running
slowlv, the whole
supply of air enters
by way of the
passage F, mixes
with the petrol and
reaches the cylin-
ders by way of the
pipeG. The volume
of charse entering
the cyunder per
stroke u controlled
by the piston
throttle valve H.
operated by the rod
I; and so long as
the charge volume
required remains
small, air from the
atmosphere enters only by F. When speed rises, however, and the
throttle b sufficiently opened, the pressure within the apparatus falb
and affects a spring-pressed dbphrsgm K, which actuates a piston
valve controlling toe air passages L, so that thb valve opens to the
atmosphere more and moie with increaring pressure reduction, and
additional air thus flows into the carburettor and mixes with the
air and petrol entering throu^ F. By thb device the required
proportion of air to petrol b maintained through a comparatively
Urge volume range. Thb change of air admission b rendered
necessary because of the difference between the laws of air and
petrol flow. In order to give a sufiicbnt weight of petrol at low
speeds when the pressure drop b small, It is necessary to provide
a somewhat large area of petrol jet. When suction increases
owing to high speed, this Urge area discharges too much petrol, and
so necessiutes a device, such as that described, which admiu
more air.
A still rimpler device is adopted in many carburettors— that of an
additional air inlet valve, kept ckised until wanted by a spring.
Fig. 4 shows a dbgrammatic section as used in the VauxhaU car-
burettor. Here the petrol jet and primary and secondary air passages
are lettered as before.
The same effect b produced by devkes which alter the anea of the
petrol jet or increase or diminish the number of petrol lets exposed
as required. Although engine dengnershave succeeded in pn>-
portbning mixture through a considerable range of speed and charge
demand, so as to obtain effective power explorions under all these
conditions, yet much remains to be done to secure constancy of
mixture at all speeds. Notwithstanding much which has been said
as to varying imxture, there b only one mixture of air and petrol
which gives the best results— that in which there b some excess of
oxygen, more than sufficient to bum all the hydrogen and carbon
present. It Is necessary to secure this mixture under all conditions,
not only to obtain econorajr in running but also to maintain purity
of exhaust cases. Most engines at certain speeds discharge consider*
able qiuntlties of carbonic oxide into the atmosphere with their
exhaust gases, and some discharge so much as to give rise to danger
in a closed earagc. Carbonic oxide b an extremely poisonous gas
which shoulj be reduced to the minimum in the interests of the health
of our large cities. The enormous increase of motor traffic makes it
important to render the exhaust gases as pure and innocuous as
possible. Tests were made by the Royal Automobile Club some
years ago which clearly showed that carbonic oxids should be kept
down to 3 % and under when carburettors were properiy adjusted.
Subsequent experiments have been made by Hopkinson, Clerk and
38
OIL ENGINE
Wataoiu wMch cleaHy prove that in •anie caaes as much as 30%
of the whole heat <ji the petrol is lost in the exhaust gases by im-
Fic. 4.
perfect conibuitkm. This opens a wide 6c1d for improvement, and
makes it probable that with better carburettors motor cars would
not only diacharne purer exhaust gases but would work on very
much l«s petrol than they do at present.
Pract ically all modem pet rol engines are controUod by throttUiig
the whole charge. In the earlier days several methods of contrsl
were attempted: (x) missing impulses as in fig. z of the Daimler
engines; (2) altering the timing of spark; (3) throttling petrol
supply, and (4) throttling the mixture of petrol and air. The
last method has proved to be the best. By maintaining the
proportion of explosive mixture, but diminishing the toial
volume admitted to the cylinder per stroke, graduated impulses
are obtained without any, or but few, missed ignitions. The
effect of the throttling is to reduce oompressioo by dimioisb-
ing total charge weight. To a cerUin extent the proportion of
petrol to total charge also varies, because the resklual exhaust
gases remain constant through a wide range. The thermal
efficiency diminishes as the throttling increases; but, down to
a third of the brake power, the diminution is not great, because
although compression b reduced the expansion remains the same.
At low compressions^ however, the engine works practically
as a non-compression engine, and the point of maximum
pressure becomes greatly ddayed. The efficiency, therefore, falls
markedly, but this is not of much importance at light loads.
Experiments by Callendar, Hopkinson, Watson and othen
have proved that the thenaal efficiency obtained from these
small engines with the throttle full open is very high indeed;
28% of the whole heat in the petrol b often given as indicated
work when the carburettor b properly adjusted. As a large gas
engine for the same compression cannot do better than 5s%i
it appears that the loss of heat due to small dimensions b com-
pensated by the small time of exposure of the gases of eaqdosioa
due to the high speed of rotation. Throttle control b very
effective, and it has the great advantage of diminishing jo
r-^
A. A. — Cyliflderi
B3.— Wmtcr Jacket*.
&*» — Oil Scoopa 511 Dig Endi-
1.— Waltr Uptake
L— Cfank Chamber,
M* >- N
J'.— Under Cov-ei Co C tank Chbr^ S.— Cftrb*ifettcr>
M**— Oil Btictwn Pipe and RJIer.
N.— Oil Channtrk
O.— Cam Sh*h
Q. — Throitilc and Automatic Air
— Mairt Mixture Pipe. [Valve.
k.~DUtributioD Geai Out
U — Oil Sumpv
M,— Oil Pump.
V.-Jflkt Vslvt
W,— Jnkt Trunt
Fic. s*
OIL ENGINE
39
pressoitfl to which the pbton and cyHnders are exposed wbQe the
engine is running at the lower loads. This b important both for
smooth running and good wearing qualities. Theoretically,
better rctolts could be obtained from the point of view of economy
by retaining a constant compression pressure, constant charge
of air, and producing ignition, somewhat in the manner of the
Diesel engine. Such a method, however, would have the dis-
advantage of producing practically the same maximum pressure
for an loads, and this would tend to give an engine which would
not run smoothly at slow speeds.
As has been said, tube ignition was apeedOy abandoned for
electric ignition by accumulator, induction coil distributor and
sparking plug. This in its turn was largely displaced by the
low-tension magneto system, in which the spark was formed
between contacU which were mechanically separated within the
cylinders. The separable contacts gave rise to complications,
and at present the most popular system of ignition is undoubtedly
that of the high-tension magneto. In this system the ordinary
high-tension sparking plugs are used, and the high-ten:iion
current is generated in a secondary winding on the armature
of the magneto, and reaches the sparking plugs by way of a
rotary distributor. In many cases the high-tension magneto
system b used for the ordinary running of the engine, combined
with an accumulator or battery and induction coil for starting
the engine from rest. Such systems are called dual ignition
systems. Sometimes the same ignition plugs are adapted to
spark from either source, and in other cases separate plugs
are used. The magneto systems have the great advantage of
generating current without battery, and by their use noise is
reduced to a minimum. AU electrical systems are now arranged
to allow of advancing and retarding the spark from the steering
wheel. In modem magneto methods, however, the spark b
automatically retarded when the engine slows and advanced
when the speed rises, so that less change b required from the
wheel than b necessary with battery and coil.
Sir Oliver Lodge has invented a most interesting system of
electric ignition, depending upon the production of an extra
oscillatory current of enormous tension produced by the combined
use of spark gap and condenser. Thb extra spark passes freely
even under water, and it b impossible to stop it by any ordinary
sooting or fouling of the ignition plug.
The most popular engines are now of the four and six cylinder
types.
* Fig. 5 shows a modern four-cylinder engine in longitudinal and
transverac sections as made by the Wolsclcy Company. A, A are
the cylinders: B. B, water iackets; G*. oil scoops on the large ends
of the coonecting-rods. These scoops take up oil from the craak
chamber. Forced lubrication is used. The oil pump M is of the
toothed wheel type, and it is driven by skew gearing. An oil sump
is arranged at L. and the oil is pumped from this sump by the pump
describM. The overflow from the main bearings suf^lies the channels
in the crank caw from which the oil scoops uke their charge. It will
be seen that the two inside pistons are atuchcd to cranks of co-
incident centres, and this is true of the two outside pistons alsa
This is the usual arrangement in four-cylinder engines. By this
device the primary forces are babnccd: but a small secondary
unbalanced force remains, due to the difference ia motion of the
pistons at the up and down portions of their stroke. A six<yltnder
engine has the advantage of getting rid of this secondary unbalanced
force: but it require* a longer and more rigid crank chamber.
In thb cnglD* tlw inlet and exhaust valves of each cylinder are placed
in the same pocket and are driven from one cam-shaft. This is a
very favourite arrangement; but many engines are constructed
in which the inlet and exhaust valves operate on opposite sides of
the cylinder in separate ports and are driven from separate cam-
slMft*. Dual ignitioa b applied to this engine; that is. an tgnitton
composed of hich-iensioa magneto and abo battery and coil for
uaning. U is the high-tension magneto. Under the figiire there is
shown a list of parts which sufficiently indicate the nature of the
engine.
An inteiestinff and novel form of ennne b shown at fig. 6. This
b a welUkoown engine deaifned by Mr KnighC. an American inventor,
and now made k>Y the Daimkr and other companies. It will be
observed in the figure that the ordinary lift valves are entirely
dispensed with, and slide valves are used of the cylindrical shell
type. The engine operates on the ordinary Otto c>Tle. and all the
valve actions necessary to admit charge and discharge exhaust gases
are accomplished by meanf of two sleeves sliding on* within the other.
The outer sleeve aKdes In the mab cyfimfer and the inner sleeve
slides within the outer sleeve. The pbton fits within the inner sleeve.
The sleeves receive separate motions from short connecting links
C and E, driven by eccentrics carried on a shaft W. This shaft b
driven from the main crank-shaft by a strong chain so as to make
half the revolutions of the crank-shaft in the usual manner of the
Otto cycfe. The inlet port b formed on one side of the cyHnder
and b marked 1. The exhaust poit b arcanoed on the other side
and marked J. These ports are segmental. A water- jacketed
cylinder head carries stationary rings L, K, which press outwards.
These are dearly shown in the drawing. The inner ueeve ports run
past the lower broad ring L when compression is to be accomplished,
and the contents of the cylinder are retained within the cylinder and
compression space by the piston rings and the fijeed rings referred to.
Fig. 6.
The outer sleeve does not require rings at alf. Its functbn is simply
to distribute the gases so that the exhaust port is closed by the outer
sleeve when the miet port is open. The outer sleeve acts really asa
distributor; the inner sleeve supplies the pressure tightness reoutred
to resst compression and explosion. The idea of working exhaoat
and inlet by two sleeves within which the main piston operates b
very daring and ingenious; and for these small engines the sleeve
valve system works admirably. There are many advantages: the
shape of the compression space b a most favourable one for reducing
loss by cooling. All the valve pons required in ordinary Kft valvf
engines are entirely dispensed with; that is. the suriace exposed to
the expk>sion causing loss of heat b reduced to a minimum. The
engines are found in use to be very flexible and cconomicat
The petrol engines hitherto described, although light compared
to the old stationary gas engines, are heavy when compared
with recent motors developed for the purpose of aeroplanes.
Many of these motors have been produced, but two oiily will
be noticed here— the Anzani. because Blcriot*s great flight
♦o
OIL ENGINE
acroM die Cbantiel was acoMnpIialied by means of an Anzanl
engine, and the Gnome engine, because it was used in the aero-
plane with which Psaulhan flew from London to Manchester.
Fig. 7 ibows tiansvene and longitudinal lectiont through the
Aniam motor. Looking at the longitudinal Mctioa it win be obterved
that the cytindets are of the air-cooled type; the exhaust valves
alone aie positively operated, and the inlet valves are of the auto-
matic lift kind. The transverse section shows that three radially
arranged cylinders are used and three pistons act upon one crank-pin.
The Otto cycle is followed so that three impulses are obuined for
Fic. 7.
every two revolutions. The cylinders are spaced anart 60* and
project from the upper side of the crank chamber. Although not
shown in the drawmg, the pistons overrun a row o( holes at the
out end of the stroke and the exhaust first discharges through these
holes. This n a very common device in aeroplane engines, and it
greatly increases the rapidity of the exhaust difcharged and reduces
the work falling upon the exhaust valve. The pistons and cylinders
are of cast iron; the rings are of cast iron; the iniition is elearic.
and the petrol is fed by gravity. The engine used by BKriot in his
Cross-Channel flight was 35 H.r.. cylinders 105 mm. boreX 130 mm.
stroke; revolutions. 1600 per minute; total weight. 145 lb. The
engine* it will be seen. Is exceedingly simple,, although air<boKpg
secm» aomewhat primitive for anythmg except short flights. The
larger Ansani motors are water-cooled.
A diagrammatic transverse section of the Gnome motor Is shown
at fig. 8. iu this interrsting engine there arc aevcn cybiuiers disponed
radially round a fixed crank-shaft. The seven pis^ms are all con-
nected to the same crank-shaft, one piston being rigidly connected
to a big end of peculiar construction by a connecting-rod. whUe
the other connecting-rods are linked on to the same big end by pistt;
that is. a hollow fixed crankrshaft has a single throw to which oolv
one connecting-rod is attached; all the other connecting-roiu
work on pins let into the big end of that connecting-rod. The
cylindera revolve round the fixed crank in the manner of the well-
known engines first introdued to practice by Mr John Rigg. The
expkMive mixture is led from the carburettor through the hoUow
crank-shaft into the crank-case, and it is admitted Into the cylinders
by means of automatic inlet valves placed in the heads of the pistons.
The exhaust valves are arranged on the cylinder heads. Dual
ignhiott is provided by high tension magneto and storage battery and
coil. The cyliiidera are ribbed outside like the AmEsni. and are
very effectiinely air-cooled by their rotation through the air as
well as by the passage of the aeroplane through the atmosphere.
The cylinden in the 35 H.P. motor are 110 mm. bore X 120 mm.
stroke. The speed of rotation is usually t aoo revotutiors per minute.
The total weight of the engine complete is 180 &>, or just over 5 B>
per brake horse-power. The subject of aeroplane petrol engines is a
most interesting one, and rapid progress is being made.
So far, only 4-cydc engines have been described, aiul they are
almoat universal for use in motor-cars and aeroplanes. Some
motor cars, however, use 2-cyde engines. Several types follow
the "Clerk" cycle (see Gas Engine) and others the "Day"
cycle. In America the Day cycle is very popular for motor
F1C.8.
launches, as the engine is of 'a very simple, easily managed kind.
At present, however, the two-cyde engine has made but little
way in motor car or aeroplane work. It is capable of great
devdopment and the attention given to it is increasing.
So far, petrol' has been alluded to as the main Uquid fud for
these motors. Other hydrocarbons have also been tised; benzol,
for example, obtained from gas tar is used to some extent, and
alcohol has been applied to a considerable extent both for
stationary and locomotive engines. Alcohol, however, has not
been entirely successful. The amount of heat obtained for a
given naonetary expenditure is only about hail that obtained
by means of petrol. On the continent of Europe, however,
alcohol motors have been considerably used for puUlc vehicles.
The majority of petrol motors are provided with water jackets
around their cylinders and combustion spaces. As only a small
quantity of water can be carried, it is necessary to cool the water
as fast as it becomes hot. For this purpose radiators of various
constructions are applied. Generally a pump is used to produce
a forced drculation, discharging the hot water from the engine
jackets through the radiator and returning the cooled water to
the jackets at another place. The radiators consist in some
cases of fine tubes covered with projecting fins or gills; the motion
of the car forces air over the exterior of those surfaces and is
assisted by the operation of a powerful fan driven from the
engine. A favourite form of radiator consists of numerous
small tubes set into a casing and arranged somewhat h'ke a steam-
engine condenser. Water is forced by the pump round these
tubes, and air passes from the atmosphere through them. Thb
type of radiator is sometimes known ss the "honeycomb**
OIL ENGINE
ndiator. A very Urge cooling surface is provided, so that the
same water is used over and over agaia. In a day's run with a
modem petrol engine vtxy little water is lost from the system.
Some engines dispense with a pump and depend on what is
called the thermo-syphon. This is the old gas-engine system
ol circulation, depending on the diflferent density of water when
hot and cooL The engine shown at fig. 5 is provided with a
water-drculation system of this kind. For the smaller engines
the thcrmo^yphon works extremely well.
Heavy oil engines are those which consume oil having a
flaahing^point above 73° F.— the minimum at present allowed
by act oif parliament in Great Britain for oils to be consumed
in ordinary illuminating lamps. Such oils are American and
Russian petroleums and Scottish paraffins. They vary in specific
gravity from '78 to -82$, and in flashing-point from 75* to 15a*
F. Engines burning such oils may be divided into three distinct
classes: (i) Engines in which the oil is subjected to a spraying
operation before vaporization; (2) Engines in which the oil
is injected into the cylinder and vaporiud within the cylinder;
(3) Engines in which the oil is vaporized in a device external to
the cylinder and introduced into the cylinder in the state of
vapour.
The method of ignition might a1s6 be used to divide the engine*
into those igniting by the electric spark, by an incandescent tube,
by compression, or by the heat of the internal surfaces of the
combustion space. Spiel's engine was ignited by a flame igniting
device similar to that used in Clerk's gas engine, and it was the
only one introduced into Great Britain in which this method
was adopted, though on the continent flame igniters were not
uncommon. Electrically-operated igniters have come into ex>
tensive use throughout the world.
The engines first used in Great Britain which fell under the
first head were the Priestman and Samuelson, the oil being
^., sprayed before being
jf ...:'■.'••!;>.'•*. vaporized in both. The
o»9VS>.'X/> i>\"' principle of the spray pro-
^^^'•'•'•^••■-:il ducer used is that so well
and so widely known in
connexion with the atom>
izers or spray producers
used by perfumers. Fig. 9
shows such a spray pro>
ducer in section. An air
blast passing from the
small jet A crosses the top
of the tube B and creates
within it a partial vacuum.
The liquid contained in C
flows up the tube B and issuing at the top of the tube through
a small orifice is at once blown into very fine spray by the action
of the air jet. If such a scent distributor be filled with petroleum
oil, such as Royal Daylight or Russoline, the oil will be blown
into fine spray, which can be ignited by a flame and will bum,
if the jets be properly proportioned, with an intense blue non-
luminous flame. The earlier Inventors often expressed the idea
that an explosive mixture could be prepared without any
vaporization whatever, by simply producing an atmosphere
containing inflammable liquid in extremely small particles dis-
tributed throughout the air in such proportion as to allow of
complete combustion. The familiar explosive combustion of
Iyc<^XKiium, and the disastrous explosions caused in the exhaus-
tion rooms of flour-mills by the presence of finely divided flour
in the air, have also suggested to inventors the idea of producing
explosions for power purposes from combustible solids. Al-
though, doubtless, explosions could be pioduced in that way, yet
in oil engines the production of spray is only a preliminary to
the vaporization of the oil If a sample of oU is sprayed in the
ananner juat described, and injected in a hot chamber also filled
with hot air, it at once passes into a sute of vapour within
that chamber, even though the air be at a temperature far
below the boiling-point of the oil; the spray producer, in fact,
furnishes a ready means of saturating any volume of air with
Fig. 9. — Perfume Spray Producer.
heavy petroleum oO to the full extent possible from the vapour
tension of the oil at that particular temperature. The oil
engines described below are in reality explosion gas engines of
the ordinary Otto type, with special arrangcmenU to enable
them to vaporize the oil to be used. Only such parts of them
as are necessary for the treatment and ignition will therefore
be described.
Fig. 10 is a vertical section through the cylinder and vaporizer
of a Priestman cns^ine. and fig. 11 19 a section on a larecr scale,
showing the vaporizmg jet and the air admission and regulation valve
Fic. 10.— Priestman Oil Engine (vertical section through cylinder
and vaporizer).
leading to the vaporizer. Oil Is forced by means of air pressure from
a reservoir through a pipe to the epraymg nozzle a, and air passes
from an air-pump by way of the annular clunncl h into the sprayer c,
and there meets the oil jet tssuing| from a. The oil is thus broken
up Into spmy. and the air charged with spray flows into the vaporiier
E, which b heated up in the first place on surting the engine by
means of a lamp. In the vaporizer the oil spray becomes oil vapour,
saturating the air within the hot walls. On the out<h«rging stroke
of the piston the mixture passes by way of the inlet valveJrl mto the
cylinder, air flowing into the vaporizer to replace it through the
valve / (fig. 1 1)« The cylinder K is thus charged with a mixture of
air and hydrocarbon vapour, some of which may exist in the form of
very fine spray. The piston L then returns and co m p iies ses the
mixture, and when the compresnon is quite complete an electric
spark is passed between the points M, and a romprcssion explosson
is obtained pncisely similar to that obtained in the gas engine.
The piston moves out. and on its return stroke the exhaust valve N
u opened and the exhaust gases discharged by way of the pipe 0«
round the jacket P, enclosing
the vappri»ng chamber. The ^t'
latter is thus kept hot by
the exhaust gases when the
engine is at work, and it
remains sufficiently hot with-
out the use of the lamp pro-
vided for surting. To obtain
the electric spark a bi-
chromate battery with an
induction coll is used. The
spark is timed by contact
pieces operated by an
eccentric rod. used to actuate
the exhaust valve and the
air-pump for supplying the
oil chamber and ttie spraying
let. To sUrt the eiwine a
hand pump is worked until
the pressure b sufficient to
force the oil through the
spraying nozzle, and ou spray
is formed in the starting lamp: the qxay and air mixeo produce
a blue flame which heats the vaporizer. The fly-wheel u then routed
by hand and the eimne moves away. The eccentric shaft is driven
from the crank-shaft by means of toothed wheels, which reduce the
•peed to one-half the revolutions of the crank-shaft. The charging
inlet valve is automatic Governing U effected by throttling the
oil and air supply. The governor operates on the butterfly valve T
(fi{(. ii), and on the pluc-cock I connected to it, by means of the
sptndle f. The air and on are thus simultaneously reduced,
Fic. II.— Priestman Oil Engine
(section on a larger scak).
attempt IS
. .and the
to maintain the charge entering the cylinder at a
consUnt pronitioa by weight of oil and air. while reducme the toul
weight, and thetefore volume, of the charge entering. The Priestman
engine thus gives an explosion on every second revolution in all
circumstances, iriiether the engine be running light or loaded.
4*
OIL ENGINB
Th« compfBirioft praiiire of die mutnifc before adi
■teadUjr reduced u the load it reduced, and at very U^ht loads the
engine is running practically as a non-comprcssioa engine.
A test by Profesaor Unwin of a 4} nominal hone-power Prlestnian
enginev cylinder 8*5 in. diameter, la in. strolcc, normal ^wed 180
revolutioas per minute, showed the consumption of oil per indicated
hone-power hour to be 1*066 lb and per Drake horse-power hour
1-243 w. The oil used was that known as Broxburn Lighthouse, a
Scottish paraffin oil produced by the destructive distillation of
shale, having a density of '81 and a flashing-point about 152* F.
With a 5 H.P. engine of the same dimensions} the volume swept by
the piston per stroke being '395 cub. ft. and the clearance space in
the cylinder at the end of the stroke -210 cub. ft., the principal results
Indicated horse-power ....
Brake horse-power ...',.
Mean speed (revolutions per minute)
Mean available pressure (revolutions per
minute) .
Oil consumed per indicated horse-power '
per hour
Oil consumed per brake horse-power per
hour
Dag^ht
R„-J.in.
9-369
7-722
204-33
20773
53-a
4l-3«
.6^4 lb
•864 lb
.842 lb
HM61b
With daylight oil the explosion pressure was 151*4 lb per square
inch above atmosphere, and with KussoUne 134*3 lb. The terminal
pressure at the moment of openine the exhaust valve with daylieht
oil was 35*4 lb and with Russoune 33*7 per square inch. The
compresston pressure with daylight oil was 35 lb, and with Russolioe
27*6 lb pressure above atmosphere. Prol^ssor Unwin calculated
the amount of heat accounted for by the indicator as i8*8% in the
case of daylight oil and 15*2 in the case of RussoHne oil.
The Hornsby-Ackroyd engine is an example of the class in which
the oil is injected into the cylinder and there vaporixcd. Fig. I3
Fio. ia.~Hom8by»Ackroyd Fio. 13.— Homsby - Ackroyd
Engine (section through Engine (section throuch valves,
vapofinr and cylinder). vaporiser and cylinder).
is a section through the vaporizer and cylinder of this engine, and
fig. 13 shows the inlet and exhaust valves alio in section placed in
front of the vaporizer and cylinder section. Vaporizing is conducted
in the interior of the combustion chamber, which is so arranged that
the heat of each explosion maintains it at a temperature suindently
high to enable the oil to be vaporized by mere injection upon the hot
surfaces. The vaporizer A is heated up by a separate lamp, the oil
is injected at the oil inlet B. and the
engine Is rotated by hand. The piston
then takes in a charge of air by the air-
inlet valve into the cylinder, the air
passing by the port directly into the
cylinder without passios throujth the
vaporizer chamber. While the piston is
moving forward, taking in the cnaigc of
air, the oil thrown into the vaporizer is
vaporizing and diffusing itself through
the vaporiaer chamber, mixing, how-
ever, omv with the hot products of com-
bustion left by the preceding expkMion.
During the chamng stroke the air enters
through the cyunacr. and the vapour
formed from the oil is almost entirely
confined to the oocnbustion chamber.
On the return stroke of the piston air is
forced through the somewhat narrow
nocka into thc^combustion chamber, and
b there mixed with the vapour contained
in it At first, however, the mixture is
too rich In ittftammable vapour to be
capable of ignition. As the compression
proceeds, however, nnore and more air b forced Into the TSporber
chamber, and just as compression b completed the mixture attains
proper eiq>kmve proportions. The sides of the chamber are suffi-
ciently hot to cause explosion, under the pressure of which the piston
moves forward. As the vaporizer A is not water-jacketed, and is
connected to the metal of the back cover only by the small section
or area of oast-iron forming the netal neck a, the heat given to the
surface by each explodon b sufficient 10 keep its tmperature at
about 700-800* C. Oil vapour mixed with air will expkMie by
contact with a metal surface at a comparatively k>w temperature;
this accounts for the explosion of the compreoed mixture in the
combustion chamber A, whkh b never rcalfy nJaed to a red heat.
It has long been known that under certain conditions of internal
surface a gas engine may be made to run with very ereat regularity,
without incandescent tube or any other form of igniter, if some
portion of the interior surfaces of the cylinder or combustion space
be so arranged that the temperature can rise moderately; tnen.
although the temperature may be too tow to ignite the mixture at
atmospheric temperature, yet when compression b completed the
mixture will often ignite in a perfectly reguur manner. It b a curious
fact that with heavy oils ignition is more easily acoompltshed at a
k>w temperature than with light oils. The explanation teems to
be that, while in the case of light oils the hydrocarbon vapours
formed are tolerably stable from a chemical point of view, the hea\-y
olb very easily decompose by heat, and separate out thdr carbons,
liberating the combined hydrogen, and at the moment of liberation
the hydroaen, bein^ in wbat chemists know as the naseenl Mat«,
very readily cnten into combination with the oxygen beside it. To
start the engine the vaporizer is heated by a separate heating lamp,
which is supplied with an air bbst by meansot a hand-operated fan.
Thb operation shouhl take about nine minutes. The engine U then
moved round by hand, and starts in the usual manner. The oil tank
is placed in the bed plate of the eMJne. The air and exhaust valves
are driven by cams on a valve shaft. The governing is effected by a
centrifugal governor which operates a by-pass valve, opening it
when the speed b too high, and causes the oil pump to return the
oil to the oil tank. At a test of one of these engines, which weighed
^o cwt. and was given as of 8 brake horse-power, with cylinder 10 in.
in dbroetcr and 15 in. stroke, according to Professor Capper's report,
the revolutions were very constant, and the power developed dia not
vary one quarter of a brake horse-power from day to day. The oil
consumed, reckoned on the average of the three days over which the
trial extended, was •919.1b per brake horse-power per hour, the meaa
power exerted being 8*35 brake horse. At another full-power trbl
of the same engine a brake horse-power of 8*57 was obtained, the
mean speed beinr 239-66 revolutions per minute and the test laating
for two houre; nie indicated power was 10*3 horse, the esqilotions
per minute 119*83. the mean effective pressure 28*0 per sq. io.«
the oil used per indkated horse-power per hour was 'Si lb. and per
brake horse-power per hour — *977 lb. In a test at half power, the
brake horse-power developed was 4*57 at 235*9 revolutiona per
minute, and the oil used per brake horse-power was 1*48 IL On a
four houre' test, without a load, at 240 revolurions per mimite, the
consumption of oil was a- 23 lb per hour. Engines of thb class are
those manufactured by Messn Crossley BitM., lAd., and the National
Gas Engine Co., Ltd.
Figs. 14 and 15 show a longitudinal section and deuil views of the
operative parts of the Crossley oil engine. On the sucti<m stroke,
air b drawn into the cylinder by the piston A through the automatic
inlet valve D. and oil is then pumped into the heated vaporizer C
through the oil sprayer G, as seen in section at fig. K. The vaporizer
C b bolted to the water-jacketed part B; and. like the Homsby.
thb vaporizer is first heated by bmp and then the heat of the ex-
plosions keeps up its temperature to a sufficiently high point to
vaporize the oil when sprayed against It. On the compression stroke
Fio. 14.— Crossley Oil Engine.
of the piston A the charge (^ air b forced Into the combustioa
chamber B and the vaporizer chamber C. where it mixes with the oil
vapour, and the mixture b ignited at the terminatkNi of the stroke
by the ignition tube H. Thb tube b isobted to some extent from the
vaporiser chamber C and so it becomes hotter than the chamber C
and is relied upon to ignite the mixture when formed at times when C
would be too cold for the purpose. E b the ediaust valve, whic^
OILLETS— OILS
+3
«pentM In tlM utiwl way The wster dfodttfon paatet through
tJiejacketby wayofUiepipetJaiidK. Wbea ch« cogiiie i» ninnuig
«t hcAvy loads with full charKcs of oil delivered by the oil pump
through the tpnyer G, a accond pump b caused to come into action,
which discharges a very small quantity of water through the water
■prayer valve F. Thb water passes into the vaporiser and com-
Iwstioii chamber, together with a little av, which enters by the
automatic inlet valve, which serves as sprayer. This contrivance
IS found useful to prevent the vaporizer from overheating at heavy
Fig. 15.— Crossley Oil Engine.
toada. The principal difference between this engine and the Honnliy
engine already described lies in the use of the seisarate ignition tufaie
H and in the water sprayer F, which acts as a soif ting valve, takii^
in a little air and water when the engine becomes hot. Messrs
Crossley infonn the writer that the consumption of either crude or
refined oil is about '613 of a pint per horse-power on full load. They
ah» give a test of a small engine developing 7 B. H. P., which consumed
•601 pint per B.H.P. per hour of Rock Liebt refined lamp oil and only
•603 pint per B.H.P. per hour of crude fiomeo petroleum oil.
Engines in which the oil ik vaporised in a devkc external to the
cylinder have almost disappea^ed, because of the great success of the
Hornsby-Ackroyd type, where oil is injected into, and vaporised
within, the cylinder. It has been found, however, that many petrol
engines having jet carburettors will operate with the heavier oils
if the jet carburettor is suitably heated by means of the exhaust gases.
In some engines it is customary to start with petrol, and then when
the parts have become sufficiently heated to substitute paraffin or
heavy petroleitm o9, putting the heavy oil throu^ the same ftprsying
process as the petrol and evaporating the wpny by hot walls bdfore
entering the cylinder.
Mr Diesel has produced a very interesting engine which departs
considerably from other types. In it air alone is drawn Into the
cylinder on the charging stroke; the air b compressed on the return
stroke to a very hi^h pressure generally to over 400 lb per sq. in.
This coffipresflion raises the air to incandescence, and then heavy oil
b injected into the incandescent air by a small portion of air com-
pressed to a still higher point. The oil ignites at once as it entere
the combustion vaoe. and so a power impulse b obtained, but with-
out exphwon. The pressure docs not rise above the preasure of
air and oil injection. The Diesel engine thus emixxlies two very
original features; it operates at compression pressures veiy much
higher than those used in any other internal combustion engines,
and it dispenses with the usual ^nitingdevices by rendering the air
charge incandescent by compression. The engine operates generally
on the Otto cycle, but it is also built giving an impulse at every
revolution. Mr Diesel has shown great determination and persever-
ance, and the engine has now attained a position of considerable
commerrial importance. It b made on the continent, in England
and in America in sixes up to looo H.P., and it has been applied to
many purpows on land and also to the propulsion of aman veasela
The engine gives a very high thermal efficiency. The present writer
has calcubtcd the folk>wtng values from a test of a <oo B.H.P. Diesel
oil engine made by Mr Michael Longridge. M.Inst.C.E. The
engine had three cylinders, each of m-m in. dbmeter and stroke
39S2 in., each cylinder <q>eratiqg on the ^' Otto " cyde. The main
results were as follows ^—
Indicated power 995 horse
Brake power 459 ,.
Mechanical efficienc y 77%
Indicated thermal efficiency 41%
Brake thermal efficiency 31*7%
(D.C.)
OlUnt (from an O. Fr. dirainutive of mO, eye, in Mod. Fr.
milkt; other English varianu are oylets.cydets, or eyelet-boles),
the Afchitcciunl term given to the arrow slits in the walb of
aedievBl fortificatioiis, but more strictly applied to the roood
hole or drde with which the openings terminate. The same
term is applied to the small circles inserted in the tmcery-head
of the windows of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods,
sometimes varied with trefoils and qnatrefoib.
OILS (adopted from the F^. oiU, mod. kuih, Lat. oUuMt oUve
oif), the generic ezpresaion for subsUnces belonging to extensive
series of bodies of diverse chemical character, all of which have
the common physical prbperty of bdng fluid either at the ordinary
temperature or at temperatures below the boiling-point of water.
Formerly, when substances were prindpally da»ified by obvious
characteristics, the word included such a body as " oil of vitri<^ "
(sulphuric add), which has of course nothing in common with
what is now understood imder the term oils. In its most com*
prehensive ordinary acceptation the word embraces at present
the flcnd fixed oib or fatty oib (e.g. oUve oil), the soft fau which
may be fluid in thdr country of origin {e.g. coco-nut oil, palm
oil), the hard fats {e.g. tallow), the still harder vegetable and
animal waxes {e.g. camaOba wax, beeswax), the odoriferous
ethereal (essential) oils, and the fluid and solid volatile hydro-
carbons—mineral hydrocarbons— found In nature or obtained
from natuni products by destructive dbtiUation.
The common characteristic of all these substances is that
they consbt prindpally, in some cases exdusvdy, of carbon
and hydrogen. They are all readily inflammable and are practi-
cally insoluble in water. The mineral hydrocarbons foimd In
nature or obtained by destructive dbtUlation do not come
within the range of thu article (see Napbtba, PAKArmr,
PEnoLEUv), which b restricted to the following two large groups
of bodies^ formed naturally within the vegeUble and aninaal
organisms, viz. (x) Fixed oib, fats and waxes, and (a) Essential,
ethereal or voUtile oib.
I. Fixed O&t, Pats emi Wotn.
The subsUnces to be considered under thb head divide
■themsdves naturally into two large dasacs, via. fatty (fixed)
oib and lata on the one hand, and waxes on the other, the dis-
tinction between the two dasses bdng tiased on a most important
chemical difference. The fixed oib and fats consbt essential^
of glycerides, %.e. esteis formed by the umon of thf«e molecules
of fatty odds with one mdecule of the trihydric alcohol glycerin
iq.9.), whereas the waxes consbt of esters formed by the union of
one molecvle of fatty add with one molecnie of a monohydrk
alcohol, such as cetyl alcohol, cholesterol. Use Only in the case
of the wax couerin two molecules of fatty odds arc combined
with one molecule of a dihydric (bivalent) alcohd. It must
be pointed out that in common parlance thb dbtinction does not
find its ready expression. Thus Japan wax b a glyceride and
should be more correctly termed Japan tallow, whereas iperm cil
is, chemically speaking, a wax. Although these two dasses of
substances have a number of physical properties in common,
they must be considered under separate heads. The true
chemical constitution of oils and fats was first expounded by
the daasical researches of (Thevreul, embodied in hb work,
Reckerckes sw tu e^ps gros d'cngine animate (iSaj, reprinted
i8«9).
(a) Fatty {fixed) Oils and Fair.— The fctty (fixed) oib and fais
form a well-defined and homogeneous group ci substances,
passing through all gradations of consistency, from oib which are
fluid even bdow the freezing-point of water, up to the hardest
fats which melt at about 50* C. Therefore, no sharp dbtinction
can be made between fatty oib and fats. Meveithelcss, it b
convenient to apply the term " ml '• to those glycerides which are
fluid below about 20* C, and the term " fat " to those which are
solid above thb temperature.
Chemical Compcrition.—Vo oO or fat b found in nattire oon-
sbting of a single chemical individual, t.e. a fat consisting of the
glyceride of one fatty add only, such as stearin or trblearin,
CiH»(0-CtaitiO)9, the glycerin ester of stearic add, CitH« COOi.
The natural oib and fats are mixtures of at least two or three
different triglycerides, the most important of which are tristearin,
tripalmitin, C»H»(0-CmH«.0)» and trioidn, C>H« (OCaHiX»».
These three glycerides have been usually considered the chief
44
OILS
constituents of most ofls and fats, but lattetly there have been
lecognized aa widely distributed trilinolin, the glyceride of
linolic add, and trilinolenin, the glyceride of linolenic acid.
The two last-named glycerides aie chaiacteristic of the semi*
drying and drying oils respectively. In addition to the fatty
adds mentioned almdy there occur also, although in much
smaller quantities, other fatty acids combined with glycerin, as
natural ^ycerides, such as the glyceride of butyric acid in butter-
fat, of caproic, caprylic and capric adds in butter-fat and in
coco-nut oil, lauric add in coco-nut and palm-oiut oils, and
myristic add in mace butter. These glycerides are, therefore,
characteristic of the oOs and fats named.
In the classified list below the most important fatty acids
occurring in oils and fats are enumerated (d. Waxes, below).
Qils and fats must, therefore, not be looked upon as defioita
chemical individuals, but as representative of natural specks
which vary, although within certain narrow limits, according
to the climate and soil in which the plants which produce them
are grown, or, in the case of animal fats, according to the climate,
the race, the age of the animal, and especially the food, and also
the idiosyncrasy of the individual animal. The oils and fats
are distributed throughout the animal and vegetable kingdom
from the lowest organism up to the most highly organized
forms of animal and vegetable life, and are found in almost
all tissues and organs. The vegetable oils and fats occur chiefly
in the seeds, where they are stored to nourish the embryo,
whereas in animals the oils and fats are endosed mainly in the
cellular tissues of the intestines and of the back.
BotUng'point.
Pressure.
Melting-point
Characteristic of
I. Acids of the Acetic series C»Hs»Os~
Acetic add
Butyric add
Isovaleric add ....
Caproic add
Caprylic add .
Capnc add
Lauric add
Myristic acid .
Isocetic add (?)
Palmitic add .
Stearic add
Arachidic add
Behenic acid
Lignoccricadd
II. Adds of the Acrylie or Oleic series CJfi».40r—
TigUcadd
Hypogaeicadd
Physetoleic acid
CHocacid
Rapicadd
Enidcacid
III. Adds of the Lioolic series CJii^A—
Linolic add
Tariric add
Tdfairieadd
Elaeoroargaric add ....
IV. Adds of the cyclic Chaulmoogric series
Hydnocarpic acid
Chaulmoogric add
V. Acids of the Ljnoleaic series C*Hto-4Qr-
Linolenic acid
Isolinolenic add
VI. Adds of the series C.Hji,_/>i—
Clupaaodonk acid
VII. Acids of the Ricinoleic series CJlt»40r—
RicinoLeic acid
(^inoe oil add
VIII. Dihydroxylated adds of the series C»Hto04
Dihydroxystearic add ....
IX. Adds of the series QJAuJ^r-
Japanicadd
C,HA
C4H,0,
C»H,«0,
COiuO,
C,H,,0,
CoH^Qi
C„H,«0,
CuHiiO,
C»H«0,
CmHiA
C„H«0,
C»H«.Oi
C«HmO^
C,«HiA
C*HiO.
CwH«0,
CmH«0,
C„HmO,
CiiHifOii
C«»H«Q,
CttH«0,
C„H,A
CmHoO,
CuH«Oi
C«H»0,
C»H,0,
CaH.0,
C.,H,iO,
CmHmOi
CuHnO«
CaH«04
7&
760
770
760
100
100
100
760
IS
100
Jo
13
119
173-7
202-203
236,237
268-270
225
aso-s
27 1 '5
291
I9«s
236
285'5-286
28t
220-225
247-248
«5
»50
17
165
31-3
sl
69.3a
645
33-34
30
14
33^
SO-5
48
"^
(Iiqui4)
4-5
141-143
ii7-7-«»7-9
Spindle-tree oil, Macassar oil
Butter fat, Macassar oil
Porpoise and dolphin oils
/Butter fat, coco-nut oil.
f palm nut cnl
Laurel oil, coco-nut oil
Mace butter, nutmeg butter
Purging nut
Patm oil, Japan wax, myrtle
wax, lard. taUow, Sec
Tallow, cacao butter, Ac
Arachis oil
Ben oil
Arachis oil
Croton oil
Arachis oil
Caspian seal oil
Most oils and fats
Rape oils
Rape oils, fish oOs
Maiae oil, cotton seed oQ
Oil of Fkrammia Csmb^Ua
Kodme oil
Tung oil
{ Hydnocarpus. Lukrsbo and
5 Chaulmoogra oils
jUnseedoa
Fish, liver and blubber oils
Castor oil
Quince oil
Castor oil
Japan wax
Up to recently the oils and fats were looked upon as consisting
in the main of a mixture of triglycerides, in which the three
combined fatty adds are identical, as is the case in the above-
named glycerides. Such glycerides are termed "simple
glycerides." Recently, however, glycerides have been found
in which the glycerin is combined with two and even three
different add radicals; examples of such glycerides are dis-
icaroKdein, CiH»(OC»H»iO)«, (OC,sH»0), and stearo-pal-
miU>olein, Cai,(OCwH.»0) (OCsHaO) (OC«HuO). Such
glycerides are termed "mixed glycerides." The glycerides
occurring in natural oUs and fats differ, therefore, in the first
instance by the different fatty acids contained in them, and
secondly, even if they do contain the same fatly acids, by
different proportions of the several simple and mixed glycerides.
Since the methods of preparing the vegetable and animal
fats are comparatively crude ones, they usually conuin certain
impurities o( one kind or another, such as colouring and muctlagi>
nous matter, remnants of vegetable and animal tissues, &c. For
the most part these foreign substances can be removed by pro-
cesses of refining, but even after this purification they still retain
smdl quantities of foreign substances, such as traces of cokyuring
matters, albuminoid and (or) resinous substances, and 01 h^
foreign subsUnces, which remain dissolved in the oils and fats
and can only be isolated after saponification of the fat. These
foreign substances are comprised in the term " unsaponifiable
matter." The most important constituents of the " unsaponifiable
matter " are phytosterol C»H440 or CstH^^OC?), and the isomeric
cholesterol. The former occurs in all oils and fats of vc|peuble
OILS
+S
A. ViietabUfaU.
Ofigia; the Utter is characteristic of all oils aad fats of anioul
origiiL This imporUnt difference luniishes a method oC dis-
tinfuisfaing by chemical means vcgeuble oils and fats from
animal oils and fats. This distinction will be made use of in
the classification of the oils and fats. A second guiding principle
is afforded by the different amounts of iodine (see Oil Testing
below) the various oils and fats are capable of absorbing. Since
this capacity runs parallel with one of the best-known properties
of oils and fats, viz. the power of absorbing larger or smaller
quantities of oxygen on exposure to the air, we arrive at the
foUowing classification: —
I. Fattt Oils oa Liquid Fats
A. VtielabU oils. B. Animal oils.
I. Drying oils. i. Marine animal oils.
«. Senu-dryins oihi ^> Fish oili»
3. Non-drytng oils. lb) Liver oils
(c) Blubber oils.
>. Tencttrial animal oils.
II. Solid Fats
B. Autmalfatt,
I. Drying fats.
3. Semt-drying fats.
3. Non-drying fats.
PkysiuU Pr9pfrttes.~-'*tht specific gravities of oils and fats vary
between the limits of 0-910 and 0975. The lowest specific gravity
is owned by the oils belon|{ing to the rape oil group- -from o 913 to
0-916. The specific gravities of most non-drying oils lie between
0-916 and Oi)30. and of most semi-drying oils between 0*930 and
0-925. whereas the drying oils have specific gravities of about 0*9^.
The animal and vegetable fats possess somewhat higher specific
gravities* up to 0-930. The high specific gravity, 0*970, is owned by
castor oil and cacao butter, and the highest specific gravity observed
hitherto, 0*975, by Japan wax and myrtle wax.
In thei*' liquid state oils and fats easily penetrate into the pores of
dry subsunces; on paper they leave a translucent spot -'grease
spot " — ^which cannot be removed by washing with water and subse-
qoeat drying. A curious fact, which may be used for the detection
of the minutest quantity of oils and fats, is that camphor crushed
between layers <H paper without having been touched with the
fingers rotates when thrown on clean water, the rotation ceasing
immediately when a trace of oil or fat is added such as introduced
by tauching the water with a needle which has been passed previously
through the hair.
The oils and fats are practically insoluble in water. With the
exception of castor oil they are insoluble in cold alcohol; in boiling
alcohol somewhat brgcr quantities dissolve. They arc completely
soluble in ether, carbon bisulphide, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride,
petroleum ether, and bcnxciv. Oils and fats have no distinct melting
or solidifying point. This is not only due to the fact that they arc
mixtures of several gl]^ceridcs, but also that even pure glycendes,
such as tristearin. exhibit two melting-points, a so-called double
melting-point." the triglycerides meltmg at a certain temperature,
then solidifving at a higher temperature to melt again on further
heating. This curious behaviour was looked upon by Duffy as tieing
due to the existence of two isomeric modifications, the actual
occurrence of which has bean proved (1907) in the case el sevecsl
mixed glyccrides.
The freezing-points of those oils which are fluid at the ordinary
temperature range from a few degrees above zero down to -a8* C
(Unseed oil). At low temDeraturcs solid portions — ^usually termed
** stearine " — separate out irom many oils; in the case of cotton-seed
oil the separation ukcs plac« at la* C. These solid oortions can be
filtered on, and thus are obtained the commercial " oemargarinatcd
oils " or " winter oils."
OiU and fats can be heated to a temperature of 300* to 3«>* C.
without undergoing any material change, provided prolonged
contact with air is avoided. On being h'sated above 350* up to 300*
some oils, like linseed oil, safflower oil. tung oil (Chinese or Japanese
iMDod oil) and even castor oil. undergo a change which is most likely
due to polymerization. In the case of castor oil solid products are
formed. Above 300* C all oils and fats are decomposed; this is
evidenced by the evolution of acrolein, which possesses the well-
known pungent odour of boming fat. At the same time hydro-
carbons are formed Csee Pctxolevm).
On exposure to the atmosphere, oib and fats gradually uadergo
certain changes. The diryfn; oils absorb oxygen somewhat
rapidly and dry to a film or skin, especially if exposed in a thm
layer. Extensive use of this property is made in the paint and
vftmish trades. Hie semi-drying oils absorb oxygen more
slowly than the drying oils, and are, therefore, useless as paint
oils. Still, in course of time, they absorb oxygen distinctly
enoui^ to become thickened. The property of the semi-drying
oils to absorb oxygen is accelerated by spreading such oils over
a large surface, notably over woollen or cotton fibres, when
absorption proceeds so rapidly that frequently spontaneous
combustion will ensue. Many fires in cotton ^nd woollen mills
have been caused thereby. The non-drying oils, the type of
which is olive oil, do not become oxidized readily oa exposure
to the air, although gradually a change takes place, the oils
thickening slightly and acquiring that peculiar disagreeable
smell and acrid taste, which are defined by the term " rancid."
The changes conditioning rancidity, although not yet fully
understood in all details, must be ascribed in the first instance
to slow hydrolysis (" saponification ") of the oils and fats by the
moisture of the air, especially if favoured by insolation, when
water Is taken up by the oils and fats, and free fatty acids are
formed. The fatty acids so set free are then more readily
attacked by the oxygen of the air, and oxygenated products
are formed, which impart to the oib and fats the rancid smell
and taste. The products of oxidation are not yet fully kno%m*,
most likely they consist of lower fatty acids, such as formic
and acetic adds, and perhaps also of aldehydes and ketones.
If the fats and oils are well protected from air and light, they
can be kept indefinitely. In fact C. Friedel has found unchanged
triglycerides in the fat which had been buried several thotisand
years ago in the tombs of Abydos. If the action of air and
moisture is allowed free play, the hydrolysis of the oils and
fats may become so complete that only the insoluble fatty
acids remain behind, the glycerin being washed away. This
Is exemplified by adipocere, and also by Irish bog butter, which
consist chiefly of free fatty acids.
The proper t y of oils and fats of being readily hydrolvaed is a most
important cme, and veryeateosiveuscof it is made in tne arts (soap-
making. caodle>making and recovery of their b)r-products). If oils
and fats are treated with water alone under hiip pi a s s p m (corre-
apondiog to a temperature of about 33o* C), or m the presence of
water with caustic alkaUs or alkaline earths or basic meullic oxides
(which bodies act as " caulysers ") at lower pressures, they are
converted in the first instance into free fatty acids and glycerin.
If an amoont of the bases aufiicient to combine subseqocntly with
the fatty acids be present, then the corresponding salts of these fatty
acids are formed, audi as sodium salts 01 fatty aods (hard soap) or
potassium salts of the fatty acids (soft soap), soaps of the alkaline
earth (lime soap), or soaps of the meullic oxides (sine soap. Ac).
The coovenion of %he glyeeridea (triglycerides) into fatty adds
and glycerin most be looked upon as a reaction which takes place in
stages, one molecttle of a triglyceride being converted first into
diglyceride and one moieenle of fatty acid, the dwlyeefide then bdng
chanced into moooglyccride. and a second molecule of fatty acio,
and niuUy the moooglyceride bdng converted into one molecule of
fatty add and glycenn. All these reactions take place concurrently,
•o that one molecule of a diclyoeride may still retain its ephemeral
existence, whilst another molecule is already broken op completely
into free fatty adds and glycerin.
The oils and fats used in the industries are not drawn from
any very great number of sources. The tables on the following
pages contain chiefly the most important oils and fats together
with thdr sources, yields and ptindpal uses, arranged according
to the above classification, and according to the magnitude of
the iodine value. It should be added that many other oib and
fats are only waiting improved conditions of transport to enter
into successful competition with tome of those that ace already
on the market.
£x(rac/»M.->Sinoe the oils and fats have always served the
human race as one of the most important articles of food, the
oil and fat Industry may well be considered to be as old as the
human race itself. The methods of preparing oils and fats
range themselves under three heads: (i) Extraction of oil by
" rendering," t.e. boOing out with water; (a) Extraction of oil
by expression; (3) Extraction of <Ai by means of solvents.
Rendering. — ^The crudest method of rendering oils from seeds, itill
practiced in Central Africa, in Indo-Chtna and on some of the South
Sea Islands, consists in heaping up oleaginous fruits and allowing
them to melt bv the heat ol the sun, when the exuding oil runs olf
and is collected. In a somewhat improved form this pixxresa of
rendering is practised in the preparation of palm oil. and the rendering
the best (Cochin) coco-nut oil by boiling the fresh kernels with water.
Since hardly any machinery, or only the simplest machinery, is
required for these processes, this method h^s some (asunation (or
46
OILS
Inventon, and even at the (weaent day proc eaaea are being patented,
havinc for their object the boiling out of fruits with ivater or laU
■olutions, lo as to faciUute the separation of the oil from the pulp by
graviution. Naturally these processes can only be applied to those
seeds which contain large auantities of fatty matter, such as coco-
nuts and oliv». The renoering process is, however, applied on a
very lar^e acale to the production of animal oils and fata. Formerly
the animal oils and fau were obuined by heating the tissues con-
tainmg the oils or fats over a free fire, when the cell membranes
burst and the liquid fat flowed out. The cave-dwcUcr who first
collected the fat dripping off the deer on the roasting spit may well
be looked upon as the first manufacturer of tallow. This crude
process is now classed amongst the noxious trades, owing to the
offensive stench given off, and must be considered as almost extinct
in this country. Even on whaling vessels, where up to recently
whale oil, seal oil and sperm oil (see Waxes, below) were obtained
exdustvely by '* trying," •.«. by melting the blubber over a free fire,
the Droceas of rendering is fast becoming obsolete, the modem prac-
tice being to deliver the blubber in as fresh a state as possible lo the
** whaling establishments," where the oil is rendered by methods
doatrly resembling those worked in the enormous rendering establish-
ments (for ullow, lard, bone fat) in the United Sutes and in South
America. The method consisu essentially in cutting up the fatty
matter into small fragments, which are transferrd into vessels
Containing water, wherein the comminuted mass is heated by
steam, either under ordinary pres»ure in open veaseb or under
higher pressure tn digestors. The fat gradually exudes and collects
on the top of the water, whilst the membranous matter, " grmvcs,**
falls to the bottom. The fat is then drawn off the aqueous (gluey)
layer, and strained through sieves or filters. Tlie greaves are placed
VBCBTABI.B Oils
NameofOiL
Source.
Yield
per cent.
Iodine
Valu&
Principal Use.
Tunc (Chinese or Japanese wood)
indle nut
Cai
Hemp seed
Walnut: Nut
SafBower .
Poppy seed
Sunflower .
MadU
Umum usitatissimum
AUurita cordata
AUurUes wtduuana
Cannabis sativa
Jugiams regia .
Cartkamus tinctarius
Pabaoer somniferum
Hetianthus aniiKia .
Madia saH»a .
Drying Oils.
Semi-drying Oils,
Cameline (German Sesami)
Soja bean ....
Maiae; Com
Be e c h not . , .
Kapok ....
Cotton-aeed
Curcas, pufgiag nut
Braail nut
Croton
Ravisoa
Rape(C4»Ua) . .
Apricot kernel •
iVKhkcrad .
Aradtts (ground mit)
Haael nut
OUve . . .
Olive kerad . .
Grape si
Castor
Soja kispida
Zea Mays
B«mbax penlandnam {Eriodendron
atifractM9SUM)
Gassy pimm herbaeeum
Sesimum orientate, S. ind i eu m
Jatropka eurcas
BertkoUeiia exedsa .
Cretan Ti^imm
Wiki Brassiea campestris
Brauica campestris
Brassiea campestris var.?
Nan-drying Oils.
PrmmiM armeniaea
Prmnms persiem
Prumms amygialms
Aradus k yp o gaea
Carylms aeeUasiM
OUaemrapaem ,
OUa tnrepam .
Morimg^ eie^era
Vuisnmifera .
38-40
41-50
ai-aa
31-34
6-10
43-45
30-32
24-a6
50-57
55-57
53-56
33-40
33-43
«4
40-45
3»-3S
45-55
43-45
50-00
40-60
i»-i5
35-30
lo-ao
4^-53
i75-«>5
150-165
1*4
145
130-147
123-143
11^135
118-5
135
133
Ii3-t»5
III-I30
1X6
I08-IIO
103-108
98-110
90-106
103-104
105-117
94-I03
95
96-to8
93-109
Q3-too
83-100
l^
II
83-86
Paint, varnish, linoleum, soap
Paint and varnish
Burning oil, soap, paint
Paints and varnishes, soft soap
Oil painting
Burning, vaqpish (" nwfaan ")
Salad ou. painting, loit soap
Edible oil. soap
Soap, burning
Bunung. aoap
Edible, burmng
Edible, soap
Food, burmng
Food, soap
Food, soap
Food, soap
Medicine, soap
Edible, soap
Mcdknne
Lubricant, burning
Lubricant, burning
Burning, lubricant
Pcrfum^rVj Hiedtdoe
Perfumer^', medicine
Ptflumtry, medicine
EtJi^Ef, s*:up
E*Jir-l^, pcfiumery, hibrieatlhg
EdiHkn lubricating, burning, soap
Edilhk\ I u brio ling, burning, aoap
Ediblr, perfumery, lubricating
F&id, burning
Mcrfk-in^, lioap. lubricating, Twlcey
tr4 oil
AiomalOils
NameofOiL
YieU
percent.
Iodine
Value.
Priactpal Use.
Fish
M.
Sardineofl . .
Salmoo .
Heniiv . .
Liweroils —
Cod Ii\Tr
Shark liver (Arctic)
Blubber
Seal
Wlalt
Dolphin, black fish, body ofl )
jawoi )
PBrpoMeBodyoa . . . j
^ ipo ise Jam ofl . • • 1
Sheep's foot .
Hones' foot .
Neat's toot
Egg . . .
Atosa munkaden
Onpea sardinms
Saime solar
Marine Animal OUs,
Cadns marrkma^
Scymnms borealis
Delpkimsu ifoUe ep*
DelpluMsu
Currying leather
Carryiag leather
Currymg leather
Currying leather
M^fidne, currying leather
Conying leather
Buraiag. currying leadier
Burning, soap-making, fibre
ing. currying leather
f Lubricating oQ for ddiorta
Terrestrial Animal OSs.
Oeisaries'.
Eqmms cohoOns
Bss lomrms
CalUst
140-173
161-195
161
134-143
167
115
137-147
131-136
99-U6
33
119
36
74 I Lubricatii«
74-90 I Lubricaring
67-73 I Lubricating, leather drnsing
68-8a ' " "^ '- -
OILS
47
Vbobtabu fats
Name of Fat.
Source.
Yield
percent.
Iodine
Value.
Priadpal Use.
Uttidoil
Mabua butter. lUip« butter .
Mowrah batter ....
Shea batter (GaUm butter) . .
Palmoil
Maca batter
Ghee butter (Phulwara butter) .
Cacao butter
Kokun butter (Gaa butter) .
Borneo tallow
MocayaoU
Maripafat ....
Palinl»meloU( ....
Pahnnutoil > • . • •
Coco-nut oil
Japan wax ...
Dila oiKoba oil. wild mango oil) .
Myrtle wax
Lamrus noMis . . . . :
Bassialatifplui ....
BassiaParkii
Elaeis im»€ensis, B. mekuiococca
Myris&a 0fficinalis
Bassia hutyncea
Cecos icUrocafpa ....
Palnm Q) Mwipa ....
EUieis guinetHsu
Cocos Huctfera, C. hutyracea .
Rhus suecedanea, R. vemicijrra
Ininpa giiboneiuis ....
Myrtca ceriftra^ M, carotineBsis .
24-96
50^5
50-5&
50-5a
44-50
23
49
45-50
60-70
45-50
ao-a5
20^S
6S-80
53-67
'It
53
4<>-5a
4a
32-41
28-32
33
15^1
24
«7
13-14
8-9
4-10
5-2
»-4
Medicine
Food, soap, candica
Food, soap, candles
Food, soap, candica
Candles, soap
Medidne, perfuiaery
??«*.
Chocolate
S»g.c«dfc.
Food, candles
Food, soap
Food, soap
Food, soap
Food
Soap, candles 0)
Amu AL Fats
Name of Fat.
Source.
Yield
per cent.
Iodine
Value.
Principal Use.
Ice bear .
Rattlesnake
Horace* fat.
Gooaefat . .
Lard . .
Beef manow
Bone .
Tatlotir, beef .
Tallow, mutton
Butter
Ursus mcrUimuM
Cmaiua durissus
Drying Fais.
106
Pharmacy
Pharmacy
Semi-drying Fats.
I Eqttns cahailnt . . . . | | 75-85 | Food, soap
Non-drying Fats,
Anser eimrens .
Bostaurus
Bm,Owu .
Bcs fojinfi
Onsaries
Bos lamrus
70
50-70
55
38-46
Food, soap. cawHea
Pomades
Soap, candles
Food, soap, candles, lubricaata
Food, soap, candles, lubricants
Food
in hair or woollen ba((S and submitted to hydraulic pressure, bv
which a further portion of oil or fat is obtained (cf . Presstnt, below).
In the case of tnose animal fats which are intended for edible pur-
poses, such as lard, suet for mantarine. the greatest cleanliness roust,
of course, be observed, and the temperature must be kept as low as
possible in order to obtain a perfectly sweet and pure material.
Prtssint.—Tht boilina out process rannot be applied to small
seeds, sucn as linseed and rape seed. Whilst the original method of
obtaining seed oils may perhaps have been the same which is still
used in India, via. trituration of (rape) seeds in a mortar so that the
oil can exude, it may be safety assumed that the process.of expressing
has been applied in the first instance to the preparation of olive oil.
The first woman who expressed olives packed in a sack by heaping
stones on them may be considered as the forerunner of the inventors
of all the presses that subsequently came into use. Pliny describes
in detail the apparatus and processes for obtaining olive oil in vogue
among his Roman contemporaries, who used already a simple screw
press, a knowledge of which they had derived from the Greeks.
In the East, where vegetable oib form an important article of food
and serve also for other domestic purposes, various ingenious
applications of lever presses and wedee presses, and even of com-
bined lever and wedge presses, have oren used from the remotest
time. At an early sta|e of history the Chinese employed the same
series of operatbns which are followed in the most advanced oil mills
of modem time, viz. bruising and reducing the seed& to meal under an
edge-stone, heating the meal in an open pan, and pressing out the
oil in a wedge press In which the wedges were driven home by
hammers. Tnis primitive process is still being carried out in Man-
churia, in the production of soja bean cake and 80)a bean oil, one of
the sta^e industries of that country. The olive press, whkrh was
also used m the vineyards for expressing the crape juke, found its
way from the south of France to the north, and was employed there
for expressing poppy seed and rape seed. The apparatus was then
graduallv unproved, and thus were evcrfvcd the modem forms of
the screw press, next the Dutch or stamper pnas. and finally the
hydraulic press. With the screw press, even in its most improved
form, the amount of pressure practkallY obtainable is Hmited from
the failure of its parts under the severe inelastic strain. Hence thia
kind of press finds only limited application, as in the industry of
olive oil for expressing the best and finest virgin oil, and in the
production of animal fats for edible purposes, such as lard and
otooma i garlne. The Dutch or stamper press, invented in Holland
in Che iTth ccBtnry, was up to tha eaily yean of tha t9th ceatuy
almost exclusively employed in Eui
consists of two principal parts, an obi
with
for pressing oil-seeds. It
rectangular box with an
ngement d pbtes, blocks and wedges, and over it a framework
» heavy sUmpers which produce the pressure by their fall.
The press oox first conskted of strongly bound oaken planks, but
later on cast-iron boxes were introduced. At each ex trem i t y of the
box a bag of oil-meal was placed between two perforated iron plates,
next to which were inserted filling-up pieces oil wood, two of whkh
were oblique, so that the wed^ which cxereised the pressure cooM
be readily driven home. This press has had to yield place to the
hydraulic press, although in some ohl-fashioned estabTishments in
Holland the stamper press couM still be seen at work in the 'eighties
of the 19th century. The invention of the hydraulic press in 1795
by Joseph Bnmah (£ar. pal., «>th April 1795) effected the createst
revolution in the oil industry, oriiwing a new, easily controUed and
almost unlimited source of power into play; the limit of the power
bemc solely reached by the limit of tne strength of the material
which the engineer is able to produce. Since then the hydmnUc
press has practically completely superseded all other amrfiances
used for exprcsaon, aiuS in consequence of thb epoch-making in-
vention, assisted as it was later on by the accumulator— invented by
William George (later Lord) Armstrong in 1813 — the seed-crushii^
indnstiy rcacMa a perfection of mechankaT detail whkfa aoon
seeurad its supremacy for England.
The sequence of operations In treating oil seeds, oil nuts, Ac.,
for the separetkm ol their contained oils is at the present time as
follows: As a pr e limina ry operation the oil seeds and nuu are freed
from dost, sand and other impurities by sifting in an inclined re-
volving cylinder or sieving machine, covered with woven wire,
having medws varying aocoiding to the siae and nature of the seed
is of the greatest
dible oib and fata.
operated upon. This prslii , ,
importance, especially lor the preparation of edible
In the case of those seeds amongst which are found pieces of i
(hammer heads amongst pahn kernels, Ac.), the seeds are passed
over magnetic separators, which retain the pieces of iron. The seeds
and nats are then decorticated (where reqmrsd), the sheUs re m ove d .
and the kemelo (" mcatt ") converted into a pulpy masa or meal
(in okler establishments by crushing and grinding between stones ia
edge-runners) on passtna through a hopper over rolleTS oonsistiitg
of five chilled iron or steel cylinden mounted vertically like the bowb
of a calendar. These rollcss are finely grooved so tnat the seed b
cut op whilst passiiig in successmn Be t ween the first and second
ift ihc seriss, then bctwten the second and tha third, •»*
48
OILS
on to the last, when the grains are sufficiently bruised, crushed and
ground. The disunoe between the rollers tan be easily rnulated
■o that the seed leavins the bottom roller has the desired fineness.
The comminuted mass, lorming a more or less ooane meal, is either
expressed in this state or subjected to a preliminary heatinK. accord*
inf to the quality of the produa to be manufactured. For the
preparation of edibU oils and fats the meal is expressed in the cold,
after having been pecked into ban and placed in hydraulic presses
under a pressure oi three hundred atmospheres or even more. The
cakes arc allowed to remain under pressure for about seven minutes.
The oil exuding in the cold dissolves the smallest amount of colouring
matter, &c.» and hence has suffered least in its quality. Oils so
obtained are known in commerre as *' coU drawn oils," ** cold pressed
oik." " salad oils," " virgin oils."
By pressing in the cold, obviously only part of the oil or Cat is
recovered. A further quantity is obtained by expresnng the seed
meal at a somewhat elevated temperature, reached by warming the
comminuted seeds or fruits either immediately after they leai« the
fi\T-roller mill, or after the " goM diawn oil has been taken off.
Of course the cold pressed cakes must be first disintegrated, which
may be done under an edge^runner. The same operation may be
repeated once man. Thus oils of the ** second expression " and of
the " third expression " arc obtained.
In the case of oleaginous seeds of low value (cotton-seed, linseed)
it is of importance to express in one operation the largest possible
quantity <h oil. Hence the bruised seed is, after leaving the five-
roller mill, generally warmed at once in a steam-jacketed kettle
fitted with a mixing gear, by parsing steam into the jacket, and send-
ing at the same time some steam through a rose, fixed inside the
kettle, into the mass while it is being aiptated. This practice is a
survival of the older method of moistening the seed with a little
water, while the seeds were bruised under edge-runners, so as to
lower the temperature and faciliute the bursting of the cells. The
warm meal is then delivered through measuring boxes into closed
pressbajps (" scourtins " of the " Marseilles " press), or through
measunng boxes, combined with an automatic moulding machine,
into cloths open at two sides (Anglo-American press), so that the
preliminarily pressed cakes can be put at once into the hydraulic
press. In the latest constructions oi cage presses, the use of bags is
cntirel^f dispensed with, a measured-out quantity of seed falling
direct into the circular press cage and being separated froro^ the
material forming the next cake by a dreuk^ plate of sheet iron.
The essentials of proper oil pressing are a sfowly accumulating
pressure« m that tne liberated oil may have time to flow out and
escape, a pressure that increases in proportion as the resistance of
the material increases, and that maintains itself as the volume of
material decreases through the escape of oiL
Numerous forms of hydraulic presses have been devised. Hon-
lontal presses have practically ceased to be used in this branch of
industry. At present vertical presses are almost exclusively in
vogue; the three chief types of these have been already mentioned.
Continuously workini^ presses (compression by a oonical screw^ have
been patented, but hitherto they have not been found practicable.
Of the vertical presses the Ai^lo- American type of press b most in
use. It represents an open press fitted with a number (usually
sixteen) of iron press plates, between which the cakes are insetted
by hand. A hydraulic ram then forces the table carrying the cakes
against a prcsa-head, and the exuding oil flows down the sides into
a Unk below. The " ManeiUes press" is largely used in the sooth
of France. There the meal b packed by hand in " scourtins/' bags
made of plaited cooo-nut leave*— replacing the woollen cloths used
in Enj{land. The packing of the press requires more manual labour
than in the case oi the Anglo-American press; moreover, the Mar-
seilles press offers inconvenience in keeping the bags straight, and
the pressure cannot be raised to the same height as in the more
modern hydraulic presses. Oil obtained from heated meal is usually
more highly coloured and harsher to the taste than cold drawn oil,
more oT thie extractive substances being dissolved and intermixed
with the oil. Such oib are hardly suitable for edible purposes, and
they are chiefly used for manufacturing proc es s es . According to
the care exercised by the manufacturer in the range of temperature
to which the seed is heated, various grades of oiU are obtained.
In the case of those seeds which contain more than 40% of oQ,
such as arachb nuts and sesame seed, the first expression in prenbags
leads to difficulty, as the meal causes " spueing, t.«. the meal exudes
and escapes from the press. Hence, in^ modem iostaUations, the
first expression of those seeds is carried out in so-called ca^ (chidding)
presses, consisting of hydraulic pressesmvided with arcular boxes
orcages. into which the meal bfilfed. These cages or Ixnesare either
ooostnictcd of metal staves hefal together by a number of steel rings,
or coasbt of one cylinder having a brge number of perforations.
The presses . having perforated cylimlers, although presenting
mcchaaically a more perfect arrangement, are not preferable to the
press cages formed by suves, as the holes become easily cbgged up
by the meal, when the cylinder must be carefully cleaned out.
Modem improvements, with a view to cheapening of cost, effect the
transport of the cages from one presa battery to another on rails.
In order to dispense even with the charging of the presses by hand,
in some afstens the cifea are first chariBsa io a
from which they are transferred mechanically by a swinging arraafe-
ment into the final press.
Whibt the meal b under pressure the oil works its way to the edge
of the cake, whence it exudes. For thb reason an oblong form b the
most favourable one for the easy separation of the oil. The cdpes
of the cakes invariably reuin a considerable portion of oil; henoe
the soft edges are pared off, in the case of the oblong cake in a cake-
paring machine, and the parings are returned to edge-runneri, to
be ground up and again pressed with fresh meal. Through the
tntroductk>n of the cage (clodding) presses circular cakes have become
fashionaMe, and as the materiafol these presses can be made modi
stronger and therefore higher pressure can be employed, more oil b
expressed from the meal than in open presses. The oil flowing from
the p ress e s b caught in reservoirs placed under the level of the floor,
f roni>hich it b pumped into storage tanks for settling and clarifying.
Extraetion by Sehfenls.—Tht cakes obuined in the foregoing
process still retain considerable proportions of oil, not less than
4 to s%-~usually. however^ about 10%. If it be desired to obuin
larger quantities than are yielded by the above-described methods,
processes having for their objea the extraction of the seeds fay
volatile solvents must be resorted to. Extraction by means o*" carbon
bbulphide was first introduced in 1843 by Jesse Fisher of Birming-
ham. Thirteen years later E. Deiss of Brunswick again ratent«i
the extraction by means of carbon bbulphide (Eng. Pai. No, 300,
1 856), and added '* chloroform, ether, essences, or beniine or benzole'
to the list of sfdvents. For several years afterwards the process
made little advance, for the colour of the oib produoed was higher
and the taste mudi sharper. The oil retained traces of sulphur,
which showed themsdves disagreeably in the smell of soaps made
from it, and in the Mackening of substances with which it was used.
Of course, the meal left by the process was so tainted with carboo
bisulphide that it was absolutely out of the question to use the
extracted meal as cattle food. With the improvement in the manu-
facture of carbon bisulphide, these drawbacks have been surmounted
to a large extent^ and the process of extracting with carbon bisulphide
has specially gained much exteliMon in the extraction of ewpressrd
olive marc in the south of France, in Italy and in Spain. Yet even
now traces of carbon bisulphide are retained by the extracted meal,
so that it b impossible to feed cattle with it. Carbon bisulphade b
comparativdy cheap, and it b heavier than water, hence there are
certain advantages in storing so volatib and inflammabb a liquid.
But owing to the physiologtcal effect carbon bisulphide has on the
workmen, coupled with the chemical action of Impure caibon
bisulphide on iron which has frequently led to oonflagratioos. the
employment of carbon bbulphide must remain restricted. In 1863
Richardson. Lundy and Irvine secured a patent (£»g. Pol. No.
3315) for obuining oil from crushed seeds, or from refuae cake«
by the solvent action of volatile hydrocarbons from " petroleum,
canh oib, asphalturo oil, coal oil or shale oil, such hydrocarbons
being required to be voUtib under 212* F." Since that time the
development of the petroleum industry in all parts of the wodd
and the large quantities of low boiiing-point hydrocarbons — naphtha
—obtained from the petroleum fields, and also the improvements
in the apparatus employed, have raised thb system of extraction
to the rank of a competing practical method of oil production.
Of the other proposed vobtile solvents ordinary ether has found 00
practical application, as it b far too volatile and hence hr too
dangerous. Carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, acetone and bcnaene
are far too expensive. Carbon utrachloride would be an ideal
solvent, as it is noo-inflammable and shares with carbon bbulphide
the advantage of bdng heavier than water. Efforts have been made
during the last few years to introduce this solvent on a Luge scale,
but its high price and its physiological effect on the workmen have
hitherto militated against it. At the present time the choice lien
practically only between the two solvents, carbon bbulphide and
naphtha (petroleum ether). ■ Naphtha b preferable for oil seeds, as
it extracts neither resins nor gummy matters from the oil seeds,
and takes up less colouring matter than carbon bisulphide. Yet even
with naphtha traces of the solvents remaii^ so that the meal obtained
cannot oe used for cattle feeding, notwithstanding the many state-
ments by interested parties to tne contrary. It b true that on the
continent extracted meal, espedally rape meal from good Indian
seed and palm kernel meal, are somewhat largely used as food for
cattle in admitture with press cakes, but in England 00 extracted
meal is used for feeding cattle, but finds its proper use In manuring
the Und.
The apparatus employed on a luifit scale depends 00 the tempcia-
ture at which the extractioo b earned out. In the maio two types
of extracting apparatus are differentiated, via. for extraction in the
cold and for extractioa in the hot. The seed is prepared in a similar
manner as for pressing, except thnt it is not rrauoed to a hoe meal,
so as not to impede the pcreobtion of the solvent throu^i the mass.
In the case of ooM extraction the seed is pUccd in a aeiKS of dosed
vessels, through which the solvent percolates by displacement, on
the " coanter<iirrent " system. A battery of vessels is so arranged
that one vessd can always be made the last of the series to diadiarge
finished meal and to be recharged with fresh ancal. so that the
pnicessis practically a continuous one. Thesohition of the extracted
oUoriat kthea tiaasfemd (oasteam-bcatod stUi, where the solvent
OILS
+9
tbc wpoun n a odMIbc
volatile lolwent in tbe ou
it drives «II and rawvetcd l»y
coil, to be used again. The last remnant , ^
b driven off by a current of open ttcara blown through the oil in the
warm state. The extracting process in the hot is carried out in
appacMus, die prittdple oC which b mempUfied by the weB'kixM
Soxhlet extractor. The oomminuted seed is plifisd inside a vesa
connected with an upright lefrigenUor oa trays or baskets, and
surrounded there by the volatile solvent. On hqatlng the solvent
with steam through a coH or jacket, the vapours rise through and
around the neal. Tbev pass into the refrigefator, where they are
condensed and fall back as a condeMed liqaM thrmigh the meal,
percolating it as they pass downwards, and rBachtng to the bottom
of the vessel as a more or less saturated solution of ou in the solvent.
The solvent is again evaporated. leavtn{^ the oil at the bottom of the
vcMct until the extraction b deemed finished. Tbe solution of fat b
then run off into a still, as described already, and the last traces of
solvent are driven out. The solvent b recovered and used again.
With regard to the merits and demerits of the last two mentioned
processes— expression and extractk>n — the adoption of either will
largely depend on local conditions and the objects for which the pro-
ducts ane intended. Wherever the cake b the main product, «>
prcssion will commend itself as the most advantageous process.
Where, however, the fatty material forms the main product, as in the
case of palm kernel oil, or sesame and coco-nut oils from damaged
seeds (which would no k>nger yield proper cattle food), the process of
extraction will be preferred, especially when the price of oils b high.
In some cases the combination of the two prooesses commends
itself, as in the case of the production of olive oil. The fruits are
expressed, and after the edible, qualities and best class of oils for
iBchoical purposes have been taken off by espressien. the rsmaining
pulp b extracted l^ means of solvents. Thb pAxess b known under
tbe name of mixed process {kuiUrie mixU),
R^mni and BUachim.—Thit oils and fats prepared by any
of t£e methods detailed above are in their fresh state, and, if
got from perfectly fresh (" sweet **) material, praclically neutral.
If care be exerdsed in the process of rendering animal olb
and Cats or expressing oils in the cold, the products are, as a
rule, su£QdentIy pure to be delivered to tbe consumer, after a
preliminary settling has allowed any mudUginous matter, such
as animal or vegetable fibres or other impurities, and also traces
of moisture, to separate out. Thb spontaneous darincalion
was at one time tlw on\y method in vogue. Thb process b
now shortened by filtering oib tbrough filler presses, or otherwbe
brightening them, «.;. by blowing with air. In many cases
these methods still suffice lor the production o£ commercial
oib and fats.
In special cases; such aa tlie preparation of edible oils and fats, »
further improvement in colour and ^eater purity b obtaiDcd by
filtering the oils over charcoal, or over natural absorbent earths,
fuch as fuller's ea rth. Where this process does not suffice, as in the
case of coco-nut oil or palm kernel oil, a preliminary purification
in a current of steam must be resorted to before the final purifica-
tion, described above, is carried out. Oib intended for use on th«
Uble which deposit " stcarine " in winter must be freed from such
solid fats. Thb b done by allowing the oil to cool down to a low
temperature and pressing it through cloths in a press, when a
nmpid on exudes, which remains proof against cold—" winter oil."
Most o\v/e oib are naturally non-congealing oib, whereas the
Tunbian and Algerian olive oib deposit so much " stearine "
that they must be " demargarinaled.'* Similar methods are em-
ojoy^ in the production of lard oil, edible cotton-seed oil, &c
For refining oib and fats intended for edible purposes only the
foregoing methods, which may be s.ummari2ed by the name of
physical methods, can be used; the only chemicab permissible
are alkalb or alkaline earths to remove free fatty adds present.
Treatment with other chemicab renders the oils and fats unfit
for oonsiunption. Therefore all bleaching and refining pro-
cesses involving other means than those enumerated can only
be used for technical oHs and fats, such as lubricating oib,
burning ofls, paint oib, soap-making oils, &c
Bleaching by the aid of chemicab requires great circumspec-
tion. There b no universal method of oil-refining applicable
to any and every oil or fat. Not only must each kind of oil or
hi be considered as a spedal problem, but frequently even
varieties of one and the same o9 or fat are apt to cause the
lame dffSculties as would a new individual. In many cases the
purification by means of sulphuric acid, invented and patented
by Charles Cower tn X79> (fr6qucnt]y ascribed to Tli&unD, ii
still usefully applied. It consists in treating the oil with
a small pefoeotage of a more or less concentrated sulphoric
add, according to the nature of the oil or fat. The add not
only takes up water, but it acts on the suspended Impurities^
carbonizing them to some extent, and thus causing them to
ooagulate and fall down in the form of a floccubnt mass, which
canfct with it mechanically other Impurities which have not
been acted npon. Thb method b chiefly used in the refining
of linseed an4 rape oils. Purification by means ol strong
caustic soda was first recommended as a general process by
Loub C. Arthur Barreswll, Ms suggestion being to heat the xA
and add 2% to 3% of caustic soda. In most cases the purifica-
tion consisted in removing the free fatty adds from randd oib
and fats, the caustic soda fonning a soap with the fatty addB»
which would either rise as a scum and lift up with it impurities
or fall to the bottom and carry down impurities. Thb process
b a useful one in the case of cotton-seed oil. As a ruie^
however, it b a very precarious one, since emulsions are formed
which prevent in many cases the separation of oil altogether.
After the treatment with sulphuric, add or caustic soda, the oib
must be washed to remove tbe last traces of chemicals. The
water b then allowed to settle out, and the oib are finally
filtered. The number of chemicab which have been proposed
from time to time for the purification of oib and fats b shnost
legion, and so long as the nature of oib and faU was littlt
understood, a secret trade in oil-purifying chemicab flourished.
With our present knowledge most of these chemicab may
be removed into the limbo of useless things. Tlie gencraJ
methods of bleaching besides those mentioned already aa
physical methods, viz. filtration over charcoal or bleaching
earth, are chiefly methods based on bleaching by means of
oxygen or by chlorine. Tlie methods of bleaching by oxygen
include all those which aim at the bleaching by exposure to
the air and to sunlight (as in the case of artists' Unsced-oU)»
or where oxygen or ozone b introduced in the form of gas or
b evolved by chemicab, as manganese dioxide, potassium
bichromate or potassium permanganate and sulphuric add.
In the process of bleaching by means of chlorine either bleach-
ing powder or bichromates and hydrochloric add are used. It
must again be emphasized that no general rule can be laid
down as to which process should be employed in each given
case. There b still a wide field open for the application of
proper processes for the removal of Impurities and colouring
matters without running the risk of attacking the oil orfafc
itself.
Oi7 rejfmg.— Reliable sdentific methods for testing «:ib and
fats date back only to tbe end of tbe 'seventies of the 19th
century. Before that tione it was beUeved that not only could
individual oib and ftits be dbtinguisbed from each other by
colour reactions, but it was also maintained that falsification
could be detected thereby. With one or two exceptions (detec-
tion of sesame oil and perhaps abo of oottoo-seed ofl) all colour
reactions are enttrdy useless. The modem methods of oil
testing rest chiefly on so-called "quantitative" reactions, a
number of characteristic "values" being determined whkh*
being based on the spedal nature of the falty adds contained ia
each individual oD or fkt, assbt in identifying them and abo
in revealing adulteration. These " values," together with other
usdul methods, are enumerated in the order of their utility for
the purposes of
The sapniiTkalJea m/w (^•pomftdtiam SMsler) denotes the
number of milligrams which one gramme of an oil or fat lequsies for
saponification, or, in other words, for the neutralization of the total
fatty acids oontalncd in an oil or faU We thai measaie the alkali
absorption value of all fatty acids contained in an oil or fat. Tbe
saponification values of roost oils and f^its lie in the nei{hbourbood
of 195. But the oils belonging to the rape oil grou^i arc characterized
by oonsidcrebly lower saponification values, vis. about 17^ on
account of their contaiaiBir eotabb quantities of enacic acid. CfliH^)i.
la the rate of those oib which do not belong to the rape oils and vet
show alinormally low saponification value*, the wspicion is rai«o at
once that a certain amount of mineral oils (which do not absorb
2a
so
OILS
atkali and are therefore termed " uiittponifiable **) hatbsen admucd
Iraodulcntiy. Their amouat can be determmed in a dUcct manner
(by exJuutting tke nponified ma«, after dilution with water, with
pomtfaiK the latter and wvlghtng the ainoant of mineral
hind. A few o( the blubber oila. hke
oil left behind. A few o( the bhjbber <mT«. hke dolphin >aw and
porpotie iaw oils (uaed for lubricating typewriting roachioee), have
exceedingly high iaponi6cation values owing to their containing
volatile tatty acids with a small number of carbon atoms. Notable
Also are ooooHBut and polm-nst oils, the saponification numfaeia of
which^ vary from 240 to 260b and otpoeiall)f batter-bt, which baa a
saponification value of about 227. These lugb saoonificatjon values
are due to the presence of (glyccridcs of} volatile iatty acids, and are
of extreme usefulness to the analyst, especially in testing butter-fat
lor added manarine and other fats. Theie voUiile acids are specialty
ineasurod bv the Rjuchert valut {Retckeri- WoUny sa/ar). To ascertain
this value toe volatile acids contained in s grammes of an oil or fat
are distilled in a minutely prescribed manner, and the distilkd-ofT
acids are measured bv titration with decinormal alkali. Whereas
•KMt of the oils and fats, via. all thosR the saponihcaiion value of
which lies at or below I95> conuin practically no volatile acids,i.e.
have extremely low Reicnert-WoUny values, all those oils and fats
having saponification values above 195 contain notable amounts of
volatile fatty acids. Thus, the Reukett-Meusl valui of butter-fat
fs S3-J5>i that of coco«nuc oil 6-7, and <rf palm kemd oil about
$•6. Thia value is indispensable for judging (he purity of a butter.
One of the most important values in oil testing u the todiiu vaiu§.
This indicates the perccnuge of iodine absorbed by an oil or fat when
the latter is dissolved in chloroform or carbon tetrachbride, and
Ifcatcd with an aocuraiely measured amount of free iodine sup(>lied
in the form of iodine chloride. By this means a measure is obtained
of the unsaturated fatty acids contained in an oil or fat. On this
value a scientific classification of nil oils and fats can be based, as is
shown by the above-given list of oils and fats. The unsaturated
fatty acids which occur chiefly in oils and fats are oleic acid, iodine
value 90-07; crucie acid, iodine valoe 7S'i5: iimaitc actd^ iodine
value 181-42: linolenic acid, iodine value 27J'i; and dupanodonic
«cid, iodine value 5677. Oleic acid occurs in all non-drying oils
fend fats, and to some extent in the semi-drying^ oils and fats. Linolic
•eld u a characteristic constituent of all semi-diying. and to aomo
extent of ail drying oils. Uooleoi^ acid charactcriies all vegetable
drying oils: similarly dupanodonic add characterizes all marine
ftnimai "-
lolls.
If one indlvidttal oil or fat is given, the iodine value alone
furnishes the readiest means of findmg its place in the abov« system,
and in many cases of identifying it. Even if a mixture of several
oils and fats be present, the iodine value assists greatly in the
identification of the components of the mixture, and furnishes the
most imporunt key for the attacking and resolving of this not very
airoole problem. Thus it points the way to the applkation of a
further method to resolve the isolated Catty acids ol an oil or fat
Into saturated (atty acids, which do not absorb iodine, and into un-
saturated fatty acids, which absorb iodine in various proportions a3
•hown above. This separation is effected by converting the dkati
•oapsof the (atty acids into lead soaps and tnating the latter with
ether, in which the lead salts of the satumtod acids are insoluble,
whereas the salts of the above-named unsaturated acids are soluble.
The saturated fatty acids can then be further examined, and valuabVe
information is gained by the determination of the melting-points
and by treatment with solvents. Thus some individual Catty acids,
such as stearic add and arachidlc add (which ts characteristic of
■roand nut oil) can be identified. In the miielure of unsaturated
fatty odds, by means of some more refined methods, dupanodonic
ackf, linolenic acid, linolic acid and oleic acid can be recognised.
By combining the various methods which have been outlined here,
•nd by the help of some further additional special methods, and
hf reasoning in a strictly logical manner^ it is possible to resolve a
mixture of two oib and iats» and even of three and four, into their
components and determine approximatdy their quanuties. The
methods sketched here do not yet exhaust the armoury of the
analytical chemist, but it can only be pointed out in passing that the
detection of hydroxylatcd acids enables the analyst to ascertain the
presence of cantor oil, juaC aa the isolation and determination of
axidiud fatty adds enables him to diffensotiate blown oils from
other oils.
Tests such as the Maumen£ test, the elaldin test and others,
«rhich formeriy were the only resource of the chemist, have been
practically superseded by the foregoing anetbods. The viscosity
test, although of considerable imporunce in the examination of
lobricattiag oik, baa been ahovn to have very little discriminative
valae aa a gtnecal tesc
Cammtna.'^lK my be safely said of the United Kingdom
that it ukes the foremost position in the world as regards the
extent of the oil and fat Industries. An estimate made by the
writer (Cantor Lectures, " Oils and Fats, their Uses and Applica*
tiono,'* Sacmly 1/ Arts^ 1904, p. 795), and based on the most
rdiable Information obtainable, led to the conclusion that the
•urns Invotvtd In the oil and fat trade exceeded £x ,000,000 per
week; in ^907 tiny ippmdattial igi.tso/MO per ««ek. The
great centres of the seed-oil trade (linseed, cotton-seed, rape-
seed, castor-seed) are Hull, London, Liverpool, Bristol, Ldih and
CUaiBOW. Linseed is imported prindpally from the East Indies^
Argentina, Canada, Russia and the United States; coctoa-seed
Is diiefly suppHed by Egypt and East India; mpo^ced and
castor-seed chiefly by East India. The imporution of copra
and pabn kernels for the production of ooco-nut oil and palm-
nut oil is also considerable, but in these two cases Great Britain
does not take the first place. Fish and blubber oils ore principally
produced in Dundee, London and Greenock. The manufacture
of cod-liver oil for pbarmoceulical purposes is natnrally some-
what limited, as Norway, Newfoundland, and latterly also
Japan, are more favotirably situated as regards the supply of
fresh cod, but tbc technical liver oils (cod oil, shark-liver oil)
ore produced in very large quantities in Grimsby, Hull, Aberdeen,
and latterly also op the west coasts of the United Kingdom.
The produaion of edible fats (margarine, lard compouiKls,
and vegetable butlers) has taken root in this country, and bids
fair to extend largdy. With regard to edibJe oils, edible cotton*
seed oil is the only table oil produced in Gnat Britain. The
United Kingdom b oho one of the largest importers of fatty
materials.
Psactically the whole trade in palm oil, which comes
exclusively from West Africa, is confined to Liverpool, and
the bulk of the tallow imported into Europe from Australasia,
South America and the United Slates, is sold in the maru of
London and Liverpool. Lard reaches Gnut Britain chiefly from
the United Stales. Amongst the edible oils and fats which are
largely imported, butter takes the first rank (to an amount of
almost £25,000,000 per annum). This food-stuff reaches Great
Britain not only from aO butter-exporting countries of the
continent of Europe, but in increasing quantities also from
Australia, Canada, Argentine, Siberia and the United Sutes of
America. Next in importance is margarine, the Briu'sh produc*
tion of which docs not suffice for the consumption, so that large
quantities must be imported from Holland, edible olive oil
from Italy, the south of France, Spain and the Mediterranean
ports generally. Coco-nut oil and copra, both for edible and
technical purposes, are htrgely shipped to Great Britain from
the East Indies and Ceylon, Java and the West Indies. Of
lesser importance are greases, which form the by-product of
the large slaughter-houses in the United States and Argentina,
and American (Canadian) and Japanese fish oils.
On the continent of Europe the largest oil-trading centres are
on the Mediterranean (Marseilles and Triesl), which art geo-
graphically more favourably placed than England for the ptoduc-
tion of such edible oils (in addition to the home-grown olive oil)
as arachis oil, sesame oil and coco-nut oil. Moreover, the native
population itself constitutes a large consumer of these oils. In
the north of Europe, Hamburg, Rotterdam, Antwerp and
Copenhagen are the largest centres of the oil and fat trade.
Hamburg and its neighbourhood produces, curious^ enough, at
present the largest amount of palm-nut oil. The United States
takes the foremost place in the world for the production of cotton-
seed and maize oils, lard, bone fat and fish ofls. Canada is
likely to outstrip the United Sutes in the trade of fish and
blubber oils, and in the near future Japan bids fair to become
a very serious competitor In the supply of these oOs. Vast
stores of hard vegetable fats are sUIl pmcUcally wasted in
tropical countries, such as India, Indo-China and the Sundn
Islands, tropical South America, Africa and China. With the
improvement in transport these will no doubt reach European
manufacturing centres in larger quantities than has been the
cose hitherto.
Waxes
The waxes consist chiefly of the fatty add esters of the higher
n&ooohydric alcohols, with which are frequently osaodated free
okohoU as also free fatty acids. In the following two tables
the " odds " and " alcohob " hitherto identified in waxes are
enumerated in a classified order >^
OILS
Acids
5«
Boiling Poiat.
Mdtlng Point
ChanctMfttkof
mm.
Pressure.
•c.
I. Acids of the Acetic wries C.H,.Oi—
Fkocerylic add
MvrbtScadd
Palmitic add
CiraaObicadd
Pisangcerylic add
Orotic add
MeHisicadd
Psyllottearylic acid
II. Acids of the Acrylic or Oleic series
Ph^yiJaSr^tTd
DoesUc«dd(?)
IH. HydroxyUted adds of the scrfes C.H».Or-
Lanopalmicadd
IV. Dihvdroxylated adds of the series C.H,.0^
C«H«0,
C»ElkiO<
too
too
aSo-5
271$
h ■
7^-5
lU
9«
94-95
30
87-88
98-93
104-105
Gondang wax
Wool wax
Beeswax, spermaceti
CamaQba wax* wool wax
Pisang wax .
Beeswax, wool wax. yisect wax
Beeswax
Psylla wax
(sperm ofl
Woollrax
Wool wax
Alcohols
Boiling Point.
Melting Point
Chancteristic of
mm.
Pressure.
•c
I. Alcohols of the Ethane series C.H,.4iO—
oSiiSi^SJJia'^' : . : : :
viciooecyi aiconoi .....
CarnaQbyl alcohol
Ceryl alcohol
Myricyl (Mefissyl) alcohol ....
Psylloetearyl alcohol
II. Alcoholsof the Allvlic series C.Hi»0-
III. Alcc^a of the series C,H».<C>-*
IV. Alcoholsof theClycolic'serie8C.H,.HiOr-
Cocoeryl alcohol .....
CbokatMpl
Isocholesterol
CnHiiO
C*HuO
CuHwO
CnHdO
CnHdOi
C«H„0
C.H41O
7te
15
344
aio-5
7«
50
A
103*104
198
IOI-IO4
i48-4'iy>-8
137-138
Pisang wax
(Spermaceti
Wool wax
Chinese wax. opium wax, wool fat
Beeswax. CamaQba wax
PsyUawax
Wool wax
Gondang wax
Cochineal wvi
1 Wool wax
Spermaceti consists practically of cetyl palmltate. Chinese wax of
eetyl jialmitate. The other waxes are ol more complex composilioii.
The waxes can be cbasified similariy to the' oils and fats as
*^'"*"" I. Liquid waxes.
II. Solid waxes.
A. Vegetable waxes.
B. Ammal r
The table enumerates the most important waxes: —
Waxis
Name of Wax.
Sperm oil
Arctic sperm oU (Bottlsnose oil)
Vewrtable Waxes—
Chmallbawax .
Animal Waxes-
Wool wax . . . .
Spermaceti (Celin)
Insect wax, Chinese wax
Source.
Liqmid Waxes.
Phyxeterwuuroeephdlus .
Hyp€f^9dMr9ttratus
Sdia Warns.
Cotyftw ctnfirM .
Ofisarks . . . .
BkyseUr macroupk^n* .
Coccus cenferus
Iodine
Value.
to solvents; and in their liquid condition leave a grease spot
on paper. An importaat property of waxes is that of easily
forming emulsioas with water, so that Urga quantities of water
can be incorporated with tbcm (lanolin).
The liquid waxes occur in the blubber of the sperm whale,
and 10 the head cavities of those whalci which yield spermaceti;
this latter is obtained by cooling the crude c^ obtained from
the head cavities. Vegetable waxes appear to be very widely
distributed throughout the vegetable kingdom, and occur mostly
as a very thin film covering
Inves and also fruits. A few
only are found in sufficiently
81-90
67-81
13
loa
811
0-4
0-1 -4
Prfndpal Use.
There are only two liquid waxes known, sperm oil and arctic
sperm oil (bottlenose-whalc oil), formerly always dassed together
with the animal oils. In their physical prapertlca the natural
waxes siBttlate tht fatty oils and fats. Thqr bahavc similarly
large quantities to be of com-
mercial importance. So fix
carnattba wax is practically
the only vegetable wax which
is of importance in the worlds
markets. The animal waxes
are widely distributed
amoni^ the insects, the most
important bdnf beeswax,
which is collected in almost
ail parts of the world. An ex-
ceptional position ik occupied
by wool wax. the main constituent of the natural wool fat which
covers the hair of sheep, and is obtained as a by-product In scour-
ing the raw wooL Wool fat is now being purified on a large scale
and brought iafta coonerae, under tlie name «l lanolin, as aa
tMbricant
Lubricant
Polishes. Phoaograpb ma«
Ointment
Candks, polishes
Csndles, surnry
Candles^ polUies* siws
52
OILS
obtmcnt the beneficent properties of which were known to
Dioicorides in the beginning of the present era. Its chenucal
composition is exceedingly complex, «nd specially remarkable
on account of the considerable proportions of cholesterol and
isocholesterol it contains.
Commerce.— Tht sperm oils are generally sold in the same
markets as the fish and blubber oils (see above). For beeswax
London is one of the chief marts of the world. In Yorkshire,
the centre of the wooUen industry, the largest amounts of wool-
fat are produced, all attempts to recover the hitherto wasted
material in Argentine and Australia having so far not been
attended with any marked success. Spermaceti is a compara-
tively unimportant article of commerce; and of Chinese wax
small quantities only are imported, as the home consumption
takes up the bulk of the wax for the manufacture of candles,
polishes and sizes.
2. Essential or Eikereal Oils,
The essential, ethereal, or " volatile " oils constitute a very
extensive class of bodies, which possess, in a concentrated form,
the odour characteristic of the plants or vegetable substances
from which they are obtained. The oils are usually contained
in special cells, glands, cavities, or canals within the plants
either as such or intermixed with resinous substances; in the
latter case the mixtures form oteo-resins, balsams or resins
according as the product is viscid, or solid and hard. A few
do not exist ready formed in the plants, but result from chemical
change of inodorous substances; as for instance, bitter almonds
and essential oil of mustard.
The essential oils are for the most part insoluble or only very
6(Aringly soluble in water, but in alcohol, ciher, fatty oils and mineral
oils they dissolve freely. They ignite with ereat ease, emitting; a
smoke freely, owing to the brge proportion oT carbon they contam.
Their chief phvsic^ distioctbn from the Catty oils is that they are
as a rule not oleaginous to the touch and leave no permanent grease
spot. They have an aromatic smell and a hot burning taste, and
can be distilled unchanged. The crude oils arc at the ordinary
temperature mostly liquid, some are solid substanoes, others, again,
deposit on sUnding a ciystalline portion (" stearoptene in
contradistinction to the liquid portioft (''^claeoptene "). The essential
oils possess a high refractive power, and most of them rotate the
plane of the polarized light. £vcn so nearly related oils as the oils
of turpentine, if obtained from different sources, route the plane of
the polarized light in opposite directions. In specific gravity the
essential oils range from 0*850 to I'las; the majority are, however,
specifically lighter than water. In tneir chemical constitution the
essential oils present no relationship to the fats and oils. They
represent a kiige number of classes of substances of which the most
important are: (1) Hydrocarbons, such as pinene in oil of turpentine,
camphcnc in citronclia oil, limonenc in lemon and orangc-pieet oils,
caryophyllene in clove oil and cumene in oil of thyme; (2) Juioties,
MkH as camphor from the camphor tree, and ht>ne which occurs in
orrb root ; (3) phenols, such as eugenol in clove oil, thymol in thyme
oil. saff rot in sassafras tnl. ancthol in anise oil ; (4)^ aldehydes^ such
as citral and citronellal, the most important constituents of lemon
oil and lemon-grass oil, bcnzaldehydc in the oil of bitter almonds,
emnamk aldehyde in cassia oil, vanillin in gum benzoin and heliO'
tropin in the spiraea oil, &c; (5) ateokols and their esters, such as
eeianiol (rhodinol) in rose oil and geranium oil. linakx>l. occurring
in bcrgamot and lavender oils, and as the acetic ester in rose oil,
terpincol in cardamom oil, menthol in peppermint oil. eucalyptol in
eucalyptus oil and bomeol in rosemary oil and Borneo camphor;
(fr) aetds and their anhydrides, such as cmnamic acid in Peru balsam
and coumarin in woodruff; and (7) nitrogenous compounds, such as
mustard oil. indol in jasmine oil and anthranilic methyl-ester in
ncroli and jasmine oils.
Preparation from Plants. — ^Before^'essential 08s coukl be
prepared synthetically they were obtained from plants by one
of the following methods: (x) distillation, (2) expression,
(3) extraction, (4) enfleurage, (5)
The most important of these processes u the first, as it is applicable
to a large number of substances of the widest range, such as ml of
pcm^ermint and camphor. The process U based on the principle that
whilst the odoriferous substances are insoluble in water, their
vapour tension is reduced on being tinted with steam so that they
•re carried over by a current of steart. The distillation is generally
performed in a still with an inlet for steam and an outlet to carry
the vapours laden with essential oils into a condenser, where the
water and oil vapours are condensed. On standing, the distillate
separates into two layera, an aoneous and an oily layer, the oil
floating on or sinking thmugh tiia water acoordiag- to iu spedfic
gravitjr. The process of MpfSSttM is applicable to the obtaining of
essential oils which arc contained in the rind or skin of the fruits
belonging to the citron family, such as orange and lemon oils. The
oranges, lemons, Ac, are peeled, and the peel is pressed against a
large number of fine needles, the exuding oil being absonxd by
sponges. It is intended to introduoe machinery to replace manuu
labour. The process of extraction with volatile solvents is similar
to that used in the extraction of oils and fats, but as only the moat
highly purified solvents can be used, this process has not yet gained
commcretal importance. The process of enfleurage vs used in thoae
cases where the odoriferous substance is present to a very small
extent, and is so tender and liable to deterioration that it cannot be
separated by way of distillation. Thus in the case of neroli oil the
petals of orange blossom are loosely spread on trays covered with
purified lard or with fine olive oil. The fatty materials then take ap
and fix the essential oiL This process is principally employed for
preparing pomades and perfumed oils. Less tender plants can be
tftated by the analogous method of maceration, which consists in
extracting the odoriferous substances by macerating the flowers
in hot oil or molten fat. The essential on b then dinolvcd fay the
fat^ substances. The essential oil itself can ba rooovered from the
perfumed oib, prepared either by enfleurage or macseration, by
agitating the perfumed fat in a shaking machine with pure concen-
trated alcohol. The essential oil passes into the alcoholic solution,
which u used as such in perfumery.
Synthetic Preparation.Since the chemistry of the essentia]
oils has been investigated in a systematic fashion a large number
of the chemical individuals mentioned above have been isolated
from the oils and identified.
Thu first step has led to the sjrnthetical production of the most
characteristic substances of essential oils in the laboratory, amd the
synthetical manufacture of essential oils bade fair to rival to im-
portance the production of tar colours from the hydrocarbons
obtained on distilling coaL One of the eariiest triampbsot synthetical
chemistry tu this direction was the production of terpincol. the
artificial libc scent, from oil of turpentine. At present it U almost
a by-product in the manufacture of artificial camphor. This was
followea by the production of heliotroptn, coumarin and vanillin,
and later on by the artificial preparation of lonone, the most char-
acteristic constituent of the ynmet soent. At present the manufacture
of artificial camphor may be considered a solved problem, although
it is doubtful whether such camphor will be able to compete, in jpnce
with the natural product in the future. The aim of the chemist to
pBoduce essential oib on a manufacturing scale b naturally confined
at present to the more expensive oils. For so long as the great bulk
of oib b so cheaply produced in nature's laboratory, the natural
at present to the more expensive oils. For so long as the t
of oib b so cheaply produced in nature's laborator;
products will hold tlieir field for a long time to come.
i4^/teof>«ns.— Essential oils have an extensive range of uses,
of which the prindpal are their vaiious a|^lications in perfumery
(g.v.). Next to that they play an important part in connexion
with food. The value of flavouring herbs, condiments and
spices b due in a large measure to the essential oils conuiocd
in them. The commercial value of tea, coffee, wine and other
beverages may be said to depend largely on the delicate aroma
which they owe to the presence of minute quantities of ethereal
oils. Hence, essential oib are extensively used for the flavoar*
ing of liqueurs, aerated beverages and other drinks. Nor is their
employment less considerable in the manufacture of confectionery
and in the preparation of many dietetic articles. Most fruit
essences now employed in confectionery arc artificially prepared
oils, especially is this the case with cheap confectionery (j^ms,
marmalades, &&) in which the artificial fruit esters to a Urge
extent replace the natural fruity flavour. Thus amyl acetate
is used as an imitation of the jargonelle-pear flavour; amyl
valerate replaces apple flavour, and a mixture of ethyl and propyl
butyrates yields the so-called pine-apple flavour. Formic ether
gives a peach-like odour, and is used for flavouring fictitious
rum. Many of the essential oils find extensive use in medicine.
In the aru, oil of turpentine is used on the largest sciJe in the
manufacture of varnishes, and in smaller quantities for the
production of terpincol and of artificial camphor. Oil of doves
is used in the silvering of mirror glasses. Oib of lavender and
of spike are used as vehicles for painting, more espedally for
the painting of pottery and glass.
The examination of essential oib b by no means an easy task.
Each oil ccouires almost a special raethoo, but with the progress of
chemistry tne extensive adulteration that used to be practised with
fatty oils has almost disapjjcared, as the presence of fatty oils is
readily deti^led. Adulteration of expensive oil wiili efaeaper oib is
aov moR! extensively practised, and such teau as the determinauoa
OIRON— OI8E
53
of tlie tapootficatian value (fee above) and of the optical rotation,
aad BB fl|Meal caw the iiolatioa and quantitative determinatioa of
chaacteristk anfaataacea. leada in vay maay caaea to reliable
veauka. The coknir* the boilins-poiat, the tpttdic giavity and
■olubHity in alcohol aerve aa most valuable adjuncta in the examina-
tion with a view to form an esdmate of the genuineness and value
ofaaample. Quite apart from the genuinencsa of a aampte. its special
atnMBft c— titiitea the value of aa oil, and in thia aeapect the judsing
of the valoe of a given oil s»y, apart from the puritv, be more
readily solved by an experienced perfumer than by the chemist.
Thus ?t»e» hf different origin or even of different yean will yield rose
oils of widely dlffei«nt value. The cultivadon of plants for eaaential
aula haa baeone a lane iadoatiy, and m capedaily practised aa an
indualzy in the south a Fcaaon (Giasse, Nwe, Cainnea). The roae
oil industnr, which had been for centuries located in the valleys of
Bulgaria, haa now been taken up in Germany (near Leipzig), where
roses are specially cultivated for the producti(Mi of roae od. India
and China aaaalao very laive produoen of eaaential oila. Owing to
the dimate other oquatriea are leaa favoured, although lavender and
peppermint are largely cultivated at Mitcham in Surrey, in Hertford-
shire and Bedfocdahire. Lavender and p epper m int oila of English
origin tank aa the best qualities. Aa an uluatiatioa of the extent
to which thia part of the mdustry auffera from the climate, it may be
■tated that oil from lavender planta grown in En^nd never produces
more than 7 to io% linaloof acetate, which givca the characteristic
scent to lavender od, whilst oD from lavender grown in the south of
France fraquently yidda aa much as 35% of the cater. The proof
that this ia due aaaialy to climatic influencea is furnished by the fact
that Mitcham lavender transplanted to France produces an oil
which year by year approzimatea more closely in respect of its
contents of linalool acetate to the product of the French plant.
BfBLioCRarirT.^For the fixed oila. fats and waxes, see C. R. A.
Wright, Fixtd Oils, FaU, BtUkn amd Waxes (London, and ed. by
C A. Mitchell, • --
OOs (London.
C A. Mitchell, 1963); W. Biannt. Animal and VetftabU Fats and
OOs (London, 1896); J. Lcwkowitsch, Chemical Technology and
Analysii of Oib, fais and Waxes (London, 4th ed., 3 vols., 1909;
also German oL, Brunswick, 1905: French cd.. Paris, vol. L 1906.
vol. tL tSloB. voL iiL 1909); Laboratarj Companion to Fats and Oil
Imdnstries (London. 1903) ; Cantor Lectures of the Society of Arts,
Oils and Fats, their Vus and Appticalions; Groves and Thorp,
Ckemkai TeehnOogy* voL iL; A. H. Gilt. 03 Analyses (1909):
G. Hefter. Teeknoloeia der FeUe and OU (Berlin. voL I 1906: vol. iL
Ubbelobde. ~ -_....
(Xe nnd FeUe (Leipzig,
Analyu der FetU und Wachsdrten (Berlin. 1908):
Uandbnck der Chemia nnd Teckaolotie der
, vol. L, 1906); R. Bencdikt and F. Ulzer,
, Wachsarten (Berlin, 1008); J. Fritsch, Les
HmHes ei yaisses d'ortWaa aniwuUe (Paris. 1907).
For the laatntiil c^ aee F. B. Power. Descriptise Catalogne of
Estemlisi Oils; J. C. Sawcr. Odorographia (London. 1892 and 1S94):
E. Gildemeister and F. Hoffmann. Die aeikcriscken OU (Beriin,
1899). tians. (1900) by E. Kremcra under the title VUnXiU Oils (Mil-
waukee, Wisconsin); F. W. Semmler, Die aetherischen OU naeh
skren eiemischem Beslandteileu nnter BeriicksidUigttng der geschicht-
lichen EtUmidttimMi (Leipsig): M. Otto, L'Industru des parfums
(Paris. 1909): O. Aachan. Chemie der aUcykluchen Verbindnnten
(Brunswfck. 190S); F. It Heusslcr (transUted by Pond), The
Ckemiitry efthe Terptna (London, 1904). 0- ^B.)
OIROV. a viDafe of western Fhmce, tn the dqwtment of
0eux-S£vrat» tI ib. £^ by S. of Thooan by toad. Oiron ia
ceiebcatcd for iu fhitran, Handing in a park and originally
built in the fint half of the 16U1 ceniazy by the Gouffier family,
icbiiili m the fetter half of the 17th ccatuiy by Franda of
AaboaMB, duke of La FeoiUade, and pMrrhavd by Madam e
de SIOBtespaB, who tbete passed the latUr part of her life.
Manhal Vilicroy afterwards lived there. The chltean consists
of a main **'^«^'**c with two long projecting wings, one of which
is a graceful structure of the Renaissance period buHt over a
cloister. The adjoining church, begun in 151 8, combines the
Gothic and Renaissance styles and contains the tombs of four
memben of the Gooffier family. These together with other pans
of the chiteau and church were mutilated by the ProtcstanU
in 1568. The pazk contains 1 group of four do!mcDS.
For the (Xroa pottefy see CEXAiQCs. ^
om a fhcr of aortkem Fnaoe, txflnitaiy to the Sdae,
fowacMBl^vo^fnBtheBclgiaafiMtacraiid frwrrffsing the
depailiiii Bta of Ai— , Om and Seine rt-OJaa. \ fugyh, 187 ■»;
area of bMls 6457 iq. ■. Ring in BdghnD, s "^ SX of
ChiMor (pnmaoe of Na»i^ at a ktji^t of 980 fL, the mer
cnitstFnaoraftcrftOoqaoof iiUkmonthaii9iB* Flowing
thiovi^ the diitact of TUteche, i& divides below Goiae into
aevcnl aaB» aad piDoeedsto the oonflocsce of the Sene. near
L* Fire (Ahw). Thcaoe aa far as the amfluencc of the Ailctu
Hcs thmi^ wctt-WMded countiy to Compicgne,
a ahoft distance above which it receives the Aisae. Skirting
the forests of Compiegne, Halatte and ChantiUy, all on iu left
bank, and receiving near Creil the Th£rain and the Brkhe,
the river flows past Pontoise and debouches into the Seine
39 m. below Paris. Its channel is canalized (depth 6 ft. 6 in.)
from Jaoville above Compicgne. to its mouth over a section
60 m. in length. Above JanviUe a lateral canal continued by
the Sambre-Oise canal accompanies the river to l.attdredes. It
communicates with the canal system of Flanders and with the
Somme canal by way of the St Quentin canal (Crozat branch)
which unites with it at Chatwy. The same town is its point of
junction with the Alsne-OIse canal, by which it is linked with
the Eastern canal system.
OISB, a department of northern Fiance, three-fourths of
which belonged to De-de-France and the rest to Picardy, bounded
K. by Somme, E. by Aisne, S. by Sexne-et-Mame and Scinc-et*
Oise, and W. by Eure and Seine-Infirieure. Pop. (igo6)
410,049; area 327a sq. m. The department is a moderately
elevated plateau with pleasant valleys and fine forests, such
as those of Compicgne, ErmenonvIHe, ChantOly and Halatte,
all in the south-east. It belongs almost entirely to the basin of
the Seine— the Somme and the Bresle, whidi flow into the
English Channel, draining but a small area. The most imporunt
river is the CKse, which flows through a broad and fertile valley
from north-east to south-west, past the towns of Koyon, Com'
pidgne, Pont St Maxence and CreiL On its right it receives
the Br^che and the Th£rain, and on its left the Alane, which
brings down a larger volume of water than the Oise itsdf, the
Authonne, and the Xonette, which irrigates the valley of ScnJis
and Chantilly. The Ourcq, a tributary of the Mame, in the
south-east, and the Epte, a tributary of the Seine, in the west,
also in part bekng to the department. These streams are
separated by ranges of slight elevation or by isolated hlDs, the
highest point (770 ft.) being in the ridge of Bray, which stretches
from Dieppe to Pr6cy-sur-Oise. The lowest point is at the
mouth of the Oise, only 66 ft. above sea-leveL The climate
is very variable, but the range of temperature is moderate.
Clay for bricks and earthenware, sand and buHding-sione are
among the nioeial products of O^, and peat is ahM> worked.
Pienefoods, Gouvieuz, Chantilly and Fontaine Bonaelean
have mineral springs. Wheat, oats and other cereals, potatoes
and sugar beet are the chief agricultural cropsu Cattle are
reared more eq>edally in the western districts, whcic dairying is
actively carried on. Bee-kecpiag is gencsaL Radog stables
are numctous in the Dcighbouibobd of ChaatiUy and romptfgne.
Among the industries of the depactmcnt of manufactare of
sugar and akobol from beetroot occupies a foremost place.
The manufacture of fumiture, brushes (Beaurais) and other
wooden goods and of toys, faacj-wwe, buttons, fans and other
articles ia wood, ivoiy, bone or mother-of-pead are widttprcad
indiistries. There are also wooUea and cotton mills, and the
making of wooUen fabrics^ blankets, carpcU (Beaovais), hosiery
and lace (Chantilly and its vicinity) is actively carried oo.
Creil and the neijghbottriQg Hontataiie fonn an important
DietaUiugical centre. Oise is serred by the Korihem railway,
00 which Crcfl Is an importaat junction, and iu commerce is
fadlitated by the Oise and iu latenl canal and the Aisne, whkh
afford about 70 m. of navjgabfe waterway.
There are fov anoBdiaaements^BeauvaiSfe Oennoot, Com-
picgne and Senlis-^with 35 caatoos and 701 oommoMa. The
department fonns the diocese of Beawais (province of Reims)
and part of the region of the Q. vtay ooq)s and of the acadteie
(edocatioBal divisioa) of Paris. Its court of appeal is at Amiena.
The principal places arc Beamrais, the capital, ChaatiDy. Cler-
BMat-ca-Beanvoisis, Compii^ a , Ncgroo, Picncloads, Cteil and
Sealis, which are treated sepantdy. Among the moie popobas
places not ■Mntioood is M£ra (S3i7)i * ocatre for intqf-^zn
manufacture. The department abounds in old churchcSh amoz^
which, besides those of BeaavaJs^ Koyon aad Sealis, may be
mentioned those at Moricaval (nth aad lath ceatarics)^
Mai^elay ( i sth and 1 6th centuries), Cr^-ea-Vafeia (Si Thonaa^
lath. 13th aad 15th ccatuiiea), ^ Leu dTisi ill (maial/ iaih
54
century), Tracy-le-Val Cmainly latb century), Vfllers St Paul
<i2th and X3th centuries), St Germer-de-Fly (a fine example
of the transition from Romanesque to Gothic architecture),
and St Martin-aux-Bois (i3th, 14th and 15th centuries). Pont-
point preserves the buildings of an abbey founded towards
the end of the 14th century and St Jean-aux-Bois the remains
of a priory including a church of the xjth century. There
are Gallo- Roman remains of Champlieu close to the forest of
Compile. At Ermenonviilc there is a chateau of the 17th
century where Rousseau died in 1778.
OJIBWAY (Ojibwa), or Chippewav (Chippewa), the name
given by the English to a large tribe of North American Indians
of Algonquian stock. They must not be confused with the
Chipewyan tribe of Athabascan stock settled around Lake
Athabasca, Canada. They formerly occupied a vast tract of
country around Lakes Huron and Superior, and now are settled
on reservations in the neighbourhood. The name !s from a
word meaning ** to roast till puckered " or " drawn up," in refer-
ence, it is suggested, to a peculiar seam in their mocassins, though
other explanations have been proposed. They call themselves
Anishinaheg (" spontaneous men "), and the French called
them Saulieurs ("People of the Falls"), from the fi^t group
of them being met at S.iult Ste Marie. Tribal traditions declare
they migrated from the St Lawrence region together with
the Ottawa and Potawatomi, with which tribes they formed
a confederacy known as "The Three Fires." When first en-
countered about 1640 the Ojibway were inhabiting the coast
of Lake Superior, surrounded by the Sioux and Foxes on the
west and south. During the 18th century they conquered these
latter and occupied much of their territory. Throughout the
Colonial w&rs they wcro loyal to the French, but fought for the
English in the War of Incicpendencc and the War of 1812,
and thereafter permanently maintained peace with the Whites.
The tribe was divided into ten divisions. They lived chiefly
by hunting and fishing. They had many tribal myths, which
were collected by Henry R. Schoolcraft in his Algic Researches
(1839), upon which Longfellow founded his *' Hiawatha."
See Indians, North AinKRiCANralsoW, J. Hoffmann, "Midewiwin
of the Ojil>wa/' in 7th Report of Bureau of American Ethnology (1891) ;
W. W. Warren. '' History of the Ojibways." vol. v.. Minnesota
Historical Society's CoUecttons; G. Copway. History of the Oiibway
Indians (Boston, 1850); P. Jones, Htstory of the Ojetnvqy Indiana
(1861 ) : A E. Jcnics. '^ Wild Rice Gatherers," i^h Report of Bureau of
American Ethnology (1900).
OKAPI, the native name of an African ruminant mammal
(Oca^ ioAiUfmOf belonging to the Oiraffidae, or giraffo-family,
but distinguished from ^vaffes by its shorter limbs and neck,
the absence of horns in the females, and its veiy remailcable type
of colouring. Its affinity with the giraffes is, however, deariy
revealed by the structure of the skuU and teeth, more especially
the btlobed crown to the indsor-Iike lower catiine t^th. At
the shoulder the okapi stands about 5 ft. In colour the sides of
the face are puce, and the neck and most of the body purplish,
but the buttocks and upper part of both fore and hind limbs are
transversely barred with black aad white, while their lower
portion is mainly white with black fetlock-rings, and fai the front
pair « vertical black stripe on the anterior surface. Males have
a pair of dagger-shaped horns on the forehead, the tSps of which,
in some cases at any rate, perforate the hairy skin with which
the rest of the horns are covered. As in all fonest-dwellmg
cnimab, the ears are large and capadoua. The tail is shorter
than in giraffes, and not tufted at the tip. The okapi, of which
the first entire skin sent to Europe was received In England
from Sir H. H. Johnston in the spring of tgbx, is a native of the
Semliki forest, in the district between Lakes Albert and Albert
Edward. From certain differences fai the Striping of the legs, as
we& as from variatkm in skuB-dioracters, the existence of more
than a single specfes has been suggested; but further evidence
b required before such a view can be definitely accepted.
Specimens in the museum at Tervueren near Brussels show thrat
in fully adult males the horns are subtriangular and Inclined
somewhat badcwcnli; each being capped with a small polished
epiphysis. Which projects through the skin investing the rest
of the born. As regards its general characteis, the skull of the
OjiBWAY— OKAPI
okapi appears to be intermediate between that of the giraflio
on the one hand and that of the extina PalaeoUagus (or Samso*
therium) of the Lower Plk)cene deposits of southern Europe 00 the
other. It has, for instance, a greater devebpment of air-cdis in
the di^de than in the latter, but much less than in the former.
Again, in Paiaeolragus the horns (present only in the mak)
are situated immediately over the eye-sockets, in Oeapia they are
placed just behind the latter, while fn Cirafa they are partly on
the parietals. In general form, so far as can be judged from
the duartlcttlated skeleton, the okapi was more like an aatdope
than a giraffe, the foro and hind cannon-bones, and consequently
the entire limbs, being of approximately equal length. From
this it seems probable that Palatotraius and Oeapia indicate the
ancestral type of the giraffe-line; while it has bocn further
suggested that the apparently hornless Helladolkerimm of the
*'-"—■— v/^^*>-t; sj/;^\^-ys>.
fet*'
<««.
?V'^^
i f
■S5^»^»^
Female Okapi.
Grecian Pliocene may occupy a somewhat similar posltloii in
regard to the horned Sivatherium of the Indian Siwtliks.
For these and other allied extinct genera see Pbcoka ; for a full
description of the okapi itself the reader should refer to an Sluscratcd
memoir by Sir E. Ray Lankester to the Transactions eg the Zookifkal
Society of London (xvi. 6, 1902). entitled " On OiapsOt a New
Genu's of Ciraffidae from Ontral Africa."
Little is known with regard to the habits of the okapi. It
appears, however, from the observations of Dr J. David, who spent
some time in the Albert Edward district, that the creature dwells
In the most dense parts of the primeval forest, where there is an
undergrowth of solid-leaved, swamp-loving plants, such as
arum, Donax and Phrynium, which, with orchids and cHmbing
plants, form a thick and confused mass of vegetation. The
leaves of these plants are blackish-green, and in t£e gloom of the
forest, grow more or less horizontally, and are glistening with
moisture. The effect of the light faiUng upon them Is to pMtice
along the midrib of each a number of thort wliite streaks of
ligbt, which «nkx9at (nost strongly with the shadows Cast by the
leaves themselves, and with the general twffii^t gtoom ^ tlie
forest On the other hand, the thick layer of f*Ilea leaivcs 00
the gro^d. and the bulk of the stem* of the forest ticcSAte bloisb-
brown and russet, thus closely resembling the decaying lemvcs in
an European forest after heavy rain; while the whole effect ii
precisely similar Co that produced by the russet bead «nd body
and the striped thighs and limbs of the okapL The kMg and
mobile muxzle of the okapi appears to be adapted for feeding
OKEHAMPTON— OKEN
55
«i Ibe low foicti nodcrvood and th« swamp-vcgeUtiioa. The
saatt aUtoi the hornft oi ilie buUm is pcobably also an adaptation
to Jifc in thick oadarwood. In Dr David's opinion an okapi in
its nativ* forest could not be seen at a distance of more than
twenty or twenty-five paces. At distances greater than this it
is impoMible to see anything dcar^ in these equatorial forests,
and it is very difficult to do so even at this short distance. This
•Qggesia that the colouring of the okapi is of purely pcotective
type.
By the Arabianised emancipated slaves of the Albert Edward
district the okapt b known as the kenge,6-i-pt being the Pigmies'
name for the creature. Dr David adds that Junker may un-
doubtedly claim to be the dncsoverer of the okapi, for, as stated
on p. 399 of the third volume of the original German edition of
bis TfMeis, he law in 1878 or 1879 in the Nepo district a portion
of the ikin with the characteristic black and white stripes.
Junker, by whom it was nMstaken for a large water-chevrotain
or aebra««ntelope, states that to the natives of the Nepo district
the okapi is known as the makap6. (R. Lb*)
OKEHAMPTON » a market town and municipal borough in the
Tavistock parliamentary divisbn of Devonshire, England,
on the east and west Okcment rivers, 22 m. W. by N. of Exeter
by the London & South-Westem railway. Pop. (1901) 9569.
The church of All SaioU has a fine Perpendicuhur tower, lef^
imtojured when the nave and chancel were burned down In 184 a.
Glass is made from granulite found in the Meldon Valley, 3 m.
distant. Both branches of the river abound in small trout.
Okehampton Castle, one of the most picturesque ruins in Devon,
probably dates from the 15th century, thou^ lu keep may be
kte Norman. It was dismantled under Henry VIII., but
ConBidcfmbk portions remain of the chapel, banqueting hall and
herald's tower. Immediately opposite are the traces of a sup-
posed British camp, and of the Roman road from Exeter to
Cornwall The custom of tolling the curiew still prevails in
Okehampton. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen
and ts ooundllors. Area, 503 acres.
Okehampton (Oakmanton) was be s towed by WiHiam the
Conqueror on Baldwin de Brioniis, and became the caput of
the barooy of Okehampton. At the time of the Domesday
Survey of 1086 it already ranked as a borough, with a castle,
a market paying 4 shiUings, and Cour burgesses. In the tSth
century the manor passed by marriage to the Courtenays,
afterwards earb of Devon, and Robert de Courtenay in laao
Bve the king a palfrey to hold an annual fair at his manor of
Okehampton, on the vigil and feast day of St Thomas the
Apostle. la the reign of Henry IIL the inhabitants received a
charter (undated) from the earl of Devon, confirming their
rights *'ln woods and in uplands, in ways and in paths, in
common of pastures, in waters and in milb. They were to be
free from all toll and to elect yearly a portreeve and a beadle."
A ^irther grant of privileges was bestowed in 1293 by the earl
of Devon, bot no charter of incorpiiration was granted until
that from James I. in 1623, and the confirmation of thb by
Charics U. in 1684 continued to be the governing i'harter, the
oorpomtion consisting of a mayor, seven principal burgesses
and eight assbtant burgesses* until the Munidpal Corporations
Act of 1882, On a petition from the inhabitants the town was
reincorporated by a acw charter in 1885. Oicehampton returned
two members to parliament in 1300, and again in 131a and
1313, after which there was an' intermission till 1640, from
which date two members were tetumed regularly until by the
Reform Act of 1832 the borough was disfranchised.
See Viatriu Commty History, Deaomskirti W B. Bridges. Hislaryef
OkehMmplm <l889).
OKBI, lOHBIIZ (r779-i8st). German naturalist, was bom at
Bohbbach, Swabia, oa the ist of August i779> Hb real name
Was Lorenx Ockeafuas. and under that name he was entered at
the natuiml histoiy and medical classes In the university of
WOrxburg, whence he proceeded to that of Gdttingen, where he
became a pri vat lucent, and abridged bb name to Oken. As
Lorena Oken he published in 180a his small work entitled Crnnd-
fin 4» NtH^pkiUmpkk. 4m Tkmrit itr Smne, mnd dar doroV
iftrUndtkn Claui/icalwii der Tkitre, the first of the scries of
works which placed hiu at the head of the " natur-phibsophic "
or physio-philosophical school of Germany. In it he extended
to physical science the philosophical principles which Kant
had applied to mental and moral science. Oken had, however,
in thb application been preceded by J. G. Fichte, who, acknow-
ledging that the materials for a univezaal science had been
discovered by Kant, declared that nothing more was needed
than a systematic co-ordination of these materiaU; and thb
task Fichte undertook in hb famous Doctrine of Sdenct (Wtssen-
schaftslehre), the aim of which was to construct a priori all
knowledge. In thb attempt, however, Fichte did littk more
than indicate the path; it was reserved for F. W. J. von Schelling
fairiy to enter upon it, and for Oken, following him, to explore
iu maaes yet further, and to produce a systematic plan of the
country so surveyed.
In the Cnuutriss der N^turpkilosopkit of x8oa Oken sketched
the outlines of the scheme he afterwards devoted himself to
perfecL The position which he advanced in that renoarkable
work, and to which he ever after professed adherence, b that
" the animal classes are virtually nothing else than a representa-
tion of the senseK>rgans, and that they must be arranged in
accordance with them." Agreeably with thb idea, Oken con-
tended that there are only five animal classes: (i) the Der-
mataua, or invertebrates; (2) the Gououtat or Fishes, as being
those animab in which a true tongue makes, for ^ first time,
iu appearance; (3) the RkinoaoQ, or Reptiles, wherein the nose
opens for the first time into the mouth and inhales air; (4) the
Ofosea, or Birds, in which the ear for the first time opens extern-
ally; and (5) Ophtkalmoua, or Mammals, u which all tha
organs of sense are present and complete, the eyes being movable
and covered with two lids*
In 1805 Oken made another characteibtic advance hi the
application of the a priori principle, by a book on generatioo
(Di4 Zeugtmi), wherein he maintained the proposition that
" all organic beings originate from and consist of vesida or ceUs,
These vesicles^ when singly detached and regarded in their
ocigiaal process of production, are the infusorial mass or proto-
pbsma imsMeim) whence all larger organisms fashion themselvet
or are evolved. Their production b therefore nothing else
than a tegular agglomeniUon of Infusoria'— wAt of course,
of spedcs already elaborated or perfect, but of mucous vesicles
or points in general, whkh first form themaelvts by their unioa
or combination into particular spedes."
One year after the production of thb remarkable treatise,
Oken advanced another step in the development of hb system,
and in a volume published in 1806, in which D. G. Kicser (1779-
1862) assisted him, entitled Beitrdit sar uriUichenden Zoologit^
Anatomiet und Pkytiologiet he demonstrated that the intestines
originate don the umbilical vesicle, and that thb rorTe^>onds
to the vitellus or yolk-bag. Caspar Friedrich Wolff had previ-
ously proved thb fact in the chick {Tkeoria Ccneratiouis^ I774)t
but he did not see its application as evidence of a genersl law.
Oken showed the importance of the discovery as an illustration
of hb system. In the same work Oken described and recalled
attention to the corpora Wolfiana, or " primordial kidn^s.*'
The reputation of the young privat-dooent of GAttingeo had
meanwhile reached the ear of Goethe, aqd in 1807 Oken was
invited to fill the office of professor eztiaordinaxius of the
BMdical sciences in the university of Jeoa. He accepted the
call, and selected for the sabjea of hb inaugural discourse his
ideas ob the ** Signification of the Bones of the Skull," based
upon a discovery he had made in the previous year. This
famous lect ure was delivered in the pfesenoe of Goethe, as privy-
councillor and rector of the uaivcrsiiy, and was publbhed in
the same year, with the titles UeUr dia Badaultmg dor SckUd*
With regard to the orighi of the idea, <%en narrates in hb
I tit that, walking one autumn day in 1806 in the Hars forest*
he stumbled upon the blanched skull of a deer, pkkcd up the
partially dblocatcd bones, and contemplated them for a while,
when the tntth flashed aaoas bb niad, and ho eadaimed, "It
56
OKEN
b s Tcrtebtil eolimmr' At a meeting of the G«rauui naturalists
held at Jena some years afterwards Professor Kiesergavean
account of Oken's discovery in the presence of the grand*duke,
which account b printed in the tagMatt, or " proceedings," of
that meeting. The professor stated that Oken commimicated
to him his discovery when journeying in x8o6 to the island of
Wangeroog. On their return to Gdttingen Oken e9q>lained his
Ideas by reference to the skull of a turtle in Kieser's collection,
which he disarticulated for that purpose with his own hands.
'^ It is with the greatest pleasure," wrote Kieser, " that I am
able to show here the same skuU, after having it thirty yean
in my collection. The single bones of the skull are marked by
Oken's own handwriting, which may \)t so easfly known."
The range of Oken*s lectures at Jena was a wide one, and they
were highly esteemed. They embraced the subjects of natural
philosophy, general natural history, aoobgy, comparative
anatomy, the physiology of man, of animals and of plants.
The spirit with which he gnpfitd with the vast scope of science is
characteristically iDustrated in his essay Ueber das Universum aU
FortseUung dts SimtensystemSf x8o8. In ths work he lays it
down that " organism b none other than a combination of aU the
nniverse's activities within a single faidividual body." Thb
doctrine led him to the conviction that " world and organism are
one in kind, and do not stand merely in harmony with each
other." In tbe same year he publbhed hb Erste Idem tur
Tkeorie des Lickis, ftc, in which he advanced the proposition
that " light could be nothing but a polar tension of the ether,
evoked by a central body in antagonism with the planets, and
heat was none other than a motion of thb ether "-hi sort of
vague anticipation of the doctrine of the *' oorrelatian of physical
forces." In 1809 Oken eitended hb system to the mineral world,
arranging the ores, not according to the metals, but agreeably
to their combinations with oxygen, acids and sulphur. In x8io
he summed up hb views on organic and inorganic nature into
one compendious system. In the first edition of the Likrbueh
der Naiurpkilcsopkie, which appeared in that and the following
years, he sought to bring his different doctrines into mutual con*
nexion, and to " show that the mineral, vegetable and animal
kingdoms are not to be arranged arbitrarily in accordance with
single aiM! isolated characten, but to be based upon the cardinal
organs or anatomical systems, from which a firmly established
number of dasaes would necessarily be evolved; that each dass,
moreover, takes its starting-point from below, and consequently
that all of them pass parallel to each other "; and that, " as in
chemistry, where tbe combinations follow a definite numerical
bw, so also in anatomy the organs, in physiology the functions,
and in natural history the classes, families, and even genera of
minerab, plants, and animab present a similar arithmetical
ratio." The Ltkrhuch procured for Oken the title of Hofratk, or
court-coundllor, and in 181 a he was appointed ordinary professor
of the natural sdences.
In 1816 he commenced the publication of hb well-known
periodical, entitled Iris, Hne encydopUdUcht ZsUsckHfl^ vonUgUck.
fUr Naturgesckiekte, ver^nckende Analcmie und Pkysiohgie.
In thb journal appeared essays and notices not only on the
natural sciences but on other subjects of interest; poetry, and
even comments on the politics of other German states, were
occasionally admitted. Thb led to representations and remom-
sf ranees from tbe governments criticized or Impugned, and the
court of Weimar called upon Oken either to suppress the Isis or
resign hb professorship. He chose the latter alteiiiative. Tbe
publtcaiioii of the Iris at Weimar was prohibited. Oken made
arrangements for its issue at Rudobtadr, and thb continued
uninterruptedly until tbe year 1848.
In i8»i Oken promulgated in hb Isis the first Idea of the
annual general meetings of the German naturalbis and medical
practitioners, which happy idea was realized in the following
year, when the fint meeting was held at Ldpaig. The Britbh
Assodation for the Advancement of Sdence was at the outset
avowedly organized after the German or Okeman model.
In 1828 Oken resumed his original bumble duties as privat'
dooeot la the newly-^ttablbhed uaivcmty of Mu&kh, and soon
afterwards he was appomted ordinary pfoTesnr in the tanw
ttttiversity. In X832, on the proposal by the Bavarian gowns*
ment to transfer him to a professorship in a provincial univenity
of the state, he resigned hb appointments and left the kingdom.
He was appointed in 1833 to the profesoonhip of natuFai hbtory
in the then recently-established university of Zurich. Thene he
continued to reside, fulfilling hb professional duties and pro-
moting the progress of fab favourite sciences, uotfl hb death on
the nth of August 1851.
Au Oken i writix^iv are emnefitly deductive ill ust rations of a
foregone and aanimed priac^ile. wliteh, with ocher philosophn of
the tnuncoidental school, be deemed equal to the cxplaaation o£
ail the mysteries of nature. According to him, the bead was a
repetition of the trunk— a kind of second truiUc, with its Itmbs
and other appendages ; thb sum of h» obscrvatiotts and conpariaons
'■■few of which be ever gav« in detail— ought always to be bomo
in mind in coonparing the share taken by Oken an homological
anatomy with the pronets made by other cultivators of that
philosophical branch of the Kienoe.
The idea of the analogy between the denll, or parts of the ahull,
and the vertebral column had been pceviouily propounded and
venttbted in their lectures by J. H. F. Autoueith and K. F. Kid-
meyer, and in the writings of J. P. Frank. By Oken it was applied
chiefly in illustration of the mystical system of Schelling — ^the ^ all-
in-all " and " all-in-cvery-part.'* Fn>m the eariiest to the latest of
(Moen's wTirinnon tbe subject, " the head ba repetitioaof die whole
trunk with all its systesu: the brain b the HMnal cord; the ccaniiua
b the vertebral cmumn; the mouth b intestine and abdomen;
tbe nose b the lungs and thorax; the ia%ra are the limbs; and the
teeth the daws or nails." J. B. von Sptx, in hb folio CepHiohtemesii
(t8i8), richly illustnited comparative cramolosy, but presented the
tacts under the same transcendental guise; and Cuvier ably availed
himself of the exttav^anoes of these disciples of ScheUiiw to cast
ridicule on- the whole inquiry into those higher rclatwns olparts to
the archetype which Sir Richard Owen called ** general homologies.**
The veitebral theory of the skull had practically *f«— rt^ff nj
from anatomical science when the bbours of Cuvier drew to their
dose. In Owen's A rcketyfe and Homologjiu of the Vertehaie Shelekm
the idea was not only revived but worked out for the first time
inductively, and the theory rightly stated, as follows: " The head
b not a virtual equivalent of the trunk, but b o^ a poction, s^c.
certain modified axments, of tbe whde body. Tne jaws are tbe
' haemal arches ' of the first two segments; they are not limbs of
the head " (p. 176).
VaG^dy and strangely, however, as Oken had blended the idea
with hb a oriori ooncepuon of the nature of the head, the chance
of aoproprbting it seems to have ovensome the moral oease of
Goetne — unless indeed the poet decdved himself. Comparative
osteology had early attracted Goethe's attention^ In 1786 he
publidi^ at Tena hb essay Veber den Zwuehenkieferknocken der
Mienschen und der Tkiere, showing that the intermaxiUBiy bone
existed in man as well as in brutes. But not a word in this essay
gives the remotest hint of hb having then possessed the idea of the
vertebral analogies of the skulL In 1820, in hb Iforpkehpe, he
first publicly stated that thirty years bdore the date 01 that puW-
cation be had discovered the secret rebtionsbip b u we tft the vcne>
brae and the bones of the head* and that he had always contiaucd
to meditate on this sutncct. The dncamstances undo" which the
poet, in i8ao. narrates having become inspired with the original
idea are suspiciously analogous to those described by Oken in 1807,
as produdng' the same effect on hb mind. A bMedicd dkoU la
acadentally (tiscovered in both instances: in Oken's it was XhttX. of
a deer in toe Harz forcst'j in Goethe's it was that of a sheep pidoed
up on the shores of the Lido, at Venice.
It may be assumed that Oken when a privat'dooent at GOtdagea
fai 1806 knew nothing of thb unpublished idea or d i suw e iy of
Goethe, and that Goethe fim became aware that Oken had the idea
of the vertebral reUtions of the skull when he listened to the intn>>
ductory discourse in which the young professor, invited by the
poet to Jena, sctcaed thb very idtt for its sobiect. It b incredible
that Oken, had he adopted the idea from Goetncf or been aware of
an antidpation by him. should have omitted to acknowledge tbe
source— should not rather have cagcriy embraced so appropriate
an opportunity of doing graccfill homage to the originality and
genius of his patron.
The anaumiist having lectwed for an hour fbioly uaoooscioua
of any such antidpation, it seems hardly less incrediUe that the
poet should not have ntcntioned to tbe young lecturer his pievious
conception of the vcncbro-cranial theoiy, and the singulaf coind-
dence of the acddcntal drrarnstance which he subsec^uendy aHeged
to have pn>dttced that discovery. On the contsary, Goethe penaita
Oken to publbh hb Camous lecture, with the same uacoosdouAnea
of any anty:ipation as when he delivered it; and Oken, in the same
state of belief, transmits a copy to Goethe {J sit. No. 7) who thereupon
honours the professor with spedal marks of attention and an invita-
tion to Ms hou». No hint of any claim of the host b given to the
guest} no word of roclaawtion in any abape appeaoi iocj
OKHOTSK—OKLAHOMA
57
irearB. In G««tke*« Taies- und JairtS'ffefle, he ttten to two friends,
Rciiner aod YoiKt. as Dcing cognizant ia 1S07 of hik theory. Why
did XM>t one or other of theae make known to Oken that he bad
been to antkipnted? " I told my friend* to keep quiet/' writes
Coetlic in 1825! Spix, in the meanwhile, in 181s, contributes
tus share to the devekipment of Oken's idea in hi^ Ctpkdlog/nusis,
UlxicJi follows in 1816 with his Schildkr^nschddeli next appears
the contribution, in 18181 by L. H. Bojanus, to the vertebral theory
of the skuIU amplified in the Paragon to that anatomist's admicable
AnaUm€ Teshuhnis Europaeae (1821). And now for the first time^
ia 1818, Bojanus, viaiting^iome friends at Weimar, these bears the
rumour that his friend Oken had been anticipated by the great
poec He oommunicates it to Oken. who, like an honest man, at
once published the statement made by Goethe's friends in the Isis
of that year, offerin|; no reflection on the poet, but restricting himself
to a detailed and uteresting aa»unt of the dxcumstances under
wfaadi he himself had been M independently to make his discovery
when wandering in 1806 through the Han. It was enoi^ for him
thus to vindicate his own dUums; he abstains from any comment
reOecting on Goethe, and maintained the same blameless silence
when Goethe ventured for the first time to chum for himself, in 1830,
the merit of having entertained the same idea, or made the discovery,
thirty years previously.
The German naturalists hdd their annual meeting at Jena in
1836. and there Kieser publicly bore testimony, from jpersonal
knowledge, to the circumstances and dates of Oken's discovery.
However, in the edition of Hegel's works by Michelet (Beriin, 1843),
there appeared the following paragraph: " The type-bone is the
dorsal vertebra, provided inwards with a hde and outwards with
proccHes, every Done bang only a modification of it. This idea
ded with Goethe, who worked it out in a treatise written in
1785* «nd published it in his Morbkologie (1830). pL i6a. OAca, to
tnkom As InaUu was amununiaUed, has preUndid that the idm was
his swa fnptrty, and has reaped the komour of it" This accusation
again called out Oken, who thoroughly refuted it in an able, circum-
•taatial aad temperate statement in part vu. of the Imu {1847).
Goethe's osteoloracal essay of 1785, the only one he printed m that
century, b on a diiferent subject. In the Morphotope of 1820-1824
Goethe distinctly declares that he had never published his kkas on
the vertebral theorv of the skull. He could not. therefore, have sent
any nich essay to Oken before the year 1807. Oken, in reference to
his jHevioos eaduranoe of Goethe's pretensions, states that, *' being
well aware that his feUow-labourcrs in natural science thoroughly
apprtBciated the true state of the case, he confided in quiet silence
in their judgment. Meckel, Spix, Ulrich, Bojanus. Canis^ Cuvier,
Ccoffray St Hilaire, Albcrs, Sitraus-Durckhcim, Owen, Kieser and
UcbtensteiA had recorded their judgment in his favour and against
Goethe. Bat upon the appearance of the new assault in Micfielet's
editioa of He«l he could no longer remain silent."
Okea's bold axiom that heat is but a mode of motion of light,
aad the idea broached in his essay on generation (1805) that '^all
the parts of higher animals are made up of an aggregate of Injusoria
or animated nobttlar monads," are both of the same order as his
propQsstioo 01 the head being a repetition of the trunk, with ito
vertebme and limbs. Science would have ^fited no more from
the one kiea without the subsequent experimental discoveries of
H. C Oented and M. Faiadav, or from the other without the micro*
soopical obscrvatmns of Robert Brown, J. M. Schleiden and T.
Scbwaao, thaa from the third notion without the inductive demon-
suatioa of the segmenul constitution of the skull by Owen. It is
questiooable, indeed, whether ia either case the disooyerers of the
true theories were excited to their labours, or in any way iafiucaced,
lb y the a priori guesses of Oken: more probable is it that the requisite
lismch ss and genuine deductions therefrom were the rcsulu of the
correlated fitness of the stage of the science and the gifu of its true
cultivators at such particular stage.
The foUowinc is a list of Oken's principal works: Gmndriss der
2:aiMrpkilo»opkUt der Theork der Same, nnd der daranf ifsgrarnddtn
dasstJUoHon der Thiere (1802): Die Zeugmt (1805); Abriss der
Biolepe (1805); Beitrdte wnr ver^eichenden-Zoolorie, Analomie nmd
PkyeuUpe (along with Kkser, 1806-1607): Ueher die Bedeutnmt
der Scktdelknecken (1807); Ueber das Unieersnm als Fortsettuntdes
Simmmsyslems (180S) : Brfte Ideen air Theorie des LUhts, der Finsler-
missm der Parkon mnd der Wdrmo (1808): {rnrndsfidbnaaf des
hchem Systems der Erte (1809); Veber den Werth der Natnrtrs
(1809); X • ^
%rd cd..
LMmek
ftainrgese _ _
gfsekidUeMr Seknteu (1831); Btquisiod'nn Syslkme d* Analomie, de
FhysioUtfhetd^Histairt HatmtUe (i8ifl): AUMtine IfatnneaekieUe
<i8l3-l8a3, 14 vols.). He also contributed a itrgt number of papere
to the /sM and other jouraals. (R. O.)
OKROnX* WBA OF, a part of the westem Pacific Ocean, lying
ktweca the peiuiiiula of Kamfharka, the Kurile Islands, the
Jap*Ttftf itli"*^ of Yfxo, the *»i<i««< of RaHialiw^ mid the Amur
?roviiica of East Siberia. Tbe Sakhalin Gulf and Gulf of
'artazy omnect U with tlia Japaacia Sea on the weit of
(1809): Ukrknek der Nctwpkiioaopkio (1800-1811: and
13. 1815. x8 ,
Yorietungen (i8l6-i8ao)
and cd.. 1843; Eog. .
Lekrkmch dsr Natnrtfiockkhte (181,
^stkiekle wnm Gebronck M
fatnrtesskickle
od ed., 1
»83i;
161S* x82«): HaJLU 2c^
Naimr-
tbt island of Sakhalin, and on theiouthof »M*tA«Mi k the La
P^use Strait.
OKI. a group of islands belonging to Japan, lying due north
of the proving of Izumo, at the interaction of 36** N. and 133° £.
The group consists of one huge island called Dogo, and three
smaller isles — Chibori-shlma, N!shi-no-^ma, and Naka-nO-
shlma — ^which are collectively known as Dozen. These four
Islands have a coast-line of 182 m., an area of 130 sq. m., and a
population of 63,000. The island of Dogo has two high peaks,
Daimanjt-mlne (2 1 85 ft.) and OnUne-yama (21 28 ft.). The chief
town is Saigo in Dogo, distant about 40 m. from the port of Sakai
in Izumo. The name Oki-no-shima signifies "islands in the
offing," and the place is celebrated in Japanese history not only
because the possession of the islands was much disputed hi
feudal days, but also because an ex-emperor and an emperor were
banished thither by the Ho jo regents in the 13th century.
OKIiAHOMA (a Choctaw Indian word meaning " red people ")»
a south central sute of the United States of America lying
between 33** 35' and 37* N. ht. and 94* 29' and 103* W. long.
It is bounded N. by Colorado and Kazisas; E. by Missouri uad
Arkansas; S. by Texas, from which it is separated in part by the
Red river; and W. by Texas and New Mexico. It has a total
area of 70,057 aq. m., of which 643 sq. m. are water-surface.
Although the extreme western limit of the state is the xo3rd
meridian, the only portkm W. of the looth meridian is a strip ol
land about 35 m. wide in the present Beaver, Texas and Cimarron
counties, and formerly designated as "No Man's Land."
Physiography.— Tht topographical features of the state exhibit
considerable diversity, ranging from wide treeless plains ia the
W. to rugged and heavily wooded mountains fn the E. In general
terms, however, the surface may be described as a vast rolling
plain having a gentle southern and eastern slope. The elevations
above the sea range from 4700 ft. in the extreme N.W. to about
350 ft. in the S.E. The southern and eastern slopes are remark-
ably uniform; between the northern and southern boundaries
£. of the looth meridian there is a general di^crcnce in elevation
of from 200 to 300 ft., while from W. to £. there is an average
decline of about 3 ft* to the mile. The state has a mean elevation
of X300 ft. with 34i930 sq. m. below xooo ft; 25,400 sq. m.
between xooo and 2000 ft.; 6500 sq. m. between 2000 and
3000 ft.; and 3600 sq. m. between 3000 and 5000 ft.
The western portion of the Ozark Mountains enters Oklahoma
near the centre of the eastern boundary, and extends W.S.W. half
way across the state in a chain of hills gradually decreasing in height.
In the south central part of the state u an elected tableland known
as the Arbuckle Mountains. In its western portion this tabk^Und
attains an elevation of about 1350 ft. above the sea and lies about
400 ft. above the bordering ^ains. At iu eastern termination,
where it merees with the plama. it has an elevation of about 750 ft.
Sixty miles N.W. of this plateau lie the Wichita Mountains, a
straggling range of rugged peaks riring abruptly from a level ^lain.
This range extends from Fort Sill north-westward beyond Gramte, a
distance of 65 m., with some breaks in the second half of this area.
The highest peaks are not more than 1500 ft. above the plain, but on
account of their stoco and rugged slopes they are difficult to ascend.
A third group of hills, the Chautauqua Mountains, lie in the W. in
Blaine and Canadian counties, their main axis being almost parallel
with the North Fork of the Canadian river. With the exception of
these isolated dusters of hills the western portion of the state con-
nsts almost entireljf of rolling prairie. The nrtreme north-western
^rt of Oklahoma is a lofty tableland farming part of the Great
Plains region E. of the Rocky Mountains.
The prairies N. of the Arkansas and W. of the Neosho rivets are
deeply carved by small streams^ and in the western portion of this
area, where the formation consists of alternating shales and sand-
stones, the easily eroded rocks have been carved into canyons, buttes
and mesas. South of the Arkansas river these ledges of sandstone
continue as far as Okmukee, but the evidences 01 erosion are less
noticeable. East of the Neosho river the prairies merge into a hilly
woodland. In the N.W. four laige salt plains form a striking
phyaicd feature. Of these the most noted is the Big Salt Plain at
the Cimarron river, in Woodward county^ which varies in width
from I m. to 2 m. aind extends along the nvcr for 8 m. The plain
is almost i^ectly level, covered with snowy-white saline crystals*
and contains many salt springs. The other -saline areas are the
Little Salt Plain, which lies on the Cimarron river, near the Kansas
boundary; the Salt Creek Plaia, 3 m. kmg and too yds. wide, ia
Blaine county; and the Sah Fork Plain, 6 m. wide and 8 m. Iniag,
so called from its position on the Salt Fork of the Arkansas river.
5»
OKLAHOMA
FoOqwiiiff the slope of the bnd. the impoctant •tnaras flow from
N.W. to S.E. The Arkansas river enten the state from the N. acar
the 97th meridiao, and after fonowing a Kcneral aouth-easterly
cx>urse, leaves it near -the centre of the eastern boundary. Its tribu-
taries from the N. and E. — the Verdigris, Grand or Noosho and
lilinoift"-«re small and ummportant; bat from the S. and W. it
recctves the waters of much kuvcr streamsr-the Salt Fork, the
Cmarron and the Canadian, with its numerous tribuuries. The
extreme southern portion of the state is drained by the Red River,
which forms the greater part of the southern boawUry, and by its
tributaries, the North Fork, the Washita and the KiamachL
Fauna and Fltraj-Ot wild animab the most charscteristk are
the black bear. puma, prairie wolf, timber wolf, fox, deer,
antelope, squirrel, rabbit and prairie dog. Hawks and turkey
buzaards are common types of the lat^ger birds, and the wild turkey,
prairie chicktti and quad al« the pniicapal game birds. The total
woodland area of the state was estunatad in 1900 at a4#400 aq. m.,
or M-8 % of the land area. The most deudy wooded sectbn u the
extreme E.; among the prairies of the W. Umber is seldom found
beyond the banks of streams. The most common trees are the
various species of the oak and cedar. The irfne is conAned to the
matt raountainoQs sectkMs of the £.. and the bbck walnut isfoiind
among the river bottom fauids. These four varieties are of commercial
value. Other varieties, most of which are widely distributed, are
the ash, pecan, cottonwood, inrcamore. dm, maple, hickory, dder,
man, kxiist and river bitch. The piaines are covered with valuable
bunch, gTMoa and dropaoed grasaesi in tha eoitreme N.W. the
cactus, saRbniah and yucca, types cfaancteristic of more arid regions,
are found.
CUmate.-^Tht dlmate of the state is of a continentaLtype. with
great annual variations of temperature and a nlinfall which, though
fenemUy sufSdcat for the needs of vcgcUtion. u considecably less
than that of the Atlantic Gnat or the Mississippi Valley. The
western and central portwns of the state are in general cooler and
dryer than the E., on account of their greater elevation and greater
distance fiom the Gulf Coast. Thus at Beav«sr, in the extreme N.W^
the meao annual temperature is 57* F. and the mean annual rainfall
.these figures are respectively
and 35- 1 in. AtOklahoma Citv, in the centre of the state, the
in annual temperature is 59*; toe mean for the summer (June,
r and August) is 78*, with an extreme reooided of 104' the
'nter (December, January and February) is 58*,
recorded of -I7*. At Mansum. in the S.W., the
ipeiature is 61*; the mean for the summer is 81*
18^ in.; while at Ijel^h, in the
^* Aful 4C.f tti Ar nVlaftntTi:* I
m<
aeaa lor the wmter
with aa extreme
mean annual temperature
and for the winter 41*, while the highest and towest temperatures
*v«r recorded are respectively 114* and -17*. The mean annual
jnedpitatioa for the stata is 317 in.; the variation between the E.
aad the W. being about 12 in.
5iMb.^Tbe prevailing type of soil b a deep dark-red bam. some-
times (especially in the cast central part of the state) made up of a
decomposed sandstone, and again (in the north central part) made
up of shales and decomposed limestone. Not infrequently there are
a belt of red sandy loam on uplan(b N. of a river, a rich deposit of
Mack alluvium on valley bottom lands, a belt of red clay loam on
uplands S. of a river, and a deposit of wind-blown loess on the water
parting. Loess, often thin and always containing little humus,
also covers large areas on the high, semi-arid plains in the western
part of the state.
Afriadtwre and Slock'roinng.~-Far some time before the firat
opening to settlement by white men in 1890. the territoiv now em-
braced in Oklahoma was brrely occupied by great herds of cattle
driven in from Texas, and since then, although the opening was
piecemeal, the agrkulturat development has been remarkably rapid.
By 1900. 23.988,339 acres, or 52*1 %, of the total land surface was
imrluded in farmsjand 8,574,187 acres, or 377 %, of the farm kind
was ifflprowd.^ The farm land was cfivided among 108,000 farms
.containing an averase of 3I2>85 acres; 26,121 of tnem contained
less than 50 acres, but the most usual a» was 160 acres; and
48,983. or4S'3S %, contained from 100 to I74 acres. A considerable
portion of the brgcr farms (there were 2390 containing 500 acres or
more) «Tre owned bv Indians but leased to white men. Much land
as late as 1900 was oetd in common by Indian tribes, but has since
been altotted to the members of those tribes and most of it b leased to
whites. In fooo. 59.367 (or a little more than one-half of aH) farms
were worked by owners or part owners, 33,M7 *p« worked by share
tenants, and 13.903 were worked by cash tenants. Indian com,
wheat, cotton, oats and hay are the principal crops, but the variety
of farm and garden produce b great, and mdudes Kafir com, broom
corn, barley, rye, buckwheat, flax, tobacco, beans, castor beans,
peanuta, pecans, sorghum cane, sugar cane, and neariy all the fruita
and vegetables common to the temperare 90ne; stocVraising. too.
b a very hnportant industry. Of the total acreage of all crops in
1900, 4,43T.8i9 acres, or 68-04 %• ^'^'^ ^ cereals; and of the cereal
acreage 56-45 % was of Indian com. t4*45 % was of wheat and
7-15 % was of oats. The acreage of indUi
an com increased from
^ The statiatios in thb artkle were obtained by addini^ to those
lor Oklahoma those for Indian Tairitory, which was oombined with
St aa t9Q7.
2,SOt.945 iie«« in 1900 to <fA50,ooo acres in 1909; •between i«99
and IQ09 the yield increased from 68,949.300 bushels to 1 01 .150.000
bushels. The acreage of wheat decreased during this period f roa
», 704.909 «cres to 1.325.000 teres, and the yield from 20,328.300
bushels to 15,680,000 bushels. The acreage of oata increased from
317.076 acres to 550,000 acres, and the yfeld increased from
9.511.340 bushels to 15.950.000 busheb. The hay crop of 18^ waa
grown on 1.005.706 acres and amounted to 1,617,905 tons, but
neariy one-half of this was made from wild grasses; since then the
amounta of fodder obtained from air:dfa, Kanr com, sorghum cane
and timothy have mUch increased, and that obtained from »fld
grasses has decreased; in 1909 the acreage was 900,000 and the
crop 8to,oo0 itons. Except in the W. section, where there b good
grazing but generally an insufficient rainfall for gro\»'ing crops,
cattle-raising' on the range has in considerable measure given way to
stock-raising on the farm, and neariy everywhere the quality of the
cattb has been greatly improved. The total number oil cattle
decreased from 3,236.008 in 1900 ro 1 ,992,000 in 1910, but at the same
time the number of daiiy cows increased from 276.539 to 355,000.
The number of horses increased from 557,153 in 1900 to 804,000 ia
1910; of mules from 117,562 to 191,000 ; of swine from 1,265.189
to 1 ,302,000: and of sheep from 88,741 to 108,00a Winter wheat i»
used extensively for pasturage during the winter months with little
or no damage to the crop. No other branch of agriculture in OkU*
home has advanced so nfndly as the production of cotron; the
culture of thb fibre was introduoedln 1890, and the acreage increased
from 682,743 Acres in 1890 to 2,037,000 acres in 1909. and the yield
increased from 227,741 bates to 617.000 bales (in 1907 it was 862.383
babs). There waa only a very small crop of broom com in 1889, but
castor beans yielded 77409 busheb. Two crops of potatoes may be
frown on the same ground in one year, and the acreage of potatoee
mcreascd from 15,360 acres in 1899 to 27,000 acres in toon, and the
yield from 1,191.997 busheb to 1. 890.000 bushels. Oklahoma ia
already produong laige craps of apples, peaches, grapes, water-tttdona
and musk-mdons, and many larite appb and peach orchards and
vineyards have been planted. Peai^ plums, apricott, cherries,
strawberries, blackberries, nspberries. currants, gooseberries,
cabbages, onions, sweet potatoes, tomatoes and encumbers are
erown in considenble quantities. The ccreab and most of tl«
fraita and vegetables are grown throughout the giceter portbn off
the middle and E. partt of the state, although die soil of the K.
middle sectbn yiekls the best crops of wheat. Kafir com and soighua
cane are the most common in the W. sections, where the dlmate b
too dry for other crops. Some cotton b grown N. of the odddle of
the state, but the S.E. quarter takes in most of the cotton bdt.
Broom com ^ws best in Woods county on the N. border, and
castor beans u the central and N. central sections. About 3000
acres (neariy one>half in the narrow extension in the NAVJ were
already irrigated in 1909, and surveys had been made by the Federal
Reclamatkm Service with a view to irrigating about 100,000 actea
more— 10,000 to 14,000 acres in Beaver and Woodward counties,
under the Cimarron project, and 80.000 to 100,000 acres in Kiowm
and Comanche counties, under the Red River project.
Lambtf and Timber Producis.— The merehanttble timber b mostly
tn that part of the sate which formeriy constituted Indan Territory,
and consista laigely of bbck walnut and other valuable hard woods
in the bottom lands, of bbck jack and post oak on the uptanda
and of pine on the higher elevations S. of the Arkansas river. The
manufactured forest products of Indian Territory increased la value
from $189,373 in 1900 to $588,078 ia 1905. or 205-78 %.
if^Mrab.— The ooaUfiekb extend from Kansas on the N. to
Arkansas on the £.. and have an area of aboat 20,000 sq. m. The
prindpal mining centres are McAlester. Wilburton. Hartshora.
Coalgate and Phillips. In quality the Coal varies from a low grade
to a high grade bituminous, and some of the kner b good for coleine.
The output increased from 446429 short tons iniB85 to 1^922,298
are composed chbfly of great deppsita of reck gypsum. A similar
but minor range extends paraUd with it 40 to 50 ro. S. W. There are
also deposits in Greer county ia the S.W. comer, and some gypsiie
ui Kay county oe the N. middb border. For wefkiag these extensive
deposita there are, how<vef\ few mills; these are in Kay, Gkfiadiaa
and Blaine coontiea. Some petrolettm was discovered in the N. pan
of Indbn Territory near the OkUhoma border as eariy as 1890^
but there was little development until 1993, when several welb
were drilled ia the vicinity of Bartlesville. Tlien weUs were drilled
to the W. on the Osage Reservation, and to the S., until in loo(
about 1 10 welb were drilled into the famous Ckn Pool near Sapulpa.
One of these wells has a flow of aoout looq barrels a day. and the
total product from the Oklahoma oil-fiekl (which iddode^ welb ia
■ The agrienltural statbtks for 1909 are taken from the Tkar^Batk
«( tfM Uimed Staut Diyaiowat ef Agikultuie.
Oi^LAHOMA
59
what was Indiaa Te^tocy) increased from 10.000 barrels in 1901
Co 138^11 in 1903, 1.3^,748 in 1904 and 45.798.7^$ in 1908. when
k was valued at |i7.694,843' Natural gas abounds in the aame
region, and several strong weus were developed in 1906. and immedi-
ately afterwards gas began to be used largely for industrial purposes
forwhichin i9o8th6pfiQewasfromi|toi$ceatspcr loooit. Pipe
linea have been construaed. The vaXut of the output increased
from $360 in 1903 to $130,137 in 190;: and to $860,159 in 1908.
la the central part of the state S. of the Canadian river are extensive
deposits of a^haltum, but their development has been undertaken
only on a smalt scale: in 1908, 2402 snort tons were put on the
snarkec, the value being $2A,82a Lead and zinc are found b the
Miami distikt, the Peoria district and the Quapaw district ; and in
1908 the lead (1409 tons) was valued at $1 18,350 and the zinc (3235
tons) at $310,090. The total value of the mineral producu in 1908
was $36^,751.
Ifaaai^iKrsf.— The manufactures in 1905 were still laigdy such
as are dosely rdated to agriculture. Measured by the value of the
products, 61 '8% were represented by 6our and grist mill products
and cottonseed oil and cake. Among the manufacturing centres are
Oklahoma Qty and Guthrie, and the oorobincd value of their factory
products incrttsed from $1.4913.998 in 1900 to $4,871,3^ in 1905.
Tran^ri^tum and Camnuree.—Tht navimble waters m Oklahoma
•re of littfe importance, and the sute is almost wholly dcjiendcnt
on railways as a means of transportation. The first railway was that
id the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, which completed a line across the
territory to Oeiuson, Texas, in 1 873. The railway mileage was slowly
increased to 1260 m. in 1890. and on the xst 01 January 1909 was
982Q m. The Missouri, Kansas & Texas railway crosses the E. part
of the state, and somewhat parallel with this to the westward are
the St Louis ft San Francisco, the Atchison. Topeka ft Santa ¥6,
twQ lines of the Chicago. Rock Island ft Pacific, and the Kansas
City, Mexico ft Orient railways. The Chicago. Rock Island ft Pacific
T
crosses the middle of the sute from E. to W< The Atchison,
eloa ft Sanu F6 and the Chicago. Rock Island ft Gulf croas the
W. part. The St Louis & San Fiandsco crosses the S.E. quarter.
Uae of the Frisco system extends along the S. border from the
kaosas line to the mkldle of the sute. and with these main lines
Topeha tt aanu i^e ana the iJTiicago,
N.W. part. The St Louis ft San Fiai
A Uae of ~
Arkansas ,
Aumecous branches form an extensive network.
Pofulaticikr^'Ihe popolation of the territory now embraced
within the state increased from 258,657 in 1890, when the first
census was taken, to 79o»39i in 1900, or 205-6%, to 1,414,177
in 1907. and to 1,657,155 in 191a Of the total population
in 1900 7«9,853,or97>4%, were native-born. The white popula-
tion Jficreased from 172,554 in 1890 to 1,054,376 in 1907, or
6ix%, the negro population during the same period from 21,609
to II 8. 160, or 4x9%, and the Indian population from 64,456
to 75.0x9, or x6*3 %. In 1890 the Indians and negroes constituted
33-3% of the total population, but in X907 they (with the
Mongolians, who numbered 75) constituted only Z3*2% of the
totoL Tlie only Indians who are natives of this region are a
few memben of the Kiowa, Comanche and Apache tribes.
The othexs are the remnants of a number of tribes collected here
from various parts of the country: Choctaws, Chickosaws,
Cherokees, Creeks, Semlnoies, Osages, Raws, Poncas, Otoes,
Cheyennes, lowas, Kickapoos, Sauk and Foxes, Sioux, Miamis,
Shawnees, Pawnees, Ottawas and several others. Until 1906
the Osages lived on a reservation touching Kansas on the N. and
the Arkansas river on the W. (since then almost all allotted);
but to the greater portion of the Indians the government has
made individual allotments. Only about one-fourth of the so-
called Indians are full bk)ods. A large portion are one-half or
more white bk)od and the Creeks and some others have more or
less negro blood. In 1906 there were 257,100 communicants
of various churches in Oklahoma and Indian Territory, the
Methodist Episcopalians being the most numerous, and next
to them the Baptists. The population in places having 4000
inhabitants or more increased from 29,978 in 1900 to 140,579
in 1907, or 368-9%, while the population outside of such places
increased from 760^13 lo 1,273,598, or only 67-5%. The
principal dlies in 1907 were Oklahoma G(y, Muskogee, Guthrie
(the capital), Shawnee, Enid, Ardmorc, McAlcslcr and Chickasha.
Administration.— The constitution now in operation was
adopted in September 1907, and is that i^ith which the stale
was admitted into the Union in November of the same year.
Amendments may be submitted through a majority of the
members elected to both houses of the legislature or through a
petiUon signed by 15% of the electorate, and a proposed
afficodment becomes a part of the constitution if the majority
of tJhevotctcBStatapopttlareleclionaraiiilavoitrQf it The
legislature may also at any time propose a convention lor
amending or revising the constitution, but no such convention
can be called without first obtaining the approval of the elector-
ate. An elector must be able to read or write (unless he or an
ancestor was a voter in x866 or then lived in aone foicign
nation) and must be 21 years old, and a resident of the state
for one year, in the county six months, and in the election
prednct 30 days; and women have the privilege of voting at
Kbod maetinga. CeneiBl elections are held on the fint Tuesday
after the iixit Mondqr In November in odd-ammbered years and
party candidates for state, district, county and munidpal
offices and for the United States Senate are chosen at primary
elections held on the first Tuesday in August. Tlie Massa-
chusetts ballot which had been in use in X897-X899 was again
adopted in 1909. OUahoma has put into its constitution many
things which in the older sUtes were left to legislative enaament.
The governor is dected for a term of four years but Is ii^
eligible for the next saccecdmg term. The number of officers
whom he appoints Is rather limited and for most of his appoint«>
ments the confirmation of the Senate is required. He n not
permitted to pardon a criminal until he has obtained the advice
of the board of pardons which is composed of the sUte sopeiw
intendent of public instruction, the president of the board of
agriculture and the state auditor. He la a member of somo
Important administrative boards, his veto power extends to
items in appn^'ation bills, and to pass a bill over his veto a
vote of two-thhxls of the members dected to each house is re^
quired. A lieutenant-governor, secretary of sutcv treasurer,
auditor, examiner, and inspector, commissioner of labour, com-
missioner of insorance, chief mine mspector, commissionrr of
charities and corrections, and president of the board of agri-
culture are elected each for a term of four years, and the
secretary of state, auditor and treasurer are, tike the governor^
ineligible for the next sucoeeding term.
The law-making bodies are a Senate and a House of Repre-
sentatives. One-half the senators and all the representatives
are elected every two years, senators by districts and repro*
sentativcs by counties. Sessions are held biennially In even-
numbered years and begin the first Tuesday after the first Monday
in January. The constitution reserves to the people the privilege
of rejecting any act or any item of any act whenever 5% of the
legal voters ask that the matter be voted upon at a general
dcction; and the people may initiate legislation by a petition
signed by 8% of the electorate.
For the administration of justice these have been established
a supreme court composed of six justices elected for a term of
six years; a criminal court of appeals composed of three justices
appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the
Senate; twenty-one district courts each with one or more
justices elected for a term of four years; a county court in each
county with one justice elected for a term of two years; a court
of a justice of the peace, elected for a term of two years, in each
of six districts of each county, and police courts in the cities*
The supreme court has appellate juiisdiction in all civil casta,
but its original jurisdiction is restricted to a general control of
the lower courts. The criminal court of appeals has jurisdiction
in all criminal cases appealed from the district and county courts.
The district courts have exclndve jurisdiction in dvO actions
for sums exceeding Siooo, conairrent jurisdiction with the
county courts in ci^ actions for sums greater than $500 and not
exceeding $1000, and original or appellate in cxhninal cascL
The county courts have, besides the ooncurrent jurisdictioik
above stated, original jurisdiction in all probate matters, original
jurisdiction in civil actions for sums greater than $200 and
not exceeding $500^ concurrent jurisdiction with the justices
of the peace in misdemeanour cases, and appelbitc jurisdiction
in an cases brought from a justice of the peace or a pohcc coort.^
Local Cowrninffir.— The general managrment of county affairs
is intruded to three commiwoncrs dected by districts, but these
commissioners ai* not permitted to innir extraordinary capmsea
or levy a tax exceediuR nve mills on a dollar without first ^obtaintfur
the consent of the people at a general or special ckctkm. '^
6o
OKLAHOMA
niHtroflno . . ^
•urvcyor, ahenff, •memnr and su^rintendent at public imtniction.
The counties have been divided into municipal township*, each of
which elects a trustee, a clerk and a treasurer, who together con-
stitute a board of directors for the management of township affairs.
The trustee is also the assessor. Cities-or towns having a population
of 2000 or more may become^ cities of the first class when-
ever a favourable majority vote is obtained at a ^neral or special
election held in that dty or town, and this question must be sub-
mitted at sudk an election whenever 35% of the legal voters
petitioR for it.
MisctUantons Loan.— the property rights of husband and wife are
rncticaily equal, and either may buy,, sell or mortgage real estate,
other than the homestead, without the consent of the other. Among
the grounds for a divorce are adultery, extreme cruelty, habitual
drunkenness, eross nq^lect of duty and imprisonment for felony.
Article XII. of the constitution exempts from forced sale the home-
stead of any family in the state to the extent of 160 acres of land in
tJtM country, or X acre in a city, town or village, provided the value
of the same does not exceed $5000 and that the claims against it are
not for purchase money, improvements or taxes. A corporation
commission of three memben, elected for a term «f dx years, is
tntrustcd with the necessary powers for a rigid control of public
service corporations. A state boaid of arbitration, composed of
two farmers, two employers and two employes is authorized to
investigate the causes of any strike affectmg the public interests,
and publish what it finds to oe the facts in the case, together with
reoommendatioas for settlement. Labour laws, passed By the first
iegUaturc (1908), were amended and made more rar^^'
I^slaturc of 1909: a child labour law forbids the en
c^drcn under 14 in factories, workshops, theatres, be
pool-halls, stcam-laundnN or other dangerous places (
■ ) child unde
-iie
of
:s
by the conumssioner of labour), and nib child under be
employed in stich places unless able to read and write sii ish
sentences or without having attended school during .' p^ ' > ms
year; no child under 16 is to be employed in any 'i ^wral
(enumerated) dangerous occupations; no diiki under xc is to be
employed nuMne than 8 hours in any one day, or more than 4S hours
in any one week in any gainful occupation other than agriculture
or domestic service; age and schooling certificates are required of
children between 14 and 16 in certain ocqjipations. A state dis-
pensary system for the sale of intoodcatitts: liquors was authorised
oy the constitution, but the popular vote in 1JK>8 was unfavourable
to the continuaace of the system, the sentiment secmii^ to be
for rieid orohibition of the sale of intoxicating liquors. A law
passea in May IQ08 against nepotism (closely following the Texas
bw of 1907) forbids public omcers to appoint (or vote for) any
person relaited to them by affinity or consanguinity within the
third degree to any position in the government of which the/ are a
part; makes persons thus related to pubUc officers ineligible to
positions in tne branch in which their rehitive is an official; and
renders any official making such an appointment liable to fine and
lemoval from office.
EdncatufH. — ^The common school 'system is administered by a
state superintendent of public instruction, a state board 01 educauon,
county superintendents and district boards. The state board is
co mposed of the state superintendent, who is president of the board ;
the secretary of state, who is secretary of the board; the attorney
general and the governor. Each district board is composed of three
members elef:tcd for a term of three years, one eadi vear. Each
district school must be open at least tnroe months each year, and
children between the ages of eight and sixteen are required to
attend either a pubKc or a private school, unless excused because
pS physical or menUl infirmity. There are separate schools for whites
and negroes. In addition to instruction in the ordinary branches,
the teaiching in the district schools of the elementary principles of
agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, stock-feraing, forestry,
building country roads and domestic science is required. A law of
1908 requires that an ivricoltural school of secondaipr grade be
established in each of the five supreme court judicial distncts. and
that an experimental farm be operated in connexion with each;
and in 1909 the number of these districts was increased to six.
There is a state industrial school for girls, teaching domestic science
and the fine arts. The higher institutions of learning established
by the state are the Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College,
a land grant colhse with an agricultural experiment station at
Stillwater; the Oklahoma School of Mines at Wilburton; the
Cbbred Agricnltnral and Normal .University at Langstoa; the
Central Normal School at Edmond; the North-western Normal
School at Alva; the South-western Normal School at Weathcrford,
Custer county; the South-eastern Normal School at Durant, Br^-an
county; the East Central Normal School at Ada; the North-
eastern Normal School at TahlequahjCherokee county; and the
University of Oklahoma at Norman. The Sute Universitv (estab-
lished in 1892, opened in 1 893) embraces a college of arts ana sciences,
and schools of nne arts, applied science, medicine, mines and phar-
macy, la 1907-1908 it haa 40 instructors and 790 students. There
is a University Preparatory School (i^oi) at Tonka wa in Kay
caoanty, and thcceare sUte schoob of agriculture at.Tishomingo and
at Warner. The common schoob are in large part maintained out
of the proceeds of the school lands (about 1,200,000 acres), which
are sections 16 and 36 in each township of that portion of the state
which formerly constituted Oklahoma Territory, and a Congres-
sional appropriation of 8^000,000 in lieu of these sections in
what was forraeriy Indian Territory. The university, agricultural
and mechanical college and normal schools also arc inaintaioed
to a considerable extent out of the proce^ of section 13 in
several townships. The university owns land valued at 13,670,00a
Among the institutions of learning, neither maintained nor controlled
by the state, are Epworth University (Methodist Episcopal, X9or)
at Oklahoma City, and Kingfisher College at Kingfisher.
Ckarities and Corredionaf InstUutions.— The state has a hospital
for the insane at Fort Supply, the Whitaker Orphans* Home at
Pryor Creek, the Oklahoma School for the Blind at Fort Gibson
and the Oklahoma School for the Deaf at Sulphur; and the legisla'
ttire of 1908 appropriated money for the East Oldahoma Hospital
for the Insane at Vinita, a School for the Feeble-Mfnded at Enid, a
State Training School for Boys at Wynnewood and a State Reforma-
tory (at Granite, Greer county) for first-time convicts between the
a^es of sixteen and twenty-five. Under the constitution the supers-
vision and inspection of charities and institutions of correction m
m the hands 01 a State Commissioner of Charities and Corrections,
elected by the people. The commissioner must inspect once each
year all penal, correctional and eleemosynary institndons. including'
public hospitals, jails, poorhouses and corporations and organimions
doing charitable work; and the commissioner appears as next friend
in cases affecting the property of orphan minors, and has power to
investigate complaints against public and private institutions whose
charters may be revoked for cause by the commissioner. By act at
legislature a State Board of Public Affairs was created ; it is made of
five members appointed by the governor, with charge of the fiacal
affairs of all state institutions. Convicts were sent to the state
penitentiary of Kansas until January 1909. when it was cha rged
that they were treated cruelly there; in 1909 work was begun on a
penitentiary at McAlcster.
Bcmking and Finance. — ^The unique feature of the banking system
(with amendments adopted by the second legislature becoming
effective on the nth d June r909) is a fund for the guaranty of
deposits. The state banking board, which is composed of the
guvciuor, ucutsnant-govemor, president of the board of anicuKure.
state treasurer and state auditor, levies against the capital stock ol
each state bank and trust company, organized or existing, under
the laws of the sute to create a fund equal to ^% of average daily
deposits other than the depodts of state funds property secured.
Ono'fifth of this fund is payable the first year and one-twentieth
each year thereafter; 1 % of the increase in average deposits is
collected each year. Emergency assessments, not to exceed 3*^
may be made wnenevcr necessary to pay in full the depositora in an
insolvent bank; if the guxiranty fund is impiUred to such a degree
that it is not naade upDy the a% emergency assessment* the stat*
banking board issues certificates of indebtedness which draw 6%
interest and which arc paid out of the assessment. Any national bauc
may secure its depositors in this manner if it so desires. The bank
guarantee law was held to be valid by the United States Supreme
Court in I908 after the attorney-genoal of the United Stftcn had
decided that it was illegal.
The revenue for state and local purposes is derived chiefly from
taxes. The constitutional limit on the state tax levy is 3} mills on
a dollar, and fegislation has fixed the limit of the couiity levy at 5
mills, of the levy in cities at 7, in incorporated towns ^t 5, in town-
ships at 3, and in school districts at 5. There is a tax on the grom
receipts of corporations, a graduated land tax on all holdings exceed-
ing 6u(0 acres, a tax on income exceeding 83500,^ and a tax on sifts
SM iiiheritances. The aggregate amount of indebtedness whkh
the state may have at any time b limited by the constitution to
8400,000, save when borrowing b necessary to repel an invasion,
suppress an insurrection or defend the state in war.
History r-VTxXh the exception of the narrow strip N. of the
most N. section of Texas the territory comprising the preseol
state of Oklahoma was set apart by Congress in 1834, under the
name of Indian Territory, for the possession of the five southern
tribes (CTherokccs, Creeks, Scminoles, Choctaws and Chickasaws)
and the Quapaw Agency. Early in 1809 some Cherokecs in
the south-eastern slates made known to President Jefferson
their desire to remove to hunting grounds W. of the Mississippi,
and at first they were allowed to occupy lands in what is now
Arkansas, but by a new arrangement first entered into in 1828
they received instead, in 1838, a patent for a wide strip extending
along the entire N. border of Indian Territory with the exception
of the small section in the N.E. corner which was reserved to
the (Quapaw Agency. By treaties negotiated in 1820, 1825,
1830 and 1842 the Choctaws received for themselves and the
Chickasaws a patent (or all that portion of the territory which
OKLAHOMA CITY— OKUMA
61
Kes S. 0f the Canadian tttd Atkanns riven, and by tneaties
negotiated in 1824, 1833 and 1851 the Creeks received for them*
selves and the Seminoles a patent for the remaining or middle
portion. Many of the Indians of these tribes brought slaves with
them from the Southern states and during the Civil War they
supported the Confederacy, but when that war was tvex the
Federal government demanded not only the Ifberation of the
slaves but new treaties, partly on the ground that the tribal lands
must be divided irith the freedmcn. By these treaties, negotiated
in 1866, Ihe Cherokces gave the United States permissioii to
settle other Indians on what was approximately the western
half of their domain; the Seminoles, to whom the Creeks in
1855 had granted as their portion the strip between the Canadian
river and its North Fork, ceded all of theirs, and the Creeks,
Choctaws and Chickasaws ceded the western half of theirs back
to the United States for occupancy by f reedmen or other Indians.
In the E. portion of the lands thus placed at its disposal by the
Cherokees and the Creeks the Federal government within the
neat seventeen* years made a number of small grants as follows:
to the Seminoles in 1866, to the Sank and Foxes In 1867, to the
Osagcs, Kansas, Pottawatomies, Absentee Shawnees and
MTichttas in 1871-1872, to the Pawnees in 1876, to the Poncas
and Nes Perdls in 1878, to the Otoes and Missouris in 1881,
and to the lowas and Kickapoos in 1883; In the S.W. quarter
of the Territory, also, the Kiowas, Comancbes and Apaches
were located in 1867 and the Cheyennes and Arapahoes in 1869^
There still remained unassigned the greater part of the Cherokee
Strip besides a tract embracing 1,887,800 acres of choice husd
in the centre of the Territory, and the agitation for the opening
of this to settlement by white people increased until in 1889 a
complete title to the central tract was purchased from the
Creeks and Seminoles. Soon after the purchase President
Benjamin Harrison issued a proclamation announcing that this
land would be opened to homestead settlement at twelve o'clock
noon, on the a 2nd of April 1 889. At that hour no less than 20,000
people were on the border, and when the signal was given there
ensued a remarkably spectacular race for homes. In the next
year that portion of Indian Territory which Isy S. of the Cherokee
Strip and W. of the lands occupied by the five tribes, together
with the narrow strip N. of Texas which had been denied to that
state in 1850, was organized as the Territory of Oklahoma. In
the meantime negotiations were begun for acquiring a dear
title to the unoccupied portion of the Cherokee Strip, for in-
dividual allotments to the memben of the several small tribes
who had received tribal allotments since 1866, and for the
purchase of what remained after such individual allotments
had been made. As these negotiations were successful most of
the land between the tract first opened and that of the Creeks
was opened to settlement in 1891, a large tract to the W. of tht
centre was opened in 1892, a tract S< of the Canadian river and
W. of the Chickasaws was opened in 1902, and by 1904 the entire
TecriCory had been opened to settlement with the exception of
a tract in the N.E. which was occupied by the Osages, Kaws,
Poncas and Otoes. By the treaties with the five southern tribes
they were to be permitted to make their own laws so long as
they preserved their tribal relations, but since the Civil War
many whites had mingled with these Indians, gained control
for their own selfish ends of sach government as there was,
and made the country a refuge for fugitives from justice. Con-
sequently, in 1893, Congress appointed the Dawes Commiuion
to induce the tribes to consent to individual allotments as well
as to a government administered from Washington, and in 1898
the Curtis Act was passed for making such allotments and for the
establishment of a territorial government. When the allot-
ments werenearly all made Congress in 1 906 authorised Oklahoma
and Indian Territories to qualify for admission to the Union as
one state. As both Territories approved, a constitutional
convention (composed of too Democrats and is Republicans)
met at Gnthrie on the aoth of November 1906. The constitution
framed by this body was approved by the electorate on the
17th of September 1907, and the state was admitted to the
Ukkioa on the 16th of November.
GeverMfs of Okhkma^TtrriUfHaL
Geofge W. Steete ,1890-1891
RobeR Martm (actmg) 1891-48^
AbrahamJ* Seay , « 1893-1893
William Cary Renfrew , . . . , . 1893-1897
Cassiuf MclJonald Barnes 1 897-1901
William M.Jenkins 1901
Thompson B. Feignooa - 1901-1906
Frank Ftant^ ...... . . 1906-1907
Charles Nathaniel Haskell, Democrat. . . 1907-191 1
Lee Cruce, Democrat . . . . .1911-
' BinuocaAPRT.— See the Biennial Reports (Guthrie. 1904 sqq.]
of the Oklahoma Department of Geology and Natural History;
the Oklahoma Geological Survey, BnOtHn No, t: PrtUminary
Report on tko Mineral Resources rf Oklahoma (Norman. 1908);
«< •«».,» wfu>»«^ v«wH#B».o* wUrvey, t^ J. AICIM^T, WVSmUMAV^^ WJ MW
VnUed States, pp. 443-453 (Washington, 1906). being Bulletin Q of
the Weather Bureau of the United States Department of Agriculuiret
Mimenl Resources, qf the United States, annual reports published by
the United States Geological Survey (Washington, 1883 aqq.);
Charles Evans and C. O. Bunn, Oklahoma Civil Goeemment (Ardmore,
1908); C. A. Beard, " Constitution of Oklahoma.*' in the PolUieel
Science Quarterly, voL S4 (Boston, 1909); R. L. Owen, "Cotto
menu on the Constitution of Oklahoma,'^ in the Proceedings oj th$
American Political Science Association, vol 5 (Baltimore. 1909}:
S. J. Buck, The SeUUmenl of Oklahoma (Madison. 1907), reprinted
from the Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sctences, ArU and
leUeraiand D. C Gkleoo. Indian Territory, Deuriptiee, Bioff^phical
and Genealogical , . . with a General History of the Territory (New
York, 1901).
OKliAHOllA €1TT« a dty and the connty-seat of Oklahoma
County, Oklahoma, U.S.A., on the North Fork of the Cansdian
fiver, near, the geographical centre of the state. Pop. (1890}
41S1; (1900) 10,0575 (1907) 3M52; (xoio) 64,205. U
b served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago,
Rock Island ft Pacific, the Misaonri, Kansas h. Texas, and the
St Louis & San Francisco railways, and by inter-urban dectric
lines. It lies partly in a valley, partly on an upland, la a rich
sgricultural region. The dty ia the seat of Epworth University
(founded in 190X by the joint action of the Methodist Episcopal
Chureh and the Methodist Episcopal Cbureh, South). Oklahom*
City'a prosperity is due chiefly to its jobbing trade, with an
extensive faxming and stpck*n^g region, but it haa also cotton
compresses and cotton gins, and varioua nuinufacturea. Tbe
total value of the factory products in 1905 was $5,67o,73a
Natural gas is largely used as a f neL A large settlement was
cstabtished here on the ssnd of April 1889, the day on which
the country was by prodaination dedaied open for aettlemenl.
The dty was chart ered i n 1890.
OKUBO T08HI1I1TBU (1830-1878), Japanese statesman, a
samurai of Satsuma, was one of the five great nobles who led
the revolution in 1668 against the shogunate. He became one
of tbe mikado's prindpal ministen, and in the Satsuma troubles
wUcb followed lie was the chief opponent of Saigo Takamori.
But the snpprcsiion of the Satsnma rebellion broi^t upon him
the penoaal revenge of Saigo'a aympathiaeo, and in the spring
of 1878 he waa assassinated by six risnsmen. Okobo was one
of the leading men of his day, and in 1873 was one of the Japanese
mission which wassent round the world to get ideas for otganlting
tbe new r^ime.
OKOMA (SHIOBMOBU). Count (1838- ' ), Japanese states-
man, was bom in the province d Risen in 1838. Bis father was
an ofiicer in the artilleiy, and during his eariy years bis education
consbted mainly of the study of Chinese literature. Happily
for him. however, he was-able to acquire in his youth a knowledge
of English and Dutch, And by the help of some missionaries he
succeeded in obtaining books in those languages on both scientific
and political subjects. These works effected a complete revolu-
tion in his mind. He had been designed by his parents for the
military profession, but the new light which now broke in uposi
him determined him to devote his entire energies to the abolition
of the existing feudal system and to the establishment of a
constitttrional government. With impetuous zeal he urged his
views on his coontiyaien, and though be took no active pan
^a
OLAF
in th(f revolution of 1868, the effect of his opinions exercised no
slight weight in the struggle. Already he was a mariced man,
and no sooner was the government reorganued, with the mikado
as the sole wielder of power, than he was appointed chief assistant
in the department of foreign affairs. In tS6g he succeeded to the
post of secretary of the joint departments of the interior and of
finance, and for the next fourteen years he devoted himself
wholly to politics. In 1870 he was made a councillor of state,
and a few months later he accepted the office of president of
the commission which represented the Japanese government
at the Vienna Exhibition. In 1872 he was again appointed
minister of finance, and when the expedition under General
Saigd was sent to Formosa (1874) to chastise the natives of that
island for the murder of some shipwrecked fishermen, he was
nominated president of the commission appointed to supervise
the campaign. By one of those waves of popular f ecUng to which
the Japanese people are peculiarly liable, the nation which had
supported him up to a certain point suddenly veered round
and opposed him with heated violence. So strong was the feeling
against him that on one occasion a would-be. assassin threw at
him a dynamite shell, which blew off one of his legs. During
the whole of bis pubUc life he recognized the necessity of promot-
ing education. When he resigned office in the early 'eighties
he established the Scmmon Gako, or school for special studies,
a,t the cost of the 30*000 yen which had been voted him when he
received the title of count, and subsequently he was instrumental
in founding other schools and colleges. In 1896 he joined the
Matsukau cabinet, and resigned in the following year in conse-
quence of Intrigues which produced an estrangement betw<een
him and the prime minister. On the retirement of Marquis
Ito in 1898 he again took office, combining the duties of premier
with those of minister of foreign affairs. But dissensions having
arisen in the cabinet, he resigned a few months later, and retired
into private lifcy cultivating his beautiful garden at Wased)a
near T6ky6.
OLAF* the name of five kings of Norway.
Olaf I.' TavccvBssdN (969-1000) was bom in 969, and began
his meteoric career in exile. It is even said that he was bought as
B slave in Esthonia. After a boyhood spent in Novgorod under
the protection of King Valdemar, Ohif fought for the «mperor
Otto III. under the Wendish king Burislav, whose daughter he
had married. On her death he followed the example of his
countrymen, and harried in France and the British Isles, till,
in a good day for the peace of those countries, lie was converted
to Christianity by a hermit in the Scilly Islandi, and his maraud-
ing expeditions ceased stoce he would not harry those of his new
faith. In England he married Cyda, sister of Olaf Kvaran,
king of Dublin, and it was only after some years spedt In admini-
stering her property in Engbind and Ireland that he set sail
for Norway, firied by reports of the unpopularity of its ruler
Earl Haakon. Arriving In Norway in Uie autumn of 99$! he
was unanimously accepted as king, and at once set about the
conversion of the country to Christianity, undeterred by the
obstinate resistance of the people. It has been suggested that
Olaf's ambition was to rule a united, as well as a Christian,
Scandinavia, and we know that he made overtures of marriage
to Sigrid, queen of Sweden, and set about adding new ships to
his fleet, when negotiations fell through owing to her obstinate
heathenism. He made an enemy of her, and did not hesitate
to involve himself in a quarrd with King Svcyn of Denmarit
by marrying hb sister Thyre, who had fled from her heathen
husband Burislav in defiance of her brother's authority.
Both his Wendish and his Irish wife had brought Oiaf wealth and
good fortune, but Thyre was his nndoing, for it was on an
cxpeditkm undertaken in the year zooo to wiest her lands from
Burislav that he was waylaid off the island Svfltd, near RCtgen,
b>* the combined Swedish and Danish fleets, together with the
ships of Earl Haakon's sons. The battle ended in the annthila*
tion of the Norwegians. Olaf fought to the last on his great
vessel, the " Long Saakei," the mightiest ship in the North, and
finally leapt overboard and was no more seen. Full of energy
and daring, skilled in the u|e of every kind of weapon, genial and
open-handed to his (rfcnds, implacable to his enemies, OlaT*
personality was the ideal of the heathendom he had trodden
down wuh such reckless disregard of bis people's prejudices,
and It was no doubt as much owing to the popularity his char-
acter won for him as to the strength of bis position that be was
able to force bis wiU on the country with impunity. After his
death he remamcd the hero of his people, who whispered that
he was yet alive and looked for his return. ** But however
that may be," says the story, " Olaf TryggvessOn never came
back to his kingdom in Norway.'*
Olaf (II.) HAHALOssdN (995-1030), king from 1016-1049,
called during his lifetime " the Fat," and afterwards known as
St our, was born in 995i the year in which Olaf Tryggvcas6n
came to Norway. After some years' absence in England,
fighting the Danes, he returned to Norway in 1015 and declared
himself king, obtaining the support of the five petty kings of the
Uplands. In loiO he defeated Earl Sveyn. hitherto the virtual
rulvr of Norway, at the battle of Nesje, and within a few years
had won more power than liad been enjoyed by any of his pre-
dcoesaors on the throne. He had annihilated the petty kings
of the South, had crushed the aristocracy, enforced the acceptance
of Christianity throughout the kingdom., asfierted his auaerainty
in the Orkney Islands, had humbled the i.u% of Sweden and
married his daughter m his despite, and had conducted a success-
ful raid on Denmark. But his success was short-Uved, lor in
1,029 the Norwegian nobles, seething with discontent, rallied
round the invading Knut the Great, and Olaf had to flee to
Russia. On his return a year later he fell at the battle of Slikle-
stsd, where his own subjects were arrayed against him. The
succeeding yeara of disunion and misrule under the Danes
explain the belated affeaion with which his countrymen came
to regard him. The cunning and cruelty which marred his
character were forgotten, and his services to his church and
country remembered. Miracles were worked at his tomb, and
in 1164 he was canonized and was declared the patron saint
of Norway, whence his fame spread throughout Scandinavia
and even to jBngland, where churches are dedicated to him.
The Norwegian order of knighthood of St Olaf was founded in
1847 by Os^ I., king of Sweden and Norway,'in memory of this
king.
The three remaining Norwegian kings of this name are perions
of minor importance (see Norway: Histary).
OLAF, or Anuup (d. 981), king of the Danish kin^doins of
Northumbria and of Dublin, was a son of Sitric, king of Deira. and
was related to the English king ;£t hclsl an. As his name Indicates
he was of Norse descent, and he married a daughter of Constan-
tine 1 1., king of the Scots. When Sitric died about 937 i£tho|stao
annexed Deira, and Olaf took refuge in Scotland and in Irdaod
until 937, when he was one of the leaders of the formidable
league of prukccs which was destroyed by iEthelstan at the
famous battle of Brunanburh. Again he soui^t a home among
his kinsfolk in Ireland, but just after iEthelslan's death in 940
he or Olaf Godfreyson was recalled to England by the North-
umbrians. Both crossed over, and in 941 the new English king,
Edmund, gave up Deira to the former. The peace between the
English and the Danes did not, however» last long. Wulfstan,
arcMrishop of York, sided with Olaf; but in 944 this king was
driven from Northumbria by Edmund, and crossing to Ireland
he ruled over the Danish kingdom of Dublin. From 949 to
952 he was again king of Northumbria, until he was expelled
once more, and he passed the remainder of his active life in
warfare in Ireland. But in 980 his dominion was shattered by
the defeat of the Danes at the battle of Tara, He went to lona,
where he died probably in 981, although one account says he
was in Dublin in 994. This, however, is unUke^y. In the
sagas he is known as Olaf the Red.
This Olaf must not be confused with his kinsman and ally,
Olaf (d. 941), also king of Northumbria and of Dublin, who was
a son of Godfrc;^, king of Dublin. The latter Olaf became king
of Dublin in 934; but he was in England in 937, as he took part
in the fight at Brunanburh, After this event he returned
to Ireland, but he appears to have acted Cor a very short
Gland— OLBIA
I
63
time M loint king of NortliombKa with Olaf Sitricson. It !b
possible th&t he was the ** Olaf of Ireland " who was calted by
the Nonhufflbrians after ^thelstan's death, but both the Olafs
appear to have accepted the invitation. He was kiUed in 941
at Tyningham near Dunbar.
See W. F. Skene. CeUie Scotland, vdl. i (1876). and J. R. Gieen,
The CMqnm ^ Eti^nd, yd I (1899).
OLAIID, an island in the Baltic Sea, next to Gotland the
largest belonging to Sweden, stietdhing for 8$ m. along the east
coast of the southern extremity of that Country, from which
it is separated by Kalmar Sound which is from s to 1 s m. bfroad.
The greatest breadth of the island is 10 m., and its area 519 s<). m.
Pop. (1900) 30,408. Consisting for the most pan of Silurian
Kmestone, and thus forming a striking contrast to the maihtand
with its granite and gneiss, (Mand is further remarkable <m
account of the peculiarities of its structure. Down the west ride
for a conaiderabfo distance runs a limestone ridge, rising usually
in terrafoes, but at times in steep clifTs, to an extreine height of
soo ft.; and along the east side there is a parallel ridge of-sand,
resting on limestone, never exceeding 90 ft. These ridges, known
as the Western and Eastern Landborgar, are connected towards
the north and the south by b^Its of sand and heath ; and the
hollow between them is occupied by a desolate and almost barren
tract: the southern portion, or Alfvar (forming fully half of the
southern part of the island), presents a surface of bare red hme^
stone scored by superficial cracks and unfathomed fissures, and
caldned by the heat refracted from the surrounding heights
The northern portion is covered at best with a copse of haxet
bushes. Outside the ridges, however, Oland has quite a different
aspect, the hillsides being not infrequently clothed with dumps
of trees, while the narrow strip of alluvial coast^land, with Its
Cornfields, windmills, villages and church towers, appears
fruitful and prosperous. There are a few small streams in the
island; and one lake, HomsjO, about 3 m. long, deserves mention
Of the fir woods which once clothed a considerable area In the
north the B^kla crown-park Is the only remnant. Groin, especi-
ally barley, and sandstone, are exported from the island, and
there are cement works. A number of monuments of unknown
age exist, includihg stones {skmauuinnar) arranged in groups
to represent ships. The only town is Borgholm, a watering-place
on the west coast, with one of the finest castle ruins in Sweden
The town was founded in 1817, but the c^fetle, dating at least
from the C3th century, was one of the strongest forttesacs, and
afterwards, as erected by the architect Nicodcmus Tcssin the
elder (161^1681), one of the most stately palaces in the country
The island was joined in 1824 to the administrative district (fAn)
of Ralmar. Its inhabitanU were formerly styled Cningar, and
show considerable diveiBity of origin m the matter of Speech,
local customs and physical appearance.
From the raid of Ragnar Lodbrok's sons In 775 Oland is
frequently mentioned in Scandinavian history, and especially as a
battleground in the wars between Denmark and the northern
kingdomsb In the middle ages it formed a separate legislative
and administrative unity.
OLAOS MAQVUS, or Magki (Magnus, it. Stofa, great, being
the family name, and not a pergonal epithet). Swedish ccclcsi*
astic and author, was born at Linkdping in C400 and died at
Rome In issft like his elder brother, Johannes Magnus, he
obtained several ecclesiastical preferments (a canonry at Uf»ala
and at LinkOping. and the archdeaconry of Stivngncs). and was
employed on various diplomatic services (such as a mission to
Rome, ffom Gusuvus I , to procure the appointment of Johannes
Magnus as archbishop of Upsala), but on the success 01 the
lefonnatini in Sweden his attachment to the old church led
him to accompany his brother into exile. Settling at Rome,
from 1537, he acted as his brother's secretary, and ultimately
became his successor in the (now titular) archbishopnc of
Upsala. Fspe Paul HI., in xs4d, sent him to the ccfuncil of
TRttt; later, he became canon of St Lambert in Li£ge; King
Sigismund L of Poland also offered him a canonry at Pesen;
but meat of his Ule, after his brother^ death, seems to have
been spent in the mOBasCary of St BeigitU b Rmne, when he
subsisted on a pension assigned him by the pope. He b best
remembered as the author of the famous Hittoria it Geutibtu
SepletUrionalibm (Rome, 1555). a ^"^^ ^hach long remained lor
the rest of Europe the -chief authority on Swedish matters and
is still a valuable repertory of much curious information in
regard to Scandinavian customs and folk-lore.
The Bistoria was translated into halian (Venkse, 1565), Geiman
(Stra«dbBii|, 1567), English (London. 16^) and Dutch (Amttecdanit
1665); abridinneots of the work appeared also at Antwerp (1558
and 1562), Paris (a French abridged version, 1561). Amsterdam
(1586). Frankfort (1618) and Leiden (1652). O&us also wrote a
TaJndd Umrum septintrumalium . . . (Venice, 1539).
OLBBRS» RfelNRICH WILHELM MATTHIAS (1758-1840),
German astronomer, was bom on the lith of October 1738
at Arbergcn, a village near Bremen, where his father was minister.
He studied medtdne at Gdttingen, 1777-1780, attending st the
same time KoestnerV mathematical course; and in 1779, while
watching by the sick-bed of afcllow-studcnt, he devised a method
of calculating cometary orbits which made an epoch fn the
treatment of the subject, and is still extensively used. The
treatise containing this imporiant invention was made public
by Baron vcn Zach under the title Ueber die UkhtesU ttnd
hequemste Hethode die Baku tines Cometen tu herecknen (Weimar,
1797) A table of eighty-seven calculated orbits was appended,
enlarged by Encke in the second edition (1847) to 178, and by
Galle in the third (1864) to 343. Olbers settled as a physician
in Bremen towards the end of 1781, and practised actively for
atKive forty ycarst finally retiring on the ist of January 1823.
The greater part of each night (he never slept more than four
hours) was meantime devoted to astronomy, the upper portion
of his house being fitted up as an observatory. He paid special
attention to comets, and that of 18 15 (period seventy-four
years) bears bis name in commemoration of its duMection by
him. He also took a leading part in the discovery of the minor
planets, rs-identified Ceres on the ist of January 1802, and
delected Pallas on the 38th of March following. His bold
hypothesis of their origin by the disruption of a primitive
large planet {MonatKche Correspondent, vi. 88), although now
discarded, received countenance from the finding of Juno by
Harding, and of VeSta by himself. In the precise regions of
Cetus and Virgo where the nodes of such supposed phuietary
fragments should be situated. Olbers was deputed by his
fellow-citizens to assist at the baptism of the king of Rome
on the 9th of June 181 1, and he was a member of the corps
iSgislaiif in Paris 1812-1813. He died on the 2nd of March
t84o, at the age of eighty-^me. He was twice married, and one
son survived him.
See Birgraphiseke Skitaen verHorhener Bremischer Aetde, by Dr
G Barkhauaen (Bremen. 1844); AUtemeint geograpkucke Bpkemeru
den. iv. 283 (1799); AhstrAds FkU^ Trans, iv. a68 (1843)1
Ailrommtuke NofknckUn, xxiL 265 (Bcssel). also appended
to A Erman's Brtefwechsd twischen (Mbers und Bessd {2 voU
Leipag. 1851): Atfgemeine Deutsche Biotraphie (S. GQnther)
R Grant. HiU of Pkjs. Astr. p. 930; R. WoK. Ctsckukte der
Aslromomie. p 517. The first two volumes of Dr C. Schilling's
exhaustive work. Wilkdm Others, sein Leben und seiue Werkt, appealed
at Berlin in 1894 and 1900. a third and later volume including his
personal correspondence and biography. A list of Olbera's contri-
buciods to Rientific periodicals is ^[iven at p. xxxv of the 3fd ed. of
his LcichteMe Melkpde, and his unique collection of works relating
to comets now forms part of the Pulkowa library.
OLAIA, the chief Greek settlement in the oorth-west of the
Euxine. It was generally known to the Greeks of Hellas as
Borysthenes. though its actual site was on the right bank of
the Hypanis (Bug) 4 m. abovo its junction with the estuary of
the Borysthenes river (Dnieper). Euscbius says that it was
founded from Miletus t, 650 B.C., a statement which ia borne
out by the discovery of Milesian pottery of the 7lh century.
It first appears as enjoying friendly relations with its neighbours
the Scythians and standing at the head of trade routes leading
far to the north-caat (Herodotus iv ). Its wares also penetrated
northward. It exchanged the manufactures of Ionia and,
from the sth century, of Attica for the slaves, hides and com of
Scythla. Changes of the native population (see ScyTbia)
interrupted this commerce, and tha city was bard put to it 10
64
OLBIAr-OLD-AGE PENSIONS
defend Uielf againft the suzrouading barbarians. We knt>w
oC these difficulties and of the democratic constitution of the
dty from a decree in honour of Protogcncs in the 3rd century
B.C. (CJ.G. ii. 2058, Ittscr, Or. Seplent, Pont. Euxtu. i. x6).
In the following century it fell under the suzerainty of Scilunis,
whose name appears on its coins, and when his power was
broken by Mithradates VI. the Great, of Pontus, it submitted
to the latter. About 50 B.C. it was entirely destroyed by the
Getae and lay waste for many years. Ultimately at the wfsh
of, and, to judge by the coins, under the protection of the natives
themselves, it was restored, but Dio Chrysostom (Or. xxxvi.),
who visited it about ajx. S^t gives a curious picture of its poor
state. During the 2nd century a.o. it prospered better with
Roman support and was quite flourishing from the time of
Scplimius Severus, when it was incorporated in Lower Moesia,
to 248, when its coins came to an end, probably owing to its
sack by the Goths. It was once more restored in some sort
and lingered on to an unknown date. Excavations have shown
the position of the old Greek walls and of those which enclosed
the narrower site of the Roman city, an interesting Hellenistic
house, and cemeteries ol various dates. The principal cult
was that of Achilles Pontarches, to whom the archons made
dedications. It has another centre at Leuce (Phidonisi) and
at various points in the north Euxine. Secondary was that
of ApoUo Prostates, the patron of the stratcgi; but the worship
of most of the Hellenic deities is testified to in the inscriptions.
The coinage begins with large round copper pieces comparable
only to the Roman aes grave and smaller pieces in the shape of
dolphins; these both go back into the 6th century B.C. Later
the city adopted silver and gold coins of the Aeginetic standard.
See E. H. Minns. Scythians and Creeks (Cambridge. 1009) ; V. V.
Latyshev, CVMa (St Pctcnburg. 1887, in Russian). For inscriptions,
Boeckh, C.I.G. vol. ii.; V. V. Latyshcv, Inscr. Orae Seplent. Ponti
Buxini, vols. i. and iv. For excavations, Reports of B. V. Pharmak-
Ovsky in CompU rendu de la C&mm. imp. archidog. (St Pctcnburff,
1901 sqq.). and BuUilin of the saroc, Noc 8, 13, &c., summarijed in
Archaofogiscker Anaeiger (1903 sqq.). (H. H. M.)
OLBIA (Gr. itKfiia, i.«. happy; rood. Teiranova Pausanla,
9.ff.),an ancient seaport city of Sardinia, on thc.east coast. The
name indicates. that it was of Greek origin, and Inadition attri-
butes its foundation to the Boeotians and Thespians under
lolaus (see Sahoinu). Pais considers that it -was founded by
the Phocaeans of MassDia before the 4th century b.c. (in Taro-
poni, op. cU. p. 83). It is situated on low ground, at the extremity
of a deep recess, now called the Golfo di Tcrranova. It was
besieged unsuccessfully by L. Cornelius Scipio in 259 b.c. Its
territory was ravaged in 210 b.c. by a Carthaginian fleet. In
Roman times it was the regular landing-place for travellers
from Italy. Cicero notes the receipt of a letter from his brother
from Olbia in 56 B.C., and obviously shared the prevailing
belief as to the unhealthioess of Sardinia. Traces of the prc-
Roman city have not been found. The line of the Roman city
walls has been determined on the N. and E., the N.E. angle
being at the ancient harbour, which lay to the N. of the modern
{N otitic dcgU Scavi^ 1890, p, 224). Among the inscriptions are
two tombstones, one of an imperial frccdwoman,' the other
of a freedman of Acte, the concubine of Nero; a similar tomb-
stone was also found at Carales, and tiles bearing her name
have been found in several parts of the island, but especially
at Olbia, where in building a modem house in 1881 about one
thousand were discovered. Pais {op. cU. 89 sq<).) attributes
to Olbia an inscription now in the Campo Santo at Pisa, an
epistyle bearing the words " Cereri sacrum Claudia Aug. lib.
Acte," and made of Sardinian (?) granite. In any case it is
clear that Acte must have had considerable property in the
island {Corp. Inscr. Lai. x. 7980). Discoveries of buildings
and tombs have frequently occurred within the area of the
town and in its neighbourhood. Some scanty remains of an
aqueduct exist outside the town, but hardly anything else of
* The frcedwoman had been a slave of Acte before na$stnR into
the property of the emperor, and took the cojjnomcn Acteniana—A
practke which otherwise only occurs in the case of slaves of citizens
of the highest nak or of foreign kings.
antiquity is to be seen m sUu, A large number of milestooes,
fifty-one in all, with inscriptions, and several more with illegible
ones, belonging to the first twelve miles of the Roman road
between Olbia and Carales, have been diKovcrcd, and arc now
kept in the church of S. Simphdo (Noltzit degli Scan, 1888,
p. SS5'* ^^f P> >S8: xS9'» PP- ^i7r 3^» Classical Retiev, 1889,
p. 228; 1890, p. 65, P. Tampooi, SiUost Epigrnfica, OtbienUt
Sassari, 1895). This large number may be accounted for by the
fact that a new stone was often erected for a new emperor. They
range in date from A.D. 245 to 375 (one is possibly of Domitian).
The itineraries state that the main road from Carales to Olbia
ran through the centre of the island to the east of Gennaxgcnlu
(see Sardinia); but a branch certainly diverged from the main
road from Carales to Turris Libisonis (which kept farther west,
more or less along the line followed by the modern railway) and
came to Olbia. The distance by both lines is much the same;
and all these milestones belong to the last portion which was
common to both roads. (J. As.)
OLD-AQB PENSIONS. The provision of annuities for aged
poor by the state was proposed in England in (he x8th century--
e-g. by Francis Maseres, cursitor baron of the Exchequer, in
1772, and by Mr Mark Rolle, M.P., in 1787. Suggestions for
subsidixing friendly societies have also been frequent— e.g. by T.
Paine in 1795, tentatively in Sturges Bourne's Report on the
Poor Laws, 181 7, and by Lord Lansdowne in 1837. The subject
again became prominent in the latter part of the 19th century.
Canon Blackley, who started this movement, proposed to com-
pel every one to insure with a state department against sickness
and old age, and esBentially his scheme was one for the relief
of the ratepayers and a more equitable readjustment of the poor-
rate. The terms provisionally put forward by him required
that every one in youth should pay £10, in return for which the
state was to grant 8s. a week sick allowance and 4s. pension
after seventy. These proposals were submitted to the Select
Committee 00 National Provident Insurance, 1885-1887. This
body reported unfavourably, more especially on the sick in-
surance part of the scheme, but the idea of old-age pension
survived, and was taken up by the National Provident League,
of which Mr (afterwards Sir) J. Rankin, M.P., was chairman.
The subject was discussed in the constituencies and expectation
was aroused. An unofficial pariiamentaiy oommittce was
formed, with Mr J. Chamberlain as chairman. This comniittee
published proposals in March 1892, which show a very interesting
change of attitude on the part of the promoters. Compulsion,
which at the earlier period had found favour with Canon Blackley,
Sir J. Rankin and even Mr Chamberlain, was no longer urged.
The annuitant wasno longer required to pay a premium adequate
to the benefits promised, as in Canon Blackley's proposal. The
benefit was no longer a pure annuity, but premiums were, is
certain cases, returnable, and allowances were provided for
widows, children (if any) and for the next of kin. Canon
Blackley's professed object was to supersede the friendly societies,
which, he alleged, were more or less insolvent; a proposal was
now introduced to double every half-ciown of pension derived
by members from their friendly societies. This suggestion
was criticized, even by supporters of the principk of state aid*
on the ground that unless a pension was gratuitous, the class
from which pauperism is really drawn could not profit by it.
Mr Charles Booth in particular took this line. He accordingly
proposed that there should be a general endowment of old
Age, 5S. a week to every one at the age of nxty-five.
This proposal was calculated to involve an expendititre of
£18,000,000 for England and Wales and £24,000,000 for the
United Kingdom, exclusive of the cost of adminblration. While
Mr Booth severely critidxed the weak points of the contributory
and voluntary schemes, their most influential advocate, Mr
Chamberlain, did not spare Mr Booth's proposals. Speaking
at Highbury, for instance, on the 24th ol May 1899, he described
Mr Booth's universal scheme as " a gigantic system of out-door
relief for every one^ good and bad, thrifty and unthrifty, the
waster, drunkard and idler, as well as the industiioQS," and
very fob'cibly sUted his inability to support it.
OLD-AGE PSMSIONS
&5
h 1893 Mr Gbifatoiie nfemd the wiiole qOflitioii to' a
loyal comnussion (Lord Abcidaie, chainnan)'. A majority
leport, adverse to the principle of sUte pensioat, was iatued
in X895. A minoTity report, signed by Mr Chambeilain and
•thers, dissented, mainly on the grrand that public expectation
would be disappointed if nothing was done. In 1896 Lord
Salisbury appointed a oonunittce " of experts- " (Lord Rothschild,
chairaan) to report on schemes submitted, and, if neccsuiy,
to deviie a scheme. Th^ committee were unable to recommend
any of the schemes submitted, and added that, " we omseives
are unable, after repeated attempts, to devise any proposal free
from grave inherent disadvantages." This second condemnation
was not consideied conclusive, and a select committee of the
House of Commons (Mr Chaplin, chairman) was appointed to
consider the condition of " the aged deserving poor." After
an ineffectual attempt by Mr Chaplin to induce the committee
to drop the pension idea, and to consider the provision made
for the aged by the poor law, the committee somewhat hastily
promulgated a scheme of gratuitous pensions for persons poasess-
ang certain qualifications. Of these the following were the most
important: age of sixty-five; no conviction for crime; n^
poor-law relief, ".Unless under exceptional dicumstaaces,"
within twenty jreais; non-poasession of income of xos. a week;
proved industry^ or proved exercise of reasonable providence
by some definite mode of thrift. The committee refrained
from explaining the maqjiinery and from estimating the cost,
and suggested that this hist problem should be submitted to
yet another committee.
Accordingly a departmental c6mmittee (chairman^ Sir £.
Hamilton) was appointed, which reported in fannary xgoo.
The estimated cost of the above plan was, by ^is committee,
calculated at £xo,3oo/xx> in X90X, rising to £15,650,000 hi xp^i.
Mr Chaplin had publicly suggested that £9,000,000, the proceeds
of a IS. duty on com, would go a long way to meet the aeecb of
the case — a conjecture which was obviously far too sanguine.
These unfavourable reports discouraged the nx>re responsible
advocates of state pensions. Mr Chamberlain appealed to the
friendly societies to formulate a plan, an invitation which they
showed no disposition to accept. Efforts conthraed to be made
to press forward Mr Booth's universal endowment scheme or
some modification of it. To this Mr Chamberhin declared his
hostility. And here the matter rested, till in his Budget speech
in 1907 Mr Asquith pledged the Liberal govenmient to start
a scheme in 1908.
In X908 accordingly there was passed the OU-Age Pensions
Act, which carried into effect a scheme for state peasbns,
payable as from the xst of January 1909 to persons of the age
of 70 years and over. The act grants a pension according to
a graduated scale of not exceeding ss. i week to every person,
taitc and female, who fulfils certain statutory conditions, and at
the sai^ time is not subject to certain disqualificatiokis. The
statutory conditions, as set out in § 2 of the act, are: (x) The
person must have attained the age of seventy; U) must satisfy
the pension authorities that for at least twenty years up to the
date of receipt of pension he has been a British subject and has
hKd hb residence in the United Kingdom; and (5) the penon
must satisfy the pension authorities that his yearly means do
not exceed £31, xos. In f 4 of the act there are elaborate pro-
visions for the calculation of yearly means, but the iottowing
may be particukrly noticed: it) in calculathig the mens of
a person being one of a married couple living together in the
same home, the means shall not in any case be taken to be a
less amount than half the total means of the couple, and (a) if
any person directly or indirectly deprives himself of any income
or property in order to qualify for an oM-age pension, it shaD
nevertheteas be taken to be part of his means. The dlsqualifica-
ttons are <i) receipt of poor-law reiitrf (this qualification was
specially removed » from the ist of January 191 1); (2) habitual
failure to work (except in the case of those who have continuously
for ten years up to the age of sixty made provision for their
future by payments to friendly, provident or other societies or
trade unions; (3) detention in a pauper or criminal lunatic
asylum; (4) imprisonment without the option of a fine, which
^lisqualifies for ten years; and (5) liability to disqualification
for a period not exceeding ten years in the case of an babitual
drunkard. The gzaduated scale of pensions is given in a schedule
to theact, and providethat when the yearly means of a pensioner
do not exceed £si he shall have the full pension of 5s. a week,
which diminishes by is. a week for every addition of £3, las. 6d.
to his income, until the latter reaches £31, xos., when no pension
is payable. The pension is paid weekly, on Fridays (§ 5), and b
inalienable (§ 6).
All claims for, And questions relating to, pensions are deter-
mined by the pension authorities. They are (i) pension officcn
appointed by the Treasury from among inland revenue officers;
(a) a central pension authority, which is the Local Government
Board or a committee appointed by it, and (3) local pension com-
mittees appointed for evecy borough and urban district with a
population of over 20,000, and for every county.
During the first three months of the year 1909, in which the
act came into operation, there were 837,831 claims made for
pensions: 490,755 in England and Wales, 85,408 in Scotland*
and 361,668 in Irdand. Of these daims a total of 647,494 were
granted: 393,700 in England dnd Wales, 70,294 in Scotland, and
183,500 in Iieland. The pensions in force on the 31st of March
1909 were as follows: 582,565 of 5s., 23,616 of 4s., 23,275 of
3s., 11,439 of 2S., and 6609 of xs. By the 30th of Sq>tember
the total amount of money paid to 682,768 pensioners was
£6,063,658, and in the estimates of 1909-19x0 a sum of £8,750,000
was provided for the payment of pensions.
G^^Miiy.^The movement in favour of state aid to provision
for old age has been largely due to the example of Germany.
The German i^tcm (which for old age dates from 1891) is
a form of compulsory and contributory insurance. One half
of the premium payable is paid by the labourer, the' other
half by the employer. The state adds a subvention to the
allowances paid to the annuitant (See Gebjcany.)
France,— ^y a law of April 19x6 a system of « old-age
pensbns, designed to come into operation -in 191 x» was adopted.
It is a contrflbutory system, embracing all wage-earners, wKh
the exception of railway servants, miners and sailors on the
special reserve list of the navy. It applies also to small
landowners, tenant, farmen and farm labourers. All axe
eligible for a pension at the age of 65, if In receipt of less
than £i3o a year. The actual' rente or pension is calculated
on the basis of the total obligatory contribution, together
with a &(cd viag^re or stale annuity. Male wage-eameis are
required to contribute 9 francs a year, and females 6 francs,
the empfeyers contributing a like amount. The largest penaSon
obtainable is for life contributions and amounts to 4x4 francs.
A clause in the act permits wage-earners to claim the rente
at the age of 55 on a proportionately reduced scale without
the viag^. The total cost of providing penstons in 1911 is
estimated at over £5.500,000.
Denmark.— Tht Danish system of old-age pensions was in-
stituted fay a law of 1891, and has been extended by fmcher
acts of 190a and 290S. By the law of X89X the burden of
maintaining the aged was in part transferred from the kKal to
the national taxes, and relief from this latter source was called
a pension. Recipients of public assistance must be over
60 years of age, they must be of food chancter and for s
years previous to receipt must have had their domicile in
Denmark without receiving public charity* Such public assist-
ance may be granted either in money, or kind, or by reaidcnoe
in an institution, such w an btMfJtal. The ntf»anr» jgfiven.
whatever it may be^ must be suffieieia for maintenaace, and
for attendance in case of iUaess. The actual aaowt h
determined by the poor-law authorities, bat all privat« aaiisl-
anoe anoounting to more than 100 kroner (£5, 13s.) a year h
taken into account in measuring the poverty of (he ftppUcaat.
The coat of assistance is met in the fitst case by the-cwHVHine
in which the recipient is domiciled, but half the amount is
afterwards refunded by the sUte. In xQ07^i9oa» yi^iiSspencnB
were assisted— S3,oo8 by money and 18,177 otherwise. .The
total expenditure was f/^,99a, i^^tMo beb« rcfundod by
thesUte.
66
OLI)©URY^-i-OLDCA9TLE
New Zetxi^nd.—ln 189S a bilV intfoduced by the Rt. Hon. R. J.
Seddon, premier, became law which provided for thQ payment of
an old-age pension out of the consolidated fund (revenue of the
general ooverament) to penotaduly qualified, without contrilMition
y the oenafidarica. The dairoanu inuft be 65 yean of age,
resident tn the colonx^ aad have so resided for 25 years. They must
be free from conviction for lesser legal oflfencea for la year*, and
for more serioos breaches of the bw for 2^ years, previous to the
application. They must be of good moral character and have a
record of sobriety and respectaoiUty for five years. Their yearly
income must not exceed £53. and they must not be owoera 01
property exceeding in value tijo, /Uiens. aborigines. Chinese
and Asiatics are excluded. Tne pensions are for nS per annum,
but for each £1 of yearly income over and above £^4, and also for
each £is of capital ovtr aod above j[sP, £1 is deducted from the
amount of the pensioo. Applications ^have to be made to the
deputy registrars of one of 73 districts Into which the colony is
for this purpose divided. The cbim is then recorded and submitted
to a stipendiary maglstmte, bcfoi^ whom the datmant has to fjrove
his cjualifications and submit to cross-examination. It the claim is
admitted, a certificate is issued to the d^uty registrar and in due
course handed to the claimant. Paynncnt is made through the local
po&t-office as desired by the pensioner. The act came into force
on the rst of November 1898. An amending act of 1005 increased
the amount of the roaxiamm pension to £>6 a year* See further, Nbw
Zbalamo. The authors of the measure maintain that it is a great
success, while others point to the invidious character of the cross-
examination reoulrcd in proving the necessary degree of poverty,
and allege that tne arrangement penalises the thrifty member^ of the
poorer daaa, and b a direct incentive to tiaasfer of property, of a
aaore or less fraudulent character, between members 01 a family.
VKiona.—Uy the Old- Age Pensions Act 1900, £75.000 was
approprbted for the purpose of paying a pension of not more than
10s. per week to any person who fulfilled the necessary conditions.
of woich the following were the principal: The pensioner must
be 65 years of age or permanently disabfed, must fill up a dccbra-
tloo that he has lived twenty years in the state: has not been
Snvictcd of drunkenness, wife-dcsertion, &c.; that his weekly
Dome and hb propertv do not exceed a given sum (the rcgubtion
of thb and other dcuQs b intrusted to the governor in council).
Ferther suma were subaequcatly approprbted to the purposes of
the act.
AjJTBoarrtss.- .
Nanonal Provident
on Aced Poor (ift,_ . .
(C896T; Report of the Select Committee on ^ed Deserving Poor
^899) : ReMrt of Departmental Committee. jEc.,. about the Aged
nng Poor (lopo); J. A. Spender, The State and Pensions
sa Old Ate (1^92): George King. cXd Ane Pensions
-' " — ^'^ Conterenoes; Annual Reports of the
of Poor Law Conferenoes; Annual Reports of the Chief Registrar
of Friendly Societies; E. W. Brabrook. Prendent Secieiies and the
PuUic Welfare (1698), ch. viiL Por: Charlea Booth. The Aged Poor
in Kngtand and Wales (1894) ; Otd Age Pensions (1899) ; Right Hon.
Toseph Chamberbin. '* The Labour (Question," Ninettenth Century
(November 1891); Speeches (list April 1891 and 94th May 1899);
Kcv. J. Frame Wllkmaoa. Pensions and Pauperism (189a): Publi-
lepfint from OddfeUom' Magarnm (1895); the Foresters' MiseeOalky
fFebruary 1900); Vnity, a MoniUy Jenmal ef Poreslen, &c
(February 190a); C S. Loch. Old-Ais Pensions and Pauperism
(1892): Reply of Bradfield Board d[ CuanJbns to drcubr of
National Provident League (1891); PabGcatioas of the Clianty
Organixation Society.
OLDBIIRY, an urban dbtrict In the OMbnry parHamentary
diviikm of Worcesterthire, EngUod, 5 m. W. of Birmingham,
on the Great Weitefn and London & North-Westam railways
and the BicniBghani canal. Fop. (1901) 95,191. CoiA, iron and
limestone abound in the neighbourhood, and the- town possesses
alkali and chemical works, raflway-carrbge works, iron, edge-
tool, nan and sted works, malttegs, com-mifls, and brick and
tllekihtt. The ufbaa dbiria indudM the townships of Langley
and Warby.
OLDCAinX ilB iOHir (d. 1417). Eb^iah LoDardfaaden was
wa of Sir Richard Oldcaitle «f Almeby in Herefordshire. He
k fint mentioned as wrving fn the expedition to Scotland in 1400,
irhea he was probably qidf e a young man. Kcxt year he was
hi charge of Builth castle In Brecon, and servhig all through
the Welsh campaigns won the friendship and esteem of Henry,
the prince of Wales. DMcastle represented Herefordshiro fn the
parliament ol 1404. Four years bter he married Joan, the heiress
of Cobhaoi, and ims thereon summoned to parilament as Lord
Cobhaoi hi her tight. As a tnatSd tupportar of the prince,
OMcaMle hdd ahigh command in the eapcdItloB which the young
Henry' aent to France in I4tt. LdlanAy had many sopporCer*
in Herefordshire, and Oldcaatle himself had adopted LoNaid
opinions before 1410, when the churches on hb wife's estates
in Kant were laid under interdict lor aniicenaed preaching.
In tbe convocation which met in March urj, shortly before iht
death of Henry I V^ Oldcastle waa at once accused of heresy.
But hb Mendahip with the new king prevented any decisive
action till oonvinclog evidence waa found in a book befcmging to
Oldcaatle, which was discovered in a ahop in PatenMSter Row.
The maUec waa brought before the kmg, who desired that not hing
should be done till he hod tried hb personal infhifnfr. Old-
caatle dedared hb readiness toauiimit to the king ** all hb fortune
in thb world,'' but waa firm in his religioas beliefs. When he
fled from Windsor to hb own castle at Cowling, Heniy at last
ooascnted to aprosecutmn. Oldcastle refused to obey the
archbishop's rcpoled citations, and it was only under a royal
writ that ha at last appeared before the ecclesiastical court on
the 13rd «f September. In a eonfcasion of fab faith he declared
hb belief in the sacraments- aod the neccasiiy of penance and
true confession; but to put hofie, faith or trust in imagca was
the great sin of idolatry. But he would not assent to the ortho-
dox doctrine of the saciament as stated by the bishops, noa
admit the necessity of confession to a priest. So on the asth of
September he was convicted as a heretic Henry was still anxioas
to find a way of escape for his old comrade, and granted a respite
of forty daySk Befsure that time had oxpbed Oldcastle escaped
from the Tower by the hdp of one William Fisher, a parchment*
maker of Smithfield (Riley, Memorials of London, 641). Old*
castle now put himself at the head of a wide-spread Lollard
conspiracy^ which assumed a definitely political character.
The design was to seise the king and hb brothers during a
TWelf th-nlght mumming at Eltham, and perhaps, as was alleged,
to establish some sort of commonwealth. Henry, fomwarncd
of theb intention, removed to London, and when the Lollards
assrmMed in force in St Giles's Fields on the loth of Jamiaiy
they were easily dispersed. Oldcastle himself escaped into
Herefordshire, and for nearly four years avoided capture.
Apparently he was privy to the Scrope and Cambridge plot in
July 141 St when he stirred some movement in the Wdsh Matches.
On the failure of the scheme he went again into hiding. Oldcastk
was no doubt the instigator of the abortive LoUard plots of 1416,
and appears to hlave intrigued with the Scots. But at bst hb
hidhig-pboe was discovered and in November 1417 be was
captured by the Lord Charlton of Powis. Oldcastle who Was
" sore wounded ere he would be taken," was brought to London
hi a horse-litter. On- the 14th of December he was formally
condemned, on the record of hb previous conviction, and that
same day was hung in St Giles's Fields^ and burnt " gaUows and
all.'^ It b not dear that he was burnt alive.
. Okkastb died a martyr. He was no doubt a man of fine
quality, but drcurastancea made him a traitor, and it b impossible
altogether to condemn hb execution. His unpopular opinions
and eariy friendship with Henry V. created a traditional scandal
which kng continued. In the old pby The Pawums Virtarits
of Henty V., written before 1588, Oldcastle figures as the prince's
boon oompanioo. When Shakespeare adapted that play in
ITcstry IV., Oldcastle still appeared; but when the play was
printed in 1598 Fabtaff's name was substituted, in deference,
as it b said, to the then Lord Cobham. Though the lat knight
stlH remains '* my old kd of the Castle," the stage character
has nothing to do with the Lollard leader.
BiS[.ioaaAraY.^The record of Oldcastle'a trial' is nrSnted ia
Fasciculi Ztsaniorum (Rolls series) and in WUkioVs cWifsa. iii.
351-357. The chief contemporary notices of hb bter career are
gtven in Cesta Henrici Quinii (Eng. Hist. Soc.) and in Walslneham's
aistoria AnMoctuA, There nave .been many lives of Oldcastle.
mahily baaed oa The Aetes and Mowmmonts of John Foxe. who in hb
turn followed the Briefe Chronyde of John Bab, first published
in 1544. For notes on Oldcastle^ early career, consult J. rf. W> lie.
History of England under Henry tV. For literary bhtory see the
Introductions 10 Richard James's Iter Lantastrense (Chctham Soc.
184s) and to Grosazt's editson of the Poems of Mehard James (1680).
See abo W. Barske. Oldeastle-falslaff in der englischen Lileratur bis
tu Shakespeare (Palaestra. I. BeHin. 1905). For a reccitf Life, see
W. TTXVaush hi the English Historical fUmew. vol. xx. (C L. K.)
OLD CATHOUCS
*7
0U> CktUMUm (Ger. AUkaMikm), iliedesigiMitiod aMimed
liy Umm membert of the Roman Catholic Church who refused
to accept the decstes of the Vatkaa Council of 1870 defining
the dogma of pa]>al iafaUibillty (see Vauican CoUNcn and
Imtaixibiutv) and ultimately wt- Uf^ a separate ecclesiastical
diganlaaiion on the episcopal model. The Old Catholic move*
Bent, at the outset at least, differed fundamentally from tlie
Pioteatant Iteformatloa of the x6th century in that it aimed
not at any drastic changes in doctrine but at the restoration
of the andcnt Catholic system, founded on the diocesan episco-
pate, which nader the influence of tile uhramcmtane movement
of the 19th century had been finally displaced by the r^idiy
centnUaed system of the papal monarchy. In this respect it
represented a tendency of old standing within the Church and
one which, in the x8th ctntuiy, had all but gained the upper
luuid (se* Febkonianisii and GAbUCANiBif). Protestantism
takes for its standard the Bible and the supposed doctrines
and institutions of the apostolic age. OU Catholicism sets up
4hc authority of the undivided Church, and aocepts the decrees
of the fiist seven general councila-Hdown to the- second coundl
of Nkaea (787), a principle which haa necessarily involved a
certain amount of doctrinal divergence both from the standards
of Rome and thoae of the Piotestant Churches.
The proceedings of the Vatican council and their outcome
had at first threatened to lead to a serious schism In the Church.
The minority against the decrees included many of the most
distinguished prelates and theofogians of the Roman com-
munion, and the methods by which their opposition had been
overcome seemed to make it difficult for them to kubmit. The
pressmv put upon them was, however, immense, and the reaaons
for submission may well have seemed overwhckning; in the
end, after more or less delay, aH the recalcitrant bishops gave
in their adhe^n to the decrees.
The " sacrificio dell' intelletto," as it was termeJ—the snb-
ordination Of individual opmion to the general authority of
the ChttfclH-was the maxim adopted by one and dll. Seventeen
of the German biceps almost immediately receded from the
posilioo they had taken up at Rome and assented to the dogma,
publishing at the same time a pastoral letter in which they sought
to justify their change of sentiment on the ground of expediency
in relation to the interests of the Church (MicheKs, Der neu€
FiMatf Hirtenbrief, 1870). Their example was followed by at!
the other bishops of Germany. Darboy, archbishop of Paris,
and DupankMip, frishop of Orleans, in France adopted a Hke
course, and took with them the entire body of the French dergy.
Eadi bishop demanded in turn the came submission from the
deigy of his diocese, the aHemative being suspension from
pastoral functions, to be followed by deprivation of oflice. It
may be urged as some extenuation of this general abandonment
of a great principle, that those who had refused to subscribe
to the dogma received but languid support, and in some cases
direct discouragement, from their respective ' governments.
The submission of the illustrious Karl Joseph von Hefele was
general^ attiibuicd to the influence exerted by the court of
WUrttembeig.
The universities, being less directly undef the control of
the Church, were prepared to show a bolder front.' Dr J. F.'
von Schulte, professor at Prague, was one of the first to publish
a formAl protest. A meeting of QithoHc professors and dis-
tinguished scholars convened at Nuremberg (August 1870)
tecorded a like dissent, and resolved on the adoption of measures
for bringing about the assembling of a realty free council north
of the Alps. The A fpd •wx Bt9qu« Cotkdifues of M. Hyadnthe
Loyson (better known as " P2re Hyadnthe" >, after referring
to the overthrow of ** the two despotisms,'' ** the empire of the
Napoleons and the temporal power of the popes." appealed
to the Catholic bishops throughout the world to put an end'
to (h« schism by dedaring w^her the recent decrees weft or
were not binding on the faith of the Church. This appeali on
its appearance in Ia Libert^ early in 1871, was suppressed by,
the order of the kiiw of Italy. On the aSth of March DdUinger,
in a letter of some length, set forth ifce leasona whidi ooa^'
petted him'alto to wHhhold his submission alike as'* a Christian,
a theoiogfan, an historical student and a citiaen." Ihe pubKca^
tion of this letter was shortly followed by a sentence of ex^
conwrahication pronounced against DOUinger and Professor
Johannes Friedrich (9. v.), and read to the different congrega-
tlona from the pulpita of M snich. The professors of the univer-
shy, on the other hand, had shortly before evinced their resolu-
tion of alEarding DdlUnger all the moral support In their power
by an address (April 3, 1871) in which they denounced the
Vatican decrees with unsparing severity, dedaring that, at the
very time when the! German people had '* wotf for themselves
the post of honour on the battlefield among the nations of
the earth," the German bishops luul-stooped to the dishonouring
task of "fordng consciences hi the service of an unchristian
tyranny, of redudng many pious and upright men to distress
and want, and of persecuting those who had but stood steadfast
in thdr allegiance to the ancient faith" (Friedbcrg. AhtensHich
s. trtttm VctkaitUeken CmcS, p. 187). An address to the king,
drawn up a few days later, recdved the signatures of i3,oeo
CathoUca. The refusal of the rites of the Church to one of the
signatories, Dr Zenger, when on his deathbed, elicited strong
expressions of disapproval; 'and when, shortly after, it became
necessary to fill up by dectfon six vacandes hi the council of
the university, the feeUng Of the dectors was indicated by the
return of candidates distinguished by their dissent from the
new decreet. In the following September the demand for
another and a free coundl was responded to by the assembling
of a congress- at Munich. It was composed of nearly 500 dele*
gates, convened from afanost all parts of the world; but the
Teutonic dement was now as manifestly predomfaiant as the
Latin dement hftd been ht Rome. The proceedings were pre-
dded over by Professor von Sdnilte, and lasted three days.
Among those who took a prominent part In the deliberations
were Landammann Kdler, Windschdd, DOllingcr, Rdnkens,
Maassen (professor of canon law at Vienna), Friedrich and
Huber. 'Ihe arrangenrents finally agreed upon were mainly
provisbnal; but one of the resolutions plainly declared that
H was desirsble if possible to effect a reunion with the Oriental
Grtek and Russian Churches, and also to arrive at an " under-
standing " wHh the Protestant and Episcopal communions.
In the foUoiHng year lectures Were delivered at Munich by
various supporters oT the new movement, and the learning and
doqoence el Rdnkens were displayed with marked effect. In
Fhmce the adhesldn of the abb6 Mfchaud to the cause attracted
considerable interest, not only from his reputation as a preacher,
but abo from the notable step in advance made by his dedara-
tion that, inasmuch as the adoption of the standpoint of the
Tridentine canons woidd render reunion with the Lutheran
and the Rdonned Churohes hnpossible, the wisest course would
bo to insist on nothing more with respect to doctrinal hdid
than was embodied in the candns of the first seven oecumenical
coondb. In the same year the Old Catholics, as they now
began to be termed, entered into rdatrons with the historical
little Jansenist Church of Utrecht. D6llinger, in delivering hb
inau^ral address as rector of the university of Munich, e iuiose d
hb conviction that theology had received a fresh impinse and
that the religious history of Europe was entering upon a new
phase.
' Other circumstances contributed to Invesl Old CsthdUdsm
with additional imporunce. It was evident that the relation^
between the Roman Oxrin and the Prussian government were
becoming extremdy strained. In February 1873 appeared
the fint measures of the FVdk ministry, having for thdr object
the control of the ihffuence of the clergy hi the schoob, and hi
May the pope refused to accept Cardinal Hohenlohe, who during
the council had opposed the definitioD of the dogma, aa Pnmiatf
minister at the Vatican. In the same year two humble parfste
priests, Renftle of Mering-|n Bavsrii and Tisngetmann of Unkcl.
in the RhineUnd* set an example of independence by xefusiog
■ The rites were edtriinitteTvd and the burial service conducted
by Fricdribh, who had rdu^ed to acknonledge lus exoom-
nartkatioa.
6$
OLD CATHOLICS
to aocfpt the decarees. Hie fonner, driven fraon his pwrfih
church, wu followed by the majority of his cnngrcsatioa, who,
in spite of «veiy <Uscouxa^ment, continued laithful to him;
and for yean after, as successive members were removed by
death, the crosses over their graves recorded that they had died
" true to their andent belkl/' Taagermann, the poet, eipelled
in like manner from his parish by the archbishop of Cologne,
before long found himself the minister of a much larger congre-
gation in the episcopal dty itself. These examples ezenjsed
no little influence, and congregations of Old Catholics were
shortly after formed at numerous towns and villages in Bavaria,
Baden, Prussia, German Switzerland, . and even in Austria.
At Wamsdorf in Bohemia a congregation was collected which
still represents one of the most important centres of the move-
ment. In September the second congress was hdd at Cologne.
It was attended by some 500 delegates or visitors from all parts
of Europe, and the English Church was represented by the
bishops of Ely and Lincoln and other distinguished members.
At this congress Friedrich boldly declared that the movement
was directed "against the whole papal system, a system of
errors during a thousand years, which bad only reached its
dimas in the doctrine of inf^biUty." .
The movement thus entered a new phase, the congress
occupying itself mainly with the formation of a more definite
organization and with the questionof reunion with other Churches.
The immediate effect was a fateful divergence oi opinion; for
many who sympetbised with the opposition to the extreme
papal claims shrank from the acstion of a fresh schism. Prince
Chlodwig Hohenlohe, who as prime minister of Bavaria had
attempted to unite the governments against the definition of
the dogma, refused to have anything to do with proceedings
which could only end in the creaUon of a fresh sect, and would
make the prospect of the reform of the Church from within
hopeless; moie important still, DolUnger refused to take part
in setting up a separate organization, and though he afterwards
so far modified his opinion as to hdp the Old Catholic community
with sympathy and advice, he never formally joined it.
Meanwhile, the progress of the quarrel between the Prussian
government and the Curia had b^ highly favourable to the
movement In May 1873 the celebrated Falk laws were enacted,
whereby the articles 15 and 18 of the Prussian consdtution were
modified, so as to legalize a systematic state supervision over
the education of the clergy of all denominations, and also over
^e appointment and dismissal of all ministers of religion. The
measure,, which was a direct response to the Vatican decrees,
inspired the Old Catholics with a not tinrcasonable expectation
that the moral support of the government would henceforth
be enlisted on their side. On the xxth of August J^fessor J. H.
Reinkens of Breslau, having been duly elected bishop of the
new community,' was consecrated at Rotterdam by Bishop
Hcykamp of Deventer, the archbishop oi Utrecht, who was
to have performed the ceremony, having died a few dajrs before.
In the meantime the extension dif the movement in Switzerland
had been proceeding rapidly, and it was resolved to hold the
third congress at Constance. The proceedings occupied three
days (z2th to X4th September), the subjects discussed being
chiefly the institution of a synod* as the legislative and executive
organ of the Church, and schemes of reunion with the Greek,
the African and the Protestant communions. On the aoth
of September the election of Bishop Reinkens was formally
recognized by the Prussian government, and on the 7 th of
October he took the oath of allegiance to the king.
The foIk>wing year (1874) was marked by the assembling
of the first synod and a conference at Bonn, and of a congress
^Rdfikens was eleaed at Colosfne in primitive Christian rashlon
bydcfgy and people, the btter being representatives of Old Catholic
CDOflregationak
* The. diocesan svnod. under the presidency <f the bi9hop„coBaist8
01 the Clergy of the diocese and one lay delcgaCc for every 300
church members. It nov meets twice a year and transacts the
business prepared for it by an exocative committee of 4 clergyAnd
5 lavmen. in Swit£crU|id the orgajuaation is stiU more democratic;
the bishop docs not preside over the synod and may be depoted by it..
ai Ffdburg-im-Bidagaii. At the congress Btdiop Rsbkiu spoke
in hopeful terms of the rcsulu of his observations duriog a
recent miisionaiy tour throughout Germany. The conference,
held on the X4th,isth and 16th of September, had for its special
object the discanion of the early confessions as a basis of agree*
meat, though not necessarily of fusion, between Abe different
communions above-named. The meetings, which were presiided
over by DAllinger, successively took into oonsideration the
FUioque clause in the Nioene creed, the sacraments, the canon oi
Scripture, the epispopal succession in the English Chuich, the
confessional, indulgences, pmyeis for the dead, sad the endiaiist
(see D5UINGES). The synod (May 27-99) was the first of a
series, held yearly till 1879 and afterwards twice a year, in which
the doctrine and discipline of the new Church were gradually
IbrmuUted. The tendency was, naturally, to move further
and further away from the Roman model; and though the synod
expressly renounced any daim to formulate do^na, or any
intention of destroying the unity of the faith, the " (^thoUc
Catechism*' adopted by ft in 1874 contained several articles
fundamentally at variance with the leadung of Rome.* At the
.first synod, too^ it was decided tb make confession and fasting
optional, while later synods pronounced in favour of using the
vernacular in public worship, allowing the marriage of priests, and
permitting them to administer the communion in both kinds
to members of the Anglican Chureh attending their services.
Of these developments that abolishing the compulsory celibacy
of the clergy led to the most opposition; some opposed it as
inexpedient, others— notably the Jansenist clergy of Holland—
as wrong in itself, and when it was ultimately passed in 1878
some of. the clergy, notably Tangermann and Reusch, withdrew
from the Old Catholic movement.
Meanwjiile the movement had made some progress in other
countries— in Austria, in Italy and in. Mexico; but everywhere
it was haxilpered by the inevitable controversies, which either
broke up its organization or hindered its development. In
Switzerland, where important conferences were successively
convened (at Sobthum in 1871, at Olten in 1872, 1873 and
.Z874), ^^ tmanimity of the " Christian Catholics," as they
preferred to call themselves, seemed at one lime in danger <tf
being shipwrecked on the question of episcopacy. It was not
until Septcnaber i8th, 1876, that the conflict of opinions was
so far composed as to allow of the consecration of Bishop Uerzog
by Bishop Reinkens. The reforms introduced by M. Hyadnthe
Loyson in his church at Geneva received only a partial assent
from, the general body. Among the more practical results of
his example is to be reckoned, however, the fact that in French
Switzerland ncariy all the clergy, in («eEman Switzerland about
one half, are married men.
The end of the Kulturkampf in 1878, and the new alliance
between Bismarck and Pope Leo XIIL against revolutionary
Socialism, deprived the Old Catholics of the si>ecial favour
which had been shown them by the Prussian government; they
continued, however, to enjoy the legal status of Catholics, and
their communities retained the rights and the property secured
to them by the law of the 4th of July 1875. In Bavaria, on the
other hand, they were in Match 1890, after the death of DolUnger,
definitely reduced to the status of a private religious sect,
with very narrow rights. When Bishop Reinkens died in
January 1896 his successor Tbeodor Weber, professor of theology
at Breslau, elected bishop on the 4th of March, was recaisni'ed
only by the governments of Prussia, Baden and Hesse. The
present position of the Old Catholic Church has disappointed
the o^jcctation of its friends and of its enemies. It has aeitber
advanced rapidly, as the former had hoped, nor retrograded,
as the latter have frequently predicted it would do. In Germany
there are. 90 congregations, served by 60 priests, and the numb9
of adherents is estimated at about te,ooo. In Switwrland these
ajre 40 parishes (of which pnly one, that at Luteme, is in the
»E./. especially Question 164: " this (the Christian) community
is mvisibh;," and Question 167, " one may belong to the invisible
Chureh (i.r. of those sharing in Christ's redemption) withoat beh»r
ii« 10 l*»e visible Church/' . *^ ' "'^
OLD DEER--OLDENBARNEVELDT
69
Ronmn Catholic cutoni), 60 dnfy and about SQfioo adheiait*.
In Autiria, though aoose accession* have been received voce
\ht Lm vm Rom movemeot bctftn in 1899, the Old Catholic
Church haa not made much headway; it has aome 15 churches
and about 15^000 adherentib In Holland the Old Catholic or
Janaenist Church haaj bishops, about 30 congregations and over
Sooo adhoenta. In France the moveinent headed by Loyson
did ^ot so lar. These ia but one congreffUion, in Paris,
where it has built (or itself a beautilul new church on
the Boulevard Blanqin. Ita prieit is Geoige Volet, who was
ordained by Ueraog, and it has just over 500 members. It
ia under the supervision of the Old Catholic archbishops of
Utrecht la Italy a branch of the Old Catholic communion
waa established in i88x by Count Enrico di Campello, a former
canon of St Peter's at Romo. A church was opened in Ilome
by Moosignor Savareso and Count Campello, under the super-
vision of the bishop of Long Island in the United Statea, who
undertook the superintendence of the congiegstion in accordance
with the regulataoos laid down by the Lambeth conference.
But dissensions arose between the two men. The church in
Rome was ckised; Savarese returned to the Roman Church;
and Campello commenced a reform work ia the rural districts
of Umbria, under the episcopal guidance of the bishop of Salisbury.
Thia waa ia x88$. In 1900 Campello retumed-.to Rome, and once
more opened a churdi there. In 190a he retired from active
portidpation in the work, on account of age and bodily infirmity;
and his place at the heed of it was taken by Professor Cicchitti
of Ifilaa. Campello ultimately returned to the Roman oom-
munioo* There are half-«-docen priesta, who are either in
Roman or Old Catholic orders, and about twice v auuor oon*
■legations. Old Catholicism haa spread to Aaeika. The
Polish Romanists there, in 1899, ccnpUined of the rule of Irish
bishops; elected a bishop of their own, Heir Anton Koelowski;
indented him to the Old Ostholic bishops in Europe for consecra-
tion; and he psesides over seven coogiegations ia Chicago and
the neighbourhood. The Austrian and Italian churches possess
•o bishops, and thtf Austrian government refuses to allow the
Old Catholic bishops of otiier countries to perform their functions
ia Austria. Every Old Catholic coogregaUon has iu choral
union, iU poot relief, and its mutual imprownent aodety*
Theological faculties exist at Bonn and Bern, and at the former
a residential college for theological students was csUblished
by Bishop Reinkcna. OU Catholicism haa eight newqiaperi—
two ia Italy, two in Swiueerland, and one each ia Holland,
Germany, Austria and France. It h»s held reunion conferences
at Luoene in 1893, at Rotterdam in 1894, and at Vienna in 1897.
At these, members of the various episcopal bodies have been
weloooed. It has also established a quarteriy publication, the
SLnm itUtnuUcaaU 4* t/iioUpe, which has admitted articles
ia French, German and Eni^ish, contributed not merely by
OU Catholics, but by members of the Anglican, Russian, Greek
•ad Slavonic churches. Old Catholic theologiaxis have been
very active, and the work of D&Uinger and Reusch on the Jesuits,
and the history of the Roman Church by Professor Langen,
have attained a Eunmeaa reputation,
he whole
! movement up to the year 1875 will be
.\ 'Theod0nis"(J. BaMMuHineer);
and an excellent r(&uni6 of the main facts m the history of the
An outUoe of the 1
found in TTie Neve Rtformation, by **
movemeBt in each European coaatry, as ooonectod with other
devdopncnte of liberal thought, and with political bist<^. It ghm
in the teoood volume of Dr F. Nippold't H^mdbuck der nemeslen
KvckeniexkichU^ vol. it. (1S8A). See atw A. M. E. Scoith. Tkt
Simj •J^ Oid Caikdic ond Kindrtd Mtmnumit (London, 1883);
BQhlcr, I>*r AUkalkdieiamus (Leiden, iSSo); J. F voa Schuhe,
Dtr AUkatMmswms (Gicncn. 18S7) : and aitide in Hauck-Hermg's
XtoloKyk. fir proL TktU. und Kircke, L 415. For details the follow-
insulted: (a) For the proceedinn of the
the SUiutmP^isekeB^nekti, puUithed at
"^ '"^ ' -'^ - - -' Constance
matter,
, ,__ _, ^ , in the
tion of Bishop Rcinkcns: RechUiutoilUen Hber die Fragf d*r
big sources may be consulted:
Pnuum (Bonn, 187a). (c) Rcinkens's own s_. , ,
some of which have been translated into English, give his personal
sand pastorals.
views and experiences: the Life of Huber has been written and
published by Eberhard Stinigfebl: and the persecutions to which
the Old Catholic def^y were cxpoaea have been set forth iaa pame^let
by J. Mayor, FucU amd DocumetUe (Loodoo, 1875). (4) For Switaer-
land, C. Hcrzog. Beitrdae aur yorgtitkickU dtr CluMlkaUul. Kirdu der
Schaeis (Bern. 1896).
OLD DEER, a parish and village in the district of Buchan,
Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 4313. The village lies
on the Deer or South Ugie Water, xo| m. W. of Peterhead,
and 3 m. from Mintlaw station on the Great North of Scotland
Railway Company's branch fine from Aberdeen to Peterhead.
The industries include distilling, brewing, and the manufacture
of woollens, and there arc quarries of granite and limestone
Columba and his nephew Drostan founded a monastery here in
the 6th'century, of which no trace remains. A most interesting
relic of the monks was discovered in'1857 in the Cambridge
University library by Henry Bradshaw. It consisted of a small
MS. of the Gospels in the Vulgate, fragments of the liturgy
of the Celtic church, and notes, in the Gaelic script of the 12th
century, referring to the charters of the ancient monastery,
including a summary of that granted by David L These are
>among the oldest examples of Scottish Gaelic. The MS. was also
adorned with Gaelic designs. It had belonged to the monks of
Deer and been in the possession of the University Library since
X7(5> It was edited by John Stuart (1S13-1877) for the Spalding
Cub, by whom it was published in 1869 under the title of
The Book of Deer. In 12 18 William Comyn, earl of Buchan,
foimded the Abbey of St Mary of Deer, now in ruins, } m. farther
up the river than the monastery and on the opposite bank.
Although it was erected for Cistercians from the priory of Kinloss,
near Forres, the property of the Columban monastery was re-
moved to it. The founder (d. x 233) and his countess were buried
in the church. The parish is rich in antiquities, but the most
noted of them — the Stone of Deer, a sculptured block of syenite,
which stood near the Abbey— was destroyed in 1854. The
thriving village of New Deek (formerly called Audmddie)
lies about 7 m. W. of the older village; it includes the ruined
castle of Feddcrat.
OLDENBARNEVELm; JOHAN VAN (1547-16x9), Dutch
statesman, was bom at Amersfoort on the X4th of September
XS47. The family from which he claimed descent was of ancient
Uncage. After studying law at Louvain, Bourges and Heidelberg,
and travelling In France and Italy, Oldenbameveldt settled down
to practise in the law courts at the Ha^e. In religion a moderate
Caivinist, he threw himself with ardour into the revolt against
Spanish tyranny and became a zealous adherent of William the
Silent. He served as a volunteer for the relief of Haarlem (i $73)
and agam at Leiden (1574). In 1576 he obtained the important
post of pensionary of Rotterdam, an office which carried with It
official membership of the Sutes of Holland. In this capacity
his industry, singular grasp of affairs, and persuasive powers of
speech speedily gained for him a position of influence. He was
active in promoting the Union of Utrecht (1579) and the accept^
aoce of the countship of Holland and Zeeland by William (1584)
On the assassination of Orange it was at the proposal of Olden-
bameveldt that the youthful Maurice of Nassau was at once
elected stadholdcr, captain-general and admiral of Holland.
During the governorship of L«dcester he was the leader of the
strenuous opposition offered by the States of Holland to the
centralizing policy of the governor. In xs86 he was appointed,
in .succession to Paul Buys, to the post of Land's Advocate of
Holland. This great office, which he held for 33 years, gave
to a man of commanding ability and industry unbounded
influence m a many-headed republic without any central executive
authority. Though nominally the servant of the States of
Holland he made himself politically the personification of the
province which bore more than half the entire charge of the union,
and as its mouthpiece in the states-general be practically
dominated that assembly. In a brief period he became entrusted
with such large and far-reaching authority in all the details of
administration, u to be virtually " minister of all affairs."
(70
OLDENBARNEVELDT <
During ihe two critical years which followed the withdrawal
of Leicester, it was the statesmanship of the advocate which kept
Ihe United Provinces from falling asunder through their own
inherent separatist tendencies, and prevented them from becom>
ing an ^y conquest to the formidable army of Alexander of
Parma. Fortunately for the Netherlands the attention of PhiUp
waa at their time of greatest weakness riveted upon his con-
templated invasion of England, and a respite was atfordcd
which enabled Oidenbarncvcldt to supply the lack of any central
organized government by gathering into his own hands the con-
trol of administrative affairs. His task was made the easier
by the whole-hearted support he received from Maurice of
Nassau, who, after 1589, held the Stadholderate of five provinces,
and was likewise captain-general and admiral of the union.
The interests and ambilions of the two men did not clash, for
Maurice's thoughts were centred on the training and leadership
of armits and he hac| no special capacity as a statesman or in-
clination for politics. The first rift between them came in ii5oo,
when Maurice was forced again&t his will by the states-general,
under the advocate's influence, to undertake an expedition
into Flanden, which was only saved from disaster by desperate
efforts which ended in victory at Nieuwport. In 1598 Olden-
bameveldt took part in special embassies to Henry tV. and
Elizabeth, and again in 1605 in a special mission sent to con>
gratutate James I. on his accession.
The opening of negotiations by Albert and Isabel in 1606 for
a peace or long truce led to a great division of opinion in t&e
Netherlands. The archdukes having consented to treat with the
United Provinces " as free provinces and stales over which they
had no pretensions," Oldcnbameveldt, who had with him the
States of Holland and the majority of burgher regents throiighout
the coUnty, was for peace, provided that liberty of trading was
conceded. Maurice and his cousfn William Louis, stadholder of
Frisia, with the military and naval leaders and the Calvinist
clergy, were opposed to it, on the ground that the Spanish king
was merely seeking an interval of repose in which to recui^rale
his strength for a renewed attack on the independence of the
Netherlands. For some three years the negotiations went on,
but at last after endless parleying, on the 9th of April 1609^ a
truce for twelve years was concluded. All that the Dutch asked
was directly or indirectly granted, and Maurice felt obliged to
give a reluctant and somewhat sullen assent to the favourable
conditions obtained by the firm and skilful diplomacy of the
advocate.
The immediate effect of the truce was a strengthening of
Oldenbarneveldt's Influence in the government of the republic,
now recognized as a "free and independent state"; external peace,
however, was to bring with it internal strife. For some years
there had been a war of words between the religious parties,
known as the Comarists (strict Calvinlsts) and the Arminians
(moderate Calvlnists). In 1610 the Arminians drew up a petition,
known as the Remonstrance, !n which they asked that their
tenets (defined in five articles) should be submitted to a national
synod, summoned by the civil government. It was no secret that
this action of the Arminians was taken with t)ie approval and
connivance of the advocate, who was what was styled a libertinet
Le. an upholder of the principle of toleration in rvUgious opinions.
The Comarists in reply drew up a Contra-Remonstrance in seven
articles^ and appealed to a purdy church synod. The whole hind
was henceforth divided into Remonstrants and G>ntra-Re-
monstrants; the States of Holland under the influence of
Oldcnbameveldt supported the former, and refused to sanction
the summoning of a purely church synod (1613). They likewise
(1614) forbade the preachers in the Province nf Holland to treat
of disputed subjects from their pulpits. Obedience was difficult
to enforce without military help, riots broke out in certain towns,
and when Maurice was appealed to, as captaln*geheral, he
declined to act. He did more, though in no sen^e a theologian; he
declared Himself on the side of the. Contra-l^em^nstrants, and
established a preacher of that persuasion in a church at the
Hague (161 7).
The advocate now took a bold step. He proposed that the
States of Holland should, on their own authority, as a soveretga
province, raise a local force of 4000 men (uoanf^e/ier;) to keep
the peace. The states-general meanwhile by a bare majority
(4 provinces to 3) agreed to the summoning of a national church
synod. The States of Holland, also by a narrow majority, refused
their assent to this, and pa^soed (August 4, 1617) a strong
resolution (Sckerpe Resotutic) by which all magistrates, officialt
and soldiera in the pay of the province were required lo take ao
oath of obedience to the stales on pain of dismissal, and were to be
held accountable not to the oidinary tribunals, but to the States
of Holland. It wad a declaration of sovereign independence on
the part of Holland, and the slates-general took up the ch^tllenge
and determined on decisive action. A commisftioa was appointed
with Maurice at its head lo compel the disbanding of the teoard-
geUers. On the jist of July 1618 the stadholder appeared al
Utrecht, which had thrown in its lot with Holland, at the head
of a body of troops, and at his command the local levies at once
laid down their arms. His (>rogress through the towns of
Holland met with no opposition. The states party was crushed
without a bh>w being struck. On the ajrd of August , by order of
the states-general, the advocate and his chief supporters, 4«
Groot and Hoogerbecis, were arrested.
Oldcnbameveldt was with his friends kept in the strictest
confinement until November, and then brought for examinatioa
before a commission appointed by the statoa-general. He
appeared more than sixty limes before the commisaioners and
was examined most severely upon the whole course of his
official life, and was, most unjustly, allowed neither to consult
papers nor to put his defence in writing. On the 20th of Febraary
1 619 he was arraigned before a special court of twenty-four
members, only half of whom were Hoilandeis, and nearly all of
them hb personal enemies. It was in no sense a legal court, not
had it any jurisdiction over the prisoner, but the protest of tfao
advocate, who claimed his right to be tried by the sovereign
province of Holbind, whose servant he was, wafe disregarded.
He was allowed no advocates, nor the use of documents, pen cv
paper. It was in fact not a trial at all, and the packed beach of
judges on Sunday, tlie isthof May, pronounced scntenceof deatk
On the following day the old statesman, at the ageof seventy-one,
was beheaded in the Binnenhof at the Hague. Such, to use his
own words, was his reward for serving his coontry forty-thfct
The acetisdtions brought a|;airtst - Oldenbameveldt of baviag
been a traitor lo his country, whose interests he had betrayed for
foreign gold, have no basis in fact. The whole life of the
advocate disproves them, and not a shred of evidence has ever
been produced to throw suspicion upon the patriot statesman'^
conduct. AH his private papers fell Into the bands of Mb focst
bnt not even the bitterest and abkst of his pereonal cnemict,
Francis Aarasens (see Aassseks), couM eximct from then
anything to show that Oldenbamevekjt at ahy time betrayed
his country's interests. That he was an ambilbus man, fond
of power, and haughty in his attitude to those Wbodifferedfrovo
him in opinion, may t>e granted, but It must also be conceded
that he sought for power in order to confer invaluable s er v i c ei
upon his country, and that impatience of oppo»tion was not
unnatural in a man who had exercised an almost supreme
control of administrative affairs for upwards of three dcScadcs.
His high>handcd course of action in defence of what heeonceived to
be the sovereign rights of his own province of Holland to dedde
upon religious questions within its bocdeis may be challenged on
the ground of inexpediency, but not of illegality. The batsbness
of the treatment meted out by Maurice to his father's old friend,
the faithful counsellor ttxtd protector of his own early years,
leaves a stain upoii the stadholdcr's memory which can never be
washed away. That the prince should have felt compelled in the
last resort fo take up arms for (he Union against the attempt o|
the province of Holland to defy the authority of the Generality
may be justified by \ht pUa. nipuUicae saUs suprema lex. To
eject the advocate from power was one tbinito. to execute bun as
a traitor quite another. The condemnation of OldenbatneweMl
was* carried out with Mauricc*s Consent ^and. approval, -and I*
OtDBNBURO
71
atniiot be acquitted ol a prominent jbaie in what posterity ha»
pronounced lo be a judicial muider.
01dcal>aroeveldt was married in 1575 to Maria van Utrecht.
He kit two sons, the lords of Groenevcld and Stoulenborg, and
two daughters. A conspiracy against t^e life of Maurice, in
which the sons of Oldenbarpeveldt took part, was discovered in
1623. Stoutenburgy who was the chief accomplice, made his
escape and entered the service- of Spain; Groeneveki was
executed.
BiBLioGRArHv.^L. V. Oevcntcri CedenkshUtken mm Jahan 9«
(Mdenbarneveldt en ttin Ujd (1577-1609: 3 vols., 1B60-1865); I. van
Otdcnbarnevcidt, HislpHe Wiracktite van ie ghevanckenntu . . .
ktla womUr ende droarite do&t Mfi J. 9. O. . . . vji d« terklaringe
fa» Z. B. ditnaar Jokam Fhaekm (1630); Historic «w kel Umu en
ttermm v9m dtn Hur J^kan warn OUin BamtvMl (1646) ; Groei) van
Prinste^cr. Maurice et Barntveldt (1875); J» L. Motley* Ufeand
Death of John of Bameveidl (2 vote., 1874). (C. E.)
OLDENBURG, a grand-duchy of Cermaoy, with aa area of
S479 >4« "^ It GonsisU of three widely separated portions of
tcrritory^i) the du<^y of Oidenbarg, (a) th^ prindpalily of
Lttbech, and (3) the pdndpality of Birkenfeld. It lanka tenth
among the states of the German empire and kis one vote in
the Bundesrat (federal council) and three members in the
Reicfaalag.
I. The duchy of Oldenburg, oomprisiag.fuBy four-liftha of
the entire area and population, lies between 51** 99' and 53*
44' N. and between 7* 37' and S** 37' £•> «m1 ia bounded on the N.
by the North Sea and on the other three sides by Hanover, with
the exception of a small strip on the east, where it. is contet*
minous with the territory of the free city ol Bremen. It ionni
part of the uorth- western German plain lying between the Wescr
and the Eras, and, except on the south, where the Dammerge-
birge attain a height of 47S ft, it is- almost entirely 6at, with a
slight indinatlon towards the sea. In respect of jts soil it is
divided broadly into two parts— the higher and inUnd-lying
Ceat, consisting of sandy plains intermixed with, extensive
heaths and moors, and the marsh lands along the ooast, con-
sisting of rich but somewhat swampy alluvial soiL The latter,
which oempoee about one-fifth of the duchy, are protected
igaiiist the inroads of the sea by dikes as in HoUand; and
beyond these are the so-called Wulkn, generally covered at higb
tide, but. at many poinu being padually mdaimed. The
diroaie is temperate and humid; the mean temperature of the
coldest month at the town of OMcnburg is 26* F. el the wamest
66**. Storms axa numerous, and Ihetr violence is the more felt
owing to the almost entire absence of tiecs; and fogs and ague
are prevalent in the manh lands. The chief riven arc the
Hunu, Sowing into the Weser. and the Hase and Leda flowing
into the Ema. The Weser itself forms the eastern boundary
for 4S m.| and internal mtvigathm is greatly fadiilated hf a
canal, paming through the heart of the .duchy and connecting
the Hunte and the Leda. On the north there are several small
coast streams conducted through the dikes by sluices, the only
one of importance being the Jade, which empties Itself into the
Jade Busen, a deep guU aflfording good accommoduiion lor
shipping. The duchy also contains numeious small lakes, the
chief of which b the DOmmer See in the south-e^Bt corner,
measufing 4 m. in length by i\ in width. About 30% of the
area of the duchy is under cultivation and 17% under pasture
and meadows, while the rest consists mainly of msfsh, moor and
heath. Forests occupy a very small ploportbn of the whole, but
there are some fine old oaks. In the Gecst the principal crops are
rye. oatSv potatoes and buckwheat, for which the heoth is some-
times prepared by burning. Laigc tracts of moorland, however,
%xt useful only as producing peat for fud, ot as affording pasture
to the flocks of small coarsc-woollcd Oldenburg sheep. The rich
soil of the marT»h lands produces good crops of wheal, oats, rye,
hemp and rape, but is especially adapted for grazing. The
cat tfe and horses raised on it are highly esteemed throughout
Germany, and the former are exported' in large numbers to
England. Bee-keeping is much in vogue on the moors. The live
stock of Oldenburg forms a great part of its wealth, and the ratio
of cattle, sheep and horses to the poputaiion is one of the highest I
among the Gemuui italMi.' There an lew la^eflsutca^^ail/Khs
ground is mostly in the hands of small farmisis, who e^joy the
right of 6shing and shooting on their holdings. Game is scaro^
but fishing is fairly prodiicttve* The mioervi wealth of Oldenburg
is veiy small. Woollen and<otton fabrics, atockiogs, jute and
dgais are made at Varel, Delmeohomt and Lohoe; Gork-cuttif«
is extensively practised in some districts* and there are a f e«
iroo-foundcies. Trade is reUtively of nsore impo(tanoe» chiefly
owing to the proximity of Bremen. The agiicukuEal produce of
the duchy is exported to Scandiuftvift, Sussia, EngUnd and the
United States, in return for colonial goods and manuketureSb
Vaid, Brake and Elsfletb are fhe.chief commerdal harbours.
II. The principality of Uibeck h«s an ana of a^ aq. m. aM
shams in the general physical eharactedstka of eist Holsteii^
witlun which it lies. On the east itextcnds to lAbedbBay of the
Baltic Sea, and on the soutlheast it h bounded hy the Trave.
The chief rivers ate the Schwartau, a trihutaiy of the Trave, and
the Schwentine. flowing nwthwaida to the Gulf of Kiel. The
Bceneiy of Uibeck is often picturcsqtte» espedaliy in tht vidnity
of the Plon See and the Eulk See, the moat impottant of the smnH
lakes with which it is dotted. Agriculture b practised hete
even mora extensively than in the duchy of Oldenburg, about
75 % of the area being cuUivmted. The population in-1905 won
38.5B3.
III. The priftdpallty of Birkenfdd, 312 sq. ni. in extent, lies in
the midst of the Pkuasian province of the Rhine^ about 30 m. W.
of the Rhine at Worms and i$o m. S. of the duchy ol Oldenburg.
The popuktion in loos was ^^1^ (See BiaxEMPEin.)
The 'total population of thegnnd-dttcby of Oldenburg In 1680
was 337.47^ u>d ita 1005, 43M$6. The bulk of the inhabitantt
are of the Saion stock, but to the north and west of the duchy
these ate numerous descendants of the andent Frisians. Tiiie
diffeienecs between the two races are still to some extent peroept.
ible, bkit Low German (Pblf-daa/icA) is ottiversaUy spoken, except
in one limited district, where a Frisian dialect ius mahitained
itself. In general cbamctenstlcs the Oldenburg peasamsicsemble
the Dutch, and the abaence of laivs landownen has contributed
to make them sturdy and independent. The population of
Oldenburg is somewhat unequally distributed, some parts of the
marsh lands coMaining over 300 persona to the square mile,
while in the Gecst the number occasionally sinks as low. as 40k
About 70% of the inhabitanU belong to the ** niml " population.
The town of Oldenburg is the capital of the grand-duchy. The
war>harboor of WUhdmshaven, 00 the shore of the Jade Busen,
was boat by Prussia on land bought from Oldenburg. The
chid towns of Bizhenfdd and Uibeck lespectivefy are Birfcenfeld
andEutin.
Ohknbuig is a Pioteatant country, and the grand>dttke la
required to be a member of the Lutheran Church. Roman
Catholidsm, however, pifponderate^ in the BOuth«wcstero pro-
vhioes, which formeriy belonged to the bishopric of Munster.
Oldenburg Romnn Oatholics ate under the away of the bishops of
Manster, who is represented by an official at Vcchta. The
educational system of Oldenburg is on a similar footing to
that of north Germany in general, though the scattered pod-
tion of the Cannfaoascs interferes to some extent with school
attendance.
The constitution of Oldenburg, based upon a decree of &849»
revised in 1852, is one of the roost liberal in Gerwmny. It prv-
vides for a single represen t ative chamber (tand/di;), elected
indlnenly by unlvenal tuffrage and exerasing concurrent righta
of legislation and taxation with the grand-duke. The chamber
which consJBis of forty members, one for every 10,000 inhabitants,
is elected every three years. The executive consists of thite
ministers, who are aided by a committee of the Landtag, when
that body is not in session. The focal affairs of Birkenfcld and
Lflbcck «re entrusted to provincial oouncib of fifteen members
each. All dtitens paying taxes and not having been convicted
of felony are enfranchhed. The municipal connnunilies enjoy
an unusual amount of independence. The finonocs.of each
constituent state ol the grand-duchy are managed separatdy,
and there is also a fourth budget cgnc em ed with the joim
72
OLDENBURQ
adminiBtration. The total revenue and exfJenditure are eacli
about £650,000 annually. The grand-duchy had a debt in 1907
of £2,958,409. ' , -
Hisl&ry.'-'The earliest recorded inh&bitanU of the district
now called Oldenburg were a Teutoni<; people, the Chaud, who
were af terwaxds merged in the Frisians. The chroniclers delight
in tradng the genealogy of the counts of Oldenburg to the Saxon
hero, Widukind, the stubborn opponent of Charlemagne, but
their first historical representative is one Ellmar (d. txo8) who
is described as comes in confimio Sasomae et Fritiae. Elimar's
desceadanU appear as vassals, althou^ sometimes rebellious
ones, of the dukes of Saxony; but they atumed the dignity
of princes of the empire when the emperor Frederick I. dis-
membered the Saxon duchy in 1 180. At this time the county of
Delmenhorst formed part of the dominions of the counts of
Oldenburg, but afterwards it was on several occasions separated
from them to form aa apanage f6r younger branches of the
family. This was the case between 1262 and 1447, between
1463 and 1547, and between 1577 and 1617. The northern ahd
western parts of the present giand-duchy of Oldcnbuig were in
the hands of independent, or semi-independent, Frisian princes,
who were usually heathens, and during the early part of the
13th century the counts carried on a series of wars with these
small potentates which resulted in a gradual expansion of their
territory. The free dty of Bremen' and the bishop of Mihister
were also f re(|iiently at war with the counts of Oldenburg.
i The successor of Count Dietrich (d. 1440), called Partunatus^
was his nn Christian, who in 144ft was chosen king of Denmark
as Christian L In 1450 he became king of Norway and in 1457
king of Sweden; in 1460 he inherited the duchy of Schieswig
and the county of Holstein, an event of high importance for
the future histoxy of Oldenburg. In 1454 he handed over Oklen-
bufg to his brother Gerhard {c 1430-1499) a turbulent prince,
who was constantly at war with the bishop of Bremen and other
Beighboucs. In 14B3 Gerhard was compelled to abdicate in
favour of his sons, and he died whilst da a pilgrimage in Spain.
£arly in the x6th century Oldenburg was again enlarged at the
expense of the Frisians. Protestantism was introduced into the
county by Count Anton I. (i5os>x573), who also suppressed
the monasteries; however, he remained k>yal to Charles V.
during the war of the league of Schmalkalden, and was able
thus to increase his territories, obtaining Ddmenhorst in 1547.
One of Anton's brothers, Count Christopher {c ZS06-X560),
won some reputation as a soldier. Anton's grandson, Anton
GUnther (1583-1667}, who succeeded in 1603, proved himself
the wisest prince who had yet niled Oldenburg. Jever had been
acquired before he became count, but in 1624 he added Knyp-
hausen and Yarel to his lands, with which in 1647 Delmenhorst
was finally united. By his prudent neutrality during the
Thirty Years' War Anton Giinlher secured for his dominions an
immunity from the terrible devastations to which nearly all
the other states of Germany were exposed. He also obtained
from the emperor the right to levy toUs on vcssds passing atong
the Weser, a lucrative giant which soon formed a material
additk>n to his resources.
When Count Anton GUnther died in June 1667 Oldenburg
was inherited by virtue of a compact made in 1649 by Frederick
III., king of Denmark, and Christian Albert, duke of Hobtein-
Cottorp. Some difficulties, however, arose from this joint
ownership, but eventually these were satisfactorily settled, and
from 1702 to 1773 the county was ruled by the kings of Denmark
only, this period being on the whole one of peaceful development.
Then in 1773 another change took place. Christian VII. of
Denmark surrendered Oldenburg to Paul, duke of HoUtdn-
Goitorp, afterwards the emperor Paul of Russia.^ and in return
Paul gave up to Christian his duchy of Holstein-Gottoip and his
claims on (be duchies of Schieswig and Holstein. 'At once Paul
handed over Oldenburg to his kinsnuin, Frederick Augustus^
bishop of Lttbeckr che representative of a younger branch of
» His father. Chartcs Frederick of Holstdn-Gortorp (1700-1739),
a descendant of Christian I. of Demnark, married Anne, daughter oT
Fettr the Great, and baoame tnr as Peter 111. to 1762»
the family,' and In 1777 the county was rati^ to the rank of a
duchy. The bishop's son William, who succeeded his father
as duke in 1785, was a man of weak intellect, and his cousin
Peter Frederick, bishop of Lilbeck, acted as administrator and
eventually, in 1823, inherited the duchy. This prince is the
direct ancestor of the present grand duke.
To Peter fell the onerotas tuk of governing the duchy during
the time of the Napoleonic wars. In x8o6 Oldenbuig was occupied
by the French and the Dutch, the duke and the regent hnng
put to flight; but in X607 William was restored, and in x8o8 he
joined the Confederation of the Rhine. However, in 1810 hta
lands were forcibly seised by Napoleon because he refused to
exchange them for Erfurt. This drove him to join the Alliea,
and at the congress of Vienna his services were rewarded .by the
grant of the principality of Birkenfdd, an addition to his lands
due to the good offices of the tsar Alexander I. At this time
Oldenburg was made a grand duchy, but the title of grand-duke
was not formally assumed until XS29, when Augustus succeeded
his father Peter as rulec Under Peter's rule the area of Olden-
burg had been incteased, not only by Birkenfeld, but by the
bishopric of Ltlbeck (secularised in 1803) and some smaller
pieces of territory.
Oldenburg did not entirely escape from the revolutionary
movement which swept across Europe in X848, but no serious
disturbances took place therein. In 1849 the grand-duke granted
a constitution of a very liberal diaracter to his subjects. Hitherto
his country had been ruled in the spirit of enlightened despotism,
which was strengthened by the ajMence of a privileged class of
nobles, by the comparative independence of the peasantry,
and by the unimportance of the towns; and thus a certain
amount of frictran was inevitable In the working of the new order.
In X852 some modifications were introduced into theconstitutfon,
which, nevertheless, remained one of the most liberal in Germany.
Important alterations were made in the administrative system
in X855, and ags^n in 1868, and church affaire were ordered by
a law of X853. In 1863 the grand-duke Peter II. (i837-f90(^,
who had ruled Oldenburg sfaice the death of his father Augustus
in 1853, seemed Inclined to press a daim to the vacant duchies
of Schieswig and Holstein, but ultimately in 1867 he abandoned
this in favour of Pnissfa, and received some slight compensation.
In 1866 he bad sided with this power aptinst A^istria and had
joined the North German Confederation; in 1871 Oklenbuig
became a <tate of the new German empire. In June 1900
Frederick Augustus (b. X853) succeeded his father Peter aa grand-
duke. By a law passed in 1904 the succession to Oldenburg
was vested in Frederick FerdfaMAd, duke of Schleswig-Holstdn-
Sonderburg-GlQcksbutig, and his family, after the exthiction of
the present ruling house. This arrangement was rendered
advfeable because the grand^duke Frederick Augustus had only
one son Nicholas (b. X897), and his only brother Geoi^e Louis
(1855) was unmarried.
For the history of Oldvaburg tee Ruade, OUriitaff iaolt Cknmk
(Oldenburg, 1863); E. Pleiuier, Oldenburg im mq Jahrkmndtri
(OtdcnburK, 1899-1900); and Oldenburnsches QuelUnbtuh (Oltlcn-
burg, 1903). Sec also the JakrbuchfAr die Ceschtehit des Ilenogiums
OUeuburg (1893 aeq.).
OLDENBURG* a town of Germany, and capital of the grand-
duchy of Oldenburg. It is a qui^t and pleasant-looking town,
situated 37 m. by rail W. of Bremen, on the navigable Hunte
and the Hunte*Ems caiml. Pop. (1905), including (he suburbs*
38,565. The inner or old town, with its somewhat narrow
streets, is surrounded by avenues bud out on the site of the
former ramparts, beyond which are the villas, promenades
and gardens of the modem quarters. Oldenburg has almost
nothing to show in the shape of interesting old buildings. The
* To this branch belonged Adolphus Frederick, son of Christian
Augustas bishop of LObeck (d. 1726), who in 1751 became king of
Siraden.
Another branch of the Oldenburg family, descended from John*
son ci Christian III. of Denmark* » that of Holsteia-Sondcrourg.
fills was subdivided into the lines of Sonderburg-Augustenburg and
Sonderburg-CIUck^urv. Prince Christian, who married Pnnccsa
Helena Of Great Britain, belongs to the former of them. To the
latter bdoDg the ktf^ of Denmark, Greece and Norway.
QLDFICLD— OLDHAM, T.
73
EvuseScil tuBbcctadiclM^ thou^datSog firaai the ijUi centurjr»
has been so transfonncd in Uie last cenluzy (1874-1886) as to
show no tnce of its antiquity. The palaces of the pand-dnke.
and the old town-hall are Renaiisance buildings of the 17th and
18th centuries. « Among the other prominent bttilding»--aU
modei»— are the palace of the heir apparent, the new townr
hall, the theatre, the law-courts, the gymnasium, the com-
aaerdal school, the three hospitals and the new Roman Catholic
church. The grand-ducal picture gallery in the Augusteum
includes worlts by Veronese, Velasques, Murillo and Rubens,
and there are coUections ol modem paintings and sculptures
in the two palaces. The public libcaxy contains 1x0,000 volumes
and the duhe's private library $$,oool There is also a ktige
natural history museum and a museum with a collection of
antiquitica. The industries o( Oldenburg, which are of no
great importance, include tron-founding, spinning and the
making of i^bsa, tobacco, ^ovcs, soap and leather. A consider-
able trade is carried on in grain, and the horse fairs are largely
frequented. Aooording to popular tradition Oldenbuig was
founded by Walbert, grandson of the Saxon hero, Widukind,
and wiss named after his wife Altburip, but the first historical
mention of it occurs in a document of ito8. It was fortified
in 1155, and received a municipal charter in 1345. The sub*
sequent history of the town is mexged in that of the giand-
See SellOk Histarische Wawdtmni dunk 4U Stadt OUenbitri (Olden-
burg, 1896); and AUrOUeHiwi (Oldenbuig, 1903): and Kohl,
Die AUmtnde dtr Sladl OUenburi (Oldcnbufg. 1903).
OLDFIKLD, AMKB (1683-1730), English actress, was bom
in London, the daughter of a soldier. She worked for a time
as apprentice to a semptress, until she attracted George
Farquhar's attention by reciting some lines from a play in his
hearing. She thereupon obtained an engagement at Dniry
Lane, where her beauty rather than her ability slowly brought
her into ^vour, and it was not until ten years bter that she
was generally acknowledged as the best actress of her time.
In polite comedy, especially, she was unrivalled, and even the
usually grudging Cibber acknowledged that she had as much as
be to do with the success of the Careless Husband (1704), in
which she created the part of Lady Modish, reluctantly ^ven
her because Mrs Verbruggen was UL In tragedy, too, she won
laurels, and the list of her parts, many of them original, is a
long and varied one. She was the theatrical Idol of her day.
Her exquisite acting and lady-like carriage were the delight
of her contemporaries, and her beauty and generosity found
innumerable eulogists, as well as sneering dctraaors. Alexander
Pope, in his Sober Advice from Horau, wrote of her —
" Engaging Oldfield, who. with Rrace and ease.
Could joui the arts to ruin and to please."
It was to her that the satirist alluded as the lady who detested
being buried in woollen, who said to her diaid^
" No. let a charming chintx and Brussels lace
Wrap my cold limbs and shade my lifeless face;
One would not, sure, be frightful when one's dead,
And—B etty gi t e this check a little red."
She wit bnt foity-seven when she died on the ssrd of October
1730, leaving all the court and half the town in tears.
She divided her property, for that time a large oi»e, between
her natural sons, the first by Arthur Mainwaring (i668-r7ri) —
who had left her and his son half his fortune on his death-*
and the secofid by Iieat.-Genefal Charles ChurchOI (d. 1745).
Mrs Oldfidd wis buried in Westminster Abbey, beneath the
monttment to Congreve, but when Churchill applied lor per>
mfanoB to erect a monament Chete to her memory the dean of
Westminster lefmed it.
OLD IOft6B; a bono^ of LadatwauiB eoimf y, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., 00 tlm LackawanBt river, about 6 m. S.W. of Scranton.
Fop. (1900) 5690 (1494 foreign-bora, principally Italians); (t9ro)
ii,3S4. It is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western
and the leMgh Valley lailwaysw The prindpal public buildings
are the tewn^haO and the hi^ school'. The borough is situated
in the anthracite coal region, and the mining of coal Is the
principal industry, thaa^ there are abo various manufactures.
Old Fdcer was settled in 18I30 and incoipoated as a bosoi^h
ini899.
OLDHAM, JOHN (1653-1683), English satirist, son of a
Preibyterian minister, was bom at Shipton Moyne, near Detbury,
doucestershire, on the 9th of August r653. He graduated
from St Edmund Hall, Oxford, in 1674, and was for three years
an usher in a school at Croydon. Some of his verses attracted
the attention of the town, and the earl of Rochester, with Sir
Charles Sedley and other wits, came down to see him. The
visit did not affect his career apparently, for he stayed at Crqyw
don unUl i68r, when he became tutor to the grandsons of Sir
Edward Tburland, near Reigate. Meanwhile he had tried, he
says, to conquer his inclination for the unprofitable trade of
poetry, but in the panic caused by the revektions of Titus
Oatcs, he found an opportunity for the exercise of his gift for
rough satire. Comet's Oust was published as a broadside in
1679, but the other Satires om tke. Jesuits, although written at
the same time, were rK>t printed until 1681. The success of these
dramatic and unbaring invectives apparently gave Oldham
hope that he might become independent of teaching. But his
undoubted services to the Country Party brought no reward
from its leaders. He became tutor to the son of Sir William
Hickcs, and was eventually glad to accei>t the patronage <tf
William Pierrepont, earl of Kingston, whose kindly offer of a
chaplahicy he had refused carliec He died at Holme-Pietre-
point, near Nottingham, on the 9th of December i683t
of smallpox.
Oldham took Juveiial fqr his model, and in breadth of tjeat-
ment and power of invective surpassed his English p r edece sa oia.
He was original in the dramatic setting provided for his satires.
Thomas Garnet, who suffered lor supposed implication in the
Gunpowder Plot, rose from the dead to encourage the Jesuiu
m the first satire, and in the third Ignatius LoyoU is repieaenied
asdictating hi? wishes to his disciples from his death4sed. Old*
ham wrote other satires, notably one " addressed to 4 friend
about to leave the university," which contains a well-knewn
description of the state of slavery of the private chaplain, and
another " diiwiMiding from poetry," describing the IngraUtude
shown to Edmund Spenser, whose ghost is the spoker, to
Samuel Butler aixl to Abraham Cowky. Oldham's vctse is
rugged, and his rhymes often defective, but he met with a
generous appreciation from Diyden,. whose own satiric bent
was perhaps influenced by his efforts. He says (" To the Memory
Of Mr QUham," Works, ed. Scott, vol xL p. 99) :--
** For sure our souls were near allied, and thine
Cast in the same poetic mouU with mine.**
The real wit and rigour of Oldham's satirical poetry are nn*
deniable, while its faults— its frenzied extravagance and Uck
of metrical polish— might, as Dryden suggests, have been cured
with time, for Oldham wasronly thirty when he died.
The best edition of his works Is Tke Composiiums in Prose ami
Verse of ifr John Oldham . . . (r770). with menotr and explanatory
notes by Edward Thompson.
OLDHAM. THOMAS (x8r6-i878) British geologist, was bom
in Dublin on the 4th of May x8x6. He was educated there at
Trinity College, graduating E.A. in 1836, and afterwards studied
engineering in Edinburgh, where he gained a good knowledge
of geology and minera l ogy under Jameson. On his return to
Ireland in 1839 he became chief assistant to Captain (afterwards
Major General) Portlock, who conducted the geologic a l depart-
ment of the Ordnance Survey, and he ren d ered much help in
the field and office in the preparatiott of the Report m tko Geologf
of J^ondonderry, 6re, (1843). Subsequently be served under
Captain (afterwards Sir Henry) James, the first local director
of the Geological Survey of Ireland, whom he succeeded in 1846.
Meanwhile in 184$ he was appointed professor of Geology in
the univenity of DubKn. In XS48 be was elected F.R.S. In
1849 he discovered in the Cambrian rocks of Bray Head the
problematical fossff named Oldkamia. In r8so he was selected
to take diarge of the (Geological Survey of India, which he
organised, and in due course he established the Uemoirs, (he
Pdaeantehiia Indie* and the Ktcords, W which he comrilmted
n
OLttHAM^^LD "TOWN
niuijr impoftant aitlclkt. tn 1884 lie pobl&lied tat d&borate
report On Ike Coal Resources of India. He retired in 1876, and
died at Ri^by on tlic 17th of Jiriy 1878. •
OLDRAS, a fnunicipal county and parliamentary bMough of
LancasMlte, England, 7 m. N.E. of Manchester, on the London &
Notth^Wtttem, Great Ontxml and Lancashire ft Yorkshire
railways and the Oldham canal. Pop. (1891) 131,463; (tgoi)
'3 7*^46. The principal railway station b called Mumps, but
there arc Several others. The town Ues h%h, near the source of
the small river Medlock. Its growth as a manufacturmg centre
gives it a wholly modern appearance. Anrang several handsome
churches the oldest dates only from the later iSth century.
The principal buildings ind institutions inchide the town-hall,
with fietrsslyle portico copied from the Ionic temple of Cdres
near Athens, the leference library, art gallery and museum,
the Union Street baths, oommeniorating Sir Robert Peel the
statesman, and the county court. Of educat ional establishments
the chief are the Lyceum, a building fai Italian style, contaming
■dioots of art and science, and including an observatory; the
largely-endowed blue^soat school founded in 1808 by Thomas
Henshaw, a wealthy manufaetuter-of hats; the Hulme grammar
school (1895), and municipal technical schools. The Alesiandni
^ark, opened in 1865, was laid out by operatives who were
thtown out of employment owing to the cotton famine in the
ysars previous to that date. The site is picturesquely undulatihg
and terraced. Oldham is one of the nnost important centres
of the cotton manufactures, the consumption of cotton being
about one-fifth of the tMalimporution Into the United Kingdo/m,
the factories numbering some 330, and the spindles over 13
nillions, while some 35,000 operatives aro employed. The
princbal manufactures are fustians, velvets, cords, shirtfogs,
•heetm^i and nankeens. There are also large foundries and
iniN and cotton machinery works; and works for the construction
of gas-meters and sewing-machines; while all these industries
■re assisted by the immedbte presence of oolUeriea. There are
titensive markets and numerous fairs are heM. Oldham was
biooTpotated in 1849, and became a county borough in i888i
The eoipocatibn consists of a mayor, is aldermen and 36
cbuncilkns. The parliamentary borough has returned two
members sinoe 1833. Area of nfunidpal borough, 4736 aci^.
A Roman road, of which some traces are still left, posses
through the site of the township, but it does not app«ir to have
been a Roman station. It is not mentioned in Domesday; but
in the reign of Henry III. Alwardos de Aldholrae is referred t6 as
holding land m Vemet (Wcmcth). A daughter and co-heiress
of this Alwaidus conveyed Wcineth Hall and its manor to the
CudwortJbs, a branch of the Yorkshire family, with whom it
remained till the early part of the 18th century. From the
Oldhams was descended Hugh Oldham, who died bishop of Exeter
in 1519. From entries in the church registers it would appear
that liMns were manufactured in Oldham^ as early as 1630.
Watermuls were introduced in 1770, and wUh the adoption of
Ark Wright's inventions the cotton Industry grew with great
vspidity.
QLD MAID, a game of cards. Any number may play, and the
full pack is used, the Queen of Hearts being removed. The
cards are dealt otit one by one until exhausted, and each player
then sorts his hand and diicards the pairs. The dealer then
offers his hand, spread out face downwards to the next player,
who draws a card, which, if it completes a pair, is discarded,
but otherwise remains in the hand. The process continues from
player to player, until all the cards have been paired and dis-
carded excepting the odd quoco, the holder of which ii the " Old
Maid." t
0LDinX01l» JOHIf (1673--' 74a\ English historian, was a son
of John Qldmixon of Oidmixon, near Bridgwater. His first
writings were poems and dramas^ among them being Amorts
BritannUi; EpislUs historical and gallant (1703); and a tragedy.
The Governor of Cyprus. His earliest historical work was
Th^ British Em^e in America (1708 and again 1742), which
was followed by The Secret History of Europe (1712-171$); by
Anama Callifa, or the Secret History oj France (or the last Century
{xfU); and by other smaller writ{h)ss. More Important, how-
ever, although 6f a very partisan character, are Oldmixon'a
works Oh English history. His Critical history of England ( 1 7»4-
T7t6) cdntains attacks on Clarendon and a defence of Bishop
Burnet, and its publication led to a controversy between Dr
Zachary Grey (i688-r7M) and the author, who replied to Grey
in his Clarendon and WhitlocM tompartd (t 727)* Ota the sanM
lines he wrote Ms Hittary of BngUtnd durint the Heigns of the kayat
H&useefStu^n (r730). Herein he charged Bish<»p Atterbury and
other of Claremlon's editors with tampering with the text of the
History. From his exite Atterbury replied to this charge in m
Vindieationt and although Oidmixon continued the contreversjy
it is practically ceruin that he was in the wrong. Hooomplctcd
a continuous hifetory of fingbnd by writing the History of Bngfamd
during the Reignt of WUHam and Mary, A nms and Oeorgt /r<i735) ;
and the Hiaory if Bnghitd during the Reignt of Hemy Vltl^
Edward VI., Mary and Bfkabeth (1739)- Among Ins othet
writings are. Memoirs of North Brilalm <t 715)1 Bany-an Crtflidns
(1738) and Memoirs of the Pros tfi<^i740 (1742), which waa only
published after his death. Oidmixon had mudi to do with
editing two periodicals, Tha Muses Mercury and The MtHe^
and l»» often complained that his asrvices were -overiooked by
the government. He died on the 9ih of July X74a.
OIA POIIT OOMffOBT* a summer and -wialet ;Rsoit» m
Elizabeth City county, Virginia, U.S.A., at the southern end
of a narrow, sandy peninsula projecting into Hampton Roads
(at the mouth- of the James river), about t2 m. N. by W. of
Norfolk. It is served directly by the Chesapeake & Ohio railway,
and iiuliroctly by the New York, Philadelphia & Korfolk (Penn-
sylvania System), passengers and freight being carried by
steamer from the terminus at Cape Charles; by steamboat lines
connecting vitb the principal cities along the Atlantic coast,
and with cities along the James river; by ferry, connecting with
Norfolk and Portsmouth; and by electric railway (3 m.) to
Hampton and (i 2 m.) to Newport News. There is a U.S. garrison
at Fort Monroe, one of the most important fortifications on the
Atlantic coast of the United SUtes. Qld Point Comfort is
included in llic reservation of Fort Monroe. The fort lies within
the tract of 252 acres ceded, for coast defence purposes^ to the
Federal government by the state of Virginia m i8ax, the survey
for the original fortifications having been made in 1818, and the
building begun in 18x9. It was named in honour of President
Monroe and was first regularly garrisoned in 1823; in 1824 the
Artillery School of Practice (now calted the United States
Coast Artillery School) was established to provide commissioned
officers of the Coast Artillery with instruction in professional
work and to gix'c technical instruction to the non-commissioned
staff. During the Civil War the fort was the rendezvous for
several military expeditions, notably those of General Benjamin
F. Butler to Hattetas Inlet, in 1861; of General A. E. Bumside,
to North Carolina, in 1862; and of Genetal A. H. Terry, against
Fort Fisher, in 1865; within sight of iu parapets was fought the
famous duet between the "Monitor" and the "Merrimac"
(March 9, 1862). Jefferson Davis waa a prisoner here for two
years, from the 2 and of M^y 1865, and Ckment Qaibome Clay
(i8r9-i882), a proiuincnt Confederate, from the same date until
April 1866. Between Fort Monroe and Scwell's Point is Fort
\Vool, almost covering a small island called Rip Raps. The
expedition which settled Jamestown rounded this pcninsida
(April 26, 1607), opened Its sealed instnictiona here, and named
the peninsula Poynt Comfort,, in recognition of the sheltered
harbour. (The *' Old " was added subsequently to distinguish
it from a Point Comfort settlement at the mouth of the York
river on Chesapeake Bay). On the site of the present fortifica*
tioa a fort wss erected by the whites as early as 163a
.0U> TOWN, a city pf Penobscot county, Maine^ U.S.A., oq
the Penobsoet river, alwut la m. N.£.of Banger. Pop. (1890)
S3it; (1900) 5763 <i;M7 foreigrvbom); (1910) 6317- It is
served by the Maine Central and the Bangpr h Aroostook
railways, and by an electric line connecting with iSangor. The
city proper is on an island ; (Marsh, or Old Town Island), but
oonsideiable -territory on the W. bank of the river is included
OLDYS— OLEASTER
n
miibin the municipal limks. Tke manufaciurc of lumber 1$
the principal industry of the dly On Indian Island (opposite
the dly) is the principal settlement of the Penobscot Indians,
an Abnaki tribe, now wards of the state. The abb6 Loui^
Pierre Thury was sent here from Quebec dbout 1687 and built
A church in 1688-1689; in 1705 the mission passed under the
control of the Jesuits. The first while settler in the vicinity
icems to have been John Marsh, who came about 17741 end who
bought the island now known as Mareh Island. From 1806 to
1840, when it was incorporated as a separate township, Old
Town was a part of Orono. In 1891 k was chartered as a dty.
One of the oldest railways in the United Slates, and the first in
Maine, was completed to Old Town from Bangor in 1836.
0LDV8, WILLIAM (1696-1761), English antiquary and biblio-
grapher, natural son of Dr William Oldys, chancellor of Lincoln,
was bom 00 the 14th of July 1696, probably fn London. His
father bad alio held the office of advocate of the admiralty, but
lost it fai 1693 because bt ttfoold not prosecute as traiton and
pirates the sailors who had served against England under
Jaroca 11. William Oldys, the younger, lost part of bis small
patrimony In the Sooth Sea Bubble, and in 1724 went to York-
shire, spending the greater part of the neact six years as the
guest of the earl of Malion, On his return to London he found
that hb kmdlord had disposed of the books and papers left
hk his diafge. Among these was an annouted copy of GeraFd
Langbaine's DyamalUk Potts. The book came into the hands of
Thomas Coxcter (1689-1747)* and sobaequcatly into TheophBus
Gibber's possession, and furnished the bosb of the Lhes of
the Pods (i7S3) fMiblishcd wHh Gibber's name on the title page,
though most of it was written by Robert Shicls. In 1731 Oldys
•old his coOecUons to Edward Harley, second earl of Oxford,
wbo appohited him his literary secretary in 1738. Three years
later his patron died, and from that time he worked for the
book^cQers* His habits were Irregular, and in 1751 his debts
drove him to- the Fleet prison. After two years' imprisonment
he was released through the kindness of friends who paid his
debts, and in April 1755 he was appointed Korroy king-at-arms
by the duke of Norfolk. He died on the 15th of April 1761.
Okly»*s chief works are: Tk$ British Uh^aritm, m review of scarce
and valuable books ia print and to manuscript (t 737*1738); th4^
UarUiam MisetiUMy (I744-I746),acol1caionof tractsand pamphlets
of Ouora's libfary, undertaken in coojuoctioo with
1; twenty-two articles contributed to the Bio{
1747-1760) ; an edition of Ralewh's History of iMo
of the author (1736): Life of CkarUs Collam prefixed to
in the carl of
Br Johi
twenty-two articles contributed to the Biographic
Briianmicc (1747-1700) ; an edition of Ralewh's History of iMo Woridt
with a Lif€ 01 the author (1736): Life of CkarUs Collam prefixed to
Sir John Hawkins's edition (1760) of the CampUat Antfif. Ini727
OUys began to annotate another LAngbaine to replace the one he
bad kMt. This valtable book, whh a MS. ooUcctioo ef notes by
OMyson vavious btbtiographacal snbjcctSi is prascrvcd in the British
OLBAH, a city of Cattaraugus county, !n south-western New
York, U.S.A., on Olcan Creek and the N. side of the Allegheny
river» 70 m. S.£. of Buffalo. Pop. (1880), 3036; (1890), 7358;
(1900), 946», of whom 15 14 were foreign-bom and 12a were
negroes; (1910 census), 14,743- The dty b served by the
Erie, the Pittsburg. Shawmut & Northern, and the Pennsylvania
raHways (the last has large car shops heoe); and is connected
with Bradford, Pa., Alk^y, Pa., Salamanca, N Y., Little
Vafley, N.Y., and BoUvar, N.Y., by electric Uocs. Olean b
situated in a levd valley 1440 fL above son-fcveL The sur-
loondingawntiy b rich in oE and natural gas. Six miles fsom
Olean and 3000 fL above the sea-lcvd b Rock City, a group of
immense, strangely regnlac, oonglomeTate rocks (some of them
pure white) covering about 40 acres. They are remnants of
a bed of Upper Devonian Conglomerate, which broke along
the jomt planes, leaving a group of huipB blocks. In the dty
are n public library, a general bo^iiial and a state armoury;
and at AUcgany (pop. 1910, 1286). abont 3 m W of Olcan, b
St Bomsventnre's CoOese (1859; Roman Catholic). Oicnn's
factory prodnct was valncd at $4^7,477 in 1905; the dty b
the Icnsinns of an Ohio pipe line, and of a sen-board pipe line
for petiolenm; and among its indnstries are ak-reSabm and
the refiniaK of wood akohol, tanning, currying, and finishing
jrnhtr aad ike mawifaftiire of flow; glass (moailf boitks).
&C. Tha vicinity wan settled In i804» and thb ivas
the first township organized (1808), being then coextensive with
the county. Olean Creek was called Ischue (or iKhua); then
Olean was suggested, possibly in reference to the oil-springs hi
the vidniiy. The village was officially called Hamilton for a
time, but Olean was the name given to the post-office in 18171
and Olean Point was the popular local name. In 1909 severid
suburbs, induding the viUnge of North Olean (pop. in 1905^
1761), were annexed to Otean, considerably bcreasing its area
and population.
See History «if Catlaraugiu CousUy, Now York (I*biladdphia. 1879).
OLEANDER, the common name for the shrub known to
botanists as Nermm Oleander, H b a oathre of the Mediterranean
and Levant, and b characterized by its tall shrubby habit and
iu thick lance>shaped opposite leaves, which exude a milky
juice when punctured. The flowers are borne in termhial
dusters, and are like those of the common periwinkle ( Kinca), but
are of a rose colour, rarely white, and the throat or upper edgo
of the tube of the coroUa b occupied by outgrowths hi th«
form of bbcd and fringed petal-like scales. Hie hairy anthers
adhere to the thickened stigma. The fruit or seed-vessel consbts
of two long pods, which, burstmg atong one edge, liberate a
number of seeds, each of winch has a tuft of silky bails like thbtla
down at the upper end.
The genus belongs to
the natural order
ApocyiuKeae, a family
that, as b usnal where
the juice haa a milky
appearance, b marked
by its poisonous pro-
perties. Cases are re-
oarded by Lindley of ;
children poisoned by
the flowcEk The sAme
author also narrates how
inthecouiseof thePenin-
subr War took French
Sol£eis died hi oonso*
quence of employing
skewers msde from
fieshly-cBt tw^ of oleander for roasting thdr meat. Th^
oleander was known to the Greeks under three names, viz.
thododenirosif nerum and rhododapkne, and b well described
by Pliny (xvL ao), who mentions iu fose-like flowers and
poisonous qvalitfes, at the same time sUtiqg that it was
co ns id er ed serviceable as a remedy against snake-bite. The
name b supposed to be a corruption of lorandrmm, lauridaidrum
(Dn Cange), influenced by otea, the olive-tree, lorandrmm being
itself a corrupik)n of rho d od e n dr on* The modem Creeks still
know the plant as^oMA^np, although in a figure in the Rinncdni
MSS. of Dioscorides a plant b represented under thb name,
which, however, had rather the appearance of a willow herb
{EpUobiusm). The oleander has long been cultivated in green-
houses in England, being, as Ceard says, *' a small shrub of a
gaDant sbewe "; aumersus varieties, diflcnng in the colour of their
flowers, which are often double, have been introduced.
OLEASTER, known botanically as Elaeagmu kartesuit, a
handsome dcdduous tree, 15 to so ft. high, growing fai the
Mediterranean region and temperate Asia, whac it b commonly
cultivated lor its edttrfe fiust. The brown snMioth bcandMS
sre more or less spiny; the narrow leaves have a hoary look
from the presence of a dense covering of star-shaped hairs;
the small fra^ant yellow ikmcis, which ^it home in the axib
of the leaves, are scaly cm the outside. The ^enim contains other
species of ornamental dcddoons or eve i giec n shrvbs or small
trees. E. artenUa, a native of North America, has leaves and
fruit covered with shining silvery scales. In £. x/dira, from
Japan, the evergreen leaves are ciochcd beneath with msl*
cokmicd scah»; variesetod fOTms of thb are cnkivUsd, as
also of £. pmntau, anoihcf Japanese apeoes, a 1
with leaves silvcQr bcncaib.
Herimn Oleasder,
76
OLEFINfi— OLBO
OLBPIHB, in ofganlc cheinlstiy, tlie generic name gfven to
open chain hydrocarbons having only singly and doubly linked
pain of carbon atoms. The word is derived from the French
tk/iant (from oUJUr^ to make oil), which was the name given to
ethylene, the first member of the series, by the Dutch chemists,
J. R. Deiman, Paets van Tioostwyk, N. Bondt and A. Lauweren-
burgfa in 1795. The simple olefines containing one doubly*
linked pair oif carbon atoms have the general formula (CH*.;
the di-olefines, containing two doubly-Iinied pairs, have the
general formula C»Htn^ and are consequently isomeric with the
simple acetylenes. Tri-, tetra- and more complicated members
are also known. The name tA any particular member of the
series is derived from that of the corresponding member of the
paraffin series by removing the final syllable " -ane," and replac-
ing it by the syllable " ylene." Isomerism in the <define series
does not appear until the third member of the series is reached.
The higher olefines are found in the tar which is obtained by
distilling bituminous shales, in illuminating gas, and among the
products formed by distilling paraffin under pressure (T. £.
Thorpe and J. Young, Ann,, 1873, 165, p. x). The defines
may be synthetically prepared by eliminating water from the
alcohols of the general formula C«Hfei4.i -OH, osing sulphuric
acid or sine chloride generally as the dehydrating agent, although
phosphorus pentoxide, syrupy phosphoric add and anhydrous
oxalic acid may frequently be substituted. In this method of
preparation it is found that the secondary alcohols decompose
more readily that the primary alcohols of the series, and when
sulphuric add is used, two phases are present in the reaction,
the first bdng the buUding up of an intermediate sulphuric acid
ester, which then decomposes into sidphuric add and hydro-
carbon: C.H«OH->C,H«HSO«->CtH44-H,304. As an alter.
native to the above method, V. Ipatiew {Bar., 1901, 34, p. 596
et seq.) has shown that the ^cohols break up into ethylenes and
water when their vapour is passed through a heated tube
containing some " contact " substance, such as graphite, kiesel-
guhr, &c. (see also J. B. Senderens, Comptes rmdntt 1907, X44«
pp. 38a, 1 109).
They may also be prepared by eliminating the halogen hydride
from the alkyl halidcs by heating with alcoholic pota^, or with
litharge at 220* C. (A. Eltekow, Ber., 1878. 11, p. 414): by the
action of nMtala on the halogen compounds dHi.Brt: by boiling
the aqueous solution of nitrites of the primary amines (V. Meyer,
Btr., i876.9.P^ 543).CiHTNH«+HNOi-Ni+2H,(r+cii.; bytlic
electrolysis of the alkali salts of saturated dicarboxylic acids*; by
the decomposition of /3-haloid fatty acids with sodium carbonate,
CH,CHBrCH(CHi)COiH «CO,+HBr+CH,CH:CH.CH,;by dis-
tilling the barium salts of adds C«Hs«.^ with sodium mcthyiate
in vacuo (I. Mai, Bcr„ 1869, 3a, p. 2135): from the higher alcohols
by converting them into esters which are then distiUcd (C, Krafft,
Ber., 1883. 16, p. 3018}:
C»JfMCHrCH,OH->CttHttCH,CH,OCO.R^
CwH„CH:CH,+R.COOH;
from tertiary alcohols by the action of acetk anhydride in the
presence of a small quantity of sulphuric add (L. Henry, Comples
remdM, 1907. I44» P- 552):
cch,),ccoh)chcch^->(Ch,)*ck:(ch,).+ch,:C(cHj)ch
^ (CH,),;
from unsaturated alcohols by the action of metal-ammonium com-
pounds (B. Chablay. Comptes rendus, 1906. 143. p. 123):
2CH«K:HCH«OH+2NH>«Na«CH.:CH-CH«-HCH.:CH.CH,ONa
+NaOH-f-2NH«;
from the lower members of the series by heating them with alkyl
halides in the presence of lead oxide or lime: C Jli»-f-2CHsI b2HI +
CtHu: and by the action of the zinc aflcyls upon the halogen
substituted olefines.
A. Maiihe {Ckem, Znl,, 1906. 30. p. 37) has diown that 00 passing
the monohalosen derivatives of the paraffins through a glass tube
containing reduced m'ckel, copper or cobalt at 250* C, olefines are
produced, twcther with the halogen adds, and recombination
IS prevented by paSaing the gases through a solution of potash.
The reaction prabably proceeds thus: MCla-HCJiti^iCI-^HGH-
ClM-C.H«iCI--^MCk+CJlsM since the haloid derivatives of the
monovalent metals do not act similarly. Tlie anhydrous chlorides
Of nickel, cobalt, cadmium, barium, iron aftd lead act in the same way
as catalysts at about 300* C, and the bromides of lead, cadmium,
i^ckel and barium at about 320* C.
In their physical properties, the olefines resemble the normsl
pnrafltns, the lower members of the series being inflammable
gases, the nembeis from Qto Cm liquids insoluble inhaler.
and from Ci« upwards of. solids. The diief nontia! nembert
of the series are shown in the table.
Name.
Formula.
Melting-
point. C.
Boiling-point. C.
Ethylene .
CH,:CH. ,
-169*
-I02.7' (757 mm.)
-50-2* (749 mm.)
-5
t::^: :
ch,ch<:h,
CHiCHrCH,
Amylene
CHrCHKTH,
39— 40'
Hcxylene
c«h,ch.<:h,
68*^»
Heptvlcne . .
Octyfcne .
C»HuCH:CHi
95'
OH„CH:CH,
122--I2t'
84** (18 mm.)
E)ecylcae . .
Undecylene.
C,H,,CH:CH,
c,h.,ch<:h,
CwH«CH:CHa
-3i*
96Mi5mm,)
In chemical properties, however, they differ very markedly
from the paraffins^ As unsaturated oompotmds they can combing
with two monovalent atoms. Hydrogen is absorbed readily at
ordinary temperature in the presence of platinum Mack, and
paraffins are formid; the halogens (chlorine and bromine)
combine directly with them, giving dihalogen substituted com*
pounds; the halogen halides to form monohalogcn derivatives
(bydriodic acid reacts most xcadiiy, hydrochloric add, least);
and it is to be noted that the haloid adds attach cbettselves
in such a manner that the halogen atom unites Jtself to th«
carbon atom which is in combination i»ith the fewest hydrogca
atoms (W. Markownikow, Ann,, 1870, 153, p. 256).
They combine with hypochlorotis add to form chbrhydrina;
and are easily soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid, giving rise to
sulphuric acid esters; consequently if the solution be boiled with
water, the alcohol from which the olcfine was in the first place derived
is regenerated. The oxides of nitrogen convert them into nitrositea
and nitroaates (O. Walloch. Ann^ 1887, 241. p. 288. Ac; I. Sahniidt,
Bef., 1902. ^5. pp. 2323 ct seq.). They also combine with nitrosyl
-bromide ana chloride, and with many metallic haloid salts (platinum
bichloride, iridium chloride), with mercury salts (see K. A. Hofmann
and J. Sand. jScr., 1900, 33. pp. 1350 et eeq.). and those with a
tertiary carbon atom yiekl double salm with dac chloride. Dilute
potassium pcrmanBanatc oxidiies the olc6nes to glycols (C. Wagner,
Bff., 1888, 21, p. 3359). With ozone they form ozonidcs (C. Harries,
Ber,, 1904. 37^ p. 839). The higher members of the series readily
polymcrizcin the presence of dilute sulphuric add, tine chloride, &c
For the first member of the scries see Etuvlenb.
Propylene, CaH«. may be obtained by pasnng the vapour of
trimcthylene through a heated tube (S. M. Tanatar, Ber., 1899, 33,
pp. 702. 1965). It is a colourless gas which may be liquefied by a
pressure of 7 to 8. atmospheres. Bntj^ene, CMt, exists in thrva
isomeric forms: normal bulylcne. CtHrCHKTHi; pseudo-bulylene,
CHr CH :CHCH,; and tsobutylcne. (CHi)iC : CH.. Normal bntylene
is a readily condcnsible gas. Two spatial modifications of i>seinla-
butytene, CHrCHrCH-CHi.iire known, the cis and the traUM: they
are prepared by heating the sodium aalts of hydro-iodo-tiglic and
hydro-iodo-angclic acids respectively (J. Wislicenus, ilfM., 1900^
%i^ p. 228). . JsokuiyUnt, (CH»)iC:(:Hi. is formed in the diy distil-
lation of fats, and also occurs among the products obtained when the
vapour of fusel oil is led through a heated tube. It is a gas at
ordinary temperature, and may be liquefied, the liquid boiling at
-5" C. It combines with acetyl chloride in the pmence p( aac
;hloride to form a ketone, which on warming breaks down into
and X78-181* C Amylene^ CtHi*. casta in five isomeric forms. vi&
in) pracyylethvlene. CH,-CHsCHrCH:CHs; iaopropyletbyleaQ.
(CH»)iCH'CH: CHi; symmetrical methyl-ethyl-ethylene.
CHa • CH : CH • CiHi; unsymmetrical methyl-ethyl-ethylene,
(CH,)(CiH,)C:CHj: and trimethyl ethylene. (CH>)iC:af<CH,).
The h^hest members of the aeries u vet known are €troteut, CmH»
which IS obtained by the distillation of Chinese wax and is a paraffin*'
like solid which melts at 57* C, and meUne, CmHmi?), whirh is
obtained by the distillation of bees*-wax. It melts at 69* C. (B. J.
Brodie. Ann., 1848. 67, p. 210; 1849. 71. p. 156).
OLEG (^is), prince of Kiev, succeeded Rurik,as being the
eldest member tif the ducal family, in the prindpality of Great
Novgorod, the first Rosnan metropolis. Three years later he
moved southwards and, after -taking Smolensk and other places,
fixed his residence al Kiev, which .he made hb capital. He then
proceeded to btiild a fortress there and gradually compdled the
Burrcnnufog tribes to pay him tribute, extending Ms conquests
in an directions (883*^3) at the expense of the Khaaars, who
hitherto had held «11 aouthera Russia to tribute. In 907^
OLEIC ACID—OLFACTORY SYSTEM
77
with a host made up of all the subject tribes, Slavonic and Finnic,
he sailed against the Greeks la a fleet consisting, according to
the iyetopis, ol sooo vessels, each of which held 40 men; but this
estimate is plainly an exaggeration. On reaching Consuntinople,
deg disembark(»d his forces, mercilessly ravaged the suburbs
of the imperial aty, and compelled the emperor to pay tribute,
provide the Russians with provisions for the return }oumey,
and Uke fifty of them over the city. A formal treaty was then
concluded, which the Slavonians swore to observe in the names
of their gods Pcrun and Voles. Oleg returned to Kiev laden with
golden ornaments, costly cloths, wines, and all manner of precious
things. In 911 he sent an embassy of fourteen persons to
Constantinople to get the former treaty confirmed and enlarged.
The Dames of these ambassadors are preserved and they point
to the Scandinavian origin of Oleg's host; there is not a Slavonic
name among them. A new and elaborate treaty, the terms of
which have come down to us, was now concluded between the
Russians and Creeks, a treaty which evidently sought to bind
the two nat ions closely toget her and obviate all possible differences
which might arise between them in the future. There was also
to be free trade between the two nations, and the Russians
might enter the service of the Greek emperor if they desired it.
The envoys returned to Kiev in 913 after being shown the
splendours of the Greek capital and being instructed in the
rudiments of the Greek faith. In the autumn of the same year
Oleg died and was buried at Kiev.
Sec S. M. Solovev. History of Russia (Rus.), vol. i. (St Petersburg.
i8m. &c.): M. F. Vbdimirsky-Budanov, Ckreskmaihy of the History
of Russian Low (Rut.), pt. i. (Kiev. 1889). (R. N. B.)
OLEIC ACID, CHmO, or CJI.tCH-.CH- (CHJt • CO, H, an
organic add occurring as a glyceride, triolein, in nearly all fats,
and in many oils — olive, almond, cod-liver, &c (see Oils). It
appears as a by-product in the manufacture of candles. To
prepare it olive oil is saponified with potash, and lead acetate
added; the lead salts are separated, dried, and extracted with
ether, which dissolves the lead oleale; the solution is then
treated with hydrochloric acid, the lead chloride filtered off,
the liquid concentrated, and finally distilled under diminished
pressure. Oleic acid is a colourless, odourless solid, melting at
14** and boiling at 223** (10 mm.). On exposure it turns yellow,
becoming rancid. Nitric acid oxidixes it to all the fatty acids
from acetic to capric. Nitrous acid gives the isomeric elaidic
acid, C,H,rCH:CH(CH,jTCO,H, which is crystalline and
melts at 51*" Hydriodic acid reduces both oleic and elaidfc
acids to stearic acid.
Enieic ackl. C,H,rCH:CH lCH,J,fCO,H. and the womeric
brauidic acid. btXon^ to the oleK actd aeries. They occur as aly-
cerides in Tape-seed oil. m the fatty oil of mustard, and in the o'J of
grape seeds. LinoMc add. CuHt^. found as glyceride in drying
oiis. and rictnoleic add. Ci(Hti(OH)Oi, found as glyceride in castor
oil, ck»sely resemble oleic acid.
OLEN. a semi-legendary Greek bard and seer, and writer of
hymns. He is said to have been the first priest of Apollo, his
connexion with whom is indicated by his traditional birthplace —
Lycia or the land of the Hyperboreans, favourite haunts of the
god The Delphian poetess Boeo attributed to him the introduc-
ion of the cult of Apolk) and the invention of the epic metre
Many hymns, nomes (simple songs to accompany the circular
dance of the chorus), and oracles, attributed to Olcn, were pre-
served in Delos. In his hymns he celebrated Opis and ArgS,
two Hyperborean maidens who founded the cult of ApoUo in
Delos, and in the hymn to Eilythyia the birth of ApoDo and
Artemis and the foundation of the Delian sanctuary His reputed
Lydan origin corroborates the view that the cult of Apollo was
an importation from Asia to Greece. His poetry generally was
of the kind called hieratic.
See CalKniachus. Hymn to Dehs, 3054 Pansanias !. 18, ii 13;
v. 7; ix. 27; X. 5; Herodotus iv. 35.
OltROM, an island lying off the west coast of France, opposite
the months of the Charetite and Seudre» and induded in the
department of Charente-Inf^ricure. In 1906 the population
numbered 16,747. In area (66 sq. m.) ft ranks next to Corsica
; French islands. It is about 18 ol in length from N.W.
to S.E., and 7 in extreme breadth; the width of the strait
{Pertuis do Maumusson) separating it from the mainland is at
one point less than a mile. The island is flat and low-lying and
fringed by dunes on the coast. The greater part is very fertile,
but there are also some extensive salt marshes, and oyster
culture and fishing are carried on. The chief products are
com, wine, fruit and vegetables. The inhabitants are mostly
Protestants and make excellent sailors. The chief places are
St Pierre (pop. 1582 in 1906), Le ChAtcau d'01£ron (1546),
and the watering-place of St Trojan-Ies-Bains.
OI6ron, the Uliarus Insula of Pliny, formed part of the duchy
of Aquitaine, and finally came into the possession of the French
crown in 1370. It gave its name to a medieval code of maritime
laws promulgated by Eleanor of Gnienne.
OLFACTORY SYSTEM, in anatomy. The olfactory system
consists of the outer nose, which projects from the face, and the
nasal cavities, contained in the skull, which support the olfactory
mucous membrane for the perception of smell in their upper
parts, and act as respiratory passages below.
The bony framework of the nose » part of the skull (q.v.), but the
outer nose is only supported by bone above; lower down its
shape is kept by an " upper " and " lower lateral cartilage " and
two or three smaller plates known as " cartilagincs minores."
Fran R. nowdcn.h Cunninfhim'a fcrf-Awl ef Amatomy.
FiC. X.— Profile View of the Bony and Cartilaginous Skeleton of
the Noee^
The expanded lower part of the side of the outer nose is known
as the " ala " and is only formed of skin, both externally aixl
internally, with fibro-fatty tissue between the layers. The inner
nose or nasal cavities are separated by a septum, which is seldom
quite median and is covered in its lower two-thirds by thick,
highly vascular mucous membrane composed of columnar
ciliated epithelium with masses of acinous glands (see Epithhual
Tissues) embedded in it, while in its upper part it is covered
by the less vascular but nnore specialized olfactory membrane.
Near the front of the lower part of the septum a slight opening
into a short blind tube, which runs upward and backward, may
sometimes be found; this is the vestigial remnant of " Jacobson's
organ," which will be noticed later. The supporting framework
of the septum is made up of ethmoid above, vomer below, and
the " septal cartilage " in front. Tie outer wall of each nasal
cavity is divided into three meat(is by the overhanging turbinated
78
OLFACTORy SYSTEM
bones (see fig. 2) Above the superior turbinated is a space
between it and the roof known as the " recessus spheDo-ethmoi-
dalis," into the back of which the " sphenoidal air sinus " opens.
Between the superior and middle turbinated bones is the
" supcnor meatus," containing the openings of the " posterior
ethmoidal air cells," while between the middle and inferior
turbinatcds is the "middle meatus," which is the largest of the
three and contains a rounded elevation known as the " bulla
ethmoidalis." Above and behind this is often an opening for
the " middle ethmoidal cdls," while below and in ^ront a deep
skkk-shaped gutter runs, the "hiatus semilunaris," wMch
communicates above with the ** frontal air sinus " aiMi below
with the opening into the " antrum of Highmore " or " maxillary
antrum." So deep is this hiatus semilunaris that if, in the dead
subject, water ispoured into the frontal sinus it all passes into the
O^eninc of Biid<flc ethmoidal cdlx
Fig. a.— View of the Outer Wall of the Nose— the Turbinated Dones having been removed.
Vestibule.
2. Opening of antrum of Highmore.
3. Hutus semilunaris.
4. Bulla ethmoidalis.
5. Agger nasi.
6. Opening of anterior ethmoidal cells
7. Cut edge of superior turbinated bone
8. Cut edge of middle turbinated bone
9. Pharyngeal orifiq: of Eustachian tube.
antrum and none escapes through the nostrils until that cavity
b fuU. The passage from the frontal sinus to the hiatus semi-
lunaris b known as the " infundibulum," and into thb open the
" anterior ethmoidal ceUs," so that the antrum acts as a sink
for the secretion of these ccUs and of the frontal sinus. Rimning
downward and forward from the front of the middle turbinated
bone b a curved ridge known as the " agger nasi," which forms
the anterior boundary of a slightly depressed area called the
" atrium."
The " inferior meatus " b bdow the inferior turbinated bone,
and, when that b lilted up, the valvular opening of the nasal
duct (see Eye) b seen. In front of the inferior meatus there b a
depression just above the nostril whldi b lined with skin instead
of mucous membrane and from which short hairs grow; this if
called the " vestibule." The roof of the nose b very narrow,
and here the olfactory nerves pass in through the cribriform
plate. The floor b a good deal wider so that a coronal section
through each nasal cavity has roughly the appearance of a right-
angled triangle. The anterior wall b formed by the nasal bones
and the upper and lower latecal cartilages, while postcrioriy
the Mtenoidal turbinated bone separates the nasal cavity from
the sphenoidal sinus above, and below there b an opemng into
the naso-pharynx known as the ** posterior nasal aperture "
or "ch«ana." The mucous membrane of the outer wall b
characteristic of the respiratory tract as high ta the superior
turbinated bone; it b ciliated all over and very vascular where
it covers the inferior turbinated ; superficial to and above the
superior turbinated the olfactory tract b reached and the
specialised oUactoiy cpiLhclium begins.
Emhrydony.
In the third week of intra-utcrinc life two pits make their appear-
ance on the under side of the front of the head, and are known as the
olfactory or nasal pits, tbcy uxe the first appearance of the true
olfactory rcgkm of the no«, and some of their epithelial limng crib
send od axon« (iicc Nsavous Svstem) which arborise with the
dendrites of the cells of the olfactory lobe
of the brain and so form the olfactory
nerves (see J. Dlwe, AnaL Hefte, 1897:
also />. Anat. Sec^ J. Anal, and Phyn^
1897. p. li). Between the olfactory piu
the broad median fronto-nasal process
ffrows down from the forehead region to
form the dorsum of the nose (see fig. 3),
and the anterior part of the nasal septum,
while outside them the lateral nanl pro-
cesses grow down, and htcr on meet the
maxillary processes from the first visceral
arch. In this way the nasal cavities are
formed, but for some time they aie
separated from the raouth by a thin bwxo-
nasal membrane which eventually b broken
through, after thu the mouth and nnse
arc one cavity unUl tlie formation of the
palate m the third month (se<5 Mouth and
Salivary Glands). In the third month
J.icobson 9 orjpjn may be seen as a well-
marked tube lined with respiratory muosua
membrane and running up%nird and bnckr
ward, close to the septum, from its orifice.
which IS just above the foramen of Stensen
in the anterior palarine csnal. In man it
never has any conncidon with the olfactory
•membrane or olfactory nervea. Internally
and below it is surrounded by a delicate
sheet of cartilage, which b distinct from
that oF the nasal septum. No explana>
tbn of the function 01 lacobaon's organ i«
roan b known, and it is probably entitvly
auvistic. At birth the nasal cavitKs are
very shallow from above downward, but
they rapidly deepen till the age of puberty.
The external nose at birth projects very
little from the plane of the laoe escept at
the tip. the button-like shape of which m
babies is wdl known. In the second ^v4
third vcar the bridge becomes more preoii-
nent. but after puberty the nasal bones te^
to tilt upward at their bwer ends 10 fom
the eminence which is teen at its beat in
the Roman nose. (For further deuils see
Quain's Anatomy, voL L, London, 1908.)
Comparative Anatomy.
In Amphioxus among the Acrania there is a ciliated pit above the
anterior end of the central ncri'ous system, which is prx>babiy a nidi-
moit of an unpaired olfactory organ. In the Cydoetomata (lampirya
and bags) the pit is at first ventral, but later becomes dorsal and
shares a common opening with the pituitary invaginatmn. It
furthermore becomes divided internally into two lateral haKTS.
In fishes there are abo two lateral pits, the nostrils of whkA open
sometimes, as in the elasmobranchs (sharks and rays), on to the
ventral surface of the snout, and somedmes, as in the h^her fishes,
on to the dorsal surface. Up to this siage the olfactory organs ate
mere piU, but in the Dipnoi (mud-fish) an opening b established
from tnem into the front of the roof of the mouth, and so they serve
as respiratory pasmges as well as organs for the sense of smell.
In the higher Amphibia the nasal organ becomes included in the skull
and respiratory and olfactory parts are dbtinguished In thb cbss.
too, turbinal ingrowths are found, and the luiao-lachrymal duct
appears. In the lizards, among the Reptilta. the olfactory and
respiratory parts are very distinct, the Utter being lined only by
stmtified epithelium unconnected with the olfactory nerves. Theie
b one true turbinal bone growing from the cuter waU, and dose to
thb is a large nasAl gland In crocodiles the hard palate b formed.
and there is henceforward a considerable distance between the open-
ings of the external and internal nares. I n thb order, too (Croeoduia)
OLFACTORY ^VSTEM
79
fint fbtfnd extendirtji from the olf*ctory cavhict
The bird** arrangement is very like that ol the
. '(i89i>t and Hi the kangaroo, /. Anal, and Pkp., v«l.
also G. Eliot Smith on JacotMon** organ. Anoi^m,
air ail
into the fkuU-tiones.
reptilea; oKactoiy and respiratory chambers are preset, and into
the latter projects the true tmiMnal, thouch there is a pseodo-turbinal
m the upper or olfactory chamber. In mammals the olfactory
diamber of the nose is variously developed; most of them are
" macroamatic," and have a large area of olfactory mucous mem-
brane : some, like the seals, whalebone whales, monkeys and man are
" microsmatic," while the toothed whales have the olfactory re^on
practically su pp res s e d in the adult, and are said to be ** anosmatic "
There are fenerally five turbinal bones in macrosmatic mammals,
so that man has a reduced number The lowest of the series or
•• maxillo-turbinar' is the equivalmt of the single true turbinal bone ^, .... .^....- , . , — . - ^ .
of birds and reptiles, and in most mammals ts a double scroll, one I glands become overgrown, fornMngJaree procuberant nodular n
*^ <* • ovur which the dilated capillaries are
Msdlbrr ^ ^ ^ pbinly visible. This condition is termed
Eys proem r,^^tp*^« (jj;,^ ^^^ frhioophynia or hammer
>^^i^ \ ^ I Haajibaiif irti fiose), though tiMfe is iio tocfease in fatty
tissue. NMal acne occurs mainly In
dyspeptics and tea drinkers, and the
more advanced condition, Kponoa nan«
chiefly in eMerly men addicted to al*
coholism. The treatment of acne is the
removal of the dvapepsia with the local
application of nilphur ointment or of a
lotion of perchloride of mercury. Ua*
P^.Zdd.Sde.
26 (1891). also , _ - .
Ameiger, xj. Band No 6 (l^S). Tor general literature on th«
comparative anatomy of the olfactory system up to 1906, see
R. Wiedersheim's Compcraiife Analomy <^ VtrUbraUs^ translated
and adapted by W. N Parker (London. 1907). (F. G. P.)
DUKASE9 br Olfactory Svsteh
External Affedhns and Injurw of Ike JVaie.—Acne rosacea Is one
of the most frequent nasal skin affections. In an early stage it
consists of dilatation or congestion of the eapilUries. and Uter of a
hypertrophy of the sebaceous follicles. This may be aocompanicd
by the formation of pustule*. In an exaggerated stage the sebaceous
'<<lir*tHjqr
u.::^^^
I. Side view of the head of human embryo
about 27 days old. showins the olfactory
pit and the visceral arches and clefts
(from His).
n. Tninswne acction through the head of
an embryo, showing the relation of the
dfactoiy oits to trie forcbrain and to
the root of the stomatodacal space.
II L Head of hunun embryo about 29 <Says
old. ahowif^ the division of tho lower
part of the mesial froutal proccsa into
the two globular proc es s es , the inter-
vention (3 the olfactory pita beCwwa
the mesial and lateral nasal ptooesaes,
and the approximation of the maxillary
. and lateral nasal proceasos. whicb» how-
ever, are separated by the ocukMoaal
sulcus (from His).
IV Transverse sectkm of bead of embryo.
lAiowing the deepening of the olfactory
jttM and thfiff relatmn to the hemt-
sphcre vcakles of the fore-brai«.
aightly capiHarias may be destroyed by an
aoplicitbn of the galvano<autery or by
efectrolysia. Free dissection of the re*
dundant tissue from around the nasal
cartilaf^ is necessary in lipoma nai4.
skin bemg grafted on to the raw surf ace.
The nasal bones are frequently frac-
tured as the result of direct violence, at
by a blow from a cricket ball or stick.
Tne fracture b usually transverse, and
may be oommunicated, leading to much
deformity if left untreated. The tre9t'>
ment b the immediate reposition of the
bony fragments. The old-standing cases
where there b CDn&iderable depression
C^fcbfri wiring the fragmenu may be resorted ta
In nvroerous cases the subcutancona
injection of paraffin may improve tht
shape of the organ. Deflection of tht
septum may also resuK from similar
injuries, and lateral displacement may
^ cause sobacquent nasal obstniction and
m^.^ require the straightening of the septum.
yr^f Usiona involvinf; conssderable toss of
substance due to tn jnry or to syphilitic or
tuberculous disease have led to many
methods being devised to sopplv Hie
missinK pact. In the Indian tuctbod of
rhinoplasty a flap b em from the lore-
head, to which it b left attached by a
pedide: the flap b then turned dotm-
waros to cover the mbsing portion of tlie
nose; when the parts have united, the
pedicle b cut through. In the HaUan
operation devised by TheliacotiM (Taglia-
cosai). a ftaiF> was taken from the pMtient'a
arm. the arm being kept fixed to the
head until the fbp has united.
Dfsemiei of the Jnlenor of the Nose.^
E^slaxis or bleeding of the nose may
anse from many conditions. It is par^
ticularly common in young girls at the
time of puberty, being a form of vicariouB
menstniation. It also occurs in cerebral
leaf turning upwaH and the other down. Jacob«on*s organ first
appears in amphlDians, where it b found as an amcropostcrior
gntter in the floor of the nasal carity, sometimes being dose to the
septum, at other times far away, thouah the former position b the
Rkore primitive. In reptiles the roof 01 the gutter doses in on each
side, and a tube is fonned lying below and internal to the nasal
cavity, opening ameriorly into the mouth and ending by a Mind
cxtmnity. poatcrsorly to wMch branches of the olfactoiy and tri-
geminal nerves are distributed. In the higher reptile* (crocodiles
and chdonians) the organ b suppressed in the adult, and the same
appt'ies to birds: but in the lower mammals, espcciafly the mono-
tremes. it b very wdl dev\tloped. and is enclosea in a cartilaginous
sheath, from which a turbinal process projects into its interior
in other fflnnwaab, with the exception of the Primates and perhaps
the Chiroptera. the organ b quite distinct, though even in roan.
a» has been shown, its presence can be dcmoostrated in the embryo.
The special opcnioe through which it cnmmunii-atcs with the mouth
b f hr foramen of Stensrn m the anterior palatine canaL
See i- Symington on thtorfan of Jacobaon in the Omithorynchus,
mecsiion, heart disease, scurvy, haetno-
1 diaeaae. The treatment will depend
phy4b. o' aa a sign of local <
upon Che caose. In patients with high arterial tension epistaxb
may be of dinsct benefit In other cases rest on the back may be
trira, with the local application of tanno-gallic acid or haaelio or
adrenalin, either in a spray or on absorbent cotton. If these should
not atop the haem o rr hii ge the nose must be plugged. In cases which
arise from specific forms of ulceration, such as tuberrulosb and
syphilis, the area should be rendered anaesthetic by cocaine, the
bleeding points found, and the vcssrb obliterated by the e1cctrt>-
cnutery. Pblypi in the nam! paasa^e* are also a frequent cause of
epistaxia.
Rk»niHs, or intbrnnrntfon of the mucous membrane of the noae,
occurs both in acute and chronic forms. ' Of the acute the simple
catarrhal form termed ** oorya " forms the widely known " cold in
the bond." The tendency of acute coryza to aflcct entire families,
and to be communicable from one person to another, points to ita
infectious nature, though probably some predisposing conditioa of
health b necessary for Its development. It Is considerrd proved
that the ayraptoms are due to the prwnce and development dl
8o
OLGA— OLHAO
mvtnl^MaetniathonB^amu, OfthmfbenoiCimportamtftlw
micrococcus caiarrfaali* docnbcd by Martin Kirchner ui 1890^ bat
FricdUnder't paeumo-bacillut ha* abo been found, la ordinary
ca«es o( coryn, mmczuik, congestion of the naaal mucous membrane
and a profuw watery diacharKc usher in the attack, and the inibm-
mation may extend to the pharynx, larynx and trachea, blocking
of the Eustachian tube producing a temporary deafness. Later the
discharge may become muco-purulent. One attack of coryza
conveya no immunity frMn subicqucnt attacks and sonae persons
seem particularly susceptible. The treatment is directed towards
incrcaaiflg the action of the kidneys, skin and bowels. A brisk
meicuriar purgative is indicated, and salicin and aspirin are useful
in many cases. Considerable relief may be obtained by washing
out the najol cavities several times a day with a warm totion con-
taining boric acid. Those who are unusually prone to catch cold
should habituate themselves to an open air life bv day and an open
window by night, adenoids or enlarged tonsils sbouM be removed,
and the diet should be modified so as not to contain an excess of
surchy foods. An acute croupous inflammatkm occasbnallv attacks
the nasal mucous membrane when the Klebs-Ldffler bacinos is not
present, but the nasal membrane often shares in true diphtheria,
oritaiay be the onty^oraaa to be infected thereby. The diagnosis is
of course bscteriologicaC
As a result of frequent catarrhal attacks the naaal mucous mem-
brane may become the scat of a chronic rhinitis in which the turbinals
become swollen with oedema, and congested aad finally thkkened
by increase in the fibrous tissue. There is an excessive muco-purulent
discharge, and the patient is unable to breathe through the nose;
deafness and adcnosd vegetaibns may be the result. In the early
Btaffcs the nasal, cavity sbouM be washed out night and morning
with an alkaline lotion, such as bicarbonate of soda, or a caustic,
such as chromic acid, should be used in swabbing over the alTccted
part The application of tlie galvano<autery here is useful, but
when the areas are much hypcrtrophied the hypenrophied portion
of the inferior turbinals may have to be removed under cocaine.
A special form of recurrent hypertrophic rhinitis is hay fever (^.v.).
Rhinitis Sicca is a form of chronic rhinitis in which there is but
little discharge, crusts or scabs which may be difficult to remove
forming in tlie nasal cavities: the pharynx may be also affected.
Atrophic rhinitis or ozaena usually attacks children and veung
adults, foltowirw on measles or acarlet fever. Crusts form, and favour
the rttcntk>n of the purulent dischar|ie. The disease may extend to
the nasal sinuses and septic absorption take place. The treatment
is to keep the nasal cavity clean by irrigation with solution of per-
manganate of potash or carbolic acid lotion, the nose then being
wiped and smeared with lanolin or partially plugged with a tampon
of cotton-wool, the process being repeated at frequent intervals, the
general treatment being that for anaemia. Disease of the middle
turbinated bone is also a cause of an offensive nasal discharge, and
rhinitis occurring in infants gives rise to the obstructed rcspimtioa
known as " the snuflles."
Three forms of nasal polypi are described, the mucous, the fibrous
and the malignant. The general symptoms of nasal polypus are a
feeling of stumness in one or both nostrils, inability to breathe down
the nose and a thin watery discharge. A nasal tone of voice, together
with cough and asthma, nuiy be present, or there may be partial
or complete loss of the sense of smell (anosmia). The treatment of
mucous polypi is their removal by the forceps or the snare, the base
of the growtn being afterwards carefully examined and cauterized
with the galvano-cautery.
Fibrous polypi are usually very vascular, and may be a cause of
severe epistaxis as well as oiobslruction of breathing. '* dead voice."
siccpiocts and deafness. Tlif increasing growth may lead to ex-
pansion of the bridge of the nose and deiormity of the facial boaes,
known as '* frog- face." The tendency of fibrous pt^ypi to take on
malignant sarcomatous characters is specially noticeable. Extir-
pation of the growth as soon as its nature is recognised is thoefore
urvently demanded.
The chief diieases of the nasal septum are absceasos. due to the
breaking down of haeniatonuta, syphilitic gummota (leading to deep
excavation and bony destruction), tuberculous disease m whicn
a small vclk>wish grey ukcr forms and what Is known as porforating
ulcer 01 the aeptam, which is ract with just within the oostriu
The latter tends to run a chronic course, and the detachment of one
of its crusts may cause coistaxis. Rbtnosckronia was first described
by F. Hcbra in 1870^ ana is endemic in Russian Polaad» Calicia aod
Hungary, but is unknown in England, except amongst alien immi-
grants. The infecting organism is a specific t>acillus« and the disease
Itarts as a chronic smooth painless obstruction with the formation
of dense plate-like masses of tissue of stony haidncao. Treatment
other than that of excision of the masses has pcoved useless,
though the recent plan of introduction of the tnjectioo of a
vaccine of the bacillus nay in future modify the progress of the
disease.
The accctsoiy sinuses of the nose are also praoe to diseaM, The
mauTlary antrum may become filled with muco-pu% forming an
empyema, pus escaping intermittently by way of the nose. The
condition causes pam and swelling, and may require the irrigation
and drainage of the sntnim. The frontal sinuses may become filled
with mucous, owing to the swclliag of tbe oasal mucoua pieabraoa
over the middle tutbioaiedl booe, or an acute inflammaikw may
spread to the frontal siouscs. giving rise to an eoipyema in that
lity. There is severe froatol |^ia. and io some cases a fuln
00 the forehead over the afiected SKle. the pus often pointing in this
site, or there may be fk dischai]ge^ of pus through the noie. *"
The
treatment u that of incision and irrigation of the sinus (in some cases
scraping out of the sinus) and the re-establtshment of communication
with the nose, with free drainage. The ethmoidal and sphenoidal
sinuses are also frequently the site of empyemata, giving rise to pain
in the orbit and the back of the rraac, and a discharge into the naso-
pharynx. In the case of the ethmoidal sinus it nay give rice (o
exopnthalmus and to strabismus (squint), with the formation of a
tumour at the inner wall of the orbit and fever and delirium at night.
In the young the condition may become nqudly fatal. Suppuration
in the sphenoidal sinus may lead to blindness from involvement of
the sheath of the ojHic nerve, and dangerous complications such as
septic basal meningitis and thrombosis of the cavernous sinus may
occur. Acute ethmoiditia and sphenotditis ore serious conditions
demanding immediate surgical intervention. (H. L. H.)
OLOA, wife of Igor, prince of Kiev, and afterwards (from 945)
regent for Sviatotlav her son, was baptized at Constantinople
about 9SS and died about 969. She was afterwards canonized in
the Russian church, and is now commemorated on the iiLh of
July.
OlOIBRD (d. 1377), grand-duke of Lithuania, was one of tlie
seven sons of C»edymin, grand<<ltike of Lithuania, among whom
on his death in 1341 be divided his domains, leaving the youngest,
Yavnuty, in possession of the capital, Wilna, with a nominal
priority. With the aid of his brother Kiejstut, Olgierd in 1345
drove out the incapable Yavnuty and declared himself grand-
duke. The two and thirty years of his reign (1345-1377) were
devoted to the development and extension of Lithuania, and he .
lived to make it one of the greatest states in Europe. Two
factors contributed to pioduce this result, the extraordinary
political sagacity of Olgierd and the Iife4ong devotion of his
brother Kicjstut. The Teutonic knights in the north and the
Tatar hordes in the south were equally bent on the subjection
of Lithuania, while Olgierd's eastern and western neighbours,
Muscovy and Poland, were far more frequently hostile competitois
than serviceable allies. Nevertheless, Olgierd not only succeeded
in holding his own, but acquired influence and territory at the
expense of both Muscovy and the Tatars, and extended the
borders of Lithuanit to the shores of the Black Sea. The principal
effort3 of this eminent empire-maiur were directed to securing
those of the Russian lands which had formed part of the ancient
grand-duchy of Kiev. He procured the election of his son
Andrew as prince of Pskov, and a powerful minority of the citizens
of the republic of Novgorod held the balance in his favour against
the Muscovite influence, but his ascendancy in both these
commercial centres was at the be^t precarious. On the other
hand be acquired permanently the important principalities of
Smolensk and Bryansk in central Russia. H!s relations with
the grand-dukes of Muscovy were friendly on the whole, and
twice he ourried orthodox -Russian princesses; but this did not
prevent him from besieging Moscow in 1368 and again in 1371,
both times unsuccessfully. OlgienTs most memorable feat was
his great victory over the Tatars at Siniya Vodui on the Bug in
13/S2, which practically broke up the great Kipchak horde and
compelled the khan to migrate still farther south and establish his
headqtiarters for the future in the Crimea. Indeed, but for the
unceasing simultaneous struggle with the Teutonic knights,
the burden of which was heroically b<mie by Kiejstut, Russian
historians frankly admit that Lithuania, not Muscovy, must have
become the dominant power of eastern Europe. Gflglerd died
in 1377, accepting both Christianity and the tonsure shortly
before his death. His son JagicUo ultimately ascended the
Polish throne, and was the founder of the dynasty which ruled
Poland for nearly 300 year$.
See Kozimierx Stadnickl, The Sen's cf Cedymtn (Pol) (Lemberg.
1849-1853). Vladimir Bonifatevich Antonovich. Monogtapk om tSs
HisUfry of Western Russia (Rus.), vol. I. (Kiev, 1885). (R. N. B.)
OLRXO. a seaport of southern Portugal, in the district of
Fan*; 5 ra. E. of Faro, on the Atlantic coast. I^op. (1900) 10,009.
Olhfio has a good harbour at the head of the Barra Nova, a deep
channel among the sandy islands which fringe the coast. Wine,
fruit, cork, boakels -md sumach are exported in small roasting
OLIGARCHY— OLIGOCENE SYSTEM
81
thne Me fmpwtMt amdkm Md toBiiy fiiiiaia; uaA
bMti, nib and cordage are manufactuied
OUeARCBT (Gr. ^Xfyoc, few, d^x^. nik), in poUticaJ phflo-
tophy, the ton applied to a govonmeiit exerdied by a rdativdy
aoall nitmlMr of the meaibaa of a oommniuty. It is thus the
appiopiiau term for what is noir geaerally koown as " aristo-
cracy" (qjt). The meaning of the terms lias substantial^
alUred since FUto's day, for in tho ReptMk " oligarchy "
meant the rule of the wealthy, and " aristocracy" that of the
really best people.
OUOOGBII fYRBM (fiom the Gr Hhkrm, few, and cao^
recent), in fsobgy, the name given to the aeeood division of the
older Tertiary locks^ vis. those which occur above the Eocene
and below the Mioeeneatrata. These rocks were originally classed
by Sir C. LycU as *' older Mioceno," the term OUgocene being
proposed by H. £. Beytkh in 1854 and again fai 1858. Following
A. de Lappaicnt, the OMgootne is here rcfpnled as divisible
into two stages, an upper one, the Etampian (from £tampes),
equivalent to the Rup^Uan of A. Dumont (1849), and a lower
one, the SannoWan (IroB Sannob near Fans), equivalent to
the Tongiian (from Tongris m Limburg) of Dumont (18S9).
This kiwcr division is the Ligurian of some authors, and corre-
^Mnda with the Lattoifian (Latdorf) of IL Mayer in north
Germany; it is in part the equivalent of the older term Ludian
of de Lappareot. It shookl be pointed out that several authors
retain the Aquitanian stage (see Midcbmb) at the top of the
OiigBcene, but there are sufiidently good rtasoBS lor removing
it to the younger system.
The OUgoeene dqmsits are of fresh^water, bcscklsh, marine
and terrestrial oiigini they include soft sands, sandstones, grits,
marls, shales, limestones, conglomerates and lignites. The
geographical aspect of Europe during this period is indicated
on the accompanying map. Here and there, as in N. Gvmany,
fe
T^
^
•
^«
%fc
m^
C--
■K^
f m -9^"^
iitt««Mtrpwi«r«fet f
OOgoceac Period *•
^S'^'^V
J^rrr-
the sea gained ground that had been unoccupied by Eoeene
waters, but important changes, associated with the continuation
nC elevatoty processes in the Pyrenees and Alps whkh had
begun in the preceding period, were in progreu, and a general
relative uplifting took place which caused much of the Eocene
sea floor to be occupied at this time by lake basins and lagoons.
The mo v em e nts, however, were not aU of a negative character
as regards the water areas, for oscillations were evidently
frequent, and subsidence must have been considerable in some
regions to admit of the accumulation of the great thickness of
material fooad deposited there. Perhaps the most striking
change from Eocene topography in Europe b to be seen in the
exteuion of the OUgocene sea over North (jermany, whence
it extended eaatward through Poland and Russia to the Aral-
Caspian region, communicating thence with Arctic waters by
way ol a Ural de p res si on. The Asian extension of the central
mediterranean sea appears to have begun to be limited. It was
later in the period wbien the wide-spread emersion set in.
AA 2*
In Dcitmo OUsooene fomatkms are found only in the Hampshire
Basin and the Isle of Wight; from the admixture of frarii-water,
marine and estuarioe deposits, £. Forbes named these the " FluviO'
marine series." The following are the more imporunt subdivisionsi
in deaoendine order: The Hamstead (Hampstcad) beds, marine at
the top, with Ostrta caUifera, N<Uica^ &c., cstuarine and freth-
water bdow, with l/nto, Vinpants and the remains of crocodiks,
turtles and mammab. The Bonbridge marb, fresh-water, estuarine
and aiarine, resting upon the Bembridge limestone, with many
fresh-water foasib such as Limnaea, Planar^, Ckarat brge land
snails, Ampkidrcmus^ HHix^ Ctandina^ and many insects and plane
leaves. The Osborne beds, marb, cbys and limestones, with c/aM,
Umnaeat Ac The Hendon beds (upper), fresh-water cbys. maris
and limestones (middb), brackish and marine, more sandy (lower),
bnckish and fresh-water cbys, marls, tufaoeous limestones and
sandstonca. The cbys and sands of the Bovey Basin in Devonshire
were formeriy classed as Miocene, but they are now regarded by
C. Reid as Eocene on the evidence of the pbnt remahis, though there
b still a possibility that they may be found to be of OUgocene age.
In France the best-known tract of Oligoccne rocks rests m the
Paris basin in close rebtion&hip with the underlying Eocene. These
rocks include the firet and second gypsum beds, the source of " plaster
of Parb"; at Montmartre the first or upper bed b 90 metres in
thickness, and some of the beds contain siliceous nodules (fusils)
and numerous roammalbn remains. Above the gypsum beds is the
travertine of Champigny-sur-Manie, a series <A blue and white marb
(supra-^pseous marb), followed by tho " gbiscs veru " or greenish
marls. At the tfip of the lower Olisoccne of thb dbtrict b the
lacustrine " calcaire de Brie " or middb travertine, which at Fert6*
sous'Jouane b exploited for milbtones; thb b assocbted with the
Fontaindileau llinestone, which at Chateau-Landon and Souppes b
efficiently compact to form an important buildinff stone, used m the
Are de Tnompbe and other stnictures in Parb. Tnc upper OUgocene
of Paris begins with the manut d kuiires, followed by the brackish
and fresh-water molasse of Etrecfay, and a series of sandy beds, of
which the best known are chose of Fontainebleau, Etampea and
Ormoy; in these occur the groups of calcite crystals, charged with
sand, familiar in all mineral collections. Elsewhere in France similar
mined marine, fresh-water and brackish beds are found: in Aqui-
taine tbere are marine and lacustrine marb, Umestones and molasse :
marine beds occur at Bbrritx; lacustrine and fresh-water maris and
limestones with lignite appear in the sub-Pyrenees; in Provence
there are breckisb red days, congkMneiatcs and Ugnites, with
limestones In the upper parts; and in Limagne there are mottled
sands, arkoses, cbys and fresh-water limestones. In the Jure region
and on the borders of the central massif a peculiar group of deposits,
the ferrotfi ndtraiitkique, b found in beds and In pockets in Jurassic
linMStones. Sometimes this depont consists of red cby (bolus) with
of ^aolitic iron, as in Jura and FrancheKX>mt)fc. Alsace, &c.]
r, as in Bouigogne. Berry, the valley of the Aubois,
___. .„, it b made up of a bfeocb or conglomerate of Jurassic
pebbles cemented with linionite and caibooate of lime or silica
Can intimate mixture of mari and iron ore in these dbtricu b called
^castilbrd "). At Quercy the cementing material b phosphate ol
lime derived from the bones of mammals {Adapts, Necrelnmur,
Palatotkermm, Xiphodan, &c.), which are so mimerous that it has
been suggested that these aniroab must have been suffocated by
nseous enunations. SixniUr ferruginous deposits occur in South
Germany.
. In the Alpine region the Ofigocene rocks assiraie the character
of the Flysch, a complex asaembnge of marly and sandy shales and
soft sandstones with cakareous cement (** madgno '*)• The Flysch
phase of deposition had began before the cbse of the p reced in g
period, but the bulk of tt belongs to the Otigtxrene, and b especblty
characteristic of the lower part. The Flysch may attain a very great
thickness: in Dauphin^ it is said to be aooo metres. ObscuJre pbnt*
nice impressions are common on certain horixons of thb formation,
and have received such names as Chondrites, Fticviis, HHmin'^
thoidea. The " grts de Taveyannax " and " WUdflysch " of Lake
Thun contain fragments of eruptive rocks. Marine beds occur at
Barr^e, Desert, Chamb^; ftc., and parallel with the normal FKscfa
in the higher Alps of Vaudois b a nummuUtic limestone: both
here and near Interiaken, in the matbte of Ralli^stOckc, calcareous
iJgae arc abundant. Part of the " schistes des Gnsons '* {** Bflndner
Sdiiefer ") have been regarded as of Olieocene age. In the L6niaa
region the " Flysch rouge " at the foot of the Dent du Mkli betonp
to the upper part of the Flysch formation.
In North Germany the lower OUgocene consists brgely of sandy
mari^, often ^uconttic; typical bcaUties are Egeln near Magdebuff
and Latdoff near Bemburv; at Sembnd the giaucenitic sand coo-
tains nodules of amber, with insects, derived from Eocene strata.
The upper (Migocene beds, which covtr a wide area, comprise the
Stettin sands and Septarian Cby or Ropetfon. marine beds tending
to merge laterally one hito another. In the Mainx basin a petroleum-
bearing sandy marl b found at INschelbronn and Lobsann in Alsaet
undertying a f r^-water limestone which b followed by the marine
" Meeressand " of Abey. Lignites {Bramnkohl) are widely spread in
this ftgion and appear at Latdorf, Leiptig, in Westphalia and
Mccklenburgi at fialte b a variety calledjpyrop^te, whfch iS
Mecklenburg: at Halle ts a variety caiiea pyropi*siti
exploited at weineafcb for the manufacture of paraffin.
S2
OLIGOCLASE—OLIPHANT, L.
fn Bckiam a niidy MTfet nATemmenan, AMchfain. Henlsbn).
mainly oibrackMh-water origin, » tuoceedod by the marine aands of
Berch (with the clay of Boom), which paaa up through the inferior
aanda oi Bolderberg into the Miooene. In Switserland. beyond the
limits of the Flytch, nearer the Alpine nuusif, b a belt of grita,
limeitonct and ciayt In an unoompacted condition, to which the name
** moUiae " ia utually given; mbcixi with the molaMe b an inoonetant
conglomeratic littocmf formation, called Nat^uk. The mobiae
occurt abo in Bavaria, wheie it b several thousand feet tMck and
oontaina lignltcA. Oligocene depoaits occur in the Carpathian regioa
and Tirol; aa Flyich and bracush and bcuetnne beda with lignite
in Kbutenbarg, lignite* at Hftring in Tirol. In the Spanish Pyrenees
they are well developed; in the Apennines the scaly clays C^aiigilte
pcagliose ") are of thb age; whib in Calabria they are remented
by thicic conglomeratea and Flyech. Flyich appears also in Dalmatia
and Istria (where it b called " tassello ") and in North Bosnia,
where it oonuins marine limestones. Lignites are found at Soctica
and Styrla. marine beds in the Balkan peninmib. gbuconitic sands
prevail in South RussU, Flysch with sands and gnu in the Caucasus,
Wnile marine deposits also occupy the Aral-Caspbn legion and Ar-
menb, and are to be traced Into Persia. Oligoeene rocks are known
in North Africa, Algeria, Tunis and Egypt, with the silicified trees
and basalt sheets north of the Fayam. In North America the rocks
of thb period have not been very cleariy differentiated, but they
may possibly be represented by the White river beds of S. Dakota,
the white and blue marls of lackson on the Mississippi, the " lack-
•onlan " white limestone of Alabama, the Ihnestone of Ocala in
Florida, certain lacustrine days in the Uinta basin, and by the rib-
band shalM with asphalt and petroleum in the coastal range of
California. In South America and the Antilles upper Oligocene b
found, and the lignite beds of Coronel and Lota in Chile and in the
Straits of Magellan may be of thb age; in Patasonb are the lower
OUgooene marine beds (*' Patasonian ") and beds with mammalian
remains. In New Zcabnd the (Jaroaru series of J. Hutton it regarded
as Oligocene: at its base are interstratified basic volcanic rocks.
A correlation of Oligocene strau b summarised in the following
table i^
In the Eocene seaa,(CMe#«r»«t. Etklmel ampn , Chpeatltt, SttaOmJ.
Corab were abundant, and oummulites sttU coottalied tiU acv tM
clo«e of the period, but they were diminished in sice,
Rbfekences.—" Geology of the Isle of WWhr,'* Uam. CeU,
Suney (2nd ed. 1889); A. von Koenen, Ahkait£ mtf. SpecUgkart
Pnuu. X (i«»9-i894); M. Vdkst, Dtr BrAunkohUnk^gbMim
(Halb, 1880): E. van den Brooek. " Mat^riavx pour I'^uide de
rOUgocinc beige "Batf. Soc, Bdi. M, (1804) ; abo the worka U
O Hcer, H. Rlhol, G. Vasseur, H. F. Osbom, A. Gaudry, H. DouvilM,
R B. Newton, H Dall, M. Cossmann, C. Lambert, Ac., and the
artkle Fltscb (j. a. H.)
OUOOCLASB; % rock-forming mineral bclo^big to tha
plagiodiae {qt) divbbn of Che lebpan. In chemieal omb-
position and in its czystaUofiapbical and phyiiaa chaiaetcn
it b intermediate betweea albite (NaAlSiiOk) and anoithiu
(CaAliSiA), being aa iiomoipboua alxtme of three to iU
moleculcsof the former with one of the latter. Itbthuaaaod*-
lime leb|>ar crysuUising in the anortfaic ayttem. VtfielJtt
intermediate between oKgorlawt and albite are Jcdowb •■ oligo*
claae-aUnte. The name oUgodase was given by A. Breithaapc
in xa26 f mm the Gr. itUymt tittk, and sXcr, to break, becsuae tbe
mineral was thought to have a less perfect deavage thaa albite.
It had previously been rriwgnized as a dbtlnct ipedet by J. J.
Bendius in (824, and was named by him sodarspodumcAt
{Nelro»^spo4tmen\ because of its resemblance in appesraaos
to spodumeae^ The hardness b 6^ and the wp, gr. 2't^%^i^
la oolour it b usually whitish, with ahades of grey, gre«a or red.
Perfectly colourless and tnnsparent glas^ material found at
Bakcrsvillein North Carolina has ooeasionally been faceted as
a gem-stone. Another variety more fie(|oently used as a gem-
stone b the avcntttriae^fdapar or *' sua-stoae *' (f .v.) found aa
reddish cleavage masses in gneiss at TVrdwtfand in soothern
Olicocsitc Svstbii 8.
North GcroMB Rcgioii
Otkr LoteTitlet.
Eorops.
Sttdi and anaitQiwi of
OfBlg^ Font ilnrtiWiii aad
Sudt 4 Uorisor. Faltw of
Jcunw, Ojrittr n*/!*.
UoUMofEtmky
day.
QricMMfkallCyu.
(koffii
«eii
grolBoi
AIx.
■uriMbtdtofSMMilK
"CUiKt vcctn." aad
Cyreoei
Su^qtViMs-JoMi.
Chr««fB«dL
*0(|
Giji.olMiaDd
Latdorf.
Aaber^Mite
GlMicoahiciu£al
LinllcteCCchs
iM^piKbc).
I
Saads of WcaatL
The land flora of thb period was a rich one coniisttng lar^ly of
evergreens with chanaers akin to those of tropical India and
AustraUa and subtropical America. Seouotaa. sabal palms, ferns,
dnnamon-treca, gum>trces, oaks, figs, laureb and willows ware
Ckartk u a common fossil m the fresh-water beds. The
the lorerunncrs of living genera. ¥
the vpper Oligocene bv the homlea
and ArsinciueriuM, from Egypt
most interesting feature df the land fauna waa undoubtedly the
astonishing variety of mammalians, especially the k)ng aeries from
the White river l)cds and others in the interior of North America.
Pachyderms were very numerous. Many of the mammab were of
mixed types, Hyatncdon (between marsupiab and placentals),
Adabit (between pachyderms and lemurs), and many were dearty
I of living genera. Rhinomids were represented in
I hornless Ac«raih£rium; Palaeamasiod&n
^ Egypt are early proAwscidbn forms
which may have lived in thb pcnod; Anckiikiriumt Anckippus, &c,
were forerunners of tbe horse. Palatolkerium^ AntkrccoUurtumt
Pala*oiaUt Stemofibir, Cynodidis, Dinklis, Ictops, Palaeclcpu^
SciuruSt Cckdamt fiyoptlcmMS, Orioion, Poebrotherium, Protocrrait
JfypertrapUus and the gigantic Tiunotherids {TUanolkeriMm^
BrontoikiritaHt Ac) are some d the important genera, representatives
of moat of the modem groupa» including carnivores (Canidat and
Feiid44)t insectivores, rodents* niminanta, cameb. Tortoises were
abundant, and the eenus Kama made its appearance. Rays and dos-
lish were tbe dominant marine fish: logoonal brackbh-water fiu
are represented by ProUhias, Swurdu, Ac Insects abounded and
arschnids were rapidly developing. Casteropods were lncrea«nff in
Importance, most of the genera still existing {CtrHkimm, Pdomtdts,
JfiioNM, larae Noticast PJenrohwmria, Yolmla, TurriieUa, R^ttettaria,
PynJa), Cephalopoda, on the other hand, show a falling off.
Pelccypods include the genera Cardtta, PteiunciduSt LacfM, Ostrea,
Cyrcao. Cylhcna, Bryosoa were very abundant {UembrMipora,
Upnlia^ HenNMa /dawnas). Fghimads were Icsa numerous than
Norway; thb presenU a brilliant red metallic glitter, doe to tbe
presence of numerous small scales of haematite or gOthite cndoeed
in the felspar
OUgodase occurs, often accompanying ortfaodaae, -as a co»>
fltituent of igneous rocks of various kinds; for instance, amongiit
phrtonfe rocks in granite, syenite, diorite; amongst dike-rocks
in porphyry and diabase; and anoiiggt YOkuic. rocks in uideslte
and trachyte. It also occurs in gneiss. The best devdoped and
larpat crystab are those found with orthodas^ quaru. epadole
and caldte in veins in granite at Arendal in Norw^« (L.J.S.)
OUPHAJIT. LAURBNCB (1839-XS8S). Britbh aut^. son
of Anthony Oliphant (x 793*1859)/ was bom at Cape Towa.
* The family to which Oliphant belonged b old and famous la
Scottish history. Sir Laurence Oliphant of Aberdalgb. Perthshire,
wted a feed of the Scottish parUament befoic I45tk was
., from Sir William QUphaat of AbcsdaWiB and on the
female side from King Robert the Bruoc Sir Williaax.(d. li^t^) b
renowned for his brave defence of Stirling castle against Edward t.
in 1304. Sir Lanrence was sent to oondude a treaty whh England
in 1484; he hdped to eatablish the young Uqg Jatnaes IV. 00 hb
throne, and he died about 1500. His son John, the sad lord (d. IS16K
having lost hb son and heir, Cdin. at Fkxlden, waa succeeded
by his grandson Laurence (d. 1566). who was taken prisoner by the
English at the nout of Solway Moss in 1541. Laurence's son. Laur-
ence, the 4th lord (tS^^-iMa)* «aa a partisan of Mary queen of
Scots, and waa euooeeded by bis grandson Laurence (t5%t-i'
who loft no sons when he died. The 6th lord was Patrick Olip;
bis grandson Laurence (t583--|63i),
. _ The 6th lord was Patrick Oliphant,
a descendant of the 4th lord, and the title was held by lus descendants
GLIPHANT, M. O,
83
^Hb father was tlien tttorney-general in Cape Colony, but was
■oon Iraiiiferred as chief justice to Ceylon. The boy's educatioo
was of the nmfl desultory Jaod. Far the least useless portion
of it bekmgffd to the yeaia 1843 and 1849, when he accompanied
his parents on a tour on the cootinent of £urope. In 1851
be accompanied Jung Bahadur from Colombo to Nepaul. |le
pasaed an agreeable time there, and saw enough that was new
to enable him to write his first book, A Jounay U Katmandu
(k8$i). From Nepaul he returned to Ceylon and thence to
En^andi dallied a little with the English bar, so far at least
as to eat dinners at Uncoln's Inn, and then with the Scottish
bar, so far at least as to pass an examination in Roman law
He was more happily inspired when he threw over his legal
atiidies and went to travel in Russia. The outcome of that tour
was his book on Tht Rusnaii Shorts oj Iht Black Sea (1855).
Between 185J and 1861 he was successively secretary to Lord
Elgin during the negotiation of the Canada Reciprocity treaty
at Washington, the companion of the duke of Newca^e on a
visit to the Grcassian coast during the Crimean War, and Lord
Elgin's private secretary on his expedition to China. Each
of these experiences produced a pleasant book of IraveL In
x86i he was appointed first secretary in Japan, and might have
BMide a sttccessfuldiplomatic cancer if ithad not been interrupted,
abnostat the outset, by a night attack on the le0ition,in which
be nearly lost his life. It seems probable that he never properly
tecovercd from this affair. He ret urned to EngUnd and resigned
the service, and was elected to parliament in 1865 for the Stirling
Burghs.
OUpbant did not show any conspicuous parliamentary ability.
but made a great succes* by his vivecious and witty novel,
Pkc4xdiUy (1870). He fell, however, under the influence of the
spiritualist prophet Thomas Lake Harris {q.t.)^ who about i86t
bad organized a small commoBity, the Brotherhood of the New
Life/ which at this time was settled at BroctoQ on Lake Erie
and sttbceqnentliy moved to Santa Rosa in California. Harris
obtained so strange an aacendaney over Oliphant that the latter
left parliament in x868, followed him to Brocton, and lived there
the life of a farm bbourer, in obedietice to the imperious will of
his H^vitual guide. The cause of this painful and grotesque
aberration has never been made quite dear. . It was part of the
Brocton r^me that membo* of the community should be
allowed to return into the worid from Ume to lime, to make
money for its advantage^ After three years this was permitted
to Oliphaat. who, when once more in Europe, acted as corres-
pondent of The Times during theFranco^German War, and spent
afterwards several years at Paris in the service of that joumaL
There be met Miss Alice le Strange, whom he married. In 1873
he went back to Brocton, taking with him his wife and mother.
During the years which followed be continued to be emploj^
in the service of the community and its head, but on work very
different from that with which he had been occupied on his first
sojourn. His new work was chiefly financial, and took him much
to New York and a good deal to England. As late as December
1878 he continued to believe that Harris was an incarnation of
the Deity. By that time, however, bis mind was occupied with
a birge project of colonization in Palestine, and he made in 1879
an extensive ionmey in that country, going also to Constantinople,
until the death of Francis, the toth lord, in April 1748. It has
since been claimed by several pervons, but without success.
Another member of the family was Lannmoe Oliphant {i^x-
1767) the Jacobite, who belonged to a branch settled at Cask in
Perthshire. He took part in the rising of I7i5.and both he and his
con Laurence (d. 1792) wrcre actively concerned in that of 1745.
being present at the battles of Falkirk and Culloden. After the ruin
of the Stuart cause they escaped to Frsnce, but were afterwards
allowed to return to Scotland. One of this Oliphant 'a defendants
was Carolina, Baroness Natrne (9.9.).
* It should be mentioned that the unfavourable view of Harris
taken by OTiphant's own biogTapher, and certainly not shaken by
subaeqaeot evidence, has been strongty repudiated by some who
knewliim. Mr J. Cuming Walters, for ins(ance| in the WestminUtr
CatetU (London. July 28, 1006) defends the puriiy of his character.
It is difficult to arrive at the exact truth as to Oliphant *s relations
with hire, or the financial scandal which ended them: and it must
be admitted that Oliphant himself was at least decidedly cranky.
in the vain hope of obtaining a lease of the nortbtfn half of tha
Holy Land with a view to settling large numbers of Jews there.
This he conceived would be an ea^ task from a financial point
of view, as there were so many persons in England and America
" anxious to ftilfil the prophecies, and bring about the end of the
world." He landed once more in England without having
accomplished anything definite; but h^ wife, who had been
banished from him for years and had been living in California,
was allowed to r^oin him, and they went to Egypt together.
In 1881 he crossed again to America. It was on this visit that
he became utterly disgusted with Harris, and finally split from
him. He was at first a little afraid that his wife would not
follow him in his renunciation of " the prophet," but this
was not the case, and they settled themselves very agree-
ably, with one house in the midst of the German community
at Haifa, and another about twelve miles off at Dalieb on Mount
CarmeL
It was at Haifa in 1884 that they wrote together the strange
book called SympneumaUs: Evolutianary Forces now atthe m
Man, and in the next year Oliphant produced there his novel
iiasoUam, which may be taken to contain its author's latest
views with regard to the personage whom he long considered
an " a new Avatar." One of his cleverest works, AUiora Ptto,
bad been published in 1883. In x886 an attack of fever, caught
on the shores of the Lake of Tiberias, resulted in the death of his
wife, whose constitution had been undermined by the hardships
of her Amcrfcan life. He was persuaded that after death he wa»
in much closer relation with her than when she was still alive,
and conceived that it was under her influence that he wrote
the book to which he gave the name of Scientific Rdigien^ Ia
November 1887 he went to England to publish that book.
hy the Whitsuntide of x888 he bad completed it and sUrted
lor America, There he determined to many again, his second
wife being a granddaughter of Robert Owen the Socialist. They
were married at Malvern, and meant to have gone to Haifa, but
Oliphant was taken very ill at Twickenham, and died on the
aird of December 1888. Although a very clever man and a
delightful companion, full of high aspiration and noble feeling,
Oliphant was only partially sane. In aiiy case, his education
was ludicrously inappropriate for a man who aspired to be an
authority on religioa and philosophy. He had gone through
no philosophical disdpUne in his early life, and knew next to
nothhig of the subjects with regard to which he imagined it
was in his power to pour a flood of new light upon the worid.
His shortcomings and eccentricities, however, did nof prevent
his being a brilliant writer and talker, and a notable figure ia
any society.
Sec Mrs (Marearet) Oliphant, Memoir ol tke Life eJLamrtnte
Olipkanland ^MtceOiipkanl his Wife (1893). (M. G. D.)
OUPHANT. MAROARET OLIPHANT (1828-1897). British
novelist and historical writer, daughter of Frands Wilson, was
bom at Wallyford, near Musselburgh, Midlothian, in x8a8. Het
childhood was spent at Lasswade (near Dalkeith), Glasgow
and LiverpooL As a girl she constantly occupied hetself with
literary experiments, and in 2849 published her first novel.
Passages in the Life of Mrs Margaret Maitlaud It dealt i^ith the
Scottkh Free Church movement, with which Mr and Mrs Wilson
both sympathised, and had some success. This she followed
up in 1851 with Cateb Pteld, and in the same year met Majot
Blackwood in Edinburgh, and was inxnted by him to contribute
to the famotis Blackwood's Magasine. The connexion thus
early commenced lasted during her whole lifeliafte, and she
contributed considerably more than 100 articles to Its pages
In May i8ss she married her cousin, Frank Wilson Oliphutt.
at Birkenhead, and settled at Harrington Square, in London.
Her husband was an artist ^ principally in stained glass. He
had very delicate health, and twoof their children died in infancy,
while the father himself developed alarming s)'mptoms of
consumption. For the sake of his health they moved in January
1859 to Florence, and lhen<;e to Rome, where Frank Oliphant
died His wife, left almost entirely without resources, returned
to England and took up the burden of supporting her three
84
OLtPHANT— OLIVARES
children by her own litertiy activity. She had now become a
popular writer, and worked with amazing industry to sustain
her portion. Unfortimatcly, her home life was full of sorrow
and disappointment. In January 1864 her only daughter died
in Rome, and was buried in her father's grave. Her brother,
«hd had emigrated to Canada, was shortly afterwards involved
in financial ruin, and Mrs Oliphant offerMi a home to him and
his children, and added their support to her already heavy
responsibilities. In x866 she settled at Windsor to be near her
sons who were being educated at Eton. This was her home for
the rest of her life, and for more than thirty years she pursued
a varied literary career with courage scarcely broken by a series
of* the gravest troubles. The ambitions she cherished for her
sons were unfulfilled. Cyril Francis, the elder, died in 1890,
leaving a Life of Alfred de MusMet, mcorporated in his motherli
Pareign Classics' for English Readers, The younger, Frank,
collaborated with her in the Victorian Age of English LUeralure
and won a position at the British Museum, but was rejected by
the doctors. He died in 1894. With the last of her children
lost to her, she had but little further interest in life. Her health
steadily declined, and she died at Wimbledon, on the 25th of
June 1897.
In the course of her long struggle with drcurostances. Mis
Oliphant produced more than 120 separate works, including,
novels, books of travel and description, histories and volumes
of literary criticism. Among the best known of her works of
fiction are Adam Graeme (1852), Magdalen Hepburn (1854),
LUliesleaf (1855), The Laird of Norlaw (1858) and a series of
stories with the collective title of The Chronietes of Carlingford,
which, originally appearing in Blackwood*s Magaune (i 862-1 865),
did much to widen her reputation. This series included Salem
Chapd (1863), The Rectory and the Doctor's Family (1863),
The Perpetual Curate (1864) and Miss Marjorihanks (1866).
Other successful novels were Madonna Mary (1867), Squire 'Arden
{iS7t),Hethatlvmnotwhenhemay{iB8o), Hester USSs),Kirsteen
<i89o), The Marriageof Elinor (1992) Md The Ways of Life {1^7).
Her tendency to mysticism fbiiBd expression in The Beleaguered
City (1880) and A Utile Pilgrim in the Unseen (i88a). Her
biographies of Eimard Irving (1862) and Laurence Oliphant (1892),
together with her life of Sheridan in the '^ EngBsh Men of Letters "
(1883), have vivacity and a ssrmpathctic touch. She also wrote
historical and critical works of considerable variety, including
Historical Sketches of the Reign of George II. (X869), The Makers
of Florence (1876), A Literary History of England from lygo to
1825 (1882), The Makers of Venice (1887), Royal Edinburgh
(1890), Jerusalem (1891) and TheMakers of Modern Rome{iSgs),
while at the time of her death she was still occupied upon AnncUs
of a Publishing House, a record of the progress and achievement
of the firm of Blackwood, with which she had been so long and
honourably connected.
Her Autobiography and Letters, which present a touching picture of
her domestic anxieties, appeared in 1899.
OUPHANT, OtiFANT (Ger. Hdfant), the large signal horn of
the middle ages, made, as its name indicates, from the tusk of
an elephant. The ob'phant was the instrument of knights and
men of high degree, and was usually ornamented with scenes of
hunting or war carved either lengthways or round the horn in
sections divided by bands of gold and studded with gems. The
knights used their oliphants in the hunting field and in battle,
and the loss of this predoos horn was considered as shameful as
the loss of sword or banner.
OLIVA, FERVAN PEREZ DE (1492MS30), Spanish man of
letten, was born at Cordoya about 1492. After studying at
Salamanca, Alcal&, Paris and Rome, he was appointed rector
at Salamanca, where he died in x 530. His Didlogo de la dignidad
del hombre (x543)> an unfinished work completed by Francisco
Cervantes de Salaaar, was written chiefly to prove the suitability
of Spanish as a vehicle for philosophic discussion. He also
published translations of the Amphitruo (1525), the Eleetra
(1528) and the Hecuba (1528).
OUVARES, 0A8PAR DE OUZAaN, count td OUvares and
duke of San Lucar (x 587-1645), Spanish loyal favourite and
mhiister, was bom in Rome, where his father was Spanish'
ambassador, on the 6th of January 1 587. His compound title is
explained by the fact that he inherited the title of count of
OUvares, but was created duke of San Lucar by the favour 4A
Philip IV. He begged ibt king to allow him to preserve has
inherited title in combination widi the new honour accordiiig
to a practice of which there are a few other examples in Spanish
history. Therefore he was conunonly spoken of as al c o nde
duque. Buringthelifeof Philip III. he was appointed to a post
in the household of the heir apparent, Philip, by the interest of
his maternal unde Don Baltasar de ZiUliga, who was the head of
the prince's establishment. Olivares made it his boaiiieaa to
acquire the most complete influence over the yooqg prince.
When Philip IV. ascended the throne hi 1621, at the age of aia-
teen^ he showed his confidence in OUvares by ordering that aH
papers requiring the royal signature should first be sent to the
count-duke. Olivares could now boast to his mde Don
Baltasar de Zfifiiga that he was '* aH." m became what is
known in Spain as a valido — something more than a prime
minister, the favourite and alter e; 9 of the king. For tweaty*two
years he directed the policy of Spain. It was a period of ooBStant
war, and finally of disaster abroad and of rebellion at home.
The Spaniards, who were too thoroughly nonarehlcal tobianc
the king, held his favourite responsible for the misfortunes of the
country. T^e count-duke became, and for bng remained, la
the opinion of his oountrjrmen, the accepted modd of a graspfog
and incapable favourite. Of late, largely under the inspiratioB
of Don Antonio Canovas, there has been a certain reaction in hxs
favour. It would certainly be most unjust to blame Olivares
alone for the decadence of Spain, which was due to iatcrxMl
causes of long standing. The gross errors of his poliqr— the
renewal of the war with Holland in 1621, the persistence of Spain
in taking part in theThirty Years' War, the ksaer wan undertaken ■
in northern Italy, and the entire neglect of all efi^ort to promote
the unification of the different sutes fotmlng the peninsular
kingdom — were shared by him with the king, the Church and
the commercial classes. When he bad fallea from power he
wrote an apology, in which he maintained that he had always
wished to see more attention paid to internal goveramest, and
above all to the complete unification of Portugal with Spain.
But if this was not an af terthooghtr he must, on Ms own showing,
stand accused of having carried out during long years a policy
which he knew to be disastrous to his country, rather than risk
the loss of the king's favour and of his pbbce. Olivares did not
share the king's taste for art and literature, but he formed a vast
collection of state papers, ancient and contemporary, which he
endeavoured to protect from destruction by entailing them •a an
heirloom. He also formed a splendid aviary which, under the
name of the '* hencoop," was a favourite subject of ridicule with
his enemies. Towards the end of his period of favour he caused
great offence by legitimixing a supposed bastard son of very
doubtful paternity and worthless personal character, and 1^
arranging a rich marriage for him. The fall of Olivares was
immediately due to the revolts of Portugal and Catalonia in 1640.
The king parted with him reluctantly, and only under the pressure
of a strong court intrigue headed by Queen Isabella. It was
noted with anxiety by his enemies that he was succeeded in the
king's confidence by his nephew the count of Haro. There
remains, however, a letter from the king, in which Philip teUs his
old favourite, with frivolous ferocity, that it might be necessary
to sacrifice his life in order to avert unpopularity from the royal
house. Olivares was driven from office in 1643. He retired by
the king's order to Toro. Here be endeavoured to satisfy his
passion for activity, partly by sharing in the municipal govern*
ment of the town and the regulation of its commons, wooids and
pastures, and partly by the composition of the apology he
published under the title of El Nicandro, which was perhaps
written by an agent, but was undeniably inspired by the fallen
minister. The Nicandro was denounced to the Inquisition, and
it is not impossible that Olivares might have ended in the prisons
of the Holy Oifice, or on the scaffold, ii he had not died on the
1 22ttdof July 1645.
OLIVE
85
See the AsMiM dtf fWMd^ ^ AN#ir / K oT Dob AatiMio Gmwvm
(MaUrid, iSte); and Don F. SQvela'a introducUoOt much Icm
favourable to uGvares, to his edition of the Cartas de Sor Maria dt
Agttda yddrty Fdipt IV. (Madrid, 1855-1886).
OLIVB iOUa gwofata), tbe plant that yields the, olive ofl of
commerce, belonging to a section of the natural ofder Oleaoeae,
of whicb It has been taken as the type. The genta Oha includes
about thirty spedes, very widely icattered, chiefly over the
Old World, from the baaifi of the Mediterranean to Sottth
Africa and New 2SeaIand. The wild olive is a small tree or
bush of rather straggling gjowth, with thorny branches and
opposite oblong pointed leaves, daik greyish-green above and,
in the young state, hoaxy beneath with whitish scales, the smaH
white ftowers, with four-cleft calyx and corolla, two stamens
and bifid stigma, are borne on the last year's wood, in racemes
ipringing from the axils of the leaves; the drupaceous fruit
is small in the wild plant, and the fleshy pericarp, ^ich gives
the cultivated olive its economic value, is hud and comparatively
thin. In the cultivated forms the tree acquh^ a more compact
hftbtt, the branches lose their spinous character, while the young
shoots become mote or less angular; the leaves are always
hoaxy on the under-side,
and are generally lanceo-
late hi shape, though
varying much in breadth
and siae hi theiUfferent
kinds. The fruit Is sub-
ject to still greater
changes of form and
coknir; usually oval or
nearly globular, in some
sorts it is egg-shaped, in
others much etongated;
while the dark hue that
k commonly assumes
when ripe is exchanged
in many varieties for
violet, green or almost
white. At pcesent the
wiki olive is found in
most of the countries
around the Meditcr-
xancaa, extending its
range on the west to
nattane), reduced: B, opened' flowcfV C, Portugal, and eastward
vertical aectioa of pistd. B and C en- to the vidnity of the
••t"**- Caspian, while, locally.
It eocm* even in Afghanistan. An undoubted native of
Syria and the maritime parta of Asia Minor, ita abund-
ance in Gxteoe and the islands of the Archipelago, and the
frequent aUuskms to it by the earliest poets, seem to
Ihdicate that it was there also indigenous; but in localities
nmote fiom the Levant it may have escaped inm adtivatkm,
leverting more or less to iu primitive type. It shows a marked
ptefei ta cc fbr cakaveous aoila and a partiality for the sea-breeie,
floiuishfaig with esfNBcial luzurianoe on the limestone sfepes
and aags that often fonn the ahoccs of the Greek, peninsula
and adjaootiL isUnds.
The varieties of oUvo known to the modem cultivator are
cxttcmdy nmncio u a a c c o r ding to some authoritiea equalling
or eascecding in number those of the vine. In France and Italy
at least thhty kinds have been cnumented, hot oompantivdy
few are grtmn to any large cxtoit. None of these can be safely
klentified with aadent deici l i ni im s , though it Is not unHkdy
that some of the nanvw4eaved sorts that an most estewwri
may be deseendaats of the famed << lidniaa" (see betow).
Italy vetaina ita old pre^nmenoe in olive cuitlvatian; and,
though its andent GalUc province now excels it in the production
of the &icr ofib, its {ast-impiefving culture may restore the old
pfcstift. The brosd4eavcd olive trees of Spain bear a larger
Irvxt, bet the pericarp is of more bitter flavour and the oil of
ranker qnality. The eiive tiee^ even when free incitase is
A. Shoot of olive {OUa ewrepaea) (from
" B, opened flower; C,
--^ B and C en-
unchecked by prunlhg, is of very slow growth; but, where
allowed for ages its natural development, the trunk sometimes
attains a considerable diameter. De CandoUe records one
nrffding 23 ft. in girth, the age being supposed to amount
to seven centuries. Some old Italian olives have been credited
with an antiquity reaching back to the first years of the empire,
or even to the days of republican Rome; but the age of such
ancient trees is always doubtful during growth, and their identity
with old descriptions still more difficult to establish. The tree
in cultivation rarely exceeds 30 ft. in height, and in France
and Italy is generally conlined to much more limited dimensions
by frequent pruning. The wood, of a yellow or light greenish-
brown hue, is often findy veined with a darker tint, and, bdng
very hard and close grained, is valued by the cabinetmaker
and ornamental turner.
The oUve u propagated in various ways, but cuttinn or layers are
generally preferred; the tree root* io favourable aoil almcat as easily
as the willow, and throws up suckers from the stump when cut down*
Bradthea of various thidueis are cut into lengths of several feet
each, and, planted rather deeply in manured ground, toon vegetate;
shorter pieces are sometimes laid horisontally in ahallow trenches,
when, covered with a few inches of aoil. they rapidly throw up sucker-
lilce shoota. In Greece and the islands grafting the cultivated tree
on the wild form Is a common practice. In Italy embcyonic budk
which form small ewdlings on the stemsb are carefully excised and
planted beneath the aurface. where they grow readily, these " uovdi '*
soon forming a vigorous shoot. Occasionally the laiger boughs are
inarched, ami yoang trees thus soon obtained. The olive is also
somedmes raised from seed, tbe oily pericarp being first softened by
sli8;ht rotting, or aoakingin hot water or in an alkaline solutk>ii, to
facilitate germination. The olives in the East often recdve Uttle
attention irom the hosbandman, the branches bdng allowed to grow
frcdy and without curtailment by the pruning-knife; water, how-
ever, must be supplied in long droughts to ensure a crop; with this
neglectful culture the treea bear abundantly only at mtervals of
three or four yeara; thus, although wild growth is favoorable to
the picturesque aspect of the plantation, it is not to be recommended
on economic groandsi Where the dive is carefully cultivated, as in
Langucdoc and Provence, it is planted in rows at regular intervals,
the distance bet ween the trees vaxying in different " olivettes,"
according to the variety grown. Careful pruning is ptactiaed, the
object being to pceserve the flower-bearing shoots of the preceding
year, while keeping the head of the tnee low, so as to allow the easy
gathering of the fruit; a dome or raanded form la generally the ann
of the Miner. Tbe spaces betw ee n the trees are occasionally
manured with rotten dung or other nitrogenous matter; in France
woollen rags are In high eateem for this purpose Various annual
crops are sometimes raiaed between tbe rowst and in Calabria wheat
even is grown in this way; but tbe trees are better without any
intermeoiale aopping. Latteriv a dwari variety, very psolific and
with green fruit, has come into favour in certain iocalities, especially
in America, wfa&re it is said to have produced a crop two or three
seasons after planting. The on!inar>' kinds do not become profitable
to the grower until from five to seven years after the cuttinga are
placed m the oliv e giuu nd. Apart from oecasional damage by
weather or organic Iocs, the olive crop is somewhat precarious even
with the most careful cultivation, and the laxge untendcd trees so
often seen in Spain and Italy do not yield that certain income to the
peasant proprietor that some authors have attributed to them; the
crop from these old trees is of teo enormoua, but they addom bear
wdl two yean in su cce s si on, and io many instances a luzuiiaot
harvest can only be reckoned upon every strth or seventh season.
The fruit when ripe is, by the careful grower, pkked by hand and
deposited in cloths or boafcem for conveyance to the mill: but in
many parts of Spain and Greece, and generally ia Asia, the obvee
are beaten down by poles or by shaking the boughs, or evea allowed
to drop naturally, often lying cm the ground until the conveoieoce
of die owrier admits of their removal: much of tbe inferior oil
owes its bad quality to the carelesaness of the pro|>rietor of the trees.
In southern Europe the olive harvest is in the winter months, ooo*
tinning for several weeks: but the time varies io each ooantry, and
also with the season and the kinds cultivated. The amount of oil
contained in the fruit differe much in the various sorts; the pericarp
usually yidds from 60 to 70%. The ancient agricoltorisCs believed
that toe olive would not succeed if planted more than a lew
from the sea (Theophsastus gives 300 stadia as the limit)^but
experience does not confirm the raea, and, though showing a prefer-
ence for the coast, it has long been grown fau- inland. A calcareous
soil, however dry or poor, seems beat adapted ro ita healthy develop*
ment, though the tree will now in any light soil, and even on day if
well drainea ; but, as remarked by Plmv, tbe plant is more liable to
disease on rich soils, and the oil is inlcrior to the produce of the
poorer and more rocky ground the species naturally affects. The
olive suffers greatly in some years from the attack* of varfoos
enemies. A fui«oid growth has at limes infested the trees for a ■
86
OUVE
ceMQW. to the great damage of the pbntations. A
ftpedes of coccus, CeUae, attaches itself to the shoots, and certain
, tefouB catefpQlafs feed on the leaves, while the *' ohve-fty
attacks the fruit. In France the olivettes suffer oocasiooatty
from frost; ta the early part of the i8th centcry many trees
were cut to the ground oy a winter of exceptional severity. Gales
and bng-continued rains during the gathering season also cause
mischief.
The unripe fruit of the olive is largely used in modem as in ancient
times as an article of dessert* to enfianoe the flavour of wine, and to
renew the sensitiveness of the palate for other vianda. For this
purpose the fruit is picked while green, soaked for a few hours in an
alkaline ley. washed wril in dean water and then placed in bottles
or jars fiUed with brine; the Romans added omares to the salt to
increase the bitter flavour of the ^ves, and at the present day apices
are sometimes used.
The leaves and bark o* the tree are employed in the south, as a
tonic medidne, in intermittent fever. A resinous matter called
*' olive gum," or Lucca gum, formed by the exuding iuice in hot
seasons, was anciently in medical esteem, and in modem Italy is used
•a a perfume.
In England the olive is not hardv, though in the southern counties
it will sund ordinary winters witn only the protection of a ;waU,
and will bear fmit in such situations; but the leaves are generally
■bed in the autumn, and the olives rarely ripen.
The genus Ofea indudes several other spedes of some economic
tmporttmce. O. paniemUUa is a kuger tree, attaining a height of 50
or 60 ft. in the forests of Queensland, and yielding almrd and tough
timber. The yet harder wood of O. lawifolia, an inhabitant of Naul,
is the black ironwood of the South African cokMiist.
At what remote period of human progress the w3d oUve
passed under the care of the husbandman and became the
fruitful garden olive it is impossible to conjecture. The frequent
leference in the Bible to the plant and its produce, its implied
abundance in the land of Canaan, the important place it has
always hdd in the economy of the inhabitants of Syria, lead
vs to consider that country the birthplace of the cultivated
olive. An improved variety, possessed at first by some small
Semitic sept, it was probably slowly distributed to adjacent
tribes; and, yielding profusely, with Utile labour, that oily
matter so essential to faeahhy life in the dry hot climates of the
East, the gift of the fruitful tree became in that primitive age
A symbol of peace and goodwill among the w&rlike barbarians.
At a hiter period, with the development of maritime enterprise,
the oil was conveyed, as an artide of trade, to the neighbouring
Pdasgic and Ionian nations, and the plant, doubtless, soon
followed.
In the Homeiic world, as depicted in the Iliad, olive oil is
known only as a luxury of the wealthy— an exotic product,
prized chiefly for its value in the heroic toilet; the warriors
anoint themsdves with it after the bath, and the body of Palrodus
is simiLuly sprinkled; but no mention of the culture of the plant
is made, nor does it find any place on the Achillean shield,
on which a vineyard is represented. But, although no reference
to the cultivation of the olive occurs in the JUcd, the presence
of the tree in the garden of Aldnous and other familiar allusions
show it to have been known when the Odyssey was written.
Whenever the introduction may have taken place, all tradition
points to the limestone hills of Attica as the scat of its first
cultivation on the Hellenic peninsula. When Poseidon and
Athena contended for the future dty, an olive sprang from the
barren rock at the bidding of the goddess, the patron of those
arts that were to bring undying influence to the rising state.
That this myth has some relation to the first planting of the
olive in Greece seems certain from the remarkable story told
by Herodotus of the Epidaurians, who, on thdr crops failing,
applied for counsd to the Delphic orade. and were enjoined
to erect statues to Damia and Auxesia (symbols of fertility)
carved from the wood of the true garden olive, then possessed
only by the Athenians, who giuited their request for a tree on
condition of their making an annual sacrifice to Athena, its
patron; they thus obeyed the command of the Pythian« and their
lands became again fertile. The sacred tree of the goddess long
stood on the Acropolis, and, though destroyed in the Penian
invasion, sprouted again from the root— some suckers of .which
were said to have produced those olive trees of the Academy in
•a after age no kss revered. By the time of Solon the oUw had
so spfCid that he fdund'il aecessiry to enact lawt to vcgidate
the ctiltivation of the tree in Attica, from which cotmtiy It was
probably distributed gradually to all the Athenian allies and
tributary states. To the Ionian coast, where it abounded in
the time of Thales, it may have been In an casUer age bcotight
by Phoenidao vessels, some of the Spondes may have leceived
it from the same source; the olives ol Rhodes and Crete had
perhaps a similar origin. SaiooBi if we may judge (torn the
epithet of Aeschylus UXoi^^ss), must have had the fruitful
plant long before the Penian waiy.
It is not unlikdy that the valiml tree was taken to Magna
Graeda by the first Achaean colonists, and the assertion of
Pliny (quoted from Feoestella), that do olives existed in Italy
in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, must be recdved with the
caution due to many statements of that industrious compikc.
In Latin Italy the cultivation Kems to have spread slowly,
for it was not until the consulship of Pompey that the produ^ioo
of oil became suffident to permit of iu exportation. In Pliny's
time it was already grown abundantly in the two Gallic provinces
and in Spain; indeed, in the earlier days of Stxabo the
Ligurians supplied the Alinne barbarians with oil, in exchange
for the wild produce of their mountains; the plant may have
been introduced into those districts by Greek settlers in a
previous age. Africa was indebted for the olive mainly to
Semitic agendes. In Egypt the culture never seems to have
made much progress; the oil found In Thcban tombs was
probably imported from Syria. Along the southern shore of
the great inland sea the tree was carried by the Phoenicians,
at a remote period, to their numerous colonies in Africa —
though the abundant olives of Cyrcne, to which allusioo
is made by Theophrastus, and the glaucous foliage of whose
descendants still clothes the rocks of the deserted Cyrenaica,
may have been the offspring of Creek plants brought by the
first settlers. The tree was most likdy inuoduced into southern
Spain, and perhaps into Sardinia and the Balearic Islands, by
Phoenician merchants; and, if it be true that old olive trees
were found in the Canaries on their rediscovery by medieval
navigators, the venerable trees probably owed thdr origin
to the same ^terprising pioneers of the andent world. De
Candolle says that the means by which the olive was distributed
to the two opposite shores of the Mediterranean are indicated
by the names given to the plant by their respective mhabitanis —
the Greek Qnua passing into the Latin <^ea and t^iva, that in
its turn becoming the utivo of the modem Italian, the oUm
ot the Spaniard, and the ^Ztre, olmar, of the French, whHe in
Africa and southern Spain the olive retains appellativea derived
from the Semitic zait or sett; but the complete subjugation of
Barbajy by the Saracens sufRdently accounts for the prevalence
of SemiUc forms in that region; and aceytuno (Arab, teiutn),
the Andalusian name of the fruit, locally given to the tree
itself, is but a vestige of the Moorish conquest.
Yielding a giateful substitute for the butter and animal fat#
consumed by the races of the north, the olive, among the sonthetn
nations of antiqtiity, became an emblem not ordy of peace but of
national wealth and domestic plenty, the braadKS borne in tbt
Panathenaea, the wild olive spray of the Olywpic victor, the olive
crown of the Roman conqueror at ovation, and those of the
equltes at their imperial review alike typified gifts of peace that,
in a batbanms age, could be secured by victory alone. Among
the Greeks the oil was valued as an important artide of diet,
as well $s for its external use. The Roman people employed
It largely in food and cookery^*Hhe wealthy as an indispensable
adjuna to the toilet; and in the luxurious days of the later
empire it became a favourite axiom that long and pleasant life
depended on two fluids, ** wine within and oil without.'* Pliny
vagudy describes fifteen varieties of olive cultivated In fals day.
Chat called the " Lidnian " bdng held in most esteem, and the
oa obtained from it at Venafrum in Campania the finest known
to Roman connoisseurs; the produce of Istria and Ba^tica was
regarded as second only to that of the ItaUan peninsnla. The fraf •
met of the empire valued the unripe fruit, steeped in brine, as a
provocative to the palate, no lass than his modem representative;
•OLIVEIRA MARTDSrSi-OLlVENITE
87
and \A(k\tA olivci, itfdniBg thdr ckuracteritHc flavour, have
been found among the buriad atons of Pompeii. The bitter
jaice or refuse deported dniing ejtpression of the oQ (called
OMavca), and the aatrlagent leavix of the tree have many virtues
attributed to them ly ancient anthon. Hie oil of the bitter wiM
oUve was employed by the Koman physicians in medicine,
but docft not appear ever to have been used as food or in the
cnUnaiyait.
In modem times the olive has been spread widdy over the
morM; and, though the Meditemnean lands that were its andent
home st3l sridd the chief supply of the oQ, the tree is now culti-
vated suooBssfaUy hi many regions unknown to its early dis-
tributofs*' Soon after the discovery ef the American continent
it was oonveyed thither by the Spanish settlers. In Chfle it
flonrisfaea aa Inxniiantly as in its native land, the trunk some-
times becoming of laige girtb, while oil of fsir quaKty b yidded
by the fruit. To Peru It was carried at a later date, but has not
thcte been equally successful, tntr^uced into Mexico by the
Jesuit missioaaHes of the 17th century, it was {Wanted by similar
agency in Upper CBlifoxnia, where it has proepered latterly under
the more careful management of the Anglo^Saron conqueror. Ite
cultivation has also been attempted in the South-eastern states,
especiafly fn S. Carolina, Florida and Mississippi. In the eastern
hemisphcfe the olive has been established in many inland c&tricts
which would have been andently considered Hi-adapted for its
culture. To Armenia and Persia it was known at a comparatively
early period of history, and many olive-yatds now exist in Upper
Egypt. The tree haa been Introduced into Chinese agriculture,
and has become an important addition to the resources of the
Australian planter. In Queensland the olive has found a climate
specially suited to iu wattta; ih South Australia, near Adelaide,
it also grows vigorously; and there are probably few coast
districts of the vast island-cootinent where the tree would not
flourish. It hs» likewise been successfully intxoduced into ^me
parts of Gape Colony.
OUVBRA MARTINS, JOAQUIV PEDRO DB (i84S>i8q4).
Portngnese writer, was bom in Lisbon and recdved his early
education at the Lyefo Nadonal and the Academia das Bellas
Artes. At the age of fourteen his father's death compelled him
to seek a living as clerk In a commercial house, but he gradually
improved his position until in 1870 he was appointed manager
ef the mine of St Eufenria near Cordova. In Spain he wrote
O. Soehiitma, and devdoped that sympathy for the industrial
classes of which he gave proof throughout his fife. Returning to
Portugal hi 1874, he became administrator of the railway from
Oporto to Povoa, residing in Oporto. He had married when only
nineteen, and for many ycais devoted his leisure hours to the
study of economics, geography ami history. In 1878 his memoir
A Cireuto^ fiduciarh brought him the gold medal and member-
ship of th^ Royal Academy of Sciences of Usbon. Two years
later he was elected president of the SodcVy of Commerdal
Geography of Oporto, and in 1884 he became director of the
Industrial and Commefda! Mnseum In that dty. In tSB; he
entered public life, and in the following year represented Vianna
do Caatdlo in parHancnt, and in 1887 Oporto. Removing to
Lisbon in 1888, he continued the journalistic woric which he had
commenced when living in the north, by editing the Re porter ^
and in 1889 he was named administrator of the Tobacco R^e.
He represented Portugal at international conferencef in Berlin
and Madrid in t 8qo, and was chosen to speak at the cdebration of
the fourth centenary of Columbus held in Madrid in 180 r, which
gained him membership of the Spanish Royal. Academy of
Hntoty. He became minister of finance on the 1 7th of January
i8o7, and later vice-president of the Junta do Credito Publico.
His health, however, began to break down as a result of a Ufe
spent in unremitting toU, and he died on the 24th of August
r8o4.
His yotttMut struggles and privations had taught him a serious
view of life, which, with his acute sensibility, gave him a reserved
manner, but Olivcira Martins was one of the most generous and
noble of men. Like Anthem de Qoental, he was Impregnated
witb Bodem Gcnnaa philoeophy, and his peireption of the bw
moral standard prevailing In public life made him a pessbnist
who despaired of his country's future, but his sense of proportion,
and the necessity which impelled him to work, saved him fronv
the fate which t>efell his friend, and he died a believing Catholic.
At once a gifted psychologist, a profound sociologist, a stem
neiorafist, and an ardent patriot, Oliveira Martins deserved his
European reputation. His Biliio&eca das tdencias socUus,
a veriuble encydopaedia, comprises literary criticism, socialism,
economics, anthropology, histories of Iberian dviliaation, of the
Reman Republic, Portugal and BrazS. Towards the end of his
life he spedalized in the 15th century and produced two nouble
volumes, Os fithos de D. JtOo /. and A tida de Nw'Alvares,
leaving unfinished O Principe per/eiio, a study on King
John II., which was edited by his friend Henrique de Banna
Gomes. '
Aa the literary leader of a national revival, Olivdra Martina
occupied an almost unique position in Portugal during the last
third Of the 19th century. If he judged and condemned the
parliamentary regime and destroyed many Illusions in his sensa-
tional Contemporary Portugal ^ and if in his philosophic History of
Portugal he showed, in a series of impressionist pictures, the slow
decHne of his country commendng in the golden age of the
discoveries and conquests, be at the same time directed the gaze
of his countrymen to the days of their real greatness under the
House of Aviz, and indted them to work for a better future by
describing the faith and patriotism which had animated the
foremost men of the race in the middle ages. He had neither
time nor opportunity for original research, but hk poweriul
imagination and picturesque style enabled him t6 evoke the
past and make it present to his readers.
The chid characteristics of the man— psydiological Imagination
combined with realism and a gentle Irony— make his strength
as a historian and his charm as a writer. When some critica
objected that his HisUrria de Portugal ought rather to be named
" Ideas on Portuguese History," he replied that a synthetic
and dramatic picture of one of those collective bdngs called
tuitions gives the mind a clearer, truer and more lasting impression
than a summary narrative of successive events. But just
because he possosed the talents and temperament of a poet,
Olivehra Martins was fated to make frequent mistakes aa well aa
to discover Important truths. He must be read with care because
he is emotional, and cannot let facts speak for themsdves, but
interrupts the narrative with expressions of praise or blame.
Some of his books resemble a series of visions, while, despite his
immense erudltiooi he does not always supply notes or refer to
authorities. He can draw admirable portraits, rich with colour
and life; In his Historia de Portugal and Contemporanee Portugal
those of Ring Pedro I. and Herculano are among the best known.
He describes to perfection such striking events as the Lisbon
earthqiiake, and excels In the appreciation of an epoch. In
these respects Castdar considered him superior to Macaulay,
and declared that few men in Europe possessed the universal
aptitude and the fulfaicsa of knowledge displayed by Olivdra
Martins.
The woHn of Olivdra Martins include EUwumlos de antkropohgtOt
As Jtafoi Itumanas e d eiptlisacao primithn. SyUtma das wtytkos
rdigiosos^' Qttadro das nutiM^ots primitnas, O Regiwte das
rigaetos, PolUicm a econowna nadamal. Taboos de ekronologia i
gfogyapkia historical O HeOenismo e a tmlisafdo ckristi, HisSorim
da Repuhlica Romaua, Historia da cinlisafdo iberica. Historia do
Portugual, BrasU e as eotonias portuguetas, PottuiU was Mares,
Poftt^ em Africa, Portugal conlem p oran r o, Camis os Lusiadas
e a ronascewga em Portugal— a briiliaot commenury on the phy«og«
nomy of the poet and hn poeai, Os Pilkas da O. Ja9o /., the picftoce
to which gpves his views on the writing of history— if Vtfa da
Nun* Alwarts; and A. ingfaierra de l/<Hif— -the muh of a visit to
England.
See Mooia Baneto. OHoeisa Uastim, eslmdo de tewl«Ufia (Parisi
1887)^ a lemarkabk acwdy: F. Dims D'Ayalla. Os fdoaes da Otioeirm
Miartns (Liiboo. 1897). which contains an admirable staterarnt of
his ideas, philoaophical and otherwitt: Anthero de Qurntal. Oisveira.
Martins (Liaboa, 1894) and Diedoaario bibNograpltieo pprtvguet,
niL 11$. (E. Pa.)
OUVUIITIS,' a mineral consisting of bade copper arsenate
with the fonnuta Cut(OH)AsO«. It ci>'sLai]itts in the ortho-
88
OLIVER, L-rOLIVIER
rhombic sytltem^ and U sometimes found in small brilUant crystals
of simple prismatic habit terminated by dbmal faces. More
usually, however, it occurs as globular aggregates of adcular
crystaJs, these fibrous forms often having a velvety lustre:
sometimes it is lamellar in structure, or soft and etfthy. A
characteristic feature, and one to which the name alludes (German,
OlivenerMf of A. G. Werner, 1789), is the olive-green colour,
trhich varies in shade from bladdsh-green in the crystals to
almost white in lihe finely fibrous variety known as " wood-
copper.** The hardness is 3, and the sp. gr. 4*3. The
mineral was formerly found in some abundance, associated with
limonite and quartz, in the upper workings in Uie copper mines
of the St Day district in Cornwall; also near Redruth,and in the
Tintic distria in Utah. It is & mineral of secondary origin,
having been formed by the alteration of copper ores and
cnispickeL.
The arsenic of olivenite is sometimes partly replaced byasmall
amount of phosphorus, and in the species libethenite we have
the corresponding basic copper phosphate Ctt9(OH)P04. This
is found as small dark green crystals resembling olivenite at
Libethen in Hungary, and in small amount also in Cornwall.
Other members of this isomorphous group of minerals are adamite,
Zni(0H)As04, and dcscloizite (q.v,). (UJ.S.)
OLIVER, ISiULC (c. x 566-161 7), English miniature painter, was
probably bom in London, as in 1571 a certain Peter Olivier of
Rouen was residing in London with his wife and had been there
for three years with one " chylde " ztamed " Isake." It would
seem likely, therefore, that he was not at th£t time more than six
years old. It has been suggested by Mr Lionel Cust, from the
Huguenot records, that he is identiod with one Isaac Oliver of
Rouen, married at the Dutch church in Austin Friars in i6oa.
His death occurred in 16x7, and he was. buried in the church
of St Aime, Blackfriars. He was probably a pupil of Nicholas
Hilliard, and connected through his wife, whose name is un-
known, with the artists Gheeraerts and De Critz. He was an
exceedingly expert miniature painter, and splendid examples of
his work can be seen at Montagu House, Windsor Castle, Sher-
borne Castle and in the collections of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan
and the late Baroness Burdett-Coutts. Some of bis pen draw-
ings are in t he B ritish Museum. (G. C. W.)
OLIVER, PETER (x 594-1648), English miniature painter, was
the eldest son of Isaac Oliver, probably by his first wife;
and to him Isaac Oliver left his finished and unfinished
drawings, with the hope that he would live to exercise the
art of his father. The younger sons of the artist appear to
have been under age at the time of his death, and were probably
therefore sons by a btcr wife than the mother of Peter Oliver,
He resided at Islcworth, and was buried beside his father at
St Anne's, Blackfriars. He was even more eminent in ounia-
ture painting than his father, and is specially remarkable for a
series of copies in water-colour he made after celebrated pictures
by old masters. Most of these were done by the desire of the
king, and seven of them still remain at Windsor Castle. A great
many of 01iver*s works were purchased by Charles U. from his
widow; several of his drawings are in existence, and a leaf from
his pocket-book in the collection of the earl of Derby. His most
important work is the group of the three grandsons of the ist
Viscount Montftcute with their servant, imw belonging to the
marquess of Exeter; and there are fine miniatures by bim at
Welbeck Abbey, Montagu House, Sherborne Castle, Minley
Manor, Belvoir Castle and in the private collection of the queen
of HolUnd. (G. C W.)
0UVB8, MOUNT OF, or Movnt Olivet ('0^ 'EXeotorot or
tiSi' 'EXoi^jm; mod. Jebel-et-Tur), the ridge facing the Temple
Mount at Jerusalem on the east, and separated from it by the
Kidron. A basis of bard aetaceous limestone is topped with
softer deposits of the same, quaternary deposits forming the
summit. There are four distinct elevations in the ridge: tradi-
tionally the southernmost, which is separated by a cleft from the
others, is called the ** Hill of Offence," and said to be the scene of
Solomon's idolatry. The summit to the north of this is often
(wrongly) spoken of as Olivet proper. Still worse is the error of
calUag the next hill btttone to the iioitli^Sco|Ns&*' TTietopol
the ridge affords a comprehensive view. Tbere are four Old
Testament refcreaces: a Sam. xv. 30 sqq., Neh. viii 15, Eaek. xL
23, Zech. xiv. 4^ In the New Testament the place is mentioned
in connexion with the last days of the life of Jesus. He craased
it on his kingly entry into Jerusalemi and upon it he deliveied
hisgreat eschatologiod address (Mark xiii.3) . That the AaccDsion
took phicefrom the summii of the Mount of Olives is not necessarily
implied in Acta t la; the words "over acsinst Bethany"
(Luke xxiv. 50} perhaps mean one of the aeduded xa.¥ines oa
the eastern slope, besicie one of which that village sUmda. But
since Constantine erected the " Basilica of the Asceioion " on the
spot marked by a certain sacred cave (Euaeb. Vila Const, iii. 41),
the site of this event has been placed here and marked by a
succession of churches. The present building is quite modem,
and is in the hands of the Moslems. Qose to the Chapd of the
Ascension is the vault of St Felagia, and a little way down the
hill is the labyrinth of early Christian rock-hewn sepulchral
chambers now called the " Tombs of the Prophets." During
the middle ages Olivet was also shown aa the mount of the
Transfiguration. A chapel, bearii^ the name of the Caliph Omar,
and said to occupy the place where he eiKamped when Jerusalem
surrendered to the Moslems, formerly stood beside the Church
of the Asccnsbn. There are a considerable miitiber of monasteries
and churches of various religious orders and sects on the hill*
from whose beauty their uniform and unredeemed uglioea
detracts sadly. On Easter day 1907 was laid the foundation
of a hospice for pilgrims, ondor the patronage of the Germaa
empress.
OUVETANS, one of the lesser monastic ordea foQowlng the
Benedictine Rule, founded by St Bernard Tolomei, a Siencse
nobleman. At the age of forty, when the leading man in Siena,
he retired along with two oompanions to live a hennit's life at
Accona, a desert place fiiteen miles to the south of Siena, 1315.
Soon others joinni them, and in 1334 John XXII. approved of
the lormatioo of en ocder. The Benedictine Rule was taken aa
the basis of the life; but austerities were introduced beyond
what St Benedict prescribed, and the government was framed
on the mendicant, not the monastic, model, the superiors being
appointed only for a short term of years. The habit is white.
Partly from the olive trees that abound there, and partly out of
devotion to the Passion, Accona was christened Monte Oliveto,
whence the order received its name. By the end of the X4th
century there were upwards of a hundred monasteries, chiefly
in Italy; and in the x8th there still were eighty, one of tiie most
famous being San Miniato at Florence, llie monastery of
Monte Oliveto Maggiore is an extensive building of considerable
artistic interest, enhanced by frescoes of Signorelli and Sodoma;
it is now a natioiul monument occupied by two or three moidcs
as custodians, though it could accommodate three himdred. The
Olivctans have a house in Rome and a few others, including one
founded in Austria in 1899. There are about 135 monks in all,
54 being priests. In America are some convents of OUvetan
nuns.
See Helyot, HiaL des mires r&ipeux (iTiS), vL c. 84; Max
Hcimbucher, Orden u. Kongngaiionem (1907), L § 30; Wetaer a.
Welte. Kirchenlexicon (cd. 2): J. A. Symonds, SketcMes and Studies
in Ttaty (1898). " Monte OUveto ": B. M. Marfehaux. Vie de Hen-
ketireux Bernard Tehmei <I888). (E. C. B.)
OLIVIER, JUSTE DANIEL (X807-1876), Swiss poet, was bom
near Nyon in the canton of Vaud; he was brought up as a
peasant, but studied at the college of Nyon, and later at the
academy of Lausanne. Though originally intended for the
ministry, his poetic genius (foreshadowed by the priaes be
obtained in 1825 and 1828 for poems on Marcos Boturis and
Julia Alpinvla respectively) inclined him towards literary
studies. He was named professor of literature at NeuchAtel
(1830), but before taking up the duties of his post made a visit
to Paris, where he completed his education and became associated
with Sle Beuve, especially from 2837 onwards. He professed
history at LaXisanne from 1833 to 1846, when he lost his chair
in consequence of the religious troubles. He then went \u Paris,
OLIVINE— OLLIVIBR
8^
wfaere he mnarncd till 1870, etrafng bis bread by various means,
but being nearly forgptten in his native land, to which be
remained tenderly attached. From 1845 till i860 (when the
magazine was merged io the BMiotktqm umnrseUe) Olivier
and his wife wrote in the Remt Suisse the Paris letter, which
had been sUrted by Ste Beuve in 1843, when Olivier became
the owner of the periodical After the war of 1870 he settled
down in Switzerland, spending his summers at his beloved Gryon,
and died at Geneva on the 7th of January 1876. Besides some
novels, a semi-poetical wock on the Canton of Vaud (2 vols.,
1837-1841), and a volume of historical essays entitled £tud€A
d'kisioire nalionaU (1842), be published several volumes of
poems, Deux Voix (1835), ChoHstms hitUaines (1847) and its
continuation Chansous du soir (1867), and SerUiers de monUxgna^
(Giyon, 1875). His younger brother, Urbain (1810-1888), was
well known from 1856 onwards as the author of numerous
popular tales of itinU Ufe in the Canton of Vaud, especially of the
region near Nyon.
Ufe by Rambert (1877). republished in his tervnins de la Suisse
•femamde (1889). and also pccmpcd to his edition of Oiivicr's (Emres
ekoUies (Lausanne, 1879). (W. A. B. C)
OUVIKE, a rock-forming mineial composed of magnesium
and ferrous orthosilicate, the formula being (Mg, Fe)2SiO«.
The name olivine, proposed by A. G. Werner in 1790, alludes to
the olive-green colour commmdy shown by the mineral. The
transparent variAies, or "precious olivine" used in jewelry,
are known as chrysolite (7.V.) and peridot {q.v.). The term
olivine is often applied incorrectly by jewellers to various green
stones.
Olivine crystallites In the ortho^bombic system, hut distinctly
developed ciystab aze comparatively rare, the mineral more
Often occurring as compact or granubr masses or as grains and
blebs embedded in the igneous rocks of which it forms a con*
stituent part. There are indistinct cleavages parallel to the
macropinaooid (M in the fig.) and the brachypinacoid. The
hardness is 61; arid the sp. gr. 3-27-3'37,
but reaching 3*57 in the highly ferru-
ginous variety known as hyah»iderite.
The amount of ferrous oxide varies from
S (about 9 % in the gem varieties to 30 %
in hyalosiderite. The depth of the green,
or yellowish-brown c<^our, also varies with
the amount of iron. The lustre is vitreous.
The indices of refraction ( x-66 and 1-70)
and the double refmction are higher than
In many other rock-forming minerals; and
these duracters, together with the indistinct cleavage, enable
the mineral to be readily distinguished in thin h>ck-3ections
under the microscope. The mineral is decomposed by hot
hydrochloric add with separation of gelatinous silica. Olivm^
often contains small amounts of nickel and titanium dioxide;
the latter replaces siKca, and in the variety known as titan-
olivine teaches 5%.
Olivine is a common constituent of many basic and uTtnbasic
rocks, sach as basalt, diabase, gabbro and peridotite: the
dunite, of Dun Mountain near Nelson !n New Zealand, is an
almost pore olivfaie-rock. In basalts it is often present as small
porphyritlc crystals or as large granular aggregates. It also
occurs as an accessory constituent of some granular dolomitic
fimestones and crystalline schists. With enstatite it forms the
bulk of the material of meteoric stones; and in another type of
meteorites huge blebs of glassy oBvine fill spaces in a cellular
mass of metallic iron.
Olivine is especially likble to alteration intoserpentine (hydnted
magneainm silicate); the alteration proceeds from the outside of
the crystals and grains or ak>ng xrreguhir cracks in their interior,
and gives rise to the separation of iron oxides and an irregular
net-work of fibrous serpentine, which ifi rock-sections presents
a very characteristic appearance. Large greenish-yellow crystals
from Snarum in Buskerud, Norway, at one time thought to be
crystals of serpentine, really consist of serpentine paeudo-
morphoos after oBvine. Many of the large lock-masBes of
serpenthie have been derfred by the aerpentinization of olivine*
rocks. Olivine also sometimes alters, especially in crystalline
schists, to a fibrous, colourless amphibole, to which the name
pilite has been given. By ordinary weathering processes it
altera to limonite and silica.
Cosely rcbted to olivine are several other specks, which are
indoded toecther in the oH\nne group : they have the orthosilicate
formula R'^O*, where R' represents calrium, magnesium, irois
manganese and rarely zinc; they ail cryatalliae in the orthorhombic
system, and are iaomorphoua with olivine. The following may he
mentioned i —
Monticelfite, CaMgSiOj, a nov mioeral occnrriw as yetkmidi-
ercy crystals and grains in granular Umestooe at Moate Somma,
Vesuvius.
Forstcrite, M^O«. as colonrlcss or yellowish grains embedded
in many crystalline limestones.
Fayalite» FeiStO*. or iron olivine is dark brown or black in colour.
It occurs as nodules in a volcanic rock at Fayal in the Azores, and in
granite at the Mourne Mountains in Ireland; and as small crystals in
cavities in rhyolite at the Yellowstone Park, IJ.S.A. It is a common
constituent of crystalline iron ^ga.
Tcphroite, MosSiOi, a grey (rvMt, aah-cokNued). cleavable
mineral occurrii^ with other manganiferous minerals in Sweden and
New Jersey. (L.J. S.)
OLLIVIBR, OLIVIBR telU (1825-- ), French sUtesman,
was born at Maneilles on the 2nd of July 1825. His father,
Demosthenes CMlivier (1799-1884), was a vehement opponent
of the July monarchy, and was returned by Marseilles to the
Constituent Assembly in r 848. Ua opposition to Louis Napoleon
led to his banishment after the eoup d^Hat of December i8sr, and
he only returned to France in x86oi. On the establishment of
the short-lived Second Repubh'c his father's influence with
Lcdru-Rolliq secured for £inile Ollivier the position of com-
missary-general of the department of Bouches-da-Rh6ne.
Ollivier was then twenty-three and had just been called to the
Parisian bar. Less radical In his political opinions than his
father, his repression of a sodalist outbreak at Marscflles com-
mended him to General Cavaignac, who continued him in his
functions by making him prefect of the department. He was
shortly afterwards removed to the comparaUvely unimportant
prefecture of Chanmoot (Haute-Mame), a aemi-dbgrace which
he ascribed to his father's enemies. He therefore resigned from
the dvil service to take up practice at the bar, where his brilliant
abilities assured his soccess.
He reentered politk:al life in 1857 as deputy for the srA
cfncumscription of the Sdne. His candidature had been sup-
ported by the 5iicle, and he joined the constitutional opposition.
With Alfred Darimon, Jules Favre, J. L. H&ion and Ernest
Ficard he formed the group known as Let dnq^ which wrung
from Napoleon III. some oooccssions in the direction of con-
stitutional fovemment. The imperial decree of the s^th of
November, permitting the insertion of parliamentary reports
in the Afomiieur, and an address from the Cbrps Lfgislatif in
reply to the speech from the throne, were welcomed by him as 4
fiist instalment of reform. This, acquiescence marited a considcfw
able change of attitude, for only a year presriously a violcBt attack
on the imperial government, in the course of a defence of fitienne
Vacheiot, brought to trial for t|ie publication of La DtuuKraH^
had resulted in his suspension from the bar for three months.
He gradually separated from his old associates, who grooped
themselves around Jules Favre, and during the icasiba of 1866-
1867 Ollivier formed a third party, which definitely sopported the
prindple of a Liberal Empire. On the last day of December 1 866,
Count A. P. J. Walewski, acting in contlnuanoe of negotiations
already begun by the due de Moray, offered Olfivicr the ministry
of education with the function of representing the general policy
of the goveniment in the Chamber. Hie imperial decree of the
19th of January 1867, together with the promise inserted in
the Uenitew of a relaxation of the stringency of the press lawfe
and of concessions in respect of the right of public meeting, failed
to satisfy OHivier'S demands, and he refused office. On the eve
of the general election of 1869 he published a manifesto, L$ ip
jatnier, in justification of his policy. The sinmus^&ntuUe of the
8th of September 1869 gave the two chambcn the ordinary
90
OLMSTED, D.— OLMSTED, F. L.
parliciQentaiy rights, and was followed by the 4i«ni«aJ of
Rouher and ihe formation in the last week of 1869 of a responsible
ministry of which M. Ollivier was reaJly premier, although that
office was not oomiiiaUy recognized by the constitution. The
new cabinet, known as the ministry of the and of January, had
a hard task before it, complicatod a week after its formation by
the shooting of Victor Noir by Prince Pierre Bonaparte. Ollivier
immediately summoned the high court of justice for the judgment
of Prince Bonaparte and Prince Joachim Murat. The riots
following on the murder were suppressed without bloodshed;
circulars were sent round to the prefects forbidding them in
future to put pressure 00 the electon in favour of official candi-
dates; Baron Haussmann was dismissed ftom the prefecture
of the Seine; the violence of the press campaign against the
emperor, to whom he had promised a happy old age, was broken
by the prosecution of Hoiri Rochefort; and on the aotfa of
April a sinaius-cmsutte was Issued which accomplished the
transformation of the Empire, into a constitutional monarchy
Neither concessions nor firmness sufficed to appease the '* Irre-
cottcilables " of the opposition, who since the rekxation of the
press laws were able to influence the electorate. On the 8th
of May, however, the amended constitution was submitted,
on Rouher's advice, to a plebiscite, which resulted Jn n vote of
nearly seven to one in favour of the government. The most
distinguished members of the Left in his cabinet — ^L. J. Buffet,
Napol&>n Daru and TalhouSt Roy— resigned in April on the
question of the plebiscite. OUivier himself held the ministry of
foreign affairs for a few weeks, until Daru was replaced by the
due de Gramont, destined to be OlUvier's evil genius. The
other -vacancies were filled by J. P. M<ige and C. I- Piicbon, both
of them of Conservative tendencies.
The revival of the candidature oC Prince Leopold of Hohen-
soIlem-Sigmaringen for the throne of Spain early in 1870 dis-
concerted Ollivier's plana^ The French government, following
Gramont's advice, instructed Bencdetti to demand from the king
of Prussia a formal disavowal of the Hohenzoilem candidature.
Ollivier allowed himself to be gained by the war party. The
story of Benedetti's reception at Ems and of Bismarck's nuuii-
pulation of the Ems telegram is told elsewhere (see Biskasck).
It it unlikely that OlUvier could have pievented the eventual
outbreak of war, but he might perhaps have postponed it at that
time, if he had taken time to hear Benedetti's account of the
incident. He was outmanoruvred by Bismarck, and on the
J 5th of July he made a hasty declaration in the Chamber that the
Prussian government had issued to the powers a note announcing
the rebuff received by BenedettL He obuined a war vote of
500,000,000 francs, and used the fatal words that he accepted
the responsibility of the war '* with a light heart," saying that the
war had been forced on Fnuioe. On the gtb of August, with the
news of the first disaster, the OUivier cabinet was driven from
office, and its chief sought refuge from the general rage in Italy.
He returned to France in 1873, but although he carried on an
active campaign in the Booapartist EslcftUe his political power
was gone, and even in his own party he came into collision in
1880 with M. Paul de Cassagnac During his retirement he
employed himself in writing a. history of L'jSmpire libdral, the first
volume of which appeared in 1895. The work really dealt with
the remote and immediate causes of the war, and was the author's
apology for his blunder. The x^th volume showed that the
loinediate blame could not justly be' placed entirely on b's
shv'jldeis. His other works include Dimocrotk tt iiberU (1867),
JUe Mkuslire du 2 janpUr, Mer disccun (1875), Primcipes d
tonduUc (187s), VEJ^iM cf l'£4al ou coneSe du VatUam (a vols.,
1879), SoltUifins pUUiqms el sociaUs (1893), Nauveau M^nud
du droit ecdisiasliquc framait (1885). He had many coimexions
with the literary and artistic woi^, being one of the cariy
Parisian champioos of Wagner. Elected to the Acadepay
in 7870, he did not Uke bis teat, his reception being
indefinitely postponed. His first wife, Bbndine Lisst, was
tbe daughter of the Abb6 Liszt by . Mme d'Agoult (Daniel
Stem). She died in 1862, and Ollivier married in 1869 Mile
Gravier.
OUivicr's own view of hispoSticaX Gf* is'dvca in Us VEmpmu
libfral, which must always be an important document " far (be
hiMory of his time; but the book must be treated widi no kss
eaution than respect.
OLMSTED, OENISON (1791-1859), American man of KieBce,
HfBi borh at East Hartford, Connecticut, U.S.A., on tlie i8th of
June 1791, and in 1815 graduated at Yale, where he acted um
college tutor from 18x5 to 18x7. In the latter year be was
appointed to the chair of chemistry, mineralogy and geology in
the university of North Carolina. Tins chair he exdiangcd for
that of mathematics and physics at Yale in 1815; in t8j6, when
this professorship was divided, he retained that <rf aationomy
and natural phik)6ophy. He died at New Haven, Goimecticat,
on the 13th of May 1859.
His first publication (1824-1^25) was the Report d his geolof^cal
survey of the state of North Carolina. It was followed by vmnous
text-books on natural phib^ophy and astnoooray, but he is cfaiefly
known %o the acientifie world for his obaervarioM on hail <l8jo>,
on meteors and on the aurora borcalis (see Smitkspmau CantrtbuHons,
vol. viiiO*
OUISTED, FREDERICK LAW (x83a--?9o.O, American land-
scape Architect, was bom in Hartford, Connecticut, 00 the S7lb
of April iSaa. From his earliest years he was 4 wanderer.
While still a lad be shipped before the mast as a sailor; then he
took a course in the Yale Sdcntific School; worked for severs!
fanners; and, finally, began farming for himself on Staten
island, where he met Calvert Vaux, with whom later he formed
a business partnership. All this time .he wrote for the agricul;
tural papers. In 1850 hd made a walking tour through England^
his observations being published in Walks and Talks pj an
A mericmt Parmer in England (1852). A hooebnck trip ihix>i«gh
the Southern Slat<& was recorded in A Jaurney m the Seaboard
Stave States (1856), A Journey through Texas (1857) and A
Journey in the Back Country (1860}. These three voluraeSa
reprinted in England in two as Journeys and Explorations ms tho
Cotton Kingdom (i86i), gavea picture of the conditions sunound*
ing American slavery that hod great influence on British opinion,
and they were much quoted in the controversies at the time of the
Civil War. During the wax he was the untiring secretary of the
U.S. Sanitary Commission. He happened to be in New York
City when Central Park was projected, and, in conjunction with
Vaux, proposed the plan which, in competition with more than
thirty others, won first prize. Olmsted was made superintendent
to carry out the plaiL This was practically the first attempt in
the United States to apply art to the improvement or embellish*
mentof nature In a public park; it attracted great attention,
and the work was so satisfactorily done that he -was engaged
thereafter in most of the important works of a similar nature in
America— Prospect, Park, Brooklyn; Fairmount Park, Phila-
delphia; South Park^ Chicago; Riverside and MonuAgside
Parks, New York; Mount Royal ^ark, Montreal; the gvpands
surrounding the Capitol at Washington, and at Lcland Stanford
University at Palo Alto (Cah'fornia) ; and many others. He took
the bare stretch of lake front at Chicago and devek^)ed it into
the beantiful World's Fair gtounds, pladr^ all the biddings and
contributing much to the*architectuxal beauty and the success
of the exposition. He was greatly intenstcd in the Niagara
reservation, made the plans for the park there, and also did much
to influence the state of New York to provide the Niagant Park.
He was the first commissioner of the National Park of the
Yosemite and the Mariposa Grove, directing the surv^ and
taking charge of the property for the state of California. He
had aOso hdd directing appointments under the cities of Nev
York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Wilmington and Saa
Frandsoo, the Joints Committee on BuQdiivs and Grounds of
Congress, the Niagara Falls Resorvation Commissioa, the
trustees of Harvard. Yale, Amherst and other colleges and public
institutions. Subsequently to x886 he was largely occupied in
laying out an extensive system of parks and parkways for the
city of Boston and tbe town of BrookUne, and on a sdiene of
landscape improvement of Boston harbour. Olmsted received
honorary degrees from Harvard, Amherst and .Yale Id 1864,
J867 and,i89ii He died on the adtb of AofgasX 1901.
OLMOTZ— OLONETS
9»
OLIIOTX (Czech, Otomouc or ^dontavc), a town of Anstnti,
fa) Moravia, 67 m. N.E. of BrQan by rail. Pop. (1900) 21,933,
of which two- thirds arc Germans. It is situated on the March,
tnd is the ecclesiastical metropolis of Moravia. Until 1886
Olmatz was one of the strongest fortresses of Austria, but the
fortifications have been removed, and their place is occupied by
■ town park, gardens and promenades. Like most Slavonic
towns. If contains several large squares, the chief of which is
adorned with a trinity column, 115 ft. high, erected in 1740.
The most prominent church is the cathedral, a Gothic buQ^ng
of the 14th century, restored in 1883-1886, with a tower 328 ft.
high and the biggest church-beO in Moravia. It contains the
tomb of King Wenceslaus III., who was murtlercd here in X306.
The Mauritius church, a fine Gothic building of the tsth century,
and the St Michael church are also worth mcntiofting. The
prindpal secular bunding is the town-hall, completed in the
i5tb ccntuxy,. flanked on one side by a Gothic chapel, trans-
formed now into a museum. It possesses a tower 250 ft. high,
idomed with an astronomical dock, an artistic and famous
work, executed by Anton Pohl in 1422, The old university,
founded in 1570 and suppressed in 185S, is now represented by
a theological seminary, which contains a very valuable library
and an important coUectioiT of manuscripts and early prints.
Olmfitz is an important railway Junction, and is the emporium
of a busy mining and industrial district. Its industries include
brewing and distilling and the manufacture of malt, sugar and
starch.
OlroQtz is said to occupy the site of a Roman fort founded
in the imperial period, the original name of which, lions Jviii,
has been gradually corrupted to the present form. At a later
period OlmUtz was Jong the capital of the Slavonic kingdom of
Moravia, but it ceded that position to' Brtlnn in 1640. The
^fongols were defeated here in 1241 by Yaroslav von Sternberg.
During the Thirty Years' War it was occupied by the Swedes
for ei^t years. The town was originally fortified by Maria
Theresa during the wars with Frederick the Great, who besieged
the town unsuccessfully for seven weeks in 1758.' In 1848
Olmiltz was the scene of the emperor Ferdinand's abdication,
end in 1850 an important conference took place here between
Austrian and German statesmen. The bishopric of Olmatz
was founded in 1073. ^^ raised to the rank of an archbishopric
in 1 7 77. The bishops were created princes of the empire in 1 588.
The archbishop is the only one in the Austrian empire who is
elected by the cathedral chapter.
Sec W Mailer. Ce^hUhU der khii^kken UwpUtadl OlmUt
(and ed.. OhnQtz, 1895).
OLNE^, RICHARD (1835- )i American statesman, was
born ai Chford, Massachusetts, on the isth of September 1835.
He graduated from Brown University in 1856, and from the Law
School of Harvard University in 1858.' In 1859 be began the
practice of law at Boston, Massachusetts, and attained a high
position at the bar. He served in the state house of repre-
senuilves in 1874, and in March 1803 became attorney-general
of the United States in the cabinet of President Oeveland,
In this podtion, during the strike of the railway employes in
Chicago in 1894, he instructed the district attorneys to secure
from the Federal Cpurts writs of injunction restraining the
strikers fxx>m acts of violence, and thus set a precedent for
"government by injuncticHi." He also advised tho use of
F^cral troops to <iuell the disturbances in the city, on the
ground that the ^vemment must prevent interference with its
mails and with the general railway transportation between the
suica. Upon the death of Secretary W Q Grcsham (1832-1895),
OIney succeeded him as secretary of state on the loth of June
1895. He beeamc specially prominent in the controversy with
Great Britain coDceming the boundary dispute between the
Britiah and Venezuelan govemmenu (see Vknezucla), and in
his correspondence with Lord Salisbury gave an extended
ioXerprttation 10 the Monroe Doctrine which went .considerably
beyond previous statements 00 the subject In' 1897, at the
expiration of President Cleveland's lerni, he retumod to the
pfikctice of the law.
OGNETr a market f<»wn in the Buckfiigfaam parliamentary
division of Buckinghamshire, England, S9 ni. N.W. by N. iH
London, on a branch of the Midland railway. Fop. of urban
district CiQoi) 1634. 1* ^ i<^ ^^ open valley of the Ouse on
the north (left) bank of the river. The church of St Peter and
St Psul is Decorated. It' has a fine tower and spire; and tha
chancel haa a northerly fndination from the alignment of the
nave. The town is chleflfy noted for Its conneiien with William
Cowper, who came to live h«re hi 1767 and remained unto 1786^
when he removed to the neighbouring village of Weston Under-
wood. His house and garden at Olney retaitt relics of the poet,
and the house at Weston also remmns. In the garden at Ohiey
arc his favourite seat and the house in which he kept his taoM
hares. John Newton, curate of Ohv^, had the assfetance of
Cowper in the prodaction of the coBection of Ofaiey Hymns.
The trade of Obiey is principally agricultual; the town also
shares in the manufacture of boots and shoes oommdn to many
places m the neighbouring county of Northampton.
0LNE7, a dty and the county-seat of Richland count/,
Illinois, U.S.A., about 30 m. W. of Vincennes, Indiana. Popj
(1890) 3831; (1900) 4260 (235 foreign-bom), (1910) 5011.
Olney Is served by the Baltimore ft Ohio Sonth-weatern, the
Illinois Central, and the Cincinnati, Hamilton ft Dayton railways,
^nd is a terminus of the Ohio River Division of \hA last. It
has a Carnegie library and a dty park of 55 acres. Obey ia
an important shipping point for the agricultural pioducts of
this district; oQ is found in the vicinity; and the dty has varioui
manufactures. The municipality owns its water-works. Olney
was settled about 1842 and was first chartered aa a dty in 1867.
OLONETS, a government of north-western Russia, extending
from Lake Ladoga almost to the White Sea, bounded W. by
Finhind, N. and £. by Archangel and Vologda, and S. by
Novgorod and St Petersburg. The area is 57,422 sq. m., of whIcJi
6794 sq. m. are lak^. Its north-western portion belongs oro«
graphically and gcofogrcally to the Finland region; ft is thickly
dotted with hills reaching xooo ft. in altitude, and diversified
by numberiess smaller ridges and hollows miming from north*
west to south-cast. The rest of the government is a flat plateau
sloping towards the mai^ykmlands of thfrsouth. The geological
stmcture is very varied. Granites, syenites and diorites,
covered with Laurentian metamorphic slates, occur extensively
in the north-west. Near Lake Onega they aro overlain with
Devonian sandstones and limestones, yielding marble and
sandstone for building; to the south of that hike Carboniferout
limestones and clays make their appearance. The whole li
sheeted with boulder-day, the bottom moraine of the great
ice-sheet of the GUdal period. The entire region bears tracea
of glaciation. dther hi the shape of scratchings and elongated
grooves on the rocks, or of eskers (Sior , sdias) mnning paralld to
the glacial striatibns. Numberiess lakes occupy the depressions,
while a great many more have left evidences of their existence
in the extensive matshes. Lake Onega covers 3764 sq. m., and
reaches a depth of 400 ft. Lakes Zeg, Vyg, Lacha, Loksha,
Ttilos and Vodl cover from 140 to 480 sq. m. each, and their
cmstacean fauna indicates a former connexion with the Arctit
Ocean. The south-eastern part of Lake Ladoga falls also within
the government of Oloneta. The rivers drain to the Baltic and
White Sea basins. To the former system belong Lakes Ladoga
and Onega, which are connected by theSvir and r«cdve numerous
streams; of these the Vytegra, which communicates with the
Mariinsk canal-system, and the Oyat, an affluent of Lake Ladoga,
are important for navigation. Large quantities of timber^
fire-wood» stone, metal and flour are annually shipped on waters
belonging to this government. The Onega river, which has its
source in the south-east of the government and flows into the
White Sea, is of minor importance. Sixty-three per cent of the
area of Olonets is occupied by forests; those of the crown,
maintained for shipbuilding purposes, extend to more than
$oo.oop acres. The dimate is harsh and moist, the average
yeariy temperature at Petroxavodsk (6t* 8' N.) being 33-5" *"
(wo* in January, 57 ^^ m July); but the Ihermomeler r
falls hdow- 30* F.
9a
OLOPAN— OLYBRIUS
The population, which numbeitd 391,250 in j88x, reftched
367,902 in t8^7, and 40t,ioo (estimate) in 1906. They are
principally Great Russians and Finns. The people belong
mostly to the Orthodox Greek Church, or are Nonconformists.
Rye and oats are the principal crops, and some flax, barley
and turnips are grown, but the total cultivated area does not
exceed a^% of the whole government. The chief source of
wealth is timber, next to which come fishing and hunting.
Mushrooms and berries are exported to St Petersburg. There
are quarries and iron-mines, saw-mills, tanneries, iron-works,
distillerica and flour-mills. More than one-iifth of the entire
male popuhition leave their homes every year in search of tem-
porary employment. Olonets is divided into seven districts,
of whkh the chief towns axe Petrozavodsk, Kargopol, Lodeinoye
Pole, Olonets, Povyenets, Pudozh and Vytcgra. It includes
the Olonets mim'ng district, a territory belonging to the crown,
which covers 43' sq. m. and extends into the Serdobol district
of Finland; the ironworks were begun by Peter the Great in
1 701-1 714. Olonets was colonized by Novgorod in the nth
century, and though it suffered much from Swedish invasion its
towns soon became wealthy trading centres. Ivan III. annexed
it to the principality of Moscow in the second half of the z6th
century.
OLOPAN, Olopuzn or Olopek (probably a Chinese form
of the Syriac Rabban, i.e. monk: fl. a.d. 635), the first Christian
nussionary^in China (setting aside vague stories of St Thomas,
St Bartholomew, &c), and founder of the Xestorian Church
in the Far' East. According to the Si-ngau-fu inscription, our
sole authority, Olopan came to China from Ta T'sin (the Roman
empire) in the ninth year of the emperor T'ai-Tsung (aj>. 635),
bringing sacred books and images. lie was received with favour;
his teaching was examined and approved; his Scriptures were
translated for the imperial libraxy; and in 638 an imperial edict
declared Christianity a tolerated religion. T'ai-Tsung's successor,
Kao-Tsung (650-683), was still more friendly, and Olopan now
became a " guardian of the empire *' and " lord of the great
law." After this followed (c. 61^-744) a time of disfavour and
oppression for Chinese Christians, followed by a revival dating
from the arrival of a fresh missionary, Kiho, from the Roman
empire.
The Si-agan-fu inscription, which alone records these facts,
was erected in 781, and rediscovered in 1625 by workmen digging
in the Chaag-ngan suburb of Si<ngan-fu city. It consists of
1789 Chinese chaxacteis, giving a history of the Christian mission
down to 781, together with a sketch of Ncstorian doctrine, the
decree of T'ai-Tsung in favour of Christianity, the date of erection,
and names of various persons connected with the church in China
when the monument was put up. Additional notes in Syriac
(Eslrangelo characters) repeat the date and record the names
of the reignix^ Nestorian patriarch, the Nestorian bishop in
China, and a number of the Nestorian clergy.
See Kircher. CAina JUustrata; G. Pauthier. De TauthenltdU ie
Finscription nestorientu de Si'ntan-fou (Paris, 1857) and Vinscription
nro^kinoise de Si-n^thfou (Parisi 1858): Henry YuIc, Cathay,
Prdiminary Essay, xau-xdv. clxxxi.-cUxnii. (London, Hakluyt Soc^
■866); F. Hirth, China and the Roman Orient, 323, &c.: Father
Henri Havret, La stUe cMrilienne de Si-ngan-fou, two parts (text
and history) published out of three (Shanghai, 1895 and 1897);
Dr James Levsc's edition and transbtion of the text. The Nestorian
Monwnunt efllsi'an'fu (London, 1888); Yule and Cordier, Marca
Pole, it. 27-29 (London, 2903); C R. Bcazley, Dawn of Modem
Ceoiraphy, i. 2x5-218.
OLOROK-SAIMTE-MARIB, a town of south-western France,
capital of an arrondissement in the department of Basses-
Tyrialei, ax m. S. W. of Pau on a branch of the Southern railway.
It h'cs at the confluence of the mountain torrents (locally known
as gaves) Aspe and Ossau, which, after dividing it into three
parts, unite to form the Oloron, a tributary of the Pan. The
united population of the old feudal town of Sainte-Croix or
Oloron proper, which is situated on an eminence between the
two rivers, of Sainte-Marie on the left bank of the Aspe, and of
the new quarters on the right bank of the Ossau, is 77 1 5. Oloron
has remains of old ramparts and pleasant promenades with
beautiful views, and there are several old houses of the isth.
i6th and 27th centuries, onA of which ts oecupled by the hAtd
de ville. The church of Sainte-Croix, the building of most
interest, belongs mainly to the zilh century; the chief feature
of the exterior is the central Byzantine cupola; in the interior
there is a large altar of gilded wood, constructed in the Spanish
style of the t7th century. The church of Sainte-Maric, which
formerly served as the cathedral of Oloron, is in the old ecclesi-
astical qnartcx of Sainte-Marie. It is a medley of various styles
from the xith to the 14th century A square tower at the west
end shelters a fine Romanesque portaL In the new quarter
there is the modern church of Notre-Dame^ Remains of a castle
of the Z4th century are also still to be seen. Oloron is tho
seat of a sub-prefect, and its public institutions include tribunals
of first instance and of commerce, and a chamber of arts and
manufactures. It is the most important commercial centre of its
department after Bayoone, and carries on a thriving trade with
Spain by way of the passes of Somport and Anso.
A Celtiberian and then a Gallo-Roman town, known as liaira,
occupied the hill on which Sainte-Croix now stands. Devastated
by the Vascones in the 6th and by the Saracens in the 8th century,
it was abandoned, and it was not until the nth century that
the quarter of Sainte-Marie was re-established by the bishops^
In 1080 the viscount of B£am took possession of the old town.
The two quarters remained distinct till the union of B£am with
the crown at the accession of Henry IV. At the ReformatioD
the place became a centre of Catholic reaction. In the 17th
century it carried on a considerable trade with Aragon, until
the Spaniards, jealous of its prosperity, pillagied the establish*
ments of the Oloron merchants at Saragossa in 1694 — a disaster
from which it only slow^ recovered. The bishopric was sup>
pressed in 1790.
OLSHAUSEN, HERMANN (179^x839), German theologian,
was bom at Oldcslohe in Holstein on the 21st of August 1796,
and was educated at the universities of Kiel (18x4) and Berlin
(1816), where he was influenced by Schlrfcrmacher and Neander.
In 1820 he became Privatdosenl and in 1821 professor extra-
ordinarius at Berlin; in 1827 professor at KSnigsbcrg, in 1834
atErlangen. He died on the 4th of September 1839. Olshauscn^
department was New Testament exegesis; his Commentary
(completed and revised by Ebrard and Wiesinger) beipin to
appear at K6nigsbcrg in 1830, and was translated into En^^ish
in 4 vols. (Edinburgh, i847-x849)- He had prepared for Jt by
his other works, Die Achtheit d, tier Kanon. Bwingdien (1823),
Ein Wort Uber tUferen Sckriftsinn (1824) and Die HUisdm
SckrifiauHegUHg (1825).
OLTBNITZA {(XteHila), a town of Rumania, on the left hank
of the river Argesh, 33 m. from its outflow into the Daxmbe,
and at a terminus of a branch railway from Bucharest. Pbp.
(1900) s8ox. xThe priAcipal trade is in grain, timber (floated
down the Argesh) and fish. Lake Greca, famous for its carp,
lies xo m. E. and has an area of about 45 sq. m. lu waters
reach the Danube through a network of streams, marshes and
meres. Oltenitza is the ancient Constantlola, which was the
scat of the first bishopric established in Dacla. In the Crimean
War the Turks forced the river at this point and inflicted heavy
losses on the Russians.
OLUSTE^ a village of Baker county, Florida, U.SJl., in
the precinct of Olusiee, about 46 m. W. by S. of Jacksonville.
Pop. of the prednct (19x0) 466. The village is served by the
Seaboard Air Line. The battle of Olustce, or Ocean Pond (the
name of a small body of water in the vichiity), one of the most
sanguinary engagements of the Civil War in proportion to the
numbers engaged, was fought on the 20th of February 1864, about
2 m. east of Olustee, between about 5500 Federal troops, tinder
General Truman Seymour (1824-1891), and about 5400 Con-
federates, under General Joseph Fincgan, the Federal forvcs
being decisively defeated, with a loss, in killed and wounded,
of about one-third of their number, including several officers.
The Confederate looses, in killed and wounded, wew about 940.
OLTBRIUS, Roman emperor of the West from the ttth of
July to the 23rd of October 47a, was a member of a noble family
and a native of Rome. After the sack 6f the city by Genscric
OLYMPIA
93
(Gebene) Is 455* helled to ConiUstiiieple, where in 464 he waft
made censu), and abotit the same time married Placidia, daughter
of Valentiniao III. aiul Eudoxia. This afforded Genseric,
whose ton Hiumerio had married Eudocia, the elder sister
of Pladdta, the opportunity of daimang the empire of the
West for Olybrius. In 473 Olybrius was sent to Italy by the
emperor Leo to a&sist the emperor Anthemius against his
son-in-law Ridmer, but, having enterdd into negotiations with
the latter, was himself prodaimed emperor against his will, and
on the murder of his rival ascended the throne unopposed. His
reign was as uneventful as it was brief.
Sec Gibbon, Deditie ohAFoU, da. xxxvl ; J. B. Bury, X^attr Roman
Empirt,
. OLTMPIA, the scene of the famous Olympic games, is on the
right or north bauk of the Alpheus (mod. Ruphia), about it m.
E. of the modem Pyiso^ I'he course of the river is here from
£. to W., and the average breadth of the valley is about f m.
At thi» point s small stream, the ancient Cladeus, flows from
the north into the Alpheus. The are£i known as Olympia b
bounded on the west by the Cladeus, on the south by the Alpheus,
on the Qortfa by the low heights whiidi shut in the Alpheus valley,
and on the east by the andeot laceoounes. One group of the
northetn heights terminates in a corneal hill» about 400 ft. high,
which is cut off from the rest by a deep deft, and descends
abruptly on Olympia. This hill is the famous CronioUt sacred to
Cronus, the father of Zeus.
The natural situation of Olymjna is, fn one sense, of great
beauty. When Lysias, in hi$ Ofym^MfUj (spoken here), calls it
" the fairest spot of Greece," he was doubtless thinking also —
or perhaps dutOy-^t the masterpieces which art, in all its forms,
had contributed to the embellishment of this national sanctuary.
But even now the praise seems hardly excessive to a visitor who,
looking eastward up the fertile and wcdl-wooded valley of Olympia,
sees the snow^crowned chains of Eiymanthus and Cyliene rising
in the distance. The valley, at onoe spadous and definite, is a
natural prednct, and it is probable that no artificial boundaries
of the Altis, or sacred grove, existed until comparatively late
times.
History.— The importance of Olympia in the history of
Greece is religious and political The religious associations of the
place date from the prehistoric age, when, before the sutes of
£Iis and Pisa had been founded, there was a centre of worship
in this valley which is attested by tBtly votive offerings found
beneath the Heraeum and an altar near it. The earliest exunt
building on the site is the temple of Hera, which probably dates
in its original form from about 1000 b^C. There were various
traditions as to the origin of the games. According to one of
them, the first race was that between Pelops and Oenomaus,
who used to challenge the suitors of his daughter Hippodameia
and then aby them. According to another, the festival was
founded by Herades, dther the well-known hero or the Idaean
Dactyl of that name. The control of the festival bdonged in
early times to Piia, but Elis seems to ha.ve claimed assodation
with it. Sixteen women, representing eight towns of £Iis and
eight of Pisatis, wove the festal robe for the Olympian Hera.
Olympia thus became the centre of an amphictyony (9.V.), or
federii league under religious sanction, for the west coast of
the Peloponnesus, as Delphi was for its ncighboucs in northern
Greece. It suited the interests of Sparta to jom thisampfaJctyony ;
and, before the regular catalogue of Olympic victors be^ns in
776 B.C., Sparta had formed an alliance with Elis. Aristotle
saw in the temple of Hera at Olympia a bronxe disk, recording
the traditional laws of the festival, on which the name of Lycurgus
itood next to that of Iphitus, king of Elis. Whatever may have
been the «ge of the disk itself, the relation which it indicates is
well attested* £iis and SparU, making common cause, had no
difficulty in excluding the Pisatans from their proper shue in the
management of the Olympian sanctuary. IHsa had, indeed, a
brief moment of better fortune, when Pheidon of Argos
celebrated the aflth Olympiad under the presidency of the
Pisatans. This festival, from which the Eleans and Spartans
were exdudcd, was afterwards struck out of the official register,
as having no proper existence. The destruction of Pisa (before
572 B.C.) by the combined forces of Sparta and Elis put an end
to the long rivalry. No^t only Pisatis, but also the district of
Tripbylia to the south of it, became dependent on Elb. So far
as the religious side of the festival was concerned, the Eleans had
an unquestioned supremacy. It was at Elis, in the gymnasium,
that candidates from all parts of Greece were tested, bdore they
were admitted to the athletic competitions at Olympia. To have
passed through the training (usually of ten monthis) at Elis was
regarded as the most valuable preparation. Elean officials, who
not only adjudged the prizes at Olympia, but dedded who should
be admitted to compete, marked the national aspect of their
functions by assuming the title of HeUanodicae.
Long before the overthrow of Pisa the list of contests had been
so enlarged as to invest the celebration with a Panbellenic
character. Exercises of a Spartan type — testing endurance and
strength with an especial view to war — ^had almost exdusively
formed the earlier progranune. But as eariy as the <sth
Olympiad — ix. several years before the interference of Pheidon
on behalf of Pisa— the four-horse chariot-race was added. This
was an invitation to wealthy competitors from every part of
the Hellenic world, and was also the recognition of a popular
or spectacular element, as distinct from the skill which had
a merely athletic or military interest Horse-races were added
later. For such contests the hippodrome was set apart. Mean-
while the list of contests on the old racecourse, the stadium^ had
been enlarged. Besides the foot-race in which the course was
traversed once only, there were now the diaulos or double
course, and the "long" foot-race (jdolichos). Wrestling and
boxing were combined In the panamtion. Leaping, qu<^(!-
throwing, javelin-throwing, running and wrestling were com-
bined in the pentathlon. The festival was to acquire a new
importance under the protectien of the Spartans, who, having
failed in thdr plans of actual conquest in the Peloponnese, sought
to gain at least the hegemony (acknowledged predominance)
of the peninsula. As the Eleans, therefore, were the religious
supervisors of Olympisi, so the Spartans aimed at constituting
themsdves its political protectors. Their military strength-^
greatly superior at the time to that of any other sUte-— enabled
them to do this. Spartan arms could enforce the sanction which
the CHympjan Zeus gave to the oaths of the amphictyones^
whose federal bond was symbolized by common worship at his
shrine. Spartan arms could punish any violation of that " sacred
truce " which was indispensable if HeUenes from all dties were
to have peaceable access to the Olympian festival. And in the
eyes of all Dorians the assured dignity thus added to Olympic
would be enhanced by the fact that the protectors were the
Spartan Heradidae.
Olympia entered on a new phase of brilliant and secure exist-
ence as a recognized PanheUenic institution. This phase may
be considered as beginning after the establishment of Elean
supremacy in 57a bx. And so to tbelast (Hympia always remained
a central expncssfon of the Greek ideas that the body of man has
a glory as weQ as his intellect and ^irit, that body and mind
should alike be disdpUned, and that it is by the harmonious
discipline of both that men best honour Zeus. The significanoe
of Oiympia was larger and higher than the political fortunes
of the Greeks who met there, and it survived the overthrow of
Greek independence. In the Macedonian and Roman ages the
temples and contests of dympia still interpreted the ideal at
which free Greece had aimed. Philip of Macedon and Nero are,
as we shall see, among those whose naxnes have a record in the
Aliis. Such names are typical of long series of visitors who paid
homage to Olympia. According to Cedrenus, a Greek writer
of the nth century (Ziiiio^ TirropiMr, i. 326), the Olympian
festival ceased to be held after a.d. 303, the first year of the 293R!
Olympiad. The list of Olympian victors, which begins in 776 b.C
with Coroebus of Elis, closes with the name of an ArsMniaa,
Varastad, who is said to have belonged to the race of the Arsaddae.
In the 5th century the desolation of Olympia had set in. The
chryselephantine statue of the Olympian Zeus, by Pfacidias, wis
carried to Coostaatioople, and pfrihhf<1 in a great fire^ AJ>. 47^
M
OLYMPIA
The Olympian temple of Zeus is said to have been didmamled,
either by the Goths or by Christian seal, in the reign of Theodosius
II. (a.d. 403-450). After this the inhabitants converted the
temple of Zetis and the region to the south of it into a fortress, by
constructing a wall from materials found among the ancient
buildings. The temple was probably thrown down by earth-
quakes in the 6th century a.d.
Excavations,— The German eicavations were begun Sn 1875.
After six campaigns, of which the first five lasted from September
to Jime, they were completed on the soth of March 1881. The
result of these six years' labours was. first, to strip off a thick
covering of earth from the AUis^ the consecrated precinct of
the Olympian Zeus. This covering had been formed , during some
twelve centuries, partly by clay swept down from the Cronion,
partly by deposit from the overflowings of the Cladeus. The
coating of earth over the Altia had an average depth of no less
than 16 ft.
The work could not, however, be restricted to the Altis. It
was necessary to dig beyond it, especially on the west, the south
and the east, where several ancient buildings existed, not in-
cluded within the sacred precinct itself. The complexity Of the
task was further increased by the fact that in many places early
Greek work had later Greek on top of it, or late .Greek work
had been overlaid with Roman. In a concise survey of the results
obtained, it will be best to begin with the remains external to
the prcdnct of Zeus.
I. Remains ootsidb the 'Altis
A. West Side. — ^The wall bounding the Altts on the west befongs
probably to the time of Nera In the west waU were two gates,
one at lU northern and the other at its southern extremity. The
latter must have served as the processional entrance. Each gate
was vpAn-uXoc. having before it on tJie west a colonnade consisting
of a row of four columns. There ih a third and smaller gate at about
the middle point of the west wall, and neariy opposite the Pdopion
in the Altia
West of the west Altis wall, on the strip of ground between the
Altis and the river Cladeus (of which the eonm is roughly psnUel
to the west Altis wall), the folk>wing buiMtnga were traced. The
order in which they are placed here is that in which they w w«-«tx l
each other from north to south. •
1. Just outside the Altis at its north-west earner was a OyMnanfiiit.
A large open space, not segulariy rectangubr. was enclosed on two
sidc»->possibly on three— by Doric colonnades. Do the south it
was bordered by a portico with a single row of columns in fronx ;
on the east by a double portico, more than a stadium in length
f220 yds.), and serving as a racecourse for prsctice in bad weath.r.
At the south-east corner of the gymnasium, in the ai^e bctw«ea
the south and the east portico, was a Coriathian doorway, which a
double row of columns divided into three passages. Immediately
to the east of this doorwaywas the gate giving access to the Altis
at its north-west comer. The gymnasium wa« used as an exercise
ground for competitors dunng the last nwnth of their trsim'ng.
2. Immediately adjoining the gymaaaittro on the sMtb wa« a
Palaestra, the place of exercise for wrestlers and boxen. It waa
in the form of a square, of which each side was about 70 yds. long,
enclosing an inner building surrounded by a Doric colonnade.
Facing this inner baiiding on north, east and west werr rooms of
different sixes^ to which doors or colonnades gave accesai Tha
chief entrances to the palaestra were at south-west and south-east,
separated by a double colonnade which extended along the acuth
3. Near the palacsira on the south a Byxantine church forms
the central point in a complex grou|i of remains, (a) The chiocfa
itself occupies the site of an older brick building, which is perhapo
a remnant of the "workshop of Pheidias*' seen by Pausanias.
(6) North of the church is a square court with a well in the middle,
of the Hellenic age. <c) West of this is a small dicular stniaure,
enclosed by square walls. An altar found (m situ) on the south side
of the circular enclosure shows by an inscription that this was the
Heroum, where worship of the heroes was practised down to a late
period. <</) East of the court stood a large building, of Roman
age at latest, arranged round an inner hall with coionnadea. These
buildings probably formed the Theoodeon, house of the priests.
U) There is also a long and narrow building on the south of the
Byzanitne church. This may have been occupied by the ^^attpi^m*,
those alleged " descendants of Pheidias " (l^usanias v. 14) whose
hereditary privilege it was to keep the statue of Zeos dean. The
soKalled " workshop of Phddias " (see a) evUently owed its preser-
vation to the fact that it continued to be used for actual wnrk.
OLYMPIA
?5
and the tdjact ot buiUiag WQald havt btfo a ooovtakot lodciag
for the arttM*.
4. South oi the group de s cribed above occur the remains of a
brge building showa by it* intcrifition ^to be the Leoaidaeum.
dcdkaxcd by an Elean named Leoaidas in the 4tb century^ b.c^
and probably intended for the re^ptioQ of distinguished visitors
during the games, such as the heads of the special missions from
the various Creek cities. It is an oblong, of which the north and
fo'jth sides measure about 2W It-, the east and west about ^30^
Its oricnution differ? from that ol all the other buiktings above
mentioned, being not from N. to S, but from W3.W. to E.N^
Externally it is an Ionic peripterpSi encloung suites of roomii large
and snuU, grouped round a small interior Done peristyle* In Roman
times it was altered in such a way as to distribute the rooms into
Uppareoily) four quarters, each having aa atrium with six or fov
columns. Traces existing within the eNterior poctkos on north,
west and east indicate much carriage tmf&Ci
B. SsMljk ^p^.— Although the limits of the Altit on the south
(i.e. on the side towards uie Alpheus) can be traced with approxi-
mate accuracy, the precise line of the south wall becomes doubtful
after we have advanced a little more thaa one-third of the distance
from the west to the east end of the iouih side. The middle and
eastern ponions of the south side wet* plaon at whkh architectural
changes, huve or small, were numerous down to Che latest limes,
and where the older buildings met with scant mercy.
I. The Council Halt {BouUuUrium, Paus. v. 33) was just outnde
the Altis, nearly at the middle of its south walU It comprised
two separate Dori^ buildings of different date but klenlical form, via.
oblong, having a single row of columns dividing the length into two
aavcs and terminating to- the west in a semicimilar apse. The
orientation of each was from west-south-west toeast*north-easC, one
being south-south-east of the other* In the specs between stood a
small square building. In (root, on the east, was a portico extending
akiog tii4 front of all thnie bui)dinn; and cast of this again a
large trapeve-shaped vestibule or fore-hall, enclosed by a cobnnade.
This bouleuterium would have been available on all occasions when
Olytnpia became tho scene of conftrenoe or debate between the
icpcesenutivcs of differem aiatea— whether the subject was property
poUticaU •» concerning the amphictyonic treaties, or related more
directly to the administration of the sanctuary and festival. Two
smaller HcUenk buildings stood immediately west of the bouleu-
terium. The more northerly of the two opened 00 the Alti& Their
purpose is unoeruun.
a. Close to the bouleuterium on the south, and nianma paratlel
with it from south-west by west to north-eaM by east, was the Sinak
Colonnade, a late but handsome structure, closed on the north sidiL
Open on the south and at the east and west ends* The external
colonnade (on south, east and west) was Doric; the intenor row of
columns Conothiao. It was uted as a prooienade. and as a place
from which to view the fcatal proc cm iona aa they passed towards
the AIti*.
3. East of the bouleuterium was a triumphal gateway of Roman
Me. with triple eatiance, the central being the widest, opening 00
the Altia from the aouth. Nortb of this gateway, but at a somewhat
greater depth, traces of a pavement were found in the Aitis.
C. Easi Side. — ^The line of the east wall, nioniiM due north and
south, can be traced from the north-east corner of the Altis down
about three-fifths of the east kide. when it breaks off at the remains
known is " Nero's hoosew" These are the first whkh obtm attention
on the east side»
I. To the south-east of the Altis is a building of 4th-centur3( date
and of uncertain purpose. This was afterwasds absorbed mto a
Roman house whkh protect e d beyoad the Altis on the east, the
aouth part of the east AHis wall being destroyed to admit of thi^
A piece of leaden water-pipe found in the house bears NER. AVG.
Only a Roman master could have dealt thus with the Altis, and with
a building which stood within its saored precinct. It canpot be
doubted that the Roman house— from which ihf«e doors gave access
to the Altia—vas that occupied by Nero when he visitaa Oiympia.
Later Roman h^ods .a^ia enlaiged and altered the bwUduig,
whkh may perhaps have been used for the leceptioa of Roman
governors.
a. Following northwards the line of the east wall, we reach at
the iKMih-cast corner of the Altis the cntnnoe Co the Stadsiim, whkh
extends east of the Altis in a dinction from wtat-eoutb-wtat to
east-north-cast. The apparently strange and inconvenknt position
of the Stadium relatively to the Akis was due simply to the neccssily
of obeying the condiciofts of the ground, here oetcrmined by the
ottffve of the k>wcr akipes which bound the valkv on the aortb. The
German explerets excavated the Stadium so far aa was oeceoaiy
for the ascertainment of all tuiwitial points. Low embankments
had originally been built oa west, east and south, the north boundary
being formed by the natural dope of the hill. These were aftcr^
wards thkbeaed aad raised. Tlie cpnoe thus defined was a brge
ablons.aboiit a347da.tnlencthby astabraadtb. There wetr no
arti6aal aeata. It is computso that from 40^060 to 45,000 spectators
oould have fonnd sitting-room, diough it is hardly probabk that
such a ailmber was ever reached. The exact length 01 the Stadium
ItseM whkh was primarily the course for ihe foot-race ■ was about
aio yda. or 19x^7 n mtr e» » a n important r aea lt , aa it dttarminaf
I the Altis
the Ofovpian foot to be 0-3204 metre or a little moie than an
English foot ( 1 'Of). In the Heraeum at Oiympia, it may be remarked,
the unit adopted was not this Olympian foot, but an older one of
0*997 metre, and ia the temple of Zeus an Attk foot of i*o6 Eogliah
foot was used. The starting-point and the ^oal in the Stattum
were marked by limestone thresholds. Provision for drainage waa
made by a channel ronning round the enclosure. The Stadium waa
used not only for foot-races, but for boaiog, vreatliag, leaping,
quoit-throwing and iavelin-throwiog*
The entrance to the Stadium from the north-east corner of the
Altis was a privileged one, reserved for the judgca of the games,
the competitors and the herakia. lu form was that of a vaulted
tunnel, too Olympian feet ia length. It was probably corn
in Roman times. To the west was a ^'Cstibuk, Irani which t
was entered by a handsome gateway.
3. The Hippodrome, in whkh the chaHot^races and horse-races
were held, can no kmger be accurately traced. The overflowings of
the Alpheus have waahed away ail certain indicatkMs of its limits.
But it is clear that it extended south and south-east of the Stadium,
and roughly paralkl with it, though stretchfaig far beyond it to
the east. From the atate of the ground the German expkwers
inferred that the kngth of the hippodrome waa 770 metres or 4
Olympk stTidfai
D. North Side^U the northern limit of the Altia, like the weit,
south and east, had been tmced by a boundary wall, this would
have had the effect of excludtng from the precinct a spot so sacred
aa the Cronlon, " Hill of Cronus." inseparably associated with the
oUest worship of Zeus at Oiympia. It seems therefore unlikely
that any such northero boundary wall ever existed. But the line
whkh such a boundary woukl have folkwed b partly represented hy
the remains of a wall running from east to west immediately nortn
of tlie treasure-houses (see below), which it was designed to protect
against the descent of earth from the Cronkn juac above. This
waa tbe wall along which, about a.o. 1^7. the asalassaterchanaal
constructed by Herodcs Attkus was earned.
Having now surveyed the chief remains external to the sacred
precinct on west, south, east and north, 1
wfaich have been traced within it.
11.— Remains witrin tbx Altis
The form of the Altis, as indicated by the existing tnocs. Is not
nsgulariy rectangular. The length of the west aide, when the line
of direction is from south-south-east to notth-nonh-weai, is about
ai5 yda The south side, running neariy due east -and west, ia
about equally long, if measured from the cad of the west wall to
the point which the east wall would touch when produced doe aouth
in a straight line from the place at whkh it waa demolished to
make way for " Nero's house. The east skle, measured to a poikit
iust behind the treasure-houses, k the sborteat, about aoo yds.
The north side is the kmceat. A line drawa eastward behind Iha
treasure-houses, from die nytaneum at the north-west an^. would
give about 275 yds.
The lesaains or sites within the Altis may conveniently be dossed
in three main groupa, via.— (A) the chief centraa d religieua woiahip;
(B) votive buUdings; (C) buiUii^B, Ac., connected with tha ad-
ministration of Oiympia or the recep ti on of visitora.
A. CkUf Cemtref ofRdipous Worahip,^i, There are traces of an
altar near the Heraeum whkh waa probably older than the great
altar of Zeua; chk waa probably the original centia of wvnha^
Thegiuat altar of Zeus was of cUiptk form, the kagth of the baanfa
being directed from south-south-west to aorth.north-east«in such*
manner that the axis wooM oass through the Cronion. The upper
structure imposed on thk basis was in two tiers, and also, probably,
loaenge-shaped. This waa the famous " ash-altar ** at whkh the
lamHUe, the hereditary cmsof seen, practised thoae lightaof divioa-
tkn by fire in virtue of whkh mors especially Oiympia ia saluted
by Pindar as ** mistrem of truth.** The steps by whkh the priett
mounted the alur oeem to have been at aorth and south.
a. The Pehpium^ to the west of the Altar of Zeus, was a email
piecinct ia whkh sacriScas were offered to the hero Pekna. The
inclined 10
traces agree with the account of Pausaniaa. Walla, ii
Itoeach
other at obtuse angks, enclosed a plot of ground faaviag in the
middle a low tuaHius of elliptic form, about 33 metres uom east
to weat by sq from north to soutli. A Doric p iopyh m with thrse
doom 9ve accem on the aouth-west side.
The three Cemplcaof the Altk were chose of Zens, Heia and the
Mother of the goda All were Doric AU, too, were oonpletely
surrounded by a cokMinade. «>. were ** peri|»tefal.'*
a. The TempU of ZetUt south of the Ptelopium. stood on a high
suoatractuie with three scepa It was probably built about 470 •.€.
The cokmaades at the east and west side were alsixcdunnaaaob:
those at the north and aouth skies (counting the corner columaa
again) d thirteen each. The cella had a prodomos on the east and
aa opisthodomos on the wcau The ceUa itaelf waa divided losmi-
tudinally <t.«. from cast to vest) into three oartitiona by a doubb
row of columns. The central partition, which was tha
of three sectiooa The
and image of the Olympian Zeus. The middle sectka, next to the
— ' which waa shut off by low scieens. ooataiaed n table and
stdaa Here, probably, the wieatha 1
t poasented ta tha victon*
96
OLYMPIA
The thifd or eaitbrnmost aectton wag open to the miblit. This
temple was most richly adorned with statues and reliefs. On the
east front were represented in twenty-one colossal figures the moment
before the contest between Oenomaus and Pelops. The west front
exhibited the fight of the Lapithae and Centaurs. The statement of
Pausaniaa that the two pedimenu were made by Paeonius.and
Alcamcnes is now generally supposed to be an error. The Twelve
Ibund'-enoagh
of the compodtioA. 1 1 was near this Umpfe. at a point about 38 yds.
E.S.E. from the south-east angle, that the explorers found the statue
of a dying goddess of victory—- the Nike of Paconius.
4. The TempU of Hem (Hctaeum), north of the Pelophim, was
raised on two steps. It is probably the oldest of extant Greek
temples, and may date from about 1000 ac. It has colonnades of
•ix columns each at east and west, and of sixteen each (counting
the comer columns again) at north and south. It was smaller than
the temple of Zetis, and, while resembling it in general plan, dilTcred
from it by iu singular length relativdy to its breadth. When
I^iusanias saw it, one of the two columns of the opisthodomos (at
the west end of the cella) was of wood; and for a long period all
the columns of this temple had probably been of the same material.
A good deal of patch-work in the restoration of particular parts
seems to have been done at various periods. Only the lower part
of the cella wall was <^ stone, the rest bemg of unbaked brick; the
entaUature above the columns was of wood covered widi terra-
cotta. 'The cella— divkled, like that of Zeus, into three partitions
by a double row of columns—had four " tongue-walls," or small
screens, projecting at right angles from its nonh wall, and as many
from the south walL Five niches were thus formed on the north skle
and five on the south. In the third niche from the east, on the north
side of the cella, was found one of the greatest of all the treasures
which rewarded the German explorer»--'<he Hennes of Praxiteles
(1878).
5. The Tem^ of lAe Gttal Mother ef the Gcds (Metnoum) was again
considerably smaller than the Hciaeum. It stood to the east oTthc
latter, and had a different orientation, viz. not west to east but
west-north-west to cast-south-east. It was raised on three steps,
and bad a peripteroe of nx columns (east and west) by eleven (north
and south), having thus a slightly smaller length relatlvefv to its
breadth than cither of the other two temples. Here also the cella
had pnodomos and opisthodomos. The adornment and painting of
this temple had once been very rich and varied. It was probably
built in the 4tfa century, and there are indications that in Roman
times it underwent a restoration.
B. Votm EdiJUes.^VmAtT this head are placed buildfngs erected,
either by sutcs or by individuals, as offerings to the Olympian Rod.
X. The twelve Treasure-houses on the north «de df the Mtu,
immediately under the Cronion, belong to this class.
Tho same general character--^at of a Doric temple in Ofilir,
facing south— is traceable in all the treasure-houses. In the
of several of these the fragments are sufficient to aid a 1
Two~-viz. the and and 3rd countinf; from the west — had been dis-
mantled at an eariy date, and their site wa<i traversed by a roadway
winding upward towards the Cronion. This roadway seems to have
been oner at least than a.d. 157, since it caused a deflexwn in the
watercourse alon^ the base of the Cronion constructed by Herodes
Atticus. Pausanias, therefore, would not have seen treasure-houses
Nos. 1 and 3. This explains the fact that, though we can trace
twelve, he names only ten.
As the temples of ancient Greece partly served the purposes of
banks in which prcciovs objects cookl be securely deposited, so the
form of a small Doric chapel was a natural one for the *' treasure-
house " to assume. Each of these treasure-houses was erected by a
Greek sute, either aa a thank-offering for Olympian victories gained
byitsdtixen8,orasagenc " ' ' - . ^. . -
The treasure-houses were
or dedicated gifu (such _ . .
wealth of the sanctuary partly consisted. The temple inventories
receotlf discovered at Delos illustrate the great quantity of such
posscieions which were apt to accumulate at a shrine of Panhellentc
celebrity. Taken in order from the west, the treasure-houses
were founded by the following states: i, Sicyon; 3, 3. unknown:
4, Syracuse (referred by Pausanlas to Carthage); 5, Epidamnus;
6. Byantium; 7,Sybaris; 8, Gyrene: O. Sdinus; icMettpontnm;
II, Megara; I3, Gela. It is interesting to remark how this list
represents the Greek colonies, fftxn Libya to Sidly, from the Euxine
to the Adriatic. Greece proper, on the other hand, is represented
only by Mttara and Sicycm. The dates of the foundations cannot
be fixed. The archieectural members of some of the treasure-booses
have been found built into the Byzantine wall, or elsewhere on
the site, as well as the eerra-cotta plates that overlaki- the stone-
work in some cases, and the pedimental figures, repres enting the
battle of the gods and giants, from the treaanre-hottse of the
Megarians.
a. The PkUippntm stood near the north'^est comer of the Altis,
a short space wesc^soutb-west of the Heraeum. It was dedicated
by Philip of Macedon. after his victory at Chaeronea (338 B.C.).
As a thank-offering for the overthrow of Greek freedom, it aaigbt
teem stmngely placed in the Olymptan AftJc But it !a, in fact,
only another illustration of the manner in whkrh PhiKp's poaitioo
and power enabled him to place a decent disguise on the ml natoiv
of the change. Without risking any revolt of HellenK fedjn^
the new ** captain-general " of Greece could erect a naoaoment S
his triumph m the very heart of ^e Panhellenk sanctoary. The
building consisted of a circular Ionic colonnade (of eighteen columns),
about 15 metres in diameter, raised on three steps and enclosing
a small circolar cdla, probably adorned with fourteen Corinthian
half-columns. It contained portraits by Leochares of Philip,
Alexander, and other membera of their family, in gold and ivory.
3. The Bxedra cf Herodes Atticus stood at the north limit of the
Altis, close to the north-east angle of the Herseum, and immediately
west of the westernmost treasure-house (that of Sxyon). It con-
sisted of a half-dome of brick, 34 ft. in diameter, with south-south-
west aspects Under the half-dome were placed twenty-one marble
statues, , representing the family of Antoninus Plus^ of Mairos
Anreliui^ and of the founder, Herodes Atticus. In front of the half-
dome on the south, and extending elvhtly beyond it, was a basin ol
water for drinking, 7i| ft. k>ng. The ends of the basin at iwrth-
north-west and soutb-oouth-east were adorned by very small open
temples, each with a cincvlar cofonnado of eight pillars. A marble
bull, in front of the basin, bore an inscriptbn saying that Hefodcs
dedicates the whole to Zeus, in the name of his wife^ Annia Resilla.
The exedra must have bccin seen by Pausaniaa* but he does not
mentron it.
C. It remains to notice those features of the Altis which were
«>nnected with the management of the nnctuaiy or with the
accommodation of its guests.
I. Olympta, besides its relighwt character, originally pooseased
also a political character, aa the centre of an amphictyoiny. It
was, in fact, a sacred wtXis. We have seen that it had a bouleu-
terium for purposes of public debate or conference. So aAso it waa
needful that, like a Greek dty, it should have a public hearth or
Erytaneum, where fire should always bum on tne altar ct the
Olympian Hestia, and where the controllen of Olympia should
exercise public hoispitality. The Frytameum was at tlie north-west
comer ct the Altis, in such a positioA (hat ita.sonth-cast angle was
close to the north-west angle of the Heraeum. It was apparently m
souare building, of which each skie measured 100 Olymptan feet,
with a south-west aspect. It conulned a chapel of Hestia at the
front or south-west skle, before whkh a poitk» was afterwards
built. The dintng-hall was at the back (north-east), the kitdiea
on the north-west side. On the same siae with the kitchen, and
also on the opposite sfale (south-east)* there were 1
2. The Porck of Echo, also called the " Painted Fordi,** exteiKicd
to a length of 100 yds. along the east Altis walL Raised on three
ste^ and formed by a single Doric colonnade^ open towards the
Altis, it afforded a place from which specuton cookl conveniently
view the passage of processions and the sacrifices at the great altar
of Zeus. It was built in the Macedonian period to rcplaoe an carKcr
portico whkh stood farther back. In front of 4t was a aeries of
pedestals for votive offerings, irKluding two colossal lonfe columns.
These columns, as the inacriptiona show, once supported statues of
Ptolemy and Berenice.
3. The Agora was the name given to that part of the Altia which
had the Porch of Echo on the east, the Ahar of Zeus on the west« the
Metnmm on the north, and the precinct of the Temple of Zeus oa
the south-west. In this part stood the altarp of 2^us Agonuos and
Artemis AgoraSa.
4. The Zanis were bronze images of Zeus, the cost of makinc
which was dd rayed by the fines exacted from oompetitore who had
mf ringed the rules of the contests at Olympia. These images stood
at the northern skle of the Agona, in a row, whkh extended from the
north-east arigle of the Metroum to the gate of the private entrance
from the Altis into the Stadium. Sixteen pedestals were htn dis-
covered til situ. A lesson of loyal^ was thus impressed on aspirants
to renown by the lasr objects which met their eyes as they passed
from the sacred encksure to the scene of their trial.
5. Arrantemeuts for Water-supply.'^A copious supply of water
was required for the service of the altan and temples, for the private
dwellings of priests and officials, for the use of the gymnasium,
palaestra, &c., and for the thermae whkh aroae in Roman times.
In the Hdlenk age the water was derived wholly from theCladeus
and from the small lateral tributaries of its valley. A baaiii, to serve
as a chief reservoir, was built at the north-west comer of the Altis;
and a supplementary reservoir was afterwards constracted a little
to the north-east of this, on (he slope of the Cronion. A new source
of supply was for the first time made avaibble by Herodes Atticos.
c. A.o. 157. At a short distance east of Olympia, near the village ol
Miraka, small streams flow from comparatively high ground tfatpugh
the aide-valleys which descend towards the right or northern bank
of the Alphens. Front these skle^vallcys water was now conducted
to Olyminar enteriag the Altis at its north-east comer fay an arched
canal which paased behind the treasure-houses to the reservoir at the
back of the exedra. The lanje basin of drinking-water in front of the
exedra .was fed thence, and served to sssoctate the name of Herodes
with a benefit of the highest practical value. C^mpia further
laii s iB si d several fountains, enctosed by roood *
OLYMPIA— OLYMPUS
97
ciuefly {n coonexira intli tbe bufldian ootrfde the Altiiw The
drainage of tbe Altb followed two main Knee. One. for the wc«t
part, paoed from tlM abutb-weat angle of tbe Hcraeum to tbe KMitb
portico outiide tbe south Altis wall. The other, which leived for the
treaMire^bouiea. patted In front of the Pofiqh of Echo paiaUel with
the line of the east Alcis wall.
See tbe official Die Auspabtmien tu Otympia (svols., 187S-1S81):
Laloux and Monceaux. /bifauro/ira de rOtympie (1889); Curtiut
and Adier. Olympia die Ergebmtsu ier AusBnbmuM (1600-1897).
I. " TopogimphM und Ccachicbte." II. ^' Baudeokm&lcr." III.
" Badwerke in Stein und Thon '* (Tre«). iV. " Broncen " (Furt-
w&ngler). V. '* Inachriften " (Dtttenberger and Purgold).
(R.C.J.;E.Gt.)
OLTIIPIA* the capital of the itate of Washington, U.S.A.,
And tbe county-seat of Thurston county, on the Dcs Cbutey
river and Budd's Inlet, at tbe head of Puget Sound, about 50 ro.
S.S.W: of Seattle. Pop. (1890) 4698, (1900) 3863, of whom
S9< wei« foreign-bors: (1910; U S. census) 6996. It is
served by the Northern Pacific snd tbe Port Townseod Southern
railways, and by* steamboat lines to other ports on the Sound
and along tbe Pacific coast. Budd's Inlet is spanned here by a
wagon bridge and a railway bridge. Among tbe prominent
buildings are the Capitol, which Is constructed of native sand-
stone and stands in a park of ODOsideFsble beauty, tbe county
court -bouses St Peter's hospital, the governor's mansion and
the dty haU. The state library is boused in the Capiiol. At
Tumwater, the oldest settlement (1845) on Paget Sound, about
a m. S. of Olympia, are the Tumwater FaUs of the Dcs Chutes,
which provide good water power. The city's chief industry iS
the cutting, sawing and dressing of lumber obtained from the
neighbouring forests. Oiympia oysters are widely known in
tbe Pacific coast region; Cbey are obtained chiefly from
Oyster Bay, Skookum' Bay, North Bay and South Bay. all
near Oiympia. Otympia was Uid out in 1851, became the
capital of Washington m iSs3, ind was cbartered as a dty
in 1859-
OLYMnAD, in Greek chronology, a period of four years, used
as a method of dating for literary purposes, but never adiopted
in eveiy-day life. The four years were reckoned from one
celebration of tbe Olympian games to another, the first Olsrmpiad
beginning with 776 B.C., the year of Cproebus, the first victor in
tbe games after their suspensioii for 86 years, tbe kst with
A.D. 394, when (bey were finally abolished during tbe reign of
Tbeodosins the Great. Tbe system was first icgidarly used by
tbe Sidlian historian Timaeus (35S-1S6 b*<^-)*
OtTMFIAS, dangfater of Neoptolemus, king of Eptrus. wife
of PMlip II. of Macedon, and mother of Atezander tbe Great.
Her father claimed descent from ^^bus, son of Achilles. It
b said that Philip fell in love with her in Samothrace, where
they trere both bebig Initiated into the mysteries (Plutarch,
AUxattder. 2). The marriage took place hi 359 B.C., shortly
after Phibp's accession, and Alexander was bom in 356. The
fickleness of Philip add the jealous temper of Olymptas led to
a growing estraogement^ which became complete when Philip
married a new wife, Cleopatra, in 337. Alexander, who sided
with his mother, withdrew, along with her, into Epinis, whence
they both returned in the folloiring year, after the assassination
of Philip, which Olympias is said to have countenanced. During
tbe absence of Aleicander, with whom she regulariy corresponded
on public as vrdi as domestic affairs, she had great influence, and
by her arrogance and ambition caused such trouble to the regent
Antipater that on Alexander's death (323) she found it prudent
to withdraw mto Epirus. Here she remained until 3171 when,
allying herself with Polypercbon, by whom her old enemy had
been succeeded in 319, ^e took the field with an Epirote army;
tbe opposing troops at once declared in her favour, and for a
short period Olympias was mistress of Macedonia. Cassander,
Antlpater's ton, hastened from Peloponnesus, and, after an
obstinate siege, compelled the surrender of Pydna, where she
bad taken refuge. One of the terms of tbe capitnUtioa had been
that her life should be spared; but in spite of thb she was brought
to trial for the numerous and cruel executions of which she had
beeo guilty during her short lease of power. Condemned
without a bearing, she was put to death (316) by tbe friends
of those whom she had ilafai, and ^^iindfr it nid to ham
denied her remains the rites ol buriaL
See Plutorch, Akxandtr, 9. 39. 68; Justin, vii. 6, iit. 7. aiv. 5, 6(
Arrian. Andb. vii. 12; Diod. Sic. xviii. 49-65. xlx. ii-$i: also the
articles AjLaxANDEa III. thb Gbbat and Macedonian Eupirb.
0LTMPI0D0BU8, the name of several Creek authors, of
whom the following are tbe most important, (i) An historical
writer (stb century aj>.), bom at Thebes in Egypt, who was
sent on a mission to Attila by the emperor Honorius in 41a,
and Uter lived at tbe court of Theodosius. He %vas the author
of a history ('l^ropMol Afi^et) in 22 books of the Western Empire
from 407 to 4a 5. Tbe original is lost, but an abstract is given
by Photius, according to whom he was an alchemist («ot«r^.
A MS. treatise on alchemy, reputed to be by him, is preserved
in the National Library in Paris, and was printed with a transla*
Uon by P. R. M. Berthclot in his CoUection des akkimisUs greet
(1887-1888). (2) A Peripatetic philosopher (sih century aj>.),
an elder contemporary of Produs. He lived at Alexandria and
lectured on Aristotle with considerable success His best-known
pupil was Produs, to whom he wished to betroth his daughter.
(3) A Neoplatonist philosopher, also of Alexandria, who flourished
in the 6th century of our era, during tbe reign of Justinian. He
was, therefore, a younger contemporary of IHmasdus, and
seems to have carried on the Platonic tradition after the dosing
of tbe Athenian School in 529, at a lime when the old pagan
philosophy was at its last ebb. His pbiloaophy is in dose
conformity with that of Damasdus, and, apart from great
luddity of expression, shows no striking features. He is,
however, important as a critic and a commentator, and (»eserved
mnch that was valuable in the writings of lamblichus, Damasdus
and Ssrriaous. He made a dose and intelligent study of tbe
dialogues of Plato, and bis notes, formulated and collected by
his pupils (iar6 ^tf»qt 'OhfianoBitpouTcO futyiiKoo ^cXo«6^v), are
extremdy vahubk. In one of bis commentaries he makes tbe
interesting statement that the Platonic succession had not been
interraptcd by the numerous oonfiscationa It had suffeied^
Zeller points out that this rrfeia to the Alexandrian, not to the
Atbcnkn, s u ccessiwi; but mtemal evidence makes it dear
that he docs not draw a bard Una of demarcation between
the two schools. Tbe works which have been preserved are a
life of Plato, an attack on Strata and Scholia on the Pkaed§,
Ateibiades /., FkUebm and Gwytef. (4) An AristoCeUaa who
irrotc a commentary on the iiOttroUgka of Aristotle. He abo
lived at Alexandria in the 6tb centnry, and from a relerence
in his work to a comet must have Kved alter a.i>. $64. Bat
Zeller tiii. a, p. S^** n. 1) maintafais tbu he is identical with tbe
commentator on Plato (a, above) in spite of the late date of his
death. His work, Kke that of Simplichis, endeavoun to r ec un d l e
Pbto and Aristotle, and refers to Produa with eeverenoe. The
commentary was pimted by tbe Aldfaie Press at Venice about
rsso.
OLTVPOS, tbe name of nomy monntalns in Greece and Asia
Min«r, and of the fabled home of the gods, and alio a city nana
and a prwonsl name.
I. Of the mountains bearing the name the moat fanmns
is tbe k>lty ridge on tbe borders of Thessaly and MacedoniL
Tbe river Peneua, which drains Thessaly, finds iu way to the
sea through the great goite of Tempe, which isdoae below tbe
south-eastern end of Olympus and separates it from Mount Qtsa.
Tbe highest peak of Olympus is nearly 10,000 -ft. hi|^; It it
covered with snow for great part of the year. Olympus Is a
fflouniain of masshre appearance, in many places risiny in
tremendous pcedpicea broken by vast ravines, above which
is the broad tommlL The lower parts are densely wooded;
the summit is naked rock. Homer caUs the monntahi
AyAm^, luucpba, wolhaiti^: the epithets n^odr, ga M fcaMe t,
JMmdotm sjid ^pacut are used by other poets. The modem
name is EXv^tfo, a dialectic form of the ancient word.
The peak of Mount Lyoaeus in tbe soath*w«st vif Arcadia
was called Olympus. East of Oiympia, on the north bank of
the Alpheus, was a hill bearing this name; beside Sdlaaia in
Laconia another. The name waa even cooHDOMr aa Asia
9«
OLYNTHUS-Ol^AHA
BUaor! a lofty chain ita Mysia (Keshlsh Dagh), a tidge east
of Smyrna (Nif Dagh). other m«antains in Lyda, in- Galatia,
k Cilida, in Cyprus, &c., were all called Olympua.
II. A lofty peak, rising high above the clouds of the lower
atmosphere into the clear ether, seemed to be the chosen seat
of the deity. In the Hiad the gods arc described as dwelling 'on
the top of the mountain, in the Odyssey Olympus b regarded
as a more remote and less definite locality; arid in later poets
we find similar divergence of ideas, from a definite mountain to
a vague conception of heaven. In the elaborate mythology of
Greek literature Olympus was the common bone of the multitude
of gods. Each deity had his special haftnts, but all had a
residence at the court of Zeus on Olympus; here were held the
assemblies and the common feasts of the gods.
ILL There was a dty in Lyda named Olympus; it was a
bishopric in the Bysantine time.
OLYNTHUS, an andent dty of Chalcidice, situated in a
fertile plain at the head of the Gulf of Torone, near the neck
of the peninsuU of Pallene, at some little distance from the
sea, and about 60 stadia (7 or 8 m.) from Potidaea. The district
had beloni^ to a Thradan tribe, the Bottiaeans, in whose
possession the town of Olynthus remained till 479 b.c' In that
year the Persian general Artabosus, on his return from escorting
Xerxes to the Hellespont, suspecting that a revolt from the
Great King was meditated, slew the inhabitants and banded the
town over to a fresh population, consisting of Greeks from the
neighbouring region of Chalddioe (Herod, vili. 127). Olynthus
thus became a Greek ^is, but it remained insignificant (in the
quota-lists of the Detian League it appears as paying on the
average 7 talents, as compared with 9 paid by Scione, 8 by Mende,
6 by Torone) until the synoedsm (aviwicur/i6t), effected in
432 through die influence of King Perdiccas of Macedon, as the
result of which the inhabitants of a number of petty Chalcidian
towns in the neighbourhood were added to its po(Kilation(Thucyd.
i. 58). Henceforward it ranks as the chief Hellenic city west of
the Strymon. It had been enrolled as a nlember of the Delian
League (f.v.) in the early days of the league, but it revolted from
Athens at the time of its synoedsm, and was never again reduced.
It formed a base for Bcasidas during his expedition (424). In
the 4th oenttiry it attained to great Importance in the politics of
the age as the head of the Chalddic League (r& mit^ tQv
XoXkMup). The league may probably be traced back to the
period of the peace of Nidas (431)* when we find the Chakidians
ioi M OfH^Km XoXxidqt) taking diplomatic action In common,
and enrolled as members of the Argive alliance. There are coins
of the league which can be dated with certainty as early as
405; one specimen may perhaps go back to 415*420. Un«
questionably, then, the leagoe originated before the end of the
Sth centnry, and the motive for its formation is almost ceruinly
to be found in the fear of Athenian atuck. Alter the end of
the Pdopormesian War the development of the league was rapid.
Ab6ut 390 we find it oonduding an important -tttaiy. with
Amyntas, king of Mmetdaa (the father ol Philip)»* and by sU
it had absorbed most of the Greek cities west of the Strymon,
aikd had even got posacasion of Pella, the chief dty in Macedonia
(Xcoophon, HtU. v. », 12). In this year Sparta was induced
by an embassy from AouithttS and ApoUonia, which antidpated
conquest by the league, to send an eqiedition against Oljmthus.
After three years of indecisive warfare Olynthus oonsoiled
to dissolve the confederacy (379). It is dear, however, that the
dissolution was little more than formal, as the Chaicidians
Qiokaiin dvd Opinn) appear, only a year or two later, among
Che menbeis of the Athenian naval confederacy of 378-*577»'
Twenty years later, in the reign of Philip, tbe powef of Olynthus
is asserted by Demosthenes to have been much gresAer than
before the Spartan expedition.* The town itadf at this peiiod
■ If Olynthus was one of the early cokmies of Chalcis (and there
is numiimatic evidence for this view; see Head, Hist, Numtrmmt
a 18s) it raurt have subsequently passed into the hands 01 the
Bottiaeans.
» For the inscription see Hicks. Uanwl of Creek Inscnptwmf,
No. 74. » Hfcks. No 81 ; C.I.A . iL 17-
« Oeoostfaaoes* Dm /sIm Ut^tmic || 263-266.
is spoken of as a dty of the first rank (T6X(f /iup{a>6pof), and
the league indudcd thirty-two dties. When war broke out
between Philip and Athens (337), Olynthus was at first io
alliance with Philip. Subsequently, in alarm at the growth of his
power, it concluded an alliance with Athens, but in spite of all
the efforts of the latter state, and of its great orator Demosthenes
it fdl before Philip, who raxed it to the ground (348).
The history of the confederacy of Olynthus illustrates at once
the strength and the weakness of that movement towards federa>
tion. which is one of the most marked features of the later stages
of Greek history. The strength of the movement is shoun
both by the duration and by the extent of the Chakidic League.
It lasted for something like seventy years; it survived defeat
and temporary dissolution, and ft embraced upwards of thhty
dtie& Yet, in the end, the centrifugal forces proved stronger
than' the centripetal; the sentiment Of autonomy stronger
than the sentiment of nnfon. It is clear that Philip's victory
was mainly doe to the spirit of dissidence %rithin the league itself,
just as the victory of Sparu had been (cf. Diod. xvi. 53. 9 with
Xen. Hdi. v. 2, 24). The mere fact that Philip captured aB
the thirty-two towns without serious resistance b saffident
evidence of this. It is probable that ihe strength of the league
was more seriously undermined by the policy of Athens than
by the action of Sp«rt&. The successes of Athens at the
expense of Olynthus, shortly before Philip's accession, must
have fatally divkied the Greek interest north of the Aegean
in the struggle with Macedon.
' -The chief passages in andent literature are tlie
Oi)jv ns of Demosthenes, and Xenophon, HeU. v. a.
Scv I D. History of Fedoral CovtntmaU, di. iv.; A. H. I.
Cr^^^M :^ . ■ ' ^ook of Creek ConstUutional Hislcrv (1896). p. 22b;
B, V. hkjil ih hjrpi Numorum, pp. 184-186: C. Gilbert. Crieikiscka
Skinii,jhtii.\ufy.e*^, vol. ti. pp. 197*198. The view uken by alt these
autliarhka ^^ evf the date of the formation of the Confedcrac>' of
Olynihuft cli^iiTr. widdy from that put forward above. Freeman
and CK«n[d]^r - u ppose the league to navi
de* I
and CK«n;d]^r ^x, ppose the league to nave originated in jta. Head io
J. Hicti O-f^r.iial of Creek jHscripthns, No. 74) before 390. The
-rklvc t'-nf j^ Oie numismatic one. There are coins of the league
in ilic Bitii5li M useam wUdi are earlier than 400^ and ooe in the
possession of Professor Oman, of Oxford, whidi he and Mr Head
arc disposed to think may be as early as 415-420. (E. M. WJ
OMAGH* a market town and the county town of county
Tyrone, Ireland, on the river Strule, 129I m. N.W. by N. froa
Dublin by the Londonderry line of ihe Great Northern railway,
here joined by a branch from Enniskillen. Pop. (1901) 4789^
The gceater part of the town is picturesquely situated on a at«ep
slope above the river. The milling and linen indusuies are
carried on, and monthly fairs are held. The Protestant daurch
has a lofty and handsome spire, and the Roman Catholic church
stands wcU on the summit of a hill. A castle, of which there are
scanty remains, was of sufficient importance to stand sieges
in 1509 and 1641. being rebuilt after its toul dcstcuctioq
in the first case. The town is governed by an urban district
council*
OMAOUAS. UUAMAS or Cambevas (flat-heads), a tribe
of South American Indians of the Amazon valley. Fabulous
stories about the wealth of the Omaguas led to several early
expeditions into their country, the most famous of which were
those of (korge of Spires in 1536, of Philip von Hutten in 1341
and of Pedro de Ursua in 1560. In 1645 Jesuits began work.
In 1687 Father Fritz, " apostle of the (>maguas," established
some forty mis&Ion villages. Tlie Omaguas are still numerous
and powerful around the head waters of the Japura and Uaup^s.
OMAHA, the county-seat of Douglas county and the largest
dty in Nebraska, U.S.A.. situated on the W, Jbank of the Missouri
river, about 20 m. above the mouth of the Platte. Pop. (1880)
30,$i8, (1890) 66,536,* (1900) ,i02.5S5. of whom 23.552
(comprising 5522 (jennans, 3968 Swedes. 2430 Danes, 2170
Bohemians, 2164 Irish, 1526 English, 1141 English Canadians,
* These are the figures given in Census Bulletin 71. Estimala o§
Population, jgo4, tpQS, too6 (1907)1 and are the arithmetical mean
bctwven the hguret for 1880 and those for 1000. those of the census
of 1,890 beinv 140.452: these are substituted by the Bureau of the
Census, as the 1890 census was in error. In 1910, aecordiev to
tb« U.S. aansuS. the popelatkm was 134.09^
OMAHA:$--OMAN
99
997 Rmslim, &c) wck ioi«i(n>bom and 344a were negroes
(1906 cfiiiaaie) i34«i67. Originally, wfib Council Bluffs, Iowa,
the easfccn terminus of the first Pacific railway, Omaha now has
outlets over m'ne great railway syaten»: ibe Chicago, Burlington &
Qu2ncy» the Union Pacific, the Cbiogo. Rock Island & Pacific,
tlie Chtcagp Great-We»tern, the Chic^o & NortbAVcstcm, the
Chicago, Milwaukee 9t St Paul, the Illinois CentnO, the Missouri
Padiic and the Wahaab. Bridges over the MJssoud river
eoaaect Omaha with Council Bluffs. The original town site
occupied an eloogated and elevated river terrace, noiw given over
wholly to busiocss; behind thib are hills and bluffs, over which
the icudential districis have eateoded.
Among the more important buildiags are- the Fedeial
Bttildiflg, Court House* a dty<baU, two high schools, one of
which is one of the finest in the country, a Convention ball, the
Auditorium and tbe Public Library. Omaha is the see of Roman
Catholic and ProtesUnt Episcopal bishoprioB. Among the
oducaiioaa] inttitutiada are a sute school fbr the deaf (1667);
the modlcal department and onhopaedic branch of the Uaivcrsity
of Nebraska (whose other depanmenU am at Lincob); a
Presbyterian Theological Seminary <i8oi); and Crtightoo
Universifty (Roman Catholic, under Jesuit control). This
nniveraity» which was founded in honour of Edward Creighton
(d. 1S74) (whose brother. Count John A. Creighton, d. 1907^
gave htfge suras.in his lifetime and about $» ,9 jo<oqo by his will),
by his wife Mary LucretiaCreighton (d. 1876), waa.incorporatcd
hi X879; it includes the Creighton Academy, Creighton College
(1875), to which a Scientific Department was added in 1883, the
John A. Creighton Medical College (1893). the Creighton Univer^
rity College of Law (1904), the Creighton Univeisuy Dental
O^tege (1905) and the Creighton College of nnrmacy (1905).
In 190^1910 it had 120 instniciois and 800 students. St
Joseph's Hospital (Roman Catholic) was built as a memorial
to John A. Cseightoa. The principal newspapers are the Omaha
B€c, the WpHd'Htrald and tbe Nan. The OmaAa Bee was
established in 1871 by Edward Rocewntor (»84 1-1906), who
made it one of the most influential Ropublican journals in tbe
West. The Worid^HerM (Democmtic), founded in 1865 by
Gcotge L. MfOer, was edited by William Jennings Bryan from
1S94 to 1896.
Omaha b the beadquarteis of the United Sutcs miliury
department of the Missouri, and there an military posts at Pbn
Omaha CsignoiS corps and sutlon for ezperimenU with war bal-
loons), immediately norths and Fort Crook (infantry), 10 m. S.
of the dty. A caniival, the *' Festival of Ak*6ar-Ben/'ishcld
m Omaha every autumn. Among the manufacturing establisiH
Bents o( Omaha are breweries (product vahie in 1905, $1, •41^434)
and distfUeries, silver and lead smelting and refining works,
railway shops, ffour and grIst-iSills and dairies. The product-
talue of its manufactures la 1900 (S43.»68,876) constltued 50%
of I he total output of the state, not including the greater product
(49-7% of the total) of South Omaha (^.v ). where the industrial
inlerests of Omaha are largely concentrated. The ** factory '*
product of Omaha in 1905 was valued at Ss4.oo3,704« an increase
of 4t>8 % over that ($38,074,>44) for 1900. The net debt of
the city on the ist of May 1909 vras $5,770,000; its asseocd
value in 1909 (about \ of cash value) was $26,749,148. and its
total tax-mte was $s 73 P«r $1000.
In 1804 Merrwelher Lewis and William Clark camped on the
Omaha platcso. In 1825 a licensed Indian post was established
here. In 1846 Che Mormons settled at '* Winter (garters "—
after 1854 called Fk>rence (pop. in 1900, 668). and in the immedi-
ate en\irom (6 m. N.) of the present Omaha— and by 1847 had
built op camps of some it,ooo inhabitants on the Nebraska and
lows sidesof the Missoori. Compelled to remove from the Indian
reservatton within which Winter Quarters lay, they founded
*'Kancsville" on the Iowa side (which abo was called Winter
(^rters by the Mormons, and after 1853 was known as Council
Bluffs), gradually emigrating to Utah in the years following.
Winter (garters (Florence) was deserted in 1&48, but many
Mormons were still in Nebraska and Iowa, and their local in*
flueoce was strong for nearly a decade afterwards. Not aU had
left HebfBska in x8s3. SpecuJatWo land " squatters " Intruded
upon tbe Indian lands in that year, and a rush of settlers foDowed
the opening of Nebraska Territory under tbe Kansas-Nebraska
Bill of 1854. Omaha (named from the Omaha Indians) w»
platted in 1854, and was first chartered as a city in 1857. It was
tlae provisional territorial capital in 1854-1855, and the regular
capital in 1855-1867. Its charter status has often been modified.
Since 1887 it has been ^be only city of the state governed under
the general charter for meuopolitan cities. Prairie freighting
and Missouri river navigation were of imporunce before the
construction of the Union Pacific railway, and the activity of
the city in securing the freighting interest gave ber an initial
start over the other cities of the state. Council Bluffs was tbe
li«al, but Omaha the practical, eastern tcjmiaus of that grvat
ttoderuking. work on which began at Omaha in December 1865.
The tily wiss already ooonccted as early as 1863 by telegraph
with Chicago, St Louis, snd since 1861 with Son Francisco-
Lines of tbe pcessnt great Rock Island, Burlington and Northr
Western nUway qrstems sU enured the city in the years 1867-
1868. Meat-packing began as early as 1871, but its first great
advance foUowed tbe removal of the Union stock yards south
of the city in 18844 South Omaha {q.v^ was rapidly built up
around them. A Trans-Mississippi Exposition allustiating tbe
piogRss and resources of the sutes west of tbe Mississippi was
bdd at Omaha in 1898. It represented an invtsunent of
$a,ooQ,ooo, and in spite of financial depression snd wartime^
00% of their subscriptions were returned hi dividends to the
stockholders.
OMAHAS* a tribe of North American Indians of Siooao stock.
They were found on St Peter's river, Minnesota, where they
lived on agricultural life. Owing to a severe epidemic of small-
pox they abandoned their villaipe, and waadered wwward to
the Niobren river ia Nebraska. After a succession of treaties
and renovab they are now located on a reservation in eastern
Nebraska, and number some isoo.
OHAUUS D'HALLOY. JEAN BAPHSTB iUUEN D* (1781-
1875)* Belgian geobgist, was born 00 the 16th of Februsiy 1783
at iJ£ge, and edncaicd firstly in that city and afterwards ia
Paris. While a youth he became interested ia gcobgy, and
being of independent means he wss able to devote his energies
to geobgical roearchts. As early as 1808 he oommuaicsied to
the Journal des mines a paper eoUtkd £»at wr ia tjUUiiJk
dm Nord de la f ranee. He became moire of Skeavre ia 1807,
governdr of the province of Namur ui 1815, and from 1848
occupied a place in the Belgian senate. He was sn active
member of the Belgian Academy of Sciences from 1816, sad
served three tames as president. H« was likewise president of
the Ceotogical Society of France in 1853. In Belgium and the
Rhine provinces he was one of the geological pioneers in deters
mining the stratigraphy of the Carboniferous and other rocka
Ha studied also in detail the Tertiary deposits of the Paris Bssiti,
snd ascertained the extent of the Creuoeoos and some of tht
oldtr stiau, which he for the fint tune cleariy depicted on a
map (1817). He was distinguished as an ethnologist, and when
nearty nmety years of age he was chosen president of the Congress
of Pre-hbtoric Archaeology (Brussels, i87>). He died on the
iSth of January 1875. H^ chief works were: MAmaires paw
senir d la dtstripUam gfalatiqy* du Payt'Bat, de la France ei de
puUfiUt canPries toiiines (1828); £limenU de fielape <i8tji,
3rd ed. 1839): AMfi de gielegie (1853, 7tb ed. 1862); Acs
races kumaimSf an tUmantt d'etknag^apkk (sth ed., 1869).
Obituary by J. C o me l e t , BtdL act, fM. dr Fmnce^ ser. 3, vol vi
(1878).
OWAN, s kingdom oocupybig the south-eastern coast districts
of Arabia, its southern limiu being a little to the west of the
meridian of 55* E. long., and the boundary on the north the
southern borders of El Hssa. Oman and Hasa between them
occupy the eastern coast districts of Arabia to the hesd of the
Persian Gulf. The Oman-Hasa boimdary has been asoally drawn
north of the promontory of £1 Katr. Thb b, however, incorrect.
In 1870 Katr was under Wshhabi rule, but in the ycsr i$7t
Turkish assbtance was requested to aid the wtt kia eat of a
lOO
family quarrd between certain Wahhabi chiefs, -and tbe Turks
thus obtained a footing in Katr, which they have reUined ever
since. Turkish occupation (now firmly established throughout
El Hasa) indudes Katif (the ancient Gerrha), and El Bidia on the
coast of Katr. But the pearl fisheries of Katr are still under the
protection of the chiefs of Bahrein, who are themselves under
British suzerainty. In 1895 the chief of Katr (Sheikh Jasim ben
ThaniX. instigated by the Turks, attacked Sheikh Isa of Bahrein,
but his fleet of dhows was destroyed by a British gunboat, and
Bahx«ln (like Zanaibar) has since been deuched from Oman
and placed directly under British protection.
Oman is a mountainous district dominated by a range called
Jebd Akhdar (or the Green Mountain), which is 10,000 ft. in
altitude, and is flanked by minor ranges running approximately
parallel to the coast, and shutting off the harbours from the
interior. They enclose long lateral valleys, some of which are
fertile and highly cultivated, and traversed by narrow precipitous
gorges at intervals, which form the only means of access to tbe
interior from the sea. Beyond the mountains which flank the
cultivated valleys of Semail and Tyin, to the west, there stretches
tbe great Ruba el Khali, or Dahna, the central desert of southern
Arabia, which reaches across the continent to the borders of
Yemen, isolating the province on the landward side just as the
rugged mountain barriers shut it of! from the sea. The wadis
<or valleys) of Oman (like the wadis of Arabia generally) are
merely torrential channels, dry for the greater part of the year.
Water is obtained from wells and springs in sufficient quantity
to supply an extensive system of irrigation.
• The only good harbour on the coast is that of Muscat, tbe capital
of the kingdom, which, however, is not directly conneaed with
the interior by any mountain route. The little port of Matrah,
immediately contiguous to Muscat, offers the only opportunity
for penetrating into the hnterior by the wadi Kahxa, a rough pass
which is held for the sultaa or imam of Muscat by the Refabayin
chief. In 1883, owing to the txeacheiy of this chief, Muscat
was besieged by a rebd army, and disaster was only averted by
the gunt of H.M.S. '* PhilomeL" About 50 n. south of Muscat
the port of Kucyat is again connected with the failand vaUes^s
by the wadi Hail, leading to the gorges of the wadi Thaika or
" Devil's Gap." Both routes give access to the wadi Tyin, which,
enclosed between tlie mounuin of El Beideh and Hallowi (from
sooo to jOoc( ft. high), is the garden of Oman. Fifty miles to tlie
north-west of Muscat this interior region may again be reached
by the transverse valley of Semail, leading into the wadi Munsab,
and from thence to Tyin. This is generally reckoned the easiest
line for travellers. But all routes are diflkult, winding between
granite and Umestone rocks, and abounding in narrow defiles
and rugged torrent beds. Vegeution is, however, tderably
abundant-^tamarisks, oleanders, kafas, euphorbias, the milk
bush, rhamnus and acadas being the most common and most
characteristic forms of vegeuble life, and pools of water are
freqnent. The rick oasis of Tyin contains many villages em-
bosomed in palm groves and sunounded with orchards and
fields.
In addition to cereals and vegeubles, the cultivation of
fniit is abtmdant throughout tbe valley. After the date, vines,
peaches, apricots, oranges, mangoes, melons and mulberries had
special favour with the Rehbayin, who exhibit all the skill and
perKverance of the Arab agricidlurist of Yemen, and cultivate
everything that the soU is capable of producing.
The sultan, a descendant of those Yemenite imams who con-
solidated Arab power in Zanzibar and on the East African coast,
and raised Oman to its position as the most powerful state
in Arabia during the first half of the iQth century, resides at
Muscat, where his palace direaly faces the harbour, not far
from the British residency. The little port of Gwadar. on the
Makran coast of the Arabian Sea, a station of the Persian Gull
telegraph system, is still a dependency of Oman.
See Cokmel Miles Ceogmphi^ Journal, vol. vii. (1896); Com>
mander Stifle. Geograpktctd Journal (1899). (T. H. H.*>
OMAR ((. 581-^44), in full 'Oxai ibn AL-KflATTAB. the second
of the Mabonuncdan caliphs (see Cautiute, A, \% 1 and a).
OMAft— *OMA!t KHAYYAM
Originally opposed to Mahomet, he became later one of the ablest
advisers both of him and of the first caliph, Abu Bekr. His own
reign (634-^44) saw Islam's transformation from a reli^ous
sect to en imperial power. The chief events were the defeat
of the Pernans at Kadisiya (637) and the conquest of Syria and
Palestine. The conquest of Egypt followed (see Egypt and
Amx ibn bl-Ass) and the final rout of the Persians at Nehiwend
(641) brought Iran under Arab rule. Omar was assassinated by
a Persian slave in ^44, and though he lingered several days after
the attack, he appointed no successor, but only a body of sis
Muhajirun who should select a new caliph. Omar was a wise
and far-sighted niler and rendered great service to lalam.
He is said to have built the so-called " Mosque of Omar **
(** the Dome of the Rock ") in Jerusalem, which contains the
rock regarded by Mabommedons as the scene of Mahomet's
ascent to heaven, and by the Jews as that of the proposed
sacrifice of Isaac.
*OMAR KHATTAH (in fuU, CkiyAtbudoIii ABULTAra
*Ohax bin IbrAbXm al-KhayyAmI], the great Persian nathe*
matidan, astronomer, freethinker and epigrammatist, who
derived the epithet Khayyftm (the tentmaker) moat likely Iran
his father's trade, was born in or near NishipOr, where he is said
to have died in aji. 517 (a.d. 1133). At an early age he entered
into a close friendship both with Ni£ftm*ul>mulk and his school*
fellow lilassan ibn §abhibt who founded afterwards the terrible
sect of the Assassins. When Nisim-ui-raulk waa raised to tbe
rank of vizier by the SeljOk sultan Alp-Arslan <a.d. iot(3"io73)
he bestowed upon Qassan ibn $abbAb the dignity of a chamber-
lain, whilst offering a similar court office to 'Omar Kbayyiro.
But the latter contented himself with an annual stipend which
would enable him to devote all his time to his favourite studies
of mathematics and astronomy. His standard work on algebra,
written in Arabic, and other treatises of a similar character
raised him at once to the focemost rank among the matbemati-
cians of that age, and induced Sultin Mallk-Shih to summon htm
in A.B. 467 (a.d. 1074) to institute astronomical obscrvatjoos
on a larger scale, and to aid him in his great enterprise of a
thoroogh reform of the calendar. The rcsulu of 'Omar^ research
were-'* revised edition of the Zff or astronomical tallies, and the
introduction of the Ta*rIkh-i-MalikshAhI or Jalill, that is, the
so-called JaliKan or SeljOk era, which comaencea in hM. 471
(a.d. 1079, 15th March).
'Omar's great scientific fame, howevct» is nearly ectipaed by
his still greater poetical renown, which he owes to his rwbtCU or
quatrains, a collection of about 500 epigrams. The peculiar
form of the rwfttf'*— vis. four lines, the first, second and fourth
of which have the same rhyme, while the third usually (but not
always) remains rhymeless— was first successfully introduced
into Persian literature as the exdusive vehicle for subtle thoughts
on the various topics of SOfic mysticism by tbe sheikh Aba Sa'kl
bin Abulkhair.* but 'Omar differs in its treatment considerably
from Aba Sa'Id. Although some of his quatrains are purdy
mystic and pantheistic, most of them bear quite another stamp;
they are the breviary of a radical freethinker, who protests i»
the most fordble manner both against the narrowness, bigotry
and uncompromising austerity of tbe orthodox ulein& and the
eccentricity, hypocrisy and wild ravings of advanced SOfls.
whom he succe^ully combats with ihcir own weapons, using
the whole mystic terminology simply to ridicule msrsticism
itsdf. There is in this respect a great resemblance between
him and Hifis, but *Omar is deddedly superior. He has oflro
been called the Voltaire of the East, and cried down as materialist
and atheist. As far as purity of diction, fine wit, crushing
satire against a debased and ignorant clergy, and a general
sympathy with suffering humanity are concerned, 'Omar certainly
reminds us of the great Frenchman; but there the comparison
ceases. Voltaire never wrote anything equal to Omar's fasdnat-
ing rhapsodies m praise of wine, love and all earthly joys,
and his passionate denunciations of a malevolent and inexorable
■ I>ied Jan. 1049. Comp. Cth6's edition of his ruMIs in S^nn^h
bencktederhayf. Akademie{i»ji^),pp. 1 45 >«^. and (1878) pp. 38 acq.;
and E. G. Browne's JUlerory Hisi. «/ Perstu, ii 3Cu
OMBRE—OMELETTE
Cite wUdi dooins to ddw decftf or wdden detth mnd to etemfll
oblrvion all that is great, good and beauttful in* diis trorkl.
Tbcre is a toudi of Byron, Sinnbnnw and even of Schopenhauer
in many of faia mMTli, irfaSch dearly proves that the modem
pessimist fi t»y no means a novel creature in the reafan of philo-
sophic thought and poetical faniudttatton.
The Leiden eopy of H^iaar KhayySn's work on algebm vaa
■odoed as far back as 174a by Gerald Meernan in the prefacse to
his SPttimm catctdi tuxiwalts; further notices of the same work
by SediUoc appeared la the Ifouo. Jour. As. (1834) and in vol. xiii,
01 the JVMte#x a ntraiti its MSS. dt la Bibl. toy. The complete
text, to ge tl ief with a French translation (on the bosb of the Leklen
and Puts oopie% the latter finit disoovensd by M. Libri, see his
Eiaow€ dss soMww mojlkimalifuex m Jtalie, u 300), was edited
by F. Wocpcloe. VAiikbre d^Omar Alkhavydmi (Paris, 1851). Articles
on *Ofnar's life and works are found in Keinaud's Ciorraphie d'About'
fUa, vni.» p. iot; NoHcn et extraiUf Ix. 143^ seq.; Gardn de Taasy,
JVoft jv leg RMTiyOi 4e *Om&r UhtAyOm <Pans. 1857); Rieu, Cat.
ftn, MSS. im Ikt Br. Mms.M ii- 5jpi A. CSiristenseo, RoOurckn
tBT ks Rubriydl d* 'Omar Barfim (Heidelberg, 1905); V. Zhukov
ski's 'Uwtar Klayyam and Ike ^ Wandering *' Quatrains, translated
from the Russian by E. D. Ross hi the Journal of the Royal Asiatic
(f89«); E. 0. Browns,
e quatrains haire been edited
I, Liitrury Jiislary rf Persia, U.
lited at CakaJtu (i8i36) and
Soiiety, _
" ' ' ^~^ ' "' '} tacTaad French tcansiation fiy'j. B.
/ tnconnect and misleading); a portion of
LngUsh verK, by E. FttzGerakl (London.
i<S9> *^ **id 1879). FitsGerakl's translatnn has been edited
with cooaentarv liy H. M. Batson (i9oo)» and tbe snd cd. of the
same (i868) by £. Heron Allen (1908). A new English venion was
pubU Jicd in TrQbner's " Oriental 'Series (i88a) byE. H. Whinfield,
and the fint critical edition of the text, with translation, by the
ssme (1883). ImfMNiant later works are N. H. Dole's vfriorum
edition (1896). I. Payne's translation (1898). E. Heron Alien's
cditiQa (1898) and the Ufe by J. K. M. Shtrui (190$) ; but the
literatttre in new translations and uniutiens has recently multiplied
exceedingly. (H. E.; X.)
OMBRl* a card gante, very fashionaUe at the end of the x8th
century, but now practJcaUy obsolete.' The foUowing recom-
mendation of the game is taken from the C&url Gamester, a
book published m 1790 for the use of the daughters of the t>rince
of Wales, afterwards George 11: —
**Tbe Knme of Ombre owes its mventkm to theSpanhmIs,andit
kss in it a great deal of the mvity peculiar to that nation. It is
Gslkd Om^, or The Man. It was so named as requiring thought
and reflection, which are qualities peculiar to many or rather alludmg
to kim who undertakes to play the game against the rest of the
nrocsters. and Is catted the man. To play it well reouires a great
deal of appiicatiott, and let a man be ever so expert, he will be ape
to fall into mistakes if he think of anything else or is dbtuibed by
the oonvcnatkm of them that look on. . . * It will be found the
most driightful and entertaining of aU games to those who have
anything m them of what we cali the spirit of play.*'
'Ombre b played by three players with a pack of 40 cards,
the 8, 9 and xo being dispensed with. The order of value
of the hands is irregukr, being different for trumps and suits not
trumps. In a suit not trumps the order is, for red suits: K, Q,
Kn, ace. 2, j, 4, 5, 6, 7; for black suiU: R, Q, Kn,'7, 6, s. 4r
5, a. In tnuip suits the ace of spades, called spadille, is always
a trump, and the highest one, whichever of the four suits may
be tmmpa. The order for red suit trumps is; ace of spades 7
(called sRdinZXc), ace of dubs (called 6asto), ace (called ponto),
K, (2. Kn, a, 3, 4, 5, 6. For black suit trumps: ace of spades
{spadiUe), a {jmanUU\ wet (baslo), K, Q, Rn, 7; 6, 5, 4. 3- There
is no panto in bUck trumps. The three highest trumps are
called mal9dores (or taais). The holder of them has the privilege
of not loUowing suit, except when a higher mat is played, which
forces a lower one if the band contains no other trump.
(2«ds axe d^t round, and the receiver of the fint black ace
is the dealer. He deals (towards his right) nine cards, by threes,
to each player. The remaining 13 cards form the stock or taton,
as at piquet. Each deal constitutes a game. One hand plays
against the other two, the solo player being called the Ombre.
The player at the dealer's right has the first option of being
Ombre, which entails two privileges: that of naming the trump
suit, aiul that of throwing away as many of his cards as he chooses,
lecctving new ones in their place, as at poker. If, with these
advantafles in miodi he thinks be can win against the other
two hands* be aaya, " I ask leave," or " I play." But in this
case Ida ligbt-faand ndghboor has the privilege of rUiming
lOt
Ombre for himself, pro vkUng he is wOlug to play his hand without
drawing new cards, or, as the phrsse goes, sans prendre. If, how-
ever, the other player reconsiders and decides that he will himself
play without drawing cards, he can still remain* Ombre. If
, the second player passes, the dealer in his turn may ask to play
Mans prendre, as above. If all three pass a new deal ensues.
After the Ombre discards (if he does not play sans prendre) the
two others in turn do likewise, and, if any cards are left in the
stodt, the last discarder may look at them (as at piquet) and the
others after him. But if he does not look at them the others
kiae the piirilege of doing so.
The manner of pUy is like wMst, except that it is towards
the rif^. Thit second and third players combine to defeat
Ombre. If in the sequel Ombre makes more tricks than either
of hb opponents he wins. If one of hb opponents makes more
than Ombre the latter loses (called codiUe). If Ombre and one
or both of hb opponents make the same number of tricks the
game b drawn. When Ombre makes aU nine tricks he wins
a vole. The game b played with counters having certain
values, the pool being emptied by thtf winner. If A pass, a
counter of low value b paid into the pool by each player. If
Ombre wins he takes the entire pooL If he draws he forfeits
to the pool a sum equal to that already In it, ix. the pool is
doubled. If either of hb opponents makes the majority of the
tricks {codiUe), Ombre pays him a sum equal to that in the pool,
which Itself remains untouched tmtil the next game. When the
pool b emptied each player pays in three counters.
OMBURM AN, a town, of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 00 the
west bank of the Nile, immedbtely north of the junction of the
White and Blue Nfles in 13' 38' N., 3a* a9' E., a m. N. by W.
of Khartum. Pop. (1909 census) 42,779, of whom 541 were
Europeans. The town covers a large area, being over 5 m. long
and a broad. It consbts for the most part of mud huts, but
there are some houses built of sun-dried bricks. Save for two or
three wide streets which traverse it from end to end the town b
a network of narrow bnes. In the centre facing an open space are
the ruins of the tomb of the Mahdi and behind b the house in
which he lived. The Khalifa's house (a two-storeyed buildtng),
the mosque, the Beit d Amana (arsenal) and other houses famed
in the hbtory of the town also face the central squaze. A high
wall runs behind these buildings parallel with the Nile.
Omdurman b the headquarters of the native traders in the
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, the chief articles of commerce being
ivory, ostrich feathers and gum arabic from Darf ur and Kordof an.
There b also an important camel and cattle market. Nearly
every tribe in the Sudan b represented in the population of the
dty. Among the native artificers the metal workers and leather
dressers are noted. The government maintains elementary
and technical schools. Mission work b undertaken by various
Protestant and Roman (^thoh'c societies.
Omdurman, then an insignificant village, was chosen in 1884
by the Mahdi Mahomroed Ahmed as hb capital and so continued
after the fall of Khartum in January 1S85. Its growth was
rapid, the Khalifa (who succeeded the Mahdi) compelling
large numbers of disaffected tribesmen to live in the town under
the eye of hb soldiery. Here also were imprisoned the European
captives of the Ms^dbts — notably Slatin Pasha and Father
Ohrwalder. On the and of September 1898 the Anglo-Egyptian
army under Lord Kitchener totally defeated the forces of the
Kludifa at Kcneri, 7 m. N. of the town. A marble obelisk marks
the spot where the aist Lancers made a charge. Within the
encbsure of the Khalifa's house b the tomb of Hubert Howard,
son of the 9th carl of Carlisle, who was killed in the house at the
capture of the dty by a splinter of a shell fired at the Mahdi*s
tomb. (See S odan: Anglo-Egyptian.)
OMBUBTTB, sometimes Anglirixrd as "omelet," a French
wbrd of which the history b an example of the curious changes
a word may undergo. The ultimate origin b Lat. lamella,
diminutive of lamina, plate; thb became in French lameile, and
a wrong divbion of la lamdie gave alamelle, alemdle, or alumeOe;
thence alemette, meuihcsiced to awutette and ammeleU, the form
in which the word appears in the x^th and 16th centuries. Th«
I02
OMEN
orisliia] meahihg s«eins to bo a pancake pf a ibin flat shape.
Omelettes are made wiih eggs, beaten up lightly, with thi;
addition of milk, flour, herbs, cheese, mushrooms^ &c., according
to the requirement, aad cooked quickly in a buttered paiu
OMEN (a Latin word, either connected with «s, Boouth, or
more probably with auris {Cx. ovt, ear; apparently, meaning
" a thing heard " or " spoken "), a sign in divination, favourable
or unfavourable as the case may be (see Divination, Aucum
and Okaclb). The taking of omens may be said to be a part of
aU aysteras of divination, in which the future is predicted by
means of indications of one sort or another; and tradition has
thus gathered round many subjectSf-events, aaions, colours,
numbers, &c.— which are considered " ominous," an adjective
which generally connotes iU-fortune.
One of the oldest and most widespread methods of divining
the future, both among primitive people and among several of
the dviiizations of antiquity, was the reading of omens in the
signs noted on the liver of the animal oQered as a sacrifice to
some deity. The custom is vouched for by travellers as still
observed in Borneo, Burma, Uganda and elsewhere, the animal
chosen being a pig or a fowl It constituted the most commoa
form of divination in ancient Babylonia, where it can be traced
back to the 3rd millennium B.a Among the Etruscans the
prominence of the rite led to the liver being looked upon as
the trade>mark of the priest. From the Etruscans it made its
way to the Romans, though as we shall see it was also modified
by them. The evidence for the rite among the Greeks is sufficient
to warrant the concluswn of its introduction at a very early
period and its persistence to a late day.
The theory upon which the rite everywhere rests a clearly
the belief, for which there is an abundance of concurrent testi-
mony, that the liver was at one time regarded as the seat of
vitality. This belief appears to be of a more primitive character
than the view which places the scat of life in the heart, though
we arc accustomed to think that the latter was the prevailing
view in antiquity. The fact, however, appears to be that the
prominence given to the heart in popular beliefs dates from the
time when in the course of the development of anatomical
knowledge the Important function of the heart in animal life
came to be recognized, whereas the supposition that the liver
IS the seal of vitality rests upon other factors than anatomical
Juiowledge, and, being independent of such knowledge, also
antedates it. Among the reasons which led people to identify
the liver with the very source of life, and hence as the seat of aU
affections and emotions, including what to us are intellectual
functions, we may name the bloody appearance of that organ.
Filled with blood, it was natural to regard it as the seat of the
blood, and as a matter of fact one-sixth of the entire blood of
man is in the liver, while in the case of some animals the propor-
tion is even larger. Now blood was everywhere in antiquity
associated with life, and the biblical passage, Genesis Ix. 3,
which identifies the blood with the soul of the animal and there-
fore prohibits its use fairly represents the current conception
both among primitive peoples as well as among those who had
advanced along the road of culture and civilisation. The liver
being regarded as the seat of the blood, It was a natural and
short step to identify the liver with the soul as well as with the
seat of life, and therefore as the centre of all manifcsiations of
vitality and activity. In this stage of belief, therefore, the liver
is the seat of all emotions and affections, as well as of intellectuol
functions, and It is only when with advancing anatomical know-
ledge the functions of the heart and then of the brain come to be
recognized that a differentiation of functions takes place which
bad its outcome in the assignment of intellectual activity to the
brain or head, of the higher emotions and affections (as love and
courage) to the heart, while the liver was degraded to the rank
of being regarded as the seat of the lower emotions and affections,
such as jealousy, moroscncss and the like.
Ilepatoscopy, or divination through the liver, belongs therefore
to the primitive period when that organ summed up all vitality
and was regarded as the seat of qU theemotions and affections—
the higher as well as the lower— and abo as thcscat of intellectual
fuocilooa. The question, howtvtr, atin icmaina to be answered
bow people came to the belief or to the assumpUoa that through
the soul, or the seat of lifp of the sacrificial animal, the intcnticHi
of the gods ooidd be divined. There are two theories that may
be put forward. The one is that the animal sacrificed was looked
upon as a ddty, and that, therefore, the liver rcpreKntod the
soul of the god; the other theory is that the ddty in acceptirg
the sacrifice Identified himself with the animal, and that, there-
fore, the liver as the soul of the animal was the coantef|iart of
the soul of the god. It Is true that the killing of the god plays
a prominent part in primitive culta, as has been shown more
particukirly through the valuable leaeardMS of J. G. Fraecr
iTke GoUtn B^u^), On the other hand, seHotis diflkoltics
arise if we assume that every animal sacrificed repicscnu a
deity; and even assuming that iuch a belief underlies the rite
of animal sacrifice, a modification of the belief mutt have been
introduced when such sacrifices became a common rite resofted
to on every occasion when a ddty was to be approached. It is
manifestly impossible to assume, €,g, that the daily sacrifices
which form a feature of advanced culu involved the belief ol the
daily slaughter of some ddty, and even before this stage vis
reached the primitive bclid of the actual identificatfon of the
god with the animal must have yidded to some such bdief as
that the dei^r Jn accepting the aaciifioe sssimilates the animal
to his own being, precisely as man assimilates the food that
enters into his body. The animal is in a certain sense, imloed,
the food of the god.
The theory underlying hepatoscopy therefore consists of these
two factors: the belief (i) that the liver is the seat of life, or,
to put it more sucdnctly, what was currently regarded as the
soul of the animal; and (2) that the liver of the saaifidal
animal, by virtue of its acceptance on the part of the god, took
on the same character as the soul of the god to whom it was
offered. The two souls acted in accord, the soul of the animal
becoming a reffection, as it were, of the soul of the god. If,
therdore, one understood the signs noted on a particular liver,
one entered, aa it were, into the mind— as one of the manifesta-
tions of aoul-lifc~ol the ddty who had aisimihited the being oC
the animal to his own being. To know the mind of the god was
equivalent to knowing what the god in question proposed to do.
Hence, when one approached a ddty with an Inquiry as to the
outcome of some undertaking, the reading of the signs on the
Uver afforded a direct means of determining the coune of future
events, which was, according to current bdids, in the control
of the gods. That there are defects In the logical process as here
outlined to account for the curious rile constitutes no valid
objection to the theory advanced, for, in the first place, prinutive
logic in matters of belief Is Inherently ddectlve and even contra^
dictory, and, secondly, the strong desire to pierce the mysterious
future, forming an impelling factor In all religions— even in the
most advanced of our own day-^would tend to obscure the
weakness of any theory developed to explahi a rite which
represents merely one endeavour among many to divine the
intention and plans of the gods, upon the knowledge of wiiich
so much of man's happiness and welfare depended.
Passing now to typical examples, the beginning must be made
with Babylonia, which Is also the richest source of our knowledge
of the details of the rite. Hepatoscopy in the Euphrates valley
can be traced back to the srd millennium before oxir era, wMch
may be taken as suffident evidence for its survival from the
period of primitive culture, wlale the supreme importance
attached to ^gns read on' the livers of sacrificial animals— mraally
a sheep— follows from the care with which omens derived from
such inspection on occa^ns of historical significance were pre-
served as guides to later generations of priests. Thus we have
a collection of the signs noted during the career of Sargoo L of
Agade {e. 3800 B.C.), which in some way were handed down till
the days of the Assyrian kmg Assur-banl-pal (fi68-6}6 B.C.). One
of the chief names for the priest was Mrfl — ^literally the " in-
spector "— ^hich was given to him because of the prominence
of bis function as an Inspector of livers for the purpose of dMnIng
the intention of the gods. It is to the coUectionsfonncd by these
OMEN
105
ISHt-priesIs as a guH a nee for tliemadves and as a basis of
B»tnict{<m for those in training for the priesthood that we owe
oor linowledge of the parts of the liver to which particular
attention was directed, of the signs noted, and of the principles
guiding tlie interpretation of the signs.
The inspection of the liver for purposes of divination led to
the study of the anatomy of the liver, and there are indeed good
tcasons for believing that hepatoscopy represents the startirg-
point for the study of animal anatomy in general. We find in
the Babylonian-Assyrian omen^tcxts spedal designations for
the three main lobes of the sheep's Ilvei^tbe Mms dexier, the
Mus sinister and the Mus caudtUus; the fiist-named being
called " the right wing of the liver," the second "the left wing
of the liver," and the third ** the middle of the h'ver." Whether
the division ol the lobus dexter into two divisions— <x) lobus
dexter proper and (2) lobus quadratus, as in modem anatomical
nomenclature — was also assumed in Babylom'an hepatoscopy,
ii not certain, but the groove separating the right lobe into two
sections— the fossa venae umbiHealit—msA recognized and dis-
tinguished by the designation of " river of the liver." The two
appendixes attached to the upper Ibbe or lobus pyramidalis,
and known in modem nomenclature as proeessus fyramidalis and
frocessus papillaris, were described respectively as the *' finger "
of the liver and as the "offdioot." The former of these two
appendixes plays an especially Important part in hepatoscopy,
and, according to its shape and peculiarities, furnishes a good
or bad omen. The gall-bladder, appropriately designated as
* the bitter,*' was regarded as a part of the liver, and the cystic
duct (compared, apparently, to a ** penis") to which it is joined,
as wdl as the hepatic duct (piclm«d as an " outlet '*) and the
ductus ekaleduelus (described as a " yoke "). sll had their special
designations. The depression separating the two lower lobes
from the Mus eaudatus, and known as the p&rta kepatis, was
appropriately desijgnated as the " crucible *' of the liver Lastly,
to pass over unnecessary details, the maricings of various kinds
to be observed on the lobes of the livers of freshly-slaughtered
animals, which are due mainly to the traces left by the sub-
sidiary hepatic ducts and hepatic veins On the liver surface,
w^Tt described as ''holes,*' "paths," "dubs'* and the Uke.
The constantly varying character of these markings, no two
Kvera being alike in this respect, furnished & particulariy large
field for the fancy of the ftdr^priest.
In the interpretation of these signs the two chief factors were
aasodation of ideas and assodation of words. If, for example,
the processus pyramidatis was abnormally small and the pro-
cessus papSiaris abnormaDy large, it pointed to a reversion of
the natural order, to wit, that the servant should control the
master or that the son would be above the father. A long cystic
duct would point to a long reign of the king. If the gall-Uadder
was swollen, it pointed to an extension or enlargement of seme
kind. If the porta kepatis was torn it prognosticated a plundering
of the enemy's land. As among most people, a sign on the right
side was favourable, but the same sign on the left side otifavour-
able. If, for example, the porta kepatis was long on the right
side and Short on the left side, il was a good sign for the king's
army, but if short on the right side and km^on the left, it was
anfavourable; and similariy for a whole series of phenomena
connected with any one of the various subdivisioiis of the liver.
Past experience constituted another important facter h) establish-
ing the Interpretation of signs noted. If, for example, on a oenain
occasion whim the liver of a sacrificial- anhnal was examined,
certain events of a favourable character followed, the conclusion
was drawn that the signs observed were favourable, and hence
the reourence of these signs on another occasion suggested a
ftivottrable answer to the question put to the priests. With
this in view, omens given hi the reigns of pramfaient rulers were
preserved with special care as guides to the priests.
In the course of tfane the odlectkms of signs and thcrr inter-
pretation made by the Mrft-ptlestf grew hi nuntber ontB elaborate
series were produced in which the endeavour was made toexhaust
so lar at poasftle all the varieties and modJAcaiions of the aumy
signs, so asto fdSnish « cosiplsto baodbook both for purposes
of instnicUon and as a basis for the practical work of divihation.
Divination through the liver remained in force among the
Assyrians and Babylomans down to the end of the Babylonian
Empire.
Among the Greeks and Romans likewiae it was the Ever that
continued throughout aU periods to play the chief r61e in divina-
tion through the sacrifidaS animal. Blechcr {De Extispicio
Capita Tria, Glessen, 1905, pp. yss) has recently collected most
of the references in Greek and Latin authors to animal divination,
and an examination of these shows condusivdy that, although
the general term used for the inspectmn of the sacrifidal animal
was iera or ieroia ($>. " victims *' or " sacred parts ") in Greek,
and exta in Latin, when specific illustrations are introduced,
the reference is almost invariably to some sign or signs on the
liver; and we have an interesting statement in Pliny (Hist. Nat,
xi. f 286), furnishing the date (274 B.C.) when the examination
of the heart was for the first time introduced by the side of the
liver as a means of divining the future, while the lungs are not
mentioned till we reach the days of Cicero {de Divinatione, L $$)*
We are Justified in concluding, therefore, that among the Greeks
and Romans likewise the examination of the liver was the basis
of divination in the case of the sacrificial animaL It is welt
known that the Romans borrowed thdr methods of hepatoscopy
from the Etruscans, and, apart from the direct evidence for this
in t^tin writings, we have, in the case of the bronze modd of
a liver found near Piaccnxa in 1877, and of Etruscan ori^n, the
unmistakable proof that among the Etruscans the examination,
of the liver was the basis of animal divination. Besides thb
object dating from about the 3rd century B.C., according to the
latest Investigator, G. Kflrte (" Die Bronzdcbcr von Piaccnza,**
in Mitt. d. K. D. Arckaeot. Instituts, 1905, xx. pp. 348-379),
there are other Etruscan moniuncnts, e^. the figure of an
Etruscan augur holding a liver in his hand as his trade-mark
(KOrte, ib. pi. xiv.), which point In the same direction, and
indicate that the modd of the liver was used as an object lesson
to illustrate the method of divination through the liver. For
further details the reader ts referred to ThuUn's monograph.
Die Etruskiscke XHsciptin, II Die Harus^iH (Gothenbur]{,
1906).
As for the Greeks, it is still an open question whether they
perfected their method of hepatoscopy under Etruscan influence
or through the Babylonians. In any case, since the Eastern
origin of the Etruscans is now generally admitted, we may
temporarily, at least, accept the condusion that hepatoscopy
as a method of divination owes its survival in advanced forms
of culture to the elaborate system devised in the course of
centuries by the Babylonian priests, and to the infiuence, direct
and indirect, exerted by this system m the ancient worid. But
for this system hepatoscopy, the theoretic basis of which as
above set forth falls within the sphere of ideas that belong to
primitive culture, would have passed away as higher stages of
dvilization were reached; and as a matter of (act it pUys no
part in the Egyptian culture or in the civilization of India, while
among the Hebrews only faint traces of the prrmjtive idea of
the liver as the seat of the sou] are to be met with in the Old
Testament, among which an allusion in the indiren form of a
protest against the use of the sacrificial animal for purposes of
divination in the ordinance (Exodus xxix. 13, 32; Leviticus
iii. 4, to, ts. &c.) to bum the processus pyramidatis of the Kver,
which pbyed a particularly significant r6le in hepatoscopy,
calls for spedal mention.
In modem thnes hepatoscopy still survives among primitive
peoples in Borneo, Burma, Uganda, &c.
It but remains to call attention to the fact that the caiUer
view of the hvcr as the teat of the soul gave way among many
ancient natfons to the theory which, reflecting the growth of
anatomical knowledge, assigned that function to the heart,
while, with the further change which led to placing the seat
of soul-life in the brain, an attempt was made to partition the
various functions of manifestations of personality among the
three organs, brain, heart and liver, the intellectual activity
being aSdgned to the fitst-j^aoked Che higher emotions, as tow
I04-
OMICHUND— ONAGRACEAE
and couxage, to tlie second; while the liver, once the master
of the entire domain of sotd-Ufe as understood in antiquity, was
degraded to serve as the seat of the Jower emotions, such as
jealousy, anger and the like. This is substantially the view set
{orth in the Timaeus of Plato {% 71 c). The addition of the heart
to the liver as an organ of the revelation of the divine will,
reflects the stage which assigned to the heart the position once
occupied by the liver. By the time the third sUge, which placed
the seat of soul-life in the brain, was reached through the further
advance of anatomical knowledge, the religious rites of Greece
and Rome were too deeply incrusted to admit of further radical
changes, and faith in the gods had aheady declined too far to
bring new elements into the religion. In phrenology, however,
as popularly carried on as an unofficial cult, we may recognize
a modified form of divination, co-ordinate with the third sUge
in the development of beliefs regarding the seat of soul and based
on the assumption that this organ is — as were its predecessors —
ft medium of revelation of otherwise hidden knowlcdga
(M.jA.)
OHICBUND (d. 1767), an Indian whose name is indelibly
associated with the treaty negotiated by Clive before the battle
of Piassey in 1757. His real name was Amir Chand; and he
was not a Bengali, as stated by Macaulay, but a Sikh from the
Punjab. It is impossible now to unravel the intrigues in which
he may have engaged, but some facts about his career can be
stated. He had long been resident at Calcutta, where he had
acquired a large fortune by providing the " investment " for
the Company, and also by acting as intermediary between the
English and the native court at Murshidabad. In a letter of
Mr Watts of later date he is represented as saying to the nawab
(Suraj-ud-daula): " He had lived under the English protection
these forty years; that he never knew them once to break their
agreement, to the truth of which he took his oath by touching a
Brahman's foot; and that if a lie could be proved in England
upon any one, they were spit upon and never trusted." Several
houses owned by him in Calcutta are mentioned i<i connexion
with the fighting that preceded the tragedy ol the Black Hole
in 1756, and it is on record that he suffered heavy losses at that
time. He had been arrested by the English on suspicion of
treachery, but afterwards he was forward in giving help to the
fugitives and also valuable advice. On the recapture of Calcutta
he was sent by Clive to accompany Mr Watts as agent at Mur*
shidabad. It seems to have been through his influence that the
nawab gave reluctant consent to Clive's attack on Chandemagore.
Idter, when the treaty with Mir Jafar was being negotiated, he
put in a claim for 5% on all the treasure to be recovered, under
threat of disclosing the pk>t. To defeat him, two copies of the
treaty were drawn up: the one, the true treaty, omitting his
claim; the other containing it, to be shown to him, which
Admiral Watson refused to sign, but Clive directed the admiral's
signature to be appended. When the truth was revealed to
Omicbund after Piassey, Macaulay states (following Ormc) that
he sank gradually into idiocy, languished a few months, and
- then died. As a matter of fact, he survived for ten years, till
1767; and by his will he bequeathed £2000 to the FoundUug
Hospital (where his name may be seen in the list of benefactors
as " a black merchant of Calcutta "} and also to the Magdalen
Hospital in London. 0- S. Co.)
OMNIBUS (Lat. " for aU *'), a large dosed public conveyance
with seats for passengers inside and out (see Carriage). The
name, colloquially shortened to " bus," was, in the form voUwre
cmnibuSt first used for such conveyances in Paris in 1828, and
was taken by Shillibeer for the vehicle he ran on the Paddinglon
load in jSzfQ. The word is also applied to a box at the opera
which is shared by several subscribers, to a bill or act of parlia*
meat dealing with a variety of subjects, and in electrical engineer-
ing to the bar to which the terminals of the generators are
attached and from which the current is taken oQ by the wires
supplying the various consumers.
OMRI, in the Bible, the first great king of Israel after the
separation of the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, who
^urished in the early part of the 9th centuiy B.C. The
dynasty of Jeroboam had been cztaniBatwl by Basdut (set
Asa) at a revolt when the army was besieging the Philistines at
Gibbethon, an unidentified Danite site. A quarter of a oeatiuy
later, Baasha's son Elah, after s jeign of two yeazs, was sJuin by
Zimri, captain of the chariots, i|i a drinking bout, and again the
royal faini^ were put to the sword. Meanwhile, the general
Omri, who was at Gibbethon, was promptly eleaed king by the
army, and Zimri himself in a short while^ met his death in the
royal dty of Tirzah. However, fresh disturbance was caused by
Tibni ben Ginath (perhaps of Naphtali),aad Israel was divided
into rival factions. Ultimately Tibni and his brother Jonm
(i Kings xvL 22, LXX.) were overcome, and Omri remained ta
sole possession of the throne. The compiler of the biblical
narratives takes little interest in Omri's work (r Kings xvL
1 5-28), and records briefly his purchase of Samaria, which became
the capital of his dynasty (see Samaria). The inscription o(
Mesha throws welcome light upon his conquest of Moab iq.v.)i
the position of Israel during the reign of Omri's son Abab (qjf.)
bears testimony to the success of the father; and the faa that
the knd continued to be known to the Assyriaosdown to the time
of Sargon as *' house of Omri " indicates the reputation which
this little-known king enjoyed. (S. A. C.) ,
OMSK, a town of Russia, capital of the province of Akmolinsk,
capital of western Siberia from 1839 to 1882, and now capital
of the general-governorship of the Steppes. Pop. (1881)^31,000^
(1900) 53,050. It is the scat of administration of the Siberiaja
Cossacks, and the see of the bishop of Omsk. Situated on the
right bank of the Irtysh, at its confluence with the Om, at an
altitude of 285 ft., and on the Siberian railway, 1S62 m. via
Chelyabinsk from Moscow, and 586 m. W.S.W. of Tomsk, it i%
the meeting-place of the highways to middle Russia, Orenburg
and Turkestan. Steamers ply down the Irtysh and the Ob^
and up the former to the Altai towns and Lake Zaisan. The
climate is dry and relatively temperate, but marked by violent
snow-storms and sand-storms* The average temperatures are,
for the year, 31** F.; for January, 5'; for July, bS"; the annual
rainfall is 12*4 in. The town is poorly built. Apart from the
railway workshops, its industries are unimportant (steam saw-
mill, tanneries); but the trade, especially since the construction
of the railway, is growing. There are two yearly fairs. Omsk
has a society for education, which organises schools, kinder-
gartens, libraries and lectures for tbe people. There areacoips
of cadets, medical, dramatic and musical societies, and the
west Siberian section of the Russian Geographical Sodety, with
a museum.
The " fort " of Omsk was erected in 1716 to protect the block-
houses on the Russian frontier, along the Ishim and the Irtysh.
In consequence of the frequent incursions of the Kirghis about
the end of the i8th century, stronger earthworks were erected
on the right bank of the Om; but these have now almost entirely
disappeared.
ONAGRACEAE, in botany, an order of dicotyledons belonging
to tbe series Myrtiflorae, to which belongs also the myrtle
order, Myrtaceae. It contains about 36 genera and joo spedes^
and occurs chiefly in the temperate sone of the New World,
especially on the Pacific side. It is represented in Britain by
several ^>ecies of EpiMnum (willow-hert>), Circaea (enchanter's
nightshade), and Uidwigia, a small perennial herb very rare in
boggy pools in Sussex and Hampshire. The plants are generally
herbaceous, sometimes annual, as species of Epilobiitm, Clarkia,
Goddia, or biennial, as (knolkeira ^Mftnir— evening primrose—
or sometimes become shrubby or arboiesoent, as Fuchsia (g.v.).
The pimple leaves ate generally entire or inconspicuously toothed,
and are alternate, opposite or wborled in arrangement; they are
generally exs^pulate, but small caducous stipules occur ia
Fuchsia, Cinaea and other genera. The flowers are oftea
solitary in the leal-axils, as in many fuchsias, Clarkia^ &c., or
associated, as in Epilolnum and Oenmkffa, in large showy
terminal spikes or racemes; in, Ct><:a«a the small white or red
' He !i said to have refgncd seven days, but the LXX. (Bl In
I Kings xvi. 15 read tevm ye^trt. Further confmion is causM by
the fact that the LXX, fCads Zimii.threushaut (gr.Omri,^
ONATAS— ONEGA
105
ISowcrs are borne !a terminaf and lateral racemes. The regular
flowers have the parts In fours, the typical arrangement as
flluatrated by EpUohiuMt Oenothera and Fuchsia being as
follows: 4 sepals, 4
petals, two ahemating
whorb of 4 stamens, and
4 inferior carpels. The
floral receptacle is pro*
duced above the ovary
into the so-called calyx-
tube, which is often
petaloid, as in Fuchsia,
and is sharply distin-
guished from the ovary,
from which it separates
after flowering.
In CIdrkia the inner
whorl of stamens is often
barren, and in an allied
^ genus, Eucharidium, it
is absent. In Cireaea
the flower has its parts
Fkc. t.-^Fmehsia eoecinm FiG. a.— Floral diagram
I, Flower cut open after removal of of Cireaea.
■rpals; a, fruity 3, floral diagram.
in twos. Both sepals and petals are free; the former have
a broad insertion, are valvate in bud, and reflexed in the
flower; in Fuchsia they are petaloid. The petals have a narrow
attachment, and are generally convolute in bud; they are entire
(Fuchsia) or bilobed {EpUobium); in some spcdes of Fuchsia
they are smaU and scale-like, or #bsent (F. apetala). The
stamens are free, and those of the inner whorl aregcnersUy shorter
than those of the outer whori. The flowers of Lopesia (Central
America) have only one fertile stamen. The large spherical
pollen grains are connected by
viscid threads. The typically
quadrilocular .ovary contains
numerous ovules on ' axile
placentas; the x-to-i-celled
ovary of Cireaea has a single
ovule in each loculus. The
longslenderstylehas a capitate
(Fuchsia), 4-rayed (Oenothera,
Epitobium) or 4-notchcd (Ctf*
eaea) stigma. The flowers,
which have generally an at-
tractive corolla and honey
secreted by a swollen disk at
the base of the style or on tbe
lower part of the " calyx-tobc,"
are adapted for pollination by
insects, chiefly bees and lepi-
^^1^^ doptera; sometimes by night-
a ft Co. flying insects when tbe flowers
Fig. 3. are pale and open towards
i^-^lJ^"* flower jrf fP f^^ evening, as hi evening primrose.
B. truiiTfEpiiobium after splitting Into 4 "^hfti tnd
dchtacence. v, outer wall; ffi, leaving a central column on
coliiroella /ormed bv the scpu; which the seeds are borne as
as, seed wKh tuftt dl hain. j„ EptMnum and Oenothera--
in the former the seeds arc scattered by aH of a long tuft of
silky hairs on the broader end. In Fuchsia the fruit is a beity,
which is sometimes edible, and in Cireaea a nut bearing
recurved bristles. Tbe seeds are eialbuminons. Several of
the genera are well IcHown as garden plants, €.g. FucMla,
Oenothera^ Clarkia and Godetia. Evening primrose {QeneUtera
biennis), a natWe of North America, occurs apparently wild as
a garden escape in Britain. Jussieua is a tropin! genus
of water' and marsh-herbs with well-developed aerating
tissue.
0NATA8. a Greek sculptor of the tkne of the Fenian wan, a
member of the flourishing school of Aegina. Many of hia works
are mentioned by Pausanias; they included a Hermes carrying
the ram, and a strange image of the Black Demeter made for the
people of Phigalia; also some elaborate groups in bronze set up
at Olympia and Delphi. For Hiero I., king of Syracuse, Onatas
executed a votive chariot in bronae dedicated at Olympia. If we
compare the descriptions of the works of Onatas given us by
Pausanias with the well-known pediments of Aegina at Munich
we shall find so close an agreement that we may safely take
the pedimental figures as an index of the style of Onatas. They
are manly, vigorous, athletic, showing great knowledge of the
human form, but somewhat stiff and automaton-like.
ONBQA. the largest lake in Europe neat to Ladoga, having an
area of 3764 sq. m. It is situated in the government of Olonets
in European Russia, and, discharging its waten by the Svir into
Lake Ladoga, belongs to the system of the Neva. The kke basin
extends north-west and south-east, the direction characteristic
of the lakes of Finland and the line of glacier-scoring observed in
that region. Between the northern and southern divisions of
the lake there is a considerable difference: while the latter has a
comparatively regular outline, and contains hardly any islands,
the former splits up into a number of inlets, the largest being
Povyeoets Bay, and is crowded with islands (e.g. KUmelsk) and
submerged rocks. It is thus the northern division which brings
the coast-line up to £70 m. and causes the navigation of the
lake to be so dangerous. The north- western shore between Petro-
zavodsk and the mouth of the river Lumbosha consists of dark
clay slates, generally arranged in horizonul strata and broken
by protruding, parallel ridges of diorite, which extend f^ into the
lake. The eastern shore, as far as the mouth of the Andoma, is
for the most part alluvial, with outcroppings of red granite aind
in one place (the mouth of the Pyalma) diorite and dolomite.
To the south-east are sedimentary Devonian rocks,and the general
level of the coast is broken by Mount Andoma and (}ape Petro-
Pavlovskiy (160 ft. above the lake); to the south-west a quarts
sandstone (used as a building and monumental stone in St
Petersburg) forms a fairly bold rim. Lake Onega lies 1S5 ft.
above the sea. The greatest depths, 31$ to 408 ft., occur at the
entrance to the double bay .of Lizhemsk and Unitsk. On the
continuation of this line the depth exceeds 940 ft. in several
places. In the middleof the lakethe depth b iso to aSs ft., and
less than 120 ft. in the south. The lake is 145 m. long, with an
average breadth of 50 m. The most, important affluents, the
Vodka, the Andoma and the Vytegra, come from the east. Tbe
Kumsa, a northern tributary, is sometimes represented as if it
connected the lake with Lake Seg, but at the present time the
latter drains to the White Sea. The Onega canal (4$ m. long)
was constructed in 1818-1851 along the southern shore in order
to connect the Svir (and hence Lake Ladoga and the Bahic)
with the Vytegra, which connects with the Volga. Lake
Onega remains free from ice for 909 days in the year
(middle of May to second week of December). The water is
at its lowest level in the beginning of March; by June it has
risen 9 ft. A considerable population is scattered along the
shores of the lake, mainly occupied in thi timber trade, fisheries
and mining industries. Salmon, polya (a kind of trout), burbot,
pike, perchpike and perch are among the fish caught in the lake.
Steamboats were introduced in 1 83 a
The river Onega, which, after a course of 250 m., reaches the
Gulf of Onega, an inlet of the White Sea, has no connexion
with Lake Onega. At the month of this river (on the right bank)
stands the town and port of Onega (pop. 3694 in 1897), whidl
dates from settlements made by the people of Novgorad in the
15th century, and known in history as Ustenskaya or Ustyana-
kaya. It has a cathedral, erected in 1796. (P.A.K.; J.T.Bb.)
%o6
ONEIDA— ONEIDA COMMUNITY
CMinPA* ft cHy of MAdison county. New York, U^S.A^
on OneuU Creek, about 6 m. S.£. of Oneida Lake, about 26 m.
W. of Utka, and about s6 m. E.N.E. of Syracuse. Pop. (1890)
6o8j; (iQOo) 6364, of whom 734 were foreign-bora; (1910,
U.Sb census) 8317. It is served by the New York Centcal &
Hudson River, the New York, Ontario & Western, the West
Shore and liie Oneida (eljecick) railwi^rs (the last oonnectiog
with Utica and Syracuse), and by the Eric Canai The city
lies about 440 ft* above the sea on a level site. Across Oneida
Creek, to the south-east, in Oneida coomy, is the village of
Oneida Castle (pop. in 1910, 393). situated in the township of
Vernon (pop. in 1910, 3197), and the former gathering place of
the Oneida Indians, some of whom still live in the township of
Vernon and in the city of Oneida. In the south-eastern part of
the city is the headquarters of the Oneida Community (9.9.),
which controls important industries here, at Niagara Falls, and
elsewhere. Immediately west of Oneida is the village of Wamps-
vlUe (incorporated in 1908), the county-seat of Madison county.
Among the manufactures of Oneida are wagons, cigars, furniture,
caskets, ^ver-platod ware, engines and machinery, steel and
wooden pulleys and chucks, steel grave vaults, hosiery, and milk
bottle aps. In the vicinity the Oneida Community manu-
factures chains and animal traps. The site of Oneida ii^as
purchased in 1829-1830 by Sands Higinbotham, in honour of
whom one of the municipal parks (the other is Alien Park)
b named. Oneida was incorporated as a village in 1848 and
chartered as a city in 1901.
ONEIDA (a corruption of their proper name Otuyfitka-ouo,
" people of the stone," in allusion to the Oneida stone^ a granite
boulder near their former village, which was held sacred by
them), a tribe of North American Indians of Iroquoian stock,
forming one of the Six Nations. They lived around Oneida
Lake in New York state, in the region southward to the
Susquehanna. Tlicy were not loyal lo the League's policy of
friendliness to the English, but inclined towards the French,
and were praaically the only Iroquois who fought for the
Americans in the War of lodepemlence. As a consequence
they were attacked by others of the Iroquois under Joseph
Brant and took refuge within the American settlements till the
war ended, when the majority returhed to their former home,
while some migrated to the Thames river district, Ontario.
Eariy in the 19th century they sold their lands, and most of
them settled on a reservation at Cneen Bay, Wisconsin, some
few remaining in New York suie. The tribe now numbers
more than 3000, of whom about two-thirds are in Wisconsin, a
few hundreds in New York state, and about 800 in Ontario.
They are civilised aful prosperous.
ONEIDA OOMJIUNmr (or Bibk Communists), an American
communistic society at Oneida, Madison county. New York, which
has attracted wide interest on account of its pecuniary success
and its peculiar religious and social principles (seeCoMHUNisn).
Its founder, John Humphrey Noyes (i8ii'i886), was bom
in Brattleboro, Vermont, on the 3rd of September 181 1. He
was of good parentage; his father, John Noyes (1763-1841),
was a graduate of and for a time a invot in Dartmouth College,
and was a representative in Congress in i8f5-(8i7; and his
mother, PoDy Hayes, was an aunt of Rutherford B. Hayes,
pRsident of the United States^ The son graduated at Dartmouth
in 1830, and studied law for a year, but having been converted
in a protracted revival in 1831 he turned to the ministry, studied
theology for one year at Andover (where he was a member of
"The Brethren,'* a secret society of students preparing for
ibreign missionary work), and then a year and a half at Yale,
and in 1833 was licensed lo preach by the New Ha^ven Association;
but his open preaching of his new religious doctrines, and
especially that of present salvation from sin, resulted in the
revocation of his license in 18341 and his thereafter being called
a PerfoctMnbt. He continued to promulgate hi0 ideas of a
higher Christian life, and soon had disciples in many places, one of
whom, Harriet A. Holton, a woman of means, he married in
1838. In 1836 he returned to his father's home in Putney,
Vt., and founded a Bi^k Scboolt in 1843 he entered into
a " contract of Partnership " with ^is Putmey followers; and in
March 1845 the Putney Corporation or Association of Perfec-
tionists was formed.
Although the Putney Corporation or Association was never
a community in the sense of common-property ownership, yet
it was practically a communal organization, and embodied the
radical religious and social prindples that subsequently gave
such fame to the Oneida Community, of which it mav justly
be regarded as the beginning and precursor. - These pni^ciples
naturally excited the opposition of the churches in «he small
Vermont village where the Perfectionists resided, and indignatktn
meetings against them were held; and although they resalled
in no personal violence Mr Noyes and his followers considered
it prudent to remove to a place where they were sure of more
liberal treatment. They accordingly withdrew from Putney
in 1847, and accepting the invitation of Jonatlian Burt and
others, settled near Oneida, Madison county. New York.
Here the community at first devoted itself to agricuHurc and
fruit raising, but had little financial success until it began the
manufacture of a steel trap, invented by one of its members,
Sewall Newhouse; the manufacture of steel chains for use with
the traps followed; the canning of vegetables and fruits was
begun about 1854, and the manufacture of sewing and embroidety
silk in 1866. Having started with a very small capital (the
inventoried valuation of its property in 1857 was only $67,000),
the community gradually grew in numbers and prospered as a
business concern. Its relations with the surrounding population,
after the first few years, became very friendly. The mciBbera
won the reputation of being good, industrious citizens, whose word
was always " as good as their bond "; against whom no charge
of intemperance, profanity or crime was ever brought. But the
communists claimed that among true Christians "mine and
thine " in property matters should cease to exist, as among the
early pentecostal believers; and, moreover, that the same
unselfiiji spirit should pervade and control all human relations.
And notwithstanding these very radical principles, which were
freely propounded and discussed in their weekly paper, the
communists were not ser^usly disturbed for a quarter of a
century. But from 1873 to 1879 active measures favouring
legislative action against the community, specially instigated
by Prof. John W. Mears (1825-1881), were taken by several
ecclesiastical bodies of Central New York. These measures
culminated in a conference held at Syracuse University on the
14th of Februaiy 1879, when denunciatory resolutions against
the community were passed and legal measures advised.
Mr Noyes, the founder and leader of the community, had
repeatedly said to his followers that the time might come when
it would be necessary, in deference to public opini<m, to recede
from the practical assertion of their social principles, and on
the 30th of August of this year (1879) be said definitely to them
that in his judgment that time had come, and he thereupon
proposed that the community " give up the practice of Complex
Marriage, not as renouncing belief in the principles and pro-
spective finality of that institution, but in deference to public
sentiment." This proposition was considered and accepted in
full assembly of the community on the a6th of the same month.
This great change was followed by other changes of vital
importance, finally resulting in the transformation of the Oneida
C^mn^um'ty into the incorporated Oneida Community, Limited,
a co^>pecative joint-stock company, in which each person's
interest was represented by the shares of stock standing in his
name on the books of the company.
In the reorganisation the adult membem Cand alike in the
matter of remuneration for past servkes-«-thOse who by reason
of ill-health had been unable to contribute to the common fund
receiving the same as those who by reason of strength and ability
bad contributed most thereto; besides, the oM and infirm had
the option of accepting a life-guaranty in lieu of work; and
hence there were do case^ of suffering and want at the time
the transformation from a common-property' Interest to an
individual stock interest was made; and in tiie new company
all were guaranteed remunerative labour.
O'NEILL (FAMILV)
Tliis occurred on (tie ist of January iS8x, at which time the
business and property of (he conrniuoity were transferred to
the iocorporated stock company, and stock issued therefor to
the amount of $600,000. tn the subsequent twenty-eight years
this capitAl stock was doubled, and dividends averaging more
than 6% per annum were paid. Aside from the home buildings
and the lai^ge acreage devoted to agriculture and fruit raising,
the present capital of the company is Invested, first, in its hard-
ware department at Kenwood, N.Y., manufacturing steel game-
traps, and weldless chafns of every description; second, the silk
department at Kenwood, N.V., manufacturing sewing silk,
machine twist and embroidery silks; third, the fruit department
at Kenwood, N.Y., whose reputation for putting up pure, whole-
some fruits and vegetables is probably the highest in the country;
fourth, the tableware department, at Niagara Falls, N.Y., which
manufactures the now celebrated Cotnmunily Silver; fifth, the
Canadian department, with factory at Niagara Falls, Ontario,
Canada, where the hardware lines are manufactured for Canadian
trade. The annual sales of all departments aggregate over
$2,ooo,ooa The officers of the company consist of a president,
secretary, treasurer and assistant treasurer, and there were in
1909 eleven directors. Each of the five leading departments is
managed by a superintendent, and all are under the supervision
of the general manager. Nearly all the superintendents and the
general manager were in IQ09 young men who were bom in the
community, and have devoted their life-work to the interests of
the company. Selling offices are maintained in New York City.
Chicago, St Louis, Clevel^d, 0., Richmond, Va., AUaota, Ca.,
and San Frandsco.
In addition to the members of the society the company employs
between 1 500 and 2000 workmen. The policy has been to avoid
trade-unions, but to pay higher wages and give better conditions
than other employers in similar lines, and by so doing to obtain
a better selection of workmen. The conditions of work as well
as of living have been studied and developed with the idea of
making both Healthful and attractive. With this in view the
company has laid out small villages, in many ways making them
attractive and sanitary,, and has epcouragod the building of
bouses by its employes. Much has been accomplished in this
direct ion by providing desirable building-sites at moderate
espense, and paving a bonus of from Sxoo to S200 in cash to
every emp1oy6 who builds his owii homew The company has also
taken an interest in the schools in the vicinity of its factories,
with the idea of offering to the children of its employes facilities
for a good educat ion.
The communism of John H. Noyes was based on hta inter-
pretation of the New Testament. In his. pamphlet, BibU
Communism (184S), he affirmed that the secona coming of Christ
occurred at the dose of the apostolic age, immediatdy after
the destruction of Jerusalem, and he argued from mai\y New
Testament passages, especially t John 1,7, that after the second
coming and the beginning of Christ's reign upon the earth, the
true standard of Christian character was sinlessness, which was
pouible through ^dtal union with Christ, that all selfishness
was to be done away with, both in property in things and in
persons, or, in other words, that communism was to be finally
established in all the relations of life. But, while affirming that
the same spirit which on the day of Pentecost abolish«l ex-
clusiveness in regard to money tends to obliterate all other
property distinctions, he had no adUialion with those commonly
lerroed Free Lovers, because their prindplcs and practices seemed
to him to tend toward anarchy. " Our Communities," he said,
" zTc/amilUs as distinctly bounded and separated from promiscu-
ous society as ordinary households. The tie that binds us
together is as penpancnt and sacred, to say the least, as that of
common marriage, for it is our religion. We receive no new
members (except by deception and mistake) who do not give
heart and hand to the family interest for life and for ever. Com-
municy of pvoperiy extends |tist as far as freedom of love.
Every man'k care and every dollar of the common property are
plcdf^ for the maintenance and protection of the women and
the education of the children of the Community."
107
The community was much Interested in the question of race im^
provemcnt by scientific means, and maintained with much force
of argument that at least as much sdentific attention should be
given to the physical improvement of human beings as is given
to the Improvement of domestic animals; and they referred
to the results of thdr own incomplete stlrpicultural experiments
as indkratfve of what may be expected in the far future, when
the conditions of human reproduction are no longer controlled
by chance,' soda! position, wealth, impulse or lust.
The community daimed to have solved among themsdves
the Uibour question, all kinds of service being regarded as equally
honourable, and every person bdng respected according to his
real character.
The members had some peculiarities of dress, mostly confined,
however, to the women, whose costumes induded a short dress
and pantalets, which were appreciated for their convenience, if
not for their beauty. The women also adopted the practice of
wearing short hair, which It was daimed saved time and vanity.
Tobacco, intoncants, profanity, obscenity found no place in
the community. The community diet consisted largely of
vegetables and fruits; meat, tea and coffee bdng servoi only
occasionally.
For securing good order and the improvement of the members,
the community placed much reliance upon a very peculiar system
of plain speaking they termed mutual criticism, which originated
in a secret sodety of missionary brethren with which Mr Noyes
was connected while pursuing his theological steadies at Andover
Seminary, and whose members submitted themselves Di turn to
the sincerest comment ot one another as a means of personal
improvement. Under Mr Noyes's supervision it became in the
Oneida Community a principal means of disdpline and govern*
ment. There was a standing committee of criticism, sdected by
the community, and changed from time to time, thus giving all
an opportunity to serve both as critics and subjects, and Justi-
fying the term " mutual " which they gave to th^ system.
The subject was free to have others besides the committee prosmt',
or to have critics only of his own choice, or to invite an expression
from the whole community.
Noyes edited The Perfeaionist (New Haven. Connectkut, 11134,
and Putney. Vermont. 1843-181^): The Witness (Ithaca. New
York. And Putney, Ij3j-*j43)'« JP*/iN»'t(««' ^J/P**?* i?!y*1^y»
irays n
N.Y., and 'WalUngfofd,' CoiMu, i8m-i8^^^ and TTi'Americam
Soeiaiist ^ndda, 1876-1880). He was the author 6i The Way et
Hdmtss (Putney. 1838): The Bere&u (Putney, 1847), oontaininr
an expootion 01 his aoctriaos of SaNatioa from Sin; the Second
Coooog of Christ} the Ongio of Evil; the Atonement; the Second
Birth: the MUlcnnium; Our Relntions to the Primitive Church,
Ac. &c.: History of AwUnean Socialism (Philadelphia, 1870);
Heme Talks (Ondda, 1876); and numefoua pamphlets. *
See a nries of aitide&in the iioHt^aeiwrr and BuiUer (New York,
1891-1^94)' by " C R. Edioo *' {ie, C. E. Robinson): The Oaeii^
Community, by Allan Estlake (a member of the community) (tgoO):
Morris Hinquft's History of Socialism in the United States (New York,
1003). and especially Wilham A. Hinds' Americasi ConemuitiHes and
C a aj mlim Cinnks (3id ed., Chfeago, s»»»* (W.A.H.)
OlfnUi, the name of an Irish family tracing descent from
Niall, king of Ireland ear^ in the 5th century, and known in
Irish history and legend as NiaJl of the Nine Hostages. He is said
to have made war not only against lesser rulers in Ireland, but
also in Britain and Gaul, stories of bis expk>iu being rdated tn
the Book of Leinsler and the Book of BaUymptt, both of which,
however, are many centuries later than the time of MialL This
king had fourteen sons, one of whom was Eoghan (Owen), from
whom the O'Ncilb of the later history were descended. The
desccndanU of Nlall spread over Irdaod and became divided
into two main branches, the northern and the southern Hy
Ndll. to one or other of which nearly all the high-kings (ard-d)
of Ireland from the s^h to tb« laih century belonged; thn
descendants of EOghan being the chief of the northern Hy N^l.*
Eoghan was grandfather of Murkertagh (Muircheartach) (d. ^),
> A list of these kings will be found in P. W. Joyce's A
History ^Ancient Ireland (London, 1903), voL L pp. 70, 71. '
Putney, 1838-1843); The Spirituai ifqmiuine (P
1846-1847: Onekto, 1848-1850): The Free Ckmrtk Ctrtntar {0
ifiSO'iftSi); and virtually, though not always ooininally. rht
Cirenlar and The Oneida Cireutar (Brooklyn. 1851-1854: Oneida,
io8
O'NEILL (FAMILY)
said to have been the 6rst Christian king of Ireland, whose mother,
Eire or Erca, became by a subsequent marriage the grandmother of
St Columba. Of this monarch, known as Murkertagh MacNeiU
(Niall), and sometimes by reference to his mother as Murkertagh
Mac Erca, the story is told, illustrating an ancient Celtic custom*
that in making a league with a. tribe in Meath he emphasized
the inviolability of the treaty by having it written with the blood
of both clans mixed in one vessel. Murkertagh was chief of the
great north Irish clan, the Cinel Eoghain,* and after becoming
king of Ireland about the year 517, he wrested from a neighbour-
ing clan a tract qf country in the modem County Deny, which
remained till the 17th century in the possession of the Cinel
Eoghain. 'The inauguration stone of the Irish kings, the Lia
Fail, or Stone of Destiny, fabled to have been the pillow
of the patriarch, Jacob on the occasion of his dream of thp
heavenly ladder, was said to have been presented by Murkertagh
to the king of Dalriada,by whom it was conveyed toDunstaffnage
Castle in ScotJand (see Scone). A lineal descendeni of Murker-
tagh was Nlall Frassach (i.e. of the showers'), who became king
of Ireland in 763; his surname, of which several fanciful ex-
planations have been suggested, probably commemorating
merely weather of exceptional severity at his birth. His grand-
son, Niall (791-845), drove back the Vikings who in his time
began to infest the coast of Donegal. Niall's son, Aedh (Hugh)
Finnlaith, was father of Niall Glundubh (i.e. Niall of the black
knee), one of the most famous of the early Irish kings, from
whom the family surname of the O'Neills was derived. His
brother Domhnall (Donnell) was king of Ailech, a district in
Donegal and Deny; the royal palace, the ruined masonry of
which is still to be seen, being on the sununit of a hill 800 ft.
high overlooking loughs Fqyle and Swilly. On the death of
Domhnall in 911 Niall Glundubh became king of Ailech, and he
then attacked and defeated the king of Dalriada at Glarryford,
In County Antrim, and the king of Ulidia near Ballymena.
Having thus extended his dominion he became king of Ireland
in 9.15. To him is attributed the revival of the ancient meeting
of Irish clans known as the Fair of Telltown (see Ikeland: Early
Bistory). He fought many battles against the Norsemen, in
one of which he was killed in 919 at Kilmashoge, where his place
of burial is still to be seen.
His son Murkertagh, who gained a great victoty over the Norse
in 926, is celebrated for his triumphant march round Irehuad, the
MoirlkimcMl EnettPt, in which, starting from Portgleoone on
the Bann, he completed a circuit of the island at the bend of
his armed clan, returning with many oiptive kings and chieftains.
From the dress of his followers in this expedition he was called
** Murkertagh of the Leather Qoaks." The exploit waa cele-
brated by Cormacan, the king's bard, in a poem that has been
printed by the Irish Archaeological Society; and a number of
Muikertagh's other deeds are related in the Bopk of leinster.
He was kUled in battle against the None in 943, and was mc-
eeeded as king of Ailech by his son, Donnell Ua Niall (t .«. O'NeiB,
grandson of Neill, or Niall,, the name O'Neill becoming about
this time an hereditary family surname'), whose grandson,
Flaherty, became renowned for piety by going on a pilgrimage
to Rome in 1030.
Aedh (Hugh) O'NeiD, chief of the Cbd Eogbam, or lord of
Tir-Eoghain (Tir-Owen, Tyrone) at the end of the 12th century,
^as the first of the family to fae brought prominently into
conflict wfih the Anglo-Norman monarchy, whose pretensions
h( took the lead in disputing in Ulster. It was probably his son
or nephew (for the relationship is uncertain, the geneiUogies of
the O'Neills being rendered obscure by the contemporaneous
occurrence of the same name in different branches of toe family)
Hugh O'Neill, lord of Tyrone, who was styled " Head of the
liberality and valour of the Irish." Hugh's son, Brian, by gaining
* The Cmd, or Ki^d^ was a group of related dan eceupyiiig an
extensive district. See Joyce, op. tU. i. 166.
*The adoptioa of hereditary names became nneraJ* in Ireland,
in obedience, it is said, loan orainaoce of Briao Soru. about the end
of the lotfa century. For the method of their fonnatk>a see Joyce,
the support of the earl of Ulster, was inwigurated* prince, or
•lord, of Tyrone in 1291; and his son Henry became lord of the
Clann Aodka Buidhe (Claoaboy or Clandeboyc) eariy in the
14th century. Henry's son Murkerta^ the Strongmindcd, zxA
hb great-grandson Hugh, described as " the most renowned,
hospitable and valorous of the princes of IreUnd in his time/',
greatly consolidated the power of the O'Neills. Niall Qg O'Neill,
one of the four kings of Ireland, accepted knighthood from
Richard U. of England; and his son Eoghan formally acknow-
ledged the supremacy of the English crown, though he after-
wards ravaged the Pale, and waa inaugurated " the O'Neill "
{%.e. chief of the clan) on the death of his kinsman Domhnall Boy
O'Neill; a dignity from which he was deposed tn 1455 by his son
Hedry, who in 1463 was acknowledged as chid of the Irish kings
by Henry VII. of England. Contemporary with him waa Neill
Mor O'Neill (see below), lord of Clanab^y, from whose son Brian
was descended the branch of the O'Neills who, settling in Portugal
in the x8th century, became prominent among the Portuguese
nobility, and who at the present day are the representatives in
the male line of the ancient Irish kings of the house of O'NcilL
Conn O'Neill {c. 1480-1559), ist eari of Tyrone, surnamed
Bacach (the Lame), grandson of Henry O'Neill mentioned above,
was the first of the O'Neills whom the attempts of the EngliJi
in the i6th century to subjugate Ireland brought to the front
as leaders of the native Irish. Conn, who was related through
his mother with the earl of Rildare (Fitzgerald), became chid
of the Tyrone branch of the O'Neills (Cinel Eoghain) about 1 520.
When Kildare became viceroy in 1524, O'Neill consented to act
as his swordbearer in ceremonies of state; but his aOegianoe
.was not to be reckoned upon, and while R»dy enou|^ to give
verbal assurances o'f loyalty, he could not be persuaded to give
hostages as security for his conduct; but Tyrone having been
invaded in 1541 by Sir Anthony St Leger, the lord deputy, Conn
delivered up his son as a hostage, attended a parliament held at
Trim, and, crossing to England, made his submission at Green-
wich to Henry VIII., who created him earl of Tyrone for life,
and made him a present of money and a valuable gold chain.
He was also made a privy councillor in Ireland, and recdved a
grant of lands within the Pale. This event created a deep im-
pression in Ireknd, where O'Neill's submission to the English
king, and his acceptance of an English title, were resented ty
his chmsmen and dependents. The rest of the eax1*s life was
munly occupied by endeavours to maintain his influence, and
by an undying feud with his son Shane (John), arinng out of his
transaction with Henry VHL For not only did the nomination
of O'Ndll's reputed son Matthew as his heir with the title of
baron of Dungannon bv the Engfish king conflict with the Irish
custom of tanistnr {q.t) which regulated the chieftainship of the
Irish dans, but Matthew, if indeed he was O'Neill's son at all,
was illegitimate; while Shane, Conn's ddest legitimate son,
was not the man to submit tamely to any invasion of his rights.
The fierce family fend only terminated when Matthew was
murdered by agents of Shane in 1558; Conn dying about a year
later. Conn was twice married, Shane bdng the son of his first
wife, a daughter of Hugh Boy O'Ndll of Clanaboy. An ille-
gitimate daughter of Conn marri^ the cdebrated Sorley Boy
MacDonndl (^.».).'
Sbane O'Neill (c. 1530-1567) was a chief tafai whose support
was worth gaining by the Enj^sh even during his father's life-
time; but rejecting overtures from the cad of Sussex, the lord
deputy, Shane refused to help the English against the Scottidi
settlers on the coast of Antrim, allying himself instead with the
MacDonnelb, the most powerful of these immigrants. Ncvtrtbe-
iess Queen Elizabeth, on succeeding to the English throne, was
disposed to come to terms with Shane, who after hn father's
death was 4e fado drid of the formidable O'Neill dan. She
aceonfingly agreed to recognize his daims to the diieftainship,
thus flirowing over Brian O'NdU, ton of the murdered Matthew,
* The ccmnooy of " loaugaratiMi '* among the ancient Irish daas
^^ fR^'Vi^'^^ *^ imporunt pae. A.Btonie inauguration chair d
•f P - '*^ •* P'^served in the Belfast Muaeuqi. See Joyce, op.
tU* L 4A<
ONEILL (FAMILY)
baron of Dungaaiioii» if Shane would submit to her authority
and that of her deputy. O'Neill, however, refused to put himself
in the power of Sussex without a guarantee for his safety;
and his claims in other respects were so exacting that Elizabeth
consented to measures being taken to subdue him and to restore
Brian. An attempt to foment the enmity of the O'DonneUs
against him was frustrated by Shane's capture of Calvagh
O'DonncJl, whom he kept a dose prisoner for nearly three years.
£li£abcth, whose prudence and parsimony were averse to so
formidable an undertaking as the complete subjugation of the
powerful Irish chieftain, desired peace, with biro at almost any
price; capedaUy when the da/asutioo of his territory by
Sussex brought him no nearer to submission. Siissex, indignant
at Shane's request for his sister's hand in marriage, and his
demand for the withdrawal of the English garrison from Armagh,
was not supported by the queen, who sent the earl of Kildare to
arrange terms with O'Neill, The latter, making some trifling
concessions, consented to present himself before Elizabeth*
Accompanied by Ormonde and Kildare he reached London on
the 4th of January 1562. Camden describes the wonder with
which O'Neill's wild gallowglasses were seeq in the English
capital, with their heads bare, their loQg hair falling over their
shoulders and clipped short in front above the eyes, and clothed
in rough yellow shiru. Elisabeth was lesa concerned with the
tespcctive claims of Brian and Shane, the one resting on an
English patent and the other on the Celtic custom, than with
the question of policy involved in supporting or rejecting the
demands of her proud suppliant. Characteristically, she tem-
porized; but finding that O'Neill waA in danger of becoming a
tool in the hands of Spanish intriguers, she permitted him to
return to Ireland, recognizing him as " the O'Neill," and chieftain
of Tyrone; though a reservation was made of the rights ol Hugh
O'Neill, who had meantime succeeded his brother Brian as baron
of Dunganaon, Brian having been murdered in April 156s by
his kinsman Tuilough Luineach O'NeiU.
There were at this time three powerful contempoeary members
of the O'Neill family in Ireland-^Shane, Turlough and Hugh,
and earl of Tyrone. Turlough had been elcctfcd tanist (see
Tanistky) when his cousin Shane was inaugurated the O'Neill,
and he schemed, to supplant him io the higher dignity during
Shane's afaelence in London. The feud did not long survive
Shane's return to Ireland, where he quickly re-established his
authority, and in spite of Sussex renewed his tuibolent tribal
warfare against the O'DonneUs and others. Elizabeth at last
authorized Sussex to take the field against Shane, but two
several expeditions failed to accomplish anything except some
depredation in O'Neill's country. Sussex had tried in 1561
to procure Shane's assassination, and Shane now laid the whole
blame for his lawless conduct on the lord deputy's repeated
alleged attempts on bis life. Force having ignominiously failed,
Elizabeth consented to treat, and hostilities were stopped on
terms that gave O'NeUl practically the whole of his demands.
O'Neill now turned his hand against the MacDonnells, claiming
that he waa serving the queen of England in harrying the Scots.
He fought an indecisive battle with Sorley Boy MacDonneli near
Coleraine in 1564, and the following year marched from Antrim
through the mountains by Clogh to the neighbourhood of
BallycastTe, where he routed the MacDonnells and took Sorley
Boy prisoner. This victory greatly strengthened Shane O'NeilPs
position, and Sir Henry Sidney, who became lord deputy in
1566, dedared to the earl ol Leicester that Lucifer himself
was not more puffed up with pride and ambition than O'Neill.
Preparations were made in earnest for his subjugation. O'Neill
lavagcd the Pale, failed in an attempt on Dundalk, made a
truce with the MacDonnells, and sought help front the earl of
Desmond. The English, on the other hand, invaded Donegal
and re>t0f«d O'Donnell. PaOing in an attempt to arrange
terms, and also in obtaining the help wbkh he solidted from
France, O^Neill was utterly routed by tfie O'DonneUs at Letter^
kenny; and seeking safety in flight, he threw himself on the
mercy of hiis eaerolcs, the MacDonnells. Attended by a small
body of gallowglasses, and taking hfi prisoner Sorley Boy with
109
him, he presented himsell among the MacDonnells near Cushen>
dun, on the Antrim coasL Here, on the and of June 1567,
whether by premeditated treacheiy or in a sudden brawl is
uncertain, he was slain by the MacDonnells, and was buried
at Glenahn. In his private character Shane O'Neill was a brutal,
uneducated savage. He divorced his first wife, a daughter of
James MacDonneli, and treated his second, a sister of Calvagh
O'Donnell, with gross cruelty in revenge for her brother's
hostility; Calvagh himadf, when Shane's prisoner, he subjected
to continual torture; and Calvagh's wife, whom he made his
mistress, and by whom he had several children, endured iU-osage
at the hands of her drunken captor, «1io is said to have married
her in 1565.
Turlough Luineach O'Neill (e. 1550-1595), earl of Clan-
connell, was inaugurated chief of Tyrone on Shane's death.
Making professk>ns of loyalty to the queen of England, he sought
to strengthen his position by alliance with the O'DonneUs,
MacDonnells and MacQuillans. But his conduct giving nm
to suspicions, an expedition under the earl of Essex was sent
against him, which met with such doubtful success that in 1575
a treaty was arranged by which O'Neill reodved extensive granu
of lands and permission to emphqr three hundred Scottish mcrcen*
aries. In 1578 he was created baron of Clogher and earl of
Clanooonell for life; but on the outbreak of rebellion in Munster
his attitude again became menacing, and for the next few years
he continued to intrigue against the English authorities. The
latter, as a counterpoise to Turlough, supported his cousin
Hugh, brother of Brian, whom Turlough had murdered. After
several years of rivalry and much fighting between the two
relatives, Turlough resigned the headship of the dan in favour
of Hugh,, who mfa inaugurated O'NeiU in 1593. TUrlough died
in 1595.
Hugh O'Neill (c, 1540-16x6), and earl (known as the great
earl) of Tyrone, was the second son of Matthew, reputed
illegitimate son of Conn, xst eari of Tyrone.' He succeeded
hu brother, Brian, when the latter was murdered by TUrlough
in 1 563, as b^rott of Dangannon. He was brought up in London,
but returned to Ireland in 1567 after the death of Shane, under
the protection of Sir Henry Sidney. He served with the English
against Desmond in Munster* in 1580, and assisted Sir John
Perrot against the Scots of Ulster in 1584. In the following
year he was allowed to attend parUament as earl of Tyrone,
though Omn's title had been for life only, and had not been
assumed by Brian. Hugh's constant disputes with Turlough
were fomented by the English with a view to weakening the power
of the O'NeiUs, but after Hugh's inauguration as the O'NeiU on
Turldugh's resignation in 1593, he was left without a rival in-
the north. His career was marked by unceasing duplidty, at
one time giving evidence of submission to the English authorities,
at another intriguing against them in conjunction with lesser
Irish chieftains. Having roused the ire of Sir Henry Bagnsl
(or Bagenal) by doping with his sister in 1 591, he afterwards
assisted him in defeating Hugh Maguire at BcUeck in 1593;
and then again went into opposition and sought aid from Spain
and Scotland. Sir John Norris was accordingly ordered to Ireland
with a considerable force to subdue him in 1595, but Tyrone
succeeded in taking the Blackwater Fort and Sligo Castle
before Norris was prepared; and he was thereupon proclaimed
a traitor of Dundalk. In spite of the traditional enmity between
the O'Neills and the O'DonneUs, Tyrone allied himsdf with
Hugh Roe O'Donndl, nephew of Shane's former enemy Calvagh
O'DonneU, and the two chieftains opened communications
with Philip II. of Spain, their letters to whom were intercepted
by the viceroy. Sir William RusseU. They put themselves
forward at the champbns of the Catholic religion, claiming
liberty of consdence as weU as potitical Uberty for the native
inhabitants of Inland. In April 1596 Tyrone received promises
of help from Spain. This incmsed his anxiety to temporize,
which he did with signal success for more than two yean, making
* The grave doubt as to the paternitv of Matthew iavolved a doubt
whether the ifrcat eari of Tyrone and his equally famous nephew
Owen Roe had in fact any O'NdU blood in their veins.
tie
from time to time as circamstances* required, profcisions of
loyaity which deceived Sir John Norris and the earl of Ormonde.
In isqS a tessation of hostilities was arranged, and a formal
pardon granted to Tyrone by Elizabeth. Within two months
he was again in the field* and on the X4ih of August he destroyed
an Engktsh force under Bagnal at the Yellow Ford on the Black*
water. If the earl had known how to profit by this victory,
he might now have successfully withstood the EngHsh powfcr
in Ireland; for in every part of Ireland~^nd especially in the
south, where James Filzthomas Fitzgcraid with O'Neill^s support
was aaterting his claim to the earldom of Desmond at the head
of a formid^e army of Geraldine cIansmen-~dncontent broke
into flame. But Tyrone, who possessed but Utile generalship,
prociaatinaLed until the goldoi opportunity was lost. Eight
months after the battle of the Yellow Ford, the earl of Encx
landed in Ireland to find that Tyrone had done nothing in
the interval to improve his position. Acting on the queen's
explicit instructions, Essex, after tome ill>managcd operations,
had a meeting with Tsrrone at a ford on the Lagan on th 7th
of September 1590, when a truce was arranged; but EKxabeth
was displeased by the favourable conditions allowed to the
O'Neill and by Essex's treatment of him as an equal. Tyione
continued to concert measures with the Irish kadere in Munster,
and issued a manifesto to the Catholics of Ireland summoning
them to join bis standard; protesting that the interests of religion
were his first care. After an inconclusive campaign in Munster
in January 1600, he returned In haste to Donegal, where he
received , supplies from Spain and a token of encouragement
from Pope Clement VIII. In May of the same year Sir Henry
Docwra, at the head of a considerable army, took up a position
at Derry, while Mount joy marched from Westmeath to Newry
to support him, compelling O'NeUl to retire to Armagh, a large
reward having been offered for his capture alive or dead.
^ The appearance of a Spanbh force at Kinsale drew Mount joy
to Munster in 1601; Tyrone followed him, and at Bandon joined
forces with O'Donnell and with the Spaniards under Don John
D'Aquila. The attack of these allies on the English completely
failed. O'DonneU went to Spain, where he died soon afterwards,
and Tyrone with a shattered force made his way once more to
the north, where he renewed his policy of Ostensibly seeking
pardon while warily evading his enemies. Early in x6oj ElixabeCh
instructed Mountjoy to open negotiations with the rebelUous
chieftains; and in April, Tyrone. In ignoranceof Elizabeth's death,
made his submission to Mountjoy. In Dublin, whither he
proceeded with Mountjoy, he heard of the accession of King
James, at whose court he presented himself in June accompanied
by Rory O'DonneU, who had become chief of the O'Donnells
after the departure of his brother Hugh Roc. The English
courtiers were greatly incensed at the gracious reception accorded
to these notable rebels by King James; but although Tjrrone
was confirmed in his title and estates, he had no sooner returned
to Ireland than he again engaged in dispute with the government
concerning his rights over certain of his feudatories, of whom
Doonal O'Cahan was the most important* This dispute dfagged
on tiU 1607, when Tyrone arranged to go to Imtdon to aubmit
the matter to the king. Warned, however, that his arrest was
imminent, and possibly petsuaded by Rory O'DonneU (created
earl of Tyrconnd in 1603), whose relations with Spain had eQ«>
dangered his own safety, Tyrone resolved to fly from the country.
" The flight of the carls," one of the most celebrated episodes
in Irish history, occurred on the 14th of September 1609, whet
Tyrone and Tyrconnel embarked at midnight at RathrouHen
on Lough SwUIy, with their wiveSk famiUes^ and retainers,
numbering ninety-nine persons, and AUed for Spain. Driven by
contrary winds to Uke shelter in the Seine, the refugees passed
the winter in the Netherlands, and in April lOoS proceeded to
Rome, where they were welcomed and hospitably entcrtaiMd by
Pope Paul v., and where Tyrconnel died the samte year. In 1613
Tyrone was outlawed and attainted by the Irish parliament, «fi4
he died in Rdme on the 30th of July 1616. He was four times
married, and had a large number both of legitimate and illcgi-
tSmate children.
O'NEILL (FAMILY)
Sit PffELm O'NEitt (e. 1603-1653), a kinsman and younger
contemporary of the earl of Tyrone, tobk a prominent part in the
rebellion of 1641. In that year he was elected member of the
Irish parliament for Dungannon, and joined the cart of Antrim
and other lords in concerting measures for supporting Charles L
in his struggle with the parliament. On the zsnd of October
1641 he surprised and captured Charlemont Castle; and having
been chosen connnander-in-chief of the Irfeh forces in the north,
he foiled and issued a pretended commission from Charics £
sanctioning his proceedings. PheUm -and his followers coro*
mitted much depredation in Vbter on the pretext of reducing
the Scots; and he attempted without success to lake Drogbcda,
being compelled by Ormonde to raise the siege in April 1641.
He was responsible for many of the barbarities committed by the
CatholKS during the rebellion.* During the summer hb fortunes
ebbed, and he was soon superseded by his kinsman Owen Roe
O'Neill, who returned from mOitary service abroad at the end
of July.
OwBN Ros O'NntL (0. 1 590-1649). one of the most edebrated
of the O'Neills, the subject of the wefl-known ballad " The
Lament for Owen Roe/* was the son of Art O'Neill, a younger
brother of Hugh, and earl of Tyrone. Having served with
distinction for many years in the Spanish army, he was im-
mediately recognised on his return to Ireland as the leading
representative of the O'NolM. PhcUm resigned the northern
conmvmd in his favour, and escorted him from Lough Swilly to
Charlemont. But jealousy between the kfnsmen was com-
plicated by differences between Owen Roe and the Catholic
council which met at Kilkenny in October 1649. Owen Roe
professed to he acting in the interest of Charfcs I.; but his real
aim was the complete bidepemience of Ireland, while the Anglo-
Norroan Catholics represented by the council desired to secure
religious Uberty and an Irish constitution under the crown of
England. Although Owen Roe O'NeUl possessed the qualities
of a general, the struggle dragged on inconchxivdy for three or
four years. In March 1646 a cessation of hostilities was arranged
between Ormonde and the Catholics; and O'Neill, furnished
with supplies by the papal- nuncio, Rinucdni, turned against the
Scottish parliamentary annyui»der General Monro, who had been
operating with fluctuatmg sncccss in Ireland since April 1643. On
the 5th of June 1646 O'NeiU utterly routed Monro at Benbiirb, on
the Blackwater; h\xU being summoned to the booth by Rinucctni,
he failed to taloe advantage of the victory, and suffered Monro
to remain unmolested at Ca^rickfergus. For Che next two jreart
confusion reigned supreme among the numerous factions in
Ireland. O'NeUl supporting the party led fay lUnucciin, though
contiiHiing to profess byalty to Ormonde as the king of England 'a
representative. Isolated by the dcpartufo of the papal nuncio
from Ireland in February i640t he inade overtures for alliaooe to
Ormonde, and afterwards with succcas to Monck, who had
ftuperieded Monro in command of the parliamentarians in the
north. O'Neill's chief need was aupplies for his forces, and failing
to obtain them from Monck he turned: once more to Ormonde
and the CathoUc ccnfedfcratea, with whom he prepared to
co-operate more earnestly when Cromwell's arrival in Ireland
in August 1649 brought the Catholic party face to ftoe with
serious danger. Before, however, anything was accomplished
by this oombination» Otten Roe died on the 6th of November
1649.
The aUlance between Owen RoetiMl Ormonde had been opposed
by Phelim O'N^Ul, who after his kinsman's death eipected to be
restored to his former potttion of oomraand. In thb he was
disappointed; but he contimied to fight against the parUamcn*
tarians tUI August &65a, when a rewtid was offered for hit
apprehension. BtXnyd by a kinsman whUe hidmg in Tyrone,
he was tri^ for high treason in Dublin, and executed on the
loth of March 1652. Phelim married a daughter of the marquis
of Htmtly, by whsqi be had a son Gordon O'Neill, who was
niemher of jparliamvnt for Tyrone in 1689; fought iv the king
at the siege of Derry and, at the battles of Aughrim and the
«See W. B. H. Ukky. Bist. ef htUnd m f Jke Bt^kktwtk Cntvy, L
6$^ (Cabinet «dU«>n,.5^ vols,, IfOMloni i«9a><
; CVNJSJLLv E-r-ONEONTA
Bpyne; am) ftfierwards oommandad an Infh fegiqieat in the
French tcrvice, aod died in x 7^4*
Dahixl O'Nsiu. (c. i6i?^i664>, ion of Conn MacNeill
MacFagartach O'Neill, a mei^iber oi the Claoaboy branch U
the family, whose wife was a sister of Owen Roe, was prominent
in the Civil Wars. He speat mtich ol his early life at the court
of Charles I., and became a Protestant. He commanded a troop
of horse in Scotland in 1639; was.involved in army plots in 1641,
for which he was committed to the Tower, but escaped abroad;
and on the outbreak ol the Civil Waf returned to England and
served with Prince Rupert, being present at Marston Moor, the
second battle of Newbury and Nascby. He then went to
Ireland to negotiate between Ormonde and his unde, Owen
Roe O'NeilL He was made a major*general in 1640, and but for
his Protestantism wotild have succeeded Owen Roe as chief of
the 0*Neills. He joined Charles 11. at the Hague, and took part
in the expedition to Scotland and the Scotch invasion of England
in 165a. At the Restoration he leceived many marks of favour
from the king, indudbig grants of hmd and hicrative monopolies.
He died in 1664.
Hugh O'Neill (d. c. 1660'), son of Owen Roe's brother Art
Oge, and therefore known as Hugh Mac Art, had served with
some distinction In Spain before he accompanied his uncle,
Owen Roe. to Ireland in 1647. In 1646 he was made a major-
general of the forces commsioded by Owen Roc; and after the
death of the latter be successful^ defended Clonmd in 1650
against Cromwell, on whom be inflicted the lattcr's most severe
defeat in Ireland. In the following year he so stubbornly
resisted Ireton's attack on Limerick that he was excepted from
the benefit of the capitulation, and, after being condemned to
death and reprieved^ uras sent as a prisoner to the Tower of
London. Released iA 1651 on the reprcsenUtionnf the Spanish
ambassador that O'Neill was a Spanish subject, be n^palrrd to
Spain, whence he. wrote to Charles IL in 1660 claiming the
earklom of Tyrone. He probably died in Spain, but the date of
his death h unknown.
TheClanahoy (or CUndeboye) branch of the O'Neals descended
from the andcnt kings through Neill Mor O'Neill, lord of
Clanaboy in the time of Henry VIII., ancestor (as mentioned
above) of the Portuguese O'Neills. Neill Mbr's great-great-
grandson, Henry O'Neill, was created baronet ol lUlleleagh in
1666. His son, Sir NeiU O'Neill fought fbr James II. in Ireland,
and died of wounds received at the bat tie of the Boyne. Throogh
an dder line from Neill Mor was descended Brian Mac Phelim
O'Ndll, who was treacberoody seised in 1573 by the earl of
Essex, whom he was hospitably entertaining, and executed
together with his wife and brother, some two hundred of his dan
bang at the same time massacred by the orders of Ebsex. (See
Es8c;c, Waltex Devereux, iU earl of.) Sir Brian Mac Phetim's
son. Shane Mac Brian O'Neill, was the last lord of Clanaboy, and
(nm him the family castle of Edehduffcarrick, on the shore of
Lough Neagh in Co. Antrim, was named Shane's Castle. He
joined the rcbdiion oC his kinsman Hugh, earl of Tyrone, but
submitted in 1586.
In the i8th century the commanding Importtace of the
O'NdUs in Irish history had come to an end* But John O'Neill
(174^x798), who rcprescoied Randalstown in the Irish parlia*
mcnt i76i>x783, and the county of Antrim from the lattei ycu
till bis death, took an active paJrt in debate on the popularside,
bdng a strong supporter of Catholic ^mandpation. He was
one of the delegates in 1789 from the lush pariiameat lo George,
prince of Wales, requesting him to assume the re0ency as a
matter oX right. |n 1 7^ he was raised to the peerage of Irdand
as Baron O'Neill of Shane's Castle, a^ in 179$ was created a
viscount. In decoding the Ipwa 43i Antrim agamst the rebels
in 1798 O'Neill received wounds from which he died 00 the 1 8th
of Jone, being succeeded as Viscount O'Ndll by his;son Charles
Henry St John (v.779~x84i), who in 1800 was oetted Eari
CNdll. Dying unmarried, when the earklom therefore became
exiioa, Charles waasucoeeded aa Viscount O'Neill by his.broihcr
John Bruce Richard (i7/^i8ss)* * genonl in the British army:
on wh^if death wii^out issue in 1635 ^ flMleUne in the Uniifd
III
Kingdom became extinct. .The estates then - tlofrolvedi • -on
William Chichester, great-grandson of Arthur Chichester and
bis wife Maxy, only child and heiress of Henry (d. 173X), ddest
son of John O'Neill of Shane's Castle.
William Chichesteji (1813-X883), ist Baron O'Neill, n
deigyman, on succeeding to the estates as hdr-general, assumed,
by loyal licence the surname and arms of O'Neill; and in i863
was created Baron O'Neill of Shane% Castle. On his death in
1883 he was succeeded by his son Edward, snd Baron O'Neill
(b. 1839), who was member ol parliament lor Co, Antrim
x665'i88o, and who married in 1873 Louisa, daughter of thi
nth earl of Duxyionald.
For itic fib.['-o "^ tht fiodent Irith Uting* <4 ihc Hy NeiH see;
The Book ffj U'rr.iu-r, tniited with icnf'*ciufi5on hy R. Atkinson
(Royal In-h A.nkrTif. DubUii^ jSHd); TAe AnttiUs iff L-i.-.ser, edited
by W. M. Hi7n*vf r,^% .^rid B. MacCsirthv U vols., DuWtn. i*iJ7-i90i);
Tht Aniuiii t^ Lfilh d, ediu^l by W^ M^ Henn^^^y {k,M Series,
London, l&^il- C'^r liir liiw a#rif!id ^*: K \^' - —
History oj j
Irdand (2
London, iB/ih for (I1? Uttr period «et: P. W^ Jr^yct^i A Skari
»/ Jr<h^ (Lfifldoa, iflqjj, and A S«uti Iiij.kiry L^XncMfil
[7 ■ ' \ ' njrjn, <^3h Thi Artnah $f lTiiaT\d ly Ae Poitr
if asters, t I O'Dono^^n {7 VMta., DuWia. 1^51): Sir J. Tl
Gilbert. ^ Vutrttyi pf irti4 nJ f Dublin, 186^), aiid, espcd^
ally for (X-. . v ^ ij .Seill. Cmtcm^mry thitaty oJAihi^i vn Jrttandt
id^J-tCS^' Uri^h Arthneoi* Soc., 3 volsv. DuLlin. iKjgh :!l^^OJ^«tonr
of Oti Iri'.h Cvnftdfr^liBn and Otr War im hd^itd fDaMin, """* "
^i-j); Richard B^i^wcrLI. Irefund vndrr thi 7udi>t9, with am
Account c/ ;",r Ejfhcr nh:i^fy [3 voT^ . l.^.in.i..n, Iflj^fi-l^l J. F.
Taylor, C^^a *«.-- -^^ J.u..« jL ... .lioa^ lai^M, j^^n MiichclU ttfo^nd
Times of Hutk, Earl of Tyrone, with an Account of his Predecessors,
Account ej
Taylor. C^,
Times of ttuth. Earl oJ Tyrone, wilk an Account of his Fredecessors,
Con, Shane, Turtougk (Dyblin. 1846); L. O'Clery. L<f« of Hutk Roe
0'J>oHneU (Dublin, 1893); For the O'Neilh of the i8th ceatury,
and cspeoislly the ist VMcouat O'Neill, see The Chaekmmt Papons
and F. Hardy. Memoirs of J. Cafdfield, EaH of Charlemonl {a vob^
London. 1 8 12). The (TNeiUs of Ulster: Their History and Cenealofy,
by Thonus Mathews (t vols., Dabtin, 1907). an ill-arranged and un-
critical work, has little hbtorical value, but eonuins a mass Of
tradttiooal and leoendary tore, and a number of traaslatkns of ancient
poems, and genealogical tables of doubtful authority. (R. J . M.) ■
O'NEILL, ELIZA (i 791-1872), Irish actress, was the daughter
of an actor and ataige maaager. Her first appearance on the
stacs was nmdit at the Crow Street theatrain iBii aa the Widow
Chi^rly in Tka Soldiers Dauihitr^ and after several years in
Irdand she cane to London and made an immediate succcia
as Juliet at Covent Garden in 1814* For five years she was
the favourite of the town in oomody as well as tragedy, but in
the latter she partkiUarly excdled, being frei|ucntly compared,
not lo her disadvantage, with Mrs Siddons. In 1 819 she married
William Wriaon Bochcr, an Irish MJ^. wiw was created a
baronet in 1&31. She never vetumed to the alage; and died on
the aoth of October 187a.
ONEONTA. a city in the township of the tame name, in the
•oulh-central part of Otsego county. New York, U^S^m on the
N. side of the Susquehanna river, about 83 m. SiW. of Albany.
Pop. (1880) 300a, (1890) 6s7a, (1900) 7X47i of whim 456 vere
foreign-bom, (19x0, tJ.S. census) 9491. The city Hes about
tioo fL above iea-level. It is served by the Ubter & Dekwarcv
by the Susimchatma division of the Delaware 81 Hudson, and by
the Onc9ata & Mohawk Valley (electric) railways. In OneonU
are a state ntnnal school (1889), a sute armoury, and the
AureUa Fox Memorial HospitaL The city is situated in a good
agricukural region. The principal manuifactnres are machine*
shop products (the Delaware 8c Hudson has repair and macfaiac
shops at Oneonta), knit goods, silk goods, lumber and planhig
miU producu, kc. The first aettlcAent was made aboot X78a
The township was erected in 1830 from parts of Milford and
Otego. Oneonla was known aa Milfordville until 1830, when
it receive its present name. It was first incorporated as a
viUage in 1848, and was chartered aaa dty in 1906, the charter
coming into effect on the tst of January 1909. The name
"Oneonta" is derived from Onahreoton or OnarenU, the
Indian name Of a creek flowing through the city.
S«v Ed«;* F. Beeen. Otsefo CounH. V.Y. (Oneonla. loo»): and
Dudley M. CampbeU. A History of Oneonla (Oneoota, I906>.
"4
ONTARIO
«p, la tlie Rainy river valky* M^r ^^ TMnitai Aing and etewhere,
•nd minet of various kinds were discovered, as the Canadian Paci5c
nilway and ita branches extended through the region, and at length
the finding of very rich silver mines attracted world*wide attention
to northern Omarkx In the better explored outs along the great
lakes and the railways, ores of gold, silver, nitkel, cobalt, antimooy.
arsenic, bismuth and molybdenum have been obtained, and several
important mines have been opened up. Gold has been found at
many points across .the whole province, from the mines of the Lake-
of -the'V/oods oo the west to tne diaooveries at Larder Lake on the
east; but, in most cases the returns have been unsatisfactory, and
only a few of the gold mines are working. Silver mines have proved
of far greater importance, in oarly days near Thunder Bay on Lake
Superior, more recently in the oooalt region near Lake Temtscaming
on the east side of the province Silver Islet mine in Lake Superior
produced in all $3^50.000 worth of silvv. but this record will ^no
doubt be surpassed by some of the mines in the extraordinarily rich
cobalt district. The Veins are small, but contain native silver and
other rich silver ores running sometimes several thousnd oonces
per ton, the output beii^ ■{,500.000 oa. in 1906. Associated with
the silver minerals are ncn ores of cobalt and nickel, combined
with arsenic, antimony and sulphur, which would be considered
valuable if occurring alone, but are not paid for under present
conditions, since they are- difficult to separate and refine. The
cobalt silver ores are found mainly in Huionian conglomerate, but
idso in older Kecwatin rocks and younger diabase, and the silver-
bearing region, which at first included only a few souare miles, is
found to extend 25 m. to the west and as much to the north. Up
to the present the moat imp6rtant mineral product of Ontario is
mckcl, which is mined only in the ndgbbourhood ci Sudbury,
where the ores occur in very large d«>osits, which in 190S produced
9503 tons, more than half ol the worid*s supply of the metal. With
tfie nickel copper is always found, and copper ores are worked on
their own account in a few localities, such as Bruce mines. Iron
ores have been discovered in many places in oonnexioa with the
" iron fornaation " of the Keewatin, but nowhere in amounts com*
^rablc with those of the same formation in Michigan and Minnesota.
The total mineral output of Ontario, including building materials
and cement, is lareer than that of any other province of the dominion,
and as more careful exploration » carried on in the northern parts,
no doubt nuiny more deposita of value will be discovered. It has
been found that northern Ontario beyond the divide between the
Great Lakes and Hudson Bay possesses many millions of acres of
arable land, dav deposits in a post-gladal bke, like those in the
southern part of^the province, ranning from east to west from Lake
Abitibbi to a point north of Lake Nipigon. Railways are opening
up this tract. The day belt is in latitudes south of Winnipeg,
frith a good summer dimate but ooM winters* The spruce timber
covering much of the area U of great value, com p ensating for the
laboar of dearing the land.
Lakes and Xsmtl^AU paxta of Ontario are well provfcled with
lakes and rivers, the most important chain being that of the St
Lawrence and the Great Lakes with their tributaries, which drain
the more populous southern districts, and, with the aSd of canals,
famish communication by fairiy laree vessds between the k>wcr St
Lawrence and the Lake Superior. Lake Nipigon, a beautiful body
of water 851 ft. above the sea, 70 m. long and 50 m. wide, may be
kx>lced upon as the headwaters of the St Lawrence, nnce Nipigon
river is tne largest tributary of Lake Superior, though 8e\eial otner
impo/tant rivers, such as the Kaministiquia, the Pfc: and the Michi*
pfcoteo, enter it from the north. All these riven have high falb
not far from Lake Superior, and Kakebeka Falls on the Kamin-
istiquia supplies power to the twin dties of Port WiUiam and Port
Arthur, while the deep water of iu mouth makes the great shipping
Crt for western wheat during the summer. The north shore 01
ke Superior is bold and rugged with many islands, such as Ignace
and Michipksoten, but with very few settlements, except iuhing
stations, owing to its rocky character. At the south-eastern end St
Mary's river carries its waters to Lake Huron, with a fall of 609 to
gi ft., most of which takes place at Sault Sainte Marie, where the
gest locks in the woHd pciinit vessels of 10,000 tons to pasa from
one Uke to the other, and where water-power has been greatly
developed for use in the rolling mills and wood pulp industnr. The
north-east shores of Lake Huron and its large expansion Georgian
Bay are fringed with thousanda of islands, niastly small, but one of
them, Manitoalin Island, b 80 m. long and 30 m. broad. Ffench
river, the outlet of Lake Nipissing, and Severn river, dnininf Lake
Simcoe, come into Georgian Bay from the east, and can^s have
been projected to connect Lake Huron with the St Lawrence by
each of tbeae routes, the nor t hern one to make use of the Otuwa
and the touthcm one of Trent river. The Trent Valley canal is
partly in operation. Georgian Bay beat off from the main lake by
Maratoulin Island and the long promontory of Bruoe Peninsula.
Lakes Superior and Huron both reach depdia huiulreds of feet
below sea-level, but the next bhe in the seciea, St Clair, towards
which Lake Huron drains southward thitmgh St Clair river, b very
shalkiw and marshy. Detroit river connecu Lake St Cbir with
Late Erie at an elevation of 570 ft. ; and thb comparatively shallow
btce, running for 340 m. ea»t' and west, empties northwards by
Ntagsfm-cfver into Late Ontario, whkh boniy 347 it. above tteaea. i
Niagnta FaHa. with n^ida abent iai balow. eany tte wiMrn of
the upper bkes over the Niagara escarpment. Power from tbe
falU b put to use in New York iitate and Onurio, a Urge amo«int
being sent to Toronto 80 m. away. Wellaiid canal, between Port
Colbornc on Late Erie and Dalhousie on Late Onurio. carries
vessels of la ft. draught from one late to the other. From Late
Ontario the St Lawrence emerges throozh tte^mc^wa of tte Thoosand
Islands, where It crosao* .Archaean rocks, after which follow aex'cral
rapids separated by qaicter stretches before Montreal is reached at
the head of ocean navigacton4 Steamers not of too great draught
can run tte rapids going down, but vcsaeb must come up through
the canals. All the other rivers in southern Ontario are tributarte«
of the bkes or of the St Lawrence, tte Otuwa. navigable in many
parts, being the brgest, and tte Trent next in importance. In
northern Ontario bkes are innumeraMe and often very piauresqur,
forming favourite summer rcsoits, such as Lake Temagami, the
Musteka Lakes and LakcK>f-tte-Woods. Tte bttcr ute with
Rainy Late and other connected bodies of water bdong to tte
sol' these
rivers b navigable except for canoea.
Climate. — ^The dimate of Ontario varies greatly, as might te
expected from its wide range in btitude and the rebtionships of tte
Great Lakes to tte touttem peninsola of tte province. The norttem
parts as far south as tte north shore of Late Superior te\T long and
cold but bright winters, somctimo with tempcatwna UBiclriaK 50* F.
telow zero; while their summers are ddightful, with much »^ipfthtnt
and some hot days but pleasantly cool nights. Between Georetaa
Bay and Otuwa tte wintere are less cold, but usoally with a plentiful
snowfall; whik tte aummen are warm and sometiroes even hot.
Tte south-wctt peninsub of Ontario has its dimate greatly modified
by tte bkes which almost enclose it. As the bkes never freeac,
the prevalent cold north-west winds of North America are warmed
in tlieir passage over them, and often much of the winter precipiu-
tion b in tte form of rain, so ttet tte weather has much kamccnaimy
than in tte north. Tte sionmers are often sultry, though tte
pn^encc of tte bkes prevents tte intense heat experienced m tte
sutes to tte west and south. Owing to tte mildness of Us winters,
tte south-west peninsub b a famous fruit country with many xnne-
yards and orchards of apples, plums and peacftes. Indbn com
(roaiae) b an imporunt nekl crop, and tobacco b cultivated on a
brgc scale. Small fruits and tomatoes are widely grown for tte dty
markets and for canning, eivine rise to an imporUnt industry.
Tte' normal temperatures (FahrT) for three poims in the soutn-
westem, eastern and narth*westcrn portioas are given betow>~
Toronto.
Otuwa.
Port.
Arthur.
December, January and February .
March. Apnl and May . . .
June, July and August
September, October and November
33-944
31-650
»3-5«o
CA. P. C.)
Population.— 'TYut following uble afaows the popubtion of tte
provmoe: —
1881.
I89f.
1901.
' Towns and vilbges .
atics . . , . .
257.111
1,283,281
432.9*2
398.138
1,247.190
( 935.757
i.9a6,9ai
2.ii4.3ai
».»«».947
* The name gixtin to tte rural munidpalities.
*Any town in Canada can become incorporated as a dty on
atUining a popubtion of 10,000.
Ontario fa thoa pre^mtneatly an agricultural ptovince, though
the growth ol mamifaftuiet has inciteaied the fmpoitaaoe of the
towna and dtles, and many of tte farmers are seekingiiew homes
in the provhioes of Manitoba, Alberta and Sukntchewaa. Thb
emigration aoeouats in bige measure for tte dowiacrsate <rf tte
popuiatioQ, thoQi^ theie has also been a slight dcotase la tte
bhth^nite. The popufaUioB was loog cntli^ oaafined to tte
southern and cnstetn sections of tte provinct, whkh onrnprba
an aica of about 33*000 sq. m.; but fai these districts it is aoar
staiboaiy or decnasinf , whereas tte aorthein and western
portions are iSBag up rq^y. ToraBto, tte profJadal capital,
has grown Iron 59.000 in 1671 to about 300,000^ partly through
tte abaocptloD of neigbbouiing towns and ^nlbgea. Otter
ONTARIO
"5
inportant dtlct an Otuwa (tb» capital of the BoniaioD)
(S9<9a8 ia tqoty, HanUtOB (53/^34), Loadoa (37i9B<)r Kiacttoo
(17,961). Thaimiaberof auktaligkiUyeioeedBUiatof fcniaks.
The pQpBhtfcm is diie^x of British desceat, though in the
eastern counties ouacrous Fieach Canartisna are floddng in
from Qnebecaadta some instances by puichase of fanusiepbidng
the British. Thtn are also aboot so,ooo Indians, many of
witom are dviliaed, enjoy the franchise and are enraled in the
Doainioo militia. There is no state Chttrch,though hnildingi
devoted to religious purposes are almost wholly exempt from
municipal taxation. The Methodists are, numerically, the
stion«Nt religious body, then come Pre^yterians, Roman
Ca t holics and AngUcaas, in the order named.
AdmimstMlmt.'^Tht executive power is vested hi a lieutenant*
govcnor appointed for five years by the federal government,
and asitsted by an executive council, who have seats in and are
responsible to the local legislatttre. This consists of one house only,
of 106 members, elected by what is practically manhood suffrage.
The municipal system still embodies the spfait and paipose of
the Bsldwin Municipal Act which originated it hi 1849. Tlwugh
based rather on the sfanple English model than on the more
eompiicated municipal governments of the United States, it
has certain features of its own, and is revised frem year to year.
On it have been modelled the municipal systems of the other
pfovinces. Municipal ownenhip does not prevail to any extent,
aad in the larger dties the powers of certain great oorpontions
have tended to cause friction, but such matters as the provision
•f electric power and fight are gradual^ bemg taken in hand both
by the municipalities and by the province, and a ndlway aad
munldpsi board appointed by the kcal legisbiture haa certain
powers over the railways and electric tramlines.
FnuMf.— By cbe Bntiab Nonh America Ad, wUch fonned ia
1867 the Dominbn of Canada, the proviaoet have the right of dUect
taxation only. Against this, however, a strong prejudioe exists,
and in Ontario the only direct taxation takes the form of taxes on
oorporarions (insurance, loan and raikmy compamcs), succession
dutwa, liqoar licenoca, See. These, toeethcr with retoraa from
various in vestmenls, earoinn of provindaT buildings, &c., yield about
one-third of the revenue. Another third comes from the Dominion
subsidy, granted in lieu Of the powei of Indirect taxation, and the
remaioder from the sale or lease of crown lands, timber and minerals.
Owing to the eaoeHence of the nninidpal system there hu been a
tendency to devolve thcfcon, in whole or in part, certain financial
burdens on the plea of decentralization. The miances of the province
have been well administered, and only in recent years has a debt
been incurred, chiefly owing to the construction of a provindal railway
to aid ia the development of the eertbem districts.
JSdacalisa.— As early as 1797 floo^ooo acres of crown lands were
■et apart for educational puigposes, and a wcll-organizcd system of
education now exists, which, since I876, has constituted a department
of the proviodal government. A laudable attempt has hern made
to keep the education department free from the vagaries and the
strife of party politics, and the advantages of political control have
been as much felt as its drawbacks. Since 1906 a superintendent has
been appointed with large DOii>-crs. independent of political control
and with the aasisunce of an . advisory council: attention is also
paid to the advice el the provincial Educational Aasodatioa, which
oieeta yearly at Toronto.
School attendance is compulsory between the ages of eight and
fourteen, and is enforced by truant officers. The primary or public
schools are free and -undenominational. They cannot, however, be
called secuhir. as they are opened and Hosed with the Lord's Prayer
end dosed with the mdinc of the BtUe. From these rriigious
exerrises any chikiien may absent themselves whose parents profess
oonxjentious objections. After a long and hit tcr sirugale the Roman
Catholics won In 1863 the rijsht to separate schools. These may be
set up in any district upon the request of not less than five heads of
familtesL The races levied on their supporters are devoted ewdusivdy
to the sciiarate schools, which also share pre rols in the lovemmem
grant. Although many Roman Catholic children attend the public
schools, the number oTseparate schools is, under the influence of the
priesthood, steadily increasing. Under certain conditions, Protest-
anu and coloufed psnoos may also dalm separate schools, but of
these only four or five esist. Nuaicrous kindergartens have been
caublished In the cities.
Secondary education is iropaited in high Khoob and cdlTegiate*
institutes. The» may exact fees or give free e ducation at the
• A high school is raised to the rank of collegiate institute on
complying with certain provisions, chief among vhirh are the ctn-
ployoient of at Imst four teechera with Degrees In Honoon from a
lecogiiiaed Canadian university. Such on institutioa receives a
slightly larger government grant.
oatian of the local trwrees. There are alsomamereus private schools.
Of these such as are incorporated are aided by exemption from
municipal taxadoo. In and around Toronto are nomerous boarding
schoob and colleges, of which those for boys are 00 the model 01
the great pobUc schools of Engbuid. Of these the most oelebcated
is Upper Canada College, founded in iSsg, and kmg part of the edu-
catiooal system of the province, but now uoder pnvate control.
. The provincial univeraity is situated in Toronto, and since 1906
has been governed by an independent board, over which a power of
veto n retained by the lieutenant-governor in coundL With the
afhliatod colleges, it had in 1908 a staff of 356. aad M45 students.
There are also nuonerous univcfsities throughout the province,
founded in eariy days by the various religious bodies. Of tbeee
Victoria (Methodist) and Trinity (Anglican) are in Toronto, and
have become federated with the provincial univenity, in which
they have merged their d cgie o c onfenriog powers. MacMaster
(Baptist) is also in Toronto, and retains ito independence., The
others are Queen'a Univernty, Kingston (Pkesbyteiian); the
Western UniverHty. London (AngUcao): and the univenity of
Otuwa (Roman Catholic). Women studenU are admitted to aU the
universities save Ottawa on the same terms as men, and form nearly
oiie<third of the whole number of students. Theologkal colleges are
supported i>y the various religious bodies, and are in affiliation with
one or other of the univernties.
The public and high schoola tend rather to foQow American
than British nsethods, though less freedom is allowed to the kxal
authorities than in most oTthe American states^ Only those text
books authorised by the central department may be uaed. Frre
text books may be issued at the discretion of the local authorities^
but in most cases are provided by parents. Evert school, public,
separate or high, shares in the proviodal grant, but tSe chief financial
burden falls on the local authorities.
Owine to the low rate of salaries, the percentage of women teachers,
reprrially in the public schools, is steadily increasing, and now
amounts in these to almost 83%. The same cause has also reduced
their age, and the tescben are m many cases exceedingly immature,
n-c. :_^.......- -r . _:_: aUarybyf * * *
The institution of a minimum salary by the provincial department
led to such resistanoe that it was withdrawn, but a distinct advance
in salaries has taken place since 1906. In the rural districts an
attempt is being made to increase esiciency by the consolidation of
small schools and the conveyanre of the children to one centrsl
attemoti
several Bu
The curriculum, originally modelled on that of England, is being
gradually modified by the necesrities of a new oountry. In addition
to the ordinary literary and scientific subjects, manual training,
doatMstic acienoe, sericulture and kindred subjects are taught in
the public and higa achooliu and in the btger towns technical
ittsti tutes are being founded. Many of the rural schools have pudena,
in which the elements of agriculture, botany and kindred subjects
are taught in a practical manner. TWiveiling libraries are sent
through the country districts, and an attempt ia being made ro
extend similar aid to the lumber^amps.
The training of lescfaen is carefully supervised. Numerous modd
and normal schools exist, and a well-«quipped normal college at
ToroMo. The smaller county modd schools nave, since 1906-1907,
been consolidated and oentreltsed in the larger towns.
At Guelph is the Ontario AgricultursI College, founded and en-
do»Td by the provindal goveroment, and grMtly enlarged and
improved by the generostty of Sir William MaodonsJd (U 1832}.
Its services in fxadng provincial agriculture on a scientific basis
cannot be ovcr-estlfnated. The government aho mainiains an
tnstiture for the deaf and dumb at BeUeviHe and for the blind at
Brantford. At Kingston it supporu a dairy school and a large
acbool of mining.
ilgricH//iu«.— About three»fifthB of the inhabitants areennged
in agricultural pursuits, and in 1910 the amount invested in lanas,
bttildings, implemenu and stock was double that in>«sied in the
manufactures of the whole Dominion. Neeriy all the farms are
worked by thdr ownen. and a simple and efficient system cl land'
transfer is In use. The fanning populatkm in the older parts of the
province tends to decline in numbers, owing to emigration, partly to
the towns, but especially to the newer lands of Manitoba and the west.
Yet, owing to the incrmsing use of scientific Implements and methods
promoted oy the federal and provincial governments, the toul value
of agricultural products increased by over So% between 1B81 and
leioi In general, the soil is fertile and the climate favourable.
The district north of the Height of Land, kmg supposed to be a
barren wiMerrtcss. haa proved in part suitable for agriculcure. and
is steadily i n cre a s ing in population. Mixed farming and the ni»ing
of live stock is becoming more and more the rule, so that the failure
of any one crop becomes of kss vital importance. The average farm
varies in sire from too ro soo acres. Wheat, barley, oats, peas,
potatoes and other roots are stsple crops, the average yield of wheat
being about 20 bushek an acre; cattle are increnvne in number aad
improving in Quality, and all branches of dairy farming prosper
Owing to tariff restrictions, the United States' market is bring
more and more abandoned, and im p r o ve m ents in cold storage are
making it possible ro e«non to Grmt Britain Incrmsingquaatitin
of butler and cheese. The collection of milk by the creemerie a and
cheaw-factortcs is carried on with gn^t efficiency. The number of
Ii6
ONTARIO
hones and sheep is stationary or docUhiag, but the raising of bogs,
formerly abandoned in great part to the western tUtes, is becoming
an increasing industry. Large Quantities of peas, com, tomatoes
and other vegetables are canned, chiefly for home consumption.
ThreeKiuarters of the orchard lands of Canada are in Onurio. the
chief crops beins; apples and peaches. The cultivation of the latter
centres in the fmnra peninsula, but apples flourish atong the great
lakes and the St Lawrence from Goderich to CornwalL In Essex
and Kent, and along the shore of Lake Erie, tobacco and gvapea
form a staple crop, and wine of fair quality » produced.
Lumber. — Slightly less than half remains of the forest which once
covered the whole province. The lumber industry exceeds that of
any other part of the Dominion, though Quebec poss es s es greater
timber areas untouched. The numerous lakes and rivers greatly
facilitate the bringing of the timber to market. All trees were long
little thought of in comparison with the pine, but of late years
poplar and spruce have proved of great value in the making of
paper pulp, and hard-wood (oak, beech, ash, elm, certain varieties
of maple) is becomif^ increasingly valuable for use in flooring and
the making of furniture. In the spring the making of syrup and
sugar from the sap of the sugar-maple is a typical industry.
Much splendid timber has been needlessly destroyed, chiefly by
forest-fires, but also by improvident farmers in their haste to clear
the land. Increased attention is now being paid by both provincial
and federal governments to preservation and to reforestation.
Special areas have been set apart on which no timber may be cut,
and on which the problems of scientific forestry may be studied.
Of these, the earliest was the Algonquin National Park, which also
forms a haven of refuge for the wild creatures.
Northern Ontario is stilt a valuable fur-bearing and hunting
country, moose, caribou, fox. bear, otter, mink and skunk being
found in large quantities. Wolves, once numerous, have now been
almost extirpated, though a bounty on each head is still paid,
SDOW^. save lur ucus ui iiKniic, vaiu w caisv hi tuc vxuvuiv Kvibii.
coal b not found and has to be imported, chiefly from the states of
Ohio and Pennsylvanb, though Nova Scotia furnishes an increasing
quantity. The production of iron is stimulated by federal and
provincial bounties. The province supplies over two-thirds of the
iron ore mined in the I>ominion, but much is still imfioncd. The
output of gold is decreasing. The nickel mines in the neighbourhood
of Sudbury are the largest In the world, outrivalling those of New
Caledonia. In the same district, and chiefly in connexion with the
nickel mines, large quantities of copper are produced. When in
1909 the rich silver area was found in northern Ontario, a rush was
made to it, comparable to those to the Australian and Californian
goldfields. Cobalt, the centre of this area, is 103 m. from North Bay
by the provincial railway (Temiscaming & North Ontario rulway).
In the same neighbourhood are found cobalt, arsenic and bismuth.
In the older districta of the province are found petroleum and salt.
The distria around Petrolea produces about 30.000,000 gallons of
petroleum yeariy, practically the whole output of the dominion.
Salt is worked in the vicinity of Lake Huron, but the production is
less than half that imported. Natural gas is produced in the coumies
of Welland and Essex, and exported in ^pes to Buffak) and Detroit.
Among the less important metals and minerals which are also mined,
u corundum of especial purity.
lianufacturts and Commerce.— Manufactures are becoming of
increasing importance. The obstacle due to lack.of coal is offset by
the splendid water powers afforded by the rapid streana in all pans
of the province. Save for the flour and grist mills, few do more than
supply Che markets of the Dominion, of which they control ail in-
creasing portion. Woollen mills, diistilleries and breweries and
maAufactures of leather, locomotives ahd iron-work, furniture,
agricultural implemems, cloth and paper are the chief. The great
agricultural development of the western provinces, la which manu-
factures are little advanced, has given a great impetus to the in-
dustries of the <dder provinces, especially Ontario.
C^miii«Ni£ai»oi».->Numerous lakes and rivers afford means of
communication, and obstacles thereon have been largely overcome
by canals (see Canada). Railways gridiron the provinoe, which
contains over one-third the total mileage of the dominion; thdr
construction is aided by provincial and municipal subsidies, in
addition to that paid by the federal government. The provincial
government owns a line mnning north from North Bay, operated by
a board of commissioners. The other railways are owned by private
companies, but are sub|ect to the dedsiona of a federal railway
commission. The provincial railway and municipal board also
exercises control, especially over the aty and suburban dectric lines.
History.— The first white man known to have set foot in what
is now Ontario was Champlain. In 1613 be explored the Ottawa
river as far as Allumctte Island; in 1615, starting from Montreal,
he reached the Georgian Bay by way of the Ottawa river, Lake
Kipissing and French river, and then by way of Lakes Couchlching
And Simcoe and the Trent river system of lakes and streams made
hn way to Lake Ontario, called by him EntouhoionoQ. The
winter of t6is-46i6 he spent tnionf the Huron Indians, near tbs
Georgian Bay. In 16x5 a mission among these Indiaas wan
f oundied by the RccoUet friars, and carried on with gieat success
and devotion by the Jesuits, but in i6i4ft-a65o the Hiann nation
was almost latcrly destroyed by an invasioB of their hereditary
foes, the Iroquois. From iu centre at Quebec French civilsatioD
extended along the Mississippi and the Great Lakes, and also
northwanh to Hudson's Bay. In the western oountiy muneroos
posts were founded, wherein fur-trader and misskmaiy were often
at variance, the trader finding brandy his beat raediifflx of ex-
change, while the missionary tried in vain to stay iu ravagea
among his flock. On the frantieia of what is now Ontario the
chief points were at the strategic centres of Fort Fromenac
(now Kingston), Niagara, Michilimackinac and Saali-^e>Marie.
Farther north, in what ia now New Ontario, their English rivals,
the Hudson's Bay Company, hod more or less permanent posts,
especially at Fort Albany and Moose Factory.
With the cession of French North America to Great Britain ia
X763, the Indian lords of the soil rose under Pontisc in a last
attempt to shake off the white man, and in 1763-1765 there was
hard fighting along the western frontier from SauU-Ste-Marie
to Detroit. Thereafter for almost twenty yean, Ontario was
traversed only by wandering bands of trappers, chiefly belongittc
to the Hudson's Bay Company; but in 1782 bands of American
loyalists began to occupy the fertile country ak»ng the Bay of
Quint£, and in the Niagara peninsula, the fint settlement being
made in 1782 at Kingston. Between X78S-X7S4 about s^oo
loyalists entered Ontario, and were given liberal grants of land
by the British government.
The oligarchic constitution established in Canada in 1774 by
the Quebec Act did not suit men trained in the school of local
self-government which Britain had unwittingly esublished in
the American colonies, and the gift of representative institutions
was soon necessary. In the debates in the British parliament
Fox urged that the whole territory should remain one province,
and of this the governor-general, the ut baron Dordiesur (f.r.),
was on the whole in favour, but in 1791 Pitt introduced and
carried the Constitutional Act, by which Upper and Lower
Canada were separated. The Ottawa river was chosen as the
main boundary between them, but the retention by Lower
Canada of the sdgncuries of New Longueuil and Vatidreuil, 00
the western side of the river, is a curious instance of the triumph
of social and historical conditions over geographical. To the new
province were given English civil and criminal law, a legislative
assembly and council and a lieutenant-governor; in the words of
its first governor, Colonel John Graves Simcoe, it had, " the
British Constitution, and all the forms which secure and maintain
it." Simcoe set to work with great energy to devel^ the pro-
vince, but he quarrelled with the governor-general over his pet
schcbe of founding military colonics of retired soldien in difTcrent
parts of the province, and retired in 1796. Even before his
retirement political feuds had broken out, which increased in
bitterness year by year. In so far as these had other causes than
the Anglo-Saion love of faction, they were due to the formation
by the loyalists, their descendants and hongcrs-on of a clique
who more and more engrossed political and social power. The
English church also formed a quasi*offidal clerical oUgarcfay,
and the land reserved by the Constitutional Act for the support
of " a protestant clergy '* formed a fruitful source of biturness.
For a time the War of 181 3-x8x4 with the United States put an
cad to the strife. Tlie war gave some heroic traditions to the
province, and in special cemented that loyalty to Great Britain
for which Ontario has been conspicuous. On the other hand, the
natural dislike of the United States fell by the loyalists and their
descendants was deepened and broadened, and has not yet wholly
died away, espedally among the women of tbc province. The
jobbii^g of land by the official clique, whose frequent Inter-
marriages won for them the name of " The Family Compact,"
the undoubted grievance of the *' Clergy Reserves " and the
well-meaning hi|^-handedness and social ezclusivenessof militazy
govemocs, who tried hard but unavaiUngly to stay the democratic
wave, soon revived political discord, which found a voice fai
iOmrARID, LAKE
117
that bom agitator, WnUam Lyoa Mackende. A
vigoroos ref ormer was Robert Baldwin, who saw ibat in ropons-
iblc govenuacBt lay tho cure for tbe political green-iickDcss from
wbifh Upper Canada was suffering. But though Baldwin and
Mackenae woe in the right, it is very doubtful whether their
party could at the time have given the country as cheap and
effident a civil service as was given by the Family Compact,
who had at least education and an honourable tradition.
In 1837 discontent flared up into a pitiful little rebellion, led
by Mackenzie. This tragical farce was soon at an end and its
author a fugitive in the United States, whence he instigated
bands of hooligans to make piratical attacks upon the Canadian
frontier. Thus forcibly reminded of the existence of Canada,
tbe British government sent out Lord Durham to investigate, and
as a result of his report the twoCanadas werein 1841 united in a
legislative union.
Meanwhile the soutbeni part of the province had been filling
up. In 1 791 the population was probably under 20,000; in
1824 it was 150,066, and In 1841, 455,688. The eastern counties
of Stonnont and Glengarry, and parts of the western peninsula,
had been settled by Highlanders; tbe Canada Company,
organized in 1825 by the Scottish novelist, John Gait, had
founded the town of Guelph, had cleared large tracts of land in
the western penmsuU, and settled thereon hundreds of the best
class of English and Scotch settlers.
Once granted responsible government, and the liberty to
make her own mistakes. Upper Canada went ahead. The popula-
tion rose to 953,004 in 1851 and to 1,396,091 in i86t. Politically
she found Lower Canada an uneasy yoke-fellow. The equality
of representation, granted at the tmion, at first unfair to Lower
Canada, became still more unfair to Upper Canada, as her
population first equalled and then surpassed that of her sister
province. The Roman Catholic daim to separate state-aided
schools, at length conceded in 1863, long set the religious
bodies by the ears. Materially tbe province prospered. The
** Clergy Reserves " were secularized in 1854, and in 1851 began
a railway development, tbeexdtement and extravagance caused
by which led in 1857 to a financial crisis and the bankruptcy of
various munidpalities, but which on the whole produced great
and lasting benefiL The Redprodty Treaty with the United
States, in operation from 2854 to 1866, and the high prices for
farm produce due to the American Civil War, brou^t about an
almost hectic prosperity. In the discussions from which sprang
the federation of 1867, Ontario was the one province strongly in
favour of the union, which was only rendered possible by the
coalition of her rival leaders, J. A. Macdonald and George Brown.
Since Federation Upper Canada has been known as the province
of Ontario. The first provindal government, formed on coalition
lines by John Sandfield Macdonald, was thrifty and not unpro-
grcssive, but in 1871 was defeated by a reorganized liberal party,
which held power from 187 r to 1905, and on the whole worthily.
Under Oliver Mowat, premier from 1873 to 1896, the govern-
ment, though strongly partisan, was thrifty and honest. An
ezcellem system of primary and secondary schools was organized
by Egerton Ryerson (1803-1882) and G. W. Ross (q.v.), higher
education was aided and a school of practical science established
in Toronto and of mining in Kingston; agriculture was fostered,
and an excellent agricultural college foimdcd at Guelph in 1874.
The great struggle of the time was with the federal govern-
ment on the question of provindal rights. Several questions in
which Ontario and the Dominion came into conflict were carried
to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, and in all of
them Mowat was successful Connected with this was the
boundary struggle with Manitoba, the latter province bdng
aided by the federal government, partly out of dislike for Mowat,
IKurtly because the crown lands ifl the <foputed territory would,
bad it been adjudged to Manitoba, have been under federal
control Had Manitoba won, the boundary line would have been
drawn about 6 m. east of Port Arthur, but In 2884 the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Coundl unanimously dedded in favour of
Ontario; and in 1888 another dedsion gave her absolute control
of the crown lands of New Ontario. Under Mowat's successors
the bamades which always attach to a party long in power
became unpleasantly conspicuous, and in January 1905 the
conscience of Ontario sent the conservatives into power, more
from disgust at their opponcnu than from any enthusiasm for
themsdvea. The new government displayed unexpected energy,
ability and strength. The primary and model schoob were con-
solidated and improved; the provindal university was given
increased aid from the succession duties; various public utilities,
previously operated by private companies, were taken over by
the province, and worked with vigour and success. At the
election of the 8th of June 1908 the conservative government was
returned by an increased majority.
BlBLiocaAPBY.— 5ra/uh£fl/: The various departments of the
provincial government publish annual reports, and frequent special
reports. Among thc« may be noted thoK of the Bureau ol Mtocs
and the archaaological niMrts by David Bovle (i88<k-i9Q6). Since
1880 the univcnity of Toronto has published numerous valuable
studies on historical, economic and social questions, e^. Adam
Shortt, MimkUMl Cavernment in Ontario.
Historical: Tne eariy history of the orovinoe is best given in the
eencial histories of Canada by MacMullen and Kingsford (see
Canada). Ernest Crvikshanks has published numerous excellent
studies on the Ontario section of the War of i8t2. Lord Durham's
celebmted Reparl (1839. reprinted 1902) is less trustworthy on Ontario
than on Quebec. R. and K. M. Liiar's In the Days o/tks Canada
Company dcpicu the life of tbe eariy setttcra. Biographies exist of
most of the chief men: C. R. W. Biggar, Sir Oliver Mowat {2 vols..
1905}, IS practically a history of Onurio from 1867 to 1896. The
provmdaf government has issued an cxcdlent Documentary History
^Education in Ontario, by J. G. Hodgins (a8 vols.). See aho W.
Kingsfonl, EaHy Bibliography of Ontario, (W. L. G.)
ONTARIO. LAKE, the smallest and most easterly of the Great
Lakes of North America. It lies between 43" 11' and 44" 12' N.
and 76* is' and 79* 49' W., and is bounded on the N. by the
province of Ontario and on the S. by the state of New York.
It is roughly elliptical, its major axis, 180 m. long, lying nearly
east and west, and its greatest breadtJb is 53 m. The area of its
water surface is 7260 sq. m. and the total area of its basin
32,980 sq. m. Its greatest depth is 738 ft., its average depth
much in excess of that of Lake Erie, and it is as a general rule
free from outlying sboab or dangers.
On the north side of the lake the land rises gradually from
the shore, and spreads out into broad plains, which are thickly
settled by farmers. A marked feature of the topography of the
south shore a what is known as tbe Lake ridge, or, as it approaches
the Niagara river, the Mountain ridge. This ridge extends, with
breaks, from Sodus to the Niagara river, and is distant from the
lake 3 to 8 m. The low ground between it and the shore, and
between the Niagara escarpment and the water on the Canadian
shore, is a cdebrated fruit growing district, covered with vine*
yards, peach, apple and pear orchards and fruit farms. The
Niagara river is the main feeder of the lake; the other largest
rivers emptying Into the lake arc the Genesee, Oswego and Black
from the south side, and the Trent, which discharges into the
upper end of the bay of Quinte, a picturesque inlet 70 m. bng,
on the north shore, between the peninsula of Prince Edward,
near the eastern extremity of the lake, and the mainland. The
east end of the lake, where it is 30 m. wide, is crossed by a chain of
Ave islands, and the lake has its outlet near Kingston, where it
discharges into the head of the St Lawrence river between a
group of islands. Elsewhere the lake is practically free from
islands. There is a general surface current down the lake towards
the eastward of about 8 m. a day, strongest along the south shore,
but no noticeable return cxurcnt. As a result of its relativdy
great depth there are seldom any great fluctuations of levd in this
lake due to wind disturbance, but the lake follows the general
rule of the Great Lakes {q.v,) of seasonal and annual variation.
Standard high water (of 1870) is 2*77 ft. below the mean level,
of 246- z8 ft. above mean sea-level, and standard low water
3*24 ft. below the same phme. The lake never freezes over,
and is less obstructed by ice than the other lakes, but the harbours
are dosed by ice from about the middle of December to the middle
of April
The commerce of Lake Ontario is limited fn comparison with
that of the lakes above Niagara Falls, and is restricted to vessels
ii8
ONTBNIENTE— OOLITE
that* can pan thfough th« WcUand canal locka^ ivhick an 970 ft.
^ng, 45 ft. wid« and 14 ft. de«p. Freight conaista principally of
ooal ahipped from Oiarlotte, Great and Little Sodus bays and
Osw^o to Canadian porta in the lakes, and to porta on the St
Lawrence river; of grain shipped through the WcUand canal
to the St Lawrence: and of lumber from Canadian ports. There
is a large passenger trailic, including pleasure trips, principally
radiating from Toronto. Forts on the lake are limited in capacity
to veaseb drawing not more than 24 ft. of water. The principal
Canadian ports are Kingston, at the head of the St Lawrence
river; Toronto, where the harbour is formed by an island with
improved entrance channels constructed both east and west of it;
and Hamilton, at the head of the lake, situated on a landlocked
lagoon, connected with the main lake by Burlington channel, an
artificial cut. The principal United States port is Oswego, where
a breakwater has been built, making an outer harbour. The
construction of a breakwater was undertaken in 1907 by the
United States government at Cape Vincent to form a harbour
where westbound vessels can shelter from storm before crossing
the lake.
The difference of 3 97 ft. in level between Lake Ontario and Lake
Erie is overcome by the Wclland canal, which leads southward
from Port Dalhousie. It accommodates vessels 35s ft. in length,
with a draught of 14 ft. The Murray canal, opened for traffic on
the 14th of April 1890, extends from Prcsqu'llc bay, on the north
of the lake, to the head of the bay of Quinte, and oiabks vessels
to avoid 70 m. of open navigation. It is iz ft. deep below the
lowest lake level, and has no locks. It is proposed to have the
eastern termlmis of the Trent canal system (see Gkbat Laxss)
at the head of the bay of Quinte, entering through the Trent
river. At Kingston the Rideau canal, extending laS m. to
Ottawa, enters the St Lawrence river at the foot of the lake.
Bibliography. — BuUetim No. 77, Survey of Northern and North-
western Lakes, U.S. Lake Survey Office (Detroit, Mich., 1907);
Publication No. 108 D., SaiKni Direetionsjor Lake Ontario, Hydro*
naphic Office. U.S. Navy (Washington. D.C.. ipoa); Si Laments
Pilot (7th cd.), Hydrogrspbic Office, Admiralty (London, 1906).
OHTBHISNTB, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of
Valencia; on the right bank of the Clariano or Onteniente,
a sub-tributary of tlM Jikar, and on the J&tivapVillcna railway.
Top. (1900) z i,4jo. Onteniente has a parish church remarkable
for its lofty square tower, and a palace of the dukes of Almodovar.
There is a large modem suburb outside the old town, which was
formerly a walled city; some vestiges of the ramparts still
remain. Linen and woollen doth, paper, brandy, furniture and
earthenware are manufactured; and there is somo trade in
cereals, wine and oil.
OMTOLOOT (adapted from a modem Latin form onMogia
used by Jean le Oerc z692; Gr. &v, tmos, pres. part, of cTi^oi,
to be, and XAyoi, science), the name given to that branch of
philosophy which deals specially with the nature of being {oXMia)
i.e. reality in the abstract. The idea, denoted in modem philo-
sophy by the term "ontology" in contrast to the broader
y metaphysics ** and the correlative " epistcmobgy," goes back
to such phrases as inan iitra, which Plato uses to describe the
absolute reality of ideas; PUto, however, uses tiie term ''dia-
lectic*' for this particular branch of metaphysics. Aristotle,
likewise, holding that the separate sciences have each their own
subject matter, postulates a prior science of existence m general
which he desctibes as " first philosophy." So far, therefore, the
science of being is distingui^ed not from that of knowing but
from that of the spedal forms of being: as to the possibility of
objective reality there » no question. A new. distinction arises
in the philosophy of Wolff who first made " ontology " a technical
term. Theoretical philosophy (metaphysics) is by him divided
into that which deals with being in general whether objective
or subjective, as contrasted with the particular entities, the loul,
the world and God. The former is ontology. This intermediate
stage in the evolution of the science of being gave place to the
modem view that the first duty of the philosopher is to consider
knowledge itself (see Epistsmolocv). and that only in the light
of conclusion as to this primary problem is it possible to consider
the natuM of being. The evolatlon of mettphyiics has chas
relegated ontdogy to a secandaiy place. On the other hand it
vemaina true that the adenoe of knowing is fnacpanble from,
and in a sense identical with that of bdng. Epistcmoiogical
coodusions cannot be expressed ultimately without the aid of
ontological termSb
For the wider relations of ontology* see further Philosophy.
ONTZ» a banded chalcedony or striped agate, composed of
white layers alternating «rith othets of black, brown or red
colour. A typical onyx consists of two or more black and whiu
stmta, whilst the term sardonyx is applied to the stone if it
contains red or brown bands (see Sabdohvx). Probably thos«
varieties which show icd and white xones originally suggested
the name " onyx," from Or. &iv| (a finger nail), since the coloun
of such stones may be not unlike those of the luUl. The onyx
when worked by the lapidary was often designated by the
diminutive MfX.t»i and at the present day the term nicolo,
a corraption of the Italian diminutive cnycoict Is applied to an
onyx which presents a thin layer of chalcedony deriving a bluish
tint from the subjacent black ground. The Hebrew Mbam is
translated in the authorised version of the Old Testament
" onyx," but the revised version gives in some of the passages
an akemative marginal reading of " bezyL" The position of the
land of Ilavilah, which yidded the onyx-stone, is uncertain.
India has for ages supplied the finest onyxes, and hence
jewdlets apply the expression " Oriental onyx " to any stone
remarkable for beauty of colour and regularity of stratification,
quite regardless of its locality. As far back as the zst century the
author of the Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions the onyx
among the products of Plythanae, a locality probably identifited
with Paithan on the Ciiodavari; and he further states that the
stones were taken down to Bazygaxa, the modem Broach, where
the agate trade still flourishes. It is probable that the early
Greeks and Romans derived their prized agate-cups from this
locality. The Indian onyx is found, with agate and jasper*
pebbles, in river gravels derived from the disintegration of the
amygdaloidal volcanic rocks of the Deccan. A great deal 'of
onyx now sold is obtained from South American agates, cut ia
Germany. It often happens that the lower deposits in an agate-
nodule are ia horizontal layers, forming onyx, while the other
deposits have adapted thernselves to the curved contours of the
cavity. The onyxes cut from agatc-tiodules are usually stained
artificially, as explained under Acats.
The onyx is largdy used for beads, brooches, pins, ring-stones
and other small ornamental objects, while the larger pieces are
occasionally wrought in the form of cups, bowls, vasea, &c.
Onyx is the favourite stone for camoo work, advantage being
taken of the differently-coloured layers to produce a subject ia
relief on a background of another colour. For fine examples
of ancient cameo-work in onyx and sardonyx see Gem.
It should be noted that the term onyx, or onychite. was
formerly, and is still sometimes, applied to certain kinds of
banded marble, like the " oriental alabaster " (see Alabastek).
Such substances are quite distinct from the hard siliceous onyx,
being much softer and less precious: they arc, in fact, usually
deposits of caldum carbonate like stalagmite and travertine.
The ornamental stones known as Mexican onyx, or Tecali marble,
and Algerian onyx arc of this character; and in order to avoid
any confusion with the true onyx it is well to dbtinguish all
the calcareous "onyxes" as onyx-marble. The weU-koown
" Gibraltar stone " is an onyx-marble, with brown bands, from
caverns in the limestone of Gibraltar.. The Tecali onyx, some-
times with delicate green shades, takes its name from the district
of Tecali; one of its localities being La Pcdrara, about si m.
from the dty of Puebla.
For onyx-roarbles see Dr G. P. Merrill, Jtep. U.^. Nai. Uus. for
1893 0895). p. 5J9. (F.W. R.-)
OOUTB (Gr. ^, egg, M&oi, stone). In geology, a term
having two distinct tneanings. In petrology {q.t.) it denotes a
type of rock structure characterized by the presence of minute
spherical grains resembling the roe of a fish; if the grains become
larger, the structure is said to be piwlitlc (Gr. s-f^oc, pea). In
OOLITE
"9
stratignphical geoiogjrt the ooUte it a diviaon o£ the Joiusie
^rstem (ff^.)* The term appean to faare been first applied in thia
Utter Moie by A. J. M. Biocfaaat de VilUers in 1805, aiad through
the labours of W. Smith, W. D. Conybeare* W. finckland and
others* it wfs gradually introduced tor the calcareous rocks of
the Bzitlafa Jurassic lurtil it came to oomprebend the whole
aystem.above the Lias. Custom still sanctions iu use in England,
but it has been objected that the Oolitic Guraaaic) system
containa many strata that axe not oolitic; and sinoc oolitic
structure occurs in limestones of all agea, it is aaiiJcading to
employ the word in this way.
Tb^ oolites are usually divided into: the Upper or Portland
OciUe, fompri^fag the Pnrbeck, Portland and Kimezidge stagts;
the MUdU or Oiiord (MiU, including the Corallian, Oafordian
and Kellaways beds; and the Lower Oolites^ with the Combraah,
Great or Bath Oolite (fiathoniaa), Fullouiaa and the Inferior
Oolite (BajocJaa). The Great Oolite and Inferior Oolite are
treated beie.
The injmior (Mile, caHed by WilKam Smith the ** Under
Oolite" from its occurrence beneath the Great or "Upper
Oolite " in the neighbourhood of Bath, received its present name
from J. Towasend in 1813. It is an extremely variable
assemblage of strata. In the Cotteswold Hills it is a series of
marine deposits, 964 ft. thidi near Cheltenham, but within 25 m.
the strata thin out to 30 ft. at Fawler in Oxfordshire. A typical
section N.E. el Dunley contains the following subdivisions:—
ZooeFwub.
Coiinocera9 Parkil^'
soni.
White Freestone
Clypeus Grit . .
. .5 ft.
. 6-15 ft.
Upper Trisooia Giit a- 12 ft. ^
Gryphite Grit . . .a-iaft.^
.LowerTrigoniaCrit .2-12 ft.
'Upper Freestone . 6-20 ft. .
Oolite Marl . . . 5-10 ft. '
Lower Ficestone 4S*>30 ft<
fPea Grit .... 3-ao ft.
\Lower Limestone 10-25 '^
SUtgunoeertu^
}tarfoeent
Mprtkiso
J CephaIopodLimestone2-7 ft. \tioceras obalinum,
Cotteswold Sands lo^tTO (t. J Lytoeems jttrente.
The basal sandy series, which is closely related with the
tmderlyiog Lias, is usually desaibed as the MidCord Sands
(from Midford, near Bath), but it is also known locally as the
Bradford, YoovH or Cotteswold Sands. The Ffea Grit aeries
oootaiaa pisolitic limestone and ooarse, iion-staioed oolite
and sandy limestone. The freestones are compact oolite lime*
stones. The rasrtones ace fossilifcrous, earthy and iron^ained
oolitic limestones. The "grits" are really coafse-grained
limeslonca or caldfcrous sandstones. Between Andoversford
and BourtoB'iB-the-Water the Inferior Oolite is represented
1^ ragitones (Ferruginous beds, Clypeus Grit, Trigooia bed,
Notgrove Freestone, Giypbite Grit) and freestones (Upper
Freestones and Harford Sands, Oolite J4ari, Lower Freestone).
Near Chipping Norton in Oxfordshire the " Chipping Norton
Limestone " hca at the top of a vecy variable series of rocks.
In Rutlandshire, Northamptonshire and Lincolnshire the follow-
ing beds, in doKending order, belong to the Inferior Oolite:
Lincolnshire limestone (shelly, coral^beaiing and oolitic), CoUy-
wcstoB sUte, Lower E^uarine series and Northampton Sanda
(bard calcareous sandstones, blue and greenbh iionstonca and
sandy Hmcstones). The Collyweston slates are arenaceoua
limestones which have been used for roofing slates since the
time pf Henry YIL; Easton, Dene and Kirkby are important
locaJitica^ The fissUity of the rock la developed by exposure
to frost. Similar beds an the Whittering Pendle and White
Pcndle or Duslon slate.
The Inferior Oolite of Yorkshire di/Tcrs from that of the
(^teswoM distiSct; in place of the marine limestones of the
Utter area there is a thick scries oC sands and sandstones with
shales and beds of coal; these deposits are mainly estuarine with
occasional marine beds. The principal subdivisions, in descend-
ing order, are: the Scarborough or Grey Limestone series,
the Middle Estuarine series with their coal seams; the MiUcpoie
series and Whitwell or Cave Oolite; the Lower Estuarine series
with the Eller Beck bed and Hydraulic Limestone; the Dogger
and Blea Wyke beds. The U»t-named beds, like the. Midford
Sands, exhibit a passage between the Inferior Oolite and the Lias.
In Skye and Raasay the Inferior Oolite is represented by sand-
stones.
The fossils of the Inferior Oolite are abundant. Over aoo species
of Ammonite are known; gasteropods are numerous: Tngonia,
Lima, Ostrea, CerviUia, Pecten, are common pelccypods; Tirehratuta,
WcUheimia and RkynehmuUa are the prevailing brachiopods.
Comlsase very nuraemus ia some limestones {fsastrea, MoutioauUia).
Urchins are lepsesented by Cidanst AcroattUiua, Nmcleohtes, Pyguter,
Pieudodtadema, Hemicidaris; starfish by SolasUr^ Astropwlen^ and
Crinoids by Penkicrinus, Apiocrinus. Plant remains, cycads, ferns,
Ginkp> and coniferous trees are found most abundantly in the
Yorkshire aiea.
The economic products of the Inferior Oolite hidude many
well-known building stones, noubly those of Ham Hffi, Douiting,
Dundry, Pa&iswick, Cheltenham, Dnston, Weldon, Ketton,
Bamack, Stamford,CBsterton, CUpsham, Great Ponton, Ancastcr,
Aislaby (Lower Estuarine series). Several of the stones are
nsed for road metal. Iron ores have been worked fa the Grey
Limestone, the Eller Beck bed, the Dogger and the Northampton
beds, the latter being the most important.
The Great or Bath Oolite is typically developed in the neighbour-
hood of Bath, and except in a modified form it does not extend
beyond the counties of Wiltshire, Somersetshire, Gloucestershire
and Oxfordshire. It does not reach so far as Yorkshire, unless
the Upper Estuarine series of that district is its representative.
The principal subdivisions of the series are: —
Gloeccstenkire, Oxfordshixe.
1-
i
False - bedded Oolites -
Kemble beds. " White
oolitic, and Maris.
Upper Ragstonea of Bath.
False. bedded , Oofites-the
J^rFrcSSSSS^ "*^'
FisMie calcareous Sandstones;
oolitk Limestones and
Clays; Lower l^gstones of
Back and Scooea&ld Slate.
Thickness^ loo^ijo ft*
Great Oolite (Hay-Blis-
worth CUy.
Great Oolite Limestone
(genenlly non^ooUtic).
Upper Estuarine series
Thickness, JO>ioo h.
An exact correlation of the Great Oolite strata In the N.E. area
with those of the S.W. is not possible on account of the great
variability and impenistence of the beds. Current bedding
b very prevalent, and minor stratigraphical breaJcs are common.
The absence of the typical Great Oolite from the N.E. district
is probably due in part to contemporaneous erosion with overstep
of the succeeding formation, and in part to local changes in the
sediment in the shallow waters of this epoch. This may also
explain the rapid thinning-out of the Great OoUte south of Bath,
where its place may be taken, to some extent, by the Bradford
Clay, Forest Marble and Fullonian.
The Great Oolite is not readny divisible Into palaeontological
aooes, but the ammonite PerispkmeteM arbustigerus may be taken
aa the chancterissic f onn ah>ng with Belewiriks bessnntt and Ten*
hraltUa m a nU a l q. Corals {Jsaslnoa, TkamnaUHa} and Polysoa
(Stomatopom. Dioitopora) are abundant. HemiadariSt Cidaris^
AcrotoUnui, Clypeus and other urthlns are common: PentacriMui
and Apiocrinus represent the Crinoids. Ter^raiido, Kkymeko/mtUo,
Wal^mmia^ Ctamu are the pievailing bimchiopads; the common
pelccypods, Peeten^ Os^m, Lima, TriMiiM, J/Wulai ARsIsm,
rferinea and other gasteropods are found. Periipkimckt frandei,
Macroc<pkolUes smbcontraaus, Oppelia discuM and Nautilus dtspanrus
are amonK the more common crohalopods. The remains of fish
(Maodam, Hybodm$),tn>oodiit» {Tdioeawrmsh dmosaam {CtHooamnu,
120
M€galoMuru$)f pteroaura (RJum^houpkaiui), and in the Stoneafield
tlate the jaws of marsupial mammals (Ampkitkerium, AmpkiUftes,
Phascolotherium) occur.
The baiidiog stones of the Great Oolite are mainly oolitic
freestones, viz. the varieties of " Bath stone " quarried and mined
in the neighbourhood of that dty (Corsham Down, Monks Park,
Coombe Down, Odd Down, Box Ground, &c.) and more shelly
limestones like the Taynton and Milton stone. The Stonesfield
slate has been largely «'oii:ed near Woodstock in Oxfordshire
and in Gloucestenhire for roofing, &c The " shtes " are brown
calcareous sandstone, grey and slightly oolitic calcareous sand-
stone, and blue and grey oolitic limestone. A curious modifica-
tion of the Great Oolite— White Limestone division— is character-
ized by irregular ramifying tubular cavities, usually filled with
ochreous material; this rode occurs in blocks and layers, and
is used for rockeries under the name of " Dagham stone " from
Dagham Down north of Cirencester. (See also Jusas^c.)
O.A.H.)
OOSTERZBB, JAN JACOB VAN (1817-1883), Dutch divine,
was bom at Rotterdam on the ist of April 18x7. After acting
as pastor at Alkmaar and Rotterdam, in 1863 he was made
professor of biblical and practical theology at the uoivetsity
of Utrecht. Oosterzee earned a reputation as a preacher, was
editor of the Tkedog, JakrbiUker from 1845. wrote a number
of noteworthy books on religious history, and published poems
in Dutch (1882). He died on the agth of July x882.
A collected edition of Oosterzee's works was published in French,
(Euvres comfdiUs, in three volumes (1877-1880). His autobiography
appeared in 1883.
OOTACAMUND, Or Utakaicand, a town of British India,
headquarters of the Nilgiris district in Madras, approached
by a rack railway from the MettapoUicm station on the Madras
railway. Pop. (1901) 18,596. It is the principal sanatorium
of southern India, and summer headquarters of the Madras
government. It is placed on a plateau about 7230 ft. above
the sea, with a fine artifidai lake, and mountains rising above
8000 ft. The mean annual temperature is 58* F. , with a minimum
of 38" in January and a maximum of 76° in May; average
annual rainfall, 49 in. The houses are scattered on the hillsides
amid luxuriant gardens, and there are extensive carriage drives.
In the neighbourhood are plantations of coffee, tea and cinchona.
There are a brewery and two dairy farms. The Lawrence
asylum for the children of European soldiers was founded
in 1858, and there are also the Breaks memorial and Basel
Mission hi|^ schools^
See Sir fT Price. Ootacamund: A History (Madras, 1908).
OOZB (0. Eng vdse^ cognate with an obsolete vaise, mud;
cf. O. Nor veisa, muddy pool), the slime or mud at the bottom
of a river, stream, espedally of a tidal river or estuary, and so
particularly used in deep-sea soundings of the deposit of fine
calcareous mud, in which remains of foraminifera are largely
present. The word " oose " is also used as a technical term
in tanning, of the liquor in a tan vat in which the hides arc
steeped, made of a solution of oak bark or other substances
which >'idd tannin. This word is in origin different from " ooze "
in its first sense. It appears in 0. Eng. as wts, and meant the
juice of plants, fruits, &c.
OPAH (Lampru luna), a pelagic fish, the affinities of which are
still a puzzle to ichthyologists. The body is compressed and
deep (more so than in the bream) and the scales are minute.
A long dorsal fin, high and pointed anteriorly, runs along nearly
the whole length of the back; the caudal is strong and deeply
cleft. The ventral fin is also elongated^ and all the fins are
destitute of spines. The pdvic fins are abdominal in position,
long and pointed in shape, and the pdvic bones are connected
with the caracoids. These fins contain numerous (is-t?) rsys,
a feature in which the fish differs from the Acanthopterygians*
In its gorgeous colours the opah surpasses even the dolphins,
all the fins bring of a bright scarlet. Tlie sides are bluish green
above, violet in the middle, red beneath, variegated with oval
spots of brilliant silver. It is only occasionally found near the
shore; its real home is the Atlantic, especially near Maddra
and the Azores, but nany captures are recorded from Great
OOSTERZEB-OPAL
Britain, Iidand and Scandiaavia; it strayi as far north as
Iceland and Newfoundland, and probably southwards to the
latitudes of the coast of Guinea. It is rare in the Mediterranean.
The name opah, which is now generally used, is derived from
the statement of a native of the coast of Guinea who happened
to be in England when the first spedmea waa exhibited (1750),
and wha thought he recognized in it a 6sh well known by that
name in his native country. From its habit ol coming to the
surface in calm weather, diowing its high dorsal fin above the
water, it haa also recdved the name of " sun-£ah," nhidi it
shares with Or/Aa^omcM and the basking shark. It grows to a
length of 4 to 5 ft. and a weight exceeding zoo lb, and as highly
esteemed on account of the excellent flavour of its flesh.
OPAI% an amorphous or Don-crystalline mineral coBsisting
of hydrated silica, occasionally displaying a beautiful play of
cokwr, whence iu value as a gem-stone. It is named from
Lat. tfalust Gr. AirdX^ioi', with which may be compared Sansk.
upala, a precious stone. Opal commonly occurs in nodular or
staUctitic masses, in the cavities of volcanic rocks, having been
deposited in a gelatinous or colloidal condition. It is infisior to
quartz in hardness (H. 5-5 to 6-5) and in density (S. G. 1*9 to
2*3), whilst it differs also by its solubility in caustic alkalis.
The proportion of water in opal varies usually from 5 to 12%,
and it is said that occasionally no water can bo detected,
the mineral having apparently suffered dehydration. Though
normally isotropic, opal Is frequently doubly fefrscting, the
anomaly bdng due to tension set up during consolidation.
The mineral when pure is transparent and colourless, as wdl
seen in the variety which, from its vitreous appearance, was
called by A. G. Werner kyaiUe (Gr. ^Xot, glass), or popularly
" Miillcr's glass," a name said to have been taken from its
discoverer. This pelludd opaline silica occurs as an ucrustatioa
in small globules, and is by no mesuis a common mineral, being
chiefly found at certain localities in Bohemia, Meaioo and
Colorado, U.S.A. (Cripple Cr«jk).
The beautiful variety known as " noble " or " predoos opal "
owes its value to the brilliant flashes of colour which it displays
by reflected h'ght. The colours are not due to the pitsence of
any material pigment, but result from certain structural peculi-
arities in the stone, perhaps from microscopic fissures or pores
or from delicate striae, but more probably from very thin
lamellae of foreign matter, or of opaline silica, having a different
index of refraction from that of the matrix. The origin of
the colours in opal has been studied by Sr D. Brewster, Sir W.
Crookes, Lord Rayleigfa and H. Behrens. In the variety known
to jewellers as '* harlequin opal," the rainbow-like tints are
flashed forth from small angidar surfaces, forming a kind of
polychromatic mosaic, whilst in other varieties the oolows are
disposed in broad bands or irregular patches of comparatively
large area. By moving the stone, a brIHiant succession of
fiery flashes may sometimes be obtained. The opal is usually
cut with a convex surface, and, bdng a soft Stone, sbonld be
protected from friction likely to produce abrasion; nor should
it be exposed to sudden alternations of temperature. The loss
of water, sometimes effected by heat, greatly impairs the colour,
though moderate warmth may improve it. According to Pliny
the opal ranked next in value to the emerald, and be relates
that the rich Roman senator Nonius was exiled by Mark Antony
for sake of hii magnificent opal, as large as a haad nut. The
opal, on account of its unique characters, has been the subject
of remarkable superstition, and even in modem times has often
been regarded as an unlucky stone, but hi recent years it has
regained popular favour and is now when fine, among the ttioet
highly valued gem-stones.
Preciotts opal Is a mineral of very limited distribution, lliough
andent writers state that it was brought from India, and fine
stones are still called in tssde ** Oriental opal," iu occuntsicc is
not known in the East. The finest opals seem to have been
always obtained from Hungary, where the minerki occurs,
associated with much common opal, in nests in an altered
andesitic rock. The fine opals occur only at the Dubnyik mine,
near the village of Vdrdsvfig&s (Cxerwcnitxa). The workings
OPALINA— OPERA
hxre been carried on ft»r centuries In tlie mountains near Eperjes,
and some remarkable stones from this locality are preserved
in the Impenal Natural History Museum in Vienna, including an
uncut specimen weighing about 3000 carats. Precious opal is
found aJso in Honduras, especially in trachyte near Oradaa ft
Dios; and in Mexico, where it occurs in a porpbyritic rock at
Esperanaa in the state of Queretaro. A remarkable kind of
opal, of yellow or hyadnih-red colour, occurs hi trachytic
porphyry at Zimapan in Hidalgo, Mexico, and is known as
** fi^e^paL'* This variety is not only cut ett cahoekon but is
also faceted. Fire^pal is sometimes called " giraaoL" Much
precious opal is worked in Australia. In Queendand it is found
lining cracks in n<xiules of brown ironstone in the Desert Sand-
stone, a rock of Upper Cretaceous age, and is distributed over
a wide area near the Barcoo river. Bulla Creek is a well-known
locality. The layer of opal, when too thin to be cut with a
convex surface, is used for inlaid work or is carved into cameoa
which show to much advantage against the dark-brown matrix.
The matrix penetrated by veins and spots of opal, and perhaps
heightened in colour artificially, has been called " black opal '*;
but true black opal occurs in New Sooth Wales. The " root of
opal " consists oif the mineral disseminated through the matrix.
In New South Wales precious opal was acddcntaJIy discovered
in 1889, and b now largely worked at White Cliffs, Yungnulgra
county, where it is found in nodules and seams in a siliceous rock
of the Upper Cretaceous series. It !s notable that the opal
sometimes replaces shells and even reptilian bones, whilst ctxrious
pscudoroorphs, known as " pineapple opal," show the opal in
the form of aggregated crystals, perhaps of gypsum,' gaylusate
or glauberite.
*' Common opal " is the name generally applied to the varieties
which exhibit no beauty of colour, and may be neariy opaque.
It is frequently found in the vesicular lavas of the N.E. of Irelsiid,
the west of Scotland, the Faroe Isles and Iceland. When of
milky-white colour it is known as "milk opal"; when of
resinous and waxy appearance as "resin opal"; If banded
it is called " agate opal "; a green variety is termed " prase
opal "; a dark red, ferruginous variety ** jaspar opal "; whilst
" rose opal " !s a beautiful pink mineral, coloured with organic
matter, found at Quincy, near M£hun-sur-Yevre, In France.
A brown or grey concretionary opal from Tertiary shales at
Menilmontant, near Ptiris, is known as mcnilite or " liver opal.**
A dull opaque form of opal, with a fracture imperfectly con-
choidal, is called "semi-opal"; whilst the opal which not
infrequcntlv forms the mineralizing substance of fossil wood
passes as wood opal." The name hydrophane Is applied to
a porous opal, perhaps partially dehydrated, which is almost
opaque when dry but b^mes more or less transparent when
immersed in water. It has been sometimes sold in America as
" magic stone." Cacholong is another kind of porotis opal with
a lustre ntber like that of mother-of-pearl, said to have been
named from the Cach river in Bokhara, but the word is probably
of Tstar origin.
Opaline silica is frequently deposited from hot siliceous sprinn.
often in eauliflowcr-fifce masses, and is known as geyscrite. Tha
occun in loelaad. New Zoalaod and the Y«Ik>wstone Natnnal FsHl
The fiorifee'fram the bet springs of Santa Fiora. in Tuscany, is opaline
•ilicsoiis deposits from springs, often due to oinink: afeocies, are
Jtaown feanrally as " stliceous sinter " or, if very loose in textufc, an
*' stliceous tuff. Opaline silica fornis the material o( many of]|snic
structures, like the frustules of diatoms and the tests of radiolanans,
which may accumulate as deponts of tripoli, and be used for polishing
purposes. (F. wTlf)
OFUnrA (so named by J. E. PorkinjS and G. ValenUn),
a genus of Protosoa, without mouth or contracrile vacuole,
covered with nearly equal flagelliform cilia, and possessing
numerous nuclei, all simihtr. It has been referred to Aspirotricha
by BUtschU, but by M. Hartog {Cambridge Natural HisUry^ vol. ii..
vj/olS) has been transferred to the Flagellates (9.?.). All the
tpttaxt are parssitic in cold-blooded Vertebrates.
See Beisenbcrger in Anhn.f. Protutenkunde (1903}. ili. 138.
I2t
OTATA (" enemies," so cslled by their nel^boaiB tte Ffmas),
a tribe of Mexican Indtaaa of Piman stock. Their oountiy h
the mountainous district of north-eastern Sonora and north-
western Chihuahua, Mexko. Though usually loyal to tha
Mexican government, they rebeDed in 1810, but after a gallant
effort were defeated. They number now about 5000, and still
lar ge^ r etain their ancient autonomy.
OFBRA (Italian for "work")> a dnma set to music, as
distinguished from plays in which, music is merely incidental.
Music has been a resource of the dnma from the earliest times,
and doubtless the results of researches in the early history of
this connexion have been made very interesting, but they are
hardly relevant to a history of opera as an art-form. If language
has meaning, an axt-form can hardly be said to exist under
conditions where the only real connexions between its alleged
origin and its modern maturity are such universal means of
expression as can equally well connect it with ahnost every-
thing else. We will therefore pass over the orthodox history
of opera as traceable from the music of Greek tragedy to that
of mirsde-idays, and will begin with iu real bcg^nnmg, the fint
dramas that were set to music in order to be produced as musical
works of art, at the beginning of the x 7th century.
There seems no reason to doubt, the story, given by Doni, of
themeetingsheld byagroup of amateurs at the bouse of theBardi
in Florence in the btst years of the 16th century, with the object
of trying experiments in emotional musical expression by the
use of instruments and solo voices. Before this time there was
no real opportimity for music-drama. The only hl^ musical
art of the x6th century was unaccompatued choral muric: its
expression was perfect within its limits, and its limits so abso-
lutely exdnded all but what may be called static or contemplative
emoUon that "dranuitic mtxsic" was as inconceivable as
" dramatic architecture." But the literary and musical dUfUanti
who met at the boose of the Bardi were not mature musical
artists; they therefore had no scruples, and their imaginations
were fired by the dream of restoring the glories of Greek tragedy,
especially on the side of its muscal declamation. The first
pioneer in the new " monodic " movement seems to have been
Vincenzo Galilei, the father of Galileo. This enthusiastic
amateur warbled the story of Ugolino to the accompaniment of
the lute, much to the amusement of expert musicians; but he
gained the respect and sympathy of those whose culture was
literary nther than musical. His efforts must have been iw>t unlike
a wild caricature of Mr. W. B. Yeats's method of reciting poetry
to the psaltery. The first public production in the new style
was Jacopo Peri's Euridice (1600), which was followed by a less
successful effort of Cacdni*s on the same subject. To us it is
astoiushing that an art so great as the polyphony of the 16th
century could ever have become forgotten in a new venture so
feeble in its first steps. Sir Hubert Parry has happily charac-
terized the general effect of the new movement on contemporary
imagination as something like that of laying a fotmdation-
stone>-thc suggestion of a vista of possibilities so inspiriting
as to exdude all sense of the triviality of the present achievement.
Meanwhile those composers who retained the mastery of poly-
phonic music tried to find a purely vocal and polyphonic solution
of the problem of music-drama; and the Amfipanuxsso of Oraaio
Vecchi (written in 1594, the year of Palestrina's death, and pro-
duced three years later) is not alone, though it a by far the most
remarkable, among attempts to make a music-drama out of a
series of madrigals. From the woodcuts which adorn the first
edition of the Amjiparnasso it has been conjectured that the
acton sang one voice each, while the rest of the harmony was
supplied by singers behind the stage <; and this may have been
the case with other works of this kind. But the words of Vccchi's
introductory chorus contradict this idea, for they tell the audience
that " the theatre of this drama is the wodd " and that the
spectators must " bear instead of seeing."
evidently learnt all his music in Paris somewhere about 18.3a
122
OPERA
With the decadeoc* of the nmdrtgal, Modtevcrde brought &
£eal< musicftl power to bear on* the new stylo. His result* are
now intelUgible only to historians, and th^ seem to us artisUcally
nugatory ; but in thcic day they were so impressive as to reader the
further continuance of 1 6th-€entuiy chonJ art impossible. At the
beginning of the 1 7th century no young musician of lively artistic
receptivity could fail to be profoundly stirred by Monleverde's
Orfeo (1602), Ariatma (x6o8) and U CombaUimenio di Tancn^i e
Chrinda (1624), works in which the resources of instruments
were developed with the same archaic boldness, the same grasp
of immediate emotional effect and the same lack of artistic
organization as the harmonic resources. The spark of Monte-
verde's genius produced in musical history a result more like
an explosion than an enlightenment; and the emotional rhetoric
of his art was so uncontrollable, and at the same time so much
more impressive in suggestion than in realization, that we cannot
be surprised that the next definite step in the history of opera
took the direction of mere musical form, and was not only on-
dramatic but anti-dramatic
I The system of free musical declamation known as recitalhe is
said to have been used by Emilio del Cavalieri as early as 15S8,
and it was in the nature of things almost the only means of
vocal expression concdvabk by the pioneers of opera. Fbrflaal
melody, such as that of popular songs, was as much beneath
their dignity as it had been beneath that of th« high art from
which they revolted; but» in the absence of any harmonic
system but that of the church modes, which was manifestly
incapable of assimilating the new '* unprepared discords," and
in the utter chaos of early experiments in instrumentation,
formal melody proved a godsend as the novelty of recitative faded.
Tunes were soon legalised at moments of dramatic repose when
it was possible for the acton to indulge in either a dance or a
display of vocalization; it was in the tunes that the strong
harmonic system of modem tonality took shape; and by the
early days of Alessandro Scarlatti, before the end of the zyth
century, the art of tune-making had perennially blossomed
into the musically safe and effective form of the aria iq.v.).
From this time until the death of Handel the history of opera
is simply the Ustory of the aria; excq^t in so far as in France,
under LuIIy, it is also the history of ballet-music, the other main
theatrical occasion for the art of tuno-making. With opera
before Gluck there is little interest in tracing schoob and develop-
ments, for the musical art had as mechanical a connexion with
drama as it had with the art of scene-painting, and neither it
Bor the drama which was attached to it showed any real develop-
ment at all, though the librettist Metastasio prcsrated as imposing
a figure in 18th-century Italian literature as Handel presented in
Italian opera. Before this period of stagnation we find an almost
solitary and provincial outburst of life in the wonderful patch-
work of Purcell's art (1658-1695). Whether he is producing
genuine opera (as in the unique case of Dido and Aeneas) or
merely inddental music to plays (as in the so-called opera King
Arthur), his deeply inspired essays in dramatic music are no less
interesting in their historic isolation from everything except the
influence of LuDy than they are admirable as evidences of a
genius which, with the opportunities of 50 years later or 150
years earlier, might assuredly have proved one of the greatest
in all music. Another sign of life has been appreciated by
recent research in the interesting farcical operas (mc«tly Nea-
politan) of certain early x8th-century Italian composers (see
Leo, Pekgoixsb, Logbosomo), which have some bearing on
the antecedents of Mozart.
The real reason for the stagnation of high opera before Gluck
b (as explained In the articles Music and Sonata Forms) that
the forms of music known before 1750 could not express dramatic
change without hwing artistic organization. The "spirit of
the age " can hav« had little to do with the difficulty, or why
should Shakespeare not have had a contemporary operatic
brother-artist during the ^Golden Age" of music? The
opportunity for reform came with the ibe of the sonau style.
It was fortunate for Ghick that the music of his time was too
▼igorously organized to be upset by new discoveries. Gluck was
.a much greater artist than Montevenleb but he too mu n
loaded with academic taoMtety; indeed, though historians havt
denied it, Monteverde was by far the better oootrapontist, and
seems rather toiiave renounced his musical powers than to have
struggled for need of them. But instead of memories of «
&>lden Age, Gluck had behind him tso years of harmonic and
orchestral knowledge of good and evil. lie also had almost as
dear a sense of symphonic form as could find scope in opera at
all; and his mekxlic power was generally of the highest order.
It is often said that his work was too far in advance of his time
to establish his intended reform; and, if this means that ua*
dramatic Italian operas continued to outnumbo* those dramatic
masterpieces which no smaller man could achieve, the statement
is as true as it is of every great artist. If, however, it is taken
to mean that because Mozart 's triumphs do not lie in serious opera
he owes nothing to Cluck, then the statement is misleading
(see Gluck). The influence of Gluck on Mozart was profound^
not only where it is relevant to the particular type of libretto,
aa in Idonteneo, but also on the broad dramatic basis which
includes Greek tragedy and the rSth-century comedy of manners.
Mozart, whose first impulse was always to make his music coherent
in itself, for some time continued to cultivate aide by aide with his
growing polyphony and freedom of movement certain Italian
Ibrmalities which, though musically effective and flattering to
sbgers, were dramatically vicious. But these features, thou^
they spoil Idommeo, correspond to much that in Gluck's operas
shows mere helplessness; and in comic opera they may even
become dramatically appropriate^ Thus in Cosi fan kUU the
florid arias in which the two heroines protest their fidelity ate
the arias of ladies who do protest too much; and In Die Zambtr^
fi9te the extravagant vocal fireworks of the Queen of Night are
the displays of one who, In the words of the high priest Sarastro,
" hopes to cajole the people with illusions and superstition."
In the article Mozart we have discussed other evidences of his
stagecraft and insist into character, talents for which his comic
subjects gave him far more scope than those of classical tragedy
had given to Gluck. Mozart always extracts the utmost musical
effect from every situation in his absurd and often tiresome
libretti (especially in vocal ensemble) ^ while his musical effects
are always such as give dramatic life to what in other hands are
conventional musical form^ These merits would never have
been gainsaid but for the violence of Wagner's earlier partisans
in their revolt from the uncritical classicism of his denser and
noisier opponents. Wagner himself stands as far aloof Iron
Wagnerian PhSistinism as from uncritical classicism. He was
a fierce critic of social conditions and by no meana incapable
of hasty iconoclastic judgments; but he would have treated
with scant respect the criticism that censures Mozart for super-
ficiality in rejecting the radically unmusical element of mordant
social satire which distinguishes the Figaro of Beaumarchais
from the most perfect opera in all classical music.
It cannot be said that m any high artistic sense Italian comk
opera has developed continuously since Mozart. The vocal
athleticism of singers; the acceptance and great development by
Mozart of what we may call symphonic (fi^ distinguished from
Handdian) forms of aria and ensemiiUi aiid the enlargement ol
the orchestra; these processes gave the Italian composeis of
Mozart*^ and later times prosafcaUy golden opportunities for
lifting spectators and singers to the seventh heaven of flattered
vanity, while the music, in itself no less than in its relation to the
drama, was steadily degraded. The decline begins with Mozart's
contemporary and survivor, D. Cimarosa, whose ideasare genuine
and, in the main, refined, but who lacks power and resource:
His style was by no means debased, but it was just so slight that
contemporaries found it fairly easy. His most famous work,
// Matrimonio Segreto^ U an opera buffa which is still occasionally
revived, and it is very like the sort of thing that people who
despise Mozart imagioe Figaro to be. Unless it is approached
with sympathy, its effect ^lier Figaro is hardly more ^«**il*'^ting
than that of the once pilloried spurious *' Second Part " to the
Pickwick Papers, . But this is harsh judgment; for it proves to
be a good semi-dassic as soon as we take it on iu own meriu.
OPERA
<23
It b far mora ttiudcal, If less vfvtdous, than KosaIn!'s AarMcf* ;
and the decline of lulian opera is more significantly foreshadowed
in Ctmanna's other cMef-d'amret the remarkable opera seriay
di Orcmi ed i Curiaad. Here the arfas and etuemUes are seiions
art. sbow**ng a pale reflection of Mozart, and not wholly without
Mozart's spirit; the choruses, notably the firtt of all, have fine
raomenu; and the treatment of conflicting emotions at one
crisis, where military music is heard behhid the scenes, is masteriy .
Lastly, the abrupt conclusion at the moment of the catastrophe
is good and was novel at the time, though it foreshadows that
sacrifice of true dramatic and musical breadth to the desire for an
"effective curtain," and that mortal fear of antl-dimax which in
dasical French opera rendered a great musical finale almost
impossible. But the interesting and dramatic features In Cli
Oraxzi are unfortunately less significant historically than the
vulgarity of its overture, and the impossibility, after the beautiful
opening chorus, of tracing any unmistakably tragic style in the
whole work except by the negative sign of dtdlness.
Before Cimarosa's overwhelming successor Roasinf had retired
from his indolent career, these tendencies had already reduced
both composers and spectators to a supreme indifference to the
noood of the Kbretto, an indifference far more fatal than mere
inattention to the plot. Nobody cares to follow the plot of
Mozart's Fiforc; but then no spectator of Beanmarchais's
Mtttiagp df Figaro is prevented by the intricacy of its plot from
enjoying it as a play. In both cases we are interested in the
character-drawing and in each situation as it arises; and we do
no justice to Mozart's music when we forget this hitcrest, even
in cases where the libretto has none of the literary merit that
survives in the transformation of Beaumarchais's comedv into an
Italian libretto. But with the Rossinian decline all charitable
scruples of criticbm are misplaced, for Italian opera once more
became as purely a pantomimic concert as in the Handelian
period; and we must not ignore the difference that it was now a
concert of veiy vulgar music, the vileness of whidi was only
aggravated by the growing range and interest of dramatic
subjects. The best that can be said in defence of it was that
the vulgarity was not pretentious and unhealthy, like Meyerbeer's;
indeed, if the famous " Mad Scene " in Donizetti's Lucia di
Lammermoor had only been meant to be funny it would not
have been vulgar at all. Occasionally the drama pierced through
the empty breczincss of the music; snd so the spirit of Shake*
Speare, even when smothered !n an Italian libretto unsuccessfully
set to music by Rossini, proved so powerful that one spectator
of Rossini's Otdh is recorded to have started out of his seat
at the catastrophe, exclaiming "Oood HeavensI the tenor is
murdering the sopranol" And in times of political unrest
more than one opera became as dangerous as an over-censored
theatre could make it. An hbtorical case in point is brilliantly
described in George Meredith's Vittoria. But what has this
to do with the progress of music? The history of Italian opera
from after its culmination in Mozart to its subsidence on the
big drum amd cymbals of the Rossinians is the history of a
protected industry. Verdi's ait, both in its burly jrouth and In
its shrewd old age, fs far more the crown of his native genius
than of his native traditions; and, though opinions differ as
to the spontaneity and depth of the change, the paradox b true
that the Wagnenzation of Verdi was the musical emandpatioii
of Italy.
After Mozart the next step in the development of true operatic
art was neither Italian nor German, but French. The French
sense of dramatic fitness had a wonderfuUy stimulating effect
upon every fum'gn composer who came to France. Rossini
himself, in CuUlaume Tell, was electrified into a dramatic and
orchestral life of an incomparably higher order than the rollicking
"hittle of serious and conu'c Italian opera in its decCne. He was
in the prime of life when he wrote it, but It exhausted him and
was practically his last important work, though he lived to a
cheerful old age. The defects of its libretto were grave, but be
Bade u n precedented efforts to remedy them, and finally suc^
ccedcd, at the cost of an entire act. The experience was vety
for, from the time of Gluck onwards, wUIe H
caoBot b«'deiitfed that native and aaturaliied French opentle
art has suffered from many forms of musical and diamatie
debasement, we may safely say that no opera has met with
success in France that is without theatrical merit. And the
French contribution to musical history between Gluck and
Rossini is of great noMity. If Cherubini and M£hul had had
Gluck's melodic power, the dassica of French open would havt
been the greatest achievements In semi«tTagic music-druna
before Wagner. As it is, their austerity b not that of the highest
classics. It is negative, and tends to exdodeoutward attmctive-
ness rather because it cannot achieve it than becaose It contains
all things in due proportion. Be this as it may, Chenibini had
a real influence on Beethoven; not to mention that the Ubietti
of Fiiefio and Leo Deux joumieo were orii^nally by the same
author, though Fiddio underwent great changes in translation
and revision. It is impossible to say what French opera might
have done for music through Beethoven If Fiddio had not
renudned his aoliUry (because very neariy unsuccessful) operatic
monument; but there is no doubt as to its effect on Weber,
whose two greatest works, Der FrtisekiUi and Eury&uike, are
two giant strides from Chenibini to Wagner. Bmyaniko is in
respect of Leit-motif (see below) abnost more Wagnerian than
LehengrtH, Wagner's fourth published opera. It failed to make
an epoch in history because of its dreary libretto, to which,
however, the highly dramatic libretto of Lokengrin owes a
surprising number of pointa.
The libretti of classical opera set too low alitciaiy standard
to induce critics* to give suflldent attention to their aesthetic
bearings; and perhaps the great schoUr Otto Jahn is the only
writer who has applied a first-rate literary analysis to the subject
(see his Life of Motart); a subject which, though of great
importance to music, has, like the music itadf , been genoally
thrust bto the background by the countless externals that give
theatrical works and institutions a national or political import-
ance independent of artistic merit and historical devdopmient.
Much that finds prominent place in the orthodox history of
opera is reaOy outside the scope of musical and dramatic discus-
Mon; and it may therefore be safdy left to bo discovered tmder
non-musical headhigs dsewhere in this Encyclopaedia. Even
when what passes for operatic history has a more real connexion
with the art than the history of locomotion has with physical
sdence, the imporUnce of the connexion is often ovenratcd.
For example, much has been said as to the progress la German
opera from the choice of remote subjects like Mosart's Die
EntfUkrung aus dem Serail to the choice of a subject so thoroughly
German as Der FreisckiUsi but this is only part of the general
progress made, chiefly in France, towmids the choice of romantic
instead of chssical subjects. Whatever the intrinsic interest
of musical ethnology, and whatever light it may throw upon the
reasons why an an will devdop and decline sooner in one oonntry
than in another, racial character will not suffice to produce an
art for which no technique as yet exists. Nor will it suffice in
any countiy to check the development or dertroy the value of an
art of which the prindples were developed dsewhere. No
music of Mozart's time could have handled Wd>er'a mnantk
subjects, and all the Tentonism in history could not have pre»
vented Mosart from adopting and developing those ItaKaa
methods that gave him scope. Again, in the time of Lolly,
who was the contemporary of MoU^, the French genius of
stagecraft was devoted to reducing opera to an effective scties
of ballets; yet so little did this hamper composen of real
dramatic power that QuinauU's libretto to Lolly's very saccesfol
Armide served Gluck unaltered for one of >his greatest works
90 years Uter. If Lully owes so little to Cambert as to be ligiitly
entitled the founder of French open. If Gluck fii a greater
reformer than his pitdeceawr Rameau, if Chenibini is a more
powerful artist than M^hul, and If, lastly, Meyerbeer develqped
the vices of the French histrionic machinery with a phmslbiiity
which has never been surpassed, then we must reooodle oar
ndai theories with the historic procem by which the Freack
Grand Opira, one of the most pronounced national types fa all
music, was founded by aa Italian Jew, rcfooned hy aa Aostriagi,
124
OPERA
f^«*^«»^ by anotUr lUEan, and debased "by a German Jew.
This only enhmnces the significance of that French dramatic
•ense which stimulated foreign composen and widened their
choice of subjects, as it also preserved all eactpt the Italian
forms of opera from falling into that elsewhere prevalent early
XQth-centnry operatic style in which there was no means of
guessing by the music whether any situation was tragic or comic.
From the time of Meyerbeer onwards, trivial and vulgar opera
has been as common in France as dsewhere; but there is a world
of difference between, for example, a garish tune naively intended
for a funeral march, and a similar tune used in a serious situation
with a dramatic sense of its association with other incidents in
the opera, and of its contrast with the sympathies of spectators
and actors The first esse is as typical of zgth-centory musical
Italy as the second case is of musical France and all that has
omne under French influence.
As Wagner slowly and painfully attained his maturity he
kamed to abhor the influence of Meyerbeer, and indeed it
accounts for much of the inequality of his earlier work. But
it can hardly have failed to stimulate his sense of effect; and
without the help of Meyerbeer's outwardly successful novelties
it is doubtful whether even Wagner's determination oould
have faced the task of his early work, a task so negative and
destructive in its first stages. We have elsewhere (see Music,
Sonata Forks ad finem, and Symphonic Poem) described how
if music of any kind, instrumental or dramatic, was to advance
beyond the range of the cisisical symphony, there was need
to devise a kind of musical motion and proportion as different
from that of the sonata or symphony as the sonata style is
different from that of the suite. All the vexed questions of the
function of vocal ensemble, of the structure of the libretto, and
of instrumenUtion, are but aspects and resulu of this change
In what is as much a primary category of music as extension
is a primary category of matter. Wagnerian opera, a generation
after Wagner's death, was still an unique phenomenon, the
rational Influenco of which was not yet sifted from the con-
comitant confusions of thou^t prevalent among many composers
of symi^ony, oratorio, and other forms of which Wagner's
principles can be relevant only with incalculable modifications.
With Wagner the history of classical opera ends and a new
history begins, for in Wagner's hands opera first became a single
art-form, a true and indivisible music-drama, instead of a kind
of dramatic casket for a collection of objeis d'art more or less
aptly ananged in theatrical tableaux.
Forms and Terminotagy of Opera.
The history of pre-Wagneiian opera is not, like that of the
sonata forms, a history in which the technical terminology has
a clear relationship to the aesthetic development. In order to
understand the progress of c lassi c al opera we must understand
the whole progress of classical music; and this not merely for
the general reason that the development of an axt-form is
inseparable from the development of the whole art, but because
in the case of opera only the most external terminotogy and the
most unreal and inooherenl history of fashions and factions
remain for consideration after the general development of
musical art has been discussed. For completeness, however, the
terminology must be included; and a commentary on it will
complete our sketch in better historical perspective than any
attempt to amplify details on the lines of a continuous history.
I. Seceo-recikUhe is the delivery of ordinary operatic dialogue
in prosaic redtatlve-formulas, accompanied by nothing but a
harpsichord or pianoforte. In comic operas it was not so bad
a method as some critics imagine; for the ooaducter (who sat
at the harpsichord or pianoforte) would, if be had the wiu
.expected of him by the composer, extemporise his accompani-
ments in an unobtrusively amusing manner, while the actors
deGvered their recitative rapidly in a conversational styleknown
as parloMk, In seiious operas, however, the conductor dare
not be frivolous; and acoordin^y sccoo-redtatlve outside
comic opera is the dreariest of makeshifts, and is not tolerated
by Gluck In bis matura worka. lis accompanica his icduUvcs
with the stxing band» introducing other instnoncota freely aa
the situation suggests.
a. Accompanied recitative was used in all kmds of opera, aa
introductory to important arias and other movements, and also
in the course of finales. Magnificent examples alxmnd in
Idomeneo, Fitaro and Don dovanni', and one of the longest
recitatives before Wagner is that near the beginning of the
finale of the first act of Die ZanberfidU* Beethoven's two
examples in Fiddio are short but of overwhelming pathoa.
3. Melodrama is the use of an orchestral accompaniment to
spoken dialogue (see Benda). It is wonderfully pronusing In
theory, but generally disappointing in effect, imlesa the aaoca
are successfully trained to speak without being dragged by the
music into an out-of-tune sing-4ong. Oassical examples are
generally short and cautious, but very impressive; there is one
in Fiddio in which the orchestra quotes two points from earlier
movements in a thoroughly Wagnerian way (see LdimotiJ
below). But the device is more prominent in incidental music
to plays, as in Beethoven's music for Goethe's EgmotU. Meodds-
fohn's music for A Midsummer Nigkt*s Dream contains \ht most
brilliant and resourceful examples yet achieved in this art;
but they are beyond the musical capacity of the English stage,
which, however, has practised the worst forms of the method
until it has become a disease, many modem performances of
Sbak<speare attaining an alznost operatic continuity of bad
mu&ic.
4. opera bujfa is classtcsl Italian comic opera with seccp-
redtative. Its central classics are, of course, Figaro and Dom
Giovanni, while Cimarosa's M^Urimonio Segrelo and Rossini'a
Barbiere are the most important steps from the culmination
to the faff.
5. Opera teria is classical Italian opera with secco-recttative;
almost dways (like the Handelian opera from which it is derived)
on a Greek or Roman subject, and, at whatever cost to dramatic
or historic propriety, with a happy ending. Gluck purposely
avoids the term in his mature works. The only great dassic
in opera seria is Mozart's Idomeneo, and even that is dramatically
too imequal to be more than occasionally revived, though it
contains much* of Mozart's finest music.
6. The Singxpiet is German opera with spoken dialogue. In
early stages it advanced from the farcical to the comic. With
Beethoven it came under French influence and adopted
" thrilling " stories with happy endings; and from this stage
it passed to specifically " Romantic " subjects. Its greatest
classics are Mozart's Enljilhrung and ZauherfiHe, Beethoven's
Fidelio, and Weber's Frcisckm.
7. Optra comique is the Singspid of France, being French opera
with spoken dialogue. It did not originate in farce but in
the refusal of the Acadimie de Musique to allow rival companies
to infringe its monopoly of Grand Opirai and it is so far from
being essentially comic that one of its most famous classics^
M6hul's Joseph, is on a Biblical subject; while Its highot
achievement, Cherubini's Les DcuxJounUcs, is on a story almost
as serious as that of Fiddio. AU Cherubini's mature operas
(except the ballet Anacrion, which Is uninterrupted music
from beginning to end) are opiras comiques in the sense of having
spoken diabgue; though. Medie, being, perhaps, the first
genuine tragedy in the history of music-drama,* b simply
called "opira" on the title-page. In the smaller French
works, especially those in one act, there is so much spoken
dialogue that they are almost like plays with incidental music
But they never sink to the condition of the so-called operas of
the English componera since Handel. When Weber accepted
the commission to write Oberpn for the English stage in 1825, be
found that he was compelled to set the musical numbers one by
one as they were sent to him, without the sUgbtest information
as to the plot, the situation, or even the order of the piecesi
And. to crown his disgust, he found that this really did not
matter.
•Even Gluck never contemplated any altemattve to the abcmd
happy endtiif of Or;feoi and aU bis other operatic subjects include a
OPERA
»25
8. Crawi aptra la Franch <ipeim in wUch evay wovd b
Aiid genenUy all recitative accompanied by the occbesUa.
It originated in the AtoUmUdt Mmipie, which, from its founda-
tion in x66q to the piodamation of the liberU dss tMaUru in
1791, dainiMi the monopoly of opens on the lines laid down
by LuUy, Rameau and Ghich. RoMini's Guittauim TtU, Spontini's
Vestala and the works of Meyerbeer crown this theoretically
promising art-form with what Sir Hubert Parry has justly
il severely called a crown of no veiy precious metaL Weber's
Euryamtkey Spohr's Jtssonda, and others of his operas, are German
parallel developments; and Wagner's first published work»
Rkmit is like an attempt to beat Meyerbeer on his own ground.
9. Optra btnufft is not an equivalent of optra'bt^ffmt but is
French Ught opera with a prominent strain of persiflages Its
chief representative is Offenbach. It seems to be as native to
France as the austere epira ctwuque which it eclipsed. Sullivan
assimilated its adroit orchestration as Gilbert purified its literacy
wit* and the result became a peculiarly English possession.
19. The JiiuU is that part of a classical opera where, some
way before the end of an act, the music galhen itself together and
flows in an unbroken chain of concerted movements. The
'' invention " has been ascribed to this or that oompoaer before
Mozart, and it certainly must have taken some time in the
growing; but Mozart is the first classic whose finales are famous.
The finales to the second act of Figaro, the first act of Don
Ciovanm and the second of the Zauberjidle remained unequalled
in scale and in dnmaiic and symphonic continuity, until Wagner,
as it were, extended the finale backwards until it met the inlr^-
ditcUon (see bdow) so that the whole act became musically ooo-
tinoQua. This step was foreshadowed by Weber, in whose
Eiuyanlka the numbering of the later movements of each act is
quite arbitrary. Gnat finales nre less frequent in Singspitl than
in 9p«ra h^ffa. They can hardly be said to ezist In opira seHa,
climax at the end of an act being there (even in Ghick) attained
only by a collection of ballet movements, whereas the essence
of Mnsart'a finale is iu capacity to deal with real tuming-poinu
of the action. A few finales of the first and second acu of
opiras comiqMat (which are almost always in three acts) are on
the great daasical lines, e.f . that to the first act of £ef Deux
foumits; but a French finale to a last aet is, except in Cberubini's
works, hardly ever more than a short chorus, often so per-
functoiy that, for instance, when M£faul's Joseph was fiiat
produced by Weber at Dresden in 1817, a three-movement finale
by Frinzl of Munich was added; and Weber publicly expiained
the difference between French and (jerman notions of finality,
in excuse for a course so repugnant to his principles in the
performance of other worits.
If. The intteiuciioH is sometimes merely an fostrumental
entr'acte in cbMical open; but it is more especially an extension
of continuous dramatic music at the beginning of an act, like
the extension of the finale backwards towards the mkldle of the
aa, bttkmuch smaller. Beethoven, in his last vetsion of F&Mfo,
used the term for the perfectly normal duet that begins the first
act, and for the instrumental entr'acte which leads to the rise of
the curtain on F]oiestan''s great scene in the seoond act. The
rlnnifsi instanrrs of the special meaning of ** faitreductfon " are
the first nnmber in Don Ciotanni and, more typically, that hi the
Zat^efjidle*
IS. t^l'moiif, or the associatioB of musical themes with
dranmtic ideas and persons, is not only a natural means of
piug r css in music dnma, but is an absolttte musical necessity as
soon as the lines dividing an open into sepante formal pieces
are broken down, unless the music is to become exdnsively
" atmospheric " and inarticulate. Without r e cui ie n ce of themes
n huge piece of music could no moie show coherent devetopment
than a drama in which the characten were never twice addressed
by the same name nor twice allowed to appear in the same guise.
Now the classical operatic fonns, being mainly limited by the
sonata style, were not such as could, when once worked out in
appropriate designs of aria and ensemble, be worked out again
in recognisable tnnsfonnatidns without poverty and monotony
ofeffecL And hence a system of £di^ffM/(^ was not spiMopciaie
to that iogenfoos compromtse which classical open made
between music that completed from 12 to 30 independent
designs and the drama, that meanwhile completed one.
But when the music became as continuous as the drama
the case was different. There are plenty of classical instances of
a theme superficially marking some cardinal incident or personal
charaaeristic, without affecting the independence of the muricai
forms; the commonest case being, of course, the allusion some-
where in the overture to salient points in the body of the opera;
as, for iosUncc, the alhision to the words " cost fan luUi " in the
overture to Mozart's open of that name, and the Masonic three-
fold chord in that to the ZaiAerfiiU. Weber's overtures are
sonata-form fantasias on themes to come: and in later and
lighter operas such allusiveness, being childishly easy, is a
meaningless matter of course. Within the open itself, songs,
such as would be sung m an ordinary non-musical i^y, will
probably recur, as in £«f Deux journiesi and so will all phrases
that have the character of a call or a signal, a remarkable and
pathetic instance of which may be found in Maul's Aitiidare d
Pkrosine, where the orchestre makes a true Leit-moHf of the
music of the heroine's name. But it is a long way from this to the
system akeady clearly marked by Weber hi Der FrdackUtt and
devctoped in Euryantko to an extent which Wagner dki not
surpass m any earlier work than Tristan, though in respect of the
obUuntion of sections his earliest works are in advance of Weber.
Yet not only are there some thirteen recurrent raurical incidents
in the PreisckUiz and over, twenty in Euryantke, but in the latter
the serpentine theme ssso ci a ted with the treacherous Egbuitine
actually stands the Wagnerian test of being recognizable when
.its character is transformed This can hardly be daimed even for
the organization of themes in Lohenpite.
Mature Wagnerian Leil-motif b a very different thing from the
crude system of musical labels to which some of Wagner's
disciples have reduced it, and Wagner himself had no patience
with the catalogue methods of modem operatic analysis. The
Leit-motif system of Tristan, the Meislersing/er, the Xing and
Parsifal is a profoundly natural and subtle cross-current of musical
thought, often sharply contrasted with the externals of a
dramatic situation, since it is free to reflect not only these
externals, not only the things which the audience know and the
persons of the dram£ do not know, not only those workings of
the dramatic character's mind which he is trying to conceal from
the other charecten, but even those which he conceals from
himself. There was nothing new in any one of these possibilities
taken singly (see, for ewimplp, Gkick's ironic treatment ci **le
calme rentre dans man ceatr "), but polyphonic Leit-motif made
them all possible simultaneously. Wagner's mind was not con-
centntcd on the merely litency and theatrical aspects of music-
drama; he fought his way to the topmost heights of the peculiar
musical mastery necessary to his ideals; and so he realised that
principle in which ikone b\it the very greatest musicians find
freedom; the principle that, however constantly necessary and
powerful homophonic music may be in passages of artifidal
simplicity, all harmonic music is by nature and origin polyphonic;
and that in polyphony lies the normal and natural means of
expressing a dramatic blending of emotions.
Wsgncrian Leit-motif has proved rather a giant's robe for later
composers ; and the most successful of recent operas ha ve, while aim*
ing less at the sublime, cultivated Wagner's musical and dramatic
continuity more than his principles of musical texture. Certainly
Wagnerian continuity is a permanent postulate in modem open;
but it shows itself to be a thing attainable quite independently
of any purely musical style or merit, so long as the dramatic
movement of the play is good. This conditfon was always
necessary, even where opem was most vympbonic Mozart was
focessant^^ disputing with his libiettisU; and all his critidsms
snd changes, though apparent^ of purely musical purport, had a
brilliant dSect on the moveBoent of the play. In one dcq>ents
case, where the librettist wss obstinate. Mozart abandoned a
work iVOca del Cairo) to the first act of which he had already
sketched a great finale embodying a grandiose farcical figure that
promised to be unique an daasical opera.
126
OPHICLEIDE
Bfmut't IcMoa of dramatic moveowBt has been better learnt
thaa anything peculiar to either music or literature; for, whQe
his libretti show how little that quality has to do with poetic
merit, the whole history oC Italian opera from Rossini to Mascagni
shows how little it has to do with good music. On the other hand,
the musical coherence oC the individual classical forms used in
opera has caused many critics to miss the real dramatic ground
of some of the most hnporUnt operatic conventions. The chief
instance of this is the repetition of words in arias and at dlmazes,
A convention which we are ovef-ready to explain as a device which
prolongs situations and delays action for the sake of musical
design. But in the best classical enmples the case is almost the
reverse, for the aria does not, as we are apt to suppose, represent
a few words repeated so as to serve for a long {Aece of music
Without the music the dxuma would have required a l<»g speech
in its place; but the classical composer cannot fit intelligible
music to a long string of different sentences, and so the librettist
reduces the speech, to mere headlines and the composer supi^les
the eloquence. Herein lies the meaning of Mosart's rapid progress
firom vocal concertos like ** Puor del mar** in Idomeneo and
*' Mvkm alUr Arten " in Die Eni/UMruMg to gendne musical
speeches like " Nan fiH andrai ** in FiiorOf in which the obvious
capacity to deal with a greater number of words is far less
impoitaat than the naturalness and freedom with which the
pace of the declamation is varied— a freedom unsurpassed even
in the Elektra of Richard Strauss.
With Wagnerian polyphony and continuity music became
capable of treating words as they occur in ordinary speech, and
repetitions have accordingly become out of phce except where
they would be natural without music. But it is not here that the
real gain in freedom of movement lies. That gain has been won,
not by Wagner's negative reforms alone, but by his combination
of negative reform with new depths of musical thought; and
modem opera is not more exempt than classical opera from the
dangers of artistic methods that have become facile and secure.
If the libretto has the right dramatic movement, the modem
composer need have no care beyond what is wanted to avoid
interference with that movement. So long as the music arouses
no obviously incompatible emotion and has no breach of con-
tinuity, it may find perfect safety in^ being meaningless.
The necessary stagecraft is indeed not common, but neither
is it musical. Critics and public will cheerfully agree in
ascribing to the composer all the qualltierof the drunatist;
and three allusions in the music of one scene to that of another
will suffice to pass for a marvellous development of Wagnerian
Lriirmolif.
Modem opera of genuine artistic ^gnificance ranges from the
light song-play type admirably represented by Blaet's Carmen
to the eanduslvely " atmospheric *' impressionism of Debussy's
PiUeas et UUUande. Both these extremes are equally natural in
effect, though diametrically opposite in method; for both types
eliminate everything that would be inadmissible in ordinary
drama. If we examine the libretto of Carmm as an ordinary play
we shall find it to consist mainly of actual songs and dances, so
that more than half of the musk would be necessary even if it
were not an opera at alL Debussy's opera diffen from Maeter-
linck's play only in a few omissions such as would probably
be made. in ordinary non-musical performances. His musical
method combines perfect Wagnerian continuity with so entire
an absence of Lett-moHf that there are hardly three musical
phrsses in the whole opera that could be recognized if they
recurred in fresh contexts. The highest oonodvable development
of Wsgncrian continuity has been attained by Strauss in Sal&me
and EUkiru; these operas being actually more perfect in dra-
matic movement than the original plays of WOde and Hot-
mannnhal But their use of Leil^moHf, thou^ obvious and
impressive, is far lessdeveloped than in Wagner; and the poly-
phony, as distinguished from the brilliant instmmental technique,
is, like that technique, devoted mainly to realistic and physically
cxdting effects that crown the impression in much the same way
as skilful lighting of the stage. Certainly Strauss does not in
his whole time-limit of an hour and thiee-qaarlcM use aa many
definite themes (evea in the shortest of figures) as Wsgncr uses
in ten minutes.
It remains to be seen whether a further development o(
Wsgnerian opera, in the sense of addition to Wagner's resources
in musical architecture, ispossible. The uncompromising realism
of Strauss does not at first sight seem encouraging In this direc-
tion; yet his treatment of Elektra's first invocation of Agamcns-
non produces a powerful effect of musical form, dimly perceived,
but on a larger scale than even the huge sequences of Wagner.
In any case, the best thing that can happen in a period of musical
transition is that the leading fcvolutionarics should make a mark
in opeia. Musical revolutions are too easy to mean much by
themselves; there is no purely musical means of testing the
sanity of the revolutionaries or of the critics. But the stage,
while boundlesdy tolerant of bad music, will stand no ix>nsense
in dramatic movement. (The case of Handelian opera Is no excep-
tion, for in it the stage was a mere topographical term.) In every
period of musical fermentation the art of opera has instantly
sifted the men of real ideas from the aesthetes and doctrinaires;
Monteverde from the prince of Venosa, Gluck from Gossec, and
Wagner from Liszt. As the ferment subsides, opera tends to a
complacent decadence; but it will always revive to put to the
first and most crucial test every revolutionary principle that
enters into music to destroy and expand.
See also Abia; Overtukb; .CiuaoBnii; Gluck: Mozart:
VBaoi; WAGNsa; Wsasa. (D. F. T.)
OPHICLBIDB (Fr. ophidade, hatse d'karmauk; Ger. Opkik-
kid; ItaL ojideide), a brass wind instrament having a cufKliaped
mouthpiece and keys, in fact a bass k^ed-bugle. The name
(from Gr. ^ts, serpent, and kXciCit, keys), applied to it by
Halazy, the patrntrr of the instrument, is hardly a happy one,
for there is nothing of the serpent about the oi^dclde, which
has the bore of the bugle and also owes the chromatic arrange-
ment of the keys to a principle evolved by HaUiday for the bu^e.
to be explained later on.
The ophicldde is almost perfect theoretically, for it combines
the natursl harmonic scale of the brass wind instrumenU having
cup^haped mouthpieces, such as the trumpet, with a system
of keys, twelve in number, one for each chromatic semitone of
the scale; it is capable of absolutely accurate intonation. It
consists of a wooden, or oftener brass, tube with a conical bore
having the same proportions as that of the bugle but not wide
eoou^ in proportion to its length to mske the fundamental or
first note of the harmonic series of much practical use. The
tube, theoretically * 8 ft. long, is doubled upon itself once, ter-
minating at the narrow end in a tight coil, from which protrudes
the straight piece known as the crook, which bean the cup-
shaped mouthpiece; the wide end of the tube terminates in a
ftmnel-ahaped bell pointing upwards.
The production of sound is effected in the ophideide as in other
instrumenta with cup- or funnel-shaped monthpieces (see Horn).
The lips stretched across the mouthpiece act as viinmtiBg reeds
or as the vocal chords in the larynx. The breath of the poformcr,
compressed by being forced through the narrow openmg between
the Ups, sets the latter in vibratiott. The stream of air, instead
of proceeding into the cup in an even flow — in which case there
would be no sound— is converted into a series of pulsations by
the trembling of the lips. On being thrown into oommunlcatioa
with the main statkmary column of air at the bottom of the cup,
the pulsating stream generates ** sound waves," each consisting
of a half wave of expansion and of a half wnve of compression.
On the frequency per second of the sound waves as they strike
the dram of the ear depends the pitch of the note, the acuteness
of the sound varying in direct proportion to the frequency. To
ensure a U^ier frequency In the sound waves, their length must
be decreased. Two things are necessary to bring tl^ about
without shortening the length of the tube: (i) the opening
between the lips, fixed at each end by contact with the edges of
* For an explsaadon of the dillnence between theory and practice
in the length of the tubes of wind instrunicnts, see Vktor MahiUon.
" Le cor '^ (La iustrttmemU de musiqme au mtuie dm consavaimn
royal de mnsiqtte df Bnuulhs, pt. u. BrismIs and London. 1907),
pp. ty.J9.
OPHICLEIDS
127
the Bombpiete, mttft be aaxk shnower by greater teotlon;
(a) the IffCAth must be lent through the zeductd apecture in %
more compreased £onn and with greater force, 10 that the exciting
dureat of air beaunes more incisive. An exact |;>R^rtion,
not jet fdentifically determined, evidently- eiists between the
•Mount oC fueiHire And the degree of tenrioo, which ia uncon-
adottsty regulated by the performer, excess of pressoze in pe»>
portion to the tension of the Upapeodudng a orcMido fay causing
amplitude of vibration instead of increased speed.
Whtn. the fundamental note of a pipe Is produced, the tension
of the lipa and pressure of breath proportioiiaUy combined an
at their minimum for that inatnunenL If both be doubled,
n node is ionned half way up the pipe, and the column of air
no longer vibmtes as a whole, but as two separate parts, each
half the length of the tube, and the frequency of the sound
waves is doubled in consequence. The practiod result is the
production of the seoond harmonic of the series an octave above
the ftmdamcntaL The formation of three luxies and therefore
of three separate sound waves produces a note a twelfth above
the fundamental, known as the third hannonic, and so 00 in
mathematical ratio. This harmonic series forms the natural
scale of the instrument, and is. for the ophfctoide the foOowfag:
^
la some cases the fundamental is difficult to obtaia, and the
harmopics above the eighth are not used.
The ophideide has in addition to iu natural scale eleven or
twelve lateral holes covered by keys* each of which, when succca-
sively opened, raises the pitch of the hannonic series asemitonek
with the exception of , the first, an open key, wjiich on being
dosed lowers the .pitch a semitone^ There were ophidcidcs
ia C and in B^, the former being the more common; contsabau
ophicleidef were also occasionaUy made ia F and £>« The
keys of the ophicleide, being placed in the lowest register, were
intended to bind together by chromatic degrees the first aad
■Boood harmonics. The omnpass is a little over three octaves»
from *^-3-'°-y^F^ with chromatic semitones throughout.
Tlie unsatisfactory timbre of the ophicleidi led to its bdng
tuperseded by the bass tuba; but it seems a pity that an
Instrument so powerful, so easy to learn and understand, and
capable of such accurate intonation, should have to be discarded.
The lower register is rough, but so powerful that it can easily
sustain above it masses of brass harmonics; the medium is
coarse in tone, and the upper wild and unmusical.
AlUiough a bass kcyed-bugle, the <H>hicIddQ owes something of
hs.ofigio to the application o( keys to the serpent ij.v.), a wind
Instrument, the invention of which is geflerally attributed to Edme
GoiUaane, canon of Auncre, about 1590. The serpent remained
in ita primitive form for nearly two centuries, and then, only it was
attempted to Improve it by adding keys. U was a musician named
Kfpbo.* belonging to the orchestra of the church of St Pferre at
Lille, who. about 1780, first thought of giving it the th^pt of a
bassoon. The merit of thn innovatio* was rapidly itcosoiaBd in
Englaod apd Germany. StiU. to folk>w Cerber,* one Fricliot, who
was esubhshed in London, published in 1800 a description of an
instrument, entirely of brass, manufactured by J. Astor. which he
dafflied as his invention, calling it the basshorn. but which was no
oahar ia principle than the new serpent of R£^bo. It only mode
^ wny to France and Belmum after the passage of the allied armies
m 1 815. The EngUsh brasabaashorn was designated on the Continent
the Engfish or the Russian basshom. the ** serpent anglah *' or the
** basaoo rusae." Under this last name all instruments of the form.
whether of wood or braaa, were later on confounded in France and
Beigium. The " basson rusae '* repained in great vopie until the
appea ra nce of the oohkleide, to disappear with it ia the complete
revolution brought about by the invention Of olstooa.
The invention of the ophicleide is generally out falsely attributed
to Alsaandre Frichot, a profeaaor of muiie at Liaieux. department of
Cahradm^. Fnneob The instfwmenc« which the inventor called
" basa s trompette^** was approved of as early as iith November
1806 by a commisaion composed of professors of tne Paris Con-
I Cerber, Lackvn der TonHiugtr (Leipsig. 1790).
•Icaalksn. edition of |gi3.
servatofav. but the patent bears the dale 31st Deotmber 1810. The
" basseHrompetto,"^ which Friehot ia his speeification had at first,
in imitation of the English basshorn, called ** basse cor." was, like
the EngUah iaatrument. entirely of brass, and had. like it, aue holes;
it only differed in a more favourable diq)oaition broimht about by
the curvings of the tube, and by the applioaiion of four crooks
which permitted the instruoient to be ttincd " in C low pitch and
C high pitch for military bands, in Cg for churches, and in D for
concert use." The close rebttionship between the two instnmients
auggesta the question whether this was the Friehot who worked with
Astor in London in 180a
The first idea of adding keys to instruments with cupped mouth*
pieces, unprovided with lateral holes, with the aim of filling vp some
of the gaps between the notes of the harmome scale, goes hack,
according to Cerber {Lexiam of 1790), to Kiilbel. a hornplayer in
the Russian imperial band, about 1760. Anton Weidinger.* trumpeter
in the Austrian imperial band, unproved upon this first attempt,
and aoplied it in 1800 to the trumpet. , But the honour belongs to
Josepn Halliday. bandmaster of the Cavan militia, of being the first
to conceive, in x8io, the disposition of a certain number of keys
along the tube, setting out from its Unrer extremity, with the idea
of producing by their aoooessive or simultaneous opening a chronutlc
scale throughout the extent of the instrument. The bugle-horn
was the object of his reform; the scale of which, he says, in the
preamble of his patent, '* untit my invention contained but five
^ My improvemenu on that
are ^-fceys, to be used by the performer according
to the annexed scale, which, with iu five original notes, reader tt
capable of producinr twenty-five separate tones in
regular progresnon. Fig. i represents the keyed
bugle of Joseph Halliday.
It was not until 1815 that the use of the. new
instrument spread upon the Contioait. We find
in the account-books of a Belgian maker, Tuer-
linckx of Mechlin, that his first supply of a bugle-
horn bears the date of 25th March 181;$. and it was
made "aen den Heer Muldener, lieutenant in
het regiment due d*York.**
The aeonstie principle inaugurated by Hallklay
binoing together by chromatic degrees
' to
the second and third harmonics.
V - ^ ^
He attained it. as we have just i
Ro. I.— Keyed
Bi^.
by the help of fbre keys. The principle once disooveredL it became
easy to extend it to mstruments of the largest stae, of which the
compass, as in the " basson russe,** began with the fundamental
sound. It was simply necessary to bind this fundamental
to the neat hannenie
^ " Ki | by a larger number of keys. This
was done in t8i7 by Jean Hilaire Ast£, known
as Halaiy, a professor of music and instra-
ment-mawer at Paris. We find the dcacription
of the instruments for which he soodat a
patent in the StAPpwt ia VAciMnus RoyuU
des BeaMX'Arts dt I InstUui de France, meeting
of the 19th of July 181 7. These instruments were
three in number: (11 the davi-^ube, a keyed
trumpet: (a) the qmnd-tube. or qointi-davw;
(3) the ophicleide, a keyed serpent. The clavi-
tube was no other than the bugle-horn slightly
modified in some details of construction, and
reproduced in the different tonalities A^, F, Eb.
D, C. B^. A and A^. The qointi-tube had
nouiy the form of a basaooa, and was, in the
first ittsunce, armed with eight keys and
constructed in two tonalities. F and Eb. This
was the instrument a f terw a rds named '* aho
' The ophklekle <fif. a) had the
as the quinti-tnbe. It waa at first
adjusted with nine or ten keys, and the
number was carried on to twelve— -eadi key
re give a se mi tone (additional patent of Ifith
August 181a). The ophicleide or bam of the
* and in Bb. the oontm-bam in F and in Eb.*
FiG.l.-Ophic]eide
of Halary.
*Tha announcement of Weidingcr's invention of a KXapUn-
fPMipcte, or trampet with keys, appears in the 4ff|. mart*. Ztf,
(Leipzig. November 180a). p. 158; and further accounu are given m
January i8os* P- 24S> and 181$. p. 844- . . ...
* The report of the Acadtoie des Beaux-Arts on the subject of this
invention shows a strange misconception of it, whkh it is mtercsting
to recall. ** As to the two instruroenu which M. Halary designs
128
OPHIR— OPHTHALMOLOGY
It is certain that from the point of view of invention Halary**
labours had only Mcondary importance; but, if the principle of
keyed chromatic instruments with cupped mouthpiece* goes back
to Haltiday, it was Halary's merit to know how to uke advantage
of the principle in extending it to instrumenu of diverse tonalities,
in grouping them in one single family, that of the bugles, in so com*
piete a manner that the improvements of modern manufacture have
not widened its limits either in the grave or the acute direction.
Keyed chromatic wind instruments made their way rapidly: to their
introduction into military full or brass bands we can date the
regeneration of military music. After piatons had been invented
some forty years, instruments with keys coukl still reckon their
partisans. Now these have utterly disappeared, and pistons or
roury cylinders remain absolute masters of the situation.
(V.M.;K.S.)
OPHIR, a regiion' celebrated in antiquity for its gold, which
was proverbially fine (Job zxii. 34, zxviii. 16; Fsabns zlv. 9;
Isa. xiii. z 2), Thence Solomon's Phoenician sailors brou^t gold
for their master (1 Kings iz. 28, x. 11; a Chron. viii. 18, ix. 10);
Ophir gold was stored up among the materials for the Temple (i
Chron. xxix. 4). Jchosbaphat, attempting to follow his ancestors'
example, was foiled by the shipwreck of his navy (i Kings xxii.
48). The situation of the plaice has been the subject of much
controversy.
The 'only indications whereby it can be identified are its
connexion, in the geographical table (Gen. x. 39), with Sheba
and Havilah, the latter also an auriferous country (Gen. ii. xi),
and the faa that ships sailing thither started from Ezion-Gcber
at the head of the Red Sea. It must, therefore, have been
somewhere south or east of Suez; and must be known to be a
gold-bearing region. The suggtttcd identification with the
Egyptian Punt is in itself disputable, and it would be more
helpful if we knew exactly where Punt was (sec Egypt).
(1) East Africa.— This has, perhaps, been the favourite theory
in recent yeats, and it has been widely popularized by the
sensational works of Theodore Bent and others, to say nothing
of one of Rider Haggard's novels. The centre of speculation
is a group of extensive ruins at Zimbabwe, in Mashonaland,
about 200 m. inland from Sofala. Many and wild w6rds have
been written on these imposing retnains. But the results
of the saner researches of Randall Maclver, announced first
at the South Africa meeting of the Britbh Association (1905)
and later communicated to the Royal Geographieal Society,
have robbed these structures of much of their glamour; from
being the centres of Phoenidan and Hebrew industry they have
sunk to be mere magnified kraals, not more than three or four
hundred years old.
(2) Tke Far jE<m/.— Various writers, following Josephus and
the Greek veision, have placed Ophir in different parts of the
Far East. A chief argument in favour of this view u the length
of the voyages of Solomon's vessels (three years were occupied
in the double voyage, going and returning, i Kings x. 22) and
the nature of the other Imports that they brouj^t— " almug-
trces " (».<. probably sandal-wood), ivory, apes and peacocks.
This, however, proves nothing. It is nowhere said that these
various imports all came from one place; snd the voyages must
have been somewhat analogous to those of modern '* coasting
tramps," which would necessarily consume a considerable time
over comparatively short journeys. It has been sought at
under the names of ' quinti<lave ' and * ophicletde, * they bear a great
resemblance to those submitted to the Academy in the^itting ol the
nth of March 1811 by M. Dumas, which he designed under the
names of ' basse et contrcbasae guerri^ies.' ... The opinion cl our
commission on the <juinti<tave and opUcleide is that M. Halary can
only claim the ment of an irapioyemcnt and not that of an entire
invention: still, for an equitable judgment on this point, we should
compare the one with the other, and this ourcommtsnon cannot do,
not having the instruments of M. Ditmas at our disposal.*' Thb is
what the commisaioo ought to have had. but it would have sufficed
had they referred to the report of the sittings of 6th and 8th April,
in which it b dearly explained that the Instruments presented by
M. Dumas were bass clarinets {MonUeur Unmrsd of 19th April
1811).
> We designedly omit the use of the wonl '* biass *' to qualify
these instruments. The substance which determines the form of a
column of air Is demonstrably indifTerent for the timbre or ooality of
tone so king as the sides of the tubes are equally clastic and rigid.
Abkirat at the moofh of the Indus (where, however, there is bo
gold); at Supara, in Goa; and at a certain Mount Ophir in
Johore.
(3) Arabia,— On the whole the most satisfactory theoiy is
that Ophir was in some part of Arabia«*-whether south or tuH
is disputed, and (with the indications at our disposal) probably
cannot be settled. Arabia was known as a gotd-produdng
countiy to the Phoenicians (Ezck. xxvii. as); Sheba ccitaanly,
and Havilah probably, are regions of Arabia, and these are
coupled with Ophir in Genesis x.; and the accoaat of the arrival
of the navy in i Kings x. ti, is strangely interpolated into the
stoiy of the visit of the queen of Sheba, perhaps because there
is a closer connexion between the two evenU than appears at'
first sight.
Historians have been at a loss to know what Solomon could
give in exchange for the gold of Ophir and the costly gifts of
the queen of Sheba. Mr K. T. Frost (Expos. Times, Jan. 1905)
shows that by his command of the trade routes Solomon was able
to balance Phoenicians and Sabaeans sgsinst each other, and
that his Ophir gold wouljl be paid for by trade facilities and
protection of caravans. (R. A. S. M.)
WHITES, or Opbiams (Gr. a^, Heb. ^ " snake "), known
also as Naasenss, an cariy sect of Gnostics described by
Hippol3rtus (Pkilosoph. v.), Irenaeus (sis. Haer, i. 11), Origen
{Contra Cdsum, vi. 25 seq. and Epiphanius {Hasr. xxvL). The
account given by Irenaeus may be taken as representative
of these descriptions which vary partly as refeiring to different
groups, partly to different dates. The honour paid by them
to the serpent is connected with the old mythologies of Babylon
and Egypt as well as with the popular cults of Greece and the
Orient. It was particularly offensive to Christians as tending
to dishonour the Creator who is set over against the serpent
as bad against good. The Ophite system had iu Trinity : (i) the
Universal God, the First Man, (2) his conception (f»fotn), the
Second Man, (3) a fethale Holy Spirit . From her the Thhrd Man
(Christ) was begotten by the First and Second. Chriit 6cw
upward with his mother, and fai their ascent a spark of light
fell on the waters ss Sophia. From tins conuct came laldabaotk
the DemiurgDS, who in turn produced six powers and with them
created the seven heavens and from the dregs of matter the
Nous of serpent form, from whom are qnrit and soul, evil and
death. laldabaoth then announced himself as the Supreme,
and when man (created by the six powers) gave thanks for
life not to laldabaoth but to the First Mao, laldabaoth crcnted
a woman (Eve) to destroy him. Then Sophia or Prunikos sent
the serpent (as a benefactor) to persuade Adam and Eve to eat
the tree of knowledge and so break the commandment of Ialda>
baoth, who banished them from paradise to earth. After a long
war between mankind aided by Prunikos against laldabaoth
(this is the inner story of the OM Testament), the Holy Spirit
sends Christ to the earth to enter (united with his sister Prunikos)
the pure vessel, the virgin-bom Jesus. Jesus Christ worked
miracles and declared himself the Son of the First Man. lalda-
baoth instigated the Jews to kill him, but only Jesus dtied oA
the cross, for Christ and Prunikos had departed from ham.
Christ then raised the spiritual body of Jesus which remained
on earth for eighteen months, Initiating a small drcle of elect
disdples. Christ, received into heaven, sits at the right hand
of laMabaoth, whom he deprives of gk>ry and recdvcs the souls
that are his own. In some circles the serpent was identified
with Prunikos. There are some resemblances to the Valentinlan
system, but whereas the great Archon sins in ignorance,
laklabaoth sins against knowledge; there is also less of Greek
philosophy in the Ophite system.
See King, The Gnostiei and their Remains (London, 1887): G.
Salmon, art. " Ophites ** in Dici. Ckr. Btog.
OPHTHAUiOLOOT (Gr. ^^aX^, eye), the adence of the
anatomy, physiology and pathology of the eye (see Eyb and
Vision). From the same Creek word come numerous other
derivatives: e.g. ophthalmia, the general name for conjunctival
inflammations (see Eye diseases, under Eye) ; and the instrument^
ophthahnometer and ophtltaimosoope (see Vision).
OPIE, A.— OPITZ VON BOBERFELD
129
{iy69*t$ss)t Eaglub author, dsugfaler oC
Jama Aldenon, a phjrsidAn in Norwich, and was bom there
00 the itth of November 1769. Mias Alderaon had inherited
ndical prindptes and was ah anient admirer of Home Tooke.
She waa intimato with the Kembks and with Mrs Siddons»
with Godwin and Mary VVoUstonecraft. In 1798 she married
John Opkr the painter. The nine years of her married life
were very happy* although her husb^ind did not share her love
of society. He encouraged her to write, and in i8ox she prodticed
a aovel entitled father and Daughter, which showed gennine
fancy and pathos. She published a volume of graceful verse
in i8oe; AdtHne Mowbray followed in 1804, SimpU TaUs in
s8o6, Temper in iSis, TaUs «/ Bioi U/e in 18 tj, Valentine'^
Em in s8i6. Tales of the Heart in 1818, and Madeline in iSn.
At length, in 1825, through the influence of Joseph John Curney,
she joined the Society of Friends, and beyond a volume entitled
Detraction Displayed, and contributions to periodicals, she
wfote nothing more. The rest of her life was spent in trarelling
and in the exerdse of charity. Mrs Opie retained her vivacity
to the last, dying at Norwich on the and of December r853.
A Life, by Mis C. L. Bnghtwell. was published in 1854.
OPIB, JOHN (1761-1807), English historical and portxait
painter, was bom at St Agnes near Truro in May 1761. He
eariy showed a taste for drawing, besides having at the age
of twelve mastered Euclid and opened an evening school for
arithmetic and writing. Before long he won some local reputation
by portrait -painting; and in 1780 he started for London, under
the patronage of Dr Wolcot ( Peter Pindar). Opie was introduced
to the town as " The Cornish Wonder," a Klf-taught geniu^
The world of fashion, ever eager for a new sensation, was
attracted; the carriages of the wealthy bloeked the street
in which the painter resided, and for a time he reaped a rich
harvest by his portraits. But soon the fickle tide of popularity
flowed past him, and the painter was left neglected. He now
applied himself with redoubled diligence to conccting the
defects which marred his ait, meriting the praise of his rival
Northcote-'" Other artists paint to live; Opie lives to paint."
At the same time he sought to supplement his early education
by the study of Latin and French and of the best English classics,
and to polbb the rudeness of his provincial manners by mixing
In cultivated and learned drcles. In 1786 he exhibited his first
important historical subject, the " Assassination of James L, " and
in the following year the '* Murder of Rlzsio," a work whose merit
was recognised by the artist's immediate election as associate
of the Academy, of which he became a full member in 1788. He
was employed on five subjects for Boydell's "Shakespeare
Gallery "; and until his death, on the 9th of April 1807, his
practice alternated between portraiture and historical work.
His productions are distinguished by breadth of handliag and
a certain rude vigour, individuality and freshness. They are
wanting In grace, elegance and poetic feeling. Opie is also
favourably known as a writer on art by his Life of Reynolds in
Wolcot's edition of Pilkington, his LeUer an the Ctdtitation
ef the Fine Arts in England, in which he advocated the formation
of a natk>nal gallery, and his Lectures as professor of painting
to the Royal Academy, which were published In 1809, with a
memoir of the artist by his widow (see above).
OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think), a term used
loosely in ordbiary speech for an idea or an explanation of
facts which is regarded as being based on evidence which Is
good but not conchisive. In logic it la osed as a translatlob
of Gf. M{ia, which plays a prominent part fai Greek philosophy
as the opposite of knowledge (hri&rlipiif or dX^^a). The
distinction is drawn by Parmenides, who contrasts the sphere of
truth or knowledge with that of opinion, which deals with mere
appearance, error, not-being. So Plato places 86|a between
cTffA|«tt and Miwa, as dealing with phenomena contrasted
with non-being and being respectively. Thus Plato confines
opinion to that which is subject to change. Aristotle, retaining
the same idea, a»igns to opinion (especially in the Ethics) the
tphere of things contingent, i.e, the future: hence opinion
«leab with that which is probable. More generally he uses
popular opinion-^thst whicSi is generally held to be true (foed^)
—as the surttng^point of an inquiry. In modem plulaBophy:
the term has been used for various conceptions all having
much the same connotation. The absence of any universally
acknowledged definition, especially aoch aa would contrast
"opinion" with " beUef," "faith" and the like, deprives it
of any status as a philosophic term.
OPITZ VON BOBERFELD. MARTIN (1597^1639), German
poet, waa bora at Bunzlau in Silesia on the 2jrd of December
KS97* the son of a prosperous dtizen. He received his early
education at the Gymnasium of his native town, of which
his unde waa rector, and in 1617 Attended the hi^ school-^
" Sch5naichtanum "—fit Beuthen, where he made a spedal
study of French, Dutch and Italian poetry. In 1618 he entered
the university of Frankfort^n-Oder as a student of Itleraa
humaniores, and in the same year published his first essay,
Aristarchus, site De eantemptu linguae Teutonicae, a plea for
the purification of the German language from foreign adulters^
tion. In t6f 9 he went to Heidelberg, where he became the leader
of the Khool of young poets which at that time made that
uaivertity town remarkable. Visiting Leiden in the following
year he sat at the feet of the famous Dutch lyric poet Danid
Heinsius (1580-1655), whose Lobgesang Jesu Christi and
Lobgesang Bacehi he had already translated into alexandrines.
After bdng for a short year (1622) professor of philosophy at
the Gymauium of Weissenburg (now Karbburg) in TcansylvanJa,
he led a wandering life in the service of various territorial
nobles. In 1624 he was appointed councillor to Duke George
Rudolf of LiegniU and Btieg in Silesia, and in 1625, as reward
for a requiem poem composed on the death of Archduke Charles
of Austria, was crowned laureate by the emperor Ferdinand
II. who a few years later ennobled him under the title " von
Boberfeld." He was elected a member of the Fruchtbringende
CessUschafl in 1629, and in 1630 went to Paris, where he made
the acquaintance of Hugo Crotius. He settled in 1635 at
Danzig, where Ladislaus IV. of Poland made him his historio-
grapher and secretary. Here he died of the plague on the 20th
of August 1639.
Opiu was the head of the •o<a]led First SHeslan School
of poets(sec OtxuMniUterature), and was doing his life regarded
as the greatest German poeL Although he would not to-day
be considered a poetical genius, he may justly dalm to have
been the *' father of German poetry " in respect at least of its
form; his Buch von der deutschen Poeterey (1624) put an end
to the hybridism that had until then prevafled, and established
rules for the ** purity " of language, style, verse and rhyme.
Opita's own poems are in accordance with the rigorous rules
which he laid down. They are mostly a formal and sober
elaboration of carefully considered themes, and contain little
beauty and less feeling. Tb this didactic and descriptive category
belong his best poems, Trost-Gcdichle in WidereOrUgkeU des
Krieges (written i02i, but not published till 1633); Zlatna,
Oder ton Rnke des GenHUs (1622); Lob des PeldUbens (1623);
Vielgut, Oder vom wahren ClUeh (1629), and Vesurius (1633).
These contain some vivid poetical descriptions, but are In the
main treatises in poetical form. In 1624 Opits published a
ooUected edition of his poetry under the title Ada BUcher
deutscher Poemolum (though, owing to a mistake on (he part
of the printer, there are only five books); his Dafne (1627)*
to which Heinrich Schfita composed the music, is the earliest
German opera. Besides numerous translations, Opitx edited
(1639) ^' Annolied, a Middle High German poem of the end
of the nth century, and thus preserved it from oblivion.
Collected editions of Opitx's works appeared in 1623, 1629, 1637.
1641. 1690 and I746t. His AmsgemOkUt Dithtmnten have been edited
bv J. Tittiaaiui (1869) and by H. OcateTk^y (Kfkrscbncr's Deutsche
NationelUtertttur, voL xxviL 1B89). There are modem reprints of
the Buck son der deutuhen Poeterey by W. Braune (2nd cd.. i88a).
and. together with Aristarckus, by C. wHkoirftkt (1888). and also of
the Terdsche Poemata, of 1624, by G. Witkowaki (1902). See H.
Palm. BcUrdge tur Cuthukle der Jemtsehen IMtralur des t6teu umd ijlen
Jakrhunderts (1877); K. Borinski. Die Potiikder Reuaimance (t886);
R. Bcckherm. Of»ts. Ronsard und Heinsius (1888). BibUography by
H. Oesterley in the Zentralblatt fir Bibltetkekswesen for 1885.
I30
OPIUM
OPIUM (Gr. Ari«r, dim. from Mt, juice), & narcoUc drug
prepared from the juice of the opium poppy, Pcpaver s&mHiferum,
a plaot probably indigenous in the south ojf Europe and western
Asia, but now so widely cultivated that its original habiut a
uncertain. The medicinal properties of the juice have been
recognized from a very early period. It was known to Theo-
phrastus by the name of lenidmaf, and appears in his time to
have consbted of an extract of the whole plant, since Dioscoridca,
about A.O. 77, draws a distinction between io^aSimioi', which he
describes as an extraa of the entire herb, and the more active
Mftt derived from the capsules alone. From the ist to the 1 2th
century the opium of Asia Minor appears to have been the only
kind known in commerce. In the 13th century opium thcbatcum
Is mentioned by Simon Januensb, physician to Pope Nicholas IV.,
while nuconium was still in use. In the i6th century opium is
mentioned by Pyres (1516) as a production of the kingdom of
CovA (Ruch Behar, south-west of Bhutan) in Bengal, and of
Malwa.* lu introduction into India appears to have been
connected with the spread of Islam. The opium monopoly was
the property of the Great
Mogul and was regularly
sold. In the 17th century
K&empfer describes the
various kinds of opium
prepared in Persia, and
states that the best sorts
were flavoured with spices
and called "theriaka."
These preparations were
held in great estimation
during the middle ages,
and probably supplied to
a Urge extent the place
of the pure drug. Opium
is said to have been intro-
duced into China by the
Arabs probably in the
13th century, and it was
originally used there as a
medicine, the introduc-
tion of opium-smoking
being assigned to the
17th century. In a
Chinese Herbal compiled before 1700 both the plant and
its inspissated juice are described, together with the mode
of collecting it, and in the General HUtory of the Southern
Prownces of KiMmiii, revised and republished in 1736, opium
is noticed as a common product. The first edict prohibiting
opium-smoking was issued by the emperor Yung Cheng in 1729.
Up to that date the amount imported did not exceed 200 cheus,
a.nd was usually brought from India by junks as a return cargo.
In the year 1757 the monopoly of opium cultivation in India
passed into the hands of the East India Company through the
victory of Clive at Plaasey. Up to 1773 the trade with China
had been in the hands of the Portuguese, but in that year the
East India Company took the trade under their own chaiige,
and in 1776 the annual export reached 1000 chests, and 5054
chests in X79a Although the importation was forbidden by
the Chinese imperial authorities in 1796, and opium-smoking
punished with severe penalties (ultimately increased to trans-
portation and death), the trade continued and had increased
during 182&-1830 to 16,877 chests per annum. The trade was
contraband, and the opium was bought by the Chinese from
dep6t ships at the ports. Up to 1839 no effort was made to stop
the trade, but in that year the emperor Tao-Kwang sent a com^
missioner, Lin Tsxe-sU, to Canton to put down the traffic. Lin
issued a proclamation threatem'ng hostile measures if the British
opium ships serving as dep6ts were not sent away. The demand
for removal not being complied with, 90,291 chests of opium
(of 149I lb each), valued at £3,000,000, were destroyed by the
Chinese cofhmtssioner Lin; but still the Britbh sought to
■ Aromctum Hittoria (ed. Qusius, AaL, 1574).
Fig. X.— 0{jlum Poppy IPapater
somniferum).
smuggle cargoes on shore, and some ontrtgei committed oa boih
sides led to an open war, which was ended by the treaty of
Nanking in 1842. The importation of opium continued and was
legalized in iSs8. From that time, in spite of the remonsttmaccs
of the Chinese government, the exportation of opium from India
to China continued, increasing from s>i9'S piculs (of 133I lb)
in 1850 to 96,839 picub in i88a While, however^ the court
of Peking was honestly endeavouring to suppress the foreign
trade in opium from x8^ to 1 85S several of the provincial viceroys
encouraged the trade, nor could the central government put a
stop to the home cultivation of the drug. The cultivatioit
increased so rapidly that at the beginning of the 3olh century
opium was produced in every province of China. The western
provinces of Sze-ch'uen, Yun-nan and Kwei-cbow yielded re-
spectively 200,000, 30,000 and 15,000 picub (of 133^ tt>);
Manchuria 15.000; Shen-si, Chih-li and Shan-tung 10,000 each;
and the other provinces from 5000 to 500 picub each, the whole
amount produced in China in 1906 being estimated at 330,000
picub, of which the province of Sze-ch'uen produced neariy two-
thirds. Of thb amount China required for home consumption
335,270 picub, the remainder being chiefly exported to Indo-
China, whilst 54,225 picub of foreign opium were imported into
China. Of the whole amount of opium used in China, e<|ual to
22,588 tons, only about one-seventh came from India.
The Chinese government regarding the use of opium as one oC
the most acute moral and economic questions which as a nation
they have to face, representing an annual loss to the country of
856,250,000 tacb, decided in 1906 to put an end to the use of the
drug within ten years, and issued an edict on the 30th of
September 1906, forbidding the consumption of opium and tlie
culd vaiion of the poppy. As an indicat ion of thei r earnestness oi
purpose the government allowed offidab a period of six months
in which to break off the use of opium, under heavy penalties
if they failed to do so. In October of the same year the American
government in the Philippines, having to deal with the opiona
trade, raised the question of the taking of joint measures for its
suppression by the powers interested, and as a result a conference
met at Shanghai on the 1st of February 2909 to which China»
the United States of America, Great Britain, Austria-Hungary,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Persia, Portugal
and Russia sent delegates. At thb meeting it was resolved that
it mzs the duly of the respective governments to pterent the
export of opium to any countries prohibiting its importation;
that drastic measures should be taken against the useof morphine;
that anti-opium remedies should be investigated; and that all
countries having concessions in China should close the opium
divans in their possessions. The Britbh government made an
offer in 1907 to reduce the export of Incjian opium to countries
beyond the seas by 5100 chests, s.e. -^th of the amount annually
taken by China, each year until the year 1910, and that U during
these three years the Chinese government had carried out its
arrangemenu for proportionally diminishing the production sad
consumption of opium in China, the Britbh government were
prepared to continue the same rate of reduction, so that tha
export of Indian opium to China would cease in ten years; tha
restrictions of the imports of Turkish, Persian and other opiums
being separately arranged for by the Chinese government, and
carried out simultaneously. The above proposal was gratefully
received by the Chinese government. A non-official report by
Mr £. S. Little, after travelling through western China, which
appoured in the newspapers in May 1910, suted that all over the
province of Sxe^'uen opium had almost ceased to be produced,
except only in a few remou dbtricts on the frontier (see further
Cioma: § History).
The average annual import of Persian and Turkish opium
into China b estimated at 1x25 picub, and if thb quantity were
to be reduced every year by ono>ninth, beginning in 1909, in nine
years the import into China would entirely cease, and the
Indian, Persian and Turkbh opiums no longer be articles o(
commerce in that country. One result of these regulations was
that the price of foreign opium in China rose, a arcunastanca
which was calculated to reduce the loss to the Indian revenue.
OPIUM
131
Thw in 1909-19TO, with only 350,000 acm under cultivation and
40,000 chests of opium in stock, the revenue was £4,420,600 as
•Saunst £3.573,944 in 1905-1906 with 613,996 acres under
cultivation and a slock of 76,063 chests. No opium dens have
been allowed since 1907 in their possessions or leased territories
in China by Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia or Japan.
The difficulties of the task undertaken by the Chinese govern-
ment to eradicate a national and popular vice, in a country
whose population is generally estimated at 400^000,000, are
increased by the fact that the opium habit has been indulged
in by all classes of society, that opium has been practically the
principal if not the only national stimulant; that it must involve
a considerable loss of revenue, which will have to be made up
by other taxes, and by the fact that its cultivation is more
profitable than that of cereals, for an English acre will on the
average produce raw dry opium of the value of £5, x6s. 8d.
while it will yield grain valued only at £4, ss. 6d.
Various remedies for the opium habit have been experimented
with in China, but with doubtful success. Under the name of
anti-opium cure various remedies containing mozphine in the
form of powder, or of little pills, have been introduced, as well
as the subcutaneous injection of the alkabid, so that the use
of morphine is increasing in China to an alarming extent, and
coDsiderablo difficulty is experienced in controlling the illicit
traffic in it, especially that sent through the post. Its com-
parative cheapness, one dollar^ worth being equal to three
dollars' worth of opium in the effea product, its portability
and the facilities offered in obtaining it, are all in in favour
A good deal of morphine is exported to Japan from Europe,
and generally passes into China by way of Manchuria, where
Japanese products have a victual monopoly. The effects of
morphine are much more deleterious than those 'of opium-
smoking. The smoke of opium, as shown by H. Moissan, contains
only a trifling amount of morphia, and the effect produced by
it b apparently due, not to that alkaloid, but to such decom-
position producu as pyrrol, acetone and pyridine and hydro-
pyridine bases. F. Browne finds that after smoking " chandoo,V
containing 8-98 % of morphine, 7*63 % was left in the dross,
so that only 1*35% of morphia was carried over in. the smoke
or decomposed by the heat.
For many years two Scotch firms, Messrs J. D. Macfarlan
and T. and H. Smith of Edinburgh, and T. Whiffen of London
manufactured practically the world's supply of this alkaloid,
but it is now made in the United States and Germany, although
the largest amount is still probably made in Great Britain. A
small amount of morphine and codeine is also manufactured in
India for medicinal use. The prohibition of the general importa-
tion of morphia into China except on certain conditions was
agreed to by the British government in Act XI. of the Mackay
treaty, but only came into force on the 1st of January 1909.
Uidess the indirect importation of morphine into China from
Europe and the Um'ted States is stopped, a worse habit and
mors difficult to cure than any other (except perhaps that of
cocaine) may replace that of opium-smoking m China. It is
wone even than opium-eating, in proportion as morphine is
ttOK aaive than opium. The sale and use of morphine in India
and Burma is now restricted. The quantity of morphine that
any one may legally possess, and then only for medidnal purposes.
is in India xo grams, and in Burma five. The possession of
morphine by medical practitioners is also safeguarded by
well-defined limitations.
ProdueHon and Co»iMrM.-~AIthoogh the collection of opium
is possible in all places where there is not an excessive rainfall
and the climate is temperate or subtropical, the yield is smaller
in temperate than in tropical regions a|id the industry can
only be profitably carried on where labour and land are sufficiently
cheap and abundant; hence production on a large scale is
limited to comparatively few countries. The varieties of poppy
grown, the mode of cultivation adopted and the character
of the opium produced differ so greatly that it will be convenient
to consider the opiums of each country separately.
r«fify.— Tbr f.<fyf>y cultivated in Aftla Minor i« the variety
l^ahum, di*tingui»lKd by the tub-globuUr shape of the capMik
and by the stigmata or laya at the top of the fiuit being ten or
twelve in number. The flower* arc uaually of a purplish cobw.
but are iomctlmes white, and the seeds, like the iietals, vary in tint
f foro dark violet to white. The cultivation ia earned on, boto 00 the
more elevated and lower lands, chiefly by peasant proprietors. A
naturally light and rich soil, further improved by manure, is oecea*
sary, and moistBre is indispensable, although miurious ia excess,
so that after a wet winter the best crops are obtained on hilly ground,
and in a dry season 00 the plains. The Und is (doughed twice, the
second time crosswise, so that it may be thoroughly pulvcriaed:
and the seed, mixed with four times its quantity of sand, to prevent
its being sown too thickly, ia acattered oroadcast, about | to 1 lb
being used for every toioom (1600 so. yds.). The crop is vcty
uncertain owing to droujriits, spring frosts and locusts, and. ia
order to avoid a total ^ure and to aUow time for colkcting the
produce, these are three sowings at intervals from October to March
— ^he crops thus coming to pmection in succession. But notwith-
standing these precautions quantities of the drug are wasted when
the crop b a full one, owing to the difficulty of gathering the whole
in the short time during which collection is possible. The first
produces the hardiest plants, die yield of the other two
ng almost entirely on favourable weather. In kcalities
where there is hoar frost m autumn and spring the seed is sown ia
September or at latest in the beginning of October, suid the yield
of opium and seed is then greater than u sown later. After sowing,
the land is harrowed, and the young plants are hoed and weeded,
chiefly by women and children, from early sprina until the time of
flowering. In the plains the flowers expand at the end of May. on
the uplands in July. At this period gentle showers are of great
value, a* they cause an increase in the subaK|uent yield of opiuoii
The petals fall in a few hours, and the capsules grow so rapidly that
in a short tim e ge ner a lly from nine to fifteen days--the onura is
fit for collcctkm. This period is known by the capsules yielding to
preasom with the fingers, assuming a lighter peen tint and
"" ' » a kind of bloom called '* cougak." easily rubbed off with the
they are then about l^ in. In diameter. The incisions are
1 nis IS oooe t»y scraping tnc c^wuie wnn a aniie ana
tag the oonoetcd juice to a poppy4eaf held in the left hand,
( of the leaf being turned in to avoid spillini^ the juice, and
sblade moiatoied with safiva by dmwing u through the
made by holding the capsule ia the kft hand and drawing a knife
two'thiids roundit. or spirally beyond the surttng^point (see fig. a, a),
grant care being taken not to let the Incisions penetrate to the
interior lest the juice should flow inside and be kMt. (In this oaae
also it is said that the seeds will not ripen, and that no oil can be
obtained fnmi them.) The operation is usually perfomied after
the heat of the day, commeoong early in the afternoon and od»
tinuing to nightfall, and the exuded juice is ooliected the next
morning. This b done by scraping the capsule with a knife and
transferrinr ^^ * ' -•— ' "-' *-'-• ~ '^- '-'' *■'--'
the edges Q
the kmfe-blade 1 , - -^
mouth after every alternate scraping to pieveot the juice from
adhering to h. When as much opium has been collected as the siae
of the leaf will alk>w, another leaf b wrapped over the top of the
lump, which b then placed in the shade to dry for several days^
The picoes vary in stse from about a ot. to over a lb. bdng asade
larger in some districts than in others. The capsules are generally
incised only once, but the fields are visited a second or third time
to collect the opium from the poppy-heads subsequently developed
Iw the branching of the stem. The ykkl of opium varies, even on
the same piece of bnd, from \ to 7) chcquts (oi i-fia lb) per tokxxn
(1600 so. yds.), the average being il cheqob of opium and 4
busheb (of 50 tt>) of seed. The seed, which yiekb 35 to iJ % of oil.
Is worth about two*thirds of the vahie of the opium. The whole
of the operatkm must, of course, be completed in the few day*—
five to teifduring whfch the cspsidcs are capable of yielding tfie
drug. A coM wind or a chilly atmosphere at the time of cotlectkia
lessens the yield, and rain washes Che opium off the capaules. Befom
the crop is all gathered hi a meeting of buyers and sellera takes
place in each distftct. at which the price to be asked b discussed
and settled, and the opium handed to the buyers, who in many
tnsunces have advanced money on the. standing cropi When
sufficiently solid the pieces of opium are packed in cotton bags, a
quantity of the fruits of a species of J^miiex being thrown in to pre*
vent the cakes from adhering together. The bags are then sealed
up. packed in obtoi^ or circular baskets and sem to Smyrna or
other ports on mutes. On the arrival of the opium at its destination.
In the end of July or beginning of August, it b pbced in cool warn
houses to avoid toss of weight until sold. The opium is then of a
mixed charscter and is known as ulequale^ When transferred to
the buyer's warehouses the bogs ane opened and each pbce is
examined by a public inspector in the preaeoce of both buyer and
seller, the quality of the opium being judged by appearance, odour,
colour and weia^t. It b then sorted into three cpnlitiCa: (1)
finest quality: (j) current or second; (*) chicaati or raiected
pieces. A fourth sort consists of the very bad or wholly factitious
pieces. The substances used to adulterate opium are gra^mce
thickened with flour, fig-paste, liquorice. haU-dricd apricots, infenor
sum iragacanth and sometimes clay or pieces of lead or other
metals. The chicant! b returned to the seller, who disposes of it
at 10 to yi\ discount to French and Ckrman merchants. Alter
Inspection the opium is hermctirally scakd in tin-Knodbox« con-
taining about 150 lb. Turkey opium b principally used in medffiaa
132
OPIUM
on aocoant of its parity and the laife percentage of moq>hia that
it conuins, a comparatively amall quantity being exported for
•moking purposes.
> About three-quarters of the o|»um prepared in Turkey is pro-
duced in Anatolia, and is exported by way of Smyrna, and the
remainder is produced in the hilly districts of the provinces near
the southern coast of the Black bea, and finds its way into Con-
stantinople, the a>mmercial varieties bearing the name of the
dUtxict where they are produced. The Smyrna varieties include
the produce of Afium Karahisaar. Uschak. Akhissar. Taouihanii,
Isbarta. Konia. Bulvadan, Hamid* Magnesia and Yerii. the last
name being applied to opium collected in the immediate neighbour-
hood of Smyrna. The opium exported by way of ConsUntinople
includes that of Hadjikeuy and Malatia; the Tokat kind, of good
quality, including that produced in Yoagad, Sile and Niksar, and
the current or second quality derived from Amasia and Ocrck; the
Karahissar kind including the pctxiuce of Mykalitch, Caraboaar.
Sivrahissar. Eskichehir and Nachlihan; the Balukesri sort, in-
cUiding that of Balukhissar end Bogaditch; also the produce of
Beybaiar and Angora. The average amount of Turkish opium
exported is 7000 chests, but in rare seasons amounts to 12.000
chests, but tne yield depends upon fine weather in harvest time,
iicavy rains washing the opium off the capsules, and lessening the
yield to a ooosideraEle extent.
These commercial varieties differ in appearance and quality, and
Are roughly classified aa Soft or Shipping opium. Druggists' and
Manufacturers' opium. Shipping opium is distinguished by its
soft character and clean paste, containing very httle d6brM. or
chaff, as it is technicaHy called. The Had;ikeuy variety is at
present the best in the market. The Malatia, including that of
Kharput. second, and the Sile, third in quality. The chief markets
for the soft or shipping varieties of opium are> China. Korea, the
West Indian Islands. Cuba. British 'Guiana. Japan and Java;
the United States also purchase for re-exporution as well as for
home consumption. Druggists' (^ium includes the kinds purchased
for use in meoicine, whichlor Great Britain shouM, when dried and
powdered, contain 9l-io|% of morphine. That eenerally sold in
this country for the purpose includes the Karahisaar and Adet,
Balukhissar. Amasia and Akhissar kinds, and for making the tinaure
and extract, that of Tokat. But the produce of Gheve, Bilediik.
Mondourian. Konia, Tauschanli. Kutahlia and Karaman is often
mixed with the kinds first mentioned. The softer varieties of opium
are preferred in the American market, as being richer in morpliine.
In all Turkey opium the pieces vary much in siae. On the
continent of Europe, eq)eciaUy in Belgium, Germany and Italy,
where pieces of small size are preferred, the Ghdve.^ and the Yog-
hourma. ix. opium remade into cakes, at the port of shipment, to
contain 7. S, o. or 10 % of morphine, are chiefly sold. Manufacturere'
opium includes any grade yielding not less than ioi% of morphine,
but the Yoghourma or " pudding " opium, on account of its paste
being more difficult to work, is not used for the extraction of the
active principles. For the extraction of codeine, the.Pernan opium
is preferred when Turkey opium is dear, as it contains on the average
3)% of that alkalokl, whilst Turkey opium yieUa only i>i%.
But codeine can also be made from moraine.
The ordinary varieties of Turkish opmm are recogniaed in com*
mcrce by the following characteristics: Hadiikeuy opium occun
in pieces of about i Ib-il tb; it has an unusually pale-coloured paste
of soft consistence, and b very rich in morphia. Malatia opium is
m pieces of irnsular siie usually of a broadly conical shape, weighing
from i-a lb. It has a soft paste with irregular layen of light and
dark cobur and is covered with unusually given poppy leaves.
Tokat opium .resembfea that of Malatia, but the cakes are flatter,
and the paste is similar in character, though the leaves covering it
are of a voUower tint of green. Bosadiu opium occura in smaiUer
pieces, aSout t or 4 oa. m weight, but sometimes biiger pieces of
i-ii lb in weight are met with, approaching more nearly to the
Kurngatsch and Balukissar varieties. The surface is covered with
a yeilowiiris green ksaf and many Rumex fruits. Karahissar opium,
which usualW includes the produce of Adet, Akhisaar and Amasia,
occure in ratner large shortly conical or more or lesa irregular lumps.
capsules. Chfve opium formerly came over as a distinct kind, but
b now mixed with other varieties; the nieces fonn small rounded
cakes, smooth and shining like those of Angora, about x-6 oa. in
weight, with the midrib oi the kaf they are wrapped in forming a
median line 00 the surface. The interior often shows layere of
light and dark colour.
In Macedonia opium culture was begun m 1865 at Istip witji
aeed obtained from Karahisaar in Asia Minor, and extended subse*
quenthr to the adjacent districts of Kotchava. Stroomnitra. Tikvish
and iGnprulu-vefes. most of the produce being exported under
the name of Salonkra opium. Maoedonbn opium, especially that
^ Gh^ve is the commercial name for opium from Cciveh on the
river Sakaria. running into the Black Sca. It appears to find iu
way to Constantinople via the poet of lamid, and hence b known
also by the latter name.
DToduoed at istip, la very pure, and Is conridored equal to the
Malatia opium, containing about il % of morphine. The piooea vary
from I tb to il lb in weight. For some years past, however, it ha«
been occasionally mixed with pieces of inferior opium, like that of
Yoghounna, recognisable on cutting by their solidity and heavy
ch^acter. The Turkisli govern m ent encourage the devdopaneot m
the industry by remitting the tithes on opium and poppy-seed for
one year on lands sown for the fint time, anu Dy distnbuttng printed
instructions for cultivating the poppy and preparing the opium.
In these directions it is pointed out that tne opium crop is tea
times as profitable as that of wheat. Four varieties of poppy ai»
distingubhcd — two with white flowers, large oval capsules without
holes under their "combs" (stigmas) and bearing respectively
yellow and white seed, and the other two having red or purpie
flowers and seeds of the aame coh>ur, one bearing small capsulea
perforated at the top» and the other larger oval capanlni not
perforated. The white varieties are recommended as yielding *
more abundant opium of superior quality. The yellow seed b said
to yield the best oil; that obtained by hot pressure b used for
lamps and for paint, and the cold-pressed oil for culinary purposes.
Opium is also grown in Bulgaria, but almost entircfy for kocnt
consumption; any surplus produce is. however, bought by Jews
and Turks at low prices and sent to Constantinople, where it is snkl
as Turkish opium. It is produced in the districts of KustendS,
Lowtscha and Halitz, and is made into lumps weighing about a oc,
of a light-brown colour internally and containing a Tew seeds; it
is covered with leaves which have not been identified. Samples
have yielded from 7 to 10% of moipha, and only 3 to 3% of ash,
and are therefore m excellent qualitv.
/ii^«a.— The poppy grown in India b usually the whit»>flowered
variety, but in the Himabyas a red-flowered poppy with dark
seeds is cultivated. The opium industry in Bengal b a government
monopoly, under the control of ofiidab residing reniectively at
Patna and Ghaxipore. Any one may undertaRe tne industry,
bat cultivaton are obliged to sell the opium exclusively to the
government agent at a price fixed beforehand by the latter, which.
although small, is said to fully remunerate the grower. It b eoo>
sideredfthat with greater freedom the cultivator wouM produce too
great
Advaj
although small, is said to fully remunerate the grower. It b eoo>
' ' redfthat with greater freedom the cultivator wouM produce too
It a quantity, and k>ss to the government would soon result.
Ivances of money are often made by the government to enable
the ryou to grow the poppy. The chief centres of production are
Bihar in Bengal, and the district of the United Provinces of Agra
and Oudh lying along the Gangetic valley, and north of it, of which
the produce is Known as Bengal opium. The opium manufactured
at Patna b of two classes, vu. Provision opium manufactured for
export; and Excise or Akbari opium intended for local consuiaption
in India. These differ in consistence: Excise o(Mum is prep a r«i to
contain 90% of non-volatile solid matter and made up into cubes
weighing one seer or ^i^Vb, and wrapped in oiled paper, whilst
Provision opium b made up into balls, protected by a leafy covering,
made of poppy peuls, opium and " puaaewah." or liquid drainiaga
of the crude opium; that of Patna is made to contain 75% of aoiid
matter, and that of Ghazipore, which is known as Benares opium*
71 % only. Each baO consists of a little over 3I lb of fine opium,
in addition to other poppy products. The Benares ball opium has
about ift oz. less 01 the external covering than the Patna aort.
Forty of these balls are packed in each dwst. The Excise ocriun
not having a covering'of poppy petals bcks the aroma of Pkoviuoa
opium. Malwa opium is produced in a brge number of states in
the Central Indb and Rajputana Agencies, chiefly Gwalior. Indore
and Bhopal, in the former, and Mewar in the latter. It b alao
produced in the native state of Baroda. and in the small British
territory of Ajmer Mcrwara. The cultivation of Malwa opium b
free ana extremely profitable, the crop realizing usually from three
to seven times the value of wheat or other cereals, and in eaoep-
Uonally advantageous situations, from twelve to twenty times aa
mudi. On its entering British territoiy a heavy duty is imposed
on Malwa opium, so as to raise its price to an equality with the
Svernment article. It is shipped from Boramy to
itna, where nearly the whole of the exported Malwa opium ia
consumed. The poppy is grown for opium in the Punjab to a
limited extent, but it has oeen decided to entirely abolish the
cultivation there within a short time. In Nepal. Bashahr and
Rampur.'and at Doda Kaditwar in the Tammu terntory, opium b
produced and exported to Yarkand, Khoun and Akau. The
cultivation of the poppy is also carried on in Afghanistan, Kashmir,
Nepal and the Shan states of Burma, but the areas and productioq
are not known.
A small amount of ojrftlm alkalmds only is manufactured in India.
The surplus above that iaued to government medical institutions
in Indb b aold In London. The amount manufactuied in 190^
1907 was 346 ft) of morphine hydrochlorate, xa lb of the aoetatc
and 61 lb of codcb.
Thebnd intended for poppy culture is usually selected near
vfllages. In order that it may be more easily manared and irrigated.
On a rich soil a crop 9S maiae or vegetables is grown during the
rainy season, and alter its removal in September the ground b
prepared for the poppy-cult urc. Under less favourable cirrum-
stances the land b prcparrd from July tlH October by ploughing,
weeding and manuring. The seed b sown between the 1st and
OPIUM
«33
15th of November, and fcmilfutes in ten or fifteen days. 'Tliefidds
are divided for purposes of irrijgation into beds about 10 ft. square,
which usually are irrigated twice between November and Febroary,
but if the seaaon be cold, with hardly any cain, the operation n
repeated five or six times. When the leediingii are 3 or 3 in. high
they are thinned out and weeded. The plants during growth are
liable to injury by severe frost, excessive rain, insects, fungi and
the growth of a root-parasite {Orobancke indica). The poppy
blossoms about the middle of February, and the petab when about
to fall are collected for the purpose of making " leave* " for the
apherical covcrines of the balls of opium. These are made by heat*
ing a circular-riclged earthen plate over a slow fire, and spreading
the petals, a few at a time, over its surface. As the iulce exuda.
more petals are pressed on to them with a cloth until a layer of
auffidcnt thicknos is obtained. The leaves are forwarded to the
opium-factories, where they are sorted into three classes, according
to size and colour, the smaller and dark-coloured beins reserved
for the innde of the shells of the opium-balls, and the larger and
least coloured for the outnde. These are valued respectively at
10 to 7 and js rupees per maund of 83| lb. The collection of opium
commences in Behar about 35th February, and continues to about
3Sth March, but in Malwa is performed in March and April. The
capsules are scarified vertically (fig. 2, b) in moat districts (although
in some the incisions are made horizontally, as in Asia Minor), tne
** nushtur " or cutting instrument bein^ drawn twice upwards for
each incision, and repeated two to six times at intervals of two or
three days. The nushtur (fig. 2, c) consisu of three to five flattened
Fic. 3.— Opium Poppy (Capsules. &c; a, capsule showing mode
of incision practiiicd in Turkey; 0, capsule as incised in India;
(. nushtur, or instrument used in India for making the inci&ions.
Drawn from specimens in the Museum of the rharmaccutical
Society of Great Britain..
blade* forked at the larger end, and separated about orie-sixteenth
of an inch from each other by windinff cotton thread between them,
the whole betn^ also bound together by thread, and the protrusion
of the points betn^ restricted to one*twelfth of an inch, by which the
fkpth of the incision is limited. The operation is usually performed
about three or four o'dock in the afternoon, and the opium collected
the next mornio|[. In Bengal a small sheet-iron scoop or " seetoah "
b used for acrapiny off the dried juice, and^ as it becomes filled, the
opium is emptied into an earthen pot earned for the purpose. In
Malwa a flat scraper b employed, a small piece of cotton soaked in
linseed oil being attached to theupper part of the blade, and used
for smearing the thumb and edge 01 the scraper to prevent adhesion
of the Juice; sometimes water b used instead of oil, but both
practices Injure the quality of the product. Sometimes the opium
ts in a fluid state by reason of dew, and in some pUces it is rendered
still mors so by the practice adopted by colleaors of washing their
scra|>ers, and adding the washings to the morning's collection.
The juice, when brought home, b consequently a wet granular mass
of pinkish colour, from which a dark fluid drains to the bottom of the
vosel. In order to get rid of thb fluid, called " pasewa " or ** pusse-
wah," the opium b placed in a shallow earthen vessel tilted on one
side, and tfie puasewah drained off. The residual mass b then
exposed to the air in the shade, and regubriy turned over every few
days, until it has reached the proper consistence, which Ukes place
in about three or four weeks. The drug b then taken to the govern-
ment factocy to be sold. It b turned out of the pots into wide tin
vesseb or " tagars,'* in which it is weighed in quantities not ex-
ceeding^ 31 lb. It b then examined by a native expert (purkhea)
as to impunties, colour, fracture, aroma and consistence. To
determine the amount of moisture, which dKMild not exceed 30%.
a weighed sanlple b evaporated and dried in a plate on a metallic
surface heated by steam. Adulterations such as mud, sand, po w de r ed
cbarooal, soot, cow-dung, pow d ere d poppy petals and p owdered
seed* of vsrious kinds are easily detected by breaking up the drug
in cold water. Flour, potato-flour, ghee and ghoor (crude date-
•ugar) art revealed by their odour and the consistence they impart.
Various other adulterants are sometimes used, such as the inspissated
iuice of the prickly pear, extracts from tobacco, stramonium and
hemp, pulp of the tamarind and bad fruit, mahwah flbwers and
gums of different lands. The price paid to the cultivator b regulated
chiefly by the amount of water contained in the drug. When
received into the eovemment stores the 0(num b kept in large
wooden boxes holdinff about 50 maunds and occasionally stirrod
up, if only a little below the standard. If containing much water
it IS placed in shaibw wooden drawers and constantly turned over.
Durine the process it deepens in colour. From the store about 350
maunda are taken daily to be manufactured into cakes.
Various portions, each weighing 10 seers (of 3 A lb), are selected
by test assay so as to ensure the mass being of standard consist-
ence (70% of the pure dry drug and 30% of wateO. atnd are thrown
into shallow drawers and kneaded topether. The mass b then
packed into boxes all of one size, and a specimen of each again
asaayed, the mean of the whole being taken as the averaee. Bdore
evenmg these boxes are emptied into wooden vats 30 ft. Tone, 3 k ft.
wide and 1} ft. deep, and the opium further kneaded and mixed
by men waoii^ through it from end to end until it appears to be of
a uniform consistenoe. Next morning the manufacture of the
opium into balls commences. The workman sits on a wooden stand,
with a brass cup before him, which he lineswith the leaves of poppy
petab before>mentioned until the thickness of half an inch b reacneo*
a few being allowed to hang over the cup; the leaves are agglutin-
ated by means of " lewa." a pasty fluid which consists of a mixture
of inferior opium, 8 % of *' possewah " and the " dhoe " or washings of
the vessels that have contained opium, and the whole b made of
such conristence that too grains evaporated to dryness over a
water-tnth leave 53 grains <a solid residue. All the ingredients for
the opium-ball are furnished to the workmen by measure. When
the inside of the brass cup b ready a ball of opium previously webbed
b placed on the leafy case in it, and the upper half of it oovieted with
leaves in the same way that the casing for the lower half was made,
the overhanging leaves of the lower half being pressed upwards
and the sphere completed by one large leaf whicn b placed over
the upper half. The ball, which resembles a Dutch cheese in size
and shape, b now rolled in ** poppy trash ** made from the coarsely-
powdered leaves, capsules and sUlks of the poppy plant, and is
placed in an earthen cup of the same size as the brass one; the
cups are then placed in dishes and the opium exposed to the sun to
dry for three days, being oonsuntly turned and examined. If it
becomes distendwi the Ymi b pierced to liberate the gas and again,
lightly ckxsed. On the third evening the cups are pbced in optm
frames which allow free drcubtion of the air. Thu operation b
usually completed by the end of July. The balls thus made consisl
on the average of : —
Standard opium . .»■ . . .1 seer 7*50 cfaittacks.
Lewa . . . . . , .Oh 3-75 »
Leaves (poppy petab) . . O „ 5*43 m
trash
Poppy t
a seers i-i8 chittacks.
The average number of cakes that can be made daily by one man
is about 70, although 90 to 100 are sometimes turned out by clever
workmen. The cakes are Ibble to become mildewed, and rcc^uire
consun{ turning and occasional rubbing in dry " poppy trash ' to
remove the mildew, . . - .
popfw leaves. By < . ,
are then packed in chests, which are divided into two tiers of twenty
. and strengthening' in weak pU'ces with fresh
leaves. By October the cakes are dry and fairiy solid, and
square compartments for the reception of as many cakes, which
are steadied by a packing of loose poppy trash.* Each case con-
Uins about I30 catties (about 160 lb), ihe chests need to be kept
In a dry warehouse for a length of time, but ultimately the opium
ceases to lose moisture to the shell, and the latter b ecome s cxtremdy
solid.
The care bestowed on the sdectlon and preparatioo of the drug in
the Bengal opium-factories b such that the merchants who purchase
it -rarely require to examine it, although permission b given to open
at each sale any number of chests or cakes that they may desire.
In Malwa the opium b manufactured by private enterprise, the
sovcmment levying an export duty of 600 rupees (£60) per chest.
It b not made into balb but into rectangular or rounded masses,
and b not cased in poppy petals. It contains as much as oj^ % ci.
dry opium, but b of much less uniform quality than the Bengal
drug, and, having no guarantee as to punty, b not conndered to
valuable. The cultivatum in Malwa does not differ in any
important particular from that in Bengal. The opium b collected in
March and April, and the crude drug or ** chick " b thrown into
an earthen vesad and covered with Tinseed oil to prevent evaporation.
In thb state it b sold to itinerant dealers. It is aftef7«fards ued up
in quantities of 35 lb and 50 lb in double bag* of shcetmg, which ve
suspended to a ceiling out of the light and draught to allow the
excess of oil to drain off. Thb ukes place in seven to ten da^-s,
butt" .- - . . . .^ ,^.«
on t^
July.
the bags are left for four to sU weeks untfl the ofl remammj
the opium has become oxidized and hardened. In June and
/, when the rains begin, the bags are taken down and emptied
> Thb ^ purchased from the ryots at is annas per maimd.
'3*
OPIUM
into thaSkm vats lo to 15 ft. aoxNM. and 6 to $ to. deep, in which
the opium is kneaded until uniform in colour and conaisteoce and
tough enough to be formed into cakes of 8 or 10 oc in weight.
These are thrown into a basket containing chaff made from the
capsules. Thev are then rolled in broken leaves and stalks of
the poppy ana left, with occasional turning, for a week or so,
when tney become hard enough to bear packing. In October and
November they are weighed and sent to market, packed in chests
containing as nearly as possible I picul* 133110, the petals and
leaves ol the poppy being used as packing materials. The production
is said to amount to about ao.ooo chests annually. *
The amount of opium revenue collected in India was £10480,051
In 1881, but in 1907-1908 was only £5.3^.986. It is a remarkable
fact that the only Indian opium ever seen in England is an occasional
sample of the Malwa sort, whilst the government monop<riy opium
is quite unknown; indeed, the whole cl the opium used m mcaicine
in Europe aiKl the United States is obtained from Turkey. This is
In some measure due to the fact that Indian opium contains less
morphia. It has recently been shown, however, that opium grown
in the hilly districts of the Himalayas yields 50% more morphia
than that of the plains, and that the deficiency of morphia in the
Indian drug b due. in some roeasuit^ to the long exposure to the air
in a aemi-liquid state which it undergoes. In ^ew, therefore* of
the probable decline in the Chinese demand, the cultivation of the
drug for the European market in the hilly districts of India, and its
preparation after the mode adopted in Turkey, via., by drying the
concrete juice as quickly as possible, might' be worthy of the con-
sideration of the British government.
Persia. — ^The variety of poppy grown in Persia appears to be P.
S9mHifentm, var. album, having roundish ovate capsules. It is moat
laiigely produced jn the districts of Ispahan, Shirax, Yezd and
Khonsar, and to a less extent in those of Khorasan. Kermanshah
and Fars. The Yezd opium is considered better than that of
Ispahan, but the strongest or Tkeriak-*-Arabistani is produced In
the neighbourhood of Dizful and Shuster, cast of the river Tigris.
crop is collected in May and June and reaches the ports for ex-
portation between August and January. Although the cultivation
of opium in Persia was probably carried on at an eariicr date than
in India, Persian opium was almost unknown in England until
about the year 1870, except in the form of the inferior quality
known as ''^Trebixond," which usually contains only 0-2 to 3% ot
morphia. This opium is in the form of cylindrical sticks about
6 in. long and half an inch in diameter, wrapped in white waxed
or red paper. Since 1870 Persian opium has been largely exported
from Dusnire and Bandar- Abbas in the Persian Gulf to London,
the Straits Settlements and China. At that date the annual yield
b said not to have exceeded 2600 cases; but, the profits on opium
having about that time attracted attention, all available ground
was utilized for this to the exclusion of cereals, cotron and other
produce. The result was a severe famine in 1 871-1872, which was
further agcravatod by drought and other circumsunces. Notwith-
sunding the lesson Uius Uught. the cultivation is being oUended
every year, especially in Ispahan, which abounds in streams and
rivers, an advanta^ in which Ycxd is deficient. About Shirax.
Bchbehan and Kermanshah it now occupies much of the land,
and has cooficquently affected the price and growth of cereals.
The trade— only 300 chesu in 1859— gradually increased until
1877. when the Persian opium was much adulterated with glucose.
The heavy losses on this inferior opium and. the higher prices
obtained (or the genuine article led to a great improvement in iu
preparatk>n, and in 1907 the production had increased to 10,000
piculs. About half of Uie total produce finds its way to the Chinese
ourketi chiefly by sea to Hongkoiw and the Federated Malay States,
although some b carried overland through Bokhara, Kholcand and
Kashgar; a small quantity is exported by way of Trebixond and
Samsun to Constantinople, and about 2000 piculs to Great Britain.
The produce of I^iahan and Fars b cafned for exportation to
Bushire, and that of Khorasan and Kirman and Ycad pajrtly to
Bushlre and partly to Bandar.Abbas. The Shuster opium b sent
partly via Bushire to Muscat for transhipment to Zanzibar, and
part IS bdieved to be smuggled into India by way of Baluchistan
and Mekran. Smaller quantities grown in Teheran, Tabriz and
Kermanshah find their way to Smyrna, where it b said to be mixed
with the k)cal drug for the European market, the same practice
being carried on at Constantinople irith the Persian opium that
arrives there from Samsun and Trebtzond. For the Chinese market
the opium b usually packed in chests containing lo| shahmans
(of 13) lb), so that on arrival it may weigh I Chinese ptcul ( " 133I lb).
5 to 10% betuK allowed for loss by drying. At Ispahan, ahiraz
and Yezd the drug, after being dried In the sun; b mixed with oil
in the proportion of 6 or 7 lb to 141 lb of opium, with the object,
it b said, Ot suiting the taste of the Chinese— that intended for the
London market being now always free from oil
' Peraun opium, as met with in the London market, occurs in
several forms, the roost common being that of brick-ihapcd pieces.
These occur wrapped separately in paper, and weighing 1 lb each :
of thetc I40>ite are packed in a case. Ispahan opium alio occurs
in the form of paialldopipeds weighiag about 16-ao M.; «omcctCMa
flat circular pieces weighing about ao os. are met with. The opiuoa
b^ usually 01 much firmer and smoother consistence thaa that 01
Turkey, of a chocolate-brown colour and cheesy appearance, tha
^eces bearing evidence of having been beaten into a uniform masa
previously to betn^ made into lumps, probably with the addition
of Sarcoooll, as it is always harder when dry than Turkey opium.
The odour differs but slightly, except in oily apedmens, from that
of Turkey opium. Great care b now uken to prevent adulteration,
and consequently Pcnian opium can be obtained oeariy as rich
in morphb as the Turkish drug— on the average f|om ^^•la'*/*
The greater proportion of the Persian opium impoitod into Condon
b again exported, a a>mparatively small quantity being used,
chiefly for the manufacture of codeine when Turkey opium u dear,
and a little in veterinary practice. According to Dr RcveiU Persian
oimim usually contains 75 to 84% of matter soluble in water,
and some samples t»ntain from 13 to 30% of glucose, probably
due to an extract or syrup of raisins add«l to the paste in the
Ets in which it b collected, and to which the shining fracture of
rd Persbn opium b attributed*
Europe. — Eimcriments made in England, France, Italy, Switzer-
land, Greece, Spain, Germany, and even in Sweden, prove that
opium as rich in morphb as that of EaiAem countries can be pro-
duced Id Europe. In 1830 Young, a nirigeon at Edinburgh, suc-
ceeded in obtaining 56 lb of opium from an acre of poppies, and
sold it at 36a. per lb. In France the cultivation has been carried
on since 1844 at Qermont-Fcrrand by Aubergier. The juke, of
which a workman is able to collect about 9-6a troy oa. in a day,
b evaporated by artificial heat immediately alter cotlectioo. The
juioe yields about one-fourth of its weight of opium, and the peroent-
age of morphb varies according to the variety of poppy used, the
purple one giving the best resulrs. By mixing assayed samples he
IS able to produce an opium containing uniformly 10% of morplua.
It b made up in cakes of 50 grammes, but is not produced in auflklent
quantity to become an article of wholesale commcroe. Some
specimens of French opium have been found by Cuibourt to yield
22*8% of morphb, being the hiehest percentage observed as yet
in any opium. Experiments made in Germany by Karsten, Jobat
and Vulpius have shown that it is possible to dbtaia va that country
opium of excellent quality, containing from 8 to 13 % of morphia.
It was found that the method yielding the best results was Co mafca
incisions in the poppy-heads soon after sunrise, to collect the juice
with the finger Immedbtcly after incisioo and evapocate it as
speedily as poanbfe, the colour of the opium being lighter and the
percentage of morphb greater than when the juice was albwed
to iff on the pUnt. Cutting through the poppy<li«iid caused the
shrivelling up of the young Truit, but the heads whkh had been
carefully incised vielded nuwe seed than those which had not been
cut at all. Newly-manured soil was found to act prejudicially 00
thepoppy. The giant variety of poppy yielded most morphia.
The diffknilty of obtaining the requisite amount of cheap bboqr
at the exact time it b needed and the uncertainty of the weather
render the cultivation of opium too much a matter of speculatkm
for it ever to become a regular crop in roost European countries.
North America.— In 1865 the cultivation of opium was attetnpted
in Viivinb by A. Robertson, and a product was obtained wtiidi
yieUed 4 % of morphia. In 1867 H. Black grew opium in Tenneave
which contained 10% of morphia. Opium produced in California
by H. Flint in 1873 yielded 7l% of morphb, equal to 10% ta
perfectly*dricd opium. The expense of cultivatkm eaoeeded the
returns obtained by iU sale. As in Europe, therefore, the high price
of labour mitiutes against its production on a large acale.
(E. M. H.)
Cheimshy of tin Opium Alkaloids. --Tht chemical investigatioA
of opium dates from 1803 when C Derosne iaoUted a crystalline
compound whTch he named "opiiim salt." In 1805 F. W.
SertOmer, a German apothecary, indcpendeotly obtained
thn same substance, naming it " morphium," and recognised
its basic nature; he also isokted an add, meconic acid, A ttcoiHl
paper, published in 181 7, was followed in the same year by
the identification of a new base, narcoline, by P. J. Robiquel.
Thcbaine, another alkaloid, was discovered by Thibovmefy
in 183s; whilst, in 1848, Merck isobted papaverine from cooi-
merdal narcetine. Subsequent investigations have revealed
some twenty or more alkaloids, the more important of which
are given in the following Uble (from A. Pictet» Veteteblt
Alkaloids):-^
Morphine . . .
. 90V.
Narcotinc . . .
• 5-o%
Papaverine . . .
. 0.8 V.
Thebaine . . .
:m
Codeine . . .
Narccine . . .
Cryptopinc . . .
.- 008%
, 9-02%
Laudanine
Lanthopine .
Protopine . .
Codamine
Iritopine .
Lauoanoane
Mccooine .
* 0-01%
. OKw6%
. €H»i%
. oKioa%
. 0-0015%
. 0.0008%
.0.3% *
OPIUM
*$5
Opiiim ilao oonuiot a gum, pec^ • wtt, fagir tad dmSar
Mbstjuiccs, in Bddition to mecooicuid lactic adds. '
The fJ»t*M*t> (all into two ch e mical gioupa: <x) detivmtivet
ol inHiMJnffl'PT, inrinriing papaverine, naiCDtine, gnoecepine
drncenk naicotlne), naroeine, laudanorine, landanlne, ootarnine,
hyd w co ta nune (the last two do not occur in opivm), and (a)
derivatives of phenanthrene, including mofphine, codeine,
tWham^ T^ coastitttdoos of the first series have been deter-
mined; of the lecond they are BtUI uncertain.
Papatmntt C»HtiNO«, waB investigated by G. Ccldachmiedt
(If tfiMlf., 1883-1889), who determined it« constitution (formula I^
below) by a study 01 its oxidation products, showing tliat papaver-
aldine, which it gives with potassium permanganate, is a tetra-
methozybeasoylisoauinoUne. Its synthesis, and abo that of
laMdanorint, CuHanOt, which is N-methyltetrahydropapaverine,
was effected In 1909 by F. L. Pyman {Jottr, Ckem. Soc.^ 95, p. 1610)
and by A. rictet and Mile M. Finkelstein {.Combt, rtnd., 1009, 148*
p. 925). Latuhnine, CttHuNO*. is very similar to laudanonne.
ciUfertng in having three methoxy groups and one hydroxy iasteaa
oifour methoxy.
• Nanotint, C^u^Ou has been principally investigated by
A. Matthiessen and G. C. Foster, and by W» Roser {Ann., 1888, ^o.
^ 1^6: 1889, 254, p. 334*) By hydrolvsts it yields opianic acid,
CwHi^, and hydrocotarnine, CiiHiiNO«; reduciton gives mcco-.
nine, CmH|oO«, and hydrocotamine; whilst oxidation mves opianic
vM. andcotamine. CuHuNO«. Narcottne was shown to be methoxv-
faydzastine (11.) (hydrastlne, the alkaloid of &>ldea seal, UydrastU
fonaienais^ was solved by E. Schmidt, M. Freund. and P. Fritach)
Mid cotanilne to be III.; the latter lias been synthcstxed by A. H.
Salway (7«af. Ckem. S«c., 1910, 97, p. iao8). Narceine, CmHsNOu
obtainca by the action of poush on the methyl iodide of narcotine.
is probably IV. (see Pyman, he, ciL pp. ia66, 1738; M. Freund and
P. Oppenndm, Ber.t 1909, 43. p. 1084]. , .
The proprietary drug "ttyptida is cotamine hydrochlonde,
and ** styptol " cotamine phthalate; " antispasmln " is a sodium
nansdne combined with sodium salicylate, and " oarcyl " narceine
ethyl hydrochloride.
0M» CH, oil*
out
CH.<;
ILNKCOiiM
llLCoCamiae
The chenustry of morphine, codeine and tbebaine is exccedingfv
complicated* ami the literature enormous. That these alkaloids
are closely related may be suqxcted from their empirical
formulae. vu.marphine > CnHwNOi.codeine wCiiHttNOt.thebaine-i
CrsHaNOa. As a matter of fact, Grimaux, in 1881, showed codeine
to.be a methylmorphine, and in 1903 Ach and L. Knorr(B«r.,36,
1^ 3067) obtained identicil substances, viz. thebenine and morpho-
thebaine, from both codeine and thd>aine, thereby estabU»ning
their connexion. Our knowledge of the constitution of these alkaloids
largely depends on the researches of M. Freund, E. Vongerichten,
L. Knorr and R. Pachorr. The presence of the phenanthrene
nucleus and the chain system CH>N*C-C- follows from the (act that
these alkaloids, by appropriate treatment, yield a substituted
phenanthrene and also dimethylaminocihanol (CHi)|NCHrCH|C)H.
Formulae have been proposed hy Pschorr and Knorr explaining
thb and other decompositions (in Pschorr's formula the morphine
ring system is a fusion of a phenanthrene and pyridine nucleus):
another formula, contalnlne a fusion of a phenanthrene with a pyrrol
ring, was proposed by Bucnerer in 1907. The problem is discussed
by Pachorr and Eiabeck {Ber., 1907, 40, p. 1980). and by Knorr
and Hdrlein (f'Htf. p. 304a) ; see aUo Ann, Repu Cktm, Sec.
Morphine, or morphia, crystallizes in prisms with one molecule
of water; k is soluble in 1000 parts of cold water and in 160 of
boiling water, and may be crystallized from alcohol; It Is almost
insoluble in ether and chloroform. It has an alkaline reactbn and
behaves as a tertiary, monacid base; its salts are soluble In water
and aloohoL The official hydrochloride, C»HmNO,HCI+3HiO,
forms delicate needles. Distilled with zinc dust morphine yields
phenanthrene. pyridine and quinoline; dehydration gives, under
certain ooodttions, apomorphine, CuHiiNOfe, a white amorphous
substance, readily soluble in alcohol, either and chkxoform. The
drug " heroin " is a diacetylmorphine hydrochloride. Codeine, or
codeia, crystallizes in orthorhombic prisms with one molecule of
water: It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether and chtoroforro.
Tbebaine forms silvery pUtes, melting at 193*. (C. £.•)
litdkmer-Oi the opium alkaloids only morp)iIne and oodetne
arc used to any extent in medicine. Thebaine is not so used,
but is an Important and sometimes very dangerous constituent
of the various opium prq>arations, -which are itUl largely
employed, despite the compleidty and incom^t compodtloo
of the drug. Of the other alkaloids narceine is hypnotic, like
morphine and coddne, whibt thebaine, papaverine and narco*
tase have an.action whicb reiemblcs that of strychnine, and iS|
generally speaking, undesirable or dangerous if at all well
marked. A drug of so complex a composition as cpitun is
neonsaiily incompatible with • large number of substaaccsr
Tannic add, for instance, precipitates codeine as a tannate,
salts of tnany of the heavy metals form precipitates of meconates
and sulphates, whilst the various alkalis, alkalioe carbonates
and ammoBJs precipitate the important alkaloids.'
The pharaiaoology of opium differs from that of morphine' (4.9.)
in a few particulars. The chief difference between the action of
opium ana morphine is due to the presence in the former of the-
baine, which readily affects the more irritable spinal cord of very
young children. In infants especiaUy opium acta markedly epoii
the ipinal cord. and. just aa strychnine is dangeriNis when given to
young children, so opium, because <^ the strychnine-like alkaloid
It contains, should never be adndniscered, under i
or in any dose, to children under one year of age.
contains, should never be adndniscered, under any circumstances
in any dose, to children under one year of age.
When given by the mouth, opium haa a somewhat different
action from that of morphine. It often relieves hunger, by arresting
the secretion of gastric juioe and the movements of the stomach and
bowel, and it frequently upsets digestion from the same cause.
Often it rdievea vomiting, though m a few persona h may cause
vomidnK, but in far kas degree than apomorphine, which ia a
powerful emetk. Opium haa a more marked diaphoretic action
than morphine, and is much less certain as a hypnotic and analgesic.
There are a few therapeutic indications for the use of opium rather
than morphine, but they are far less important than thoae which
make the opposite deomnd. In some abrinminsi oandilioas, for
instance, opium b stiU preferred by the majority of practitioners,
though certainly not in gastric cases, where morphine gives the
reBeifor which opium often increases the need, owing to the irriunt
action of some of its constituents. Opium is often preferred to
morphine in cases of diabetes, where prolonged administration is
required. In such cAses the soporific action u not that which is
sought, and so opium is preferable. A Dover's powder, also, ia
hardly to be surpassed in the eariy stages of a bad cold in the head
or bronchitis. Ten grains taken at bedtime will often give .sleep,
cause free diaphoresis and quieten the entire nervous system In sudi
cases. The tincture often known aa " paregoric " ia also largely
used in bronchial conditions, and morphine shows no sign of dia-
pladng it in favour. Opium rather than morphine is also twually
employed to relieve the pain of haemorrhoids or fissure of the
rectum. This practice is, however, obsolescent.
The alkaloki thebaine may here be referred to, as It ia not used
separately in medicine.. Crum Drown and Fraser of Edinboigh
showed that, whilst thebaine acts like strychnine, methyl and ethyl
thebaine act like curara. paralysing the terminals of motor nerves.
At present we say of such a sabstance- aa thebaine, ** It acta on tb*
anterior comua 01 grey matur in the spinal oord," but why on them
and not elsewhere we do not know.
Toxkohry.-^Vodtr thb heading must be oonridered ocut*
poisoning by opium, and the dinonic poisoning seen in those who
eat or smolce the drug. Chronic opium noiaomng by the taking «f
Uudanum^as in the familiar case of Ue Quincey— tiecd not bo
considered here, as the hypodermic injection of morphine hasalmesc
entirely supplanted it.
The acute poisoning presents a series of ssrmptoms which are only
with difficulty to be distingoiahed from those produced by alcohol,
by cerebral haemorrhage and by several other morbid conditional
The differemial diagnosU b of the highest Impoitanee, but very
frequently time alone will fttroiah a aumcient criterion. The patient
who has swallowed a toxic or lethal dose of laudanum, for imiance,
usually passes at once into the narcotic state, withodt any prior
e xcit emen t . Intense drowsiness yieMs to sleep and coma which
ends in death from failure of the respiration. Thb last b tho
cardinal fact in determining treatment. The comatose patient has
a cokl and clammy skin, Uvid lips and ear.tipe>-a grave aig»— and
** pin-point pupils," The heart*a action is feeble, the pube being
small, irregubr and often abnormally slow. The action on the
drcuhtion b higety secondary, however, to the all-impoctanc
actkm ol opium on the respiratory centre In the medulb oblongata.
The centre is directly poisoned by the drtubiioo throuah it of
opium-containing blood, and the patiem's breathing becomes
progressively slower, shallower and more irregular untU finally it
ceases ahbgc t he r .
In trmUmi aoite opium poisoning the first proceeding b to empty
the stomacli. For thb purpose the best emetic b aporaorphme,
which osay be iigected subcutaneouUy ia a dose of about one-tenth
of a grain. But apomorphine b not aU'sys to be obtained, and even
if it be administeied it may fail, since the gastric wall b often
panfysed in opinm poisomng* so that no easetb can act. It la
theitfore better to wash.out the stomach, and thb should be done,'
if possible, with a solution containing about ten grains of salt to
-tt^Oi ounce of water. Thb mint be re p eated at intcrvab of aboot
13*
OPIUM
WVMhffr,«Mea(Me«rife0gifaB
■ my fciir by mi i tar i rM . cW actioa Ung faoixased bjr
> d M wmuU qoutity d mmaak aad to the mIh '
■tbe
11«e f*rKio^^ M «tlf «• IJ
ptv/oi The ducf ctf tbcae art ooCee or i illi ■■ ami ^^t **^ A
f^'JJ^ hoc ttPMHOoCBe Majr be JBtro dHced iato the rectiia. aad
flByhefhxoibrtheaaMtfc. Ata«atictli,cvcm«teDtfcaf apaiBof
au«ipiae wliA H f ihoold be iagietud wdbcuameomAf, tbe dn^
Uia( a <Snct etiiwihf of the tttpuatoty oentze. E^vy neans
K-uflt be takea to keep the paticBt nrake: He moM. be valkcd
aUwt, heve — riting ealu wmotlir ^fttkd to the oiMe. or be
friMiJMed br the faodic bMto/. Bot the iaal nwan m caMs of
o(/c«m p oi ^'W Wf •• artihcul nmuM io m , which dboold be p eiKiuul
with M loof M the heart < : ae m—t to beat. It has, iodeed. been
aMertod that, if nhifi of tiaiaed ■■■■rwiti an at hand, ao ooe
•eed die of opiom powonm t. c««b M artiftdal tetpiatipa has to be
oaattiiMwl for horn or dsyik (X.)
Optmm^eaiiMc.—OpSam, like maaj ocKer poiioos, pradnccs
af ter a tiaie a lev cOea if fieqacaUy adniimrtcred as a medidoey
to that the 6ate has to be romfaatly mcieased to piodace the
•sme result on thoae who take it habituaDy. When it is used
to rtiieve pain or dianfaoea, if the doie be not taken at the usual
tiflK the symptoiBS of the disease recur with such vkdcnoe that
the remedy is ipeedily icsofted to as the oulty means of idief ,
sad thus the habit b excxediogly difficult to break off. Oihuhi*
cstiof is chiefly poetised in Asia Minor, Persia and India.
Opinioas diller widdy as to the injusioas eflea of the haliit;
the wciiht M evidence appcaxsy however, to Mfntp that it is
much more deleterious than opium-smoking.
The foUovwg rtarlwics colifrted by Vincent Rkfaards regaidlng
Balaaor ia Oriaaa tlirow •ome light on the influence of tlaia practice
on the health. He wtimatf tliat 1 in every I3 or 14 of the
popubtioa oics the dru^, and that the habit is lacrcasiag. Of the
013 opttifl>'«atera nramined by htm he found that the averse age
at which the habit was commenced was so to 26 years for nxn and
S4 to 30 yean for wooien. Of this number 143 had taken the drug
for from f O to soycafs, 62 for from 20 to 10 yean aod 38 for more
than jp yearsk The majority took their opium twice dai^, roorniog
and evening, the quaatity taken varying from 2 to 46 grains daily,
large doses Dctng the exceptioo, and the average 5 to 7 grains daily.
The dose, when large, haa been increased from ti»e banning; when
smalL there had osuaUy been no increase at alL The causes which
first led (0 the increase of the drug were disease, example and a
bdief in its aphrodisiac powers. The diseases for which it was
chiefly taken were malarial fever, dysentery, dianhoea, q>itting of
blood, rheumatism and elcphantiass. A luinaber began to take it in
the (amioe year. 1B66, as it enabled them to exist on 1ms food aiKi
niitivited their sufferings; othen used it to enable them to undergo
fatigue aod to make Ions journeys. Richards concludes that the
excessive use of opium By the agrkultuial classes, who arc the
chief ooosumen in Orissa, is very rare indeed. lu moderate use
■uy be and is indulged in for yean without producing any decided
or appreciable ill effect except weakening the reproductive powers,
the average number of the children of opuim-eaten bring i • 1 1 after
II yean of married life. It compares favourably as regards crime
aad inmnlty with intoxicating dnnks, the inhabitants of Balasor
being a oarticularly law-abiding rac^and the insane forming only
0*0069% of the population. Dr W. Dymock of Bombay, ncdcing
of western ladn, concun in Richaras's opinion regarding the
moderate use of the drug. He believes that excessive indulgence
in it is oonftned to a comparatively small number of the wealthier
cUsses of the community. Dr Moort's experience of Rajputana
strongly supports the mme views. It seems probable that violent
phyMCal exercise may counteract in great measure the deleterious
effect of opium ami prevent it from rctanding the respiration, and
that in such cases the beneficial effects are obtained without the
noxious results which wouki accrue from iu use to those engaged
In Bcdenury punuits. There Is no doubt that the spread of the
practice is connected with the ban imposed in Mohammedan countries
on the uw of alcoholic beverages, and to some extent with the long
rrjiirbus fasts of the Buddhists, Hindus and Moslems, in whiia
opium is used to allay hunger.
To break off the habit of opiuro<«stinff is exceedingly difficult, and
can be effected only by actual external restraint, or the strongest
effort of a powerful wUl, eipedaUy if the doss has been gradually
0^iiNS-MitfH»|.— This Is chiefly practised by the tnhsbitsnts
of China and the laUnds of the Indian Archipelago, and in
countries where Chinese are largely employed. Opium-smoking
began la CWnt In the 171b century. Foreign opium was first
Imported by the Portuguese (early x8th ceotury). Ja 1906 it was
^MSSJ^99 of
of adult males; h« daoiag 1906-19x0 the
is bciicwBd to haw dimiaiihBd by
Fee miim: the ~
crrtX
ot *f**nn
J aeo^aa israaovee fron itsoovfrhm of hnvca. Ac. momtened
wi^ a Ettle watrr. and aOowcd to siaadTor about fourtenhoon:
>^of,oyum aad aboot 10 pints
_j ,"., ~ — r^- •^— ^' — boibd and stirred oceasiooaBy
iintd^ a unaorw aiuiaic haviag the **" "tf t p t f of e ***** •— >-• — ~
It n then divided into pons, 2} I
of water goiag t oeadhpa a; it is now I
^S!^ imanre having the oonsistenoe of a thin paste m
Tfas opoaxiDa takes fraa five to six hona. The paste
isat oooe transfemd toa higerpan aod cold water added to about
" ^ ^ ^"^ f^ aDowwl to stand for from fou rteca to fif t een
A boMh of tang sani * (bmp-wick, the pith ol EnotMtJcm
•-, ••« ilf *=■'*** ?«?«• ««»d thopmghly washed with boOing
water; the mh water bemr reboiied aad used time after time*
The last washing b done widi pore water; these wadiiasa aie used
m the next day's bofling. ^^
-The lesiduei « the caBc o flteia are tnnsfemd to a large one
?'*K**."fr*^*^^- *?**.•*? I**"«^- This fasolttbleresirfue. called
nai diaj (opium dm), b the pcrauisite of the head boiUiig codic.
who hnds a ready maxhet for it m Canton, where itkuacd for
adulterating, or rather u manufacturing, the moist aafexior kinds of
prepared opium. The filtrate or opium solution is concentrated
by e\'aporatjoo at the bofling point, with occasiooal stirring unta
of a proper consisteaoe, the tune required bdng from threeto four
hours: tt » then removed from the fiie and stirred with ercat
vigour tni coU, the cpplin^ being accelerated by cooUm «ith lane
fans. Wlien quite coM it is taken to the hong and kept there for
some months before it is considered in prime cooditk>n lor amokinc.
As thus prepared it has the conststenoe of a thin tready cxtrairt.
aod is called boiled or prepared opium. In this state it is laxcely
exported from China to America. Australia. Ac., being cardully
sealed up in smaU pots having the name of the makcrfw. hoo^
oneadu — -»/
i'l
Ihe Chinese rrmgniae the folkming
'raw opium,* as imported from India; (a) ^_ „ ^
opium made as above; C?) ' opium dross.' the scrapings from the
opium pipe; this is rebooted and manufactured n a aecood-class
prepared opium; a Chinese doctor sUted lately at a ooroncr's
inquest on a case of poisoning that it was more poisooons than the
otdinary prepared opium; (4) • nai chai * (opmm dirt), the fauoTuble
residue kit on exhausting the raw opium thorouf^ vith water
The opium is sent every day from the hong (Lb. shop or firm) to the
boiling-house, the previous day's bmling being then returned to the
hong. The average quantity boiled each day is from sis to eight
chests of Batna opium, this being the only kind used.**
By this process of preparation a con^erable portion of the nap.
cotlne, laoutchooc, resin, oil or fatty and insoluble matters are
removed, and the prolonged boiling, evaporating and baking over
a naked fire tend to lessen the amount of alkaloids present in the
extract. The only alkaloids likely to remain in the prepared opium,
and capable of producing well-marked physiok^iod results, arc
morphine, codeine and narceine. Morphine, in the pure state, can
be sublimed, but codeine and narceine are sakl not to give a 'sub-
limate. Even if sublimed in smoking opium, morphine would, in
M'Callum's opinion, probably be deposited in the pipe before it
readied the mouth of the smoker. The bitter taste of morphine is
not noticeable when smoking opium, and it is therefore possible
that the pleasure derived from smokinjl the drag is due to some
product formed during combustion. Tnis suppoStmn is rendered
probable by the fact that the opiums most prixea by smokers are not
those containing most morphine, and that the quality is judged by
the amount of soluble matter in the opium, by its tenaaty or
" touch." and by peculiarities of aroma — ^the Indian opium, especi-
ally the Patna kind, bearing much the mme relation to the Chinese
and Persian drag that champagne does to vim ordiuaire. Opium-
smoking is thus described by Thco. Sampson of Canton: —
*' The smoker, lying on his side, with his face towards the tray
and hb head resting on a high hard pillow (sometimes made of
earthenware, but more frequently of bamboo covered with leather),
takes the pipe in hb hand; with the other hand he takes a dipper
and puts the sharp end of it into the opium, whidi b^ a treacly
consistency. Twisting it round and round he gets a large drop of
the flukl to adhere to the dipper: still twisting it round to prevent
it falling he brings the drop over the flame of the lantip, and twirling
it round and round he roasts it; aD this is done with acquired
dexterity. The opium must not be burnt or made too dry. but
roasted gently till it kioks like burnt worsted; every now and then
he takes it away from the fiame and rolls it (still on the egd of tho
OPLADEN—OPORTO
«37
!r) ott tbe flit Miface of the bovH. When it is ivmtt m i rad
1 to hU atisCaction be geoUy heau the oentie of the bowl,
where there is a small orifice: then be quickly thnisu the end of the
dipper into the orifice. twiri» it round smartly and withdraws it:
if this is properiy doae. the opium (now about the siae of a {rain of
bemp-aced or a httk laifer) is lef t adhcriai to the bowl ifluaediately
over the orifice. It is now ready for smolang.
**Tbe smoker assumes a comfortable attitude Dying down of
course) at a proper distance from the lamp. He now puts the stem
to his liptL and holds the bowl over the faunp^ The heat causes the
opium to irislak and the smoker takes thrae or lour long inhalationa,
all the time ustas the dipper to bring every particle of the opium
to the orifice as it Durns away, but not taking his Itpa from the end
of the stem, or the opium pellet from the bmp till all is finished.
Then he uses the flattened end of the dipper to scrape away any linle
lesidae there may be left around the on&ce, and praceeds to preoare
another pipe. The prepanitiona occupy from five to tea minutes,
and the actual smoking about thirty seconds. The smoke is
awaUowtd, and b exhakd through both the mouth and the nose."
M.
Fig. 3
|.~Opium-smoking Apparatus. a» pipe; (, dipper; c, lamp^
So far as can be ^thcred from the conflicting statements published
I the subject, opuim-amoking may be icnided much in the tame
(ht as the use of alcoholic stimulants. To the great maiority of
great majority
appears to act as a stimulant,
It fatigue and to go for a con-
on
Ught
smokers who use it moderately it aj
and to enable them to undergo great ^
siderable time with little or no food. According to the reports on
the sobjoct, when the smoker has plenty of active work ic appears
to be no more injurious than smoking tobacco. When carried to
exccM it becomes an inveterate haint; but this happens chiefly in
individuals of weak will-power, who would just as easily become
the victims of intoxicating drinks, and who are practKally moral
imbecflea, often addicted also to other forma of deptmvity. The
effect in bad cases is to cause loss of appetite, a leaden pallor of
the sidn. and a degree of leanness so excessive as to make its vktims
appear like living skeletons. All Inclination for exertion becomes
gradtt^ly lost, business b neglected, and certain ruin to the smoker
loUows. There can be no doubt that the use of the drug b opposed
by all thinking Chinese who are not pecunbrily interested in the
o{num trade or cultivation, for several reasons, among which may
be mentioned the drain of bullion from the country, the decrease of
popubtkm, the Ibbility to famine through the cultivation of opium
where cereab shonU be grown, And the corruptioa of sute oflkials.
See PkarmacetUiaU Jihtrn, ]il xi. p. 169, »v. p. 3^: [2\ x. p. 4341
tmpcy. R£port oh Malma Opium (Bombay, 1848); Sdpjrt on Tr«d€
pf Hankow (1869); Ntw RtnuAia (1876), p. 329; Phannacofnpkia
(1879). pw 42; Journal of the Sociely of Arts (1882); The Friend of
China (1883), ftc. . lUiort of the Straits Setttements. Federated
Malay States ()pium (u>mmissk>o (1908), App. xxiiL and xxiv.;
Alkn, Commercial Organie Analysis, vol. iii. pt. iv. p. 353: Frank
Browne, Report on Optum (Hong-Kong. 1908) : G. Watt, Dictionary
of the Economic Products tif India (1893): H. Moissan, Comptes
rendus, of the 5th of Decembe r 189J, Iv. p. vj; Labnde. Archives
de midieina nosafe. t. 1. (1890): International Opium Commission
<I909), voL ii. '* Report of the Delegations "; Squire, Companion
tolSBriUsh Pharmacopeia (1908) (t8th editbn). (E. M. H.)
OPLADBN, a tofwn of Gemiany, in the Pnitalan Rhine Province,
10 n. N£. from Cologne by the railway to Elbexfeld and at the
junction of lines to Speldorf and Bonn. Pop. (1905) 6338. It
has an Ewigelicnl and a Roaun Catholic church. It has dyeing
works, and maanfactars of dynamiu, indig6 prodocu and
nilway plant. Before pawng to Pruaiia, Opladen belonged
to the diKby of Berg.
OFOH, a town of the province of Cebtt, Philippine Islands,
OD the small isbnd of Mactan (aiea about 45 aq. m.), which
h separated from the bland of Cebu by a channel only about
I m. wide. Pbp (1903), after the annoation of Cordova and
SanU Rosa, S0)i66. There axe forty-four barrios, or villages,
in the town, and three of these bad in 1903 more than 1000
inhabitants each. The language b Visayan. Opon b a shipping
and commercial suburb of Cebu city, the harbout of which b
dheltefed by Mactan Island. The town has Urge groves of
coco-nut trees, and its principal Industries are the ctiltivation of
Indian com and mtgney and fishing. In the NX. part of the
town b a monnnent to Magellan, who dlscoveied the PbDIppinet
in March isat, and was sbin here, by the natives late in the
foBowing month.
OPORTO (tA • porta, "the port "). the second dty of the
kmgdom of Portugal, the capital of the district of Oporto and
formerly of Entrc-Douro-e-Minho; on both banks of the rivet
Douro, about 3 m. from iu mouth, in 41* V N. and g* 37' W.
Pop. (1900) 167,955. In Portuguese the definite artide b
uncompoundcd in the name of the dty, whidi in strict accuracy
should always be written Porto; the form Oporlo has, however,
been stereotyped by long usage in EngUsh and In seme other
European languages. The part of the dty sooth of the Doitre
b known as Villa Novm de Gaia. Oporto b the see of a bishop,
in the aichiepiBOopal province of Braga. It b the tme capital
of northern Portugal, and the commercbl and political rival of
Lisbon, in much the same way as Barcdona (q.9,) b the rival
of Madrid. Three main railway lines meet here-— from Lbbon,
from Valence do Mlnho on the northern frontier, and from
Barca d'Alva on the north-western frontier. The Valenca
fine has branches to Guimaries and Braga, and affords access
to Conmna and other dtics of north-western Spain; the Bares
d*Alva line has a branch to Mirandella and communicates with
Madrid via Salamanca. Oporto b buQt chiefly on the north
or right bank of the Douro; its prindpal suburbs are Bomfim
on the E., Monte Pedral and Paxanhos on the N., VUlar Blcalho,
Lorddlo and Sio Joio da Fox on the W., Ramalde, Villatlnha,
Matoslnhos, Leca da Palmeira and the port of Leixfles on the
N.W. The mouth of the river b obstructed by a sandy spit
of land which has been enlarged by the deposits of sQt constantly
washed down by the swift current; on the north side of thb
bar b a narrow channd varying In depth from t6 ft. to 19 ft.
A fort in Slo Joio da Pox protecU the entrance, and there b
a lighthouse on a rock outside the bar. As large vesseb cannot
enter the river, a harbour of refuge has been constructed at
Leucoes {q.9.).
The approach to Oporto up the winding and fJord-Uke estuary
b one of singular beauty. On the north the streets rise in
terraces up the steep bank, built in many cases of granite oveN
laid with plaster, so that white b the pcevailing colour of the
dty; on the sooth are the hamlets of Gaia and Furada, and the
red-tiled wine lodges of Villa Nova de Gala, in which vut
quantities of " port " are manufactured and stored. The archi-
tecture of the houses and public buildings b often rather Oriental
than European in appearance. There are numerous parks and
gardens, especially on the outskirts of the dty, in which palms,
oranges and aloes grow side by side with the flowers and fntits
of northern Europe, for the climate b ndid and very equable, the
mean temperatures for January and July—the ciAdest and the
hottest months—bdng respectivdy about 50* and 70*. The
Douro b at all seasons crowded with shipping, chiefly small
steamers and Urge sailing vessels. Tlie deiign of some of the
native craft b peculiar a mo n g them may be mentioned the higb-
prowed canoe-like fishing boats, the ratcas with their three lateen
saib, and the barcos rabeOOt flat-bottomed barges with huge
rudders, used for the conveyance of wine down stream. Two
remarkable Iron bridges, the Maria Pia and the Dom Lub I.,
span the river. The first was buHt by Messrs Eiffd & Company
of Paris In 1876-1877; it rests on a gnnlte substructure and
carries the Lfa^xm railway line across the Douro ravine at a
height of too ft. The second, constructed in 1881*1885 ^ e
Belgian firm, has two decks or roadways, one 33 ft., the other
300 ft. above the usual water-levd; its arch, one of the largest
in Europe, has a span of 560 ft. and b supported by two massive
granite towers. The Douro b liable in winter to sudden and
violent floods; in 190^1910 the water rose 40 ft. at Oporto, where
it b confined in a deep and narrow bed.
Though parts of the dty are modem or have been modcmlxed,
the older quarters in the east are extremely picturesque, with
their steep and narrow lanes overshadowed by lofty balconied
houses. Overcrowding and dirt are common, for the density of
population b nearly 13.000 per sq. m., or greater than bi any other
dty of PortugaL UnUl the early years of the seibccntuiy, when
«38
OPORTO
a proper lystem of Mwerage was insUUed, tXie coBdlUon of
Oporto was most insanitary. Electric lighting and tramways
were introduced a little before this, but the completioa of the
tramway system was long delayed, and in the hilly districts cars
drawn by ten mules were not an unconuDon sight. Ox-carts ace
used for the conveyance of heavy goods, and until late in the
igth century sedan-chairs were still occasionally U8ed» A painful
feature of the street-life of Oporto is the great number of the
diseased and mutilated beggars who frequent the busiest
thoroughfares. As a rule, however, the natives of Oporto are
strong and of fine physique; they also show fewer signs of
negro descent than the people of Lisbon. Their numbers tend
.to increase very rapuUy; in 1864 the population of Oporto was
86,751, but in 1876 it rose to 105,838, in 1890 to 138,860, and in
1900 to 167,955. Many of the men emigrate to South America,
where their industry usually enables them to prosper, and
ultimately io return with considerable savings. The local
dialect is broader than the Portuguese of the educated classes,
from which it differs more in pronunciation than in idiom.
The poverty of the people is very great. Out of the 597,935
inhabitants of the district of Oporto (893 sq. m.), 422,320 were
returned at the census of 1900 as unable to read or write. Much
had been done, however, to remedy this defect, and besides
numerous primary schools there are in the city two schools for
teachers, a medial academy, polytechnic, art, trade and naval
schools, and industrial institute, a commercial athenaeum, a
lyccum for secondary education, an ecclesiastical seminaiyi and a
meteorological observatory.
The cathedral, which stands at the highest point of easrero
Oporto, on. the site of the Visigothic citadel, was originally a
Romanesque building of the 12th century; its cloisters are
Gothic of the 14th century, but the greater part of the fabric
was modernized in the 17th and x8th centuries. The interior of
the cloisters is adorned with blue and white tiles, painted to
represent scenes from the Song of Solomon. The bi^op's palace
is a large and lofty building conspicuously placed on a high rock ;
the interior contains a fine marble staircase. The Romanesque
and eariy Gothic church of SSo Martinho de Ccdo Feita is the
most interesting ecclesiastical building in Oporto, especially
noteworthy being the curiously carved capitals of its pillars.
Thouj^ the present structure is not older, except in details, than
the I ath century, the church is said to have been " hastily built "
{cedofcikit cite facia) by Theodomir, king of the Visigoths, in 559,
to receive the relics of St Martin of Tours, which were then on their
way hither from France. The Torre dos Clerigos is a granite
to^er 346 ft. high, built in the middle of the x8th century at the
expense of the local clergy {cUrigos) \ it stands on a hill and forms
a conspicxious landmark for sailors. Nossa Senhora da Lapa is a
fine x8th-century church, Corinthian in style; S&o Francisco is
a Gothic, basilica dating from 14x0; Nossa Senhora da Serra do
Pilar is a secularized Augustiniao convent used as artillery
barracks, and marks the spot at which Wellington forced the
passage of the Douro in 1809, The exchange ifinia) is another
secularized convent, decorated with colour^ marbles. Farts of
the interior are floored and panelled with polished native-coloured
woods from Brazil, which ass inlaid in elaborate patterns; there
is a very handsome staircase, and the fittings of one large room
are an excellent modem copy of Moorish ornamentation.
Other noteworthy public buildiixgs are the museumr library,
opera-house, bull-ring, hospital and quarantine station. The
crystal palace b a kirge glass and iron stnyrture buiH for the
industrial exhibition of 1865; its garden commands a fine view
of the city and river, and contains a small menagerie. The
English factory, built in 1790, has been converted into a dub
for the British lesidcnts— a large and important community
whose members are chiefly connected with tlve wine and shipping
trades. Lawn tennis* cricket, boat-mdng on the Douro, and
other British sporU have been successfully introduced, and there
is keen competition between the Oporto clubs and those of
Lisbon and CarcaveUos. The English club gave its name to
the Roa Nova dos Inglczes, one of the busiest streets^ which
contains maay banks, .warcbouaes and steamship offices. The
Rua da AH&ndega, skirting the right bank of the Douro and
passing the custom house {aljdndega)^ is of similar character;
here may be seen characteristic types of the fishermen and
peasants of northern Portugal. The Rua das Flores conuins,
on iu eastern side, the shops of the cioth-dealers; on the west
are the jewellers' shops, with a remarkable display of gold and
silver filigree-work and enamelled gold. Oporto is famous
for these onxaments, which are often very artistic, and are
largely worn on holidays by women of the poorer classes,
whose savings or dowries are often kept in this readily
marketable form.
Oporto is chiefly famous for the export of the wixw whidi bears
its name. An act passed on the 39th of January 1906 defined
" port " as a wine grown in the Douro d^trict, exported from
Oporto, and conuining more than x6'5% of alcoholic strength.
The vines from which it is made grow in the Paiz do Vinho, a
hilly region about 60 m. up the river, and having an area of 27 m.
in length by 5 or 6 in breadth, cut off from the sea, and shut in
from the north-east by mountains. The trade was established
in 1678, but the shipments for some years did not exceed 609
pipes (of X15 gallons each). In 1703 the British government
concluded the Methuen treaty with Portugal, under which
Portuguese wines were admitted on easier terms than French or
German, and henceforward "port" began to be drank (see
Poktugal: History), In 1747 the export reached 17,000 pipes.
In X754 the great wine monopoly company of Oporto origiiiated,
under which the shipments rose to 33^000 pipes. At the begin-
ning of the X9th century the policy of the government more and
more favoured port wine, besides which the vintages from i8oa
to X815 were splendid both in Portugal and in Madeira— that
of X815 has, in fact, never been excelled. For the next few yean
the grape crop was not at all good, but the x8to vintage was the
most remarkable of any. It was singularly sweet and Mack,
besides bring equal In quality to that of 18x5. This was long
regarded as the standard in taste and colour for true pott, and
to keep up the vintage of following years to this exceptional
standard adulteration by elder berries, &c., was resorted to.
This practice did not long continue, for it was dieaper to adul-
terate the best wines with inferior sorts of pott wine itself. In
1652 the Oidium whidi spread over Europe destroyed many of
the Portuguese vineyards. In 1865 Phylloxera did mudi damage,
and in X867 the second monopoly company was abdiiskeid.
From this time the exports again increased. (SeeWniE.)
A third of the popvdation is engaged in the manufacture of
cottons, woollens, leather, silk, gloves, hats, potteiy, corks,
tobacco, spirits, beer, aerated waters, preserved foods, soap or
jeweliy. Oporto gloves and hats are highly esteemed in Portugal.
Cotton piece goods are sent to the African colonies, and, in small
quantities, to Brazil; their value in X905 was £120,360, but a
larger quantity was retained for the home market. Tibe fisheries
—chiefly of hake, bream and sardinesr-^are extensive. Stmm>
trawling, though unsuccessful in the X9th century, was resinned
in X904, and in 1906 there were 136 British, 10 Dutch and 3
Portuguese steamers thus engaged. The innovation was much
resented by the oWixera of more than- 350 small saOing boats,
and protective legidation was demanded. In 1905 the combined
port of Oporto and LeixOcs was entered by 1734 vessels of
i»S6*f734 tons, but in this total some vessels were counted twice
over — Le, ox»ce at each port. Nearly three^fourths of ibe tonnage
was entered at LeixQcs.. About the dose of the 19th century
there was an important devdopment of tourist traffic from
Liverpool and Southampton via Havre. Reduced railway
rates and improved hotel accommodation have fadliuted the
growth of this traffic. Many tourists land at Opoito. and visit
Braga (f.v.), Bussaco (f.f.) and other places of interestrOn their
way to Lisbon, lltere is abo a large tourist traffic from Ger-
many. The exports of Oporto indude wine, cottons, «ood,
pttwood, stone-, cork, salt, Sumach, onions, oranges, olives and
beans. American competition has destroyed the export trade
IB live cattle for which Great Britain was the prindpal mariiet.
Dried codfish (bacalkdc) is imported in great quantities from
Newfoundland and Norway; other notewortl^ imports ut
OPOSSUM— OPPEL
*39
GOttI, iroB, tfed, machinery and teilQes. TlietoUlyeariy value
of th€ foretgn trade exceeds £5,000/100.
The history of Oporto dates from an early period. Before the
Roman invasion, under the luune of Portus Cale, Gaia or Cago,
k was a town on the south bank of the Douro wiiJi a good trade;
the Alani subsequently founded a city on the north buk, calling
k Casintm Nnum. About aj>. 540 the Visigoths under Leovigild
obtained possession, but yielded place in 716 to the Moors. The
Christians, however, recaptured Oporto in 997, and it became the
capital of the counts of Portucalia for part of the period during
which the Moors ruled in the southern provinces of Portugal.
(See PoBTtNUL: Hishry.) The Moors once more became its
masters for a short period, till in 1091 it was brought finally
under Christian deminationi The dtiaena rebelled in i6a8
against an unpopulait tax, in i66r for a similar reason, in 1757
against the wine monopoly, and in 1808 against the French.
The town is renowned in Briti&h military annals from the duke
of Wellington's passage of the Douro, by which he surprised and
put to flight the French army under Marshal Soult, capturing
the dty on the 12th of May 1809. Oporto sustained a severe
siege in 1852-1833, being bravely defended against the Miguelites
by Dom Pedro with 7000 soldiers; 16,000 of its inhabitants
perished. In the constitutional crises of x8ao, 1836, 1836, 1842,
1846-X847, 1891 and 1907-1908 the action of Oporto, as the
capital of northern I^irtugal, was alwajrs of the utmost
fanportanoe.
OPOSSUM, an American Indian name property belonging to
the American marsupials (other than CaenoUsta), but in Australia
applied to the phalangers (see Phalangei). True oponums
are found throughout the greater part of America from the
United States to Patagonia, the number of spedes behig brgest
in the more tropical parts (see Marsupxaua). They form the
famfly Dideipkyidae, distinguished from other marsupial families
by the equally devdoped hind-toes, the nailless but fully oppos-
able first hind-toe, and by the dentition, of which the formula
b ft. f , c. f, p. f, m. S; total 50. The peculiarity in the mode
of succession of these teeth is explained in the artide referred
to. Opossums are small animals, varying from the size of a
moose to that of a large cat, with k>ng noses, ears and tails, the
latter being as a rule naked and prehensile, and with the first
toe in the hind-foot so fully opposable to the other digits as
to constitute a functk>naUy perfect posterior *' hand." These
opposable first toes are without nail or daw, but their tips are
expanded into broad flat pads, which are of great use to these
climbing animals. On the anterior limbs all the five digits are
provided with k>ng sharp claws, and the first toe is but little
opposable. The numerous check -teeth are crowned with minute
shlrply-pointed cusps, with which to crush the insects on which
these creatures feed, for the opossums seem to take in South
America the place in the economy of nature filled in other
countries by hedgehogs, moles, shrews, &c The truo opossums
are typically represented by Didetphys marsupialis, a species,
with several local races, ranging over the greater part of North
America (except the extreme north). It is of large size, and
extremely common, being even found living in towns, where
it acts as a scavenger by night, retiring for shelter by day upon
the roofs or into the sewers. It produces in the spring from
six to sixteen young ones, which are placed by the mother in her
pouch immediately after birth, and remain there until able to
uke care ol themselves; the period of gestation being from
fourteen to seventeen days. A local race found in Central and
tropical South America is known as the crab-eating opossum
(D. marsupialis cancrtoara). The second sub-genus, or genus,
UttaikuMS contains a considerable number of species found
all ovzK the tropical parts of the New World. They are of
medium size, with short, close fur, very long, scaly and naked
taib, and have less developed ridges on their skulls They have,
as a rale, no pouch in which to carry their young, and the latter
therefore coinmonly ride on their mother's back, holding on by
winding their prehensile tails round hers, as in the figure of the
woolly ofiossum. The latter belongs to the sub-genus Philander ^
which is nearly allied to the last; iU fuU title being Diddpky
iPUUmUryUtUgtM. ThtpbSlsmd€t{D.[P.]pUlmid4f)h€ioKlfy
related.
The foiirth sub-genus (or genus) is Marmasa (Micoureust or
Crymaeamys), differing from the two last by the smaller sise
of its members and by certain slight differences in the shape
of their teeth. Its best-known spedes is the murine opossum
(D, murina), no larger than a mouse, of a bright-red colour,
found as far north as central Mexico, and extending thence to
the south of BraaU. A second well-known spedes is D. cinerea,
which ranges from Central America to western Brazil, Peru and
Bolivia. Yet another group {Peramys) h represented by
numerous shrew-like spedes, of very small size, with short,
hairy and noni>rehensiie tails, not half the length of the trunk,
and unridged skulls. The most striUng member of the group
The Woolly Oponuro {jDUaphys lamgera) and j
is the Three-striped Opossum (/7. americami) from Brazfl, which
is of a reddish grey colour, with three dearly-defined deep-bUck
bands down its back, as in some of the striped mice of Africa.
D. dimidiala, D. nudicaudata, D. damesHca, D. uuislriaia and
several other South American spedes belong to this group.
Lastly we have the Chiloe IsUnd opossum (D. ^oides)^ alone
representing the sub-genus DramiciopSt which is most nearly
alhed to Marmasa, but differs from all other opossums by the
short furry ears, thick hairy tail, doubly swollen auditory bulla,
short canines and peculiarly formed and situated incisors.
Whatever difference of opinion there may be as to the right
of the above-mentioned groups to generic separation from the
typical Didetpkys, there can be none as to the distinctness of the
water-opossum (CkiranecUs minimus), which differs from all
the other members of the family by its fully webbed feet, and
the dark-brown transverse bands across the body (see Watee-
Oposstm).
See O. Thomas, Catalcfue 0/ Marsupialia aud Memtmuatu
(Britifth Museum. 1888) : " On Micourcus griaeus, with the Descrip-
tion of a New Genus and Species of Didclpnyidac," Ann. Mat. Nat.
Hist. acr. 6, vol. xiv. p. 184, and later papers in the same and other
serials. (R. L.*)
OPPEL, CARL ALBERT (1831-1865), (Scrman palaeontok>gisf ,
was bom at Hohenhdm in WUrttemberg. on the 19th of December
1 83 1. After studying mineralogy and geology at Stuttgart, he
entered the university of Tilbingto, where he graduated Ph.D.
in 1853. Here he came tmder the hifluence of (^uenstedt and
devoted his spedal attention to the fossib of the Jurassic system.
With this object he examined in detail during 1854 and the
following year the succession of strata in EnglMid, France and
Germany and determined the various palaeontological stages
or zones characterized by spedal guide-fossils, in most cases
ammonites The results of his researches were published in his
great work Die Jufajormatum Englands, Frankreieks und des
sUdwesUicken DeutscMands (i85fr>i858). In 1858 he became
an assistant in the Palaeontological Museum at Mtwich. la
i860 he became professor of pa]aeontok>gy in the nnlverdty at
Mum'ch, and in 1861 director of the Palaeontokiglcal Collection.
There he continued his labours on the Jurassic fauna, describing
new spedes of Crustacea, ammonites, &c To him sJso we omu
I40
OPPELN— OPPIUS
the cstiblttlmieBt of the Titboniaii ttace, lor strau (mtinlr
equivalent to the English Portland and Purbeck Beds) that
occur on the borders of Jurassic and Cretaceous. Of his Utter
works the naost important was PaiOMtohgiscke MiUkeikmim
CMS dem Musmm des K&m^, Bayer, Stoats. (x86a-i86s). He
died at Munich on the ajrd of December 1865.
OPPBUf (Polish, OppolU), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Silaua, lies on the light bank of the Oder, 51 m.
S.E. of Brcslau, on the railway to Kattowitz, and at the junction
of lines to Beuthen, Neisse and Tamowiu. Pop^ (1905) 30,769.
It is the seat of the provincial administration of Upper Silesia,
and contains the oldest Christian church in the district, that of
St Adalbert, founded at the dose of the loch century. It has
two other churches and a ducal isth^century paUce on an island
in the Oder. The most prominent among the other buildings
are the offices of the district authorities, the town hall, the
norma] seminary and the hospital of St Adalbert. The Roman
Catholic gymnasium is established in an old Jesuit college.
The industries of Oppein include the manufacture o! Portland
cement, machinery, beer, soap, dgars and lime; trade is carried
on by rail and river in cattle, grain and the vast mineral output
of the district, of which Oppein is the chief centre. The upper
classes speak German, the lower Polish.
Oppein was a flourishing place at the beginning of the nth
century, and became a town in laaS. It was the capital of the
duchy of Oppein and the residence of the duke from 1163 to
X533, when the ruling family became extinct. Then it passed
to Austria, and with the rest of Silesia was ceded to Prussia
in 1743.
See Iddkowski. CuekickU der Stadt Oppdn (Oppein, 1863); and
Vogt. Oppdn Uim EintriU im das Jakr 1900 (Oppein, 1900).
OPPBNHBIll, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of
Hesse, picturesqudy situated on the slope of vinc<lad hills, on
the Idt bank of the Rhine, so m. S. of Mainz, on the railway to
Worms. Pop. (1905) 3696. The only lelic of iu former import-
ance is the Evangelical church of St Catherine, one of the most
beautiful (jothic edifices of the 13th and X4th centuries in
Germany, and recently restored at the public expense. The
town has a Roman Catholic church, several schools and a
memorial of the War of X870-7X. Its industries and commerce
are prindpally concerned with the manufacture and export of
wine. Above the town axe the ruins of the fortress of Landakxon,
built in the XI th century and destroyed in 1689.
Oppenhcim, which occupies the site of the Roman Bauoonica,
was formerly much larger than at present. In iaa6 it appears as
a free town of the Empire and later as one of the most important
members of the Rhenish League« It lost its Independence in
X375,*whcn it was given in pledge to the elector palatine of the
Rhine. During the Thirty Years' War it was altcmatdy occupied
by the Swedes and the Imperialists, and in X689 it was entirdy
destrc^ed by the French.
See W. Franck, Caekkhk der ehemaligfn Reichssladt Oppenheim
.(Darmstadt, 1859).
OPPBRT, JULnJS (1835-1905), German Assyriologtst, was
bom at Hamburgf of Jewish parents, on the 9th of July 1825.
After studying at Hdddbergt Bonn and Berlin, he graduated at
Kid in 1847, and in the following year went to France, where he
was teacher of German at Laval and at Reims. His leisure was
given to Oriental studies, in which be had made great progress
in Germany, and in 1852 he joined Frcsnd's archaeological
expedition to Mesopotamia. On his return in 1854 he occupied
himself in <Ugcsting the results of the expedition in so far as they
concerned cuneiform inscriptions, and published an important
work upon them {Dichiijfrement des inscriptions cuntijormes,
1861). In 1857 he was appointed professor of Sanscrit in the
school of languages connected with the National Library in
Pans, and in this capadty he produced a Sanscrit grammar,
but his attention was chiefly given to Assyrian and cognate
subjects, and he was eapedally prominent in establishing the
Turanian character of the language originally spoken in Assyria.
In 1869 Oppert was appointed professor of Assyrian philology
and archaeology at the CcUige d* France. In 1865 he published
a history of Assyria and Chaldaea in the light of tile venlts of
the dlfTcrent exploring expeditions. At a hiter period be devoted
much attention to the language and antiquities of aadcnt Media,
writing jUiVM^dia/aiifM^irMcs (1879). He died ia Paris
on the sxst of August 1905. Oppert was a voluminous writer
upon Assyrian mythology and jurisprudence, and other subjects
connected with the andent dvilizationa of the East. Among
his other works may be mentioned: SUmemis da ia grawtmaue
assynenm (x868); VlmmortaiUi de Vdme eha Us CkdUUems,
(1875); SahmoH et tee tuceesseurs (1877) ; and, with J. Mfoaxu,
Doctrines jwidiqties deV Assyria etdela CkaldU (1877).
OFPIAN (Gr. "Osnaiw), the name of the authors of two (or
three) didactic poems in Greek hexametexs, f ormeriy identified,
but now generally regaided as two different perwns. (x)Oppiaa
of Corycus (or Anabarcus) in Cilicia, who flourished in the reign
of Marcus Aurelius (emperor ajk x6f x8o). Accoiding to an
anonymous biographer, his father, having lacuxxed the dis-
pleasure of Ludus Verus, the coUesgueof Aurdius, by neglecting
to pay his respects to him when he visited the town, was banished
to Malta. Oppian, who had accompanied his father into exile,
returned after the death of Verus (169) and went on a visit to
Rome. Here he presented his poems to Aurelius, who was ao
pleased with them that he gave the author a piece of gold for each
line, took him into favour and pardoned his father. Oppian
subsequently returned to his native country, but died of the
plague shortly afterwards, at the eariy age of thirty. His
contemporaries erected a sUtue hi his honour, with an inscription
which is still extant, containing a lament for Us premature death
and a eulogy of his precodous genius. His poem on fishing
{Halieutica), of about 3500 Imes, dedicated to Aurelius and his
son Commodus, b still extant, (a) Oppian of Apaxnea (or PcUa)
in Sjfria. His extant poem on hunting {CynepiUa) is dedicated
to the emperor CaracaUa, so that it must have been written after
2 IX. It consisu of about a 150 lines, and is divided into four
books, the last of which seems incomplete. The author evidently
knew. the Haiieutiea, and perhaps intended his poem as a supple-
ment. Like his namesake, he shows considerable knowledge of
his subject and dose observation of nature; but in style and
poetical merit he is inferior to him. His versification also is less
correct. The improbability of there having been two poets of
the same name, writing on subjects so dosdy akin and such near
contemporaries, may perhaps be explained by assuming that
the real name of the author of the Cynegfilica was not Oppian,
but that he has been confounded with his predecessor. In any
case, it seems clear that the two were not identicaL
A third poem on bird-catching {Ixeutiea, from f$6t, bird-lixne),
also formerly attributed to an Qppian, is lost; a paraphrase in
Greek prose by a certain Eutecnius is extant. The author is
probably one Dionysius, who is mentioixrd by Suldas as the
author of a treatise on stones (Uthiaca).
The chief modem editions are J. G. Schndder (1776); F. S.
Lchrs (1846): U. C. Busaemaker (Schdia. 1849): {Cyneettka)
P. Boudreaux (1908). The anonymous biogjaphy iderred to above
will be round in A. Wcstcrmann's Biogtaphi Craui (1845). On the
subject generally sec A. Martin, Etudes sur Us vie H Us mueres
d'Oppten de CUicie (1863): A. Ausfdd. De Oppiano et scriptis snk
fjus nomtne traditu (1876). There arc transUttona of the UaLientiea,
in English by Diaper and Jones (1722), and in French by £. J.
Bourqum (1877).
OPPIDS. QAIU8. an intimate friend of Julius Caesar. He
managed the dictator's private affairs during his absence from
Rome, and, together with L. Cornelius Balbus, cxeidsed con-
siderable influence in the city. According to Suetonius {Caesar^
56), many authorities considered Oppius to have written the
histories of the Spanish, African and Alexandrian wars which are
pnnted among the works of Caesar. It is now generally held
that he may possibly be the author of the hat (although the
claims of Hirtius are considered stronger), but certainly not of
the two first, although Nicbuhr confidently assipied the Btilum
AJricanum to him; the writer of these took an actual part
in (he wars they described, whereas Oppius was in Rome
at the time. He also wrote a life of (Caesar and the ddcr
Sdpio*
OPTICR-ORACLE
H*
OFTICI, Uie tdenct of Uglit, reguded as the medium of Bght
(Gr. 0fit). Genenlly the noun is qualified by «n adjective, lo
as to driimitatf the principal groups of optical phenomena,
r^. geometrical optics, physical optics, meteorological optics, lee
Cre^ tenninology induded tuo adjectival fonD»--TA imrutk,
for an optical phenomena, inrluding vision and the nature of
Ught, and i irru4 (ic* (kJfila), for the objective study of light,
»^. the nature of light itsdf and the theoiy of viaioB. See Ligbt
andVxszoir.
OPnOV (LaL cpih, choke, rhooriog, «^tare, to choose), the
action of choosing or thing chosen, chbioe or power or opportunity
qt making a choice. The word had a partinihr mrawng in
trrlrwastiral law, where it was used of a right claimed by an
archbishop to select one benefice from the diooeae of a newly
appcnnted hisbop, the next presentation to which.would fall to
his, the aichbisbop's, patronage. This right was abolished by
various statutes in the eariy part of the 19th century. Asa term
in stock-exchange operations, " option " is used to express the
privilege given to concl u d e a bargain at some future time at
an agreed-upon price (see Call and Stock Excsamge). The
phrase ** local option " haa been specifically used in politics of
the power given to the electorate of a particular district to chooie
whether licences for the sale of intorirafing liquor should be
granted or not. This form of "local option" haa been also and
m ore rig htly termed " local veto " (see Liquos Laws).
OPOI COvoSi), in andcnt Greece, the chief dty of the Opontian
Locriaos; the walls of the town may still be seen on a hiU about
6 m. SJL of the modem Atalaote, and about i m. from the
charuel which separates the mainland from Euboea. Itismen*
tionedin the Homeric catalogue among the towns of theLooians,
who were led by Ajaz Oikus; and there were games called
Aiaotea and an altar at Opus in honour of Ajaz. Opus was also
the birthplace of Patrodus. Pindar's Ninth Olympian Ode b
mainly devoted to the glory and traditions of Opus. lu founder
was Opot the son of Zeus and Protogeneia, the daughter of an
Elian Opus, or, according to another version, of Deucalion and
Pyrrha, and the wife of LoaoOb The Locrians deserted the
Greek side in the Persian Wars; they were among the allies of
Sparta in the Peloponnesian War. In the struggle between
Philip V. of Maoedon and the Koreans the town went over to the
Utter in 197 B.C, but the AcropoUs held out for Philip untfl his
defeat at Cynoscephalae (Livy szxiL 32). The town suiicred
from earthquakes, such as that which destroyed the neighbouring
Atalante in 1894.
OBACH,or Moitktaxn Spuiacb, known botaiiica]]yas>f«ri/rfbr
AtrlMfM, a tall-growing hardy annual, whose leaves^ though
omnely flavoured, are used as a substitute for qtinach, and
to oorrect the acidity of sorrd. The white and the green are
the most desirable varieties. The plant should be grown quickly
in rich soiL It may be sown in rows s ft. apart, and about the
tame distance in the row, about March, and for suoceasiott again
iojune. If needful, water must be freely given; so as to maintain
a tspid powth. A variety, A. ktrtauU var. ruAra, commooly
called red monntain qtinach, is a hardy amraal 5 to 4 ft. high
irith fine ornamental foliage.
OIACU (Lat. oroarfMH, from «raffv, to prqr; the ooncspond-
ing Gnek word is pawmm or xm^PMv), a spedal place where
a deity b supposed to give a response, by the mouth of an inspired
priest, CO the inquiries of ha votaries; or the actual response,
ne whole q«ieslion of otmdeu whether in the sense of the
response or the sacred plaoe-Hs bound up with that of magic,
d i fi nati ao and omens, to the articles on which the reader b
They u» oomonaly foand hi the earlier stages of
wag dtferest nations. But it b as an ancient
Gneek iiw t irti wi that they are nest fartcmting histofically.
A charactctistit feature of Greek religion which disiingiishes
It fna manr other qrstcais of advanced cult was the wide
prcvikaOB of a ritual of divination and the pramineace of certain
oracular centres which were SBpp o ied to give voice to the wil
of Providence. An acoouat of the oracles of Greece b concerned
with the historical question about their growth, influence and
career. But it b convenient to consider fmn the anthropolopc
question, as to the methods of divination practised in andent
Greece, their significance and the original ideas that inspired
them. Only the slightest theoretical construction b poaeible
here; and the true psychologic explanation of the mantic facts
b of very recent discovery. In the Gredi worid these were of
great variety, but nearly all the methods of divination found
there can be traced among other communities, primitive and
advanced,* ancient and modem. The most obvious and useful
classification of them b that of which Plato^ was the author.
who distinguishes between (a) the " sane " form of divination
and (ft) the ecstatic, enthusiastic or "insane" form. The first
method appears to be cool and scientific, the diviner Oi^is)
interpreting certain signs according to fixed principles of inter*
pretation. The second b worked by the prophet, shaman or
Pythoness, who b possessed and over p o w e red by the ddty, and
in temporary frenzy utters mystic speech under divine suggestion.
To theM we may add a third form (c), divination by conununkm
with the ipirilual worid in dreams or through intercourse with
the departed spirit: thb resembles class (a) in that it docs
not necessarily involve ecstasy, and dass (6) in that it aswimft
inunedbte rap fori with some spiritual power.
It will be convenient first to give typical examples of these
various processes of discovering the divine wHl, and then to
sketch the history of Delphi, the leading centre of divination.
We may subdivide the methods that fall under dass (a), those
that conform to the " omen "-system, according as th^ deal
with the phenomena of the animate or the inanimate worid;
although thb distinction would not be relevant in the period
of primitive animistic thought. The Homeric poems attest
that auguries from the flight and actions of birds were commonly
observed in the earliest Hdlenic period as they occasionally
were in the later, but we have little evidence that thb method
was ever organized as it was at Rome into a regular system of
sute-divination, still less of sute<raft. We can only quote the
passage in the Antigone where Sophodcs describes the method
of Tdresias, who keeps an aviary where he studies and interprets
the flight and the cries of the birds; it b probable that the
poet was aware of some such practice actually in vogue. But the
usual examples of Greek augury do not suggest deliberate and
systematic observation; for instanre, the phenomenon in the
iliad ai the ea^e seizing the snake and dropping it, or, in the
Agmmtmnon of Aeschylus, of the ea^es swooping on the pregnant
hare. Other animab besides birds could furnish omens; we
have an interesting story of the omen derived from the contest
between a wolf and a buD which dedded the question of the
sovereignty of Argos when Danaus arrived and claimed the
kingdom;* and the private superstitious man might be en-
ooisraged or depressed by any ominous sign derived from any
part <rf the anirnal worid. But it b very rare to find such omens
habitually consulted in any public system of di\ination sanctioned
by the state. We hesr of a shrine of ApoDo at Sura in Lyda,*
where omens were taken from the movements o( the sacred
fish that were kept there in a tank; and again of a grove conse-
crated to thb god In Epirus, where tame scrpeixu were kept and
fed by a priestess, who could predict a good or bad harvest
according as they ate heartily or came willingly to her or noL*
But the method of animal divination that was most in vogue
was the inspection of the inward pasU of the victim offered upon
the altar, and the interpretation of certain marks found there
according to a conventional code. Sopbodes in the paissgr
referred to above gives us a ^impoe of tha prophet's procedure.
A conspicuous example of an orade orgaaiaed 00 thb prindpla
was that of Zens at Olympia, where soothsayers of the iuaSj
of the lamidai prophesied partly by the mspestioo of CDtzails»
* Pkaeinu, p. 144.
• Serv. Verg. Aem, vr. 377; Psos. B. 19. 3.
I Ad. ;\riZ auMi. xiL I. «AeLJV«l.ffu«.xi.a.
I4«
ORACLE
partly by Uieobsenmtion ol ceitaio lifas In the ikm when it was
cut or burned.* Another lets familiar procedure that belongs
to thtf aubdiviaion is that which was known as divination StA
«X:g66K«i', whidi might sometimes have been the dies of birds,
but in an oiade of Hermes at the Achaean dty of Pharae woe
the casual utterances of men. . Pausanias tells us* how this was
worked. The consultant came in the evening to the statue of
Hermes in the market-place that stood by the side of a hearth-
ahar to which bronze lamps were attached; having kindled
the lamps and put a piece of money on the altar, he whispered
into the ear of the statue what he wished to know; he then
departed, closing his ears with his hands, and whatever human
speech he first heard after withdrawing his hands he took for a
sign. The same cu^m seems to have prevailed at Thebes in a
shrine of ApoUo, and in the Olympian oracle of Zeus.*
Of omens taken from what we call the inanimate work!
salient examf^ are those derived from trees and water, a
divination to be ezpkuned by an animistic feeling that may
be regarded as at one time universal Both were in vogue at
Dodona, where the ecstatic method of prophecy was never
used; we hear of divination there from the bubbling stiean,
and still moie often of the " talking oak "; under its branches
may once have slept the Selloi, who interpreted the sounds of
the boughs, and who may be regarded as the depositories of the
Aryan tradition of Zeus, the oak god who spoke in the tree.*
At Korope in Thessaly we hear vaguely of an ApoUine divination
by means of a branch of the tamarisk tree,* a method akin no
doubt to that of the divining rod which was used in Greece as
elsewhere; and there is a late record that at Daphne near
Antioch oracles were obtained by dipping a laurel leaf or branch
in a sacred stream.* Water divination must have been as
familiar at one time to the Greeks as it was to the andcnt
Germans; for we hear of the fountain at Daphne revealing
things to come by the varying murmur of its flow,' and
marvellous reflections of a mantic import might be seen in a
spring on Taenaron in Laconia;* from another at Patrae omens
were drawn concerning the chances of recovery from disease.*
Thunder magic, which was practised in Arcadia, is usually
associated with thunder divination; but of this, which was
so much in vogue in Etruria and was adopted as a state-craft
by Rome, the evidence in Greece is singularly slight. Once
a year watchers took their stand on the wall at Athens and
waited till they saw the lightning ^flash from Harma, which
was accepted as an auspicious omen for the setting out of the
sacred procession to Apollo Pythius at Delphi; and the altar
of Zeus Zq/MiX^, the sender of omens, on Mount Pames, may
have been a religious observatory of meteorological phenomena.^*
No doubt such a rare and portentous event as the fall of a
meteor-stone would be regarded as ominous, and the state
would be inclined to consult Delphi or Dodona as to its divine
import.
We may conclude the examples of this main department of
l^amuc^| by mentioning a method that seems to have been much
in vogue in the earlier times, that which was called ^^^'^^i'
fuunudit or divination by the drawing or throwing of lots;,
these must have been objects, such as small pieces of wood or
dice, with certain marks inscribed upon them, drawn casually or
thrown down and interpreted according to a certain code. This
simple process of imroenwrial antiquity, for other Aryan peoples
such as the Teutonic possessed it, was practised at Delphi and
Dodona by the side of the more solemn procedure; we bear of it
also in the oracle of Heracles at Bura in Achaea.** It is this
method of " scraping " or ** notching " (xP^kct^) signs on wood
*Schol. PSnd. or. 6. III. • vU. M. a.
« Famdl. Cufti ef a# Grtek Slater, iv., p. 7n.
«Hom. IL zvi. m» Od. adv. 327; HcMod. ap, SchoL Soph.
Track. 1169; Aeach. Frmm. Vimc. 829.
> Nlkander. TJuriaka, 613; Schol. ibid.
*Sec Robertson-Smith, Rdiii^ of the Semita, p. 138, quoting
. MarccU. xxii. 13; cf. Plot. Vita Cut. c. 19.
■ Paus. iii. 3$. 8. * Pauft. vii. 31. 1 1. * Paus, {. ^. 3.
'* Ck. De di9. i. 76. Suid. s.v. ndi,. Paus. vii. 25. 10.
that explains probably the origin of the words XPn^H^t XP^c^
hvoifitw for oracular consultation and deliverance.
The processes described above are part of a world-wide syeten
of popular divination. And most of them were taken up by
the eractikr shrines in Greece, ApoUo himself having no special
and characteristic mantic method, but generally adopting that
which was of kxal currency. But much that is adopted by the
higher personal religions descends from a more primitive and lower
stage of religious feeling. And all this divination was originally
independent of any personal divinity. The primitive diviner
applied directly to that mysterious potency which was sup-
posed to inhere in the tree and spring, in the bird or beast, or
even in a notched piece of wood. At a later stage, it may be,
this power is interpreted in accordance with the animistic, and
finally wKh the thcistic, belief; and now it is the god who sends
the sign, and the bird or animal b merely his organ. Hence the
omen-seeker comes to prefer the sacrificed animal, as likely to be
filled with the divine spirit through contact with the altar. And.
again, if we are to understand the most primitive thought, we
probably ought to conceive of it as reganling the omen not as a
mere sign, but in sbme confused sense as a cause of that which is
to happen. By sympathetic magic the flight of the bird, or the
appearance of the entrails, is mysterknisly connected, as cause
with effect, with the event which is desired or dreaded. Thus in
the Astec sacrifice of children to procure rain, the victims
were encouraged to shed tears copiously; and this was not a
mere sign of an abundant rainfsll, but was sympathetically
connected with ft. And in the same way, when of the three
beasU over which three kings swore an oath of aUiance, one
died prematurely and wss supposed thereby to portend the death
of one of the kings,** or when in the Lacedaemonian sacrifice the
head of the victim mjrsteriouSly vanished, and this portended the
death of their naval commander,** these omens would be merely
signs of the future for the comparativdy advanced Hellene; but
we may discern at the back of this bdief one more primitive
still, that these things were somehow casually or sympaUietically
connected with the kindred events that followed. We can observe
the logical nexus here, which in most instances escapes us. This
form of divination, then, we may regard as a special branch of
ssrmpathetic magic, w^ich nature herself perfoims for eariy man,
and which it concerns him to watch.
The other branch of the mantic art, the ecstatic or inspired,
has had the greater career among the peoples of the higher
religions; and morphologicaUy we may call it the more ad-
vanced, as Shamanism or demoniac or divine possession implies
the belief in spirits or divinities. But actually it is no doubt of
great antiquity, and it is found still existing at a rather low
grade of savagery. Therefore it is unsafe to infer from Homer's
i^ence about it that it only became prevalent in Greece in the
post-HoDMric period. It did not altogether supersede the simpler
method of divination by omens; but being far more impressive
and awe-inspiring, it was adopted by some of the diief ApoOine
oracles, though neva by Dodona.
The most salient example of it is afforded by Delphi. In the
historic period, and perhaps from the earliest times, a woman
known as the Pythoness was the organ of inspiration, and it was
generally believed that s&e delivered her oracles under the direct
afflatus of the god. The divme possession worked hke an
epileptic seizure, and was exhausting and might be dangcrooa;
nor is there any reason tu suppose that it was simulated. This
communion with the divinity needed careful preparation.
Originally, as it seems, virginity was a condition of the tenure of
the office; for the virgin has beat often supposed to be the tmrcr
vehicle for divine communication ;butlaier the rolewas estabushed
that a married woman over fifty years of age should be chosen,
with the proviso that she should be attired as a maiden. As a
preliminary to the divine possession, she appears to have chewed
leaves of the sacred laurel, and then to have drunk water from
the prophetic stream called Kaarotis which flowed underground.
But the culminating point of the aiBatns wss reached iriben she
seated herself upon the tripod; and here, acoording to the beiieC
»Plut. yitaPynk,c.t. » Diod. Sic. xiiL 97*
ORACLE!
I4S
^«t IbmI tbektert|BS ofpsgftiiiMB, she m» nipiMted to be
iiHvifed by a mystic vapour that arose from a teure ja the
sround. Against the ordinaiy dplautioa of this as a ml
mcphttkCBs prodndag coDVubioas, there seem to be geological
•■d chea^cal objecthms;' nor have the rscent French excavap
Ikms reveided any chaflD or gap in the floor of the temple. But
the Btiong testimony of the lalcr writem, cspedaUy >Plataich»*
cannot whoUy he mt asidt; and we can suffideDftlyraooiidle it
vith the facta if we suppose a amall aacfc in the floor through
which a draught of air waa felt to ascend. Thia» combining with
tbe fltber maatic atiranlanta used, would be enough to throw a
bcUeviag medium into a oondifioo of mental seizure;, and the
diflfeulty lelt by the older generiition of schobis, wlw had to
fooit to the hypothesis of chsriarsnism or daaboUc agenqr, do
loager casta in the light ol modern anthiDpology and the modeni
sdeoee of psychic phenomena. The Pythoness waa no ambitious
pretender, but ordinarily a virtuous woman of the lower class.
It is ptobable that what she uttered were only unintriligihie
tmtnmn, and that these were fntespseted into relevance and
set in metric or prase sentences by the " ptophet " and the " Holy
Ones " cr "Omsk as they were called, membcm of leading Delphic
fawilin, who sat round the tnpod, who received the questions of
tht consnitaot brfnnphand, prabably m writings and usually had
cnnaidrie d the answers that should be given.
Eaamplesof the same enthusiastic method can be found in
other ocBclcs of Apollo. At Aigos, the ptopfactess of the Apollo
Pythios attained to the divine aiBatua by drinking the blood of
the lamb that was sacrificed in the night to him;* this is obviously
a mantic communion, for the laCTifidai victim i» full of the spirit
of the divfaitty. And we find the same procsm at the prophetic
shrine of Ge at Aegae in Achaea, where the prophetcm dimak a
dmught of boll's blood for the saaae purpose.' In the famous
ondashiincsof ApolbacRMSthe sea,atXlarasaDd Braochidae*
near Miletns, the divination was of the same ecstatic type, but
produced byasimple dmught of holy water. The Clariao prophet
fssted sevtfal days and nights in mtirement and stimulated his
ecstasy by drinking from a subterrsnean spring which is said
by Ptfny to have shortened the lives of those who used it.*
Then, ** on certain fixed mghts after numy sacrifices had been
offered, he delivered his oiadcs, shiouded from the eyes of the
The divination by " faicubation " was allied to this type,
because though laddng the ecstatic character, the oonanltant
received direct communion with the god or departed spirit.
He attahied it by layhig himaelf down to steep or to await a
virion, usually by night, in some holy place, having prepared
himself by a coune of rituafistic purifitttien. Such coosalution
was Batuially confined to the underworld divinities or to the
departed heroes. It appeaisto have prevailed at Delphi when
Ge gave encles there before the coming of Apollo, and among
the heroes Amphiaraus, Calchas and Trophooios are recorded
to have communicated with their worridppers in this fashion.
And it was by incubation that the rick and diseased who repaired
to the temple of Epidaonis received their prescriptioos from
Asdepius, originally a god of the k>wer worid.
After this brief account of the prevalent forms of prophetic
consultation, it remains to consider the part played by the Greek
oracles in the history of Greek civiUsatioo. It will be sufficient
to confine our attention to Delphi, about which our information
is immeasurably fuUer than it is about the other shrines. In the
earliest period Dodona may have bad the higher picalige, but
after the Homerk age it was eclipsed by Delphi, being consulted
dtiefly by the western Greeks, and occasionally in the 4th century
br Athens.
Hie gorge of Ddphi was a seat of prophecy from the eariiest
See Opp^ oa " The Chasm at Delphi.** Joum. of ffSenk Slndia
• Faus. i, S4* >•
•lititfta. One, c. 43.'
<p. tit. HI: II.
* Farnel, •#. cif. m. ■■.
* The profociic (ountaia at Bvanchidae is attested by Sciabo,
p. 814, jAd ui a coofuaed mystic pawage of Umblichus, De Myst.
3« !<•
•NelLHtitS.»3>
> lambL loc. ai.
dsys of Greek tmdiliaa. Ge, Themis and |
given omcles here before Apollo. But it is clear that he had f _
it in the days before Homer, who attests the prestige Snd wealth
of hia Pythian shrine; and it seeam dear that before the Dorian
conquest of the Peloponncae a Dryopian migmtimi had alrmdy
carried the cult of Apollo Pythioa to Asine in Argodis. Ahothe
consttttttion of the Amphictyones, " the dwellere around the
temple,'' reflecU the early age when the tribe rather than the dty
was the political unit, and the Dorians were a small tribe of north
Greece. Hie original function of these Amphictyones was to
preserve the sanctity and property of the temple; but this
common interest early devefaped a certafai rule of intertribal
morality. By the formula of the Amphictyonic oath preserved
by Aeschincs, which may be of grmt antiquity, the members
bound themselves " not to destroy any dty of the league, not
to cot any one of them oil from spring^iater, either in war or
peace, and to war against any who violated these rules." We
discem here that Greek reli|^a offered tlx ideal of a federal
national union that Greek politics refused to realme.
The next stage m the hiitoiy of the osade Is proenled by the
legend of the Dorian migntion. For we have no right to reject
the strong tmdition of the DdpUc encouragement of this mov^
ment, which, wdl acoonnU for the devotkm abown by Sparta
to the Pythbm god from the eariiest days; and accounts also
for the higher positam that Ddphi occupied at the time when
Greek history is supposed to bcf^
We have next to consfcler a valuable record that bekmgs to
the end of the 8th century or beginning of the 7th, the Homeric
hynm to Apollo, which describes the coming of the Dolphin-God
— AcX^lmflr*-to Pytho, and the organixation of the oracle by
Cretan ministers. Of this Cretan settlement at Delphi there
is no other literary evidence, and the "Ooioi who adxninistered
the orade hi the hittoric period daimed to be of aboriginal
descent. Yet recent excavation has proved a oonnexfon between
Crete and Ddphi in the Minoan period; and there b reason to
believe that ha the Stfa century some ritual of purificatioB,
momentous for the reUgious career of the orade, was brought
from Crete to Ddphi, and that the adoption of this latter name
for the place which had formerly been called lh0i» synchronised
wKh the coming of Apollo Ddphinius.
The Influence of Delphi was great in various ways, theu^ no
scholar would now mdntain the exaggerated dogma of Curtins,
who imputed to the oracle a lofty religwus enthusiasm and the
consdousnem of a religfaMis poHtlcd mtasiDn.
We may firtt consider its political influence upon the other
states. The practice of a conununity consulting an oracle 00
important oecasiona undoubtedly puts a powerful weapon into
the hands of the priesthood, and might lead to something like
a theocracy. And there are one or two ominous hinu in the
Odystey that the ruler of the oracle migbt ove r throw the ruler
of the land. Yet owing to the healthy temperament of the zxAy
Greek, the dvic character of the priesthood, the Strength of the
autonomous fceUng, Greece might flock to Ddphi without
expodng Itself to the perils of sacerdotal control The Delphic
priesthood, content with thdr rich revenues, were probably never
tempted to enter upon schemes of far-reaching political ambitk»n,
nor were they hi any way fitted to be the leaders of a national
policy. Once only, when the SpaiUn state applied to Delphi
to sanction their attack on Arcadia, did the wade speak as if,
Hke the oMcr papacy, it dafancd to dispose of territory*— "Then
askcst of me Arcadia; I wiU not give ft thee.** But here the
oractebon the sideof ligbteonsneas, sad H b the Spartan that
b the aggressor. In the various ondes that hata come down to
us, many of which must have been genuine and preserved in the
arehives of the state that received them, we cannot discover any
marked political policy coosbteotly pursued by the " Holy Ones "
of DdphL As conservative aristocrats they wouM probably
dislike tyranny; their action against the Pdslrtratidae was
interested, but one orade conuins a spirited rebuke to
CI cis t he nes, while one or two othen. perhaps net genuine, exprem
the spirit of tcn^ierate consrituthmaKsm. As capoacntsof an
*Hcr0d,i.M.
«4+
ORAKZAI
Attphktyo&ic sytltm they wtaild be suflSdently sensitive of the
moral conadence of Greece to utter oothing in flagrant violation
of the "jus gentium." In one department of politics, the
legislative sphere, it has been supposed that the infhience of
Delphi was direct and inspiring. Plato and later wtiten imagined
that the Pythonem had dlaated the Lycurgean system, and
even modem scholars like Beigk have regarded the Hrpai of
Sparu as of Delphk origin. But a severer criticism dispels
these suppositions. The Ddphk priesthood had neither the
capacity nor probably the desire to undertake so delicate a task
as the drafting of a code. They might make nonr and again a
general suggestion when consulted, and, availing themselves of
their unique opportunities of collecting foreign Intelligence, they
might often recommend a skilful legislator or arbitrator to
a state that consulted them at a time of intestine trouble.
Finally, a legislator with a code would be well advised, especially
at Sparta, in endeavouring to obtain the sanction and the
blessing of the Delphic god, that he might appear before his own
people as one possessed of a religious mandate. In this sense we
can ondecstand the stories about Lycuigus.
There is only one department of the secular hlstoiy of Greece
where Delphi played a predominsot and most effective part,
the colonisl department. The great colonial expansion of Greece,
which has left so deep an imprint on the cidture of Europe,
was in part inspired and directed by the oiade. For the proof
of this we have not only the evidence of the XAV^Aw^ preserved
by Herodotns and others, such as those concerning the foundation
of Cyrene, but also the worship of Apoik> 'ApxTT^nrs* " the
Founder," prevalent in Sidly and Magna Graeda, and the
early custom of the sending of tithes or thanksgiving offerings
by the flourishing western states to the orade that had cnoounged
their settlements*
ApoUo was already a god of ways— 'AYuif£t~wbo led the
migration of tribes before be came to Delphi. And those legends
are of some value that explain the prehistoric origin of dties
such as Magnesia on the Maeandcr, the Diyopian Asine in the
Pdoponnese, as due to the cok>nization of temple-slaves, acquired
by the Pythian god as the tithe of conquests^ and planted out
by him in distant settlements. The success of the oracle in this
activity led at last to the esublishment of the rule that Herodotus
declares to be almost universal in Greece, namely, that no
leader of a colony woukl start without consulting Delphi. Doubt-
less in many cases the priesthood only gave encouragement
to a pre-conceived project. But they were in a unique position
for giving direct advice also, and they appear to have used their
opportunities with great intelligence.
Their Influenoe on the state cults can be briefly indicated,
for it was not by any means far-reaching. They could have
lelt conscious of no mission to preach ApoUo, for his cult was
an ancient heritage of the Hellenic stdcks. Only the nanower
duty devolved upon them of impressing upon the consultants
the religioas obligation of sending tithes or other offerings.
Nevertheless their opportunity of directing the religious ritual
and organisation of the public worships was great; for Plato's
view* that all questions of detail in religion should be left to
the decision of the god " who sits on the omphalos " was on the
whole in accord with the usual practice of Greece. Such con-
sultations would occur when the state was in some trouble,
which would be likely to be imputed to some neglect of religion,
and the questbn to the oracle would commonly be put in this
way«"to what god or goddess or hero shall we sacrifice?"
The oracle would then be inclined to suggest the name of some
divine personage hitherto neglected, or of one whose rites had
fallen into decs^. Again, Apollo would know the wishes of the
ocherdivinities, who were not In the habit of directly communicat-
ing with their worshippers; therefore questions about the sacred
land of the goddesses at Eleusls would be naturally referred to
him. Frarn both theK points of view we can understand why
Delphi appears to have encouraged the tendency towards
hero-woiahip which was becoming rife in Greece from the 7th
CKOtxuj oowafda* But the only high cull for which we can
discover a definito enthoslasm In the DelpMc priesthood was that
of Dk>nystts. And his position at Delphi, wheie be becun«
the biother-ddty of Apollo, lufidently explains this.
As regards the devebpment of reUgious menlity In Greece,
we must reckon seriously with the pan played by the orado.
The laiger number of deliverances that have come down to us
bearing on this point are probably spurious, Id the sense that
the Pythia did not actually utter them, but they have a certaia
value as showing the kleas entertained by the cultivated Helleno
concerning the oracular god. On the whole, we discern that (he
moral influence of Delphi was bene6ccnt and on the side of
righteousness. It did nothing, indeed, to abolish, it may even
have encouraged at times, the barbarous practice of human
sacri^oe, which was becoming abhoitent to the Greek of the
6tfa and 5th centuries; but a conservative priesthood » always
liable to kig behind the moral progress of an age in respect of
certain rites, and in other respects It appears that the *' Holy
Ones" of Delphi kept well abreast of the Hellenic advance in
ethical thought. An orade attributed to the Pythonca by
Theopompus (Poiph. De abainttiiia, s, x6 and 17) expresses
the idea contained in thestory of " the widow's mite,*' that the.
deity prefers the humble offering of the righteous poor to the
costly and pompous sacrifice of the rich. Another, of which
the authentidty a vouched for by Herodotus (vi 86), denouacea
the contemi^ted perjury and fraud of a certain Glaucus, and
declares to the terrified sinner that to tempt God was no loss a
sin than to commit the actual crime. A later xpn^tjAi, for
which Plutarch {de Pytk. Of. p. 404 B) is the authority, embodies
the charitable conception of forgivenness for voUal faults
committed under excessive stress of temptatioa: " God pardons
what man's nature is too weak to resist." And in one most
importamt branch of morality, with which progressive ancient
law was intimatdy concerned, namdy, the concept of the sin
of homidde, we have reason for believing that the. Apollioe
oracle played a leading part. Pcihaps so eariy as the 8ih ceotory,
it came to by stress on the impurity of bloodshed and to organise
and impose a ritual of purification; and thus to assist the
devdopment and the clearer defim'tlon of the concept of motder
as a sin and the growth of a theory of equity which recognica
eKtcnuating or justifying circumstances.* Gmdually, as Creek
ethics escaped the bondage of ritual and evolved the idoa of
spiritual purity of consdence, this found eloquent expression
in the utterances imputed to the Pythoness.' Many of these
are no doubt literary fictions; but even these are of value
as showing the popular view about the oracular god, whose
temple and tripod were regarded as the shrine and organ
of the best wisdom and morality of Greece. The downfall of
Greek liberty before Macedon destroyed the political influence of
the Delphic oracle; but for some centuries after it still retained
a certain value for the individual as a counsellor and director
of private consdence. But in the latter days of paynUm n
was eclipsed by the oracles of Claros and Branchidae.
Authorities. — A. Bouchd-Ledcrcq, HiiUnre. de la dhfinalion dans
rantiguiti, in 4 vols., is still the chief work : cf . L. R. Famell. Cults
oT the Creek StaUs, vol. iv. pp. 179-233: Burwch, ApoUo Klanos;
Bernard Hauasoullier, Eludds snr I kistotre de MUtt et du Didymeiomi
Lcsiand. "Questions oraculaircs" in Reome des itudts grecques,
VOL xiv. : Pomtow's article on " Ddphoi ** in Pauly-\\laows
Reaktuyclopddie.
Ancient AuTnoKiTtcs.~Ptutarch. De Pylkio Oraetdo and De
defectu onuMlormm; Cicero, De ^nnatienei Euseb. Praep. Em,
4, 2. «4. (L. R .F.)
ORAKZAI, a Palban tribe on the Kohat border of the North-
West Frontier Province of India. The Orakzais iahabic the
mountains to the north-west of Kohat district, bounded on the
N. and £. by the Afridis, on the S. by the Miranzai valley and on
the W. by' the Zaimukht country and the Safed Koh mountains.
Their name means " lost tribes," and their origin is buried in
obscurity; though they resemble the Afghans in language^
features and many of their customs, they are rejected by tlicra
as brethren. One branch, the All Khet has been traced to
Swat, whence they were expefled by the other inhabitant^
•Famell. Culu, vol iv. p. 300, Flihhert Lectures, pp. 139-152.
* Aelism. Far. Z/tJl. iil 44: Anth. Pal, xiv. 71 and 74.
ORAN
H5
audit is not ittpioUbfe that tlie irfiole tribe eontbts of rafosM
claas of lb* MRoundJQg noes. They are very wiry-looking
mountaiaeert, but they are not as fine men or as brave fighters
aa their neigfaboum the Afridis. They cultivate a good deal of
tbe Khanki and Kumuma valleys in the winter, but in the hot
BBOOths retire to the heights of Tirafa, of which they occupy
tbo soatbem half called tbe Idastunt valley. They have been
cAimatcd at a8,ooo fighting men, but this estimate must be
kigdy esaggeratedt as the country could not possibly support
the consequent population of over xoo,ooo. They have been
the object of various British militaty expeditions, notal^y in
1855, 1868, 1869, tSqt, and theTiiah campaign of 1897.
OBAN (Arabic Wakran, i,€. ravine), a city of Algeria, tapital
of tbe department and railicaiy division of the sane name. It
stands at the head of the Gulf of Oian, on the Mediterranean in
35* 44' N., o** 41' W. The dty is 961 m. by rsU W.S.W. of
Algiers, sso m. E. of Gibraltar and 130 m. S. of Cartagena,
Spain. It is built on tbe steep slopes of tbe Jebei Murjajo,
which rises to a height of igoo ft. The dty was originally cut
in two by the ravine of Wad Rekhi, now for the most part
covered by boulevards and buildings. West of the ravine lies
the old port, and above this lisss what was the Spanish town
with the ancient citadel looking down on it; but few traces of
Spanish occupation lemaln. The modem quarter risesv like an
amphitheatre, to the east of the imvine. The place d'Armes,
built on the plateau above the ntvine, is the centre of the modem
quarter. It contains a fine column oommenorative of the
battle of Sidi Brahira (1845), between, the Ftench and Abd^-
Kader. Tbe Chiteau Neuf, built in 1563 by the Spaniards,
overlooks the old port. Formeriy the seat of the beys of Oraa,
it is occupied by the general In command of the mUttaxy division
and also serves as banmcks. The kasbdk (dtadel) or ChAteau
Vieux, naed for mlUtary purposes, lies S.W. of the ChAteau Neuf .
It was partly destroyed by the earthquake of the 8th and 9th
of October 1790. On the hills behind the kasbah are Fort St
Grf goire, a votive chapel commemorative of the cholera of 1849,
and Fort Sanu Craa, crowning at a height of 131 J ft. the summit
of tbe Aldur. Fort de la Moune (so called from the monkeys
said to have haunted the neighbourhood) is at the western end
of the harbour, and commands the road from Oran to Mef»«i-
Kebir (see below). Fort St PhiUppe, south of the kasbah,
lepteces the old Castle of the Saints of tbe Spaniards. There
is subterranean communication between all the ancient forts.
The cathedral, dedicated to St Louis, and built in 1839, occupies
the sito of a chapel belonging in the days of Spanish dominion
to a convent of monks of St Bernard. The Grand Mosque (in
rue Philippe) was ersctcd at the* end of the z8th century to
commemoiale the expulsion of the Spaniards, and with money
paid as ransom for Christian slaves. Other mosques have been
turned into churches or utilized for military purposes. The
military hospital, a laige building adjoining the cathedral,
contains 1400 be<b. A bouse in the place de rbdpital, now used
by the military, was once the home of the Inquisition; it was
buHt at the expense of Spain hi 1773. The museum formed by
the Oran Sodety of Geography and Archaeology (founded in
1878) has a fine coDection of antiquities.
Oran is the seat of a huge trade. There is regular communica-
tion with Marseilles, Otte, Barcelona, Valencia, Cartagena,
Malaga, GibralUr, and the various ports on the Baxhaiy coast.
Tbe railway tp Alters is joined at Perrtgaux (47 b- K- ^ Oian)
by the line from Araeu to Saida and Aln Sefra which serves
the high irfsteau whence esparto is obtahied. There is also a
railway to Sidi-Bel-Abbes and TIemcen. The export trade is
chiefly in esparto grass, cereals, wines, olive oil, marhli^, cattle
and hides. Tbe imports include manufactured goods, coal and
other commodSties. The inner baibour, or old port, contains
two badns, one of 10 acres and another of 60 acres, formed by
the construction of a pier eastward f .im Fort de la Moune, with
two cross piers. In consequence of the growing importance of
the port and the decfinon of the French government to make
Oran the chief naval station in Algeria, It was decided to build
an eastern harbour. This 4uter harbour, on which work was
XX 3*
begua ia igof, lies east of the old port and Is about doiihla fta
sixe. The least depth of water in tbe old harbour is 18 ft., the
aversge depth in the new harbour is 30 ft., the depth at the
entrance being 40 ft.
Tbe population of the dty in 1906 was 100,499, of whom 81,906
were French, and 23,071. Spanish. There were also 37,570
naturalised Frenchmen, mostly of Spanish origin. These is a
negro colony in the dty, numbering about 3000, induded in the
censua in the native population of 16,396. Induding the garrison
and naval forces the total population of the commune was 106,5 17.
Four miles west of Oian a small promontory forms the harbour
of Mers^I-Kebir, formerly a stronghold of the Barbery pirat«s.
Tbe promontory is stron^y fortified and crosses fire with a
battery erected to the east of Oran. A road ahwg the east coast,
cut for the most part out of the solid rock, oonnecu Oran and
Men-d-Kebir.
Attempu have been made to identify Oran with the Quixa,
and Men-el- Kebir with the Portus M*gnti«^ of the Romans.
There are, however, no Roman ruins at Oran or at Mers-d-Kebir.
The foundation of Oran b more properly ascribed to Andalusian
Arabs, who settled there in tbe beginning of the loth century,
and gave it its nam& Rapidly rising into importance as a sea-
port, Oran was taken and retaken, pillaged and rebuilt, by the
various conquerors of iM>rthem Africa. Almoravides, Ahnohades
and Marinides succeeded each other, and in the space of half a
century the dty changed hands nine times. In the latter half
of the 15th century it became subject to the sultans of Tlemoea,
and reached the height of iu prosperity. Active commeice was
maintained with the Venetian^ the Pisans, the Genoese, the
MarseiUais and the Catafams, who imported the produce of thdr
looms, glass-wares, tin-wares, and iron, and recdved in letum
ivory, ostrich feathers, gokUfaist, tanned hides, grain and negro
sbivcs. Admirable wooUen doth and splendid arms were
manufactured. The magnificence of iU mosques and other
public buildings, the number of iU schools, and the estent of its
warehouses shed lustre en the dty; but wedth and humry began
to undermine Iu prosperity, and its rain waa hastened by the
conduct of the Moslem refugees from Spain. Under the influence
of these refugees the legitiinate trade of the towh gava place to
piracy, Mccs^Kebir becoming the stronghold of the pirstes.
Aahnated by the patriotic feithnrissm of Canfinal Ximeaca,
tbe Spaniards determined to put a stop to these expeditions
which were carrying off their countrymen, destroying their
commerce, and even ravaging thdr country. Men-el-Keblr
fell Into their hands on the a3rd of October 1505, and Onn hi
May 1509. The latter vlctoiy, obtained with but tiiffing loss,
was Btahied by the massacre of a third of the Mahommcdan
population. From 6000 to 8000 prisoners, 60 oanaon, engines
of war and a oondderablo booty from the wmlth ftmi'milstfd
by phacy fell into the hands of the oonqoerocs. Cftrdinsl
Ximencs introduced the Inqukition, Ac, and also restored and
extended the fortificatio n s. Orsn becaaae the penal settlement
of Spain, but ndther the oonvicu nor the n oble m en hi disgrace
who were also banished thither seem to have hem under rigorous
surveillance; contemporary accounts speak of constant fAtes,
games and bull-fights. Meanwhile the Turks had beoooe masters
of Algeria, and expelled the Spaniards frem all thdr possjiisinni
except Oran. The bey of Msscam watched Us oppottnnity,
and at length, hi 1708, the weakness of Spain and the treason of
the count of Vera Cnia obliged the dty to c^ritulate. The
Spaniards recovered possession in 173a, but found the mam-
tenaaoeof theptacea burden mther than a benefit, tbe neighbour-
ing tribes havmg ceased to ded with the Christiaas. The
earthquake of 1790 furnished an excuse for withdrawing thdr
forces. Commencing by twenty-two sepante shocks at brief
intervals, the oodllatlOBS mntlnued fram the 8th of October to
the ssnd of November. Houses and foitificatioos were over-
thrown and a third of the garrison and a great number of the
Inhablunu perished. Famine and sickness had begun to
aggravate the situation when the bey of Maamia appeared
before the town with 30,000 men. By prodigies of energy the
I Spanish commander hdd out tOI Angust 1791, when tbeSpaais''
14-6
ORANGE, HOUSE OF— ORANGE
govenuoent having made tenns with the bey of Algien, he was
allowed to set sail foi ^>ain with his guns and ammunition. The
bey Mahommed took poBsession of Oran in Matdi 179s, and
made it his residence instead of Mascara. On the fall of AJgieia
the bey (Hassan) placed himself under the protection of the
conqaeiors, and shortly afterwards removed to the Levant.
The French army entered the dty on the 4th of January xS^i,
and took formal possession on the X7th of August. In rSss a
census of the town showed that it had but 3800 inhabitants, of
whom more than two-thirds were Jews. Under French rule
Oran has regained its ancient commercial activity and has
become the second city in Algeria.
ORANOB, HOUSE OF. The small principality of Orange,
a district now indnded in the French department of Vauduse,
traces back its history as an independent soverdgnty to the time
of Charlemagne. William, sumamed U Comet, who lived
towidrds the end of the 8th century, is said to have been the first
prince of Orange, but the succession is only certainly known
alter the time of Gerald Adhemar (fl. 1086). In 1x74 the
principality passed by marriage to Bertrand de Bauz, and there
were nine princes of this line. By the marriage of John of
Chalons with Marie de Bauz, the house of Chalons succeeded to
the soverdgnty in 1395. The princes of Orsnge-Chaloos were
<i) JohnL,X393'-i4x8.<0 LouUL. I4X»-X463, (3) William VUI.,
X463-X475« (4) John IL, (x47S-X5oa, (5) Philibert, XS03-XS30.
Pfailibert was a great warrior and statesman, ykho was held in
great esteem by the emperor Charles V. For his services in his
campaigns the emperor gave him considerable possessions in the
Netherlands in x 532, and Frauds I. of France, who had occupied
-Oimge, was compelled, when a prisoner in Madrid, to restore
it to him. Phih'bert had no children, and he was succeeded by
his nephew IUn6 of Nassan-Chaloos, son of Philibert's snter
Claudiis and Henry, oonnt of Nassau, the confidential friend
and ooonseUor of Charles V. He too died without an heir
hi X544 at the siege of St Dizier, having devised all his titles
and poasessfeos to his first cousin William, the ddeat son of
William, count of Nassau-Dillen^urg, who was the younger
brother of R£n€'s father, and had inherited the German
pQMessions of the family.
V^Uiam of Orange-Nassau was but eleven yeazs old when he
Sttoceedcd to the prindpality. He was brought up at the court of
Charles.V « and became famous in history as William the Silent, the
founder of the Dutch Republic On his assassination in X584
he was succeeded by his eldest son Philip William, who had been
kidnapped by Philip II. of Spain in his boyhood and brought up
at Madrid. This prince never married. and on his death in x6r8
his next brother, Maurice, stadtholder in the United Netherlands
and one of the greatest generals of his time, became prince
of Orange. Maurice died in x6s5, also unmarried. Frederick
Henry, the son of Louise de CoUgnj, William's fourth wife, born
just b^re his father's murder, now succeeded to the princedom
of Orange and to all his brotheis' dignities, posts and property
m the Netherlands. Frederick Henry was both a great general
and statesman. His only son, William, was married in X64X to
Mary, princess royal of England, he bdng fifteen and the princess
nine years old at that date, and he succeeded to the title of prince
of Orange on his father's death hi X647. At the very outset of
a promising career he suddenly succumbed to an atuck of
smalipoar on the 6th of November 1650, his son WillUm III.
bemg bom a week after his father's death.
A revolution now took place in the system of govemment in the
United P)rovinces,and the offices of stadtholder and captain^and
admiral-gaieial, held by four successsive princes of Orange, were
abolished. However, the counter revolution of X67S called
William EH. to the head of affairs. At this time Louis XIV.
conquered the prindpality of Orange snd the territory was hx-
corpoiated in France, the title alone bemg recognized by the
txcaty of Ryswick. William married his cousin Mary, the ddcst
daugliter of James, duke of York, in 167 7* In x6S8 he landed in
Enjknd, eipelled his father-b-law, James II., from his throne,
and reigned as king of Great Britain and Ireland until his death
an 1702. He left no cbiUren, aiKi a dispute arose iBMDg various
daimanU to the title of prince of Orange. Thii Hng nf Tnmkt
claimed it as the descendant of .the eldest daughter of Fredciick
Henry; John WUliam Friso of Nassau-DieU claimed it as tlia
descendant of John, the brother of William the SUent, and also
of the second daughter of Frederick Henry. The result was that
at the peace of Utrecht in 17 13, the king of Pnnsia abandoned the
prindpality to the king of France in esdiange for compensstioo
elsewhere, and John William Friso gained the barren title awl
became WUliam IV. prince of Orange. His sons William V. awl
WUGam VL succeeded him. .William VI, in x8is became
William I. king of the Netheriswls.
See Bostet, tfulow* dc la sOb aide Is erMctftealld'OraRM (Orange
ORANeB, a town of Wellington and Bathurst counties, New
South Wales, Australia, xgs m. by rsU WJ4.W. of Sydney.
It lies in a f ntit and wheat-growing dislria, in which gold, copper
and silver also abound. It is the ccBtre of trade with the western
interior and has a number of flourishing industries. Orange abo
has a great repuution as a health resort. Itt suburb. East
Orange, in the county of Bathutst, is a scpaiate municipality.
Pop., induding East Orange (xpox), 6331.
ORAIIOB, a town of south-eastern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Vaiidose, x8 nx. N. of
Avignon on the rsilway from Lyons to Marseilles. Pbp. (1906)
of the town, 64x2; of the commune, 10^3. Orange is situated
at some distance from the left bank of the Rhoiie,in the midtt of
meadows, orchards and mulberry plantations, watered by a
stream called the Meyne, and overlooked by the majestic summit
of Mount Ventouz, whidi lies ss m. to the esst. The district is
highly fertile, and the town deals laxgeiy in fruit, and lolUet-
stalks for brooms, as well sain wool, silk, honey and trufllea.
Orange is mteresting mainly from its Roman remains. TIm
triumphal arch is not only for finer than any other in France, but
rsnks third in sise and hnportance among those stiU extant in
Europe. Measuring 7^ ft. fax height, 69 ft. in width, and a6 ft.
in depth-, it is composed of three arches supported by Corinthian
coIumnsL On three sides it Is wdl preserved, and displays
remarkable variety snd dcgaace hx its sculptured decorations.
To judge from the trsoes of an inscription, the arch seems to have
been erected in honour of TIbeixus, perhaps to commemorate
his victory over the Gallic chieftain Sscrovir fax A.D. ax. It
suffered from being used as a donjon in the middle agc&
Another most unposiag structure is the theatre, dating from
the time of the cmperor Hadrian and built agsinst a hiU from
the summit of which a cokMsal figure of the Virgin commands
the town. The facade, which is xsx fL high» 340 ft. kmg and
r3 ft. thick, is pierced by three squsre galea surmounted by a
range of bliad arches and a double raw of projecting oorhids,
with holes in which the poles of the awning were placed. Of the
seats occupied by the spectators, only the lower tiers remain.
It was usol as an out-work to the fortress built on the hill by
Maurice of Nassau in x6a2, and destroyed fifty years later by order
of Louts XIV., whose troops in x66o csptured the town. Up to
the beginning of the X9th century it was filled with hovels and
stables; these were subsequently cleared out, and at the end ol
.the century the building was xestored, and now serves as a
national theatre. In the neighbouxhood of the theatre traces
have been found of a hippodrome; and statues, bas-reliefs and
ruins of an amphitheatre also serve to show the importance of
the Roman town. Notre Dame, the old cathedral, originally
erected by the prefect of Gaul, was ruined by the Barbarians,
rebuilt in the xxth and zsth ccntariesi and damaged by the
Protestsats.
The town hss a sub-prefecture, a trxbunsl of first instance,
and a communal college among its faistitutions; and it has
tile and mosaic works and flour-mills, and Bsanufactories of
boots and shoes and bvooms. Then Is mde in trufBcs, fruit,
wine, ftc.
Oimnge {Arataio), capital of the Cavari, was b 105 BX. the
scene of the defeat of a Roman aimy by the Cimbri and Teutooes.
It becsme after Caesar an important Roman colony. Its
ramparU and fine buildings were partly destroyed l^ the
ORANGE
147
Aiamuml and 'VUgotlis, and partly ruined by the erections
of the middle af es. Orange was indoded in the kingdom of
Anstrasia, fell into the bands of the Saracens and was recovered
by Charlemagne It became the seat of an independent count-
ship in the i xth century. From the X4th century till the Revolu-
tion the town had a university. At the latter period the town
suffered severely from the excesses of a popular commission.
See R. Peyre. Nimes, Aries et Onnti (Parif, 1903); A. de Pbnt-
briaot. HtflMrv de la pnncipauU dl'Oranit (Avignon and Paria, 1891).
C^uncQs 0/ Orange.— la 441 a synod of sixteen bishops was
held at Orange under the presidency of St Hilary of Aries, which
adopted thirty canons touching the reconciliation of penitents
and heretics; the ecclesiastical right of asylum, diocesan pre-
rogatives of bishops, spiritual privileges of the defective or
demoniac^ the deportment of catechumens at wonhip, and
clerical cehliacy (forbidding married men to be ordained as
deacons, and digamists to be advanced beyond thesub-diaconate).
In 529 a synod of fifteen bishops, under the presidency of
Caesarius of Aries, assembled primarily to dedicate a church,
the gift of Liberius, the lieutenant of Theodoric, in Gaul, but
proved to be one of the most important councib of the 6th
century. Caesarius had sought the aid of Rome against semi-
Pelagianism, and in response Pope Felfac IV. had sent certain
eapUula concerning grace and free-will, drawn chiefly from the
writings of AugusUne and Prosper. These to the number of
twenty-five the synod subscribed, and adopted a supplementary
sUtement, reaffirming the Augustinian doctrines of corruption,
human inability, prevenient grace and baptismal regeneration.
Its acts were confirmed by Boniface IL on the " ssth of January
530," a date which is open to question.
See F. H. Woods. Cbumu efthe Setand Council ofOnnje (Oxford,
I8to). Ct. F. C.)
ORAVOB; a dty d Essex county. New Jersey, U.S.A., in
the N.E. part of the sUte, about 14 m. W. of New York City.
Pop. (1890) i8344» (1900) a4,x4x, of whom 6598 were foreign-
bom and X903 were negroes, (1910 census) 39,630. It is
served by the Morris & Essex Division of the Delaware, Lacka-
wanna ft Western railroad and by the Orange branch (of which
it is a terminus) of the Erie railroad, and is connected with
Newark, South Orange and Bloomfidd by electric lines. The
dty lies at the base of the eastern slope of the first Watchung,
or Orange, Mountain, and is primarily a residential suburb of
New York and Newark; with East Orange, West Orange
and South Orange it constitutes virtually a single community,
populariy known as " the Oranges." The dty has a good public
school system and various private schools, Induding the Dearborn-
Morgan School (for girls) and the Carteret Academy (for boys).
Of historical interest is the First Presbyterian Church, erected
in 1813, the third structure used by this churd^ organization,
whose history dates back to 17x8. The value of the factory
products of Orange increased from $2,995,688 2n X900 to
86,150,635 in 1905, or xo5*3%, and tlie capital invested in
manufacturing from' lx,359,533 in X900 to %SAAi,i&S in Z905»
or 153-1%. Of the total product-value in X905, 83,3ix,6x4
was the value of fdt hats manufactured. Among other manu-
factures are beer, pharmaceutical suj^es and lawn mowers.
The city owns and operates its water-works and dectric lighting
plant. Settlements were made in or near the limits of the
present dty soon after the founding of Newark, in x666, and,
on account of the mountainous ridge in this region, they were
generally referred to coUectivdy as " Newark Mountain." As a
disagreement soon arose between the people of Newark and
those of ** the mountain " on questions of church administration,
the latter in 17x8 severed their coimexion with the church at
Newark axKl formed an independent congregation, the " Mountain
Sodety." The church, which was known also as " The Church
of the New Ark Mountains/' was at first CongregaUonal, but in
1748 became Presbyterian. In x 782 ocaus the earliest reference
to the neighbourhood as " Orai!ge Dale," and two years later it
is sometimes referred to aa " Orange." In x8o6 the legislature
ixxcorporated the township of Orange. Parts of its territory were
induded in South Orange and FairmoUnt (now West Orange)
in x86i and x86a respectivdy, and In 1863 East Orange was
created out of part of Orange. Orange was incorpoiated aa a
town in x86o and was chartered as a dty in X879.
See H. Whitteroore. The Feundert and Bmldert ef the Onngn
O^ewarfc. 1896): J. H. Coodit. Barty Reeofde ef Om Temukipef
Otamt^ (1807-1845) (Onnge. 1897): and S. Widbes, Binary efSe
Oramgu (1666-1806), (Newark, 189a).
ORAROB, the longest river of South Africa, almost travexsing
the continent from ocean to ocean. It rises hi Basutoland, less
than 300 m. from the Indian Ocean, andflowa west, with wide
sweeps south and noith, to the Atlantic. It dcalna, with iu
tributaries, an area estimated at over 400,000 aq. m., passing
through more than twdve degreea of longitude or 750 m. in a
straight line from source to mouth. The vaUey of the river
ezceeda 1000 m., and the stream has a length ol not less than
1300x0. luheadstreams are in the highest part of the Drakena-
beig ran^e, the prindpal source, the Senku, xisixxg, at an efevatloa
of more than io»ooo ft., on the south face of the Mont auz
Sources in sS* 48' E.,s8* 50' S. The other headstieama are SX.
of the Senku source, in Champagne Castle, Giant'a Castle and
other bdghtt of the DrakcDabeqs. The Giant's Castle source
is not more thani3om. west of the Indian ocean in a direct line.
Rising on the inner slopes of the hills tbeae rivulets all join the
Senku, which receives from the north aevenl streams whkh rise in
the Maluti MounUinSw Of these the lafgest are the Semene and
Senkmi^uie ^tttle Senku) and the best known the Maletsunyane.
by-neson of lU magnificent waterfall— «n unbroken leap of 630 ft.
Increased by the perennial watcn of these numcious torrents the
Senku makes its way S.W. acroes the upland valleys between the
Maluti and Drakensberg ranges. After a course of some soo m.,
passing the S. W. comer of the Mahiti Mountains, the Senkn, already
known as the Orange, reodvcs the Makhaieng or Koract Spnitt
(oom.), which rises in Machacha Mountain. The Orange here caters
the great inner plateau of South AfrioL which at Allwal North, the
first town of I any siie on the banks of the river, 80 m. bek>w the
Komet Spruit confluence, has an elevation of 4300 ft. Forty miles
lower down the Orange k joined by the fint of its targe "
^ ^ ^ laige tributariesi
the C:aledoo (930 m.)Twhicb, rising'on the westcm side of the Moat
aux Sources, flows, first west and then south, through a broad and
fertile valley north of the Maluti Mountaina. At the confluence
the united stream has a width of 3x0 yards. Thirty i
down the Orange icachcs. In ^s* 40^ £., its aoothemsi
30* 40^ S., approaching within ao n. of the Zunrbeig .„ __
this part 01 its course tiie river receives from the sooth the streams,
often intermittent, which rise on the northern slopes of the Storm*
berg, Zuurberg and Sneeowbetg range*— ihe mountala chain which
' "" en the eoest
la
forms the water-parting between _
of South Africa. Of these soothcra riven the chief are
•vstemscf South Africa. Of these soothcra rivers the chief are the
Kraai. which joins the Orange near AUwal North, the Stonnberg
and the Zeckoe (Sea Cow), the last named having a length of 120 m.
From its most southern point the Orange turns sharply N.W. '
10 m., when bavfaig reached ao* V &, 23^ 36^ E. it is joined by
oend great afiluent, the Vaal (ff.sC). Hcie it bends south again, a
for
, its
-.,- again,aod
with many a ai^ag continues its general westeriy direction, crossing
the arid plains 01 Bechuana, Bushman and Namaqualands. Flowing
between steep banks, oonoderably bekiw the general levd of the
country, here about moo ft., it receives^ between the Vaal con-
fluence and the AtlantK, a distance of more than 400 m. in a direct
line, no perenmal tributary but on the contrary loees a great deal
of its water by evaporation. In this region, nevertheless, skeleton
river systems cover the country north and south. These usually
dry sandy beds, which 00 many maos appear riven of imposing
length, for a tew boon or days foOowmg rare but violent thunder-
stonns, are deep and turbulent streams. The northern system
consists of the Noaob and its tributtries, the Molopo and the
Kumman. Theee unite their waten fai about ao* 40^ E. and sy* S.
whenoe a channel known as the Molopo or Hygap nna soeth to the
Orange. The s out hern system, which at ooe time rendered fertile
the great plains of westcm Cape Cokmy. Is represented by the
Brak and Ongen rivers, and, farther west, by the Zak and Okfants
rivers, which, united as the Hartcbecat, teach the Orange aboot
f « m. above the asooth of the Molopo. These ifvevs. in the wee
season and in plooea. have plcBty of water, t
s(m, pamt and sfosrx (maishy and lake land).
Between the mouths of the Hartebcest and Mofepo. hi si* 35' S.,
30* ao' E., are the great waterfafls of the Oange, when hi a series
of cataracts and cascades the livcr dropa 400 ft. in x6 m. The
Attghrabics or Hundred Falla, aa they are called, are divided by
ledges, reefs and Islets, the hat named often assuming fantastic
shapes. Below the falls the river rushes through a rocky gorge, and
opem'ngs in the diffs to the water are rare. These opcninga are
usually the sandy beds of dried-up nr in t e rmitt e n t afflnent^sMch ae
the Bak. Ham. floum. Aub (or (;rcat Fish) riven of Great NusaP
quahnd. As it approaches the Atlantic, the Orange, in iU efrorts
to pierce the mountain barrier which guards the ooast, k defleetr
H?
ORANGE
north and tlieo aoath, making a loop of fuRy 90 m^ e( which the two
ends are but 38 m. apart. Crossing the narrow coast plain the
river, with a south-westerly sweep, enters the ocean by a single
mouth, studded with small islands, in 28* 37' S.. 16* ^o' E. A lai^e
■and bar obstructs the entrance to the river. whic» is not quite
I m. wide. The river when in flood, at which time it has a depth
of 40 ft., scours a channel through the bar, but the Orange is at all
times inaccessible to sea-going vessels. Above the bar it is navigable
by small venels for 30 or 40 m. In the neighbourhood of the Vaal
confluence, where the river passes through aUuvial land, and at some
other places, the waters of the Orange are used, ana are capable
of being much more largely used, for irrigation purposes.
The Hottentots call the Orange the Gorib (great water),
corrupted by the Dutch into Gariep. The early Dutch lettkrs
called it simply Groote-Rivier. It was first visited by Europeans
about the beginning of the x8th century. In 1685 Simon van
der Stell, then governor of the Cape, led an expedition into
Little Namaquaiand and discovered the Koper Berg. In 1704
and X70S other expeditions to Namaqualand were maiide.
AttempU to mine the copper followed, and the prospectors and
himters who penetrated northward sent to the Cape reports of
the existence of a great river whose waters always flowed. The
first scientific exp^tion to reach the Orange was that under
Captain Henry Hop sent by Governor Tulbagh in 1761, partly
to investigate the reports concerning a semi-dvilized yellow
lace living north of the great river. Hop crossed the Orange
in September 1761, but shortly afterwards returned. Andrew
Sparrman, the Swedish naturalist, when exploring in the Sneeuw-
berg in 1776, learned from the Hottentots that eight or ten
days' journey north there was a large perennial stream, which
he rightly concluded was the grooU-rivier of Hop. The next
year Captain (afterwards Colonel) R. J. Gordon, a Dutch officer
of Scottish extraaion, who commanded the garrison at Cape
Town, reached the river b its middle course at the spot indicated
by Sparrman and named it the Orange in honour of the prince
of Orange. In 1778 Lieut. W. Patenon, an English traveller,
reached the river in its lower course, and in 1779 Paterson and
Gordon journeyed along the west coast of the colony and. ex-
plored the mouth of the river. F. Le Vaillant also visited the
Orange near its mouth in 1784. Mission stations north of the
Orange were established a few years later, and in 18x3 the Rev.
John Campbell, after visiting Griqualand West for the London
Missionary Society, traced the Harts river, and from its jimction
with the Vaal followed the latter stream to its confluence with
the Orange, journeying thence by the banks of the Orange as
far as Pella, in Little Namaqualand, discovering the great
falls. These falls were in 1885 visited and described by
G. A. Farini, from whom they received the name of the
Hundred F^ls. The source of the Orange was first reached
by the French Protestant missionaries T. Arbousset and
F. Daumas in 1836.
The story of Hop's expedition is tdd in the NaandU descriplum
i» Cap dt Bonne Espiramu (Amsterdam, 1778). Lieut. Paterson
nve bis experiences in A NarraltH of tour Journeys into tho
Country of the HoUentoU and Caffraria in Ike Years i777''77^J779
fLondon, 1789). See also Campbell's Trooels in South Afnca
iLondon, 1815), Arbousset and Daumas* Relation i'un voyage
f exploration au nord-est de la cotonie du Cap de Bonne Espirance en
1836 (Paris, 1842), and Farini's Tlmn^h the Kalahari Desert (London,
I ORANGE {Citnu Auramtium). The plant that produces the
familiar fruit of commerce b closely allied to the citron, lemon
and Hme, all the cultivated forms of the genus Citrus being so
nearly related that their specific demarcation must be regarded
as somewhat doubtful and indefinite. The numerous kinds of
orange chiefly differing in the external shape, size and flavour of
the fruit may all probably be traced to two well-marked varieties
or sub-species— the sweet or China orange, var. sinensis, and the
bitter orange or bigarade, var. amara.
The Birm Sevxllx or Bxgaxaob Oiangk, C. Amnndum,
var. amara (C. vulgaris of Risso),*b a rather small tree, rardy
exceeding 30 ft. in height. The green shoots bear sharp axillary
spines,, and alternate evergreen oblong leaves, pomted at the
extremity, and with the margins entire or very slightly serrated;
they are of a bright glossy green tint, the stalks distinctly winged
and, as in the other spedcs,articiilatcd with the leaf, Tbc(r««rant
white or pale pinkish flosren appear In the 1
the fruit, usually round or spheroidal, does not perfectly ripen
until the following firing, so that flowers and both green and
mature fruit are often found on the plant at the same time.
The bitter aromatic rind of the bigarade is rough, and dotted
closely over with concave oil-cells; the pulp is add and more
or less bitter in flavour.
The Sweet or China Oiance, including the Malu or Portugal
orange, has the petioles less disUnctly winged, and the leaves
more ovate in shape, but chiefly differs in the fruit, the pulp of
which is agreeably acidulous and sweet, the rind comparatively
smooth, and the oil-cells convex. The ordinary round shape of
the sweet orange fruit is varied greatly m certain varieties, in
some being greatly elongated, in others much flattened; while
several kii^ have a conical protuberance at the apex, others are
deeply ribbed or furrowed, sind a few are distinctly " homed "
or lobed, by the partial separation of the carpels. "The two sub-
species of orange are said to reproduce themselves ipfaUibly by
seed; axkd, where hybridising is prevented, the seedlings of the
sweet and bitter orange appear to retain respectively the moce
distinctive features of the parent plant.
Though now cultivated widely in most of the warmer parts of
the world, and apparently in many completely natuxalised, the
Orange {Citrus Auranlium, var. atuara), from nature, about one*
third natural size, o, diagram of flower.
diffusion of the orange has taken place in comparatively recent
historical periods. To ancient Mediterranean agridiltute it was
unknown; and, though the bter Greeks and Romans were
familiar with the dtron as an exotic fruit, their " median apple ** *
appears to have been the only form of the dtrine genus with
wUch they were acquainted. The careful researches of Galksio
have pro^i^ that India was the country from which the orange
spread to western Asia and eventually to Europe. Oranges axe
at present found wild in the jungles along the lower mountain
slopes of Sylhet, Rumaon, Sikkim and other parts of northern
India, and, according to Royle, even in the Nllgiri HiUs; the
plants are generally thorny, and present the other dutractets
of the bitter variety, but occasionally wild oranges occur with
sweet fruit; it b, however, doubtful whether either sub-spedes
is reaUy indigenous to Hindustan, and De CandoUe b probably
correct in regarding the Burmese peninsula and southern China
as the original home of the orange. Cultivated from a remote
period in Hindustan, it was carri^ to south-western Asa by the
Arabs, probably before the gth century, towards the dose of
which the bitter orange seems to have been well known to that
people; though, according toMas*OdI, it was not cultivated in
Arabia itself until the beg^ning of the xoth century, when it was
first planted in 'Omftn, and afterwards carried to Mesopotamia and
Syria. It spread ultimately, through the agency of tlie same
race, to Africa and Spain, and perhaps to Sidly, following
ORANGB
1+9
evcqnAfice tlie tide of llbh«inmwl«n oom|ttctt aad dviUiation.
la the lath oentozy the bigaradc was abundantly cultivated in
all the Levant oountries, and the returning aoldien of the Ciosb
brought it from Palestine to Italy and Provence. An orange
tree of this variety ia said to have been planted by St Dominic
in the year I20O, though the identity of the one stiU standing in
the garden of the monastery of St Sabina at Rome, and now
attributed to the energetic friar, may be somewhat doubtfuL
No allutton to the sweet orange occurs in contemporary literature
at this early date, and its introduction to Europe took pUoe at a
considerably later period, though the exact time is unknown.
It was commonly cnldvated in Italy early in the i6th century,
and seems to have been known there previously to the expedition
of Da Gama (r497), as a Florentine narrator of that voyage
appears to have been familiar with the fruit. The importation
of this tree into Europe, though often attributed to the Portu-
guese, is with more probability referred to the enterprise of the
Genoese merchants of the zsth century, who must have found
it growing abundantly then in the Levant. The prevailing
European name of the orange is sufficient evidence of its origin
and of the line taken in its migration westward. The Sanskrit
designation na^uMip, becoming nartmgee in Hindustani, aad
corrupted by the Arabs into udraty (Spanish nanu^a), passed by
easy transitions into the Italian araticia (Latinised aurantium),
the Romance arangi, and the later Ptovenpd orange. The true
Chinese variety, however, was undoubtedly brought by the
Portuguese navigators direct from the East both to their own
country and to the Asorcs, where now luxuriant groves of the
golden-fruited tree give « modem realization to the old myth
of the gardens of the Hesperides.^ Throughout China and in
Japan the orange has been grown from very ancient times, and it
was found diffused widely when the Indian Archipelago was fust
visited by Europeans. In more recent days its cnltivation has
extended over most of the wanner regions of the gk>bc, the tree
growing freely and producing fruit abundantly wherever heat
is sufficient and enough moisture can be supplied to the roots;
where night-frosts occur in winter or spring the culture bccomci
more difficult and the crop precarious.
The orange flourishes in any moderately fertile soil, if it is well
drained and sufficiently moist; but a rather stiff loam or cal-
careous marl, intermingled with some vegetable humus, is most
bvourable to its growth. Grafting or budding on stocks raised
from the seed of some vigorous variety is the plan usually adt^ted
by the cultivator. The seeds, carefully s elected , are sown in
weU-prepared ground, and the seedlings removed to a nursery-bed
in the fourth or fifth year, and, sometimes after a second trans-
plantation, grafted in the seventh or eighth year with the desired
variety. When the grafts have acquired sufficient vigour,
the trees are placed in rows In the permanent orangeiy. Pro-
pagaUon by layers is occasionally adopted; cuttings do not
readily root, and multiplication directly by seed is always
doubtful in result, though recommended by some authorities.
Hie distance left between the trees in the permanent plantation
or grove varies according to the sise of the plants and subsequent
culture adopted. In France, when the trunks are from 5 to 6) ft.
hi height. « space of from x6 to 36 ft. is left between; but the
dwarldr trees admit of much closer planting. In the West Indies
and Aaores an interval of 24 or even of 30 ft. is often allowed.
The ground is kept well stirred between the trunks, and the
loots manured with well-rotted dung, guano or other highly
nitrogenous matter; shallow pits ara sometimes formed above
the roots for the reception of liquid or other manures; in dry
climafes water must be abundantly and frequently supplied.
TI1C trees require regular and careful pruning, the heads being
trained as nearly as possible to a spherical form. Between
the rows melons, pumpkins and other annual vegetables are
frequently raised. In ^irdcn culture the orange is often trained
AS an espalier, and with careful attention yidds fruit in great
pc9f nsion when thus grown. In favourable seasons the oranges
are produced in great abundance, from 400 to xooo bdng
^Tbe modern Arabic name, BortukKn (that ts. PortugueR),
fbamthac the China appie reached the Levant from the WesL
commonly borne on a single plant in full bearing, while on large
trees the latter number is often vastly exceeded. The trees will
continue to bear abundantly from fifty to eighty years, or even
more; and some old orange trees, whose sge must be rM:koned
by centuries, still produce their golden crop; these very ancient
trees are, however, generally of the bitter varietv. Oranges
intended for export to colder climates aro gathered long before
the deep tint that indicates maturity is attained, the frmt
ripening rapidly after pickiog; but the delicious taste of the
mature China orange is never' thus acquired, and those who
have not eaten the fruit in a perfectly ripe sute have little idea
of its flavour when in that condition. Carefully gathered, the
oranges are packed in boxes, each orange being wrapped in
paper, or with dry maixe husks or leaves placed between them.
The immense quantities of this valuable fruit imported into
Britain aro derived from various sources, the Aiaores ("St
Michael's" oranges), Sicily, Portugal, Spain and other Mediter-
ranean countries, Jamaica, the Bahamas and Florida, California,
&C. In Florida the bitter orange has grown, from an unkxM>wn
period, in a wild condition, and some of the earlier botanical
explores regarded it as an indigenous tree; but it was un-
doubtedly brought by the Spanish colonists to the West India
Islands, and was probably soon afterwards transplanted to
Florida by them or their buccaneering enemies; its chief use in
America is for stocks on which to graft sweet ocange and other
spedea of CUrw.
Orange cultivation has been attempted with success in several
parts of Australia, especially in New South Wales, where the
orange groves near Paramatta yield an abundant colonial supply.
The orangeries of Queensland and South Australia likewise
produce welL In many of the Pacific Islands the plant has been
bng established. There are numerous varieties of the sweet
orange, « few of which deserve mention on account of some
strikhig peculiarity. Maltese or Blood oranges are characterised
by the deef^-red tint of the pulp, and comprise some of the best
varieties. Gallesio refers to the blood orange as cultivated
extensively in Malta and Provence; they are largely grown
in the Mediterranean region in the present day,imd have been
introduced into America. So-called navel oranges have an
umbilical mark on the apex of the fruit due to the production
of an incipient second whorl of carpels. Baptiste . Ferrari,
a Jesuit monk, in his work J7«t^er»^, sive De MoUrum aurwrum
cuUwa d usus Ubri Quattur, published at Rome in 2646, figures
and describes (pp. 403, 405) such an orange. The miandarin
orange of China, sometimes regarded aa a distina spedes, C.
nobiUs, n remarkable for its very flat spheroidal fruit, the rind
of which readily separates with, the slightest pressure; the
pulp has a peoLiarly luscious flavour when ripe. The small
Tangerine ora^jigcsi valued for their fine f rsgranoe, are derived
from the mandarin.
Diseases. — Several are caused by fungi, others by Insects.
Of the fungus diseases that known as foot-rot in Fk>rida and
mal-di-gomma in Italy is very widely distributed. It occurs
on the lower part of the trunk and the main roots of the tree,,
and is indicated by exudation of gum on the bark covering the
diseased spot* Tie diseased patches spread into the wood,
killing the tissues, which emit a foetid odour; the general
appearance of the tree is unhealthy, the leaves become yellow
and the twigs and young branches die. A fungus, Ptuarnm
liwunUs is found associated with the disease, which is abo fostered
by faulty drainage, a shaded condition of the soil, the use of
rank manures and other conditions. For treatment the soil
should be removed from the base of the trunk, the diseased
patches cut away and the wound treated with a fungidde.
Decay of oranges in transit often causes serious loeses; this
has been shown to be due to a spedes of PemeUUMm^ of which
the germinating spores penetrate the skin of damaged fruits.'
Careful picking, handling and packing have much rcduoed the
amount of loss from this cause. Another fungus disease, scab,
has beoi veiy injurious to the lemon and bitter orange in Florida.
It is caused by a spedes of Clodaspcnum^ which forms numerous
small warts on the leavca and fruits; vrayisg with a wr '
»50
ORANGfi
solutum of Bordeaux nuxttue or with ammonlftcal solution
of caibonate of copper is recommended. The sooty mould of
orange, which forms a black incrustation on the leaves and also
the fruit, probably occurs wherever the orange is cultivated.
It is caused by species of Mdiola; in Europe and the United
States, by Af. Peraign and M. Camdliae. The fruit is often
rendered unsaleable and the plant b also bjured as the leaves
are unable properly to perform their functions. The fungus b not
a parasite, but lives apparently upon the honey-dew secreted
by aphides, &c., and b therefore dependent on the presence
of these insects. Spraying with resin-wash b an effective
preventive, as it destroys the insects. Several insect enemies
attack the plant, of which the scale insect Aspidiotus b the most
injurious in Europe and the Azores. In Florida another species,
Mytilttspis cUHcida (puipie scale), sometimes disfigures the
fruit to such an extent as to make it unfit for markeL Several
species of AUyroda are insect pests on leaves of the orange;
A. cUri, the white fly of Florida, b described as the most im-
portant of all the insect pests of the crop in Florida at the
present time, and another species, A. Hcwarii, b a very serious
pest in Cuba. Cold weather in winter has sometimes proved
destructive in Provence, and many plantations were destroyed
by the hard frosts of 1789 and x8ao.
Besides the widespread use of the fruit as an agreeable and
wholesome article of diet, that of the sweet orange, abounding
in dtric acid, possesses in a high degree the antbcorbutic pro-
perties that render the lemon and lime so valuable in medicine;
and the free consumption of thb fruit in the large towns <rf
England during the winter months has doubtless a very beneficial
effect on the health of the people. The juice is sometimes em-
ployed as a cooling drink in fevers, as well as for making a pleasant
beverage in hot weather.
The bitter orange b chiefly cultivated for the aromatic and
tonic qualities of the rind, which render it a valuable stomachic.
Planted long ago in Andalusia by the Moorish conquerors, it is
still extensively grown in southern Spain— deriving its common
Englbh name of " Seville " orange from the abundant groves
that stm exist around that city, though the plant is now largely
cultivated elsewhere. The fniit b imported into Great Britain
and the United States in considerable quantities for the manu-
facture of orange marmalade, which is prepared from the pulp
and rind, usually more or less mingled with the pulp of the
China orange. In medicine the fre^ peel b largely employed
as an aromatic tonic, and often, in tincture and syrup and
"orange wine," as a mere vehicle to disguise the flavour of
more nauseous remedies. The chief constituents are three
glucosides, hcsperidin, isohesperidin and aurantiamarin, the
latter being the bitter principle; and an oil which mainly
consists of a terpoie known as limonene. Tho essential oil of
the rind b collected for the use of the perfumer, being obuined
either by the pressure of the fresh peel against a piece of sponge,
or by the process known as fcuelle, in which the skin of the ripe
fruit b scraped against a series of points or ridges arranged
upon the surface of a pectiliariy-shapcd dish or broad funnel,
when the oil flows freely from the broken cells. Another fragrant
oil, called in France essence de petU graint b procured by the
distillation of the leaves, from which also an aromatic water b
prepared. The flowers of both sweet and bitter orange yidd,
when dbtilled with water, the "oil of Neroli" of the druggbt
and perfumer, and likewise the fragrant liquid known as ** orange-
flower water," which b a saturated solution of the volatile oil
of the fresh flowers. The candied peel bmtich in request by
cook and confectioner; the favourite liqueur sold as "cura^oa "
derives its aromatic flavour from the rind of the bigarade. The
minute immature oranges that drop from the trees are manu-
factured into " issue-peas "; from those of the sweet orange
in a fresh state a sweetmeat b sometimes prepared m France.
Orange trees occaafonaUy acquire a considerable diameter;
the trunk of one near Nice, still standing in 1789, was so targe
that two men could scarcely embrace it; the tree was killed
by the intense cold of the winter of that year. The wood of the
orange bof a fiae ydlow tint, aad, being hard and ckMe-grained,
a valued by the turner and cabinetmaker for the manQfutitre
of small articles; it takes a good polish.
Although the bitter *' Poma de Orenge " were broo^t in
small quantities from Spain to England as eariy as the year
1 290, no attempt appears to have been made to cultivate the tree
in Britahi until about 1595, when some plants were introduced
by the Carews of Beddington m Surrey, and placed in their
garden, where, trained against a wall, and sheltered in winter,
they remained until destroyed by the great frost of 1739-1740.
In the x8th centuiy the tree beome a favourite object of con-
servatory growth; in the open air, planted against a wafl,
and covered with mats in winter, it has often stood the cold
of many seasons in the southern counties, in such situations
the trees occasionally bearing abundant fruit. The trees are
usually imported from Italy, where, especially near Nervi, such
plants are raised In great numbers for ezporUtion; they are
generally budded on the stocks of some free-growing variety, often
on the lemon or citron.
The oran^ has been usually cultivated in En^^d for the
beauty of the plant and the fragrance of its blossoms, rather
than for the purpose of affording a supply of edible fruit. The
latter can, however, be easily grown in a hot-house, some of the
fruiu thus grown, especially those of the pretty little Tangeriae
variety, being superior in quality to the imported fruit. The best
form of orange house b the span-roofed, with glass on both sides,
the height and other conditions being similar to those reoMn-
mended for stove plants. The trees may be planted out, a row on
each side a central path, in a house of moderate width. They
will flourish in a compost of good, light, turfy loam and well-
decayed leaf-mould in equal proportions, to which a little
broken dtarcoal may be added. Each year the trees should be
top-dressed with a similar compost, removing some of the old soil
beforehand. The trees, if intended to be permanent, should be
placed 10 to is ft. apart. It will often be found more convenient
to grow the plants in pots or tubs, and then bottom heat can be
secured by placing them on or over a series of hot-water pipes
kept near to or above the ground level The pots or tubs should
be thoroughly well drained, and should not be too large for the
plants; and repotting should take place about every third year,
the soil being top-dressed in intervening years. The temperature
may be kept at about 50* or 5^ in winter, under which treatment
the trees will come into bloom in February; the heat must then
be increased to 60* or 6^ in the day time, and later on to 80*
or 85^ Throughout the growing season the trees should be
liberally watered, and thoroughly syringed every day; thb will
materially assist in keeping down insects. When the trees are
in bloom, however, they must not be syringed, but the bouse
must be kept mobt by throwing water on the pathways a few
times daring the day. When the flowers have fallen the syringe
may be used again daily in the early morning and late afternoon.
The fruit may be expected to ripen from about the middle of
October to January, and if the sorts are good will be of eicellent
quality. When the trees are at rest the soil must not be kepi
too wet, ^ce thb wiU produce a sickly condition, throu^ the
loss of the small feeding roots. The trees require little praning
or trainmg. The tips of the stronger shoots are just pindied
out when they have made about 6 in. of growth, but when a
branch appears Co be robbing the rest, or growing ahead of then,
it should be shortened back or tied down.
When grown for the production of flowers, which are always in
great request, the plants must be treated in a similar manner to
thatilrndy described, but may do without bottom heat.
For detalk of orangie varieties, cultivation, &c., see RSsso and
Poiteau, Histohe el ciUiure des orcngers (edited by A. Du BreuSI,
Paris, 1873); for early hiatoiy and dtffusioB. G. Galleaio, TnM du
citrus (Paris, 181 1 ). A useful nKxlern handbook w Citrus Fruiis
and their CnlUtre, by Harokl Hume (New York, 1907).
There are many varieties of the sweet orange that may \>e
grown under gbss in the British Isles. Amongst the best for
dessert b the St Michaels, a heavy cropper with large juicy
fruits; and closely related are Biilenamrt, Eggf Dam Louist,
Sustaiti, E*eeitiar and Bramn*s Orauft The Wkita Oronf^
ORANGEBURG—ORANGE FREE STATE
iSi
t0 cdtod from in pale fkaa, it enelknt Sihtr or Atte b ft
gweet, i»]e<«oloui«d variety with a curious weal-like orange
•tripe, the fruit being rather imaU hut heavy, EmHgHo, or the
Waskingf0n Na9tl OramgCt produces splendid fruit tinder glass.
The J^9t with laise ohloog fruiu and large wavy crinlded
leavci, fUthouiJi a shy bearer, makea up lor this in the sise of iu
fraita. The Maltese IW0otfQraiif« if remarkable for the hlood^ikfi
stains in the pulp, although these aie not present la every fruit
even on the same tieOt
Other kinds deranges afe the Tangerine with small aromatic
fruits and wiUow-like leaves. The Seville orange is a handsome
free-flowering tree, but its fruits am bitter and used ooi^ for
preserving and marmalade.
ORANQBBUBQ. a dty and the oounty-seat of Orangebuif
county, South Carolina, U.S.A., on the North Edisto river,
SO m. S. by E. of Columbia. Pop. (1890) 9964; (1900) 4455
(s5i4l negroes) ; ( 1910) 5906. Orangeburg is served by the Atlantic
Coast Line and the Southern milwaya. It is the seat of Claflin
University for negroca, and of the State Colored Normal, In*
dusirial, Agricultural and Mechanical CoUeoe. Claflin University,
incorporated in 1869, was named in honour of Lee Claflin (1791*-
1871) of Massachusetts, and is under the control of the Freed-
men's Aid and Education Society of the Methodist Episcopal
Church. In 1908 it had as iastruaors and 138 students (341 men
and a97 women). The Sute Colored Noma!, ladustxia], Agri-
cultural and Mechanical CoDege was established here by the state
in Z87S as the College of Agriculture and Mechanics' Institute
(for negroes), on property inunediately adjoining the campus of
Claflin Univerrity, and the two schooU were under one nuuuige-
ment (although otherwise distinct and separate) until 1896,
when the present name of the state cxiUegp was adc^ed. Among
the city's manufactures are cotton'Seed oil, ootton (yam and
doth), lumber, bricks, concrete and turpentine. The munid-
paUty owns the water-works and the electric-lighting plant. A
trader and trapper settled on the site of what is now Orangeburg
in 1704. In 1755 a company of Germans and Swiss establ is h ed
the first real setUement and named it Orangeburg, in honour of
the prince of Oraogr. Orangebuig was incorporated as a town
in 1851, and waaficH chartered as a dty In 1883.
OBANOB PREB STATE, an inland province of British South
Africa; formerly-from 1854 to X90o-~an independent republic.
From May 1900 to June 19x0 it was known as theOrsnge River
Colony, since when under the style of Orange Free State it has
formed a province of the Union of South Africa. It lies north of
the Orange and south of the Vaal riven, between a6* 30^ and
30" 40' S. and 44* 30^ and 39* 40^ £., and has an area of 50^394
sq. .m., bdag nearly the sise of Eni^and. It is surrounded by
other British possessions, bdng bounded N. by the Transvaal,
E. by Natal, S.E. by Basutoland, S. and W. by the (^pe province.
Its greatest length is 356 m., its greatest breadth 304 m.
Pkjsktd FeolMfas.— The country forms part 9f the inner
tableland of South Africa and has an elevation of between 4000
and 5000 ft. On the N.E. or Natal border the crest of the
Drakensberg forms the frontier. The northern sbpca of Moot
aux Sources (xz,oao ft.), the highest land in South Africa, are
within the province, as are also the Draken's Beig (5689 ft.),
the mountain from which the range takes Its name, Melanies
Kop (7500 fL) and Platbetg (about 8000 ft), near Harrismith.
Thoufl^ rugged in pUces, with outlying spurs and. seooodary
chains, the westward slopes of the Drakensbevg are much
gentler than the eastern or Natal versant of the cham. Several
passes exist through the mountains, that of Van Rcenen, 5500 ft.,
being traveacd by a railway. From the mountainous eastern
district the country dips gradually westward. No luturai
bouxidaxy marks the western frontier, a line acxDss the veld
(separating it from the Griqualand West district of the Cape)
from the Orange to the Vaal riven.
The aspect of the greater part of the country It that of vast
undulating Iredew plains, divenified by h>w lands and iaobted
tafdbcri^ and spitakopa, indicating the former levd of the country.
These hilto are dther of sandstone or ironstone and ia altitude vagr
from about 4800 ft to 5300 ft Ironstone hills are numcRmt in
the sottth^woit districts. The whole country fonnB part of the
dfsiaaoe bam of the Orange riven It* fltveain^ with i_ ,
eacepuons, being tributaries of the Vaal or Caledoo affluents of that
river. The watershed be tweea the Vaal and Caledoa is formed by
chains of hitl% which, leaving the main range of the Drakensberg at
Moat aux Sources, sweep u eenudrcles west and south. Theie
hills an known as the Roodebcrgen. Wittebergca. ICoraaa^>«g,
Viervbet, Ac. and rise to neariy 7000 ft The well-known Thaba
Nchu (Black Mountain) is ao isolated peak between this range and
Bloemfootein. Three.iourths of the country lies north of these
hillt and is typical veld ; the valley of the Caledon, iheltered east-
ward by the Maluti Mountains in Basutolandr is well watered and
extremely fertile The Caledon, from its source in Moot auxSouices
to JamsKrberg Drift near Wepener, forms the boundary of the
province, the southern bank being in BaautoUndi bek>w Wcpeoer
the land on both sides of the Caledon is in th« proviaoe. Herc^
betweeii the Caledon and the Orange, is the fertile district of Roua-
ville. The north bank of the Orange^ from the Kornet Spruit coo*
0tteooe to a point a little east of toe spot where the rsilway from
Cape Town to Kimberiey crosses the river, forms the louthern
frontier of the province The chief tributaries of the Vaal (fl.vj
wholly Off partly within the provinoe am, going from east to west,
the Klip (this stream from near its source to iu confluence with the
Vaal divUes the Free Sute from the Transvaal), the WUge, Rhe*
noster, Vet, Modder and Reit The Sand river, oo whose banks
the cooveatk>n recugniaing the iodnendenoe of the Transvaal Boeia
was signed in 1853, is a tributary of the Vet and passes through the
centre of the country. All the affluents of the Vaal mentioned flow
north or west The Vaal itself for the greater part of its course
forms the boundary bceweea the proviooe and the Transvsat
From the KUp river oonfluence it flows west and southrwcst entering
Griqualand West above Kimberiey. The river beds un generally
40 to 80 ft bdow the level of the surrounding land. Most of the
rivers have a consklcmble slope and aoae is navigable. Except
the Caledon, Vaal and Omnge. they are dry or neariy dry for three
or four months io the year, but in the rainy season they am often
raging torrents. The valleys of the Modder, Rett ami the bwer
Caledon contain rich alluvial deposits. Beridca the rivers water ia
obtained from numerous springs. A remarkable featuro of the
westera plains is the huge number of salt pans and salt \
uped tqgetherin esteosiva area% especially in the
jnct
Grower.— Except a small aiea around Vredcfort ia the north, the
whole of the provmce is occupied by rocks of Karroo age. At
Vredefcrt there is a granitic born, belonging to the Swasihao series,
Hatch.
itwateracand
sod slatei
. _. ...Uoopeiad
- Ae Witwaierwaa^ssrics is umasofonnably
overlain by MO ft of boulder beds and amygdabidal kvas bdoogisB
to the Vaal River Systenu The Black Rm series of quartxites and
conglomerates and dolomite form a narrow outcrop resting uocon.
fonnably upon the last-mentioned system. Of the Karroo System
all the groups from the baal I>wyka Conglomerate ro the Cav«
Sandstone of the Stormberg series (see Can CoLonv) am repre-
. but these rocks have not been so anautdy subdivided as
ia the Cape. The Dwyka Cooekmcrate forms a narrow outcrop in
the north-west, and is known iropi boreholes to extend over large
areas beneath the Ecca Shales and to rest directly 00 rocks of older
age. At Vierfoatein a seam of tool is worked above it The Ecca
series extends over the laaior portion of the proviooew It coneists
nuUoly of sandstones, but these ax* often thin-bedded and pass into
shales, tmpnnsions of plants and silicificd stems are frequently
found. The Beaufort series occupies a oortion of the area formerly
regarded as being composed of the M or mb erg beda The jpcw*
vaiUng rocks are sandstones. aMidstooes and dmlea. , Reptuiaa
remains abound: plants are also plentiful* The Stormberg series is
confined to the north-cast*
ClimaU.— Cut off from the warm, lafai-bearing winds of the
Indian Ocean by the Drakensberg, the country Is swept by the
windsfrom theory desert rmonsro the west It is also occasionally
subject to hot, dry winds irom the oofth. The wcsterty wind n
almost constant and, in conj unction with the elevation ol the land,
greatly modifies the climatic conditionaL The heat usual in sub'
tropical countries is tenipeied by the cool breeses, and the atmonhcra
is dry and bndng. The climate indeed is noted for its healthiness
the chief dmwback bciiig dust-storms^ The avscsge temperature
for the four winter months— May-AuKust--is 49* F.; hard frosts
at night are then common. For the otfier eight months the average
temperature is 66*, Decem b er - February being the hottest meoths.
The aveeage daily mnge of the thermometer b from eg* to 30*.
■ See for geology. A H. Green. " A Contribution to the Geology
and Physical Geanaphy of the Cape Cotony," Ouaff. Jamm. Gm.
Ste. vol. xliv., 1888: E. J. Dunn« (kehfwai SktUh Map pS ^
Africa (Melbourne. 1887): D. Draper. " Notes on the Gcolof^ of
South-Eastern Africa,** QuarL Journ. Geoi. Soe. vol. !., 1894 •
F. H. Hatch and G. S. Corstorphine, The (kwhgy of SoaA Afnta
i^Mti od. London, 1909)»
»52
ORANGE FREE STATE
the hMiett recoid«d nnge in one 4«y beliig 74* (from to* to 94*)*
Rato talk on from tixtv to aeventy days dunng the year, chiefly
fan the niminer (December^April). Rain is gencfally preceded by
thunder and Ughtnins and falls heavily for a ihort period. Most
of the water runs off the surface into the spruits and in a little while
the vdd Is again dry. The western part of the province is driest, as
the rain clouds often pass over the lower levels but are caught by
the eastern hills. The average annual rainfall varies from 18 in.
or less in the west to 34 In. in the central regions and ^ in the eastern
highlands.
Flora and Fatma.'^'Tltt flora b typical of a r^n of scanty lain-
/all. Over the greater pnrt of the plains little now grows save veM,
the coane long grass of South Afrka. Forroeriy, much of the
country was cova«d with mimosa bush, but the trees wa« to a
large extent cut down by the early white immigrants. Thorny
acacias, euphorbias and aloes are stUl, however, found in patches
on the plains. Timber trees are almost confined to the river valleysi
where willows, yellow wood, iron wood, red wood, mimosas and, in
deep gorges, the wild fie are found. The tobacco plant also grows
wild. In moist regions ferns and moMea, the arum and other broad
flat-leaved plants are found. The characteristic plants are thorny
and small leaved, or else bulbous. Among veM planu the elands-
boontje provides tanning material equal to oak bark. European
fruit trees and vines flourish in certain localities, while in the
drier regtona the Australian wattle, gum trees and pepper trees
have been introduced with success.
The fauna has undergone a neat alteration since the first white
settlers entered the country. Big game was then abundant. The
elephant, giraffe. Ikm. leopard, hyena, nbra, buffalo, gnu, qua^,
kudu, eland and many other kinds of antelope roamed the phims:
the rhinoceros, hippopotamus and crocodile lived in or frequented
the rivers, and ostnches and baboons were numerous. The immigrant
farmers ruthlessly shot down game of all kinds and most off the
animals named were exterminated, so far as the province was
concerned. Of animab still found may be mentioned baboons and
monkeys, the leopard, red lynx (Felts earaad), spotted hyena, aard
wolf, wikl cat, long^eared fox, jackals of various kinds, the dassie
or rock rabbit, the scaly anteater. the ant bear (aardvaarfc). the
mongoose and the spring haas, a rodent of the jerboa Camdy.
Antdope of any kind are now scarce; a few white-tailed gnu are
preserved. None of the dangerous wikl beasts is common, but
there are several varieties of poisonous snakes. Scoipions and
tarantulas are numerous, and lizaids, frogs, beetles, ants, buttcrfliesi
moths and flies are abundant. Locusts are an intermittent pUgue.
There are few earthworms or snails. The birds Include cagler^
some are called lammervangers from their occasiooal attacks on
young lambs-^vultures, hawks, kites, owlsi aowsk lavens, the
seoeury bird, cranes, a small white heron, quails, partndgca,
korhaansi wUd geese, duck, and gulneafowl, swallowi, finches,
stariings. the mossie or Cape sparrow, and the widow biid, noted for
the length of its tail in summer. Baibd and yellow mudfish are
found in the rivera.
InkfMiafOs,— The Bushmen iq.v.) are, pxwumably, the oldest
inhabitants of this, as of many other parts of South Africa.
Next came the Hottenots (9.V.), and in the i6th oentuty Bantu
negioes of the Bechoana tribes appear to have cstabUahed
themsdvta in the country. The Barolong, one of the oldest
BechuanA tribes, are believed to have entered the country sub-
sequently to the Bakuena, the particular tribo from which the
general name of the race i$derived(seeBBCin7AKA; andTKANSVAAL:
InkabUants). Clans representing the southern Bakuena, were
welded together into one tribe in the xgth century, and are now
known as Basuto (see Basutoland). The Baauto were already
a strong force when the first white settlers, Dutch farmers from
the Cape, entered the country In 1824; the white element has
since been reinforced by a considerable strain of British, particu-
lariy Scottish, blood. Since the advent of the whites there has
also been a considerable immigration of Zulus. The majority of
the inhabitants live in the eastern part of the country; the arid
legions west of the main railway line conUining a scanty pastoral
population and no towns of any siae. The first census, Ukcn
in 1880, showed a total population of X33i5t8'i >» >^ tb<»
were *07,so3 inhabitants— an increase in ten years of 5S*4X%—
and at the census of 1904 there were 387,315 Inhabitants, a
further increase of 85-56%. The density in 1904 was under 8
persons per sq. m. The inhabitants are ofiidally divided into
** Europeans or white," " aborigmal natives" and " mixed and
other ootoured races." Between x88o and 1904 the proportion
of whites dropped from 4S'70% ^ 36*84%. Of the X43.679
white InhabitanU In 1904, 85,036 were bom in the province;
S9,7a7 in the Cape; 31^6 in the Transvaal; 1835 in Natal,
and 18,487 in the United Kingdom. Of the a7s6 Eusopeaa
immigrants bora in non-Brlliih ttatai toss cane from
Poland.
According to the 1904 census daanfication the ** aboriginal
inhabitants" numbered In that year 139,149. In this term
are induded, however, Zulu-Kaffir Immignnts. The tribe
most largely represented was the Basuto (130,113 persons),
former owners of considerable tracts in the eastera part of the
country, now known as " The Conquered Territory." In the
eastern districts of Harrismlth, Bethldiem, Ficksburs and
Ladybnnd the Basntos are laitsely concentrated. Buolong
numbered 37,998 and other Bechuana 51 r 5. Of the Zulu-
Kaffir tribes Zulus proper numbered 35,275, Fingoes 6275, and
Ama Xosa 5376 (see Kattiis; and Zoutlamd: tnkahitafOs),
The Bushmen numbered 4048 persons. Of these 1 13 1 were in the
Bloemfontein district. The Bushmen have left in drawings on
caves and in locks traces of their habitation in re^ons whcit
they are no longer to be fiound. In Thaba*nch« a petty Barolong
state enjoyed autonomy up to 1884, and the majority of the
Barotong are found in that district and the adjoining district
of Bkiemfontein. The Zulus are mostly found in that part «f
the country nearest Zululand. In 1904 the number of persons
bebnging to "mixed and other odoured races" was 15,487.
The proportion between the sexes was, for all races, 84-35
females to 100 males; for white inhabitants only 74*91 females to
100 males; for aboriginal inhabitants only 90-86 females to xoo
males. Of the population above fifteen years old 55-87%
of the men and 33-69% of the women were unmarried. Among
whites for every 100 unmarried men there were 65*33 unmarried
women; there were 93-04 married women for every 100 married
men, and 173-81 widows for every 100 widowers.
Classified by occupaUons the census of 1904 gave the following
results: dependants, mainly young children, 28*53%; agri-
culture, 39-51%; commercial and industrial punuits, 7*62%;
professional, 3* 18%; domestic (including women living at home
other than those helping hi farm work), 15-75%. Divided hy
races 8*19% of the whites were engaged in professional work
and only 0*26% of the coloured cfaisies.
Ckia r^vM.— The capital. Bloemfontein (pop. hi r904, 33.883),
b fairly centrally situated on the trunk railway to lohannad>urg.
Krooostad (pop^ 7191) lies 127 m. N.N.E. of Bhiemfontein on the
same railway Ime. Harrismitn, 8300, is in the N.E. of the colony,
60 m. by raS from Ladysmith, Natal. Jagcrsfontein, 5657, is m
the &W. of the province and owes its importance to the existence
there of a diamond mine. Ladybrand, 3862, Ficksburg. 1934, and
Wepencr, 1366, lie in the valley of the Caledon near the Basutoland
frontier. Winburg. 2762, lies between Bloemfontein and Kroonstad.
All these towns are separately noticed. Other towns on the trunk
railway, going from south to north, are Springfontein, xooo. an
important railway Junction; Tromnsburg, 1378; Edcnburg, 1560,
and Biandfort. 1977. In the S.E. Thaba'nchu, 1134, Zaatron, 1137,
Dewetsdorp. 971 (named after the father of Christian De Wet),
Reddcrsburg, 750, Smithfield. 909, and Rouxville, 99a These
are all centres of fine agricultural regions. Bethulie, 1086^ on the
Orange river, in the " Conquered Territory,*' has been the scene of
the labours of French Protestant missionaries since 1833, and
possesses a fine park. Through it passes the main line from East
London. In the N.E. are: Bethlehem, 1777. on the railway, 57 m.
W. of Harrismith, an agricultural and coal-mining centre; Senekal,
1039; Heilbron, 1544: Vrede, 1543: Frankfort, 747; UndJey*
646: and Reits, 526. In the north-west of the trunk railway ares
Panjs. 1 732, finely situated on the Vaal. and Vredefoct, 759- Farther
west and south are: Hoopstad. 452, on the Vet river; Boshof. 1308,
a fruit and vegetable centre, 30 m. K.E. of Kimberley ; and Jacnb»>
dal, 764. In the S.W. arc: Philippolis, 809, at one time capiul of
the Grioua chief Adam Kok and named after the Rev. John Philip
{q.v.y Faurcsmith, 1363, a mining centre, 6 m. W. of Jagen*
fontcin, and Koffyfontcin. 1657, where is a diamond mine. Many
of the towns were.the scenes of encounters between the Boerv and
British, March looo-May 190a. At Boshof feH the leader of the
Boera' European Legion, Cokmcl de Villebois MareuH, on the 5th c(
April iQoa At the census of 1904 Harrismith and Kroonstad were
the only towns where the white inhabitants outnumbered the
coloured P
popula ion. Nine towns contained more than 1000 white
inhabitants, the total white population of these towns being 31 .S<^
of whom 15.501 livod in Bloemfontein.
Cl0HMRiiiwca4^iM.^Larsely owing to ita aituation— being on the
diced route between the Cape ports and the Transvaal, and between
Duriian and Kimberley — the province p o sse ss es an cxtcsiaive net-
%ra>rk of railways. The railways are state owned and of the standard
South African i^oge— 3 f L o in. They may be divided into two
ORANGE FREE STATE
15$
OTilsna, (1) thow eonnecdn% tlie pravinoe vHh tbe Ctpe and tht
Transvaal, and (a) those luikjog it with Natal.
Tlic first syscem consists of a trunk line, formed by the junction
of Uiu» from Cape Town and Port Etiubeth. which crosses the
Oraofe at Norvals Pont, traveTKa the province from south to north,
paasing through filoemfontein and Kroonstad, and enters tha
Traaswul at Viljoens Drift (331 m. from Norvals Pont), being: con>
tinued thence to Johannesburs. Thi& line is joined at Springfontein
by a railway from East London which crosses the Orange near
ticthufie. rrom Btoemfootein a line (loa m. long) runs west to
Kimbcrlcy. on the aain line from Cape Town to Rhodesia, and from
Springfontein a branch (56 .m. long) goes i>ast Jagersfontein to
Faufumith.
The second system is formed by a' line leaving the Natal trunk
railway at Ladysmith which crosses the Drakensberg at Van Reenen'a
Pass and is continued thence through Harrismitb to Bethlehem.
At Bethlehem it divides, one branch going N.W. to Kroonstad (178 m.
from the Natal border and 39^ m. from Durban), the other b.W.
along the Cakxion valley to Modderpoort near Ladybrand, and
thence directly west to Bloemfontein. The distance from Van
Reenen's Pass to Bloemfontein by this route is 378 m. The two
systems, it will be seen, are doubly connected, namely at Bloem>
fontetn and at Kroonstad, and the lines running'east from those
towns afford the quickest connexion between Cape Town and
Durban. Beaides the Uncs enumerated there are various kxral linear
one branching at Sannah's Post station from the Bkmnfootein-
Bethlehem line running south-east to Wepener. Another branch
from the same line crosses the Caledon to Maseru, Basutoland. !n
19 10 there were in all to6o m. of railway open in the province.
Tlwre are well-kept high'coads oomwcting aU the towns,and agovenH
menc servke of mail carts to places not on the railway. The light
Cape cart u largely used, and the wagon, drawn by a team of oxen,
b still employed oy farmers to bring their produce to market.
There is an extensive telegraphic system and a well-organiaed postal
i^mcii^Mra.— -The chief industry it agrioiltura, including sheep
farrmng and stock raising. The dry western plains are best adapted
for sheep rearing, while the wcll-watcred eastern regions are specially
suitable for the growing of cereals and also for horse breeding. The
land under cultivation in 1904 was 371.515 morgen (a morgen is
a> 1 1 acres) or about 1330 sq. ro. The chieTcmp is mealies, the staple
food of the natives: wheat, oathay, Kaffir com and oats comimc
next- Little barley is cultivated. The " Conquered Territory,"
that is the valley of the Caledon. a the most fentle region ana is
styled the granary of South Africa. Here, in the districts of lady-
brand, Ficlcsbttrgt Bethlehem and Rouxville. most wheat is grown.
The asme regions, together with the adjacent regions of Harnsmith
and Thaba*nchu, produce the most oats and oathay. Besides
grains the chief crops are those of pumpkins, potatoes and other
table veietables. and tobacco. The cultivation of poutoes and
tobacco largely increased between the census years i^ and I9<H-
The principal tobacco-growing regions are Vredcfort. which produced
358,64^ lb in 1904, and Kroonsud (80.385 lb), the di&tricts of
Bcthlenem, Ladybrand and Winburg also producing considerable
quantities. Fruit farming engages attention, about 8000 morgen
beiii^ devoted to orchards in 1904. The fruit trees commonly
culttvaccd are the peach, apricot, apple, orange, lemon, pear, fig
The rearing of live stock, the chief pursuit of the fif«t Dutch
settlers, is an important industry. Rinderpest and other epidemic
diseases swept over the country in 18^5-1896. and during the war
of 1899-1902 the province was practically denuded of hve stock.
There was a rapid increase of stock after the close of hostilities.
Sheep numbered over <{,ooo.ooo in iQto, cattle over 600,000. horses
over 100.000, goats (chiefly owned by natives) over i.ooo.oaa
Large nombeirs of pigs arfr reared. Ostrich farming is growing in
favour. The eastern and south'eastefa districts have the greatest
amount of stock per square mile, Ficksburg leading in cattle, horses
and mules. Sheep are most abundant In the Rouxville. Wepener
and Smithfield districts, Jt<^ts In PhilippoUs. The dairying industry
b increasing. The Afrikander cattle, poweriul draught animals,
large homed, bony and giving little muk, are being crossed with
other stock. A government Department of Agriculture, created in
1904. affords help to the fanners in various ways, notably in com-
batting insect plagues. In experimental farms, tnd la improving the
breed of horses, sheep and cattle.
iMtd SeUUwunL'^Vndtr the provisbns of a Land Settlements
Ordinance of 190a over 1.500,000 acres of crown land had been by
1907 allotted, and in September I90Q there were 642 families, of whom
ovtr 570 were British, settled on the land. In 1907 a Land Settle-
ment Board was created to deal with the affaira of these settlers.
At the end of five yean the Board was to hand over its duties to
the government. *
Diamond Uinini and other Industries.— ^ext to agriculture the
most important industry is that of diamond mining. The chief
diamond mines are at Jagenfonteln {qj9.) and Koffyfootein. There
are also diamond mines in the Winburg and Kroonstad districts,
and near Ficksburg. where old workinn have been found 40 ft. deep.
The alluvial depmits on the banks of the Vaal. N.E. of Kimberley.
yield ooCMional diamomU of great purity. The v«lu« of the o«tput
from tha dianiofid mines toot from £as4/no in 1690 to iCl«8o8,MO
in 1898. The war hindered operations, but the output was valued
at j^648.ooo in 1904 and at £i,o^fioo in 1909.
• Coal-mines are worked bi various districts in the north near the
Vaal, noubly at Vierfontein. and at aydcadalc, wUch lies a few
miles south of Vereeaigiog. Before 1905 the mines were litilt
worked: in that year thaontput wns 1 18^000 tons, while In 1907 over
500.000 tons were raised. It dropped to 470/IQO in 1909 owing to
loss of rallwajF contFMtt.
Of other minerals gold has been foqnd. but up to 1909 wtts not
worked; iron oea exists near Kroonstad and Vredeiort. but it
also is not worked. Petrolenm has been found in the Ficksburg*
Ladybrand and Harrismith disuKis, and is pumped to a limited
extent. Good building stone is obtained near Bloemfontein, Lady-
brand and other places, and excellent pottery clay near Bloemfontein.
Beskies the industries mentioned dour-milting, aoap-making. and
the manufaaure of jam and salt are carried on. During 1905 over
1a.300.ooo lb of salt were obuined from the salt springs at Zoutpan,
near Jacobadal, and Haagenstad, to the west of Brandfort. in
1907 the output had increased to neariy 33,000,000 lb.
rr«d^.-*The bulk of the direct trade of the oountry is with the
Cape and theTraaavaal, Natal, however, taking an ineroasing shane^
Basutoland comes fourth. Its chief exports are diamonds, live
stock (cattle, horMS and mules, sheep and goats), wool, mohair,
ooal, wheat and egn. Except the diamonds, which go to London
via Cape Town. aU the exports are taken by the neighbouriM
territories. The principal imports, over 90% being of Bcitasli
origin, are cotton goods, cbthing and haberdasheiy, leather, boots,
&c., hardware, si»ar, coffee, tea and furniture.
The volume of trade in 1898, as represented by imports aad
exports, was £3,ii4/mo (importo £1,190^000} cicports lij^txjoM),
For the four yeara bcgtomng on June 30, 190a, that is immediately
after the close of bosuUtiea, the » ^ '
to £4>oS3<ooo, the exports fromj
Increased from |2^6o.ooo
^ _. . - . ^•«» to i^,CH5i«». For the
fiscal year 1908-1909 the importa were valued at ia^945.ooo^ tha
exports at £3,S58.ooo# About a third of the importt are tM produce
or manufactures of other South African oouotnes. Imported goods
re-exported art of oon^Mumti^eiy slight vAlue— some £381,000 in
1908-1909.
ConstUutiou. — From July 1907 to June 19x0 the province was
a self-governing colony. It is now represented in the Union
parliament by sixteen senatois and seventeen memben of the
house of assembly. For p«rlismentary purposes the provinot
is divided into single-member constituencies. The franchise Is
given to all adult white male British subjects. There is no
property qualification, but six months' residence in the
province is essentiaL There is a biennial registration of voters,
and every five years the electoral areas are to be redivided, with
the object of giving to each constituency an approximately
equal number of votexs. The qualificatbns for membership of
the assembly are the same as those for voters.
At the head of the provincial government is an ftdminbtratof
(who holds office for five years) appointed by the Union ministry.
This official is assiated by an executive committee of four memben
elected by the provincial coundL The provincial conncil con-
sists of 35 members (each representing a separate constituency)
elected by the parliamentary voters and has a statutory
existence of three yeara. Its powen are strictly local and
delegated. The control of elemenury education was guaranteed
to the council for a period of five years following the establish-
ment of the Union.
JuUkt. — The law of the province is the Roman<I>utch hiw, in so
far as it has been introduced into and is applicable to South Africa,
and as amended by hxal acts. Btoemfontein is the seat of the
SufMcme Court of the Union of South Africa aad also of a provincial
division of the same court. For judkaal purposes the province is
divided into twenty-four divisions, in ^
I which is a resident
magistrate, who has limited civil and criminal jurisdiction. There
are also spedaltustkcs of the peace, having rrimioal jurisdktion in
minor cases. The provindat court haa iunadictkm in all civil and
criminal matters, and is a court of appeal from all inferior courtsu
From it ameals can be made to the Appellate Diviskm of the Supreme
Couru Criminal cases are tried before one judge and a jury of nine,
who must give a unanimous opinion. Circuit courts are also held
by Jndges of the provincial court.
rtMiitf.— >The bvlkof the revenue, «.f. that derived from customs
and railways, is now paid to the Uamn government, but the pro-
vincial counal has power to levy tana and (with the consent of tha
Union ministry) to raise loans for strictly provincial purposes.
In 1870-1871, when the province was an independent state and
possessed neither railways nor diamond mines, the revenue was
(78.000 and the expenditure £71^000: in 1884-1885 the revenue
had ri«en to C?a8.ooo and the expenditure to £329.000: in T898,
Che last fttU year of the republican admioistiatian. the fir*--*'
*5+
ORANGE FREE STATE
were: ravcme. inchfdifif raflway oralitt, £799><xk>: exnaiditura.
including etnlay on new ffaitw»y«« £9s6«oool Omitting the figurca
during the war period. Che 6gui«» lor the year ending '
of ail races, able to read and
d areaa the proportion was
and 29-63 % 01 females could
. e: revenue, igs6.ooo; expenditure, iSsofioo. The _^
in trade which followed caused a reduction in revenue, the avenge
for the yean 1904-1909 being: revenue, £820,000; expenditure.
£819,000. These nptva are exclusive of rulway receipts and ex-
penditure (see Tkahbvaal! Fmana),
Religion. — ^The vast majority (over 95 %) of the white Inhabitants
are Protestants, and over 70% belong to the Dutch Reformed
Church, while another 3 % are adherents of the very similar ovgani-
ation, the Gercf onnccrde Keric Anglicans are the next numeroos
body, formhig I3>S3% of the white population. The Wesleyans
number ocarW 4% of the inhabitants. The Roman Catholics
number 2-30% of the whites, the head of their church in the province
being a vxar apostolic. At the head of the Anglican community,
whicn is in full communion with the Church of England, is the
bishop of Bloemfontein, whose dioeese, founded in 1863, includes
not only the Orange Free Sute, but Basutobnd, Griqualand West
and Bnttsh Bechuanaland. All the diurches named have missions
to the natives, and in 1904, 104.389 aboriginals and 10,909 penons
of mixed race were returned as ProtiestantSt and 1093 aboriginals
and 117 of mixed race as Roman Catholics. The touu number of
persons in the country professing Christianity was 231^904 or 65%.
The Dutch Reformed Church had the laigest number (2t,272Jof
converts among the natives, the Wesleyans coming next. The
African Methodist Epitcopal (Ethiopian) Church had ^iio members
of whom only two were whites. The Jeimh community numbered
1616. Nearly 33% of the popubtion, 127^^7 penons, were re-
tvmed ofhdany at the census of 1904 as of *^ no religion," under
which head are classed the natives who retain their primitive forms
of belief, for which see KAFFiita, Bbcbuanas, &c
EduMticn,-^At thte census of 1904, 32^57 % oif the total population
could read and write; of the whites over fifteen vcan old 82'63%
could read and write. Of <he aboriginals, 8* 15% could read and
write; of the mbced and other races, f2'28%. In the urban
areas the proportion of persons, of all races, able to read and
write was 50^%; in the rural areas
26-^3%. By sexes, 35% of males
read and write.
Elementary education is administered by the provincial council,
assisted by a permanent director of education. From 1900 to 1905
the schools were managed, teachen selected and appointed and aU ex-
penses borne by the govt romcnt. They wereof an undenominatiooal
character and Cnglish was the medium of instruction. The teaching
of Dutch was optional. In 1901 the Dutch Reformed Church started
Christian National («.«. Denominational) Schools, but in March 190S
an agreement was come to whereby these schools were amalgamated
with the government schools, and in June 1905 a further agreement
was arrived at between the government and the leading religious
denominations. By this arrangement " reliiious instruction of a
purely historical character " was dven in all government schools
for two houn every week, and might be given in Dutch. Further,
roinistere of the various denomimitions might give, on the special
^uest of the parents, instruction to the children of their own
congregations for one hour on one day in each week. The attendance
at government schools reached In 1908 a total of neariy 20,000, as
against 8000 in 1898, the highett attendance recorded under re-
publican govemmeot. On the attainment of self-government the
colonial legislature passed an act (1908) which in respect to primary
And secondary education made attendance compulsory on all white
children, the fee system being maintained. Engltsn and Dutch
were, nominally, placed oa an equal footina as media of mstnictk>n.
Every school wm under the suoerviston of a committee elected by
the parents of the children. Scnools were grouped in districts, and
for each district there was a controlling board of nine membere, of
whom five were elected by the committees of the separate schools
and four appmnted by the aovcrnment. Religious instroctwn
couki only be given by members of the school staff. Dogmatic
teaching was prohibitca during school hours, except in twral Khools
when parents required such teaching to be given. The application
of the provision as to the media oT instruction gave rise to much
friction, the English-speaking community complaining that in-
struction in Dutch was forced upon their children (see further,
I History), Primary education for natives is provided in private
schools, many of which receive government grants. In 1908 over
10,000 natives were in attendance at schools.
Provnion is made for secondary education m aB the leading
town schools, which prepare pupib for matricnlation. At Bloem-
fontein is a high school lor gins, the Grey College school for boys,
and a normal school for the training of teachers. The Grey Uni-
versity College is a state inftitutkm providing nnivenity education
for the whole province. It b affiliated to the untvervty of the Cape
of Good Hope.
The country north of the OruifB liver va^ iint visited by
Europeant towards the dote of the i8tb ceatury. At that timo
it was somewhat thinly peopled. The majority of the In-
habitants appear to have been members of the Bechuana
division of the Bantus, but in the valleys of the i^mj^i
Orange and Vaal were Koraanas and other Hottentots, mmttH
and in the Dnkensberg and on the western border lived •*f^
numbeis of Bushmen. Early in the iglh century '■•^^
Griquas established themselves north of the Orange. Between
i8t7 and 1831 thecountry was devastated by the chief MoaOikatae
and his Zulus, and large areas were depopulated. Up to thb
time the few white men who bad crossed the Orange had been
chiefly hunten or missionaries* In 1824 Dutch farmeis from
C^pe Colony seeking pasture for their Ikxks settled in the country.
They were followed hi 1836 by the first parties of the Great Trek.
These emigrants left Cape Colony from various motives, but
all were animated by the desire to escape from British sovereignty.
(See South Afsica, History, and Cak Colony, History.)
The leader of the first large party of emigrants was A. H. Potgieter,
who concluded -an agreement with Makwana, the chief of the
Bataung tribe of Bechuanas, ceding to the farmers the country
between the Vet and Vaal riven. The emigrants soon oame
into collision with Mosilikatse, nidlng parties of Ztilus atuck-
ing Boer hunters who had crossed the Vaal without seeking
permission from that chieftain. Reprisals followed, and ia
November 1837 Mosilikatxe was decisively defeated by the Boers
and thereupon fled northward. In the meantime another
party of emigrants had settled at Thaba'nchu, where the
Wesleyans had a mission station for the Barolong. The emigrants
were treated with great kindness by Moroko, the chief of that *
tribe, and with the Barolong the Boers maintained uniformly
friendly relations. In December 1836 the emigrants beyond
the Orange drew up in general assembly an elementary republican
form of government. After the defeat of Hosilikatse the town
of Winburg (so named by the Boers in commemoration of their
victory) was founded, a volksiaad elected, and Piet Retief.
one of the ablest of the voortrekkers, chosen " governor and
conunandant-general." The emigrants already numbered some
500 men, besides women and children and many coloured servants.
Dissensions speedily arose among the emigrants, whose numbers
were constantly added to, and Relief, Potgieter and gther
leaden crossed the Drakensbcfg and entered NataL Those that
remained were divided into several parties intensely jeakras
of one another.
Meantime a new power had arisen along the upper Orange
and in the valley of the Caledon. Moshcsh, a Bechuana chief of
high descent, had welded together & number of scattered
and broken clans which had sought refuge in that
mountainous region, and had formed of them the
Basuto nation. In 1833 he had welcomed as workers
among his people a band of French Protestant mission-
aries, and as the Boer immigranu began to settle
in his neighbourhood be decided to seek su|^rt
from the British at the Cape. At that time the British govern-
ment was not prepared to exercise effective control over the
emigrants. Acting upon the advice of Dr John Philip, the
superintendent of the London Missionary Society's stations
in South Africa, a treaty was concluded in 1843 with Mosheah.
placing him under British protection. A similar treaty was
made with the Griqua chief, Adam Kok III. (See Basutoland
and Griqualand.) By these treaties, which recognized native
sovereignty over large areas on which Boer farmers were settled,
it was sought to keep a check on the emigrants and to protect
both the natives and Cape Colony. Their effect was to predpitate
collisions between all three parties. The year in which the
treaty with Moshesh was made several large parties of Boeis
recnmed the Dnkensberg into the country north of the Orange,
refushig to remain in Natal when it became a British colony.
During their stay there they had infUaed a severe defeat on the
Zulus under Dingaan (December 1838), an event which, fbUowini^
on the flight of MosOikatae, greatly strengthened the position
of Moshesh, whose power became a menace to that of the emigrant
farmcB. Trouble first arose, however, between the Boers and
the Griqtus ia the PhilippoUs district. Many of the white
OKANGB FREE STATE
ns
ftfncn in thk dbtrkl, onlike tlieir CeDowB dwelliac fanber
north, were wiUlngto accept British rule, and this lact induced
Mr Justice Menzies, one of the judges of Cape Colony then on
circuf t at Colesberg, to. crocs the Change and proclaim (October
1842) the country British territory* a proclamation disallowed
by the governor, Sir George Napier, who, nevertheless, maintained
that the emigrant farmers were still British subjects. It was
after this episode that the treaties with Adam Kok and Moshesh
were negotiated. The treaties gave great offence to the Boere,
who refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of the native chiefs.
The majority of the white farmers in Kok's territory sent a
deputation to the British commissioner in Natal, Henry Cloete,
asking for equal treatment with the Griquas, and expressing the
desire to come, on sudi terms, under British protection. Shortly
afterwards hostilities between the farmers and the Griquas
bcoke out. British troops were moved up to support the Griquas,
and after a skirmish at Zwartkopjes (May a, 1845) a new arrange-
ment was made between Kok and Sir Peregrine Maitland, then
governor of Cape Colony, virtually, placing the administration
of his territory in the hands of a British resident, a post filled
in 1846 by Captain H^ D. Warden. The place chosen by Captain
(afterwards Major) Warden as the seat of his court was known
as Bloemfontetn, and it subsequently became the capital of the
whole country.
The volkaraad at Winburg during this period continued to
claim jurisdiction over the Boers living between the Orange
AmmtMB ^^^ ^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^'^ federation with the volksraad
«te »r ^ Fotchefstroom, which made a similar claim upon the
Or««f Boers living north of the Vaal. In 1846 Major Warden
^'*'^ occupied Winburg for a short time, and the relations
between the Boers and the British were in a continual state of
tension. Many of the farmers deserted Winburg for the Transvaal.
Sir Harry Smith became governor of the Cape at the end of 1847.
He recognized the failure of the attempt to govern on the lines
of the treaties with the Griquas and Basutos, and on the 3rd
of February 1848 he issued a proclamation declaring British
sovereignty over the country between . the Orange and the
Vaal eastward to the Drakensberg. The justness of Sir Harry
Smith's measures and his popularity among the Boers gained
for his policy considerable support, but the republican party,
at whose head was Andries Pretorius (g.v.), did not submit
without a struggle. They were, however, defeated by Sir Harry
Smith in an engagement at Boomplaats (August 39, 1848).
Thereupon Pretorius, with those most bitterly opposed to British
rule, retreated across the VaaL In March 1849 Major Warden
was succeeded at Bloemfontein as civil commissioner by Mr
C. U. Stuart, but he remained British resident until July 1852.
A nominated legislative council was created, a high court estab-
lished and other steps taken for the orderly government of the
country, which wasoflfkially styled the Orange River Sovereignty.
In October 1849 Moshesh was induced to sign a new arrangement
considerably curtailing the boundaries of the Basuto reserve.
The frontier towards the Sovereignty was thereafter known as the
Warden line. A little later the reserves of other chieftains were
precisely defined. The British Resident had, however, no force
aufikient to maintain his authority, and Moshesh and all the
neighbouring clans became involved in hostilities with one
Another and with the whites. In 1851 Moshesh joined the
republican party in the Sovereignty in an invitation to Pretorius
to recTOSs the Vaal. The intervention of Pretorius resulted
in the Sand River Convention of 1852, which acknowledged
the independence of the Transvaal but left the status of the
Sovereignty untouched. The British government (the first
Russell administration), which had reluciantly agreed to the
annexation of the country, had, however, already repented its
decision and had resolved to abandon the Sovereignty. Lord
Grey (the jrd earl), secretary of slate 7or the colonics, in a
despatch to Sir Harry Smith dated the sist of October iSsr,
declared, " The ultimate abandonment of the Orange Sovereignty
should be a settled point in our policy." A meet ing of representa-
tives of all European inhabitants of the Sovereignty, elected
00 manhood suffrage, held at Bloemfontein in June 18^2, never*
thelesa declared in favour of tba retention of British rule. At
the close of that year a settlement was at leDgjih concluded
with Moshesh, which left,perhaps. that chief ina stronger position
than he had hitherto beoi. (See Basutoland: History,) There
had been ministerial changes in England and the ministry then
in power— that of Lord Aberdeen— adhered to the determina-
tion to withdraw from the Sovereignty. Sir George Russell
Clerk was sent out in 1853 as apedal commissioner "for the
settling and adjusting of the affairs" of the Sovereignty, and in
August of that year he summoned a meeting of delegates to
deterroine.upon a form of self-government. At that time there
were some 15,000 whites in the country, many of them recent
emigrants from Cape Colony. There were among them numbers
of farmers and tradesmen of British blood. The majority of
the whites still wished for the continuance of British rule provided
that it was effective and the country guarded against its enemies.
The representations of their delegates, who drew up a proposed
constitution retaining British control, were unavailing. Sir
Cfoorge Clerk announced that, as the elected delegates were
unwilling to takestq>sto form an independent govern- m^j,,^
ment, he would enter into negotiations with other ««•
persons. "And then, " writes Dr Thcal, "was seen ttntdoa
the strange specude of an English commissioner '^'^'>*^
addressing men who wished to be free of British control
as the friendly axul well-disposed inhabitants, while for
those who desired to remain British subjects and who claimed
that protection to which they beh'cyed themselves entitled
he had no sympathizing word." While the elected delegates
sent two members to England to try and induce the government
to alter their decision Sir George Clerk speedily came to terms
with a committee formed by the republican party and presided
over by Mr J. H. Hoffman. Even before this committee met
a royal proclamation had been signed (January 30, 1854)
"abandoning and renouncing all dominion" in the Sovereignty.
A convention recognizing the independence of the country
was signed at Bloemfontein on the 23rd of February by Sir
George Clerk and the republican committee, and on the nth
of March the Boer government assumed office and the republican
flag was hoisted. Five days later the representatives of the
elected delegates had an interview in London with the colonial
secretary, the duke of Newcastle, who informed them that it
was now too late to discuss the question of the retention of
British rule. The colonial secretary added that it was impossible
for England to supply troops to constantly advancing outposts,
"especially as Cape Town and the port of Table Bay were all
she really required in South Africa.' In withdrawing from the
Sovereignty the British government declared that it had "no
alliance with any native chief or tribes to the northward of the
Oraivge River with the exception of the Griqua chief Captain
Adam Kok." Kok was not formidable in a military sense,
nor could he prevent individual Griquaa from alienating their
lands. Eventually, in 2861, he sold his sovereign rights to the
Free State for £4000 and removed with his followers to the
district now known as Griqualand East. (F. R. C.)
On the abandonment of British rule representatives of the
people were elected and met at Bloemfontein on the s8th of
March 1854, and between that date and the 18th m/g,^^
of April were engaged in framing a constitution. The minSi
country was declared a republic and named the Orange
Free Sute. All persons of European blood possessing a six
months' residential qualification were to be granted full burgher
rights. The sole legislative authority was vested in a single
popularly elected chamber styled the volksraad. Executive
authority was entrusted to a president elected by the burghers
from a Ust submitted by the volksraad. The president was to
be assisted by an executive council, was to hold office for five
years and was eligible for re-election. The constitution was
subsequently modified but remainni of a liberal character. A
residence of five years in the country was required before aliens
could become naturalized. The first president was Mr Hoffman,
but he was accused of being too complaisant towards Moshesh and
resigned, being succeeded in 2855 by Mr J. N. Boshof, one of
»56
ORANGE FREE STATE
the voortrekken, who had previously taken aa active part
in the affaire of Natal.
Distracted among themselves, with the formidable Baauto
power 00 their southern and eastern flank, the troubles of the
A 7>«M- infant state were speedily added to by the action of
TmairmM the Transvaal Boers. Marthinus Pretorius, who had
SlsLte. *u^c^^^ ^^ ^^ father's position as commandant-
AwSMft general of Potchefstroom, wished to bring about a
confederation between the two Boer states. Peaceful overtures
from Pretorius were declined, and some of his partisans in the
Free State were accused of treason (February 1857). Thereupon
Pretorius, aided by Paul Kruger, conducted a raid into the Free
State territory. On learning of the invasion President Boehof
proclaimed martial law throughout the country. The majority
of the burghers rallied to hb support, and on the ssth of May
the two opposing forces faced one another on the banks of the
Rhenoster. President Boshof not only got together some
eight hundred men within the Free State, but he received offers
of support from Commandant Schoeman, the Transvaal leader
in the Zoutpansberg dbtrict and from Commandant Joubert of
Lydenburg. Pretorius and Kruger, realizing that they would have
to sustain attack from both north and south, abandoned their
enterprise. Their force, too, only amounted to some three
hundred. Kruger came to Boshof 's camp with, a flag of truce,
the " army " of Pretorius returned north and on the 2nd of June
a treaty of peace was signed, each state acknowledging the
absolute independence of the other. The conduct of Pretorius
was stigmatized as '* blameworthy. " Several of the malcontents
in the Free State who had joined Pretorius permanently settled
in the Transvaal, and other Free Suters who had been guilty
of high treason were arrested and punished. This experience
did not, however, heal the party strife within the Free State.
In consequence of the dissensions among the burners President
Boshof tendered his resignation in February 1858, but was for
a time induced to remain in office. The difficulties of the state
were at that time (1858) so great that the volksraad in December
of that year passed a resolution in favour of confederation with
the Cape Colony. This proposition received the strong support
of Sir George Grey, then governor of Cape Colony, but his view
did not commend itself to the British government, and was not
adopted (see South Africa: History). In the same year the
disputes between the Basutos and the Boers culminated in open
war. Both parties laid claims to land beyond the Warden line,
and each party had taken possession of what it could, the
Basutos being also expert cattle-lifters. In the war the advantage
rested with the Basutos; thereupon the Free State appealed to
Sir George Grey, who induced Moshesh to come to terms. On
the isth of October X858 a treaty was signed defining anew the
boundary. The peace was nominal only, while the burf^ers
were also involved in disputes with other tribes. Mr. Boshof
again tendered his resignation (February 1859) and retired to
Naul. Many of the burghers would have at this time welcomed
union with the Transvaal, but learning from Sir George Grey
that such a union would nidlify the conventions of 1853 and 1854
and necessitate the reconsideration of Great Britain's policy
towards the native tribes north of the Orange and Vaal rivers,
the project dropped. Commandant Pretorius was, however,
elected president in place of Mr Boshof. Though unable to
effect a durable peace with the Basutos, or to realize his ambition
for the creation of one powerful Boer republic, Pretorius saw
the Free Sute begin to grow in strength. The fertile district of
Bethulie as well as Adam Kok*s territory was acquired, and there
was a considerable increase in the white population. The
burghers generally, however, had not learned the need of dis«
cipiine, of confidence in their elected rulers, or that to carry on
a government taxes must be levied. Wearied like Mr Boshof of
a thankless task, and more interested in affairs in the Transvaal
than in those of the Free State, Pretorius resigned the presidency
in i86j, and after an interval of seven months Mr (afterwards Sir)
John Henry Brand iq.v.), an advocate at the Cape bar, was
elected president. He assumed office in February 2864. His
election proved a turning-point in the history of the coontry^
which, under his beneficent and tactful guidance, became pcacd^
and prosperous and, in some respects, a model state. But
before peace couM be established an end had to be made
of the difficulties with the Basutos. Moshesh continued
to menace the Free Sute border. Attempts at accom-
modation made by the governor of Cape Colony (Sir
Philip Wodehouse) faUed, and war between the Free Stat^ and
Moshesh was renewed in 1865. The Boers gained oonsidetable
successes, and this faiduced Moshesh tosue for peace. The terms
exacted were, however, too harsh for a nation yet unbroken
to accept permanently. A treaty was signed at Thaba Boslgo in
April 1866, but war agam broke out in 1867, and the Free State
attracted to its side a large number of adventurers from all parta
of South Africa. The burghers thus reinforced gained at loigth
a decisive victory over their great anUgonist, every stronghold
in Basutoland save Thaba Bosigo being stormed. Moshesh now
turned in earnest to Sir Philip Wodehouse for preservatioo. His
prayer was heeded, and in z868 he and his country were taken
under British protection. Thus the thirty years' strife beCwcca
the Basutos and the Boers came to an end. The ^g^fummi
intervention of the governor of Cape Colony led to the a/<s»
conclusion of the treatyofAliwal North (Feb. 12,1869), '*"!'*
which defined the bordere between the Orange Free *"■•*■ »
State and Basutoland. The country lying to the north of the
Orange river and west of the Caledon, formerly a part of Basuto-
land, was ceded to the Free State (see BAsvroLAim). This
country, aome hundred miles long and nearly thirty vride, is a
fertile stretch of agricultural land on the lower slopes of the
Maluti mountains. It lies at an altitude of nearly 6000 ft., and
is well watered by the Caledon and its tributaries. It has ever
since been known as the Conquered Territory, and Itformsto-day
one of the richest corn-growing districts in South Africa. A year
after the addition of the Conquered Territoiy to the state another
boundary dispute was settled by the arbitration of Mr Keatc,
lieutenant-governor of Natal. By the Sand River Convention
independence had been granted to the Boers livfaig " north of the
Vaal," and the dispute turned on the question as to what stream
constituted the true upper course of that river. Mr Keate
decided (Feb. 19, 1870) ag:unst the Free State view and fixed the
Klip river as the dividing line, the Transvaal thus securing the
Wakkerstroom and adjacent districts.
The Basutoland difficulties were no sooner arranged than the
Free Staters found themselves confronted with a serious difficulty
on their western border. In the years 1870-1871 a pm,,,,,
large number of diggers had settled on the diamond nSm
fields near the junction of the Vaal and Orange rivers, yi aitrt Q
which were situated in part on land daimed by the ^f?gf *
Griqua chief Nicholas Waterboerand by the Free State.
The Free State established a temporary government over the
diamond fields, but the administration of thb body was satis-
factory neither to the Free State nor to the diggers. At this
juncture Waterboer offered to pUice the territory under the
administration of Queen Victoria. The offer was accepted, and
on the J7th of October 1871 the district, together with some
adjacent territory to which the Transvaal had laid claim, was
proclaimed, under the name of Griqualand West, British territory.
Waterboer's cbims were based on the treaty concluded by bis
father with the British in 1834, and on various arrangements with
the Kok chiefs; the Fr^ State based its daim on its purchase
of Adam Kok's sovereign ri^ts and on long occupation. The
difference between proprieto^'p and sovereignty was confused
or ignored. That Waterboer exercised no authority hi the dis-
puted district was admitted. When the British annexation took
pboe a party hi the volksraad wished to go to war with Britain,
but the wiser counsels of President Brand prevailed. The Free
State, however, did not abandon its claims. The matter involv^
no little irritation between the parties concerned until July 1876.
It was then disposed of by the 4th eari of Carnarvon, at that time
sccreury of sUte for the colonies, who granted to the Free Sute
£90,000 '*in fun satbfaction of aR claims which it oonaders it
may possess to Griqualand West." Lord Carnarvon decBncd
to entectam the proposal made by Mr Brand that the tenitety
ORANGE FREE STATE
«57
diould be given up by Gnat Britain. One thing at leait is
certain with rcgacd to the diamond fields— they were the means
o£ restoring tlie credit and prosperity of the Free State. In Use
opinion, moreover, oC Dr Tbeal, who has written the history of the
Boer Republics and has been a consistent supporter of the Boers,
the annexation of Criqualand West was probably in the best
interests of the Free Sute. '** There was," he sUtes, *'no
alternative from British sovereignty other than an independent
diamond field republic."
At this time, iazgely owing to the exhausting struggle with the
Basuioa, the Free State Boeis, like their Transvaal neighbours,
had drifted into financial straits. A paper cunency luid been
instituted, and the notes— currently known as ** bluebacks " —
soon dropped to less than half their nominal vahie. Commerce
was largely carried on by barter, and many cases of bankruptcy
occumd in the state. But as British annexation in 1877 saved
the Transvaal from bankruptcy, so did the influx of British and
other immigrants to the diamond fields, in the eariy 'seventies,
restore public 'credit and individual prosperity to the Boers of
the Free State. The diamond fields offered a ready market for
stock and other agricultural produce. Money flowed into the
pockets of the farmers. Public credit was restored. " Blue>
backs " recovered par value, and were called in and redeemed by
the govemraenL Valuable diamond mines were also discovered
within the Free State, of which the one at Jagersfontein is the
richest. Capital from Kimberiey and London was toon provided
with which to work them.
The relations between the British and the Free SUte, after
the question of the boundary was once settled, remained perfectly
c^f^u amicable down to the outbreak of the Boer War in
ntmoma 1899. Ffom 1870 onward the history of the state
wkM Qf9i ^15 one of quiet, steady progress. At the time of the
''^'*'^ first annexation of the Thmsvaal the Free State
declined Lord Carnarvon's inviution to federate with the other
South African communities. In 1880, when a ifaing of the
Boers in the Transvaal was threatening. President Brand showed
every desire to avert the conflict. He suggested that Sir Henry
deVilUers* Chief Justice of Cape Colony, should be sent into the
Transvaal to endeavour to gauge the true state of affairs in that
country. This suggestion was not acted upon, but when war
broke out in the Transvaal Brand dedmed to take any part in
the struggle. In spite of the neutral attitude taken by their
government a number of the Free Sute Boers, Uving in the
northern part of the country, went to the Transvaal and joined
their brethren then in arms against the British. This fact was
not allowed to influence the friendly relations between the Free
State and Great Britain. In x888 Sir John Brand died. In him
the Boers, not only in the Free State but in the whole of South
Africa, lost one of the most enlightened and most upright rulers
and leaders they have ever had. He realized the disinterested
aims puiBued by the British government, without always
approving its methods. Though he had thrown the weight of his
influence against Lord Carnarvon's federation scheme Brand
disapproved radal rivalries.
During the period of Brand's presidency a great change, both
political and economic, had come over South Africa. The re-
newal of the policy of British expansion had been answered by
the formation of the Afrikander Bond, which represented the
racial aipirations of the Dutch'Speaking people, and had active
branches in the Free Sute. This alteration in the political
outlook was accompanied, and in part occasioned, by economic
changes of great significance. The development of the diamond
mines and of the gold and coal industric»-~<of which Brand saw
the beginning-^had far-reaching consequences, bringing the Boer
republics into vital contact with the new industiiU era. The
Free Staters, under Brand's rule, had shown considerable ability
to adapt thdr policy to meet the altered situation. In 1889 an
agreement was come to between the Free State and the Cape
Colony government, whereby the latter were empowered to
extend, at their onim cost, their railway system to Bloemfontein.
The Free State retained the right to purchase this extension
at cost price, a right they exercised aflcx the Jameson Raid.
Having accepted the assistance of the Cspe government In con-
structing iu railway, the sUte also in 1889 entered into a Customs
Union (invention with them. The convention was the outcome
of a conference held at Cape Town in x888, at which delegates
from Natal, the Free State and the Cokmy attended. Natal at
this time had not seen its way to entering the Customs Union,
but did so at a later date.
In January 1889 Mr F. W. ReiU was elected president of the
Free State. His accession to the presidency marked the begin-
ning of a new and disastrous line of policy in the
external affairs of the country. Mr Reitx had no iJJ^
sooner got intooflkethan ameeting was arranged with rnm^rh
Mr Kruger, president of the Transvaal, at which various
terms of an agreement dealing with the railways, terms of a
treaty of amity and commerce and what was called a political
treaty, were discussed and decided upon. The political treaty
referred in general terms to a federal unk>n between the Transvaal
and the Free State, and bound each of them to help the other,
whenever the independence of either should be assailed or
threatened from without, unless the sUte so called upon for
assistance should be able to show the injustice of the cause of
quarrel in which the other state had engaged. While thus
committed to a dangerous alliance with Its northern neighbour
no change was made in Internal administration. The Free Sute,
in fact, from its geographical position reaped the benefits without
incurring the anxieties consequent on the settlement of a brge
uiUander population on the Rand. The state, however, became
increasingly identified with the reactionary party in the Trans-
vaal. In 1895 the volksraad passed a resolution, in which they
declared their readiness to entertain a proposition from the
Transvaal tn favour of some form of federal union. In the same
year Mr Reiu retired from the presidency of the Free Sute, and
was succeeded in February 1896 by M. T. Steyn (^.v.), a judge
of the High Court. In 1896 President Steyn visited Pretoria,
where he received an ovation as the probable future president
of the two Republics. A further offensive and defensive alliance
between the two Republics was then entered into, under which
the Free Sute took up arms on the outbreak of hostilities with
the Transvaal m 1899.
In 1897 President Kruger, bent on still further cementing the
unhm with the Free Sute, visited Bloemfontein. It was on this
occasion that Presklent Kruger, referring to the London Conven-
tion, spoke of Queen Victoria as a kwaaj'e Vroww, an expression
which caused a good deal of offence in England at the time, but
which, to any one familiar with the homely phraseology of the
Boers, obviously was not meant by President Kruger as insulting.
In order to understand the attitude which the Free State took
at this time in relation to the Triuisvaal, it is necessary to review
the histoiy of Mr Relu from an earlier date. Pre-
viously to his becoming president of the Free State "f^
he had acted as iu Chief Justice, and still earlier in ^
life had practised as an advocate in Cape Colony. In
1881 Mr Reiu had, in conjunction with Mr Steyn, come under
tlie influence of a clever German named Borckenhagcn, the
editor of the Bloemfontein Express. These three men were
principally responsible for the formation of the Afrikander Bond
(see Caps Colony: History), From 1881 onwards they cherished
tlie Idea of an independent South Africa. Brand had been far
too sagacious to be led away by this pseudo-nationalist dream,
and did his utmost to discountoiance the Bond. At the same
time hli policy was guided by a sincere patriotism, which looked
to the true prosperity of the Free State as well as to that of the
whole of South Africa. From his death may be dated the dis-
astrous line of policy which led to the extinction of the sUte at
a republic. The one prominent member of the volksraad who
inherited the traditions and enlightened views of President
Brand was Mr (Afterwards Sir) John G. F^raser. Mr Fraser,
who waa an unsuccessful candidate for the presidency in 1896,
was the son of a Presbyterian minister, who had acted as a
minister in the Dutch Reformed Church since the middle of the
century. He grew up in the country of his father's adoption,
and he consistently waned the Free State of the ineviuUe
•58
ORANGE FREE ^TATE
result—the Ion of iadependeoce— which mutt foUow their
mischievous policy in beinig led by the Transvaal. The mass of
Boers in the Free Suu, deluded by a belie! in Great Britain's
weakness, paid no heed to his remonstrances. Mr Fraser lived
to see the fulfilment of these prophecies. After the British
occupation of Bioemfontein he cast in his lot with the Imperial
Government, realizing that it had fought for those very principles
which President Brand and he had laboured for in bygone years.
On entering Bioemfontein in igoo the British obtained posses-
sion of certain state papers which contained records of negotiations
between the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. The evidence
contained in these state records so dearly marks the di0erence
between the policy of Mr Kruger and the pacific, commercial
policy of President Brand and his followers, that the documents
call for careful consideration. From these papers it was found
that, in 1887, two secret conferences had tadcen place between
representatives of the Republics, dealing with various political
and economical questions. At the first of these conferences,
held in Pretoria, the object of the Free Sute deputies were to
arrange a general treaty of amity and commerce wUch would
knit the states mora closely together, and to come to some agree-
ment with reference to the scheme for building a railway across
the Free State from the Cape, to connect with a farther extension
in the Transvaal to Pretoria. The deputation also urged the
Transvaal to join the South African Customs Union. Both of
these suggestions were strongly disapproved by Mr Kruger,
inasmuch as they meant knitting together the Boer republics and
the British possessions, instead of merely bringing the Free
State into completer dependence on the Transvaal. From the
minutes of this conference it is clear that the two deputations
were practically at cross purposes. In the minds of President
Kruger and his immediate followers one idea was dominant,
that of ousting and keying out at all costs British influence and
interests. On the part of the Free State there was obviously
a genuine desire to further the best interests of the state, to*
gether with the general prosperity of the whole of South Africa.
In President Kruger's eyes Briti^ trade meant ruin; he desired
to keep it out of the Republic at all costs, and he begged the
Free State to delay the construction of their railway until the
DelagoA Bay line was completed. He said, " Delagoa is a life
or death question for us. Help us: if you hook on to the Colony
you cut our throat. . . ' . How can our state exist without the
Dclagoa railway? Keep free." With regard to the Customs
Union, President Kruger was equally emphatic; he begged the
Free Sute to steer clear of it. " Customs Unions," he said, " are
made between equal states with equal access to harbours. We
are striving to settle the question of our own harbour peacefully.
The English will only use their position to swindle the Transvaal
of its proper receipts." In response, Mr Fraser, one of the
Free State delegates, remarked that a harbour reqiiires forts,
tokUers, ships and saUors to man them, or else it would be at the
mercy of the first gunboat that happened to assail it. President
Kruger replied that once the Transvaal had a harbour foreign
powers would intervene. Mr Wobnarans was as emphatic as
President Kruger. " Wait a few years. . . • You know our
secret policy. We cannot treat the [Cape] Colony as we would
treat you. The Colony would destroy us. It is not the Dutch
there we are fighting against. Time shall show what we mean to
do with them; for the present we must keep them off."
The result of this conference was a secret sesiion of the
Transvaal volksraad and the proposition of a secret treaty
with the Free State, by which each state shouU bind
^^^ itself not to buikl raUways to iu frontier without the
4tg^gg, consent of the other, the eastern and northern frontiers
of the Transvaal being excepted. The railway from
Pretoria to Bioemfontein was to be proceeded with; neither
party was to enter the Customs Union without the consent
of the other. The liansvaal was to pay £so,ooo annually
to the Free State for loss incurred for not having (he rdlway
to Cape Colony. Such a treaty as the one proposed would
simply have enslaved the Free Sute to the TraAsvaal, and it
was rejected by the Free Suu volkinad. Pieaidcal Kiuger
determined on a still more active measure, and proceeded with
Dr Leyds to interview President Brand at Bioemfontein. A
series of meetings took place in October of the same year
(1887). President Brand opened the proceedings by proposing
a treaty of friendship and free trade between the two
Republics, in which a number of useful and thoroughly prac-
tical provisions were set forth. President Kruger, however, soon
brushed these propositions aside, and responded by stating that,
in consideration of the common enemy and the dangera which
threatened the Republic, an offensive and defensive alfiance
must be preliminary to any closer union. To this Brsnd rejoined
that, as far as the offensive was concerned, he did not dcwrc to
be a party to attacking any one, and as for the defensive, where
was the pressing danger of the enemy which Kruger feared ?
The Free State was on terms of friend^ip with its neighbours,
nor (added Brand) would the Transvaal have need for such an
allianceaa the one proposed if its policy would only remain peace-
ful and conciliatory. At a later date in the conference (see
Transvaal) President Brand apparently changfed his policy,
and himself drafted a constitution resembling that of the United
States. This constitution appears to have been modelled on
terms a great deal too liberal and enlightened to please Mr Kruger.
whose one idea was to have at bis command the armed forces
of the Free State when he should requira them, and who pressed
for an offensive and defensive alliance. Brand refused to allow
the Free State to be committed to a suicidal treaty, or draggeo
into any wild policy which the Transvaal might deem it ex-
pedient to adopL The result of the whole conference was that
Kruger returned to Pretoria completely bafBed, and for a time
the Free Sute was saved from being a party to the faul policy
into whidi othen subsequently drew it. Independent power
of action was retained by Brand for the Free Sute in both
the railway and Customs Union questions.
After Sir John Brand's death, as already sUtcd, a series of
agreemenu and measures gradually subordinated Free State
interests to the mistaken amlHtion and narrow views of the
TransvaaL The influence which the Kruger party had obtained
in the Free State was evidenced by the presidential election in
1896, when Mr Steyn received forty-one votes against nineteen
cast for Mr Fraser. That this election should have taken place
immediately after the Jameson Raid probably increased Mr
Stesm's majority. Underlying the new policy adopted by the Free
Sute was the belief heU. if not by President Steyn himself, at
least by his foUowen, that the two republics combined would
be more than a match for the power of Great Britain should
hostilities occur.
In December 1897 the Free State revised its constitution in
reference to the franchise law, and the period of residence
necessary to obtain naturalizatkm was reduced from five to three
years. The oath of allegiance to the state waa alone required, and
no renunciation of nationality waa insisted upon. In 1898 the
Free Sute also acquiesced in the new convention arranged with
regard to the Customs Union between the Cape Colony, Natal^
Basutoland and the Bechuanaland Protectorate. These measures
suggest that a slight reaction against the extreme policy of
President Kruger had set in. But events were moving rapidly
in the Transvaal, and matters had proceeded too far for the
Free State to turn back. In May 1899 President Steyn soggested
the conference at Bioemfontein between Preiident Kiuger and
Sir Alfred Milner, but this act, if it eatpressed a genuine desiro
for reconciliation, was too late. President Kruger had got tha
Free State ensnared in his meihes. The F^ee Sutera wera
practically bound, under the offensive and defensive alliance, in
case hottUities arose with Great Britain, either to denounce the
policy to which they had so unwisely been secretly party, or to
throw in their loft with the Transvaal. War occurred, and they
accepted the ineviuble consequence. For President ^ „ ...._
Suyn and the ¥nt Sute of 1899, in the light of the *^'*''^
negotiations we have recorded, neutrality was impoaable. A
resolution was passed by the volksraad on the s^th of September
declaring that the state would observe its obligations to the
Tkansvaal whatever might happen. Before war had actually
ORANGE FREE STATE
»S9
broken out the Free State began to expel Btitish sUbjeets, and
tbe very fint act of war was commUted by Free State Boers,
who, on the nth of October^ seized a train upon the border
belonging to Natal. The eventaof the war are given elsewhere
(see Teansvaal: History).
After the surrender of Cronje at Paardeberg on tbe aytb of
February 1900 filoemfontein was occupied by tbe British troopa
under Lord Roberu (March 13,) and on the
98th of May a prodamation was issued annexing the
Free State to the British dominions under the title
of Orange River Colony. For nearly two years longer
the burghers kept the field under Christian de Wet (q.v.), and
other leaders, but by the articles of peace signed on the 31st
of May rpos British sovereignty was acknowledged. A civil
administration of the colony was established early in rooi with
Sir Alfred Milner as governor. Major (afterwards Sir) H. J.
Goold-Adama was appointed lieutenant-governor, Mihier being
governor also of the Transvaal, which country claimed most
of his attention. A nominated legislative council was established
in June 1902 of which Sir John Fraser and a number of other
prominent ex-burghcrs became unoffida! members. The railvrays
and constabulary of the two colonics were (1903) placed under
an inter-colonial council; active measures were taken for the
repatriation of the prisoners of war and the residents in the
concentration camps, and in eveiy direction vigorous and
successful efforts were made to repair the ravages of the war.
Over £4,000,000 was spent by the British government in Orange
Colony alone on these objects. At the same time efforts were
made, with a fair measure of success, to strengthen the British
element in the country by means of land settlements. Special
attention was also devoted to tbe development of the resources
of tbe country by building new lines of railway traversing the
fertile south-eastern districts and connecting fitoemfootcin
with Natal and with Kimberley. The educational system was
reorganized and greatly improved.
To a certain extent the leading ex-burghers co-operated wftn
the administration in the work of reconstruction. The loss
of their independence was, however, felt bitteriy by the
^JJ** Boers, and the altitude assumed by the majority was
i^tmtt, highly critical of the work of the government. Having
recovered from the worst effects of the war the Boers,
both tn the Transvaal and Orange Colony, began in 1Q04 to make
organized efforts to regain their political ascendancy, and to
bring pressure on the government in respect to compensation,
repatriation, the position of the Dutch language, education and
other subjects on which they alleged unfair treatment. This
agitation, as far as the Orange River Colony was concerned,
coincided with the return to South Africa of ex-President Steyn.
Mr Steyn had gone to Europe at the close of the war and did
not uke the oath of allegiance to the British Crown until the
autumn of 1904. A congress of ex-burghers was held at Brand-
fort in December 1904, when among other resolutions passed
was one demanding the grant of self-government to the colony.
This was followed in July 1905 by a conference at Bloemfontein,
when it was resolved to form a national union. This organization,
known as the Oranjie Unit, was formally constituted in May
1906, but hod been In existence for some months previously.
A similar organization, called Het Volk^ had been formed by the
Transvaal Boers in January 1905. Both unions had constitutions
almost identical with that of the Afrikander Bond, and their
aims were similar— to secure the triumph of Boer ideals in state
and society. Of the Oranjie Unie Mr Abraham Fischer became
chairman, other prominent members being Messrs Hertzog,
C. de Wet and Steyn. Mr Fischer, the leader of tbe party, was
one of the ablest statesmen on the Boer side in the pre-war
period. He was originally an attorney In Cape Colony and had
joined the Free State bar in 1875. He became vice-president
of the voDisraad in 1893 and a member of the executive council
of the state In 1896. He was one of the most trusted counselors
of Presidents Steyn and Kruger, and the ultimatum sent to the
British on the eve of hostilities was recast by him. While the
war was in progress he went to Europe to seek support for
the Beer cause. He retimied to Soath Afrkft. catty in 1903
and WW. admitted to the bar of the Orange Colony.
A oountei^organizatioo was formed by the es-bttn^bera who
bad whbte-heartedly aoceptcd the new order of things. Iliey
took the title of the Constitutional puty, and Sir John -Ftaset
was choKn ts chakman. In Bloemfontein the Constitutionalists
had a strong following; elsewbere thefa- supporten were oilmen*
cally weak. It was noteworthy that the pragraimncf of the two
parties were veiy sfanilar, the real difference between them bdmg
the attitude with which they regarded the British connezHm.
While the Ideal of the Unle was an Afrikander state* the Conr
stitutionalisU desired the perfect equality of both white races.
The advent of a Liberal administration under Sir H«Dzy
CampbeH-Bannerman In Great Britain in December 1905
completely altered the political situation In tbe late j^
Boer states. The previous (Conaervative) government apomUUt
had in March 1905 made public a form of representativo jvvm*
government, intended to lead up to seU-gevemmeat ""^
for the Transvaal, and had intimated that a dmilar conatttnfloa
would be subsequently conferred on the Orange Colony; The
CampbeH-Bannerman administmtion decided to do without
this intermediary step In both celoniet. In Aprfl 1906 a com«
mittee, under the ehairmansMp of Sit J. West-Ridgeway, was
sent to South Africa to inquire Into and report upon iraiious
questions regarding the basb of the fianchise, di^^membcr
constituencies and kindred matters. There was In the Orange
Colony a considemble body of opinion that the party system of
government should be avoided, and that the executive should
consist of three members elected by the single represenUtive
chamber It was desired to obtain, and three members nominated
by the govemot^in short, what was desired was a restoratton
as far as possible of the oM Free State constitution. These views
were laid before the committee on their visit to Bloemfontein
in June 1906. When, however, the outline of the new constitU'
tion was made public in December r9o6 it was found that the
British government had decided on a party government plan
which would have the inevitable and folly foreseen effect of
placing the country in the power of the Boer majority. It was
not untQ tbe ist of July 1907 that the letters-patent conferrinf
self-government on the colony were promulgated, the election
for the legislative assembly Uking place in November foUowiag.
They resulted in the return of 39 members of the Oranjie Unie,
5 Constitutionalists and 4 Independents. Tbe Constitutionalisls
won four of the five seats allotted to Bloemfontein, Sir John
Fraser being among those returned. FoDowing the elections
the governor, Sir Hamilton Goold-Adams. sent for Mr Fischer,
who formed a ministry, his colleagues being ex-Gcneral J.B.M.
Hertzog, attorney-general and director of education; Dr A. E. W.
Ramsbottom, treasurer; Christian de Wet, minister of agri-
culture, and Mr C. H. Wessels, minister of public works, &c<
Mr Fischer, besides the premiership, held the portfoBo of colonial
secretary. The new ministry took office on the jylh of November.
Of the members of the first legislative council five were sirpportei*
of the Oranjie Unie and five were regarded as (^nstitutionalists,
the eleventh member holding the balance.
The responsible government entered upon its task in favourable
conditions. Despite the many obstacles it had to meet, including
drought, commercial depression and the hostility of many of
the ex-burghersr the crown colony administration had achieved
remarkable results. During each of its seven years of existence
there had been a surplus of revenue over expenditure, despite
the fact that taxation had not materially increased, save in
respect to mining, which did not affect the general population.
Custom duties were about the same as in 189S, hut railway
rates were materially lower and many new lines had been opened.
The educational system had been placed on a sound basis.
Departments of agriculture, mining, health and native affairs
had been organized, and the dvil service rendered thoroughly
efficient. A substantial cash balance was left in the treasury
for the use of the new government. Over 700 families had been
settled on the land and thus an additional source of strength
provided for the state. The first parliament under the new
i6o
ORANGEMEN— ORANIENBAUM
£s<».
oonstitutkm met on the'tSUi of December 1907, when it was
announced that the Transvaal and Orange Colony had each
given notice oi the termination of the intercolonial council
with the intention of each colony to gain individual control
of its.railways and constabulary.
After a two days' session the legislattire was prorogued until
May 1908, when the chief measure submitted by the government
y^ was an education bill designed to foster the knowledge
of the Dutch language. This measure became law
(see above § Education), Parliament also passed a
measure granting ex-President Steyn a pension of
£1000 a year and ez-President Rdu a pension of
In view of the dissolution of the intercolonial council
a convention was signed at Pretoria on the 39th of M*y which
made provision for the division of the common property, rights
and li&bilities of the Orange Colony and the Transvaal in respect
to the railways and constabulary, and established for four
years a joint board to continue the administration of the railway
systems of the two colonies. The Orange Colony assumed
responsibility for £7,700,000 of the guaranteed loan of £35,000,000
of 1903 (see Teansvaal: Finance), The colony took part
during this month in an inter-state conference which met at
Pretoria and Cape Town, and determined to renew the existing
customs convention and to make no alteration in railway rates.
These decisions were the result of an agreement to bring before
the parliaments of the various colonies * resolution advocating
the closer union of the South African states and the appointment
of delegates to a national convention to frame a draft constitution.
In this convention Mr Steyn took a leading and conciliatory
part, and subsequently the Orange River legislature agreed to
the terms drawn up by the convention for the unification of the
four self-governing colonies. Under the imperial act by which
unification was established (May jr, 1910) the colony entered
the union under the style of the Free State Province. (For the
union movement see South Africa: History.) Mr Fischer and
General Hcrtzog became members of the fint union ministry
while Dr A. £. W. Rarasbottom, formerly colonial treasurer,
became the first administrator of the Free State as a province
of the union.
The period during which the province had been a self-governing
cobny had been one of steady progress in most directions,
but was greatly embittered by the educational policy
pursued by General Hertzog. From the date of the
passing of the education act in the middle of 1908
until the absorption of the colony into the union.
General Hertsog so administered the provisions of the act
regarding the media of instruction as to compel every Euro-
pean child to receive instruction in every subject partly in the
medium of Dutch. This policy of compulsory bilingualism was
persisted in despite the vehement protests of the English-speaking
community, and of the desire of many Dutch burghers that the
medium of instruction for their children should be English.
Attempts to adjust the difficulty were made and a conference
on the subject was held at Bloemfontein in November 1909.
It was fruitless, and in March 1910 Mr Hugh Gunn (director of
education since 1904) resigned.* The action of General Hertzog
had the support of his colleagues and of Mr Steyn and kept
alive the racial spirit. Failing to obtain redress the English-
speaking section of the community proceeded t9 open separate
Khools, the terms of the act of tmion leaving the manage-
ment of elementary education to the provincial council.
AuTHORiTTCS.— A. H. Kcanc. The Boer States: Land and People
(1900); The Report on the 1904 census (Bloemfontein. 1906): the
Statistieal Year Book (Blocmrontein) and other official publications.
W. S. Johnson. Orangia (i906)> a good elementary geography:
Preeis of Information. Orange Free State and Crtqmaland West
(War Office, 1878): D. Aitton. " De Oranjc Vrijstaat," Tijds. K.
Ned. Aard. Cenoots. Amsterdam, vot xvii. (1900): H. Kloessel. Die
SSdafrikanisehen ReptMiken (Leipzig. 1888). For a good earty
account of the country see Sir W. Comwallis Harris, narraiite of
an Expedition into Southern Africa during 1836-37 (Bombay.
1838). For history see. in addition to the British, Cape and Orange
*■ See Mr Gunn's pamphlet. The Langui^e Question in the Orange
Rivor Colony, 1^2-1910.
Free Suic parlE:inirnt.iry ropers, H. Dehtraio, VBtpantien det
Btrrs <iM *ii:' iihJi {Firisp 1105); G. McCall Theal. Sistory of
Setiih A/tiea fiiKt fj^^ jup to 1872I, vob.tL. iiL and tv. (1908 edj.
nni\ A. WUmot'f Uje and Times of Sir R, Sonthey (1904). G. B.
Br^k't The AfttrmiUh af Wt^r (1906) is an account of the repatriation
w<.rtt m thf UriiiTfi^ Rivcr Colony. A. C Murray and R. Cannon,
Jlf.,/^ ,,f ii,^ (hiinfr KiJ^T Cifimy (6 sheeU: 4 m. to I in., 1908). The
pi .Mir3rtQn.u<^3«i4dihcTwise stated, is London. Consult abo
th ^r^phi4» uaJxt CfliiiUALAND, TftAKsvAAL and South
Aj (A. P. U.; F. R. C.)
ORANOBMBN, members of the Orange Society, an association
of Irish Protestants, originating and chiefly flourishing in
Ulster, but with ramifications in other parts of the United
Kingdom, and in the British colonics. Orangemen derive their
name from King William 111. (Prince of Orange). They arc
enrolled in lodges in the ordinary form of a secret society. Their
toasts, about which there is no concealment, indicate the
spirit of the Orangemen. The commonest form is " the glorious,
pious and immortal memory of the great and good King William,
who saved us from popery, slavery, knavery, brass money
and wooden shoes," with grotesque or truculent additions
according to the orator's taste. The brass money refers to James
II.'s finance, and the wooden shoes to his French allies. The
final words are often " a fig for the bishop of Cork," m allusion
to Dr Peter Browne, who, in 1715, wrote cogently against
the practice of toasting the dead. Orangemen are fond of
beating drums and flaunting flags with the legend " no surrender,"
in allusion to Londonderry. Orangeism b essentially political.
Its original object was the maintenance of Protestant ascendancy,
and that spirit still survives. The first regular lodges were
founded m 1795, but the system existed earlier. The Brunswick
clubs, founded to oppose Catholic emancipation, were sprigs
from the original Orange tree. The orange flowers of the IMium
buibiferum are worn in Ulster on the ist and 12th July, the
anniversaries of the Boyne and Aughrim. Another great day
is the 5th of November, when William III. landed in Torbay.
ORANG-UTAN (" man of the woods "), the Malay name of
the giant red man-like ape of Borneo and Sumatra, known to
the Dyaks as the mics, and to most naturalists as Simia satyrus.
The red, or brownish-red, colour of the long and coarse hair
at once distinguishes the orang-utan from the African apes;
a further point of distinction being the excessive length of the
arms, which are of such proportions that the animal when in
the upright posture (which it seldom voluntarily assumes) can
rest on its bent knuckles. Very characteristic of the old males,
which may stand as much as s\ ft. in height, is the lateral
expansion of the cheeks, owing to a kind of warty growth, thus
producing an extraordinarily broad and flattened type of face.
Such an expansion is however by no means characteristic
of all the males of the species, and is apparently a feature of
racial value. Another peculiarity of the males is the presence
of a huge throat-sac or pouch on the front of the throat ai;d
chest, which may extend even to the arm-pits; although
present in females, it does not reach nearly the same dimensions
in that sex. More than half-a-dozen separate races of orang-
utan are recognized in Borneo, where, however, they do i^ot
appear to be restricted to separate bcalities. In Sumatra the
Deli and Langkat district is inhabited by S. satyrus ddiensis
and Abong by 5. 5. abongensis.
In Borneo the red ape inhabits the swampy forest-tract at
the foot of the mounuins. In confinement these apes (of
which adult specimens have been exhibited in Calcutta) appear
very slow and deliberate in their movements; but in ihiir
native forests they swing themselves from bough to bough and
from tree to tree as fa^t as a man can walk on the ground beneath.
They construct platforms of boughs in the trees, which are used
as aJeeping-places, and apparently occupied for several nights
in succession. Jack-fruit or durian, the tough spiny hide of
which is torn open with their strong fingers, forms the chief
food of orang-utaas, which also consume the luscious mangustin
and other fruits. (See Primates.)
ORANIBNBAUH, a town of European Russia, in the govern-
ment of St Petersburg, lying 100 ft. above the sea on the south
ORAONS— ORATORIO
i6i
oofttt of the Gulf dr PIdhuid. opposite Kransudi. Pop. (1897)
5553. It it wdl koowD for iu imporial palace and as a summer
raaoit for Uie inhabitaats of St Peienburg, from which h is
as m. W« by rail In 1714 Menshlkov, to whom the site was
pnicntcd by Peter the Great, erected for himself the countiy-seat
oi Onikieobaum; bat coofiseaied, like the test of his esutes,
in 17971 it became an imperial residence. In 1743 the empfcas
Elisabeth assigned the place to Peur III., who built there a
castle» Petentadt (now destroyed), for his Holstein soldien.
ORAOMSf an aboriginal people of Bengal. They call themselves
K.unikb» and are sometimea also known aa Dhangais. Their
home ia in Raachi distria and there are communities in the
Chota Nagpur states and Palamau, while ebewhcie they have
acattered aettlemenu, t.g. in Jalpaiguri and the Darjeeling Terai,
whither they have gone to work in the tea*gafdens. They number
upwards of thice quaxten of a million. According to their
traditions the tribe mignted from tJie west coast of India. The
Oraons are a small race (average 5 ft. s in.); the usual cobur
ia dark brown, but some ate as light as Hindus. They are
heavy-jawed, with large mouths, thick lips and piojecting teeth.
They reverence the sun, and acknowledge a supreme god,
Dharmi or Dhannest, the holy one, who is perfectly pure, but
whose beneficent designs are thwarted by evil spirits. They
bum their dead, and the urn with the aahca is suspended outside
the deceased's hut to await the period of the year especially set
apart for burials. The language is hanh and guttural, having
much connexion with Tamil In 1901 the total number of
apeaken of Kurukh or Oraon io all India was nearly 600,000.
See E. T. Dalcoq. X>McriMiM Edknoloo «^ Bngai (Cakutu. 1872),
and his article " The Kob of Cbou-lsagpore/' io SuppUnunl to
j0um. of Asiatic Soc. of Bengal, vol xxxv. (1887), part li. p. 15^:
BatKh, " Notes on the Oraon Lang:tiage ** in Journ. Roy. AsuUk
Sec of BoMg^t for 1866; F. B. Bradley Burt, Tho Siory #/ an Indian
Upland (1905).
- OBATOBIO* the name givcD to a form of veUgfcyoa music with
chona, aolo vokes and instramentst independent or at least
lepanble from the liturgy, and on a larger scale than<he cantau
(f .».). lu early history is involved in that of opera (see Aaia and
OvnA), though there is a more definite interest in iu antecedents.
The tenn ia supposed, with good icaaen,to be derived from the
fact that St Fliippo Neri'a Oratory was the place for which
Aniffluoda's settfaig of the Laudi SpiriHiaH were written; and
the custom of interq>eRing these hymns amoog Utuxgical or
other forma of thOTedtation of n Biblical story Is certainly one
of several sources to which the idea of modem oratorio may be
txaoed. Further daim to the " invention " of the oratorio canikot
be given to Anhnucda. A mora andent source is the use of
incidental music in mirade-plnya and in such medieval dramatic
proccasions as the lath-century Proso da VAne, wliich on the
tst of Jsnuary celebrated at Beauvais the Flight into Egypt.
But the most ancient origin of all haa hardly been duly brought
into Bne, although it is the only form that led to classically
artistic resulu before the time of Bach. This is the Robbsh
Catholic rite of icdting, during Holy Week, the story of the
Passion according to the Four Gospeb, in such a manner that the
words of the Evangdist are sung in Gregorian tones by a tenor,
•n directly quoted utterances are sung by voices appropriate
to the speaken, and the raponsa Imrbae or utterances of the
whole body of disdple» («.; . " Lord, is it I ?'*) and of crowds,
ate saog l^ n chorus. The only portion of this scheme that
cooceroed composers was the rtspoiua turtaa, to which it was
optional to add polyphonic settings of the Seven Last Words or
other special utterances of the Saviour. The luurative and the
parts of single speakers were sung in the Gregorian tones
appointed hi the liturgy. Thus the settings of the Passion by
Victoria and Soriano represent, in a very simple form, a perfect
aohition of the art-problem of oratorio, as that problem presented
itself to an age fai which " dramatic music," or even ** epic music,"
would have been a contradiction in terms. It has been sptly
said that the object of the compoaer in settmg sudi words as
." Oudfy Him " was not to express the feelings of an infuriated
crowd, but rather to express the contrition of devout Christians
teUiag the story; though this view must be admitted to be.
like the r6tfa<entttry mnsic itadf, deefckdly mora modem than
the (|uaintty dramatic traditional methods of perfbmiance. As
an art-form this eariy Passion-music owes iu perfection primarUy
to the church. The liturgy givea body to all the art-forms of
i6th-eentury church music, and it is for the composer to spirits
ualiae or debase them by his style.
With tlia monodic levoltttloa at the begfamii« of the 17th
century the history of oratorio as aa art^focm ooatroUed by
oompoaen- haa iu real beginning. That ia nothing but iu
leli^us subject to dbtinguish the first ontorw from the first
opera; and so Endlio del Cavaliere's Rappnsentazwna di
amima • di cofpo <r6oo) is In no respect outside the Una of
early attempts at dramatic music. In the ooune of tho Z7th
century the diflerentiatioo between opera and oratorio increased,
but not systematically. The gradual revival of choral art found
lu best opportunity in the treatment of sacred sobjecu; not
only because it waa with such subjecu that the greatest i6t^
century choral art waa a s so ci ated, but also because these subjccU
tended to discourage auch vestiges of dramatic realism as had
not been already suppressed by the aria form. This form arose
aa a ooncession to fUre musical necessity and to the gromng
vanity of singers, and it speedily became almost the only
possibility of keeping music alive, or at least embahned, until tlm
advent of Bach and HaadcL The effbrU of Carissimi (d. 1674)
in oratorio dearly ahow the limited rise from the musical
standards of open that waa then possible where music waa
emandpated from the stage. Yet in his art the corruption of
church muaic by secular ideaa ia far more evident than way
tendency to devote Biblical music-drama to the diignity of church
music. Normal Italian oratorio remains indisfingnishshlefrom
serioua Italian opera until aa late as the boyhood of Mocart.
Handd's La Xenmmonaand U Trionfo dd TempaaanXMrn many
pieces almost simultaneously used in his operas, and they show
not the slightest tendency to indulge in choral writiafr Nor did
// Tna^a dd Tampa become radically diSereat from the musical
nuaques of Ads and Caiatea and Samak, when Handd at the
dose of his life dictated an adapution of it to an English transit
tion with several cbonl and other numben interpolated from
other worka. Yet between these two verriona of the aaae work
liesmorethaahalf the history of classical oratoria Thereat lies
in that spmalrxrd German ait of which the teat oentrea raui^
the Passion and the music nilminatrs in Bach; after which there
is no very dignified connected history of the fonn, untfl the two
streama, sadly silted up, and never afterwards quite pure, united
in Mendelssohn.
One feature of the Reformatkm in Germany was that Luther
was very musicaL This had the curious result that, though the
German ReformaUon was far from conservative in iU attitude
towards ancient liturgy, it retained almost everything which
makea for muaical coherence in a church service; while the
English church, with all iU insistence on historic continuity,
so xeaxranged the liturgy that no possible music for an English
church service can ever form a cohercat whole. We ase
accustomed to think of German Passion*music as typically Pro-
testant; yet the four J*assiant and the Hisieria dor Aufarskktmg
Ckntti Of H. SchiiU (who was bom in 1585, exactly a century
before Bach) are as truly the descendanU of Victoria's Paaiona
as they are the anoeators of Bach's. The diflerence between
them and the Roman Catholic Passions is, of course, eminently
characteristic *of the Rdormatioo: the language is Cierman
(so that it may be " understanded of the people "), and the
narrative and dialogue is set to free composition instead of to
forms of Gregorian chant, though it is written in a sort of
Gregorian iwUtion. SchilU's preface to the Hittoria dn
Amfontdmmg CAHsU shows that he writea his redUtive for sob
voices, thoogh he calls it Ck$f das EoangdisUn and Ckof dor
Ptfsoman CattaguanUn, The Marcus Passion is, on ioUmal
evidence, cl doubtful aatheatidty, being later ia style and
quite stereotyped ia its recitative. But in the other Paasiona,
and moat of all in theilt/<rj(fAiifi£.the redUtive is wonderfully
expressive. It was probably accompanied by the organ, though
the Passions contain ao hint of accompanlmrat at all T" •>>«
l62
ORATORia
Aufenlekimg the Evangdist Ik aGcomKiu«<i by four viole da
gtmba in preference to the organ. In any case, Schau leUa
us, the playexa are to " execute appropriate ruaa or passages "
diiring lbs sustained chorda. Apart from their remarkable
dramatic torce, SchQtz's omtorioa show another approximation
to the Passion oratorio of Bach's time in ending with a non-
acriptural hymn-chorus, moreor ieaa clearly based on a chorale-
tune. But in the course of the work the Scriptural narxaiive
is as uninterrupted aa It is in the Roman Catholic Passions.
And there is one respect in which the AuferstekuHg, although
perhaps the richest and most advanced of all Schau's works,
is less realistic than either the Roman Passions or thosnof later
times; namely, that single persons, other than the Evangelist*
are frequently represented by mote than one voice. In the case
of the part of the Saviour, this might, to modem minds, seem
natural as showing a reverent avoidance of impersonation; and
it was not without an occasional analogy in Ronum Catholic
Passion-music (in the polyphonic settings of special words).
But Schata's Passkma show no such invention; this feature
is peculiar to the Au/ersUkung; and, while the three holy women
and the two angels in the scene at the tomb are represented
realistlcaUy by three and two imitative voices, it is curious to
fee Mary Magdalene elsewhere always represented by two
sopranos, even though Schttta remarks in his preface that '* one
of the two voices may be sung and the other done tHslrumentaliUr,
or, si placet, simply left out."
Shortly before Bach, Passion oratorios, not always so entitled,
were represented by several remarkable and mature works of art,
most noubly by R. Keiser (1673-1759). Chorsle-tunes, mostly
in pUun harmony, were freely interapexsed In order that the
congregation mt^t take part in what was, after all, a musical
church service for Holy Week. The feelings of devout conteov-
plative Christians on each incident of the story were expressed
in aocompasied redutivcs (arioso) leading to arias; and the
Scriptural namative was sung to dnunatic redutive and ejacu-
laloiy chorus on the ancient Roman plan, exactly loUowed,
iiven in the detail that the Evangelist was a tenor.
The difference between Bach's Passions and those of his
prrdcciMon and contemporaries is simply the difference between
his music and theirs. Where bis chorus represents the whole
body of Christendom it has as peculiar an epic power as it is
dramatic where it tcpresenta with brevity and rapid climax
the ftspama turbao of the Scriptural narrative. Take, for
example, the double chorus at the beginning of the Pmsrion
according to St Maitkew, where one chorus calls to the other to
'* come and bdiold " what haa come to pass, and the other
chorus asks "whom?" "what?" "whither?" to each exhor-
tation, until at last the two choruses join, whOe above all
is heard, phrase by phrase, the hymn " O Lamm Gottes
unschuldig." Still more powerful, indeed unappcoached even
in external effect by anything dse in classical or modem oratorio,
Is the duet with chorus that follows the narrative of the betrayal.
Its tremendous final outbreak in the brief indignant appeal to
heaven for the vengeance of damnation on the trsitor is met by
the calm conclusion of the Evangelist's iatempted narrative
and the overpowering tenderness of the great figured chorale
(" O Mensch bewein' dein' SOnde gross "), which ends the first
part with a call to repentance. Such contrasts might seem to
be but the natural use of fine opportunities furnished by the
librettist; but the composer appears to owe leas to the librettist
when we find that this chorale originally belonged to the Passion
according to St John, where it was to follow Peter's denial of
Christ To modem ears the most striking device in the Hatthew
Tassion is that by which the part of Christ Is separated from
all the rest by being accompanied with the string band, generally
at a high pitch, though deepenfaig at the most solemn moments
with an effect of sublime euphony and tenderness. And a
peculiariy profound and startling thought, which has not always
met with the attention it deserves. Is the omission oi this musical
halo at the words " Eli, Eli, lama sabacthani." These points
are aesthetically parallel with Wagnerian LeU-motif, though
entirely different in method. (Sec Oruu.)
In his amaxing powev of declamation Bac^ was not alCogeihcr
unanticipated by Keiser, but no one before or since apifroached
him losustamed elevation and vianety of oratorio style. Analogies
to the forms of Passion music may be found in many oi Badi's
church-canutas; n very favourite form being the JDialogur,
as, for instance, a dispute between a fearing and a trusting
soul, with, perhaps, the voice of the Saviour heard from a distance;
or a dialogue between Christ and the Church, 00 the lines of
the Song of Salomon. The Christmas Oratorio, a set of six
closely connected ehurch'cantatas for performance on separate
dajrs, is treated in exactly the same way as the Passions, with a
larger proportion of non-dramatic choruses expressive of the
triumphant gratitude of Christendom. Many of the single church>
cantatas are called oratorios. If it were not that Bach's idea
of oratorio seema to be definitely connected with that of dialogue,*
there isTcally no reason in musical terminology why the B minor
Mass should not be so called, for it can never have been liturgical
either In a Roman Catholic or in a Protestant church. But
in all respects it stands alone; and we must now return to Handers
far more heterogeneous work, which forms the staple of almost
everything else that has been understood by oratorio until the
most recent times.
Kandd discovered and matured every possibility of oratorio
as an art-form, except such as may now be brought to light by
those composers with whom the influence of Wagner is not too
overwhelming for them to consider bow far his principles arc
applicable to an art unconnecl^ with the stsge. Handel shows
us that a defkniie oratorio style may exist in many different
degrees. He was evidently fanpressed by the German forms
of Passion-music as combinmg the utmost dramatic interest
with the most intense contemplative devotion; and it is signifi-
cant that it was after he came to England, and before his first
English oratorio, that he set to music the famous poetic version
of the Passion by Brockcs, a version which had been adapted by
all the German composers of the time, and which, with very
necessary and interesting improvements of taste, was Uxgdy
drawn upon by Bach for the test of his Johames-Passiom,
Handel's Brocket-Pasnon does not appear ever to have been
performed, though Bach found access to it and made a careful
copy; and it is diflkult to see what motive, escept interest in the
form, Handel had for composing it. At sll eventsit fumishes an
important connecting-link between Bach'ssolutionof the problem
of oratorio and the vsirious other solutions which Handel after-
wards produced so successfully. He soon discovered how many
kinds of oratorio were possible. The fitedom from stage
restrictions admitted of subjects ranging from sena-dramatic
histories, like those of 5aiif, Eslker and Belskamar, to cosmic
schemes based exclusively on the words of the Bible, such as
Jsrad in Egypt and the Mttsiak, Between these types there is
every gradation of organisation; and it may be added, every
gradation between sacred and secular subjects and treatment.
The very name of Handel'b first English oratorio, Bstker, with
the facta of iu productiott as a masque and the origin of iu
libretto in Radne, show the transition from the stage to the
church; and a really scandalous example of the converse transi-
tion may be found by any one rash enouj^ to look for the source
of some of Haman's music in the BrockU' Passion. Roqghly
speaking wie may reduce the types of HandcHan oratorio to a
convenient three; not divisible among wocks as wholes, but
alwi^ evident here and there. Firstly, there is the aemi-
operstic method, in which the ariaa are the utterances of char-
acters in the story, while the conception of the chorus rarely
diverges from that of multitudes of actors (e.g. AtkaUa, Bd-
$kaattr,Sanl, &&). Hie second method is a more or less recognis-
able application of the forma of the Paasion-niusic to other
subject without, however, the conception of a special rAle of
narrator, but (as, for instance, in " Envy, eldest bora of HcH "
in Saul) with the definite conception of the choruses as descriptive
of the feelings of spectatois rather than of actorSi Handel's
* It is possible that a false etymology may by Bach*s time have
Cnren thb colour to the word oratorio. Schfttx inscribes a moaodic
isciedpieoe'* la stiloOiatorio," meaning" inthe ityleof ndtativc."
ORATORIO
163
MMttcDM demMMM aa laoomMcBt mnnber €l aiitt, non of
wfakh are chiiMOr accounted for by a oooveaUonal awgnment
to dramatic c6lcs with a futile attempt at love-intermt; wliich
makes rnaqy ef the best aoloain ^oat and yestea mtber absind.
Tht third HandrlJan method ia that which baa lince become
rmhoriied in the modem type ct aacied or secular cantat*; «
aeries of cborasesaiid mmibenoa a subject altogether beyond
the scope of dnmatie muiatite (as, for loatatiee, the greater part
oi Sd mam ) , and, in the caae of the If cwia* and Jsfvdm Bgyp^
treated entkdy in the words of Scripture;
After Bach awl Handel the history of oratorio becomes dis*
jointed. The rise of the sonaU style, which brought life to the
open, was almost wholly bad for the oratorio; since not only
(fid it cause nserions deelbie in cfaorsl ait by distracting attention
from that organization of teiture which ia essential even to mere
euphony In chonl writing (see CouNTEaKiiNT and CoHnA-
puiTTiiL Foud), but its dnmatk power became moreand more
disturbing to the essentially epic treatment demanded by the
oooditions of <Katorio. Bach and Hsadel (espedally Haadd)
were aa dramatic in characterisation as the greatest epic pocta^
and were >ist as far removed from the theatre. Any doubt on
this point is removed by the history of Haadelian opem and the
refonna of GhiclL But the power of later composers to rise
above the growing swsnns of x8th-centuiy snd XQth-centuiy
ontocio-mongeis depended hugely on the balance between thdr
theatrical and contemplative sensibilitSes. Acsdemidsm natur-
ally mistrusted the theatre, but, in the absence of any con*
tcmpiative depth beyond that of a tactful asceticism, it hss
then and ever since nmde spssmodic concessions to theatrical
effect, with the intention of avoidhBg pedantiy, and with the effect
of e nuwisgi ng vulgarity. Philipp Kmnmirl Bach's oratorios,
tboogli not pennanently oonvincteg worics of artt achieved a
remufcably trae balance of style in the earlier days of the conflict;
indeed, with Jndideus redaction to the sire of a laige canuta,
DU ImdUm Ai dtr WMtU (1769) would perhapa bear revival
almost better than Haydn's TMas (x774)> in (pite of the supe*
rior musical value of that ambitious forerunner of The Cnalwn
and Tk» Stasmu. These two great products of Haydn's oM ago
owe their vitality not only to Haydn's combination of contra*
pontal and choral mastciy with Mi uosnipeamble freedom of
movement in the sonata style, but also to his pricelem redis*
coveiy of the fact (well known to Bach, the composer of '* Meia
^aObiges Heise," but since forgotten) that, in Haydn's own
words, " God will not be angry with me f or wonhipping him in n
cheerful manner." Tliis is the very spirit of St Frandaof Assiri,
and it brings the naively realistic birda and beasts of Tht
Cnathn into line with even the Bacchanalian parts of the mainly
secular 5eafMf , and so removes Haydn from the dangem of a
definitely, bad taste, which began to beset Roman Catholic
oratorio on the one band, and those of no taste at all, which
engulfed Protestant oratorio 00 the other.
From the moment when music became Independent of the
charch, Roman Catholic religious music, liturgical or other, kist
its high artistic position. Some of the tcchnicsl hindmnres to
greatnemin Ittiifgical music after the Golden Age are mentioned
in the article Mass; but the statue of Roman Catholic non-
hturgical religious music was from the outset lowered by the use
of the vulgar tongue, since that implied a condescension to the
hdty, and composen couM not but bie affected by the assumption
that oratorio betonged to a lower sphere than Latin church
music With this element of condescension came a reluctance
to foster the fault of intellectual pride by critidang phius verse
on grounds of taste. Even In Protestant En^and this reluctance
still causes educated people to strain tolerance of bad hymns
to an extent which aixMtles of culture denounce as positively
fcnmoralr bat the initial impossibility of basing a non-Latin
Roman CkthoHc oratorio directly on the Bible wonki afaosdy
have been detrimental to good taste In religioas musical texts
even if cdtlcbm were not disarmed. It must be ooofcased that
Protcstaaft taste (ss shown in the texU of aoany of Bach's
cnntatss) was often unsorpasmUy bad; but in iu most nwrbtd
phases Its b sd n e m wss msinly barbarian, fLnd.ooakL either he
ignored by osmposcii and tiateaers, or eosOy improved awi^, as
Bach showed in his alteatioos of Brockes'b vile verses in the
Passion aecarding to St Jtkn, But the bad taste of the text of
Beethoven's arssfait am Odhtrn {Tke Momt of OUhs, t, 1800)
b inrra d k -s hlr , lor it repnsenUthe stsndpoint of writers who
may be very devont and innocent, but whose purest souree of
sacred art has been the pktures of Gukk>RenL It was one thing
for Sir Joshua ReynoMs to admire the wrong period of Italian
art: he had hia own accem to great kieas; but for Beethoven'a
librettist, who had no such acceaa, it was veiydifferenU Tbereal
aacred subject haa no chance of penetrating through a tradition
whkh is neither nslve nor ecclesiastical, but is simply that of a
hmg-lolerated comfortable vulgarity. An operatic tenor rcpre-
aenta the Sawiour; an operatk soprano represents the minktering
angd; and in the garden of Gethaemane the two sing an operatic
duet. The music is brilUant and well worthy of Beethoven's
eariy powers, but he aftcnraids greatly regretted it; and indeed
its drcnmstances are intcJcraUe, ami the g*« |f^i t** attonpt at
n new Ubretto (fofstff, or Dfxrii m lAe Wildtmeu) only sub*
stituted ineptitude for irreverence.
Schubert's wonderful fragmeat Laaanis (i8ao) suffem lem
from the sicUinem of its text; for the music seises on a certain
gemdne quality aimed at by all typical Roman CathoUc rdigioua
verse-writers, and embodim it in a kind of romantic mystkasm
unexample d in Protrntant oratorio. Modern literature shows
this peadiar strain in Cardinal Newman'a Dn^n «/ CtroHHus^
just as Sir Edward Elgar's setting of that pbem to mtttic of
Wagnerian continuity and texture presents the only parallel
dtaooveraUe later or earlier to the slightly oppre ssi ve aroma of
Schubert's unique experiment.* losaratr also surprisra us by
a rsther invertebrate continuity of Bow, anticipating early
Wagnerian opera; indeed, in almost every respect it is two
generatkNis ahead of ito time; and, if only Schubert had finished
it snd allowed it to see publicity, the history of 19th-century
oratorio might have become a more kiteresting subject than it is.
The sscendancyof Mendelssohn* as things happened, is resUy
its msin redeeming feature. Mendelssohn spplied an unpre-
cedented care and a wide general culture to the structure and
criticism of Mi libretto (see Ms concspondeace with Schubriag.
his principal helper with the texta of St Posd and EHiok), and
was able to bear witaem of his new-found gospel sooording to
Bach by Uitrodudng chorales into St PatU ss weO as by dis-
interring and perforadng Bach's works. But he had not the
stseagth to rescue oratorio from the akmgh into which it had
now fallen, no lem in Protestant than hi Roman CathoUc forms.
As the interest in Biblical themes becomes more uidepeadent
of church and dogma, oratorio once more tends to become con-
fused with Biblicsl opera. The singular fragrance and tendemem
of the best parts of BerUos's little masterpiece I'Ba/enee da
Ckrist (put together from sectkms composed between 1847 and
1854) give it high artistic value; but if "oratorw'* means
" sscred music " Beriioi was incapable of anything of the sort;
for the Christumity of Ms Cronde Uesso its morU and his Ts
Dtum is the Christianity of Napoleon; and, if oretork) means a
consistent treatment of a kfcnd or subject in terma of muaical
epic, Berlk» can never fix his attentkm k»g enough to remember
how he began by the time he haa got half way through. Thoogh
Berlkis's essay in oratorio is not quite so irresponsible a vocal-
lymphonic-dnunatic medley as his Romio a JmlkUe and X^asMo-
tion dr PatuI, it uamistakably marks a transition towards the
complete secularixmg of the Bible for musical purposes. But
the long<ontinued prejudice in England against the rcpresenta*-
Ikm of religious sobjecu 00 the stage has wrought peculiar,
confusion in the theory of their romantic treatment in music
It may be noted as a curiosity that Saint-SaCns's Biblical opera,
SowuoH et DalUa (written in 1877). after being known in England
for many qtdet yean as an oratorio, suddenly, in 1910, was
permitted 1^ the censor of plays, under royal command, to be
produced at Covent Garden for what it waa imended. It may
*!Khabert*s wvtl-known cantata, Uiriom's SUtesftsaiit, has
been diaeoiaed as a wnall oratorio: but it ia of •ttgnt anitnc and
164
ORATORY— ORBIT
«vea be 9uggattd that thit oocuned just «arly enough to
prevent Straios's Sat0me from being reipurded by the British
public as an oratorio.
The earnest e£Forts of C^r Fhmck pievented French oratorio
from drifting entirely towards the stage; and meanwhile year by
year Bxahms's Deutsches Requism (completed, except for one
movement, in x868) towers ever higher above all choral mtisic
since Beethoven's Mass in />, and draws us away from the
semi*dramatic oratorio towards the musically perfectible form
of an enlarged canuta in which a group of choral movements
is concentrated on a set of religious ideaa di&ring from liturgical
forms only in free choice of text. Within the essentially
non-theatrical limitations of dramatic or epic oratorio, we may
note the spirited new departures of Sir Charles Stanford in Eden
(1891), and of Sir Hubert Parry in Judith (1888), /«» {1B92)
and King Saul (1894), which showed that Wagnerian Leitmotif
and continuity might well avail to produce an oratorio style
standing to Mendelssohn as Wsgner stands to Mosart, if
musical interest be retained in the foreground. Freedom
from the restrictions of the stage also means absence of the
resources of the stage, so that Wagnerian Ltitmct^ is no
suflkient substitute for formal musical coherence when the
audience has no action before its eyes. Accordingly these leaders
of the English musical rensacence are by no means exclusively
Wagnerian in their oratorios. A fine and typical example
of their peculiar non-theatrical resources may bie seen in the
end of King Sahlt where Parry (who, like Wagner, is his own
Hbrettist) makes the Witch of Endor foresee the battle of Gilboa,
and allows her tale to become real in the telling: so that it is
foUowed immediately by the final dirge. (D. F. T.)
ORATOBT (Lat. oratorio, 8& ars; from ersrr, to speak or
pray), the art of speaking eloquently or in accordance with the
rules of rhetoric {q.v.). From Lat. aratonumt sc iemplumt a
place of pnyttt comes the use of the word for a small chapel or
place of prayer for the use of private individuals, generally
attached to a mansion and sometimes to a church. The name
b also given to smaU chapels built to oonmiemorate some special
delivcranoe.
ORATOBT OP ST PHILIP NERI. GONOBBOATION OP THB,
or Obatorians, a religious order consisting of a number of
independent houses. The first congregation was formally
organized in 1575 by the Florentine priest, Philip Neri. (See
Nsai, Phuip.)
ORB, a drde or ring (Lat. orhis)^ hence a globe or disk or other
spherical object. It is thus used, chiefly poetically, of any of
the heavenly bodies, including the earth itself (Lat. oHns ter'
rarum), or of the eye-ball or eye. The " orb," also known as the
** mound ** (Lat. ,mundust ** world ")• consisting of a globe
surmounted by a cross, fbrms part of many regalia, being a
symbol of sovereignty (see Recaua). In ardiitecture the
meaning to be attached to the word " orb " is doubtful It is
usually now taken to mean^ properly a blank or blind window,
and thence a blank panel. If so the word represents Lat. orbust
'* bereft of," *< orphaned," fenestra orba luminis. It is also
identified with a circular boss concealing the intersection of
arches in a v aulL
ORBBTBLLO. a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of
Grosseto, u m. S. by E. of Grosscto by rsil, 13 ft. above sea*
level. Pop. (1901) 4r88 (town), 5335 (commune). It is situated
on a tongue of land projecting westward into a lagoon which is
enclosed on the W. and S. by two long narrow sandy spits, and
on the seaward (S.W.) side by the peninsula of Monte Argentario.
A causeway connecting the town with this peninsula was built
across the lagoon In 1843. On every side except the landward
(E.) side the town is enclosed by an andent terrace wall of poly-
gonal work, and tombs have been discovered b the vicinity
and even within the town itself. On the N. side of the promon-
tory are the remains of a Roman villa partly below sea-level.
The town must thus occupy an andent site, the name of which
is unknown. The town stOl has the bastions which the Spaniards
built during the period (rs57'i7>3) when they were roasters of
this comer of Italy. There is a large convict ptisoB with which
is connected another «t Poito Eroale, oa the cast side of the
peninsula. The mother house of the Psssionist order crowns
an eminence of Monte Argentario, now stroni^y fortified. The
salt-water kgoon (xi sq. m. in extent), in the middle of «idch
the town stands, abounds in white fish, soles and eels* On the
eastern edge of the Monte Argentario is an active mingsnrsi
iron ore mine, yielding some 30,000 tons per annum.
After the fan of the RqMiblic of Siena, when the teiritoiy of
Siena passed to Tuscany, Philip II. of Spsin retained Orfactcillo,
Talamone, Monte Argentario and the idand of Giamnitri until
1713, under the name of the Reali Suti dd PkcsidiL There are
still many Spanish names among the mhabitants of OrfactcDoi
In 1713 this district passed hy treaty to the emperar, in 1736 to
the king of the two Sicilies, in 1801 to the kingdom of Etruria,
and in 1814 to the grand-duchy of Tuscany.
See G. Dennis, Ciiies and Cemdenes ^ EiruHa (London, 1883),
ii. 340; M. Carmichad, In Tuscany (London, 1901)* a83i jgq.
(T.AS.)
OBBIORY. AiCIDB DBSSAURBS D^ (i8o»-i8s7)» Fraich
pakeontotogist, was bom at (^ouSraon, Loire Infirieure, on the
6th of September 1803. He was educated at La KodwU^
where he became interested in the study of natuml hiitoiyp
and in p s rt icula r of zoology and palaeontology. Hia fint
appointment wss that of travelling naturalist for the Museum
of Natuisl History at Paris. In the course of his duties he
proceeded in 1826 to South America, and gathered mndi
information on the natural history and ethnology, the results
bdng embodied in his great work Voyage dons PAminqua
UMdionale (183^1842). Meanwhile he had decided to devote
his time and energies to palaeontology, and he dealt in course of
time with various invertcbrata from foraminifeia to crinoids and
moUusca. In 1840 he commenced the pubBcatioii of PaUotUo"
hgie Fraufaise, ou deseripHon des fossiUs do in Pranee, a monn-
mental work, accompanied by figures of the species. Eight
volumes were published by him dealing with Jurassic and
Cretaceous invertebrata, and since his death many later volumes
have been issued. (See notes by C. D. Sherbom, " On the Dates
of the Paiioukdope Prau«oise of D'Orbigny," Ceol. Mag., 1899,
p. 223.) Among his other works were C^urs Mmentaire da
paliontologie et do ghlopo sbratigraphiquos (3 vols., 1849-1859),
and Prodromode palionUdogie stratigrapkigue (3 vols., i8so>i85s).
D'Orbigny introduced (1852) a methodical system of nomen*
dature forgeotogical formations bssed partly on the English
termsr-thus Bathonian for the Great or Bath Oolite, Bajodaa
from Bajocea or Baycux in Calvados for the Inferior Oolite.
Many of these names have been widely adopted, but some are of
too local appHcation to be generally used. In 1853 be was
appointed professor of palaeontology at the Museum of Natural
History in Paris, but <Ucd four years later, on the 30th of Jnno
1857, at Pierresilie, near St Denis.
9BBILIU8, PUPILLU8, a Latin grammarian of the ist century
A.D., who had a school at Rome, where the poet Horace was
one of his pupils. Horace (Epistles, ii.) criticises his old school-
master and describes him as plagosus (a flogger), and Orbiliui
has become proverbial as a disciplinarian pedagogue.
OBBIT (from Lat. arbila, a track, orbts, a wheel), in astronomy,
the path of any body, and cspedally of a heavenly body, revolving
round an attracting centre. If the law of attraction is that of
gravitation, the orbit is a conic section — ellipse, parabola or
hyperbola— having the centre of attraction in one ol its fod;
and the motion takes place in accordance with Kepler*s laws
(see AsnoNOMV). But unless the orbit is an ellipee the body
will never complete a revolution, but will recede indefinildy
from the centre of motion. Elliptic orbits, and a parabolic
ort>K considered as the special esse when the ecoentridty of the
ellipse is I, sre ahnost the only ones the astronomer has to
consider, and our attention will therdore be conlbed to then in
the present article. If the attraction of a central body is not
the only force acting on the moving body, the orbit will deviate
from the form of a conic section in a degree dqsending on the
amoont of the extraneous force; and the curve described may
not be a re^itering curve at all, but one winding around so m
ORCAGNA
165
to form an indefinite mcccskm of tpires. In all the cases which
have yet ariaen in astronomy the extraneovu forces are so smaU
compared with the gravitation of the central body that the orbit
is approzifflately an cUipse, and the preliminary computations,
as well as all determinatbns in which a high degree of precision
is not necessary, are made on the hypothesis of elliptic orbits.
Below are set forth the methods of determining and dealing with
iucb Of bits.
We begin by considering the laws of motion in the orbit itself,
renrdless of tne position of the latter.
Let the curve represent an elliptic orbit, AB being the major
•Ida. DB the minor axis, and F the focus in which the centre of
•ttaction is liluatcd, which centre we shall call the sun. From the
properties of the
ellipse, A is the
pericentre or
nearest point of
the orbit to the
centre of attrac-
tion and B the
apooentre or most
distant point. The
aemipQiaior axia,
CA or CB.b called
the mean distance,
and b represented
by the symbol a.
We put « for the
eccentricity of the
ellipse, represented
by the ratio
CF:CA. Pisthe
position of the
planet at any
time, and we call r the radius vector FP. The angle AFP between
the pericentre and the position P of the pUnet b the anomaly
called r By Kepler a second bw the radius vcaor> FP. r— ^rps
over equal arsas in equal times. To do thb tfa- aul-a: -nJed
in the orbit, and in a yet hifbcr degree the ^riEuEar ^CH^ed
around F. must be greatest at pericentre, and corjangilfy dtfrtir.ish
till the apocentre b reached. Let P, P be two coi>*vecutivc j.rHin{>ns
of the radius vector. Since the area of the trlini^le FPP* h one
half the product of FP into the perpendicular p from V on t P'.
it follows that if these perpendiculars were equal ol] round the
orbit, the areas described during the infinitesini i1 tiitK^ wrruM be
smallest at the pericentre and continually incrcaw during the
passage of the body to B. It follows that p must be greatest at
pericentre. where tu disunce from F b least. By geometrical
considerstaoo it can be shown that the angle subtended by p. as
seen from F must be inversely as the square of its distance r. We
therefore have the fundamental theorem that the angular velocity
of the body around the centre of attraction varies faiversely aa the
square of its distance, and b therefore at every point proportional
to the cavitation of the sun. Another curious theorem proposed
try Boutlbnd in 1625 as a substitute for Kepler's second bw b that
tne angubr motion of the body as measured around the empty focus
F* b (approximately) uniform. That b to an eye at F', the planet
would seem to oaove around the sky with a nearly uniform speed.
The true anomaly. AFP. b commonly determined through the
— anomaly conceived thus: Describe a circle of radius a>CA
around P. and let a fictirious pUnet start from K at the same
moment that the actual planet passes A, and let it move with a
" ' "^ ' " it shall complete its revolution in the
uniform speed such that
same time T as the actual planet.
From the bw of angular motion
of the latter its radius vector will run ahead of P6 near A, PQ will
overtake and pass it at apocentre. and the two wOl anin coindde
•t pericentre when the revolutbn b completed. The anomaly
AFO of Q at any moment b called the wuan amamoiy, and the angle
QFP by which the true anomaly exceeds it at that moment isthe
ovation oj ike caUra,
Two elements define the position of the plane passing through
the attrscting centre fai which the orbit Ues^ One of these b tbe
positmn of the line MN thnnigh the sun at F in which the plane
of the orbit cuts some fundamental pUne of reference, oonunonly
the ecliptic. Thb b called the lino of nodts, and its positfon is
specified by the angle which it makes with some fixed fine FX in
the fumlaniental pbne« At one of the nodes, say N, the body
peases from the south to the north side of the funoamental plane:
thb b caDed the ascending node. The other element b the incline-
tsoo of the plane of the orbit to the fundamental plane, called the
mkMmMsm simply. A fifth element b the poeitkm of the oeiionitre.
which may be cx p re ss t d by hs angular distance XFN from the
_i sixth b the position of the planet in the orbit
at a given moment, for which may be substituted the moment at
which it passed the pericentre. Another element b the tbne of
revolution of the body fai its orbit, called iu ptriod, instead of the
period it bcommoa in aationomical practice to use the mean aagnlar
speed, calk^ the SMM mttfon of the body. Thb b defined as the
speed of revolution of the fictitious body already described, revolv-
ing with a uniform angular motion and the same periodic time as
the ohuict. It follows that putting » for the mean motion and T
for the period of revolution we shall have in degrees nT*-36o*.
It b shown in the artkle AsTnoNOMY {Ctlesiiai Mockanks) that
the mean dbunce and mean raotkm or time of revohjtkM of a
planet are so rebted by Kepler's third bw that, when one of these
elements b given, the other can be found. Hence the number of
independent elements assigned to a planet or other body moving
around the sun b commonly six. But the same rebtion docs not
hpM of a satellite the mass of whose primary b not regarded aa an
absolutely known quantity, or of a binary star. In these cases
therefore the mean distance and mean motion are regarded aa
different dements, and the whole number of the latter is seven.
The propns by which the positkm of a planet at any time is
detemuned from lu elemcnu may now be conceived aa foUows:—
The epoch of passage through pericentre bdng given, let I be the
interval of time between this epoch and that for which the positioo
of the body b required. Representing by P thb poaitkm. it follows
that the area of that portkm of the elhpse contained between the
radii vectores FB and FP will bear the sanfie ratio to the whole arw
of the ellipse that I docs to T. the time of revolutwn. The probkm
of finding a radius vector satisfying this condition b one which can
be solved only by successive approximations, or tentatively. Its
dbcussion may be found in any work on theoretkal astronomy.
The solutioo may be worked out direct^ or tbromh the deters
mination of the ^uation of the centre which, being added to the
mean anomaly, gives the true anomaly. The angle from the perip
centre to the actual radhis vector, and the l«igth of the btter being
found, the anjpilar distance of the planet from the node in the pbne
of the orbit w found by adding to the true anomaly the distance
from the node to the pericentre. This, and the Stw-'ipstiffn of the
orbit beins given, we have all the geometrical data necessary to
compute tne coordinates of the pbnet itsdf. The coordinates thus
found will in the case of n body moving around the sun be iblie-
centric The reductmn to the earth's centre b a problem of pinv
geometry.
When a new celestial body, say a pbnet or a comet b d i sco v ered,
the astronomer meets with the problem of determining the orbit
from several observed positions of the body. To form a co ncep ti on
of thb problem it b to be noted that since the positian of the body
in space can be computed from the six elements of the orbit at aay
time we may ideally conceive the coordinates of the body to be
algebraically expressed as functkms of the six elements and of the
time. Since the distance of a body from the observer canimt be
observed directly, but only the right ascension nnd dedb '
celling thess a and I we conceive idttl eqnationa of the fonn
•-A«. *. c. «./. f • *nd »«^ (a, 6, c, «,/, g, 0.
the symbob a, fr, . . . f. representiog the six Hemmts and the
time. If the values of « and I, defining the position of the body on
the celestial sphere, are observed at three different times, we may
conceive six equations like the above, one for each of the three
observed values of ■ and I. Then by solvuig these equatioM^
regarding the six elements as unknown quantities, the values of the
btter may be computed. The actual process of sokitkm b vastly
more complex than b indicated by thb description of it. Instead
of the six ideal equations iust described we have to mmhint n
oomber of equations of venous forms containing other quantities
than the eleraenta. But the bgicsl framework of the praoew*b
that wbkh we have set forth.
The problem of determining an orbit may be c e gaid ed as coevnl
with Hipparchus, who. it b supposed, found the moving positioae
of the apogee and perigee of the moon's orbit. The problem of
determimog a heliocentrK orbit first presented itself to Kepler, who
actually determined that of Mars. The modern method of deter-
mining orbits from three or four observations was first d e r el o ptd
by C. F. Gauss m hb cebbrated work Tlasris MoHu Ctrponm
CoHestimm. Thb classical work b still a fsvonrite among etodents,
the improvements on iu methods msde since its p«Mir«^;#^ being
on the deteriniaation cf
rather in detaib than in general principles.
AUTUOKITIBS. — Amonr recent worics oe _ ,.
orbits. |. C. Watson's iVsrsKoaf ^ i i r snssi y b the most co mp lete
AUTUOKITIBS.— Amonr recent
jrbits. J. C. Watson's 2Vsrs «f«
in the bnglish languant. The moat complete esiatiag work, an
encydopacdb of the subject in fact, b T. von Oppolsera LtkrhuM
amr BakitbesHmmMmg itr Kometon und Plameteu (2 vols.), which
contains vduminous tables, formulae, and instructions for the
computation of orbits in the many epeciBl caam that arise. Mom
recent and better adapted to etody b Bauschinger'a B a k m h eiH mmtmg
dor Himmdskitrptr (1 voL. Ldpeig, 1906), whkb, alone of the three,
treau orbits of satellites and double stare. (S. N/)
OBGAOIA (c. 130&-C X3680f Italian painter, sculptor and
architect, whose full name was Amdua n Qonb, called
* The dates of Orcsgna's birth and death are not exactly known.
According to Vaaari. he died in 1189 at the age of sixty: but a docn-
ment dated 13760 '-■ ' — '""^ ■* "* ^ ^ ^ —
of Ormgna's wf
106). In that «
376prafvidangnardian forTesmand Roniola,daugl
I widow Fmnoascn (see Booaini. JUtm, imL pp.
It cam IJ76 vae perbape the year of hb death: •
i66
ORCAGNA
AscftCNUOLO,' WM fhe tOD of ft very able Floreatine goldiintUi,
Maestro Clone, said to have been one of the principal artists who
worked on the magnificent silver frontal of the high altar of San
Giovanni, the Florentine Baptistery. The result of Orcagna'searly
training in the use of the precious metals may be traced in the
eztreoM delicacy and refined detaO of his principal works in
sculpture. He had at least three brothers who all practised some
branch of the fine arts: Lionardo or Nardo, the eldest, a painter;
Matteo, a sculptor and mosaidst ; and Jacopo, also a painter. They
were frequently auociated with Orcagna in his varied labours.
From the time of Giotto to the end of the 14th century Orcagna
stands quite pre-eminent even among the many excellent artists
of that time. In sculpture he was a pupil of Andrea Ptsano,
in painting, though indirectly, he was a diadple of Giotto. Few
artists have practised with such success so many branches of the
arts. Orcagna was not only a painter and sculptor, but also a
worker in mosaic, an architect and a poet. His importance
in the history of Italian art rests not merely on his numerous
and beautiful productions, but also on his wideqoead influence,
transmitted to his successors through a large and carefully-trained
school of pupils. In style as a painter Orcagna oomea midway
between Giotto and Fra Angelioo: he combined the dramatic
force and realistic vigour of the earlier painter with the pure
brilliant colour and refined unearthly beauty of Fra Angelico,
His large fresco paintings are works of extreme decorative
beauty and splendour^-compoaed with careful rdference to their
architectural surroundings, arranged for the most part on one
plane, without the strong foreshortening or effects of perspective
with which the muial paintings of later masters are so often
marred.
I. Orcagita as a i'tnnler.— His chief works in fresco were
at Florence, in the church of S Maria Novella. He first covered
the walls of the retro-choir with scenes from the life of the Virgin.
These, unfortunately, were much injured by damp very aoon after
their completion, and towards the end of the following century
were repUoed by other frescoes of the same subjects by Ghir-
landaio, who, according to Vaaari, made much use of Orcagna*s
motives and invention. Orcagna also painted three walls of
the Stiofid chapel, at the north-east of the same church, with
a grand series of frescoes, which still exist, though in a much
injured and '* restored " state. On the northern end wall Is the
Last Judgment, painted above and round the window, the
light from whidi makes it difficult to see the picture. In the
centre is Chrut floating among clouds, surrounded by angeb;
below are kneeling figures of the Virgin and St John the Baptist,
with the twelve apostles. Lower still are patriarchs, prophets
and saints, with the resurrection of the blessed and the lost.
The finest composition Is that on the west wall, unbroken by any
window. It represents paradise, with Christ and the Virgin
enthroned in majesty among rows of brilliantly-coloured cherutdm
and seraphim tinged with rainbow-like rays of light. Below
are long lines of the heavenly hierarchy mingled with angel
musicians; and lower still a crowd of saints floating on douds.
Many of these figures are of exquisite beauty especially the.
lew that have escaped restoration. Faces of the most divine
tenderness and delicacy occur among the female saints; the
two central angeb below the throne are figures of wonderful
grace In pose and movement; and the whole inctuxt, lighted
by a soft luminous atmosphere, seems to glow with an unearthly
gjadness and peace. Opposite to this is the fresco attributed
by Vasari to Orcagna's brother Bernardo, or rather Nardo
{ij$. Lionardo); it was completdy repainted in 1530, so that
nothing but the design remains, full of horror and weird imagina-
tion. To some extent the painter has followed Dante's scheme
of successive drdcs.
These paintings uttt probably executed soon after 1350,
and In 1357 Orcigna painted one of his finest panel pictures,
as a feuUe for the altar of the same chapd, where it still remains.
VassH b right about hb age hb birth wouU have been in 1316.
Mibneri. the editor of Vcnari, b, however, inclined to think that
Oncania died in 1368, vdwn he b known to have been wriouily iU.
- ^ <X thbfboDt Mmetimesapeb Oroignttolo, Orcagna b acaoruptioa.
In the centre n Christ in ■ajeaty between kneding figvtes «f
St Peter and St Thomas Aquinas, attended by angel musiciaas;
on each side are standing figures of three other saints. It b a
work of the greatest beauty both in colour and composition;
it b painted with extreme miniature-lake delicacy, and b
on the whole very well preserved. Thb retaUe b signed,
*' Afi. dni. moodvii Andrns Cionb de Flonentia ne pinxit."
Another fine altar-piece on panel by Orcagna, dated t3<i^, b
preserved in the Cappella de' Medici, near the sacristy
Su Croce; It represents the four doctors of the Latin church.
According to Vaaari, Orcagna also painted some very fine
frescoes in Sta Crooe, simibr in subjects to thoae attributed to
him in the Campo Santo of Pisa, and full of fine pottrslts. These
do not now exist. In the cathedral of Florence, on one of the
northern piers, there hangs a nobly designed and highly finished
picture on pond by Orcagna, representing S Zanoblo enthroned,
trampling under hb feet Crudty and Pride; at the sides are
knceUog figures of SS Eugenlus and Crescentius^the whole
very rich In colour. The retable mentioned by Vasari as
having been painted for the Florentine church of S Pietro
Maggiore b now in the Nattonal Gallery of London. It b a
richly decorative composition of the Coronation of the Virgin,
between rows of saints, together with nine other subjects
painted in miniature. Other paintings on pand by Otcagna
were sent by the Pope to Avignon, but cannot now be traced.
The frescoes also have been destroyed with which, according
to Vasari, Orcagna decorated the facade of S ApoUinare and the
Cappella de' Cresd in the church of the Servi in Fbrence.*
3. Orcagna as a Sculptor atid Arckiteet^—ln 1355 Orcagna
was appointed architect to the chapel of Or San Michde in
Florence. Thb curiously-planned building, with a laxse upper
room over the vaulting of the lower part, has been begun by
Taddeo Gaddi as a thank-offering for the cessation of the plague
of X348. It took the place of an earlier oratory designed bj
Amolfo dd Cambio, and was the gift of the united trade-gilda
of Florence. As to the building itself, it b impossible to say
how much b due to Taddeo Gaddi and bow much to Oresgna,
but the great marble tabemade was wholly by Orcagna. Ttus,
in its combined splendour of architectural design, sculptured
reliefs and sutuettes, and mosaic enrichments, b one of the
most important and beautiful works of art which even rich
Italy possesses. It combines an altar, a shrine, a reredos aiMi a
baldacchino. In general form it b perhaps the purest and most
gracefully designed of all spodracns of Italian Gothic It b a
tall structure oi white marble, with vaulted canopy and xicbly
decorated gables and piimadcs, reaching almost to the vaulted
roof of the chapeL The detail b extremely delicate, and brilliant
gem-Uke colour b given by lavish enrichments of minute patterns
in gUas mosaic, inUid in the white marble of the stractnre. It
b put together with the greatest care and precision; Vasari
especially notes the fact that the whole was put together without
any cement, which might have stained the purity of the marble,
all the paru bdng dosdy fitted together with bronae dowels^
The spire-like summit of the tabernacle b surmounted by n
figure of St Michad, and at a lower stage on the roof are sutuettes
of'the apostles. The altar has a relief of Hope between panda
with the Marriage of the Virgin and the Aimunciat]o&. On
the right side, looking east, of the base of the tibemade are
reliefs of the Birth of the Virgin and her Presentation in the
Temple; on the Idt, the Nativity and the Adoration of the Magi;
and behind, the Presenta t ion of Christ in the Temple, mad the
* The magnificent but much injured frescoes of the Last Judgment.
Hell, and the Triumph of Death m the Pbaa Campo Saato, described
with great minutene« and enthusiaim by Vaaan. are attributed by
him to Orcagna, but internal evidence seems to show that th^ «re
productions of the Sieacseschod. Crowe and CavakaseUe attxibutc
them to the twobrochevB Locenaetti of Siena, but they have been so
injured, by wet, the settlement of the wa^l. and repeated mouduBcs
tiMit it b difficult to cooie to any dear dedaon as to their authorship.
It appears however, much more probabfe that they are the work of
Bernardo Daddi.
• Orcana was admitted as a member of the Sculpton* Gild in
I35a> Hb name occurs hi the noil as " Andreas Gonb vwcatw
Anagadim pktoF.'.'
ORCHARD-^QRCHARDSON
167
Aafd wuning the Viipo to escape ioto Sgypt. Above the lest
two subjects ere large reliefs of the Death of the Virgiii» Bur«
founded by the apostles, and higher still her AasniDptioD;
she stands in n vesica, and is borne by angels to heaven. On
the base of the Viigin's tomb is inscribed *' Andreas Cionis
pictor flocentinvs oiatorii acchimagister estitit hvjvs mccdii."
Oicagna's omi poitiait is given as one of the apoatla. In
addition to thoe richly-oomposed sobject-relicfs the vhole
work is adorned vith many other single figures and heads of
prophets, angeb, and the Virtues, sJl executed with wonderful
finish and sefinanent« The shrine, which forms an aumbry in
the reredos, oontains a miraculous picture of the Madonna. A
fine branse screen, with open ffeomctrical tracery, encloses the
whole. No work of sculpture In Italy is more magnificent
than this wonderful tabemade, both in general effect and in the
fielioate beauty of the reliefs and statuettes with which it is
so lavishly enriched. It cost the enonnous sum of 96^000 gold
ioiins. Unfortunately it is very badly placed and insufficiently
lighted, to that a minute esamination of itt beantica is a work
of difficulty.
No mention is made by Vaaaii of Qrcagna's residence in
Orvieto, where he occupied for some time the post of " capo-
maestro " to the duomo. He accepted this appointment on
the X4th of June 1358 at the brge salary (for that time) of 500
gold florins a >ear. His brother Matteo was engaged to work
under him, receiving 8 floxins a month. When Oraigna aooepted
thb appointment at Orvieto he had not yet finished his work
at Or San Michele, and so was obliged to make long visits to
Ftorence, whkh naturally Snterfeted with the satisfactory
performance of Us work for the Orvietans. The result was (hat
on the iJth of Septeinber 1360 Orcagna, having been paid
for his work up to that time, rasigned the post of " capo-maestro "
of the doomo, thou^ he still remained a little hmger in Orvieto
to finish a large mosaic picture on the west fnmt. When this
mosaic (made of glass tesserae from Venice) was finished in rjfii,
it was found to be uneven in surface, and not fixed securely into
its cement bed. An arbitratfen was therefore held as to the
price Orcagna was to receive for it, and he was awarded fio
goldflorina.
Vasari mentions as other architectural woiks by Orcagna
the design for the piers in the nave of the Florentine duomo,
a zecca or mint, which appears not to have been carried out,
and the Loggia dd Land in the Piassa deUa Signoria. It is,
however, more than doubtful whether Orcagna had any hand
in this last building, a very grscdol vaulted structure, with
throe semicircular open arches on the side and one at each end,
intended to form a sheltered meeting-place for the Priori during
elections and other poUic transactions. TMs log|^ was ordered
by the (jeneral Council of Florence in 1356, but was not actually
begun till the year 1376, after Orcagna's death. The architecU
wue Bend di Cione (possibly a brother of Orcagna) and Simone
di Francesco Takati, both men of eonsidenble reputation in
Florence. The sculptured rdiefs of the seven Virtues fai the
spandrels of the arches of the loggia, aho attributed to Orcagna
by Vasari, were hter stilL They were designed by Angelo
Gaddi (1383-1386), and were carried out by three or four different
sculptors.
PupSb of Orcagna named bv Vanrf are Bemardo Ndb. a PSfan.
Tommart di Maroo, a Fbrestue, sad. chM of all, Frsooeaco Tnini,
wboee gmnd minting on pand of St Thomas Aqoinns enthramd
with the arch-beretics at hts feet still haan in the church for which
ic was painted— Su Catcrins at Pisa. Orcagna hod. in addilioo
to the two danthtera mernkmcd above, a son named Cione. who
was a painter of but little eminence. Soom? tonncu attributed to
Orcagna exist in MS. in the Stroczi and Magfiabccduan libraries
in Florence. They have been published by Tnicchi (Pmim MMdtir,
it. p. 2S. Prato. 1846). They are graceful in language, but rather
artifinal and ovcr-daboratcd.
AuTiii»iTiss.-*yasarl. ed. Milaoed. L p. 993 (Flerenoe. 1878);
CwrmtU 4ttf* Anjim T^uam. m. p. 182, Ac; Paaserini. CwntnA
itonco-^rtistuhex Caye. CarUuw uudih, i. pp. 500-513. ii> P^ S:
Roftini. 5tona deOa fnUura, voMi. ; Baldinuccl Proftu^ri del diuew.
I. l; Rumohr. Rterreke Jtaliane. ii., and Aniologia di ftmisr, lU.:
»we and Cavakaslle. FmnUmtim iialy, »• pv 4*5 (London. 1864):
rfaos» nwM Stwlpiati, p. 77 Oawbn. igbg). Q.tLU4
Cft>we
Beridnst
ORCHARD (a £&g. trt-iMrd, later arcaord; a oombination
apparently of Lat. k^iust garden, and " yard " or " garth "), a
piece of ground enclosed for the puiposes of hortioUtiu*. The
term waa formerly ased in a general way for A gacdsa when
herbs and fruit-treea wen cultivated, but is now used mlusively
for a piece of cndosfid giottad for fruit-trees oniy, and pafticttlar^
lor apples, peats, plums and cherries.
ORCHAROflON. SIR WILLIAM QUIUJBR (183^1010),
British painter, was bom b Edinburgh, when his ibihcr was
engaged in business, in 1835. ** Orchardaon " is n variation
of '* Urquhartson," the name of a Highland sept settled on Loch
Ness, from whidi the painter is descended. At the age of fifteen
he was sent to the Triistees' Academy, then under the TfUfrrfttp
of Robert Scott Lauder, where he had aa f ellow-studcnU most
of those who afterwarda shed lustre on the Scottish school of tht
second half of the X9th century. Aa a student he was not cspeci*
ally precocious or industrious, but his work was *<i«iingtuiyni
by a peculiar reserve, by an unusual determination that his
land should be subdued to his eye, with the lesuU that his eariy
things reach their own ideal as surely aa those oi his maturity.
By the time he was twenty, Orchardaon hsd mastered tha
essentiala of his art, and had produced at least one piaure whkA
might he accepted as representative, a portrait of Mr John
Hutchison, the aculptor. For seven years after this ho worked
in Edinburgh, some of his a ttention being given to " black and
white,*' his practice in which had been partly acquired at a sketch
dub, iHiich included among iu nwmbera Mr Hugh Cameron,
Mr Peter Graham, Mr George Hay, Mr M'Taggut, Mr John
Hu t chiso n and othen. In i86s he came to London, and estaU
lished himself in 37 Fitarqy Square, where he was joined twelva
months later by hia friend John PMtie. The aanie hooae was
afterwards inhabited by Ford Madoi Brown.
The English public was not immediately attmcted by Okchard-
son*a work. It waa too quiet to compel attention at the Royal
Academy, and Pettie, Oichardson's junior by Ufat years, stepped
before him for n tfane, and became the most reufily affffptfd
member of the school Orchaidson confined himaeif to the
simplest themes and designs, to the most reticent achemea of
ookuf. Among his best pkiures during the first 4
after hia migiation to London were ** The
"Christopher Sly," '^ Queen of tha Swords," ''
Neotnlity," ''Hard Hit "-^perhapa the best of aS-nnd
protraitsof Mr Charles Monm, hbfather^n-bw, and of his own
wife. In all these good judgment and a refined imaglnarion
were united to a restrained but ormsBmrnito technical dcatewty.
During thpse same years he made n few diawiags on wood,
taming to account his early facility In thb mode. Hia period
between 1863 and 1880 was oneof quiet ambitions, of n chancteiw
istic imameitmu, of life accepted aa a thing of Bsany^balanoed
interesu rather than as a matter of Hmtm md drmtg. In 186$
Pettie married, and the Fitaroy Square aOiiaie was bveken up.
In 1868 Orchardaon was elected A.R.A. In 1870 he spent the
suamer b Vtnke, tinselling home in the eariy nntnmn through
a France overran by the German armies. In 1873 he manied
Mlsa Helen Monn, and in 1877 he was elected to the fol member*
ship of the Royal Academy. In this same year he finkhod
building a house af Westgate^n-Sea, whh an open tenni»<ourt
and a studio fai the garden. He was knighted hi June 1907,
and died hi London on the X3th of April r9ioi.
Orchardaon's wider popularity dates from 1881. To that
year's Aeademy he sent the Urge " On Board the Bdknpkm,**
which now hangs fa» the Tate Gallery. lu sucoem with the public
waa great and faistantaneous, and for ten or twelve years Orchard-
aoo'a work waa more eagerly looked for at the Academy than
that of any one efae. He foUowcd up the *' BeOerophon ** with
the stiU finer ** Vohafa*,** now fai the Kuiwthalle at Hambaig.
Technically, the " Voltaire " is, perfaapa, his high>watcr nurk.
Roe both In design and ooloor, it is carried out with a supple
dexterity of hand which has smrcely been equalled in the
British school since the death of Gainsborough. The subject
is not entirely happy, for it docs not explain itself, but requires
n peeviovs luMwledge on the part of the spectator of how Voltaire
i68
ORCHESTRA
«u beaten by the MrvanU of the Chevalier de Rohaa-Cabot,
and bow the due de Sully failed to avenge hb guest. Thepainter
was atttacted by the opportunity it gave for effective opposition
of chaiactcr, line, colour and movement. The "Voltaire"
was at the Academy of 1883; it was followed, in 1884, by the
" Mariags de convenance," perhapa the most popular of ail
Orchaidson's pictures; in 1885, by "The Sakm of Madame
lUcamier "; in x886, by " After," the sequd to the '* Kariage de
convenance," and " A Tender Chord," one of his most exquisite
productions; in 1887, by "The First Oood"; in x888, by
" Her Mother's Voice "; and in X689, by '* The Young Duke,"
a canvas on which he returned to much the same pictorial
scheme as that of the " Voltaire." Subsequently he exhibited
a series of pictures In which fine pictorial use was made of the
furniture and oostumca of the early yean of the 19th century,
the sttbiects, as a rule, being only just enough to suggest a title:
" An Enigma," " A Social Eddy," " ReflectSons," " If music be
the food of love, play onl" " Music, when sweet voices die,
vibrates on the memory," " Her Fiist, Dance,"— in these, oppor-
tunities are made to introduce old harpsichords, spinets, early
pianofortes. Empire chairs, sofas and tables, Aubusson carpets,
short'Waisted gowns, delicate in material and primitive in
ornament. Between such things and Orchardson's methods
as a painter the sympathy is dose, so that the best among them,
** A Tender Chord," for instance, or " Music, when sweet voices
die," have a rare distinction.
As a poxtrait-pamier Orcfaardaon must be placed in the first
dau. His portnita are not numerous, but among them are
a few which rise to the highest level reached by modem art.
"Master Baby," a picture, connecting snbject-painting with
portraiture, is a masterpiece of design, colour and bioad execution.
"Mrs Joseph," "Mrs Ralli," " Sir Andxew Walker, Bart.,"
"Charles Moaoix, Esq.," "Mrs Orchardson," "Conditional
NeuUality " (a portrait of Oxchardson's eldest son as a boy of
six), "Loid Rookwood," "The Pxovost of Aberdeen," and,
above all, " Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart.," would all deserve a place
in any fist of the beat portrtita of the X9th century. In this
branch of art the "Sir Walter. GObey " may fairly be called
the psxater's masterpiece, althougfi the sumptuous full-length
Of the Scottish provost, in his robo, runs it closely. The schraie
of. colour is reticent; had the picture been exhibited at the time
of the Boer War of 1900 the colour would have Seen called khaki;
the design is simple, uniting nature to art with a rare felidty;
and the likeneas haa been found satisfactoxy by the sitter's
fxieadSk The most important commission ever xeceived by
Orchardson aa a portrait-painter was that for a group of Queen
Victoria, with her aon (afterwards King Edward VII.), grandson,
and great-grandson, to be painted on one canvas for the Royal
Agricultural Sodety. The painter hit upon a happy notion for
the bxinging of the four figures together, and as time goes on and
the picture slowly turxis into history, its merit is likdy to be
better appreciated. He continued painting to the end of his
life, and had three portraits ready for the Royal Academy
in xgxa
OrcbardBon's method was that of one who worked uiKler a
cicative, decorative and subjective impulse, rather than under
one derived from a woh to observe and xecord. His affiliation
Is with Watteau and Gainsborough, rather than with those who
would base all pictorial art on a keen eye for actuality and
"value." Among French painters his pictures have cxdted
part icular admixation. ( W. As.)
ORCHBSnU (Fr. OrtkeOnx Ger. Kafdk, Orcketkr; ItaL
Orckain), in its modem acceptation (1) the place in a theatre
or concert hall set apart for the musicians; (a) a carefully-
balanced group of performers on stringed, wind and percussion
iostraments adapted for playing in concert and directed by a
conductor. In andent Greece the Apx4«tpa was the space between
the auditorium and the proscenium or stage, in which were
sutioaed the chorus and the instrumentalisU. The second
sense is that which is dealt with here.
A modem orchestra is composed of (1) a basis of strings-— first
and second vioUns. violas, violonceUoa and double basses;
(3) flutes, aoraetimca induding a plooolo; (3) the I
consisting of two complete familiea, the olwes with their tcnoa
and basses (the cor Anghus, the fsgotto or bassoon and the
cootrsfagotto or double bassoon), the daxxnets with their
tenor and basses (thebaaset horn and the base and pedal dafffaffs)
with the additfon aometimea of aaaophonea; (4) the brass wind,
consisting of the boras, a group aomethaaa oomplsted by the
tenor and tenor4>ass Wagner tubaa, the tranpet or comeC,
the trombones (tenor, baaa and contrabass), the tabes (tcoor,
base and contrabass)^ (5) the percussion instnimenta, fadadiag
the kettledruma, bdls. Glockenspiel, cymbab, triangle, ftc
Harps are added when required for special dEecta.
Although most of the instruments from the oUer dvflizations
of Egypt, Chaldea, Persia, Phoenicia and of the Senu'tic taces
were knoiwn to the ancient Greeks, their conceptioB of masic
led them to discouiage aH imitation of their ndghbousa* love
of orchestral effects, obtained by combining harps, Isrrta, guliaia,
tanburs, double pipes and long flutes, txumpets, bagpipes,
cymbsls, drums, &C., playing in unison or In octaves. The
Greeks only cultivated to any extent the various kinds of
dtharas, lyres and auloi, sddom used in conoert. To the pre-
dilection of the Ronuns for wind instrumenu of all kiadK
we owe nearly all the wind instruments of the modem oichesua,
each of which had Its prototype among the instxumenta of the
Roman Empire: the flute, oboe and darinet. In the tifaias
the trombone and trumpet in the bucdna; the tubas in the
tuba; and the French horn in comu and bucdna. The 4th
centuxy aj>. witnessed the downfall of the Roman drama and
the debasement of instrameiUal musk, which was placed
under a ban by the Church. During the oonvdsbna which the
migrations of Goths, Vandals and Huns caused In Euxope after
the fall of Rome, Instrumental music was preserved from abaoluie
extinakm by wandering actors and musictans turned adrifi
after the closing of the theatres by command of the Cburdk.
Later, as demand arose, reinforcemenu of instruments, instm-
meotalists and instrument makers filtered through the Bysantinc
Empire and the Christian East generally on the one side and
from the Moon on the West. It is towards the dawn of the
xith century that we find the first definite indicatkms of the
sutus of instmmental music in Western and Central Europe
Everywhere are the evidences, so conspicuously absent froa
the catacombs and from Romano-Christian monuments, of the
growing favour in which instmmental music was held, to m*"**-*^
only such sculptures as those of the Abbey of BoscherviUe ia
Normandy, of the portico of the Cathedral of Santiago da
Compostella (xath century) with its orchestra of 24 musiclaa^
and the full-page illuminations of Psalters representing David
and his musicians and of the 94 ekiers in the Apocaljrpses.
The earliest instmmental compositions extant are certain
1 5th-century dances and pieces in contrapuntal style preserved
in the libraries of Berlin and Munich. The late devefopmcnt
of notation* which long remained exdusivdy in the hands of
monks and traubadours, personally more concerned with vocal
than with instmmental music, ensured the iMtsenration of the
former, while the latter was left unrecorded. Instrumental
music was for centuries dependent cm outcasts and outlaws,
tolerated by Church and State but beyond the pale. little
was known of the constmction and technique of the Instruments,
and their possibilities were undreamed. Nevertheless, the ixmale
love and yearning of the people for tone-colour asserted itself
with suffident strength to overcome all obstacles. It is true
that the devdopmcnt of the early forms of harmony, the ^gatnm,
diaphonyt the discatU and the richer forms of polyplMmy grew
up roimd the voice, but indicatfons are ix>t wanting of an
independent energy and vitality which must surdy have existed
in unrecorded medieval in&tmmentd music, since they can be
so clearly traced in the instraments themselves. It is, for
example, significant of the attitude of xoth-centuty Instrw-
mentaltsts towards musical progress that they at once assimi-
lated Hucbald's innovation of the orgamtm, a parallel successkai
of fourths and fifths, accompanied sometimes by the octave,
for two or three voices respectively, and they pvodAcd in the
ORCHESTRA
169
ODBe century the of%anisirum, aatned after Hucbald's orfttmiM,
and spedaUy coi»tnicted to feproduce it«
Shortly after the introduction of polyphony, instrumenta auch
aa fl&tea>irbec, or flaiolay oometa, cromom^ afaawna, hunting
boma, bagpipca, aa well aa lutea and bowed inatnunenta began
to be made in siaea approximate^ correaponding in pitch with
the voice parta. It is probably to the aame yearning of instru-
mentalists after a polyphonic ensemble, possible until the 14th
century only on organs, hurdy-gurdlea and bagpipca, that we
owe the clavichord and clavicembalo, embodying the application
of keys, respectively, to the dulcimer and the psaltery.
There ate two reasons which account for the development
of the brass wind proceeding more slowly, (x) These instru-
ments, trumpets or busincs, tubas and horns, were for many
centuries mainly used in medieval Europe as military or himt-
Ing signal instruments, and as such the utmost required of
them was a fanfare. Specimens of X4th-century tablature and
16th-century notation for the horn, for instance, ahow that
for that instrument riiythm alone was taken into account.
(3) Whereas in most of the instrumenta named above the
notes of the diatonic scale were either fixed or easfly obtained,
the acoustic principles of tubes without lateral holes and blown
by means of a cup mouthpiece do not allow of a diatonic scale,
except for the fourth octave from the fundamental, and that
only in trumpets and horns, the notes of the common chord with
the addition of the flattened seventh being the utmost that can
be produced without the help of valves, keys or slides. These
instrumenta were, therefore, the last to be added to the orchestra,
although they were extensively used for special military, civil
and religious functions and were the most highly favoured of all.
The earUcst improvement in the status of the roving instru-
mentalists came with the rise of minstrelsy. The courts of the
counts of Tonlouse, Provence and Barcelona were the fixst to
foster the art of improvising or composing songs known as trobar
(or trmner in the north of France), and Cbunt Guillaume of
Poitiers (1087*1127) is saki to have been the first troubadour.
The noble troubadour aeldom sang the songs he composed him>
self, this duty devolving upon his professional minstrel skilled in
singing and in playing upon divers instrumenta who interpreted
and disseminated bis master's verses. In this respect the trouba-
dour differed from hia German contemponuy the Minnesinger,
who frequently sang himselt The professional musicians were
included under the general term ot JongjUurs or Jugteon, gUimen
or wUiuirds, whose function was to entertain and amuse, but there
were among them many subtle disUnctions and ranks, such as
ckatttcors and estrumantcon. Love waa the prtvailing theme in
the south, while in the north war and heroic deeds inspired the
bards. To the foimer waa due the rapid deveh>pment of bowed
instruments, which by reason of their singing quality were more
suitable for accompanying passionate love songs, while instru-
ments of which the strings were plucked accorded better with the
declamatory and dramatic style of the north.
The first assertive move towards independence waa made
by the wandering musicians in the x^th century, when some of
these, tired of a roving life, settled down in dties, forming s^ds
or brotherhoods for the protection of their mutual interesta and
privileges. In time they came to be recognised by the burgo-
masters and municipalities, by whom they were engaged to pro-
vide music at an dvic and private festivities, wandering musicians
being prohibited from phiying within the precincta of the dties.
The oMest of these gilds waa the Brotherhood of Nicobi founded
in Vienna In 1288. In the next century these pioneers chose as
patron of tlieir brotherhood Peter von Ebcntofff, from 1354
to 1376 known as Vogt der MMsikotUeUt who obtained for the
membera an imperial charter. This example was gimdually
foOowed in other paita of Germany and tlaewhefe in Europe.
In Ei^land, John of Gaunt was in 1381 chosen King of the
Minstoeb. In France there was the Confr£rie of St Julicn des
Meneatriert, faicorporated m X32t. Exalted potrona of instru-
mental music multiplied in the 1 sth century, to insUnce only the
dokca of Burgundy, llie emperors of the House of Austria, the
dukes of JLonaiae, of Este, Fennxa and Turauiy, the dectora
of Saxony and the kings of France with thdr renowned Institu-
tions La CkapelU-Musique du Hat (e. 1440), la Musique dc la
Ckambre, la Musiqttedcla Grande EcuHeduRoL
At the time of the revival of the drama with music, afterwards
modified and known aa opera, at the end of the 16th century,
there was as yet no orchestra In our sense of the word, but merdy
an abundance of inatrumenta used in concert for special cflecta,
without balance or grouping; amall poutive oigana, icgals,
harpsichorda, lutea, theorboea, archlutes and cfaittarone (bssa
and oontrabaaa lutes), guitars, viols, lyxas da brauio and da
gamba, psalteries, dttems, harps, flutes, reoordco, coznetSy
trumpets and trombones, drums and cymbals.
Monteverde waa the first to see that a preponderance of strings
is necessary to ensure a proper balance of tone. With the peiw
fected models of the Cremona violins at his disposal, a quartett
of strings was established, and all other stringed instruments
not played with the bow were ejected from the orchestra with the
exception of the harp. Under the influence of Monteverde and
his successors, Cavalll and Cesti, the orchestra won for itaelf a
separate existence with music and laws of ita own. As instru-
ments were Improved, new ones introduced, and old onet
abandoned, instnmientation became a new and favourite study
in Italy and in (2ennany. Musidana began to find out the
capabiiQties of variooa families of instruments and their individual
value.
The proper understanding of the compass and capabilities of
wind instruments, and more especially of the brass wind, was of
later date (i8th century). At first the scores contained but few
indications for instruments other than strings; the others played
as much as they could according to the compass of their instru*.
ments at the direction of the leader. The possibility of uairg
instruments for aolos, by encouraging virtuosi to acquire great
skill, raised the standard of excellence of the whole orchcatra.
At first the orchestra, waa an aristocratic luxury, performing
privatdy at the courts of the princes and nobles of Italy; but
in the Z7th century performancea were given in theatres, and
Germany eagerly foltowed. Dreaden, Munich and Hambuff
sacccssivdy built opera houses, while in Englaiui opera flourished
under Purccll, and in France under LuUy, who with the ooUabol^
tion ol Moliire also greatly raised the status of the entertainment*
known aa hatleit, interspersed with instrumental and vocal music.
The revival of the drama seems to have exhausted the enthusi-
asm of Italy for instrumental music, and the fidd of action waa
shifted to Germany, where the perfecting of the orchestra waa
continued. Most Gemmn princes had at the beginning of the
tSth century good private orchestras or Kap^, and they
always endeavoured to scctire the services of the best available
instrumentalists. Kaiser, Tdemarm, Graun, Mattheaoo and
Haxidd contributed greatly to the development of German
opera and of the orchatra in Hamburg during the first quarter
of the century. Bach, Gluck and Mozart, the reformers of
opera; Haydn, the father of the modern orchestra and the
first to treat it independently as a power opposed to the aok>
and chorus, by scoring for the instrumenta In well-defined
groups; Beethoven, who individualized the instrumenta,
writing sok> passages for them; Weber, who brought the horn
and chuinet into prominence; Schubert, who inaugurated the
conversatk^ns between members of the wood wind— all Idt' their
ouirk on the onhestia, leading the way up to Wagner and
Strauss.
A skach of the rise of the modem orchestra would sot be
complete without rderence to the inventfon of the pfeton or
vahre by St«lsd and BlOmd, both Silesiana, In 18x5. A satis-
factory bass for tlie wind, and more especially for the braas, had
long been a deaideratam. The effect of this invention was fdt
at onoe: Instrumcnt-nakeis in all ooimtries vied with each other
in making use of the oontrivanoe and in bringing It to perfection;
and the orchestra was before long enriched by a new family of
valved instruments, variously known as tubas, or ei4>honiiims
and bombardons, having a chromatic scale and a full sooonNia
tone of great beauty and immense volume, fonning a magnificent
bai4. (K.SJ
170
ORCHESTRION— ORCHIDS
OaCBBSTRION. a name apjpUed to tbite different kinds of
lastnuncnts. (t) A chamber organ, designed by Abt Vogler
at the end of the x8th century, which in a space of 9 cub. ft.
contained no leas than 900 pipes, 3 manuals of 63 keys each and
39 pedals (see Hakkonium). (1) A pianoforte with organ pipes
attached, invented by Thomas Anton Kuna of Prague in 1791.
This orchestrion comprised two manuals of 65 keys and 25
pedabi all of which could be used either independently or coupled.
There were 21 stops, 330 strings and 360 pipes which produced
105 different combinations. The bellows were worked either by
hand or by machinery. (3) A mechanical instrument, auto-
matically played by means of revolving cylindeis, invented In
1851 by F. T. Kaufmann of Dresden. It comprises a complete
wind orchestra, with the addition of kettle-dnuns, side-drums,
cymbals and triangle. (K. S.)
•ORCHHA, or UacRSA (also called Tekri or Tikamgarh), a
native sute of Central India, in the Bondelkhand agency.
Orchha is the oldest and highest in rank of all the Bundela
principalities, and was the only one not held in subjection by
the peshwa. Area, aoSosq. m.; pop. (1901) 331,634; estimated
revenue, £47,000; no tribute. The maharaja. Sir Pratap Singh,
G.S.C.I. (born in 1854, succeeded in 1874), took a great personal
interest in the development of his state, and himself designed
most of the engineering and irrigation works that have been
executed here within recent years. He bears the hereditary
title of " First of the Princes of Bundelkhand." Thestate exports
grain, ghi, and cotton cloth, but trade suffers from imperfect
commuiucations. The town of Orchha, the former capital, is on
the river Betwa, not far from JhansL It possesses an imposing
fort, dating mainly from the early 17th century. This contains
a number of palaces and other buildings connected one with
another. The most noteworthy are the Rajmandir, a massive
square erection of which the exterior is almost absolutely plain;
and the Jahangirmahal, of the same form but far more ornate,
a singularly beautiful specimen of Hindu domestic architecture.
Elsewhere about the town are fine, temples and tombs, among
which may be noticed the Chaturbhu j temple on its vast platform
of stone. The town of Tehri or Tikamgarfa, where the chief now
re^des, is about 40 m. S. of Orchha; pop. (1901) X4,o5a It
contains the fort of Tikamgarh, by which zumie the town is
generally called, to distinguish it from Tehri in the Himalayas.
' ORCHIDS. The word Orchis h used in a special sense to denote
a partiailar genus of the Orchid family {Orchidauae); very
frequently, also, it is employed in a more general way to indicate
any member of that large and very interesting group. It will be
convenient here to use the word Orchis as applying to that
particular genus which gives its name to the order or family, and
to employ the term ** orchid " in the less precise sense.
The flowers of all orchids, though extremely diverse within
certain limits, and although superficially very different from those
of other monocotyledons, are
all formed upon one common
plan, which is only a modifica-
tion of that observable in such
flowers as those of the narcissus
or snowdrop (Gatanthus) . The
conformation of those flowers
consbts essentially in the pres-
ence of a six-parted perianth,
the three outer segmenu of
which correspond to a calyx,
the thitee inner ones to
Fio. I.
A. Flotal ifiagrsm of typical
OfcMd flowtr; /, Ubdlum; a, . __
B. EKagramoftheiymmetrical
^ _^ .„^« apparently from the top of the
trimciTOM**fl(mcro?''Fritiil^^ ovary— the real explanation,
(FritiUanQ). however, being that the end
of the flower-stalk or "thala-
mus," tB (t grows,' becomes <filated into a sort of cup or
tube endoBing and mdeed closely adhering to the ovary, so
that the latter organ appears to be beneath the perianth instead
of above it as fai a lily, an appearance which has given origin to
the tern " inferior ovary." Within the perianth, and springing
from its sides, or apparently from the top -of the ovary, aie
six stamens whose anthers contain pulverulent p<^n-graink
These stamens encircle a style which is the upward contintiation
of the ovary, and which shows at iu free end traces of the three
originally separate but now blended carpels of which the ovary
consists. Aa orchid flower has an inferior ovary like that just
Fic. 3.— Diagram of the flower
of Orchis.
s, d, aftThe three divisiooa of
the outer perianth.
pl, pit The two lateral divisions
of the inner perianth.
fiSf The superior divition or
the labellum, which may
become inferior by the
twisting of the ovary.
e. The fertile stamen, with
its two pollen-masses in
the anther-lobea.
c. The one<elIcd ovary cut
transversely, having three
parietal placentas.
Fia 3.— Flower of Ordkis.
it s, «, The thrae outer
divisions of the
* perianth.
^,^,;, llie three inner,
- / being the labd-
lum. here inferior
by the twiscing
of the ovary.
'«, Spur o( the labd-
lura.
0, The twisted ovary.
si. The stigma.
a. The anther. 000-
tainiog pollen-
described, but with the ovules on the walls of the cavity ( not in its
axis or centre), a six-parted perianth, a stamen or sumens and
stigmas. The main distinguishing features consist in the fact
that one of the inner pieces of the perianth becomes in course of
its growth much larger than the rest, and usually different in
colour, texture and form. So different is it that it receives a dis-
tinct name, that of the " lip " or " labellum." In pbuceot the
six stamens we commonly find but one (two in Cypriptdium), and
that one is raised together with the stigmatic surfaces on an
elongation of the floral axis known as the "column." Moreover,
the pollen, instead of consisting of separate cells or grains*
consists of cells aggregated into "pollen^asses," the number
varying in different genera, but very generally two, four, or eight,
and in many of the genera provided at
the base with a strap-shaped stalk or
"caudide " ending in a flattish gland or
** viscid disk" like a boy's sucker.
In Cypripedium all three stigmas arc
functional, but in the great majority of
orchids only the lateral pair form recep-
tive surfaces {st, fig. 3), the third being
sterile and forming the rostellum which
plays an important part in the process
of pollination, often forming a peculiar
pouch-like process (fig. 4, r) in which
the viscid disk of the pollen-masses b
concealed till released in the manner
presently to be mentioned. It would
appear, then, that the orchid flower
differs from the more general mono-
cotyledoaous type in the irregularity of
the perianth, in the suppression of five '» Rostellum
out of six stamens, and in the union of stigma;,
the one stamen and the stigmas. In additwn to these modifica-
tions, which are common to nearly all orchids, there are otbets
generally but not so universally met with; among them is tha
displacement of the flower arising from the twisting of the inferior
ovary, in consequence of which the flower is so completely tinned
round that the " lip," which originates in that part of the fbwcr,
conventionally caUcd the posterior or superior part, oc that
Fia 4. — ^Diagram i]Iu»-
tratiap arrangement of
parts in flower of Orchis,
Sepals.
p. Petals.
a, Anther.
St, Two united stigmasL
~ (bama
ORCHIDS
171
Dearest to the supporting stem, becomes m conrs^ of growth
turned to the anterior or lower part of the flower nearest to the
bract, from whose axil it arises. Other common modifications
arise from the union of certain parts of the
perianth to each other, and from the varied
and often very remarkable outgrowths from
the lip. These modifications are associated
with the structure and habits of insects and
their visits to the (lowers.
Cross fertilization, or the impregnation of
any given flower by pollen from another
flower of the same spedes on the same or on
another plant, has been proved to be of great
Advantage to the plant by securing a more
Fio.
• ^Pollen, '^^"^c'^^s or * ^^^ robust offspring, or one
oTanOrchkC ^^^^^ '^^^^ ^° adapt itself to the varying
with their caudtclca conditions under which it has to live. This
c and common cross fertilization is often effected by the
***"" '• agency of insects. They are attracted to the
flower by its colour or its perfume; they seek, collect or feed on its
honey, uid while so doing they remove the pollen from the anther
and conv^ it to another flower, there to germinate on the stigma
when it^ tubes travel down the style to the ovary where their
contents ultimately fuse with the " oosphere " or immature egg,
which becomes in consequence fertilized, and forms a seed whidi
afterwards develops into a new plant (see article Angiosperms).
To facilitate the operations of such insects, by compelling them
to move in certain lanes so as to seciure the due removal of the
pollen and its subsequent deposit on the right place, the form of
the flower and the conformation of its several parts are modified in
ways as varied as they are wonderful Other insects visit the
flower with more questionable resulL For them the pollen is
an attraction as food, or some other part of the flower offers an
inducement to them for a like object. Such visitors are dearly
prejudicial to the flower, and so we meet with arrangements
which are calculated to repel the intruders, or at least to force
them to enter the ilower in such a way as not to effect mischief.
See Darwin's PeriUisation of Orchids and similar works.
In the common orchids of British meadows. Orchis Uono^
masctda (Shakespeare's long purples), &c., the general structure
of the flower is as we have described it (figs, a, 3). In addition
there is in this particular genus, as indeed in many others, a long
tubular spur or horn projecting downwards from the back of the
hp, whose office it is to secrete and store a honeyed juice; the
forepart of the lip forms an expanded plate, usuaiUy larger and
more brightly coloured than the other parts of the flower, and
with hairs or ridges and spots of various kinds according to the
species. The remaining parts of the perianth are very much
smaller, and commonly are so arranged as to form a hood over-
arching the " column. " This column stands up from the base
of the flower, almost at right angles to the lip, and it bears at the
top an anther, in the two boUow lobesof which are concealed the
two pollen-masses, each with its caudide terminating below in a
roundish gland, concealed at first in the pouch-like rostellum at
the front of the column. Below the anther the surface of the
column in front is hollowed out into a greenish depression
covered with visdd fluid— this is the two united stigmas. The
other parts of the flower need not detain us. Such being in
general terms the mechanism of the flower of a common orchis,
let us now see how it acts. A. bee, we will assume, attracted by the
colour and perfume of the flower, alights on that part of it which
is the first to attract its attention-^the lip. There, guided by the
hairs or ridges before-mentioned, it is led to the orifice of the
spur with its store of honeyed juice. The position of this orifice,
as we have seen, is at the base of the lip and of the column, so
that the insect, if of suffident size, while bending its head to
insert the proboscis into the spur, almost of necessity displaces
the pollen-masses. Liberated from the anthers, these adhere to
the head or back of the insect by means of the sticky gland at
the bottom of the caudide (fig. 4)- Having attained its object
the insect withdraws, taking the pollen- masses, and visits
aaother flower. And now occurs another device or adaptation no
less marvdlous than those of whidi mention has been made.
The two anther-cases in an orchis are erect and nearly parallel
the one to the other; the poUen-masses within them are of course
in like case, as may be thus represented 1 1, but immediatdy
the pollen-masses are removed movements take place at the
base of the caudide so as to effect the bending of this stalk and
the placing the poUen-mass in a more or less horizontal
position, thus =, or, as in the case of O. ^cwUdaliSt the two
poUen-masses originally placed paralld II diverge from the base
like the letter V. The movements of the poUen-masses nuiy
readily be seen with the naked eye by thrusting the point of a
needle into the base of the anther, when the disks adhere to the
needle as they would do to the antenna of an insect, and may be
withdrawn. Sometimes the lip is mobile and even sensitive to
impressions, as are also certain processes of the column. In such
cases the contact of an insect or other body with those processes
is suffident to liberate the pollen often with elastic force, even
when the anther itself is not touched. In other orchids move-
ments take place in different ways and in other directions. The
object of these movements will be appreciated when it is re-
membered that, if the poUen-masses retained the original
direction they had in the anther in which they were formed, they
would, when transported by the insect to another flower, merdy
come in contact with the anther of that flower, where of course
they would be of no use; but, owing to the divergences and
flexions above alluded to, the pollen-masses come to be so placed
that, when transplanted to another ik>wer of the same species,
they come in contact with the stigma and so effect the fertiliza^
tion of that flower. These illustrations are comparatively
simple; it would have been easy to select others of a more com-
plicated nature, but all evidently connected with the visits of
insects and the cross fertilization of the flower. In some
cases, as in Catasetum, male flowers are produced so different
from the female that before the different flowers had been
found on the same pike, and before the facts of the case were
fully known, they were taken to be representatives of distinct
genera.
The fruit is a capsule splitting generally by three longitudinal
slits forming valves which remain united above and below. The
seeds are minute and innumerable; they contain a small rudi-
mcnUry embryo surrounded by a thin loose membraneous coat,
and are scattered by means of hygroscopic hairs on the inside
of the valves which by their movements jerk out the seeds. The
floral structure is so curious that perhaps less attention has
been paid to the vegetative organs than the peculiarities of
their organisation demand. >ye can only allude to some of
these points. The orchids of British fields '
are all of terrestrial habit, and their roots
are mostly tuberous (fig. 6), the tubers
being partly radical partly budlike in their
character. There is often a marked alter-
nation in the production of vegetative and
flowering shoots respectively; and. some-
times, from various circumstances, the
flowering shoots are not produced for
several years in succession. This fact will
account for the profusion with which some
orchids, like the common bee orchis for
instance, are found in some seasons and
their scarcity in others. Tropical orchids {
are mostly epiphytal — that is, they grow
upon trees without deriving nourishment
from them. They are frequently provided
with " pseudo-bulbs. " large solid sweUings cular root, ol Ore *t{
of the stem. In the tissues of which water oiSSd!'^^"^^
auid nutritive materials are stored. They
derive this moisture from the air by means of aerial roots,
devdoped from the stem and bearing an outer spongy structure,
or vclamtn, consisting of empty cells kept open by spiral thicken-
ings in the wall; this sponge-like tissue absorbs dew and raia
and condenses the moisture of the air and passes it 00 10 the
internal tissues.
Tubei^
17a
ORCHOMENUS
Tbe number of apcdes o( orchids k greater than that of any
other inonocotyledoiioiis order— not even excepting grasses-
amounting to 6000, contained in 400 genera. This large number
is partly accounted for by the diligent search in all countries
that has been made for these planu for purposes of cultivation^
they being held at present in the greatest esteem by pUnt-
loveis, and prices being paid for new or rare varieties which
recall the days of the tulipomania.
The economic uses of orchids are not renuukable. When wc
have mentioned vanilla (g. v.), which consbts of the fleshy pods
of an orchid, we have mentioned about the only economic
product that now comes into market. SaUp (f.v.), still used in
the Levant, consbU of the dried tubers of a terrestrial orchid,
and contains a reUtively large amount of nutritious matter.
The cultivation of orchids is treated under Hoiticulturs.
The order is divided into two main ^pups based on the number
of the stamens and stigmas. The first Diandreae. has two or rarely
three fertile stamens and three functional stigmas. It contains
two snutl genera of tropical Asia and Africa with almost regular
flowers, andthe lar^e genus Cypribedimm containing about 80 species
in the north-temperate zone ana tropical Asia and America. In
Cypripedium two stamens are present, one on each side of the
column instead of one only at the top. as in the group Monandrcac,.
to which belong the rematmng eencra in which also only two stigmas
are fertile. What may be considered the normal number of stamens
is. as has been said. su. arranged in two rows. In most orchids the
only stamen developed to maturity is the fMsterior one of the three
opposite to the lip (anterior before the twisting of the ovary), the
other two. as well as all three inner ones, bemg entirely absent,
or present only in the form of rudiments. In Cypripedium two of
the outer stamens are wanting; the third— the one. that is, which
corresponds to the single fertile stamen in the Monandrcae— forms
a large sterile structure or staminodc; the two lateral ones of the
inner series are present, the third being undeveloped. This arrange-
ment may be understood by rvfcrence to the following diagram,
representing the nelativeposition of the stamens in orchids generally
and in Cypripedium. The letter L indicates the position of the
labcllum; the Urge figures indicate tbe developed stamens; the
iulic figures show the positioo of the suppressed stamens.
' L ^ ' L •»
_ It of lUncM
biOrektt. }ACytriptdium.
The Monandreae have been subdivided into twenty-eight tribes,
the characters of which are based on the structure of tnc anther and
pollinia, the nature of the inflorescence, whether terminal or lateral,
the vernation of the leaf and the presence or absence of a joint
between blade and sheath, and the nature of the stem. The most
important are the following:
OpkrydiHtat, with about a$ senera. of terrestrial orchids, mainly
north temperate, including tne British genera Orchis, Aceras, Opkrys,
Ilermiuium, Cymnadtnia and Uabenarta. Also some genera mainly
represented in South and tropical Africa, such as Satynum, Disa and
others.
Neotliineaet including 90 genera, also terrestrial, contains thirteen
more or less widely distributed tropical or subtropical subtribcs,
some of which extend into temperate zones; one. Ltthalantkereae^
which includes our British genera Cephalanlhera and Epipactts is
chiefly north temperate. The British genera Spirantkes, Lislera and
Neottta arc also included in this tribe, as is also VcniUa, the elongated
stem of which climbs by means of tendril-like aerial roots — the long
fle^y pod is the vanilla used for flavouring.
Codo%yn%na€, 7 genera, mostly epiphytes, and inhabitants of
tropical Asia. A single intemode of each shoot is swollen to form a
pseudobulb.
Uparidimu, 9 genera, terrestrial, two, Jialaxis and Corallcrhiaa,
ire British. Liparis is a large genus widely distributed in the
tropics.
PlemrotkaUidina*, characterized by a thin stem bearing one leaf
which separates at a distinct joint; the sepals are usually much
larger than the petals and lip. Includes 10 genera, natives of
tropical America, one of wbicn. Pleurotkallis, contains about 400
species. iicadnaUia is common in cultivation and has often
brilliant scarlet, crimson or orange flowers.
Laeliinae, with 23 genera, natives of the warmer ^rts of America,
including three of those best known in cultivation. Epidendrum,
CatUeya and Laelia. The jointed leaves are fleshy or leathery:
the flowers arc generally large with a well-developed lip.
Pkajinae, includes 15 genera chiefly tropical Asiatic, some —
Fhajus and Calamlke- s pre a ding northwards into China and
Japan.
Cystapodiinae, includes 9 genera tropical, but extending into north
temperate Asia and Sooth Africa; EaUpkia ami L sr ss fMfw are
important African genera.
Catasetinae, with three tropical American genera, two ol which,
Cataselum and Cycnoches, have di- or tri-roorphic flowers. They are
cultivated for their strange-looking flowers.
Dendrobiimat, with six genera 10 the warmer parts of the Old
Worid; the chief is DeudroBium, with 300 species, often with showy
flowers.
Cymhidiinai, with 8 genera in the tromcs of the Old World. The
leaves are generally long and narrow. Cymbidium is well known ia
cultivation.
Onctdiimu, with 44 genera in the warmer parts of America.
Odontoilossum and Oiuidium include come of the best-known culti-
vated orchids.
Sarcanthinat, with as genera in the tropica. Vamim (Aaia) and
AniMucmm (Africa ond Madagascar) are known in cultivatkm. The
flower of itagroccHm s^tquipeiaU has a spur 18 in. in length.
The order is well represented in Dntain by 18 genera, which
include several species of Orchis: — Cymnadenta (fragrant occhis).
Habenaria (butterfly and frog orchis). Aceras (man orchis), Htrmim'
turn (musk orchu). Ophrys (bee, spider and fly orchis), Epipaais
(Helleborine), Cepkalantkera, NeoUta (birdVnest orchis), one of the
few saprophytic genera, which have no green leaves, but derive their
nourishmont from decaying organic matter in the soil, Listeru
(Twajr blade). Spirantkes (lady's tresses). Malaxis (bog-orchis).
Liparis (fen-orchis), CoraUorhiza (coral root), alaa a sapropovte. and
Cypripedium (lady's slipper), represented by a single species now
very rare in limestone districts in the north of England.
ORCHOMBHUS Oocal form on coins and inscriptions, Areft*-
menos), the name borne by two dties of a&dent Greece.
I. A Boeotian dty, situated in an angle between the Cephiasus
and its tributary the Melas, on a long narrow hill which pro}ccti
south from Mount Acontium. Its position Is eiceedingly strong,
being defended on every side by predploe or marsh or river,
and it was admirably situated to be the stronghold of an eariy
kingdom. The acropolis is at the north end of the kill, on a peak
which is overhung by Acontium, but at a disunce sufficient to
be safe from an enemy with the weapons of eariy warfare posted
on the mountain. At the foot of the acropolis an the springs of
the Melas.
In prehistoric times Orchomenus, as is proved alike by archaeo-
logical finds and by an extensive cycle of legends, was one of
the most prosperous towns of Greece. It was at once a conti*
nental and a maritime power. On the mainland it controlled the
greater part of Boeotia and drew its riches from the fertile low*
lands of Lake Copals, upon the drainage of which the eariy kings
of Orchomenus bestowed great care. Its maritime connexiooa
have not been as yet determined, but it is clear that its original
inhabitants, the Minyae, were a seafaring nation, and in historical
times Orchomenus remained a member of the Cahiurian League
of naval states. At the end of the second millennium the
Minyae were more or less supplanted by the incoming stock
of Boeotians. Henceforth Orchomenus no longer figures as a
great commercial state, and its political supremacy in Boeotia
passed now, if not previously, to the people of Thebes. Never-
theless, owing perhaps to its strong miliury position, it long
continued to exercise some sort of overiordship over other
towns of northern Boeotia, and maintained an independent
attitude withiu the Boeotian League. In 447 it served as the
headquarters of the oligarchic exiles who freed Boeotia from
Athenian control. In the 4th century Orchomenus was actuated
throughout by an anti-Theban policy, which may have been
nothing more than a recrudescence of old>time rivaliv, but
seems chiefly inspired by aversion to the newly esublisbed
democracy at Thebes. In the Corinthian War the city supported
Lyaandcr and Agcsilaus in their attacks upon Thebes, and when
war was renewed between the Thebans and Spartans in 379
Orchomenus again sided with the latter. After the battle of
Leuctra it was left at the mercy of the Thebans, who fint. on
Epaminondas's advice, readmitted it into the Booolian Lesjgue^
but in 368 destroyed the town and exterminated or enslaved
its people. By 353 Orchomenus had been rebuilt, probably
by the Pbocians, who used it as a bulwark against Thebes^
After the subjection of the Phodans in 346 it was again taaed by
the Thebans. but was restored by Philip of Maoedon as a check
upon the latter (338). Orchomenus springs into prominence
once again in 8$ B.c, when it provided the battle-field on which
ORCIN— OllDEAL
»73
the Ronui gcnailSola d c stm^wl vn amy of MhtoditiB VL
of Pontus. Aput from tbn event its later history is obacnre,
and its decsdencc is farther attested by the neglectfal drsinsce
of tlie plain and the oooaeqacnt cn a oa ch nieats of Lake Copalk
Since medieval times the site has been occupied by a viOage
named Skr^poo. Since 1867 drainage operations have been
resumed, and the land thus icdaimed has been divided into
small holcfings. The most remarkable itlic of the eaily power
of Occbomenus a the so-called "treasury" (of **Minyas'*)
which resembles the buildings of similar style at Mycenae (see
Mtcenaz), and is almost eiactly the same sise as the treasury
of Atreus. The admiration which Pausanias expresses for it is
justified by the beautiful ornamentation, especially of the roof,
which has been brought to light by Schliemann's excavations
in the inner chamber opening out of the circular vaulted tomb.
The monument, undoubtedly the tomb of some andent ruler,
or of a dynasty, lies outside the dty walls. Other remains
of cariy date hacft been found upon this site.
The worship of the Charites (see Graces) was the great
cultus of Ordionenus, and the site of the temple is now occupied
by a chapel, the Kotsaiw r^ Uopoylas, The Charites were
worshipped under the fonn of nide stones, which had fallen
from heaven duriug the reign of Etcodes; and it was not till
the lime of Pausanias that statues of the goddesses were placed
in the temple. Near this was another temple dedicated to
Dionysus, in whose festival, the *A7pta>na, are apparent the
traces of human sacrifice in early times (see Acuonia).
See Strabo viu. p. 374. ix. pp. aoj. 414*^16; Pausanias ix. 54^-38;
Thucydides i. I3, 'vf.j6; Xenopnon. Heuenica, iit. 5, iv. 3, vi. 4:
Diodonia xv., xvi.; Plutaich, SvUa, chs. 30-31; K. O. MQller.
OnkomMos *Md dit Miuytr (Breslao, 1844): B. V. Head, Historic
Humorum (Oxford. 1877}, pp. 293-294; Jemmol 0/ Rdkmic Stmdus,
vol. it pk. xit., xtii.
9. An Arcadian dty, situated in a district of the same name,
north of Mantineia and west of Stymphalus. The district was
mountainous, but embraced two valleys— the northern con*
tainiog a lake which is drained, like all Arcadian lakes, by a
kaUttolkroH; the southern lying under the dty, separated
from Mantineia by a mountain ridge called Anchisia. The old
dty occupied a strong and lofty situation; in the time of Strabo
it was a ruin, but Pausanias mentions that a new town was
built bdow the old. A primitive wooden image of Aitemis
Ccdreatis stood in a large cedar tree outside the city. Orcho-
menus la mentioned in the Homeric catalogue with the epithet
TwX^infXof.
In cariy histoiy Orchomenus figures as a town of some im-
portance, for its kings until the late 7'th century B.C. held some
sort of sovereignty over all Arcadia. In the 5th century it was
overshadowed by its southern neighbour Mantineia, with
whom it is henceforth generally found to be at variance. In
418 B.C. Orchomenus (cfl for a time into the hands of the
Mantincians; in 370 it held aloof from the new Arcadian League
which the Mantincians were organising. About this time it
further declined in importance through the lo» of some posses-
sions on the east Arcadian watershed to the new Arcadian capital
Megalopolis. In the 3rd century Orchomenus belonged in
turn to the AetoUan League, to the Lacedaemonians, and,
since 222, to the Achaean League. Though a fairly extensive
settlement still existed on the site in the and century a.d., its
history under the Roman rule is quite obscure.
See Pantanias. vtii. cht. 5, 11-13, 27; B. V. Head, Histwia
nnmanuH (Oxford, 1887), pp. 377-378.
ORCIN, a dfexytoluene, C«Hi(CH«)(OH)> (1:3: 5), found
in many lichens, e.g. Rocella tinOoria, Lccanora^ and formed
by fusing extract of ak)es with potash. It may be synthesised
from toluene; more interesting b its production when acetone
dicartwxyKc ester is condensed with the aid of sodium. It
crystallizes in colourless prisms with one molecule of water,
which redden on exposure. Ferric chforide gives a bluish-
violet coloration with the aqueous solution. Unlike resorcin
it does not give a f}uorescein with phthalic anhydride. Oxidation
of the ammoniacal solution gives orrcitit CnHMNjO?, the chief
constituent of the natural dye archil (g.v.). Horoo-pyrocalcchin
is aa isomer (CEti:OH:OR»i :3:4), fonmd as its metM
ether (ocosol) in beech-w«)d. tar.
^RDBAL (0.£ng. arrfaf, ardocf, judgment), m term correspond-
ing to modem Ger. C/rCrif, but bearing the spedal sense of the
medieval Lat Dn jwiknam, a miraculous decision as to the
truth of an accttsatxMi or daim. The word is adopted in the late
Lat. mialimmi, Fr. trfiaUt. The ordeal had existed for many
ages before it was thus named in Europe. In principle, tod
often in the very forms used, it belongs to ancient cuhurt,
thence flourishing up to the medieval European and modem
Asiatic levels, but dying out before modem dvilixation. Some
ordeals, which possibly represent early stages of the practice,
are simply magical, being processes of divination turned to
Iml. purpose. Thus in Burma suiu are still determioed by
plaintiff and defendant bdng each furnished, with a candle,
equal in size and both lighted at once— he whose candle outlasts
the other being adjudged, amid the acclamations of his friends,
to have won his cause (Shway Yoe, The Bttmisfi, ii. 254).
Even quainter is a Dyak ordeal in Borneo, where the two
parties are represented by two shell-fish on a plate, which are
irritated by pouring on some lime-juice, and the one first moving
settles the guilt or innocence (as has been before arranged) of
its owner (St John, Forests of Ike Far East, i. 89). The adminis-
tration of ordeals has been much in the hands of priests, and
they are more often than not worked on a theological basis, the
intervention of a deity bdng invoked and assumed to take place
even when the process b in its nature one of symbolic magic.
For instance, an andent divining instrument coosbted of a sieve
held suspended by a thread or by a pair of shears with the points
stuck into its rim, and considered to move at the mention of the
name to be discovered, &c Thus girls consulted the *' sieve-
witch " (oM'ttJiiAifiaJTis) about lovers (Thcocr.. Idytt. iii. 31).
Thb coscimcmaiuy served in the same way to discover a thief,
when, with prayer to the gods for dircaion, the names of the
suspected persons were called over to it (Potter, Greek AtitiquilieSt
i. 352). When a suspended hatchet was used in the same way
to turn to the guilty, the process was called oxincmamcy. The
sieve-ordeal remained popular in the middle ages (see the de-
scription and picture in Cornelius Agrippa, De Occ. FkU.)-, it b
mentioned in Hudibras (ii. 3):
"... th' oracle of sieve and thears
That turns as certain as the Bpheres."
From this andent ordeal b evidently derived the modem
Christian form of the key and Bible, where a Psalter or Bible b
suspend^ by a key tied in at Psalm L 18: " When thou sawest
a thief, then thou consentedst with him "; the bow of the kQr
being balanced on the fingers, and the names of those suspected
being called over, he or she at whose name the book turns or
falls is the culprit (see Brand, Fopular Anti^mUUt ed. Bohn,
iii. 351).
One of the most remarkable groups of divinations passing
into ordeals are those which appeal to the corpse itself for
discovery of its murderer. The idea is rooted in that primitive
state of mind which has not yet realised the full effect of death,
but regards the body as still able to hear and act. Thus the
natives of Australia will ask the dead man carried on hb bier of
boughs, who bewitched him; if he has died by witchcraft he will
make the bier move round, and if the sorcerer who killed him be
present a bough will touch him (Eyre, Austrdia, ii. 344). That
this is no isolated fancy b shown by its recurrence among the
negroes of Africa, where, for instance, the corpse causes its bearers
to dash against tome one's house, which accuses the owner of
the murder 0' I" Wibon, Weftem Africa, p. 231; Waits. Ii.
X9j)' Thb somewhat resembles the well-known ordeal of the
bier in Europe in the middle ages, which, however, seems founded
on a different principle, the imagination that a sympathetic
action of the blood causes it to flow at the touch or ndghbourhood
of the murderer. Apparently the liquefaction of the blood which
in certain cases takes place after death may have fumbhed the
ground for this belief. On Teutonic ground, this ordeal appears
in the NiMungenfkd, where the murdered Siegfried b lal«* ^ *^-
bier, and Hagen b called on to prove hb innocence by gr
«74
ORDEAL
corpse, but at his approach the dead chief's wounds bleed afresh.
The typical instance in English history is the passage of Matthew
Paris, that after Henry ll.'s death at Chinon his son Richard
came to view the body, ** Quo supervenicnte, confesiim crflpit
sanguis ex naribus regis mortui; ac si indignarciur spiritus in
adventu ejus, qui ejusdem mortis causa esse credebatur, ut
viderctur sanguis clamare ad Deum." la Shakespeare {Rich,
ill,, act 1, sc. 2):
*' O gentlemen, sec, ace! dead Henry's wounds
Open their congcal'd mouths, and bleed afresh!'*
At Hertford assizes (1628) the deposition was taken as to
certain suspected murderers being required to touch the corpse,
when the murdered woman thrust out the ring finger three times
and it dropped blood on the grass (Brand, iii. 231); and there
was a case in the Scottish High Court of Justiciary as late as
1668 (T. F. Thisclton Dyer, Folklore of Shakespeare, p. 487).
Durham peasants, apparently remembering the old belief, still
expect those who come to kiok at a corpse to touch it, in token
that they bear no ill-will to the departed (W. Henderson,
Fciklore of Northern Counties, p. 57).
Certain ordeals are closely related to oaths, so that the two
shade into one another. Let the curse which is to fall on the
oath-breaker take effect at once, it then becomes a sign con-
demning the swearer — in fact, an ordeal. Thus the drinking of
water on which a curse or magical penalty has been laid is a mere
oath so long as the time of fulfilment is unfixed (see Oath).
But it becomes an ordeal when, as in Brahmanic India, the
accused drinks three handfuls of water in which a sacred image
has been dipped; if he is innocent nothing happens, but if he is
guilty sickness or misfortune will fall on him within one to three
weeks (for accounts of these and other Hindu ordeals sec AH
Ibrahim Khan in Asiatic Researches, \. 380, and Stenzlcc's sum-
mary in Z. D. M. C, vol. ix.). The earliest account of such an
ordeal is in Numbers v., which describes the modeof administering
to a woman charged with unfaithfulness the bitter water mixed
with the dust of the tabernacle floor, with the curse laid on it to
cause her belly to swell and her thigh to faD if guilty. Ewald
{Antiquities of Israd, 336) regards the draught as in itself harm-
less, and the operation of this cune on the guilty as due to the
influence of the mind on the body. But the term " bitter '*
is applied to the water before it iias been cursed, which suggests
that it already contained some drug, as in the poison-water
ordeal still in constant use over a great part of Africa. Thus the
red water of Guinea is a decoction made by pounding in a wooden
mortar and steeping in water the inner bark of one of the mimosas,
producing a liquor like that of a tan-vat, astringent, narcotic,
and when taken in suflfidcnt quantity cmetk. The accused,
with solemn ceremony and invocation, drinks freely of it; if it
nauseates him and he throws it up he is triumphantly acquitted,
but if be becomes dizzy he is guilty, and the assembly fall on
him, pelt him with stones and even drag him over the rocks till he
it dead. Here the result of the ordeal depends partly on the
patient's constitution, but more on the sorceitr who can prepare
the proper dose to prove either guilt or innocence. Among the
various drugs used in different parts of Africa are the mbundu
root, the Calabar bean, the tangena nut ( Tanghinia vcneniflua,
a strong poison and emetic) The sorcerers who administer thb
ordeal have in their hands a power of inflicting or remitting
judicial murder, giving them boundless influence (details in J. L.
Wilson, Western Africa, pp. 225. 398; Burton, Lake Regions
of Central Africa, li. 357; Bosman, *' Guinea," in Pinkcrton's
Voyages, xvi. 398, &c.). The poison-ordeal is also known to
Brahmanic law, decoction of aconite root being one of the
poisons given, and the accused if not sickening being dcelared
free (Stenaler, U.), Theoretically connected with the ordeal by
cursed drink is that by cursed food, which is, however, distin-
guished among this black catalogue by being sometimes an
effectual means of discovering the truth. The ordeal by bread
and cheese, practised in Alexandria about the 2nd century,
was practically the same as that known to English bw five to
ten centuries later as the corsnaed or " trial slice " of consecrated
bread and cheese which was administered from the altar, with
the curse that if the accused were guilty God would send the
angel Gabriel to stop his throat, that he might not be able to
swallow that bread and cheese. In fact, if guilty and not a
hardened offender he was apt to fail, dry-mouthed and choking
t hrough terror, to get it down. The remembrance of this ancient
ordeal still lingers in the popular phrase, " May this bit choke me
if I lie I " In India the corresponding trial by rice is prescribed
in the old laws to be done by suspected persons chewing the
consecrated grains of rice and spitting them out, moist and
untingcd with blood, on a banyan leaf; this or the mere chewing
and swallowing of a mouthful of rice-grains is often used even by
the English as a means of detecting a thief. A classical mention
of the ordeals by carrying hot iron in the hands and by passing
through the fire is made more interesting by the guards who offer
to prove their innocence in this way offering further to take oath
by the gods, which shows the intimate connexion between oatha
and ordeals (Soph.. Ant. 264. sec also Aeschyl. fr. 284).
4m«» I* iriHitoi Mil iMpevt uJptw x«^»
Kol wvp idpwttp, nal 0iovf AfiKutunur
t6 vpi>M« fiooMcmtri p^r* «trygjitn».
The passing through the fire is described in the Hindu
codes of Yiijnavalkya and others, and is an incident in Hindu
poetry, where in the RAmJyana the virtuous Siii thus proves
her innocence to her jealous husband RAma (Stenzlcr, p. 66g;
Pictet, Origines Indo-Europiennes, part ii. p. 457). It was not
less known to European law and chronicle, as where Richardis,
wife of Charles the Fat, proves her innocence by going into a
fire clothed in a waxed shift, and is unhurt by the fire (Grimm.
Deutsche Rcchlsallcrthunur, p. Q12). Yet more minutely
prescribed in the Hindu ordeal-books is the rite of carrying the
glowing hot iron seven steps, into the seven or nine circles
traced on the ground, the examination of the hands to see if they
show traces of burning, and the binding them up in leaves. The
close historical connexion of the Hindu ordeal laws with the old
European is shown by the correspondence of minute details.
as where in a Scandinavian law it is prescribed that the red-hot
iron shall be carried nine steps {Grimm, op. cU., p. 918). In Anglo-
Saxon laws the iron to be carried was at first only one pound
weight, but Athelstan's law (in Ancient Laws and Institutes of
England, iv 6) enacts that it be increased to weigh three pounds.
Another form well known in old Germany and England was the
walking barefoot over glowing ploughshares, generally nine.
The law-codes of the early middle ages show this as an ocdinary
criminal procedure (see the two works last referred to)» but it
is perhaps best remembered in two non-historical legends. The
German queen Kunigunde. " haec dicens stupentibus ct flentibus
universis qui aderant. vomeres candentes nudo vestigio calcavit
et sineadustionismolesliatrajisiit " ( Vista Henrici, ap.Canisium,
vi 387). Qttoen Emnu, mother of Edward theConfeisor, accused
of familiarity with Alwyn bishop of Winchester, triumphantly
purges herself and him by the help of St Swiihin— each of the
two thus acquitted giving nine manors to the church of
Winchester, in memory of the nine ploughshares, and the king
being corrected with stripes Oo^n Bromion; see Freeman's
Norm. Conq., vol. ii. App.). To dip the hand in boiling water
or oil or melted lead and take out a stone or ring is atM^lhcr
ordeal of this class. The traveller may find some of these
fiery trials still in use, or at least in recent memory, in barbaric
regions of Africa or further Asia — the negro plunging his arm
into the caldron of boiling oil, the Burman doing feats with
melted lead, while the Bedouin will settle a conflict of evidence
by the opposing wtChesscs licking a glowing hot4ron spoon
(Burckhardt, Arabien, pp. 08, i^^). This latter feat nay be
done with safety by any one. provided the iron be clean and
thoroughly white hot, while if only red-hot it would touch and
bum the tongue. Probably the administcrers of the otdeal
arc aware of this, and of the possibility of dipping the hand
in melted metal; and there are stories of arts of protecting the
skin (see the recipe in Albert us Magnus. J>i#i>a5i/i6«u), though
it is not known what can be really done beyond making it horny
like a smith's, which H'ould serve as a defence in step(»ng on
ORDER
'75
hoc cQtli, but not In scrfooi triab like llut of c«nying a hctvy
red-hot iron. The ftrc-ordeftb are still performed by mounte-
banks, who very likely keep up the same means of trickery
which were in official use when the accused was lo be acquitted.
The actual practkx of the fire-ordeal contrasts shamefully with
its theory, that the fire rather than harm the innocent restrained
its natural action. Thus it stands in the Hindu code of Klaau
(viii. 1 15): " He whom the ikme docs not burn, whom the water
does not cast up, or whom no harm soon befals, is to be taken
as truthful in his oath." The water<ordcal here rcfemd to is
that well known In Europe, where the acoised is thrown bound
Into the water, which receives him if innocent, but rejects
him if guilty. The manner of carrying out this ttet is well
explained in the directions given by Archbishop Hincmar in the
9th century: he who » let down into the water for trial is to be
fastened by a rope, that he may not be in danger if the water
receives him as innocent, but may be pulled ouL In the later
middle ages this ordeal by " swimming ** or " fleeting " became
the most approved means of trying a suspected witch: she was
stripped naked and cross bound, the ri|^t thumb to the left
toe, and the left thumb to the right toe. In this stale she waa
cast into a pond or river, in which it was thought impossible
for her to sink (Brand iii. 11 >« The cases of " ducking " witches
which have occurred in England within the bst few years are
remains of the andent ordeal
If there is one thing that may be predicated of man In a state
of nature it is that two disputants tend lo fight out their quarrel.
When in the warfare of Greeks and Trojans, of Jews and
Philistines, of Vandals and Alamans. heroes oome out from the
two sides and their combat is taken to mark the powers of the
opposing war-gods and decide the victory, then the principle
of the ordeal by battle has been practically called in. Among
striking instances of the Teutonic cistom which iaikienccd
the whole of medieval Europe may be cited the custom ol the
Franks that the princes, if they could not quell the strife, had
to fight it out between themselves, and Wipo's account of the
quarrel between the Christian Sakons and the Pagan Sbvs
as to which broke the peace, when both sides demanded of the
emperor that it should be settled by duel, which was done by
choosing a champion on each side, and the Christian lell. The
Scandinavian term *' holmgang " refers lo the habit of fighting
dueb on an island. A passage fiom old Cermaa kiw shows the
single combat accepted as a regular kgal procedure: " If there be
dispute concerning fieMs. vineyards, or money, that they avoid
perjury let two be chosen to fi^^t, and decide the cause by duel "
(Grimm, Rtchtsdttft., p. 938). In England, after the Conqacst,
trial by combat superseded other legal onleBls, which were
abolished in the time of Heniy III. Among famous inaunces
is that of Henry de Essex, hereditary standard-bearer of England,
who fled from a battle hi Wales, tn 1158, threw from him the
royal standard, and cried out that the king was slain. Robert
de Montfon afterwards, accusing him of having done this with
treasonable intent, offered to prove his accusation by combat,
and they fought in presence of Henry 11. and his court, when
Essex was defeated, but the king spared his life, and, his esute
being confiscated, he became a monk in Reading Abbey. A
ford often sent his man in his stead to such combats, and priests
and women were ordinarily represented by champions. The
wager of battle died out so quietly in England without being
legally abolished that in the court of king's bench in 1818 it
was claimed by a person chaiged with murder, which kd to its
formal abolition {Askf»4 V. Th^mton in Bsmewalt and Aldeison
457; see details In H. C. Lea, Suptmiiion end Font, ii.). A
distinct connexion may, however, be tiaced between the legal
duel and the illegal private duel, which has disappeared from
England, but still flourishes In Fiance and Germany (see
Duel). (B. B. T.)
ORDER (through Fr. onfrf , for earlier atimt, from Lat. orrfo,
erdinis, tank, service, arrangement; the ultimate aouroe is
gcnetally taken to be the root seen in Lat. «rtrt. rise, arise,
begin; cf. " orighi "). a row or series, hence grade, class or rank,
mcceasSoii, seqoenee or ordcily anangnBeat; froas tbcM, the
original meanmgs of «rdo, have d e v el oped the numeroua tfiplica-
tioas attached to the word, many, if not most, of which appear
in claasjcal and medieval Latin. In the sense of a class or body
of perMns or things united by some common status, rank or
dtstingujshing cbaracteristica» or as organised and living under
some common rules and regiUations, we find the term applied,
in such expressions as " lower " or " higher orders," to the class
divisions of society; to the various grades of persons exercising
spiritual functions in the Christian church (see Obdeh, Holy.
below); to the bodies of pccsons bound by vows to a religious
life (see MoNASticisM, and separate articles on the chief religious
orders); to the military and monastic fraternities of the middle
ages, such. as the Templan, Hospitallers, 8ec., and to those
institutions, founded by sovereigns or states, in part imitation
of these fraternities, which are conveniently divided into orders
of knighthood, or orders of merit (see Knichthooo). The term
" order " is thus usod, in an easily transferred sense, for the
varioua insignia, badge, star, colar, worn by the members of
the institution. As applied to a group of objects, an *' order "
in xookgical, botanical and mtaieral dassification ranks next
below a '* class," and above a " family." The use of the word
in arehitecture is treated in a separate article below.
The word has several technical mathematical usages. In
number-theory it denotes a relative rank between the eleinentsof
an aggregate so that the collection becomes an ordered aggregate
(soc Numbcb). Tbe micr of a piano curve is the numberof points
(real or imaginary) in whicb the curve is intersected by a straight
line; it is equal to the dtigroe (or coefficient of tbe highest
power) of the Cartesian eqiuition expressing the curve. The
opgrfer of a noa^plane cane h. the number of poinu (real or
imaginary) in whicb the curve intersecu a plane (see Cuave).
The ^der of a smfmc is the number of poinu in which tbe
surface intersects a straight line. For the order of a congruence
and complex sec SuxfacC. The order of a difftrtntiai equation is
the degree of its highest diflterential coefTicient (see DtrrutEMTiAi.
Equation).
Another branch of the sensc-devek>pment of the word atarU
from the meaning of ordcriy. systematic or proper arrangement,
which appears in the simplest form in such atd vcrbial expressions
as " in order." " out of order " and the like. More particular
instances are the use of tbe word for the customary procedure
observed in the conduct of the business of a public meeting, or
of parliankenlary debates, and for the general maintenance and
due observance of Jaw and authority, '* public order."
In liturgical use " order " is a special form of divine service
prescribed by authority, e.g. the " Order of Confirmation." in
the English Prayer Book.
The eommoB use of " order " in the sense of a command, in-
strucu'on or diioction is a transference from that of arrantemcnt
in accordance witli intention to the means for attaining it It
is a comparatively late aenso-devchtpmeot; it docs not appear
in Latin, and the earliest qvoutiona in the Norn Emffisk
Diaimnofy are from the i6th century. Particular apgilications
of the term are, in oomnietcial usage, to a direction in writing
to a banker or holder of money or goods* by the person in whon
the legal right to them lies, to pay or hand over the sane to a
third person named or to his order. A bill or negotiable instnunenl
made " payable to order " is one which can be negotiated by the
payee by endoisemenL At ooramon kiw a negotiable instrument
must contain words expressly authoriaing transfer By the
Bills of Exchange Act 188s, §8, "a bill is payable to ordei
which is expressed to be so payable, or which b ax pr ca a ed 10 be
payable to a particuhr pcnon, and does not oootain words
prohibiting transfer or indicating an intention that it shouU
not be transferable." Other applicationi are to a direction for
the supply of goods and to a pass for free admiaiion to a place
of amuscmentf a building. 8rc.
In law an ** order of the court " is a judicial directioo om
matters outskle the record; as bid down by Esher, M.R.. in
Omdom v. ImUnd Heoenue, sp» L.J.(}.B. s$t, a " jodgmcai " b a
decision obtained in an action and every other i
For " Order in Cowicil " s
176
ORDER
ORDER, in classic architecture the term employed (Lat.
genus, Ital. ordine, Sp. erder, Ger. Ordmung) to distinguish the
varieties of column and entablature which were employed by
the Greeks and Romans in their temples and public buildings.
The first attempt to classify the architectural orders was made
by Vitruvius, who, to those found m Greek buildings, viz the
Doric, Ionic and Corinthian, added a fourth, the Tuscan On
the revival of classic art in Italy, the revivalists translated
Vitruvius's work De Arckitectura, and added a fifth example, the
Composite, so that nominally there are five orders. The Tuscan,
however, is only an undeveloped and crude modification of the
Doric order, and the Composite is the same as the Corinthian with
the exception of the capital, in ^hich the volutes ol the Ionic
order were placed above the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian.
An order in architecture consists of several parts, .const ruetive
in their origin, but, as employed afterwards, partly constructive
and partly decorative; its principal features are the column,
consisting of base (except in the Greek Doric order), shaft and
capital, and the entablature, subdivided into the architrave (the
supporting member), the frieze (the decorative member) and the
cornice (the crowning and protecting member). Two only of
the orders were independently evolved, via. the Doric in Greece
and Magna Grecia, and the Ionic in Ionia. For the Corinthian
order, the Greeks borrowed with slight variations the entabla*
ture for their Ionic order, and the Romans employed this modified
entablature for their Composite order. Owing to a certain re-
semblance in form, it was at one time thought that the Greeks owed
the origin of the Doric order to Egypt, but the Eg>'ptian column has
no echinus under its abacus, which in the eariicst Doric examples is
an extremely important element in its design, owing to its great
size and projection; moreover, the Doric column ccaccd to be
employed in Egypt after the XlXth Dynasty, some seven or
eight centuries before the first Greek colony was established
there. Dr Arthur Evans's discoveries in the palace of Cnossus in
Crete have shown that the earliest type of the Doric column
(c 1500 B.C.) is that painted in a fresco which represents the
facades of three temples or shrines, the truth of this representation
being borne out by actual remains in the palace, the columns
were in timber, tapered from the top downwards, and were
crowned by a projecting abacus supported by a large torus
moulding, probably moulded in stucco. The next examples of
the order are those in stone, which flank the entrance doorway
of the tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae (c. 1 200 B.C.), the greater
portions of which are now set up in the British Museum, and
here both capital and shaft are richly decorated with the chevron
pattern, probably derived from the metal plates which in Homeric
times sheathed the wood columns. The columns of the Mycenae
tombs are semi-detached only, and of very slender proportions,
averaging 10 to 11 diameters in height; as isolated columns,
therefore, they would have been incapable of carrying any weight,
90 that in the next examples known, those of the temple at
Corinth, where the columns had to carry an entablature in stone
supporting a stone ceiling over the peristyle, the relation of
diameter to height is neariy one to four, so difTidcnt were the
Greek architects as to the bearing power of the stone. In the
temple of Apollo at Syracuse, also a very archaic example, the
projection of the capital was so great that the abaci nearly touched
one another, and the columns arc less than one diameter apart.
The subsequent development which took place was in the
Ughteniog of the cdumn and the introduction of many refine-
mcnts, to that in the most perfected example knoviH. the
Parthenon, the columns arc ij diameters apart and nearly 5I
diameters high. In a somewhat later example, the temple of the
Nemacan Zeus (Argos) the columns arc 61 diameters high. A
similar tightening of the structure took place in the entablature,
which in the earlicsl temple in Sicily is about half the height of
the columns, in the Parthenon leas than a third, and in the
Temple of the Ncmaean Zeus a little over a fourth.
The origin of the Ionic order is not so clear, and it cunnot be
ti-aced beyond the remains of the archaic temple of Diana at
EphesUB (c. 560 B.C.). now in the Urilish Mub<.-um, in which the
capitals and the lower drum of the sbafL enriched with sculpture
in their design and execution suggest many centuries of develop-
ment Here again attempts have been made to trace the source
to Egypt, but the volute capital of the archaic temple of Duna
at Ephesus and the decorative lotus bud of Egypt are entirely
different in their form and objea. Tbe latter is purely decorative
and vertical in its tendency, the former is a feature intended to
carry a superincumbent weight, and is extended horizontally so
as to perform the function of a bracket^apitaJ, viz. to lessen the
bearing of the architrave or beam which it carries. A similar
constructive expedient is found in Persian work at Penepolis,
which, however, dates about forty yean later than the Ephesian
work. The volutes of the capitals of the Lydan tombs are none
of them older than the 4th century, being copies of Creek stone
examples. As with the Doric order, the columns became more
slender than at first, those of tbe archaic temple being probably
between 6 and 7 diameters high, of the temple on tbe Ilissus
(r. 450 B.C.) 8i, and of the temple of Athena PoUas at Pricne
(r. 545 B.C.) over 10 diameters high.
The employment of the two orders in Athens ^multancously»
and sometimes in ihe same building, led to a reciprocal influence
one on the other, in the Doric order to an in rcascd refinement
in the contour of its mouldings, in the Ionic order to greater
severity in treatment, more particularly in the bedmould, the
members of which were reduced in number and simplified, the
dentil course (which in Ionia was a very important feature)
being dispensed with in the temple on the Ilissus and in that of
Nike Apieros, and employed only in the caryatide portico of
the Erechtheum. The capital of the Corinthian order, its only
original feature, may have been derived from the Egyptian
bell-capital, which was constantly employed there, even in
Roman times, its decoration was, however, purely Creek, and
would seem to have been based on the application. to the bell
of foliage and ornament derived from metallic forms. Tbe
inventor of the capital is said to have been Callimachusof Corinth,
who was a craftsman in metal and designed the bronze lamp
and its cover for the Ercchihcum in Corinthian bronze, which
may account for the origin and title of the capitaL Tbe earliest
example of the Corinthian capital is that found at Bassae by
Cockerell, dating from about 450 B.C., and the more perfected
type is that of the Tholos of Epidaurus (400 B.C.).
Whilst the entablatures of the Doric and Ionic orders suggest
their origin from timber construction, that of the Corinthian
was simply borrowed from the Ionic order, and its subsequent
development by the Romans affords the only instance of their
improvement of a Greek order (so far as the independent treat-
ment of it was concerned) by the further enrichment of the
bedmould of the cornice, where tbe introduction of the modillion
gave an increased support to the corona and was a finer crowning
feature.
The Greek Doric order was not understood by ihe Romans,
and was, with one or two exceptions, utilised by them only
as a decorative feature in their theatres and amphitheatres,
where in the form of semi-detached columns they formed
divisions between the arches; the same course was taken
with the Ionic order, which, however, would seem to have been
employed largely in porticoes. On the other band, tbe Cor-
inthian order, in consequence of its rich decoration, a^scaled
more to the Roman taste; moreover, all iu faces were the same,
and it could be employed in rectangular or in circular buildings
without any difficulty. The earlicsl examples are found in tbe
temple of Castor and Polliu at Cora, near Rome, which is Greek
in the style of its carving, and in the portico of the Pantheon
at Rome erected by Agrippa (27 B.C.), where the Roman order
is fully developed. The next developments of the orders are
those which followed the revival of classic architecture in the
16th century, and these were largely influenced by ihe discovery
in 1456 of the manuscript of Vitruvius, an architect wbo
flourished in the bttcr half of the ist century bx. In his work
Df Architcelwa he R'fers constantly to drawings which he had pre*
pared to illustrate his descriptions; these, however, have never
been found, so that the translators of his work put their own
interpceuiioa on his text and published woodcuts representing
ORDER
177
^ RooMO ocdtts M defined by hiai. They did AM, hoivever,
confine thenuelvee to the actual remains, wliich in their day
were in mnch better preservation than at present^ but attempted
to complete the orden by the additioo of pedestals to the
columns, which were not employed by the Greeks, and only
vnder special conditions by the Romans; aS| however, they are
inchided in the two chief attihorities on the aubject, Palladio
and Vlgnola, the text-book of the fonner being the standard
iQ. England, and that of the latter in France, tke niles and
proportions set forth in them for pedestals, as also for the em-
pkvymcnt of the superposing of the orders with' arches between,
will foUow the analysis of the Greek and Roman orders^
Tkf Creek Doric Order.— The Doric was the favourite order
<tf the Gfceks, and the one in which they introduced all their
piincipal 'refinements; these were of so subtile a nature that
QDtil the site was cleared in 1837 their existence was not known,
and the earlier exploren, though recognising the extreme
beauty of the, pro p o r t ions and some'ol the refinements, were
ODAble to grasp the extent to which they were canfed, and it waa
merved fbrPnarose In 1846 to verify by miaomefrical studies
the theories put forward by Pennethome and other authors.
Hie whole structure of the Doric temple (whidi r^yn^tntH of the
columns, subdivided into shaft and capital, and the enUbbture,
subdivided into architrave, frieze and tiomioe) rested on a
platform of three steps, of which the upper step was tbestykibate
or column base (fig. x). The tread and dae of the steps vasied
in accordance with the diameter
of the column; in temples of
great dimcnabns, therefore, supple-
mentary steps were provided for
access to the stylobate, or, as found
in many- temples, alight inclined
planes. Resting on the stylobate
was the shaft of the column, whidi
was either monoUtluc or composed
of frusta or drums. The shaft
tkpered as it rose, the diminution
of the upper diameter being more
pxDnouncod in early examples, as
in one of the temples at Selinus
and id the great temple at Pacstum.
In the Pluthenon at Athens the
fewir diameter is 6 ft. 3 in. and the
upper 4 ft. 9 in., which gives a dimi«>
nution alii^tly over one-quarter
d the bwer diameter. Hie ahaf t
was always fluted, with two or
three exceptions, where the temples
were not completed, and tbere
were usually twenty flutes. In two
temples at Syracuse, the most
ancient temple at Selinus, the
temple at Assos, and the temple
at Sonium there are only sixteen
flutes; the flutes were elliptic in
section and intenectcd with an
^y^ **.^^^^***^ ^^**'*^ *"'*• laonfcr to correct anoptical
Order. The Parthenon.
Athens: section through
front.
illusioii, which arises in a diminish-
ing shaft, a slight entasis or swell-
ing in the centre was given, the
greatest departure from the strai^t line being about one*
third «p the shaft. The shaft was crowned by the capital,
the juncture of the two being maAed by a groove (one in
the Pattheoon, but up to three in move ancient examples)
known as the hypotrachelion. Above this the trachclion or
necking curves oiver, constructing what is known as the apophyge
up to the fillets, round the base of the echinus, which forms the
transitioQ to the square abacus. The varying curve of the
ecfainut, from tlm earliest times down to the later examples,
is shown in the actf de on mouldingB. The relative proportions
oi the lower diameter and the height of the icoiumns vary accord-
ing to ths date of thf example, in the caily fiamplf< the column
being just OB 4 diameters high, hi the FtethaMB maOf s|
diameters, and in the Temple of Jupiter Nemaeus 6} diametett
high. 'The distance between the columns or interoolumniatioB
varied also according to the date, that of the earliest examples
in Sicily being about r diameter (that between the angle columns
being always less), in the Parthenon in the proportkmjof i to
X'a4, and in the temple at Argos as i to 1*53.
Above the columns rested the enUblature (fig. 2), of which
the tower member, the architrave, was pUin and crowned by
a projecting fillet,
known as the
regttla; under
which, snd bebw
the trigiyph, was a
fillet (Uenia), with,
six guttae under-
neath. The propor-
tional height of the
architrave, which
was the diief sup<^
porUng member,
varied according to
date, in one of the
earliest examples
at Syracuse being
oi greater depth
than the diameter
of the colunm, and
in the Parthenon
about two-thirds
of the diameter.
Above the ardd-
trave was the f riese,
divided into tri-'
glyphs, so called
because they axe
divided into three
bands by two
vertical grooves,
and metopes or
spaces between the
tri^lyphs. It is
supposed that the
triglyphs repre-
sented the beams
in the primitive
cells before the
peristyle was
added, the spaces between benig filled with shutter* or boards to
prevent the temple being entered by birds. The face of the
metopes, which are nearly square, is set back behind that of
the triglyphs, and is sometimes decorated with sculpture in
high relief. There is generally one txiglyph over each column
and one between, but at e a c h en d of the temple there is a triglyph
at the angle, so that the interoolumniation of the angle columns
is less than that of the others, which gives a sense of increased
strength. Above the fiieae is the cornice, which projecU forward
about one-third of the diameter of the colunm and slopes down>
wards at an angle genenUly the same as the slope of the roof.
On its under surface are mutulcs, one over each tdglvph and
one between, which are studded with guttae, probably npn-
senting the wood pins which secured the rafters in their position
Generally speaking, in the Doric temples there is no cymatium
or gutter, and the rain fell directly off the roof; In order to
prevent it txickling down there was an upper moulding, throated,
with a bird^ beak mwilding behind and a second throating near
the bottom, so that the corona had an upper iUlet ptojecUng,
and a lower fillet receding, from its fasda plane. The roof itself
was covered with tiles in tcira-cotta or marble, which conslBted
of flat sbbs with raised edges and covering tiles over the joints;
the lower ends of the covering tiles were decorated with antefixae,
and tlie top of the roof was protected by ridge tfles, on the top of
2a
Fig. 2.— Greek Doric Order. The Parthenon,
Athens.
tjS
ORDER
which freie Mttetimet •il<litiQoal ntefine pkoed pumDd
with the lidfe tile. As the mouldings of the pediment were
letunied for a short distance along the side, there was a small
cymatium or gutter with lions' heads, through the mouth of
which the water ran. In the principal and rear front of the
temple the lines of the cornice were repeated up the slope of the
pediment, which coincided with that of the roof, and the tym-
panum, which they enclosed, was enriched with sculpture. On
the centre of the pediment and at each end were pedestals
(acroteria), on which figures, or conventional or n a ments, were
placed. Supplementary to the order at the back of the peristyle
were antae, slightly projecting pilasters which terminated the
walls of the pronaos; these had a small base, were of the same
diameter from the top to the bottom, and had a simple moulded
capital.
TMe Greek Janic Order.— Tht Ionic order, like the Doric,
<mes its origin to timber prototypes, but varies in its features;
the columns are more slender, being from 8 to 9 diameters high,
with an intercolumniation of sometimes as muda as 2 diameters;
the architrave also is subdivided into three fascia, which suggests
that in its origin it consisted of three beams superposed, in
contradistinction to that of the Doric architrave, which con^
sisted of a single beam. As in the Doric order, the Ionic temple
rested on a stylobate of three steps (fig. 3). The columns con-
sisted of base, shaft and capital In the Ionic examples the base
consbted of a torus moulding, fluted horisontally, beneath
which were three double astra^Us divided by the scotia, some-
time, as in the temple at Pricne, resting on a square plinth.
In the Attic base employed in Athens, imder the upper torus,
which is either plain, fluted or carved with the gnilloche, is a
fillet and deep scotia, with a second torus underneath. The
shaft tapers much less than in the Doric order; it has a slighter
entasis, and is fluted, the flutes
being elliptical in section
but subdivided by fillets. The
number of flutes is generally
24. Tlie fewer and upper
parts of the shaft have an
apophyge and a fillet, resting
on the base in the former case
and supportiSig the capital in
the latter. The capital oonsbts
"Ogof an astragal, sometimes
™ carved with the bead and reel,
and an echinus moulding above
enriched with the egg-and-dart,
on which rests the capital with
spiral volutes at each end,
and from front to back with
~|~] cushions which vary in design
andenrichmenL In the capitals
of the angle columns the end
volute is turned round on the
diagonal, so as to present the
same appearance on the front
and the side; this results in an
awkward arrangement at the
back, where two half-volutes
intersect one another at right
angles. A small abacus, gener-
ally carved with ornament,
crowns the capital In early
eiamples the channels bt-
Fig. 3-— The Greek Ionic tween the fillets of the spiral
Order. Temple of Nike Apteroa, j^ns convex, in Izter examples
^"^°*' concave. In the capitals of
the Erechtheum (fig. 4)1 a greater richness is given by inter-
mediary fiilets. In all great examples the second fillet dips
down in the centre of the front and a small anthemion ornament
raarka the receding of the echinus moulcting, which is circular
and sometimes nearly merged into the cushion. In the Erech-
theum the enrichment of the capital is carried farther in the
necking, which b decorated with the anthemion and AfMM 6ff
from the upper part of the shaft by a bead and red. The en-
tabkture is divfcied, like that of the Doric order, into architrave,
frieze and cornice. The architrave is subdivided into three
f asdae, the upper one pro-
jecting slightly beyond the
bwer, and aowned by
small mouldings, the lower
one sometimes carved
with the Lesbian leaf.
Above this is the friexe,
sometimes plain and at
other times enriched with
figure sculpture in tow
relief. In the Ionian ex-
amples there was no friexe,
its place being taken by
dentils of great sixe and
projection. The cornice
consists of bedmould,
corona and cymatium; in
the Ionian examples the
bedmould is of great rich-
ness, consisting of a lower
moulding of egg-and-dart
with bead and red, a
dentil course above, and
another egg-and-dart with
bead and red above, sink-
ing into the soffit of the
corona, which projects in
the Ionian examplfs more
than half a diameter. The
corona consists of a plain
fascia with moulding and
cymatium above, and as
the cymatiiun or gutter is
cairied through from end
to end of the temple it is
provided with lions' heads
to throw off the water, and
sometimes enriched with
the anthemion ornament. In the Attic examples much greater
simplicity, ascribed to Dorian influence.is given to the bedmould,
in which only the cyma-reversa with the Lesbian leaf carved on
it and the bead and red are retained. The mouldingB of the
cornice, induding the cymatium, are carried up as a pediment,
as in the Doric temple, and the roofs are similar. The base and
capital of the antae are more elaborate than in those of the Doric
order, and are sometimes, both in Ionic and Attic examples,
richly carved with the Lesbian leaf and egg-and-dart, in both
cases with the bead and red underneath. The chid variatioa
from the usual entabUture is found in that of the caxyatide
portico of the Erechtheum, where the friexe is omitted, dentils
are introduced in the bedmould, paterae are carved on the
upper fasda of the sxchitrave, and the covering was a flat marble
roof. The caryalide figures, the drapery of which recaOs the
fluting of the columns, stood on a podium which enriched cornice
and base.
The Greek CmnOnan Order (fig. 5).— As the entabkture of this
order was adapted by the Greeks from that of thelooic order,
the capital only need be described, and its evolution from the
earliest examples known, that in the temple at Bassae, to the
fully devefeped type in the temple of Zeus Olymphis at Athens,
can be easily traced. It consisted of dther a small nanfe of
leaves at the bottom, or of a bead-and-red moulding, a bdl
decorated in various ways and a moulded abacus, the latter as a
rule being concave in plan on each face and geneniUy terminating
in an arris or pomL In the Bassae capital we find the finl
example of the spiral tendrils which rise up to and support the
abacus with other spirals crossing to the centre and tlie aomthss
kal and flower. In the more pedecied exanqple of the Cbocagk
Fxo. 4.— <^rBek look Order.
Erechtheum, Athene
The
ORDER
179
raooument of Lysicrates (fig. 0)i tlieie Is a lower raage Of smill
leaves of some river plant, between which and the tops of the
flutes (which here are turned over as leaves) is a sinking which
was probab\y filled with a metal band. From the lower range of
leaves spring eight acanthus leaves, bending forward at the top,
with small flowers between, representing the heads of nails
which in the metal prototype fastened these leaves to the bcU;
from the caulicolae, on the right and left, spring spiral tendrils
rising to the angles under the abacus, and from the same caulicolae
double spirals which cross to the centre of the bell, the upper ones
carrying the anthemion flower, which rises across the abacus.
The abacus in this capital has a deep scotia with fillet, and an
echinus above, and is one of the few great examples in which
the angles are canted. The architrave, frieae and cornice are
adaptations from the Ionic order. The corona has in the place
of the cynatittm a cresting of antflfixaa, which is purely decora-
tive, as there are no oovaing tikt, the loof of the monument being
^OAJl
Fig. 5.— Creek
porinthian Order
^Choragic monu-
neat of
Lysicratec
FiG.6w
in one block, of marble carved with leaves. Set bade and on the
tame plane as the architrave and friese is a second cresting with
the Greek wave scroll. There are other types of Greek Corinthian
capital, of whidi the finest example is in the interior of the
Tholos at Epidaurus (c. 400 B.C.), with two rows of leaves round
the lower part, angle and central spirals, and a flower in the centre
of the abacus. Of other examples the capitals of the interior
of the temple of ApoUo Branchidae in Asiia Minor, and of the
vestibule at Elcusis, and of the two porches of the temple of the
Winds at Athens, are the best known. Except for the pointed
ends of the abacus, which are Greek, the capital of the temple of
Zeus Olympiua might almost be classed among the Roman
examples, and it is thought to have been the model copied by the
Komans from those which Sulla took to Rome for the temple
of Jupiter Capitolinus.
Tk* Roman Doric Oritr. — The earliest example of this order
b pcobably that of the temple at Cora, about so m. from Rome,
attributed to SuOa (80 B.C.), In wUcb the kadlof featuiet of tho
Greek Doric order are employed, but extremely degraded in
style. The temple was raised on a podium with a flight of steps
in front; the shaft has so flutes and is carried on a small torus
base, and the
echinus of the
capital is very
poor. Tlie arcU-
trave and triglyph-
friese are cut out
of the same stone,
the former being
much too shallow
to allow of its
carrying the friese
and cornice. Two
other early ex-
amples are thoso
employed in the
decoration of the
arcades of the
Tabularium and oC-
the theatre of
Marcellus (fig. 7);
they are only semi-
detached. The
Doric order was
not a favourite
with the Romans,
and did not appeal
to their tastes for
rich decoration;
the only other ex-
amples known are
those at Praeneste,
at Albano, and in
the thermae of Dio-
cletian. At Albano
the echinus of the
capital is carved
with the egg and
anchor, and in the
thermae a cyma-recta carved with a leaf ornament takes the
place of the echinus. Thexe is no base to any of these examples,
the Albano base consisting only of an apophyge and fiUet, and
only the Diocletian example is fluted.
The Roman Ionic Ordcr,^T\tt complete degradation of the
tonic order is cleariy shown in the so-called temple of Fortuna
V'irilis (ascribed to about xoo B.C.), in the profuse decoration
of architrave, frieze and cornice with coarse ornament, and, in
the capital, the raising of the echinus to the same levtl as llse top
of the second fillet of the volute, so that it is no longer visible
under the cushion. The shaft has twenty flutes, the fillet being
much wider than in the Greek examples, and the flute ia semi-
circular. Much more refinement is shown in the order 4s em-
ployed on the upper storey of the theatre ol Marcellus (Ig. 8),
where the only part enriched with ornament is in the t$g and
tongue of the bedmould. In the capital the fillet of the volute
runs across above the echinus, and the canaUs is stopped at each
end over the volute, an original treatment. The most corrupt
example of the Roman Ionic capital is that of the temple of
Saturn on the Forum Romanum, which fortunate^ does not
seem to have been copied Uter. The base of all the Roman Ionic
columns is that known as the Attic base, vix. a lower and upper
torus with scotia and fillets between, always raised on a square
plinth.
The Roman Corinthian Orirr.— The great varieties of design
in the Greek Corinthian capiul (fig. 9), and the fact that its
entablature was copied from Ionic examples, suggests that no
definite type sufficient to constitute an orider had been evolved
by the Greeks; it remained therefore a problem to K
out by the Romans, who, with the assistance of Gr
F10.7.
l8o
ORDER
empbyed generally by the Romans, not only in Rome but
throughout Greece, Asia Minor and Syria, developed an order
, which, though
wanting in the
refinement and
subtlety found in
Greek work, is one
of the most monu-
mental kind, and
has in its adoption
by the Italian re-
vivalists had more
influence than any
other in the raising
of palatial struc-
tures. Even in
Rome itself the
portico of the Pan-
theon, erected by
Agrippa (27 B.C.).
and the temple of
Castor (rebuilt by
Domitian aj>. 86)
in the Forum, are
ren^arkable in-
stances of early
work, which hold
their own with
some of the later
examples even of
Greek art.
The develop-
ment of the
Roman Corinthian
order will be best
understood by a
description in
detail similar to
that given of the
Tak-
the
Fig. 8.
great Doric and Ionic orders,
ing the Pantheon portico as
earlier example, the base consists of
an upper and lower torus separated
by a double astragal with scotia and
fillet above and below, and resting
on a square plinth. The shaft, a
monolith, is unfiuted, tapering up-
wards, 9} diameters in height, with
apophyge and fillet at the bottom,
and an apophyge, fillet and astragal
at the top. The capital consisted of
a square abacus with concave sides
carried on a circular inverted bell,
two rows of acanthus leaves, rising
three-fifths of the bcll, being carved
round it (fig. 10), the stems of the
upper range of eight leaves lying in
the axis of each face and of the dia-
gonals, and those of the lower range
between them; the stems of the
caulicolae from which spring the
spirals, which rise to support the
angles of the abacus, and to the
centre of the capital, carrying the
central flower, start from between the
upper range of leaves. The abacus
has concave sides, canted angles,
Fic. ^— Ronian Corinrhian "<* »* moulded, with a quarter
Older; Ftotbeoa. round, fillet and cavetto. The archi-
trave, like that of the Greek Ionic
order, has three fasciae, but they arc further elaborated by
A BOuU ^yma-revem under the upper fasda and a bead
under the second fasda« The architrave is crowned with a
moulding, consisting of a fiHet with cyma-reversa and bead
underneath. The frieze is plain, its only decoration being the
well-known inscription of Agrippa. The bedmould consists of
a bead, cyma-reversa and' fillet, under a plain dentil course, in
which the dentils are not carved; bead-and-red and egg-and-
dart above these carried a plain face on which is found the
new feature introduced by the Romans, viz. the modiDion. This,
though carved out of one solid block with the whole bedmould,
suggested an appropriate support to the projecting cornice. The
modillion was a bracket, a horizontal ver»on of the anoones which
supported the cornice of the Greek doorway cornice, and was
here crowned by a small cyma-reversa carved with leaves which
profiled round the modillion and along the upper part of the
plain face. The cornice ^
is simple, consisting
of a corona, fillet and
cymatium, the latter
omitted across the
front of the temple,
but carried up over
the cornice of the
pediment. All the
columns are equi-
distant with an in-
tercolumniatlon of s^
diameters. The order
of the interior of the
rotunda built by
Hadrian (a.d. xax) is
similar to that of the
portico, the lower
moulding of the bed-
mould and the bead
being carved, and the
tongue or anchor
taking the place of the
dart between the eggs*
The order of the
temple of Castor (fig.
xi) was enriched to a
far greater extent, and
parts were carved with
ornament, which in
Greek examines was
probably only painted.
The base was similar,
but the columns (xo
diameters high) had
twenty-four flutes,
with fillets between.
The capital was
further enriched with
foliage, which riang from the caulicolae was carried along
the cavetto of the abacus, whose upper moulding was carved
with the egg-and-dart. The middle fasda of the architrave
was carved with a version of the Greek anthemion, the cysoa*
reversa under the upper fascia being carved with leaves and
bead-and-reel under. The lower moulding of the bedmould
was carved with the egg-and-tongue; the dentfl course was
carved with finely proportioned dentik, the cyma-reversa and
mouldings above being similar to those of the Pantheon portico.
In the latter, on the soffit of the corona, square paneb are sunk
with a flower in the centre. In the temple of Castor the panel is
square, but there is a border in front and bade, which shows
that the cornice had a greater projection. The corona was
carved with fluting, departing from the simplidty of the Pantheon
example, but evidently more to the taste of the Romans, as
it is found in many subsequent examples. The IntercolunmiatiQii
is only two and one-third of the (hameter. Though not quite
equal to Greek foliage, that of the capitals of the temple of Castor
is of great beauty, and there is one other feature in the capita]
Fig. 10.— The Rooun Corinthian Order;
Pantheon.
ORDER
i8i
which it onique. the spirals of the centre are lugfir than usual
aod interlace one another. A variety of the bedniouJd of the
ooniice is found in the so-called Temple of the Sun on the Quinnal
Hill, although of late date, the entablature has the character
of the Renaissance of the Augustan era, so fine and simple are
Fic II.— The Roman Corinthian Order; Temple of Castor.
k» piopoitioos and details; there are only two fasciae to the
•rcfailfavt, and the upper feature of the bedmould consisted of
krfe projecting blocks with two fascia and an upper egg-and-
tongue BODulding, like ihe Ionic dentil, these blocks projecting
half-way between the lasda of the frieae and the edge of the
Tkt H^moH Composite Ofder.-^As already noted, the Com-
poatc order differs from the Corinthian only in the design of its
capital, which is a compound of the foliage of the Corinthian and
the vohites of the Ionic capital. Already, in the 'Ionic capital
of the Erechthfium, a- further enrichment with the anthemion
was p«6vided round the necking; this was copied in the capitals
of the interior ol Tnjan's basilica; in Asia Minor at Aisani (ist
century a.d.) a single sow of leaves was employed round th*
capatabof the pronaos under the volutes of an Ionic capital;
the architect of the Arch of Titus (aj>. 8i) went one step farther
and intnxiuced the double row of leaves; both examples exist
in the Arch of Septimus Severus (fig. i a), in the tepidarium of
the tfaernae of Diocletian; and, to judge by the numerous
etamples still existing in the churches at Rome, it would seem
to hare been the favourite capital. The Bytantine architects
also based most of their capitals on the Rootan Composite
examples. There are other hybrid Roman capitals, in which
fignica d a winged Victory, rams' heads or cornucopia, take the
place of the angle spirals of the Corinthian capital.
TAe Anode Order.— Thi%, which was defined by Fergusson
■a the tr«e Roman order, ia a compound of two distinct t3rpes
•f coutruction, the arcuated and the tiabeated. the former
derived from the Etmscaos, the latter from the Greeka. Whilst,
however, the arcade was a oonstructive feature, the employ-
ment of the semi- or three^uarter detached column with its
entablature complete, as a decorative screen, was a travesty of
its original constructive function, without even the excuse of us
adding m any way to the sohdity of the structure, for the whole
screen could be taken off from the Roman theatres and amphi-
theatres without in. any sense interfering with their stability
The employment of the attached column only, as a vertical
decorative feature subdividing the arches, might have been
admissible, but to add the entablature was a mistake, on account
of the intcrcolumniation, which was far in excess of that em-
ployed in any order, so that not only was it necessary to cut the
architrave into voussoirs, thus forming a flat arch, but the stones
composing it had to be built mto the wall to ensure their subility,
the entablature thus became an element of weakness instead of
strength (fig 13) The earliest example of the Arcade order is
the Tabularium in Rome (80 B.C.) Where it was employed to
Ught a vaulted corridor running from one end to the other of the
structure and raised some 50 ft from the ground. The column is
semi-detached, 7I diameters high with an intercolumniatioa
of neariy 4 diameters, and an enublature with an architrave
which IS Ids than half a diameter, quite incapable, therefore, of
carrying itself, much less than the rest of the entablature^
the impost pier of the arch is half a diameter, and the height
of the open arcade a little more than half iu width. The shaft
Fio. it.->The Composite Order; AA:h of Sepdmut
had twenty-four flutes with arrises, and rested on a square
plinth, and in the capital the echinus was only alx>ut one-twelfth
of the diameter, the shaUowcsl known. The friete was divided
by triglyphs, there being four between those over the axis o<
each cohimn; the correct number in the Greek Doric order being
one. In the theatre of Marcellus there were three triglypha;
the impost pier was i diameter, thus giving greats* *«aMi»v
to the wall, but resulting in a narrower opening. Tl
had originally a second arcade above that nof
t82
ORDER
wmi-dctadied oolumns of the Ionic order, and these are found in
the upper storey of the theatre of Marcellus, the eartiesi example
existing of the superposed orders. A cerUm proporuon exists
between the orders employed, ihua the upper diameter of the
Doric column (which is 7I diameters high with a diminution of
between one-fifth and one-sixth of the lower diameter) is the
same as the lower diameter of the lomc column, which is 8|
diameters high and a much slighter diminution In the Colosseum
Fig. i3^~The Anade Order; Thcatrt of Manxllus.
there were three storeys pierced with arcades, with the Corinthian
order on the third storey, and a supcrstnicture (added at a later
date) without an arcade, and decorated with Corinthian pilasters
only. Apparently this scheme of decoration was considered
to be the best for the purpose, and with some slight changes was
employed for all the amphitheatres throughout the Empire.
The intercolumniation, on which the design is made, varies
in the examples of later date. With an intercolumniation of 6
diameters, the arcades are wider and a lighter effect is obtained,
and thb is the proportion in the Colosseum.
The Fhe Orders; /te/ta».— The two Itah'an architects whose
text-books with illustrations of the five orders have been accepted
generaUy as the chief aathoritics o& the subject are Vignola
and Palladio, the former in France and the latter In 1 _
the dates of the pubbcation of their works being 1563 and 1570
respectively In 1750 Sir William Chambers published a tieatisa
on civil architecture, in which he set forth his inteipreutioa
of the five orders, and his treatise is stdl consulted by students.
They all of them based their conjectural restorations oa the
descriptions given by Vitruvius, who, however, avoids usiiv
the same term throughout, the words gemus, ratio, species, marts
being employed, from which it may be concluded that the Creeks
themselves had no such term as that which u now defined as
"order," especially as m his book be invariably quotes the
Creek name when describing various parts of the temple. la
the preface to the fourth book he qieaks only of the three ordeit
{genus), so that the Tuscan described m Book IV chap. v8.
would seem to have been an afterthought, and his descrip-
tion of the entabbture shows that it was entirely in wood and
therefore an mcomplete development. The Italian revivalists,
however, evolved one of their orders out of it and added a fifth,
the Composite, of which there was no example m Rome before
A.0 82 In the description which follows it must be understood
that it refers only to the Italian version of what the revivalists
considered the Roman orders to consist of. and as a r\de Vignola*s
interprcution will be given, because he seems to have kept
closer to Viiruvius's descriptions and to have taken as hisoiodeb
the finest examples then existing in Home.
The Tuscan Order —The base consists of a torus moulding,
resting on square plinths; the shaft is terminated below by an
apophyge and OJlet and tapers upwards, the diminution beiqg
between one-quarter and one-fifth of the lower diameter, with
an apophyge, fillet and astragal at the top, the capital consttts
of a square abacus with fillet and cavetto, an echinus, fillet and
a necking; the whole column being 7 diameters high. The
intercolumniation given by Vignola is x) diameters, instead
of the 3) diameters of Vltruvius's arcostyle. The architrave,
frieze and cornice, arc simple versions of the Doric, except that
there are no triglyphs in the frieze.
The Doric Order.— In his Doric order Vignola has followed
the Roman Doric order of the theatre of Marcellus, but he
gives it a base consisting of an astragal and- torus resting on a
square plinth, in his shaft he copies the fluting (24 flutes) witli
the arris of the columns of the thermae of Diocletian; his
capital, except the flowers decorating the neckmg and Us
entablature, are entirely taken from the theatre of MarccDus}
in a second study he introduces an Attic base, carves the echinus
of the capital with the cgg<ind-tongue, introduces two faadaa
in his architrave, and to support the cornice provides shallow
plain modillions with guitae on the soffits. In both the examples
given the columns taper upwards and are 8 diameten higlt.
The ionic Order.— "For the Ionic order Vignola discards the
temple of Fort una Virilis, but enriches the order of the tlwatrs
of Marcellus, adopting the base of the temple of Castm' ami the
fluted columns of the same; in his frieae he introduces that of
the Corinthian temple of Antoninus and Faustina, and ia tba
bedmould anS cornice copies that of the thermae of Diodetiaa.
Palladio in his entablature introduces the convex friesea and
adopts a single uncarved modillion under the cornice. Ia both
cases the columns are fluted and 9 diameters high.
• The Corinthian Ortfcr.— In this order Vignola, for his bsae,
returns to the temple of Castor, makes his columns 10 diametets
high, copies the capital of the portico of the Pantheon, intioduccs
a rib frieze with winged female figures and a bull about to ba
sacrificed, and adopts the bedmould of the temple of. Castor,
reversing the carving of two of the mouldings and the'cotnacc,
and omitting the fluting of the corona of that temple.. In
Palladio's Corinthian order the frieze is too narrow and the
bedmould, though copied from the Umple of Castor, is of tmslkr
scale.
The Composite Order.— As in the Roman Composite order the
only original feature was the capital, there were no new veisioaa
to be given of the entablature, but unfortunately they were
unable to copy the many examples in Rome. In the three beat*
known capitals, those of the arches of Tkus and Scptlaiai
ORDER, HOLY
■^
Tuscan.
Doric.
Ionic
Fic. 14.— The Italian Orders.
Corinthian.
Compoaite.
Sevenis and in the thermae of Diocletian, the upper fillet of the
volute runs straight across the capital, being partially sunk In
the cavetto of the abacus; in the canab's of the volutes of all
these examples is a band of foliage which dips down to carry
the centre flower, and, on account of its projection, it hides,
from those looking only from below, the upper fillet of the volute.
The architects of the Revival, therefore, in their studies of the
capital, turned the volutes (which they would seem, like Ruskin,
to have thought were horns) down on to the top of the echinus,
producing a composition which is not in accordance with andent
examples and shows ignorance of the ori^n and development
of the Ionic volute; unfortunately their interpretations of the
Composite capital were followed by Inigo Jones, and are employed
even in Regent Street, London, at the present day; there are,
however, two or three Renaissance examples in Paris, in which
the true Composite capital has been retained.
The PedesM.—Tht architects of the Revival would seem to
have conceived the idea that no order was complete without
a pedestal. The only Roman examples of isolated columns
with pedestals known are those of the columns of Trajan, Marcus
Attrelius, Antoninua Pius and others of less importance, but
they carried sutues only and had no structural functions as
supports to an entablature; the pedestals under the columns
which decorated the arches of triumph were built into and
formed part of the structure of the arch. The columns of the
tepidarium of the Roman thermae had pedestals of moderate
hdght (about 3 to 4 ft.) which bore no proportional relation to
the diameter of the column. Vignola, however, gave definite
proportions for the pedestal, which in the Doric order was to be
s <fiametera in height, in the Ionic 9f diameters, and in the
Corinthian order 3 diameters, the result being that in the front
of the church of St John Lateran, where the Corinthian pilasters
aie ol sr^t height, the pedestals are xa to 13 ft. high. In
coniuaction with the arcade there was more reason for pedestals
to the semi-detached columns on the upper storeys, but none
was employed on the ground storey, either in the theatre of
Marcellus or in the Colosseum. (R. P. S.)
ORDER. HOLY. "Holy Oidert'* (wlincs sacri) may be
defined as the rank or sutus of persons empowered by virtue
of a certain form or ceremony to exerdae spiritual functions in
the Christian church. Thus Tertullian (Idol, 7, Monog. 11)
mentions the "ecclesiastical order," Induding therein those
who held office in the church, and {Exkart, Cast. 71) he dis-
tinguishes this ordo from the Christian fUbs or hiity. We may
compare the common use of the word ordo in profane writers,
who refer, e.g-i to the ordo sauUonus^ ordo oquesttr, &c. It ia
true that the evidence of Tertullian does not carry us back
farther than the dose of the and or opening of the 3rd
century a.d. But a little before TertuUian, Irenaeus, though
he does not use the word ortf^, antldpates in some measure
Tertullian's abstraa tenn, for he recognizes a magisUrii locus^
" a place of magistracy " or " presidency ** in the church. Indeed,
phrases more or less equivalent occur in the sub-apostolic litera-
ture, and even in the New TesUmeat itself, such as those who
are " over you in the Lord " (i Thesa. v. la), those " that bear
the rule " (Heb. xiiL 7; cf. i Oem. i. 3; Herm. Vis. «. a, 6).
Here we pause to remark that in Tertullian*s view the churrh
as a whole possesses the power of self-govemment and administra-
tion, though in the interest of discipline and convenience it
delegates that power to ^wdal oflkcrs. It is, he says, the
" authority of the church " which has constituted the difference
between the governing body and the hity, and in an emergency
a layman may baptise and celebrate {Batkart. Cast. 7), nor can
this statement be lightly set aside on the plea that Tertullian,
when he so wrote, bid lapsed into Montanism. The fact is that
the Montanists repres e nted die conservatism of their day, and
even now the Roman Church admits the right of laymen tabaptise
when a priest cannot be had. The AfsttUc Cmstitmt im i i (viii. 3a)
184
ORDER, HOLY
aUow a Uynmn M pmch, if he be skilful and reverent, and the
language of St Ignatius (Ad Smyrn. 8), *' Let that be esteemed
a valid Eucharist which is celebrated in the presence of the
bishop or of some one commissioned by him," is really incon-
sistent with any firmly established prindple that celebration by
a layman was in itself absolutely null (see also Eucsasist).
When we go on to inquire what special offices the church
from the beginning, or almost from the beginning, adopted and
recognised, two points claim preliminary attention. In the
first place, much would be done in practical administration by
persons who held no definite position formally assigned to them,
although they wielded great influence on account of their age,
talents and character. Next, it must be carefully remembered
that the early church was, in a sense hard for us even to tmder«
stand, ruled and edified by the direct action of the Holy Spirit.
St Paul (z Cor. xii. 38) furnishes us with a list of church offices
veiy -different from those which obtain in any church at the
present day.^ " God," he says, " hath set some in the church,
first apostles, secondly prophets, thirdly teachers, then miracles,
then gifts of healing, helps, governments, (divers) kinds of
tongues." Ministry of this sort is not to be confounded with
" order," of which this article treats. It died out very gradually,
and the Didache or Teaching of the A pasties, compiled probably
between A.O. 130 and 160, gives clear information on the nature
of this prophetic or charismatic ministry. The title of " apostle "
was not limited to the immediate disciples of our Lord, but was
given to missionaries or evangelists who went about founding
new churches; the prophets spoke by revelation; the teachers
were enabled by supernatural illumination to instruct others.
All of these men were called to their work by the internal voice
of the Holy Spirit: none of them was appointed or elected by
their fellows: none of them, and this is an important feature,
was necessarily confined to a local church. Nevertheless, side
by side with this prophetic ministry there was another, mediately
at least of human appointment, and local in its character. Here
we have the germ of orders in the technical sense. At first this
local ministry was twofold, consisting of presbyters or bishops
and deacons. Christian presbyters first appear (Acts «. 30) in
the church of Jerusalem, and most likely the name and office
were adopted from the Jewish municipalities, perhaps from the
Jewish synagogues (see Priest). Afterwards St Paul and St
Barnabas in their first missionary journey "appointed*
(Acts xiv. 23) presbyters in every church." Further, we find
St Paul about a.d. 6a addressing the '* saints " at Philippi
" with the bishops and deacons." The word brlffnovoi or
overseer may be of Gentile origin, just as presbyter may
have been borrowed from the Jews. There is strong proof that
presbyter and episcopus are two names for the same office.
It has indeed been maiotained by eminent scholars, chiefly by
Hatch and Ifarnack. that the word episcopus was given originally
to the chief' officer of a club or a confraternity, so that the
episcopus was a financial officer, whereas the presbyters regulated
the discipline. To this it may be objected that presbyters
and bishops are never mentioned together, and that the names
were interchangeable (.\cts xx. 17 and 28; 1 Pet. v. i, 2; 1 Tim.
iii. 1-7 and v. 17-19; Tit, i. 5-7). The work of the presbyter
or bishop was concerned at first with discipline rather than with
teaching, which was largely in the hands of the charismatic
ministry; nevertheless, the Pastoral Epistles (i Tim. iii. 2)
insist that an episcopus must be " apt to teach," and some
prcsbytere (1 Tim. v. 1 7) not only ruled but also " laboured in the
word and in teaching " They also " oflfered the gifts " (i Clem.
44), t.e. to adopt Bishop Lightfoot's interpretation, " they led
the prayers and thanksgivings of the congregation, presented
the alms and contributions to God and asked His blessing on
them in the name of the whole body." Under the bishops or
presbyters stood the deacons or " helpers " (Philipp. L r, 1 Tim.
iii. 8-13). Whether they were the successors^ as most of the
Fathers believed, of the seven chosen by the church of Jerusalem
* A partial ewration may be made in favour oC the f Catholie
Apostolic Church ' founded by Edward Irving.
* Jotcphus. e.g. Antiq. vL 4. a, abuadaatiy justifies thU translation.
to relieve the apostles in the administration of alms (Acta vi.)
is a question still disputed and uncertain. Be that aa it ssay,
the deacon was long considered to be the " servant of the widows
and the poor " (Jerome, Ep, 146), and the archdeacon, who first
appears towards the end of the 4th century, owes the greatnos
of his position to the fact that he was the chief administrator of
church funds (see Axchdeacon). This ancient idea of the
diaconatc, ignored in the Roman Pontifical, has been restored
in the English ordinal. The growth of sacerdotal theories,
which were fully developed in Cyprian's time, fixed attention
on the bishop as a sacrificing priest, and on the deacon* as his
assistant at the altar.
Out of the twofold grew the threefold ministry, so that eadi
local church was governed by one episcopus surrounded by a
council of presbyters. James, the Lord's brother, who, partly
because Of his relationship to Christ, stood supreme in the
church at Jerusalem, as also Timothy and Titus, who acted
as temporary delegates of St PatU at Ephesus and in Crete, are
justly considered to have been forenmners ol the monarchical
episcopate. The episcopal ruk in this new sense probably arose
in the lifetime of St John, and may have had his sanction. At
all eyents the rights of the monarchical bishop are strongly
asserted in the Ignatian epistles (about a.o. 1 10), and were already
recognized in the contemporary churches of Asia Minor. We
may attribute the origin of the episcopate to the need felt of
a single official to preside at the Eucharist, to represent the
church before the heathen state and in the face of rising heresy,
and to carry on correspondence with sister churches. The change
of constitution occurred at different times io different places.
Thus St Ignatius in writing to the Romans never refea to any
presiding bishop, and somewhat earlier Clement of Rome in
his epistles to the Corinthians uses the terms presbyter and
episcopus interchangeably. Hermas (about a.d. 140) confirms
the impression that the Roman Church of his day was under
presbytcral rule. . Even when introduced, the monarchical
episcopate was not thought necessary for the ordination of other
bishops or presbyters. St Jerome {Ep. 146) tells us that aa late
as the middle of the 3rd century the pn^yters of Alexandria,
when the see was vacant, used to elect one of their own number
and without any further ordination set him in the episcopal
office. So the canons of Hippolytus (about aj>. 250) decree
that a confessor who has suffered torment for his adbcrence to
the Christian faith should merit and obtain the rank of presbyter
forthwith — " Immo confessio est ordinatio ejus." Likewise
in A.D. 314 the thirteenth canon of Ancyra (for the true reading
see Bishop Wordsworth's Ministry 0/ Crau, p. 140) aasuma
that city presbyters may with the bishop's leave ordain other
presbyters. Even among the medieval schoolmen, some (Gore,
Chunk and Ministry ^ p. 377) maintained that a- priest might be
empowered by the pope to ordain other priests.
The threefold * ministry was developed in the 2Qd, a seven-
fold ministry in the middle of the 3rd century. There mus*.
says Cornelius {apud Euseb., H.E, vi. 43), be one bishop in the
Catholic Church; and he .then enumerates the church officers
subject to himself as bishop of Rome. These are 46 presbyteis,
7 deacons, 7 subdeacons, 42 acolytes, 52 exorcists apd readers,
together with doorkeepers. The subdeacons, 00 doubt, became
a necessity when the deacons, whose number was limited to seven
in memory of their original institution, were no longer equal to
their duties in the " regions " of the imperial city, and left their
lower work, such as preparation of the sacred vessels, to their
subordinates. ' The office of acolyte may have been suggested by
the attendant assigned to heathen priests. The office of door*
keeper explains itself, though it must be remembered that it waa
the special duty of the Christian osiiarius to exclude the ua-
baptizcd and persons undergoing penance from the more solemn
paft of the Eucharistic service. But readers and exorcists cUin
' " Fixed attention " on the deacon's mini&tration. the minicum*
tion itself being much more ancient. See Justin, Apoi. L 6j^.
* The Nestorians may \» mid to have a fourfold ministry, for
thtfv recoi»rcratcd a bishop when he was made catkoUoeB «r
patriarch. Chardon. v. p. 22a>
ORDER, HOLY
185
71w icsdtt i§ tac nily flunor officiu mcntniicd
1^ TcrtttUian {Pntser. 41). An ancient church older which
bdonp to the latter part di the snd century (see Hamtdt'i
Sowcts of ApntdU Canons, E&gl. TranaL p. 54 leq.) mentiona
the reader before the deaooo, and ipeaka of him a» filling " the
plaoe of an evangeliat.'' We ate justified in believing that both
caoreiita and teaden, vhoae f unctiona differed eaaentialljr from
the mffhintrel empbynunU of the other minor cleric»» belonged
ocigioally to the " chanamatic " miniitiy, and aank afterwards
to a low lank in the " orden" of the church (see Exoacm
and LacTOft). There were also other minor orders in the
andent chureh which ha^ fallen bto oblivion or loet their
ckdcal chancter. Such were the eofiaiao or grave-diggers, the
faa imU lasQt chaunteis, and the ponbolam, who at great
personal rbk— whence the name— ^visited the sick in pestilence.
The modern Greek Church recognizes only two minor orders,
vis. those of sttbdeacons and re^ulers, and this holds good of the
Oriental churches generally, with the single exception of the
Annrm'sns.^ The Anglican Church is content with the threefold
ministfy of bishops^ priests and deacons, but in recent times the
bishopa have appointed lay-readers, licensed to read prsyem
and pKcadiinlndldings which are not consecrated. The Latins,
and ArnKnians who have borrowed from the Latins, have sub-
deaoons, acolytes, exorcists, readers and doorkeepers. Since the
ponCificate of Innocent III., however, tbe Latin Church has
placed the subdiaconate among the greater or sacred orders, the
s u b deaon n being dbliged to the law of celibacy and bound to the
da3y oeciution of the breviary offices. The minor orders, and
even the subdisoonaCe .and diaconate, are now regarded u no
more than steps to the priesthood. Roman thcologiana generally
reckon duly sevicA orders, although, il we count the episcopate
an Older diistinct fiom the presbyteiate, the sum is not seven,
hul flight. The explanation given by St Thomas {Supp. si. 5.)
h that, wfaeresfl all the orders have reference to the body of
Christ present on the alur, the episcopate, so far forth, is not a
separate order, since a simple priest no less than a bishop
celebrata the Eucharist. The Council of Trent takes the same
view; it emuierates (Scss. xxiit osp. s) tmly seven orders, and
yet maintains (cap. 4) the ecclesiastical hierarchy of bishops,
ptf ests and ministers, the bishops as successors of the Apostles
boMhig tbe highest place. Tbe Roman Church forbids ordina-
tion to higher grades unless the candidate has received all the
inferior piden. Further^ a cleric is bound to exercise the minor.
ordciB for a year before he can be ordained subdeacon, he must
be flubdeaoo^' for a year before he u ordained deacon, deacon for
a year before he is made priest. However, instances of men
derailed at ones from the condition of laymen to the priesthood
wflro known in the early church, and Chardon (Hist, da sacra-
flMMtf , voL V. part r, ch. v.) shows that in exceptional cases men
wcso ooBsecnted bishops without prevwus ordination to the
pnesthood.
Psssing to the effect of ordination, we meet with two views,
each of which still finds advocates. According to some, ordhia-
tien sisaply entitles a man to hold an office and perform iu
fancHaOB. it osm ap oads to the form by which, e.g., a Roman
oOdal was put hi possession of his msg^tracy. Thia theory is
ddarly staled by Cranmer: " In the New TesUment he that
Is appointed bishop or priest needed no consecration, by the
Sciipturs, for election or appofaitment thertto is sullicient."*
TUs view, widely held among modem scholars, haa strong
support in the fact that the words used for ordination in. the
fifSt three centuries 6c«POroNi>, saflttfrAawr, ithipoOaSat, ton-
MiUmn, oriingto) also expressed appohitment to dvO office.
Veqr diffemt li the medieval theory, which itrose from the
gftdual acceptance of the belief that tbe Jewish wu the proto-
typaoftha Christian priest. According, then.tothe Roman view,
*The Sytba JseoHtes and the Maronitet alco ordain *' dngcrs.**
Dendnger. Rk, Ofiental, 1. p. ti8 «q.; SUbemagl. Kinkm dis
Orkm, ppi 9S4* 3x5-
^'Crsnmcr's works sr^ to be found in Burnet, "Collection of
Records " appended to his HitUry 0/ Ou JMormalwm (ed. Pocock).
** inmer alio maintained chat " bi«hopB and priests are but
Ir.aTf. Crsnmera ^
both one ofl&ce hi the bcginamg of Chriit's reUgkio."
holy order is a iscrament, and aa stth foMlmted by Chxkt;
it confers grace and power, besides setting a mark or character
upon the soul, in ooosequenoe of which ordinatian to the same
oi&cn cannot be reitemted. Sudi is die »— ^Hwig q| the Roman
Church, accepted by the Greeka and with certain modificationa
by Anglifana of the High Church school, who appeal to t Tim.
iv. 14, a TtuL L 6. We may oonchide with brief reference to the
most important aspects of the. Roman doctrine.
The ordinary minister ol orders is a Usbop. The tonsure sad
nunor orden are, howcwer, still sometimes oonfeired by abbota,
who, though simple piiesU, have special facuhiea for the ordina-
tion of their mook^ Some acoannt haa been already given «l
scholastic opinion on presbyteral ordination to the dtaoonate and
even to the priesthood. Can a heretical or sdusmadcal bishop
validly ordain? la a simomacal ordination valid? Allmodoa
theologiana ol the Roman Chuidi answer these questiona hi
the affirmative, but from the 8th to tbe beginnmg of the x^th
century they were.fierody agiuted with the utmoat divergence
el opinion and practice. Pope Stephen reconsecrated bishopa
consecrated in the usual way by hii schismaticat predecessor
Conatantine. Pope Nicholas dedaced ordeta given by Phothis
of ConstsntiDOple nulL St Peter Damian waa grievoudy per-
plexed about the validity of aimoniacal ordinadona. Shnilarly
William of Paris hekl that degradation deprived a priest of power
to consecmu.* St Thomas, on the contrary, contcoda that
'* heretics and persona cut off from the church " (Summ, Snppt.
xxzviU. s) may ordain validly, and that a priest who hss been
degraded can still celebrate the Eucharist (5aMRm. iiL 8s. 8)
validly, though of course not UwfuUy. Hus opinioa, defended
by Bdnaventura, Alexander of Hales, Scotu^ and othera, soon
became and is now generally accepted.
The Schoobnen had no historical aenae and lltde hiaborical
informatkNi; hence they fell faito one error after another on the
essentials in the rite of ordination. Some of them believed, that
the essentfad matter in the eonaecration of a bishop consisted in
the pladag the book of the gospels on his head and ahouMers.
True, this rite was used both in East and West as early as the
4th century; it waa not, however, universaL According to
common ophnon, the matter and form of ordinauon to the
episcopate were tbe isBposition of tbe consecrating bishop's
hands with the words, " Recmvc the Holy Ghost." The words in
question, and indeed any impemtive form of this kind, are still
unknown to the Eaat and were of very late Inttnduction in the
Weat. The final imposition of hands and the bestowal of power
to forgive sms at the end of the ordination rite for prsnta In
the Roman Pontifical is later even than the tiaditien of instrv*
ments. For like reasons tbe tradition of the faistruments,
f.«. the handing over of paten and chalice in ordination to
the priesthood, are admittedly non-essenlial, unless we adopt
the opinion of seme Roman theologiana that our Lord left the
determination of matter and form to the church, adiidi haa
insisted on different rites at different times.
The neoesdty of reference to sacerdotal povter in the ordination
of priests and bbhopa wiU be considered a Kttle farther on in
connexion with Anglican orders.
Deaconesses in the East received the impodtion of the faUiop*s
hands, but could not ascend to the priesthood. The Roman
theologians regard them as incapable of true ordination, alleging
t Tim. ii. is. An unbaptiaed person is also incapable of valid
ordination. On the other hand, St Thomas holds that ordera
may be validly conferred on children who have not come to tbe
use of reason. For lawful ordiiution in the Roman Church, a
man must be confirmed, tonsured, in possession of all orders
lower than that which he proposes to receive, of legitimate birth,
not a slave or notably mutilated, of good life and competent
knowledge. By the present law (Qondl. Trid. Sesa. xziii. de Ref.
cap. i>) a subdeacon must have begun his twenty-second, a
deacon his twenty-third, a prfast his twenty-fifth year.* The
• In reality this is a survival of the primitive view that holy
ofder is institution for an office which tbe local church coofen and
can therefore Uke away.
* The canon law fixes the thirtieth year as the fc>we»» •»» »«•
episQopal coiMCCiatioa.
i86
ORDER, HOLY
CouncO of Trant also nqakm Hat toy one who receivct holy
orden niiift have • " Utio," ml moiat of Aupport. The chid
titles are poverty, ix. aoicmn proCcanon in a religioas order,
paLrimony and benefict. Holy orders are to be oooferred on the
Ember Saturdays, on the SatunUy before Paaskm Sunday or on
Holy Saturday (Easter Eve).* The andent and essential rule
that a bishop nuist be '* chosen by all the people " (Can, Hipp.
ii. 7) has (alien into disuse, partly by the right of confirmation
allowed to the bishops of tbe pcovinee, partly by the influence
of Christian emperocs, who controlled the decUons in the capital
where they resided, most of all by the authority exerdsed by
kings after the invasion of the aorthem tribes and the dissolution
of the empire (see CsntCB Histoxy).
Such in brid were the doctrine and use of the early churches,
gradually systematiaed, developed and transformed in the
churches of the Roman obedience. The Rdonnation brought
in radical changes, which were on the whole a ictum to the
primitive type. Calvin states his views deady in the fourth book
of his JmstUutUt cap. iii. Christ, as he holds, has established
fai His church certain offices which are alway» to be retained.
First comes the order of presbyters or elders. These are sub-
divided into pastoft, who administer the word and sicraments,
doctors, who teach and expound the Bible, elders pure and
simple, who excrdse rule and disdpUne. The special care of the
poor is committed to deacons. Oidinaiion Is to ^ effected by
imposition of hands. The monarchicd episcopate is rejected.
This view of order wu accepted in the Calvinistic churches, but
with various modifications. Knox, for example, did away with
the imposition of hands (M'Crie's lCifa«, period vii.), though the
rite was restored by the Scottish Presbyterian Church in the
Second Book of Diuipline. Knox also provided the Church of
Scotland with superintendents or visitors, as well as readers and
exhorters, offices which soon fell into disuse. Nor do Scottish
Presbyterians now recognise any spcdal class of doctors, unless
we suppose that these are represented by professors of theology.
Independents acknowledge the two orden of presbyters and
deacons, and differ from the Calvinistic presbyterians chiefly in
this, that with them the church is complete In each single con*
gregation, which Is subject to no control of presbytery or synod.
Luther was not, like Calvin, a man of rigid system. He
refused to look upon shy ecdesisstical constitution as binding
(or all lime. The keys, as be bdieved, were entrusted to the
church as a whole, and from thechufch as a whole the " minbtcrs
of the word and sacramenu " are to derive their institution and
authority. The form of government was not essential Pro-
vided that the preaching of the gospel was free and full, Luther
was willing to tolerate episcopacy and even papacy. Hence the
Lutheran churches exhibit great variety of constitution. In
Scandinavia they are under episcopal rule. The Lutheran
Bugenhageo, who was in priest's orders, ordained seven super-<
intendenU, afterwards called bishops, for Denmark in 1527.
and Norway, then under the same crown, derives its present
episcopate from the same source. Sweden stands in a different
position. There three bishops were consccnted in 1528 by
Peter Magnus&on. who had himself been consecrated by a cardinal
with the pope's approval at Rome in 1 524. for the see of Westir&s,
to which he had been elected by the chapter. J. A. Nicholson
(Apostoiicat Succession in the Church of Swedm, 18S0) seems to
have proved so much from contemporary evidence. A reply
to Mr Kicholson was made in Swedish by a Roman priest, Bern-
hard, to whom Mr Nicholson replied in 1887. Unfortunatdy Mr
Nicholson gives no detailed account of the form used in con-
secration, and on this and other points fuller information is
needed. We may say, however, that Mr Nicholson has presented
a strong case for the preservation of episcopri succession in the
Swedish Church.
If the Swedish Chardi has preserved the episcopal succession.
it does not make much of that advantage, for it is in communion
with the Danish and Norwegian bodies, which can advance no
such claim. On the other hand, the Church of England adhrrcs
dosely to the episcopal constitution. It is true that in articles
xix. and xxrvi. she defines the church, without any express
^dercace to the epssoopate, as a " cm^regmoB of faJthfid SMi
in which the pore word of God is preached and the aaonsentt
be duly administered according to Christis ordhuace," sad
simply adds that the ordinal of Edward VL for the **"*ff^m rpw
of bjshops, priests and deacons, amtaint all that ia necoHiy lor
such ordination and nothing which Is of iCadf^
The prdace to the oidind (1550) goes brther.
told that the threefold ministry of biahopak pria
may be traced back to apostolic times, and in the final iTviiiOB
of i4S6a a dause was addecf to the effect that no one Is to b«
aooounted " a Uwf ul bishop, priest or deacon in the Chttnch «!
EngUnd," unless be has had episcopd consecration or ordiaatlon.
The words " in the Churdi of Eo^aad " deserve caicfol BoUoe.
Nothing is said to condemn the opinion of Hooker {BuL FaL yrIL
r4. 11) that " there may be sometimes very just and ai i iT ii i n i f
reason to allow ordioatioo made without a bishop," or of the
High Chureh Tbomdike {apud Ofliaoa on the Articles, fi. 74)>
who " neither justifies nor condenms the .grdere of foiti|(A
Protestants.** The churdi lays down a rule of domestic poKcy,
and neither gives nor pretends to give any absolute <rileiiaa lor
the validity of ordination.
But while the Church of England has decUned fomnnaihi
with non-episcopal churches, ahe has beca involved is m loof
controversy with the Church of Rome on the validity of her ova
orders. It will be best to give first the leadmg facU, and thea the
inferences which may be drawn from them.
The English Church derives iu ordess through tfattktv
Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, who was coasccrated in isSf
by William Bartow, bishop-elect of Chichester. We .. . ..
may assume that the rite employed waa serious aod ^JSml*
reverent, and there is no bnger any need to rdute
the fable of a ludicrous consecration at the " Nag\ Bead "
tavern. We may further take for granted that Barlow waa a
bishop in the Catholic sense of the word. He had been oemiaated
bishop of St A.saph in 1 536, traasUted to St David's in the naM
year, and to Bath and Wells in 1547. He also sat in the upper
house of Convocation and in the House of Peers. Now if Badow
all this time was not consecrated— «od so far the only fora of
coosecntion known in England was accordingto the Roman rttfr—
he wouldjhave incurred the penahies of praomumrOt let akae the
fact that Heniy VIII. would not have tolerated such a defiaace
of Catholic order for a moment. The registers at St Davids
make no mention of his consecration, but this counts for nothfaig.
No reference in the registers can be produced for many onUbatioBt
of undoubted validity. Parker thus was consecrated by a tma
bishop according to the Edwardine ordlnd, i^, he rec ei v e d
imposition of hands with the words," Take the Holy Cheat and
remember that thou stir up the grace of Cod which is in thee by
imposition of hands." The corresponding form for the ordiaatioa
of a priest was'' Recdve thou the Holy Chest: whose sias thoa
dost forgive," &c. These were the sole forms in use fioni 1551
to r56a.
Roman authorities have from the beginning aad thronghoot
consistently repudiated orders given according to the Bdwaidtae
ordinal. The case first came under considceatlon when Cardiaal
Pole returned to England early hi Mary's reign with legatiaa
authority for reconciling the realm to the Holy See. In hSa
instructions to the bishops (Burnet Collect., pt. iii.. bk. v., 33;
see also Dixon, Hisi. Ck. of En^nd,\. 338 seq.*) he clearly
recognixes orders schismatical but vdid, i.e. those conferred
in Henry's reign, and so distinguishes them by implicatioa
from invalid orders, i.tf. those given according to the Edwardtee
book. In the former alone were " the form and intention of the
church preserved." He could not doubt for a moment the utter
invalidity of Edwardine ordinations to the priesthood. He
knew very wdl that the theologians of his church almost without
exception held that the handing over of the paten and chalice
with the words. " Receive power of offering sacrifice." Ac. srere
the essential matter and form of ordination to the priesthood;
indeed he published the decree of Eugenius IV. to that effect
* CompArr aiw the article on Anitlican Ofdcrs in the
hncyilcpcai^ vul. L. e*pcu.illy i^i p. 49a.
ORDER IN COUNCIL
187
(WnUaf, Cteff. W. lai). TIm Anglian prictlbood being gone,
dm cplMopntc also Inpacs. For according to the Pontifical, the
epiicopate is tbe '^tummum saetrdotium "; the bishop in con-
•ecration recdves "the sacerdotal grace"; it is '* his office
to ooDsecrate, ordain, offer, baptize, confirm/' Thus in the Pon-
tifical the words " Receive the Hoiy Ghost " are determined
and defined by the context. There is nothing in the Anglican
ordinal 10 show that the Holy Ghost is given for the consecration
of a bishop in the Roman sense. In 1 704 John Cordon, formerly
AngUcan bishop of Galloway, gave to the Holy OfBce an account
of the manner in which he had been consecrated. The Sacred
Coagicgatiott, with the pope's approval, declared hb orders to
be aoU. The constant practice has been to reordain uncon-
ditiWiaWy Anglicaa priesu and deacons. In 1896 Leo XIII.
fonunoned eight divines of his own communion to **«"*'nf the
qyesttoft anew. Four of those divines were, it is said, dcddedly
opposed to the admission of Anglican orders as valid; four were
MMO or less favourably .disposed to them. The report of this
commission was then handed over to a committee of cardinals, who
proMuaced unanimously lor the nullity of the orders in question.
Thcfeopoii the pope published his bull A potMicat cufoe. In it he
lays the chief stress on the indeterminate nature of the AngUcan
form " Receive the Holy Ghost " at least, from 155s till the
addition of the specific words, " for the office and work of a
bishop (or priest) in the church of God," as also on the changes
aaade ia the Edwardlne order " with the manifest intention. . .
of rejecting what the church does." His conclusion is that
AngUcan orders are " absolutely nuU and utterly void." More-
over, ia a letter to Cardinal Richard, archbishop of Paris, the
pope afirau that this h» solemn decision is " firm» authorifativn
and irrevocable."
Foe lUmian Catholics the decision necessarily carries great
wogfat, and it may perhaps have its influence on AogUcans
of Che school which approximates most closely to Roman beUef .
It need not affect the opinion of dispassionate students. It
is not the Judgment of experts. The rejection of AngUcan orders
in the Ifith and 17th centuries was based on a theory about
the " tradition of instruments," which has long ceased to be
tenable in the face of history, and is abandoned by Romanists
themselves. The opinion of a Uturgical scholar Uke Mgr. Louis
Duchesne, who was a member of the papal commission, on the
genefal question would be interesting in the highest degree.
Unfortunately we know nothing of his vote or of the reasons
he gave for it, and outside of the Roman pale the unanimous
dedsion of a committee of cardinals counts for very Uttle. We
Bsay grant the pope's contention that the Edwardine church
had no belief in priests who offered in sacrifice the body and
blood of Christ or in bishopa capable of ordaining such priests.
-We may gnnt further that the medieval offices have been
^difacrately altered to exclude this view. Dut then the Utorgy
of Senpion, the friend of Athanasius, recently discovered,
oomains forms for the ordinstion of priests and bishops which
do mm say a word about power to sacrifice, much leas about
power to sacrifice Christ's Uteral body aod blood. The canons
of Hippolytns, which are about 150 years older, and indeed aU
tha oldmt forms for celebration, absolutely ignore any such
p^cr of sacrifice. If they speak of sscnfice at all, it b a sacri/ke
of the gUu biought by the faithful and distributed in the con-
gregation and among the poor, or again they refer to those
apiriciml mcrifices which a bishop is to offer " day and night."
The Didackf and Justin Martyr are no less unsatisfactory
from the Roman point of view. In short, the EngUsh reformers
haew very weU that the ordinal and communion office which
they drew up could not satisfy the requirements of medieval
theology. They appealed not to the school divines, but to
Scripture and primitive antiquity. That is the standard by
which wo are to test their work.
AOTMoarrnu.— For holy order In the apostolie and >uh-afNMtolic
age the rmder may consult R. Rothe. AnSAnn dtr ekhsUitlun Kirdu
(1837); A. Rltachri Enlstehung drr aUkatholischen Kinke (2nd ed.,
tS^i: J. B. Ltghtfoot's diuertatton on the " Christian Ministry"
ia BIS commenTary on the Pkilipptans (1868). A new era was
1 by £• Hatch's Ortj^nmUm ^ Iks &oHj Ckm$ian Chtmk
(1880); to this Bishop C. Gore's Ckunk ^ni JVmwfrv (1886) h a
reply. The facts are judicially suted and weighed In Bishop J.
Wordsworth's Ministry efCrau (190J). Dr T. M. Lindsay's Church
tad Ministry im Eariy Cmtertrs (190s) on the whole agrees with
Hatch, but is too eager to find modere Presbyterianism in the eariy
church. A. Hamack • edition of the Didacke (1884), his Sourus vf
tht Apostolie Canons (Eng. trans.. 1895}. the edition of the Canons
of Hippolytus by H. Achelis. in TexU und Untersuckunttn, vol. vt
(1801). the trsnslatioa of Scrspion's Pftycr-book (translated by
Biihop J., Wordsworth. i899)t am indispsittable for serious study
of the sttbiecc.
Joann Morinus. De sacris ordinationibus (i6m) and A. C. Chardon.
Hutoirg dts sacraments, vol. v. (1745), are nch in material chiefly
reUtmg to the patristic and medieval periods.
For the controversy on AngUcan ordcn see P. F. Coumyetk
Validtlides ordinaiicns anglaists (173a), and two works in reply bf
M. Le Quien, NuUiti da ordinclums ontficanes (1725). NMUiti da
ordinations angiieanes dimonstrh dr nowtau (1730). In recent
times Anelkan ordere have been defended by A. W. Haddan.
AfostoUcd Smutsim so Om Ckmrck of Eu^ndi F. W. PuUer,
7lu Bull Apostolicat Cutm and tkt Edwafdina Ordinal. They have
been stucked by E. E. Estcourt, Qiustion of Anglican Ordinaiiof
(1873). and by A. W. Hotton, The Anglican Ministry, with a preface
by CTardinal /. H. Newman (1879). (W. E. A*)
ORDER IN COUNCIL, in Great Britain, an order issued by
the sovereign on the advice of the privy council, or more usually
on the advice of a few selected members thereof. It is the modem
equivalent of the medieval ordinance and of the proclamation
so frequently used by the Tudor and Stewart sovereigns. It is
opposed to the statute because it does not require the sanction
of parliament; it is issued by the sovereign by virtue 0^ the
royal prerogative. But although theoretically orden in council
are thus independent of parliamentary authority, in practice they
are only issued on the advice of miaisten of the crown, who are,
of course, responsible to parliament for their action in the ma^er.
Orders in council were first issued during the x8th century, and
their legalily has sometimes been called in question, the fear
being evidently prevalent that they would be used, like the
earlier ordiuances and proclamations, to alter the law. Con-
sequently in several cases parliament has subsequently passed
acts of indemnity to protect the perwns responsible for issuing
ihcm, and incidentally to assert its own authority. At the
present time the principle seems generally accepted that orders
in council may be issued 00 the strength of the royal prerogative*
but ihey must not seriously alter the law of the Und.
The most celebrated instance of the use of ordere in council
was in 1807 when Great Britain was at war with France. Ia
answer to Napoleon's Berlin decree, the object of which was to
destroy the British shipping industry, George III. and his
ministers issued orders in council forbidding all vessels under
penalty of seizure to trade with poru under the influence of
France. Supplementary orders were issued later in the same
year, and also in 1808. Ordere in council are used to regulate
the matters which need immediate attention on the death of
one sovereign and the accession of another.
In addition to these sod other ordere issued by the sovereign
by virtue of his prerogative, there is another class of orders in
council, viz. those issued by the authority of an set of parliament,
many of which provide thus for carrying out their provisions.
At the present day orden in council are extensively toed by the
various administrative departments of the government, who
act on the sfrength of powers conferred upon them by some act
of parliament. They arc largely used for regulating the details
of local government and mattere concerning the navy and the
army, while a new bishopric b sometimes founded by an order
in council. They are also employed to regulate the affairs of
the crown colonies, and the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, the viceroy
of India, the govemor*general of Canada, and other repre-
sentatives of the sovereign may ianie orden In council under
certain conditions.
In times of emergency the tise of orden in council is indispens-
able to the executive. In September I766» a famine being
feared, the export of wheat was forbidden by an order in council,
and the Regulation of the Forces Act 1871 empowen the govern-
ment in a time of emergency to uke possession of the railway
^ysum of the coualiy by the issue of such an order.
i88
ORDERIC VITALIS-ORDINARY
ORDBRIC VITALIB (io7$-tf. 1142), tbe cbronider, was the
son of a French priest, Odeler of Orleans, who had entered the
service ol Roger Montgomery, earl of Shrewsbury, and had
received from bis patron a chapel in that dty. Orderic was the
eldest son of his parents. They sent him at the age of five to
team his letters from an English priest, Si ward by name, who
kepi a school in the church of SS Peter and Paul at Shrewsbury.
When eleven years old he was entered as a novice in the Norman
monastery of St Evroul en Ouche. which Earl Roger had formerly
persecuted but, in his later years, was loading with gifts. The
parents paid thirty marks for their son's admission; and he
expresses the conviction that they imposed this exile upon him
from an earnest desire for his welfare. Odeler's respect for the
monastic profession is attested by his own retirement, a few years
later, into a religious house which Earl Roger had founded at his
persuasion. But the young Orderic felt for some time, as be
tells us, like Joseph in a strange land. He did not know a word
of French when he reached Normandy; his book, though written
many years later, shows that he never lost his English cast of
mind or his attachment to the country of his birth. His superiors
itchristened him Vitalls (after a member of the legendary
Tbeban legion) because they found a difficulty in pronouncing
his baptismal name. But, in the title of his Ecclesiastical History
he prefixes the old to the new name and proudly adds the epithet
AngligtHO. His doistned life was uneventful. He became a
deacon in X093, a priest in 1x07. He left his doister on several
occasion!, and speaks of having visited Croyland, Worcester,
Cambrai (i 105) and Cluny (i 132). But he turned his attention
at an early date to literature, and for many years he appears to
have spent his summers in the scriptorium. His superiors (at
some time between 1099 and 1x32) ordered him to write the
history of St Evroul. The work grew under his hands until it
became a general history of his own age. St Evroul was a house
of wealth and distinction. War-worn knighu chose it as a
resting-place of their last years. It was constantly entertaining
visitors from southern Italy, where it had planted colonies of
monks, and from England, where it had extensive possessions.
Thus Orderic, though he witnessed no great events, was often
well informed about them. In spite of a cumbrous and affected
style, he is a vivid narrator; and his character sketches are
admirable as summaries of current estimates. His narrative
b badly arranged and full of unexpected digressions. But
he gives us much invaluable information for which we should
search the more methodical chroniclers in vain. He throws a
flood of light upon the manners and ideas of his own age; he
sometimes comments with surprising shrewdness upon the
broader aspects and tendendes of history. His narrative breaks
off in the middle of 1 141, though he added some finishing touches
in 1 143. He tells us that he was then old and infirm. Probably
he did not long survive the completion of his great work.
The Hisioria eceUsiastiea faHs into thne sections, (i) BIu. i.. ii.,
whidi are historically valueless, give the history of ^' '
After 8« this becomes a bare catalogue
I' popes, ending witb the name oT Innocent I. These books wen
added, as an aiierthought, to the original ncheme; they were com
from the birth of Christ. After fl«
of' popes, ending with the name oT Innocent I.
posed in the years Ii36-ll4r. (2) Bks. iii.-vt. form a history of
Sc EvrouU the original nudeus of the work. Planned before 1 123,
they were mainly composed in the years 1 123-1 131. The fourth and
fiftn books contain long digressions 00 the deeds of William the
Conqueror in Normandy and England. Before 1067 these are of
little value, being chiefly derived from two extant souices. William
of Jumitges* UiUariA Sofmannerum and William of Poitiere' Cesta
Gutklmu For the years 1067-1071 Orderic follows the last portion
of the Cesta GuiUlmi, and is therefore of the first importance. From
loj'i he begins to be an independent authority, out his notices of
political events in this part cm his work are far leas copious than in
(3) Bks. vii.-xiU.. • ...... ....
background.
, where eodesiastkal affairs are relisted to the
In this section, after sketdiing the history of France
under the Carolingians and eariy Capets, Orderic takes up the
events of his own times, starting from about 1083. He has much
to say concerning the empire, the papacy, the Normans in Italy and
Apulia, the First Cnisade (for wMch he fdk»ws Fukrber of Chartm
and Baodri of Bourgucil). But his chief interest is in the histories
of Duke Robert of Normandy, William Rufus and Henry I. He
continues his work, !o the form of atmals. up to the defeat and
•*•«•—• if Stephen at Lincoln in 1141.
^ria KikfiBtHtm wna edited by Dueheaae b his BisUhat
Normannonm xripUtts (Paris, 1619). This Is the edhfaa cited by
Freeman and in many sundard works. It is, however, iofcrkw «d
that of A. le Privost m five vols. {$oc. di fkisloin ds Franca. Faris.
1838-1855). The fifth volume conuins excellent critical studico by
M. Leopdd Delisle. and it admirably indexed. Migne's cditioa
{PtOrdtia letwa, dxxxvtii.) is merely a reprint of D nrhnne
There is a French trenalation (by L. Dubois) in Guieot's CsHartiin
dts nUmoirts rdcttfs d FkuUnrt di Pram€ (Paris. 1895-1 At?); and
one in English by T. Forester in Bohn's Antiquarian Ubcaiy Uvolk.
185^-1856). In addition to the Hisioria there exisu. in tne nbcaiy
at Rouen, a manuscript edition of WilKam of Jumitges' Hit$orm
Ncnmannonim which Ixopold Delisle assigns to Orderic (acc^ this
aitk'* Loire d MJuUs Lair (197^. (HVw.CD.)
ORDIMANCB, or Okoonnance, la architecture, a eompodtioa
of some particular order or style. It need not be icstikted to
columnar composition, but applies to any kind of desiga which
is subjected to conventional rules for its arrangement.
OBOINANCB. in medieval England, a form of kgiaUtloB.
The ordinance differed from the statute because it did ad
require the sanction of parUament, but was issued by theaovcitifB
by virtue of the royal prerogative, although, es pe ci al l y during
the reign of Edward I., the king frequently obtained theaaacat of
his council to his ordinances. Dr Stubbs (CmmI. HitL voL ii.)
defines the ordinance as " a regulatioii made by the kiog, by
himself or in his council or with the advice of his coancfl, pro>
mnlgated in letters patent or in charter, and liable to be secaUcd by
the same authority." But after remarkingthat" these genemlisa*
tioQS do not cover all the instances of the use of ordinance,*' lit
adds: " The sutute is primarily a legislative act, the ordiiiaace It
primarily an executive one." Legislation by ordinance wta very
common during the rdgns of Henry III. and Edward I. wbJi
laws were issued by the king in cooadl or enacted in ptrliaoMrt
indifferently. Both were regarded as equally biading. Sooo,
however, legislation by ordinance aroused the jetkwty of
parliament, especially when it was found that acts of porlitinent
were altered and their purpose defeated by this means. Coo-
sequently in 1389 the Commons presented a petition to King
Richard II. asking that no ordinance shoold be made contmy
to the conunon law, or the ancient customs of the land, or the
statutes ordained by parliament. For this and other veatoot
thia form of legislation fell gradually into diiuae, beooolBC
obsolete in the isth century. The modem equivalent of tbt
ordinance is the order in coundl.
In 13 10, when Edward II. was on the throne and F.nglaiid vat
in a very disturbed condition, a committee of twcnty^ooe hitlior<>
earls and barona was chosen to make certain ordinanect for tbt
better government of the country. Theae men were ctUtd
ordainerSb
In the 17th century the use of the word ordinance was rtvivtd,
and was applied to some of the measures passed by tbt ljm§
Parliament, among them the famous sdf-^lenying ordinsace of
1645. This form was used probably in cooforaiity with tbt
opinion of Sir Edward Coke, who says in his Ponrtk ImstUmH ** aa
ordinance in parliament wanteth the threefold consent, and it
ordained by one or two of tbem " {ix. king, lortls and OMamons),
The ordinances of the Long Parliament did not, of course, obcaia
the assent of the king. At the present time the word ordlaaaot
is used to describe a body of laws enacted by a body less thta
sovereign. For example, the ordinances of Southern Nlfttfa
are issued by the governor of that coloay with the asaeat of Us
council.
Before 1789 the kings of France frequently issued trdvmwuut.
These were acts of legislation, and were simflar to the ordlaaaccs
of the English kings in medieval times.
ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordmonma, Fr. ordinam), ia canta
law, the name commonly employed to designate a superior
ecdesiastic exerdsing " ordinary " juiiadiction {jmiid^wmtm
ordinaHam),ix. In accordance with the normal organitttiQa of tbt
church. It is usually applied to tbt bUkop off a diocese sad to
those who exercise jurisdictien in his name or by del cgatlou of
his functions. Thus, ia Germsny, the term ordinoriai h appUed
to the whole body of officials, bduding the bishops through
whom a diocese is administered. In English law, however, the
term ordinary ia now confined to the bishop and tht (
ORDINATE— ORDNANCE
189
«f hk oonc The fMpe it die triimHm of the wliole Roman
CsdhoUc Cknrck, and is aometimes described as vrdinarius
miiaaHcnnm. SimOarlx in the Church of England the king is
legally the supfeme ofdinaiy, as the source of jurisdiction.
The use of the tenn oidinaiy is not confined to ecclesiastical
jurisdiction. In the dvil law the ftdex ^rdinarius h a judge
who has regular jurisdiction as of course and of common right
as opposed to persons eztraoidinarily appointed. The term
survi^ throughout the middle ages wherever the Ronum law
gained a foothold. In the Byzantine empire it was applied to any
one filling a regular office («.^. {braruf 6fiSaiiitoi^coiutd
mdinariittf i^Olf^ ftlAuAfiim^prtufectus ordtnarius); but it
also occasionally implied rank as distinct from office, all those
who had the title of darissimms bemg sometimes described as
hpioApioi. In England the only case of the term being
employed in its dvil use was that of the office of judge ordinary
created by the Divorce Act of 1857, a title which was, however,
only in existence for the space of about eighteen years owing to
the incorporation of the Divorce Court with the Hi^ Court
of Justice by the Judicature Act 1875. But in Scotland the
ordinary judges of the Inner and Outer Houses are called lords
ofdlnaiy , the junior lord ordinary of the Outer House acts as lord
ordinary of the bills, the second junior as lord ordinary on teinds,
the third junior as lord ordinary on Exchequer causes. In the
United States the ordinary possesses, in the states where such an
officer exists, powers vested in him by the constitution and acts
of the legislature identical with those usually vested in the
courts of probate. In South Carolina he was a judicial officer,
but the office no longer exists, as Sout& Carolina has now a
probate court.
In the German universities the Professor ordinarius is the
occupant of one of the regular and permanent chairs in any
faculty.
the Cartesian system of co-ordinates, the
distance of a point from the horixontal
axis (axis of x) measured parallel to the
axis of y. Thus PR is the ordinate of P.
The word appears to have been first
used by Ren^ Descartes, and to be derived
from liiuae ordinalae, a term used by
Roman surveyors for parallel Kncs. (See GEOMsntY: Ana-
. OBBWAIICB (a syncopated form of "ordinance" or "or-
donnanoe," so spelt in this sense since the 17th century), a
general term for great guns for military and naval purposes,
as opposed to "small arms** and their equipment; hence the
term also indudes miscellaneous stores under the control of the
ordnance department as organized. In England the Master-
General of the Ordnance, from Heniy VIII 's time, was head of
a board, partly military, partly cfvU, which managed all affairs
oooGenuqg the artillery, engineers and maUrtd of the army;
this was abolished in 1855, iu duties being distributed. The
making of surveys and maps (see Map) was, for instance, handed
«ver eventually (1889) to the Board of Agriculture, though the
tcnn " ordnance survey " still shows the origin.
I. HiSXOftT AND CONSntTCnON
The effidcDcy of any weapon depends entirely on two factors:
(1) its power ta destroy bmb and material, (a) the moral effect
upon the enemy. Even at the present day the moral effect of
gun fire is of great importance, but when guns were first used
the noise they made on discharge must have produced a be-
wildering fear in those without previous experience of them;
more espedally would this be the case with horses and other
animals. ViHani wrote of the battle of Cressy that the " English
guns made a noise like thunder and caused much loss in men
and horses" (Hime, Proc. R. A. InUUution, vol. 26). Now,
the moral effect may be considered more or less constant, for,
as men are educated to the presence of artillery, the range of
guns, their accuracy, mobility and on shore their invisibility, so
ittoeaae that there is always the ever present fear that the
itioke wiO fall without giving aoy evidence of whence it came.
On the other hand, the devefopment df the gun has always
had an upward tendency, which of late years has been very
marked; the demand for the increase of energy has kept pace
with— or rather in recent times may be said to have caused —
improvements in metallurgical sdence.
The evolution of ordnance may be divided rou^y into three
epochs. The first indudes that period during which stone shot
were prindpally employed; the guns during this period (1313
to 1530) were mostly made of wrought iron, although the art of
casting bronze was then well known. This was due to the fact
that guns were made of large size to fire heavy stone shot, and,
in consequence, bronze guns would be very expensive, besides
which wrought iron was the stronger material. The second
epoch was that extending from 1520 to 1854, during which
cast iron round shot were generally employed. In this epoch,
both bronze and cast iron ordnance were used, but the progress
achieved was remarkably small. The increase of power actually
obtained was due to the use of com, instead of serpentine, powder,
but guns were undoubtedly much better proportioned towards
the middle and end of this period than they were at the begin-
ning. Hie third or present epoch may be said to have commenced
in 1854, when dongated projectiles and riffed guns were be-
ginning to be adopted. The rapid progress made during this
period is as remarkable as the unproductiveness of the second
epoch. Even during recent years the call for greater power
has product results which were believed to be impossible in
1890.
The aaual date of the introduction of cannon, and the country
in which they first appeared, have been the subject of much
antiquarian research; but no definite condusion has been arrived
at. Some writers suppose (see Brackenbury, "Ancient Cannon
in Europe " in Proc. Royal ArlUUry Inst., voL iv.) that gun-
powder was the result of a gradual development from incendiary
compounds, such as Greek and sea fire of far earlier times, and
that cannon followed in natural sequence. Other writers
attribute the invention of cannon to the Chinese or Arabs. In
any case, after their introduction into Europe a comparatively
rapid progress was made. Early in the 14th century the first
guns were small and vase shaped; towards the end they had
become of huge dimensions firing heavy stone shot of from 20b
to 450 lb wdght.
The earliest known representation of a gun in England is
contained in an illuminated manuscript " De Officiis Regum "
at Christ Church, Oxford, of the time of Edward II. (132^)*
This dearly shows a knight in armour firing a short primitive
weapon shaped something like a vase and loaded with an in-
cendiary arrow. This type of gim was a muzzle loader with a
vent channd at the breech end. There seems to be undoubted
evidence that in 1338 there existed breech-loadiog guns of both
iron and brass, provided with one or more movable chambers
to facilitate loading (Proc R. A. /., voL iv. p. 291). These fire-
arms were evidently very small, as only 2 !b of gunpowder
were provided for firing 48 arrows, or about seven-tenths of an
ounce for each charge.
The great Bombarde of Ghent, called " Dulle Griete " (fig. i)
is believed to belong to the end of the century, probably about
Flc I.— Dalle Griete, Ghent.
1382, and, according to the Guide its toyagews dans la ^SU t
Camd (Voisin) the people of Ghent used it in 14x1. this gull.
IQO
ORDNANCE
whidi wclglis about 13 tOD«» Is fonned of an inner lining o£
wrought iron longitudinal bars arranged like the staves of a
cask and welded together, surrounded by rings of wrought iron
driven or shrunk on. The chamber portion is of snuUlcr dia-
meter, and some suppose it to be screwed to the muzzle portion.
The length of the gun is 197 in., the diameter of the bore 25 in.,
and the chamber 10 in. at the front and tapering to 6 in. dia-
meter at the breech end. It fired a granite ball weighing about
700 lb. Two wrought iron guns left by the English in 1425 when
they had to raise the siege of Mont St Michel in^Normandy belong
to about the same period; the larger of these guns has a bore of
-XQ in. diameter.
r'Mons Meg"
[(fig. 2) in Edin-
I burgh Castle is a
wrought iron gun
Fig. 3.— Mons Meg. of a Uttlc later
period; it is built up in the same manner of iron bars and
external rings. It has a calibre of 20 in. and fired a granite
shot weighing 330 lb.
Bronze guns of almost identical dimensions to the "Dulle
Griete " were cast a little later C1468) at Constantinople (see
Lcfroy, Proc, R. A. /., vol. vi.). One of these is now in* the
Royal Military Repository, WoUwich. It is in two pieces
screwed together: the front portion has a calibre of 25 in. and
is for the reception of the stone shot, which weighed 672 lb; and
a rear portion, forming the powder chamber, of ro in. diameter.
The whole gun weighs nearly x8} tons.
To give some idea of the power of these guns, the damage
done by them to Sir John Duckworth's sqxiadron in 1807 when
the Dardanelles were forced may be instanced. In this engage-
ment six men-of-war were more or less damaged and some 1 26
men were killed or wounded. The guns were too unwieldy to lay
for each round and were consequently placed in a permanent
position; they were often kept loaded for months.
The x6th century was remarkable from the fact that the large
bombard type was discarded and sxnaller wrought iron guns
were made. This was due to the use of iron projectiles, which
enabled a blow to be delivered from a comparatively small gun
as destructive as that from the very weighty bombards throwing
stone shot.
Bronze guns also now came into great favour. They were
first cast in England in 1521 (Ilcnry VIIL), and iron cannon
about X540, foreign founders being introduced for the purpose
of teaching the English the art. The *' Mary Rose/' which sank
off Spithead in 1545, had on board both breech-loading wrought-
iron and muzzle-loading bronze guns.
The smaller guns cast at this period were of considerable
length, probably on account of the large charges of meal powder
which were fired. The long bronze gun in Dover Castle known
as " Queen Elizabeth's pocket pistol" has a calibre of 4-75 In.;
its bore is 2$ ft. t in. long or 58 calibres, but its total length
including the cascable is 24 ft. 6 in. It was cast at Utrecht in
1544 and presented by Charles V. to Heniy VHI.
Little or no classification of the various types of guns was
attempted during the xsth century. The following century saw
some attempt made at uniformity and the division of the several
calibres into classes, but it wu not until about 1739, when Maritz
of Geneva introduced the boring of guns from the solid, that
actual uniformity of calibre was attained, as tip to this date
they were always cast hollow Bad discrepancies naturally
occurred. In France organization was attempted in 1732 by
Vallidre, but to Gribeauval (q.v.) is due the credit of having
simplified artillery and introduced great improvements in the
equipoMfit.
It is not po»bIe to compare properly the power of the eazlier
guns; at first small and feeble, they became later large and
unwiddy, but still feeble. The gunpowder called ** serpentine "
often compounded from separate ingredients on the spot at the
time of Ioading,bumt slowly without strength and naturally varied
from round to round. The more fiercely burning gianulated
or oomed powder, introduced into Germany about 14^9, and
(HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
into England shortly after, was too Strang for the laifcr |iiM»
of that date, and could be used only for small firearms (or oioit
than a century after. These small guns were often loaded witk
a lead or lead-coated ball driven down the bore by hanmeriBg.
The bronze and cast iron ordiunce which followed in the t6th
century were strengthened in the 17th centuiy, and so i»-ere
more adapted to use the corned powder. By this means sonc
access of energy and greater effective ranges were obuiued.
In the x8th century and in the first half o| the X9th no change
of importance was made. Greater purity of the ingredients and
better methods of manufacture had improved gunpowder; the
windage between the shot and the bore had also been xeduocd.
and guns had been strengthened to meet this progresa, but th«
principles of construction remained unaltered until the middle
of the X9th century. Metallurgical scieocQ had nude great
progress, but cast iron was still the only metal considered
suitable for laige guns, whilst bronze was used for field guns.
Many accidents, due to defects developing during practice, had,
however, occurred, in order to prevent which experimental guns
constructed of* stronger material such as forged iron and steel
had been made. Some of these weapons were merely maasive
solid blocks, with a hole bored in for the bore, and only witji*
stood a few rounds before bursting. This result was attributed
to the metal being of an indifiexent quality— quite a possible
reason as the treatment of large masses of steel was then in its
infancy, and even with the bcai modern appliances difikulties
have always existed in the efficient welding of large forgings of
iron. Forged iron, however, always gave some evidence ^ its
impending failure whereas the steel burst in pieces suddenly;
steel was, therefore, considered too treacherous a material for
use in ordnance. Tliis view held for many years, and steel was
only again employed after many trials had b^n made to demon-
strate its reliability. It will be seen later that the ill success of
these experimenu was greatly due to a want of knowledge of
the correct principles of gun construction.
The progress made smce X854 is dependent on and embraces
improvements in gun construction, rifiing and breech median*
isms.
Considerable obscurity exists as regards the means adopted
for mounting the first caimon. From illuminations in con-
temporary manuscripts it appears that the earliest
guns, which were tnmnionless, were simply laid on y ^
the ground and supported by a timber framing at SlSn.
each side, whilst the fiat breech end rested against a
strong wood support let into the ground to prevent recoil. This
arrangement was no doubt inconvenient, and a little later small
caniu>a were fastened in a wooden stock by iron bands; larger
guns were supported in massive timber cradles (fig. 3) and
FtG. 3v— Primitive Cua-mounting*
secured thereto by iron straps or ropes. The ponderous wdght
to be moved and the deficiency of mechanical means prex'ented
these large cannon and their cradles from being readily moved
when once placed in position. Laying was of tlie most primitive
kind, and the bombard was packed up in Its wood cradle to the
required elevation once for all. When it was desired to breach
a wan the bombard with its bed would be laid on the ground at
about too yds. distance, the breech end of the gun or the rear
end of the bed abutting against a solid baulk of wood fixed to
the ground. " Mons Meg '* was origixully provided with a wood
cradle.
It is by no means certain when wheeled carriages were
aiSTOKY AND CONSTKUCTIOH)
ORDNANCE
191
introduced. They must have gradusOy appeared as a means of
•urmounting the difficulties engendered by the recoil of the piece
and of transport of the early guns and their cradles. Andrea
Redusio mentions in Chronkon Tamanum the use of two
wheeled bombard carriages at the siege of Quero by the Venetians
in 2376. It does not follow that these weapons were of large
dimensions, as the term " bombard " was applied to small guns
as well as to the more ponderous types.
The ancient carriages used on land are remarkable from the
fact that in general design they contain the main principles
which have been included in fidd carriages up to the present day.
Until 1870 the body of all field carriages was made of wood.
In an early type the trail portion was made of a solid baulk
of timber supported at the front by a hard wood axletree, on
the arms of which the wheds were placed (iron axletrees were
introduced by Gribeauval in 1765). The gun resting in its
wooden cradle was carried in bearings on the trail immediately
over the azletree (fig. 4), the cradle being provided with an
ffkvn Orptuaj. EOflt QriHtmir.
Fig. 4.~Eariy Field Gun.
axle or trunnions for the purpose. For giving elevation a wood
arc was fixed to the trail towards the rear end, and the breech
end could be moved up and down along this arc and fixed at
certain positions by a pin passing through both cradle and arc.
About the middle of the 15th century the trunnions were
formed with the gun—the wood cradle therefore became un-
necessary and was discarded. The carriage was then formed of
two strong cheeks or sides of wood fastened together by four
wood transoms. At the front end the cheeks were secured to
the wooden, axletree, which was strengthened by a bar of iron
let into its under side. Trunnion bearings were cut in the upper
surface of the checks over the axletree, and these were lined
with iron, while the trunnions were secured in position by iron
cap-squares. Elevation was given by a wedge or " quoin "
being placed under the breech and supported by a transom or
stool bed. For transport the trail end of the carriage was sup-
ported on a limber, a pintle on the limber body passing through
a hole in the trail. One set of shafts were fixed to the limber,
and a single horse was harnessed to them; the remainder of the
team were attached in pairs in front A driver was provided for
every two pairs of horses. In Italy oxen were often yoked to
the larger guns instead of horses^ Tartaglia mentions in his
Nova scientia (1562) that 98 oxen were required for a gun 15 ft
in length and weighmg 13,000 .lb; horses were used for small
guns only.
For service on board ship the difficulties of the cramped
^uation seem to have been surmounted in an ingenious manner
In the " Mary Rose, " sunk in the reign of Henry VIII , the
brass guns with trunnions were mounted on short wood carriages
provided with four small wood wheels called " trucks " and
fastened to the gun ports by rope breechings. The Iron brecch-
lotding guns were employed in restricted positions where loading
at the muxale would be di£Scult. They had no trunnions and
were mounted in a wood cradle, the under side of which was
grooved to enable it to slide on a directing bar.
At the end of the 17th century not much progress had been
made. The larger guns were mounted- on short wood carriages
hiving two or four " trucks. " The guns and carriages recoiled
along the vessel's deck, and where this endangered the masts
or other structures the recoQ was hindered by soft substances
being laid down in the path of the recoil.
The small guns were mounted in iron Y pieces— the upper
arms being provided with bearings for the gtm trunnions— and
the stalk formed a
pivot which rested 1
in a socket in the I
vessel's side i>T
on a wall, so that | 9^
the gun could be
turned to any
quarter.
Similar carriages
(fig. s) existed Fic. 5.— Truck Carriage,
until the advent
of rifled guns, but a few small improvements, such as screw
elevating gear in place of the quoin, had been Approved.
Cast iron standing carriages were also, about 1825, used on land
for hot climates and situations not much exposed.
The earliest guns were not provided with sights or other
means for directing them. This was not important, as the range
seldom exceeded xob yds. As, however, ranges efc**^,
became longer, some means became necessary for *«"''^
giving the correct line and elevation (see also Sights). The
direction for line was easily obtained by looking over the gun and
moving the carriage trail to the right or left as was necessary.
For elevation an instrument invented by Tartaglia called a
Gunner's (^adrant (sometimes also called a Gunner's Square)
was used ; this was a graduated quadrant of a circle (fig. 6)
connecting a long and
short arm forming a
right angle; a line with
a plummet hung from
the angle in such a
manner that on the long
arm being placed along
the bore near the muzzle
the plummet hung down
against the quadrant
and indicated the de-
grees of elevation given to the piece. The quadrant was divided
into 90*^ and also Into 12 parts; it was continued past the
short arm for some degrees to enable depression to be given
to the gun. The instrument was also used for surveying in
obtaining the hdghts of buildings, and is still much employed
for elevating guns in its clinometer form, in which a level tajces
the place of the plummet
For short range firing a dispart sight was In use early Li the
r 7th century. A notch was cut on the top of the breech or base
ring, and on the muzzle ring a notched fore sight (caDed the
dispart sight) was placed in the same vertical plane as the notch,
and of such a height that a line stretched from the top of the
breech ring notch to the notch of the foresight was parallel to
the axis of the bore. These sights were well enough for clese,
horizontal fire and so long as the enemy were within what was
called '* point blank " range; that is the range to the first
graze, on a horizontal plane, of the shot when fired from a gun
the axis of which is honzontaL As this range depends entirely,
other things being eciual, on the height of the gun's axis above
the horizontal plane, it is not very definite. When, however,
the enemy were at a greater distance, elevation had to be given
to the gun and, as a quadrant was slow and not easy to uie^
there was introduced an instrument, caDed a Gunner's Rule
(see The Art of Gunnery, by Nathanad Nye, 1670), which w««
really a pnmitive form of tangent sight This was a flat '
Fia 6. — Gunner's Quadrant
192
ORDNANCE
scale I a or 14 in. long dhJded on its flat lutfsce into diviiioDs
proportional to the tangents of angles witli a base equal to the
distance from the notch on the base ring to the dispart notch. A
slit was made along the nilei and a thread with a bead on it was
mounted on a slider so that it could be moved in the slit to any
required graduation. By sighting along the bead to the dispart
the gun could be laid on any object. Later still, the requisite
elevation was obtained by cutting a series of notches on the side
of the base ring and one on the muzzle ring. These were called
" Quarter Sighu " and allowed of elevations up to $"; the lowest
notch with the one on the muzzle swell gave a line parallel to the
axis of the bore but above it so as to dear the cap-squares of the
trunnions. This system was also used in bronze field guns and
in all cast iron guns up to the 32-pdr. Difficulties in laying
occurred unless the direction was obtained by looking over the
top or dispart sight and the elevation then given by the quarter
sights. This was the system of sighting in use during the great
naval actions of the end of the i8th century and the beginning
of the jgth century. A pointed dispart sight was often used,
and for naval purposes it was fixed on the reinforce near the
trunnions, as the recoil of the gun through the port would
destroy it if fixed on the muzzle sweU.
The double sighting operation was rendered itnnecesaary by the
use of " tangent scales " introduced by GribeauvaL Similarscales
were soon adopted in the English land service artillery, but they
were not ftilly adopted in the English navy until about 1854.
(see N^»al Cuunery, by Sir Howard Douglas, p. 390), although
in the United States navy a system of sighting, whkh enabled
the guns to be layed at any degree of elevation, had been
applied as early as 1812. Tlicse tangent scales were of brass
fitting into sockets on the breech end of the gua; they were
used in conjunction with the dispart fore sight and gave eleva^
tion up to 4' or f over the top of the gun. For greater elevation
a wooden tangent scale was provided which gave elevation up
to 8* or id".
In the British navy, before tangent sights were used, the plan
often adopted for rapidly laying the guns was by sighting, with
the notch on the breech ring and the dispart sight, on some
part of the masts of the enemy's vessel at a height corresponding
to the range.
'With sailing ships about the middle of the 19th century the
angle of heel of the vessel when it was sailing on a "wind was
ascertained from the ship's pendulum, and the lee guns elevated
or the weather guns depressed to compensate by means of a
graduated wooden stave called a "heel scale" of which one end
was placed on the deck or hist step of the carriage whilst the
upper end read in connection with a scale of degrees engraved
on the flat end of the cascable.
Subsequently the term " tangent sight " was given to the
" tangent scales," and they were fitted hito holes made in the
body of the gun— the foresight usually being fitted to a hole
in the gun near the trunnions. Two pairs of sii^ls— one at
each side— were generally arranged for, and in rifled guns the
holes for the tangent sight bars were inclined to oampensate
for the drift of the projectile. As the drift angle varies with
the muzzle velocity, the tangent sights of howitzers were set
vertically, so that for the various diarges used the deflection
to compensate for drift had to be given on the head of the sight
bar. Modem forms of sights are described and illustrated in the
article Sicbts.
Breech-loading ordnance dates from about the end of the
14th century, or soon after the introduction of cannon into
^^^ England (Brackenbuiy, Proc. R.AJ. v. 32). The
f^^l^ sun body, in some cases, waa fixed to a wood
ftiiiawi cradle by iron straps and .the breech poitioo kept in
position between the muzzle portion and a vertical
bbck of wood fixed to the end of the cradle, by a wedge. Acci-
dents saust have been ooromon, and improvements were made
by dropping the breech or chamber ol the weapon into a re*
ceptacle, solidly forged on or fastened by lugs to the rear end
of the gun (fig. 7)* This system was used for small guos only,
mch aa wall pieces, Ire, which coiikl not be easily loadedatlbe
(B1ST0RY AND CONSTROCTfON
muzzle owmg to the position in which they were placsed, and la
order to obtain rapidity each gon was furnished with sevemi
chambers.
Guns of this nature, called Petrierdes a Braza, woe aed in
particular positions even at the end of the 1 7th ocntuiy. Motetft
sutes that they carried a stone bail of from s lb to 14 lb, whicb
Fi(L 7.--Early Breecb-loador.
was placed in the bore of the gun and kept in position by wads.
The chambers, resembling an ordinary tankard in diape, had a
^igot formed on their front end which entered into a corre-
sponding recess at the rear end of the bore and so formed a rude
joint. Each chamber was nearly filled with powder and the
mouth closed by a wood stopper driven in; it was thim inserted
into the breech of the gun and secured by a wedge. Evoi with
feeble gunpowder this means of securmg the chamber does not
commend itself, but as powder improved there was a greater
probability of the breech end of the gun giving way; besidca
which the escape of the powder gas from the imperfect Joint
between the chamber and gun must have caused great in*
convenience. To these causes must be attributed the general
disuse of the breech-loading system during the i8th and lust
half of the 19th centuries.
Robins mentions {Tracts of Gunnery, p. 337) that experi-
mental breech-loading rifled pieces had been tried in 1745 in
England to surmount the difficulty of loading from the muzzle.
In these there was an opening made in the side of the breech
which, after the loading had been completed, was dosed by a
screw. The breech arrangement (fig. 8) of the rifled gun in-
Ftc. 8.— CavalB Gun, 1845.
vented by Major C^valli, a Sardinian officer, in 1845, waa far
superior to anything tried previously. After the projectile and
charge had been k>aded into the gun through the biOKh, a cast
iron cylindrical plug, cupped on the front face» was introduced
into the chamber; a copper ring was placed against its rear
face; finally a strong iron wedge was passed through the body
of the gun horizontally just in rear of the plug, and prevented
it being blown out of the gun. In England the breech of one
of the experimental guns was blown off after only a few rounds
had been fired. In Wahrendor£f'8 gun, invented in 1846^ the
breech arrangement (fig. 9) was very similar in principle to tht
Cavalli gun. In addition to the breech plug and horizontal
wedge there was an iron door, hinged to the breech face of the
gun, which carried a rod attached to the rear of the breech plofr
The horizontal wedge had a slot cut from its right side to the
centra, so that it might freely pass this rpd. After losdii^
ORDNANCE
Plate I.
Plate II.
ORDNANCE
Fig. i8.— Shrinking-on Process.
ORDNANCE
Plate III.
Fig. 60. — British i8-pr. Quick-firing Gun.
Fig. 61. — British i8-pr. Quick-firing Gun and Limber.
Fig. 62.— French 75-mm. Quick-firing Gun and Wagon Body in Action.
Plate IV.
ORDNANCE
Fig. 64.— Danish (Krupp) 7.5-cm. Qxiick-firing Rdd Gun and Wagon Body in Action.
Fig. 67.— Ehrhardt 4.7-in, Quick-firing Field Howitzer (Controlled Recoil).
Fig. 68. — Krupp 7.s-cm. Mountain Gun.
ORDNANCE
Plate V.
Plate VI.
ORDNANCE
ORDNANCE
Plate VII.
Plate VIII.
ORDNANCE
HISTORY AND OONSTROCTIONI
ORDNANCE
193
the U9fed door, with the breech ping resting «g»Iist its front
face, WM swung into the breech opening, and the plug was
pushed forward to its poaitkb in tlie chamber ol tlie gun; tlie
Fto. 9.— Wahreodorff Gun, 1846.
wedge was then pushed across to prevent the plug being blown
back, and, finally, a nut screwed to the rear end of the plug
rod was given a couple of turns so that all was made tight and
secure. After firing, the breech was opened by reversing these
operations.
The Armstrong system of breech-loading introduced in 1854
was the int to givts satisfactory results; iu simple design and
few parU produced a favourable effect in the minds of artillerists,
which was Increased by the excellent accuracy obtained in
ihootias. Tht gun (fig. 10) had a removable breech block having
Ftc. 10.— Annstroog B.L. Amngemeot.
oa Ita front face a coned copper ring which fitted into a coned
•eating at the breech end of the powder chamber. The breech
bkick was secured by means of a powerful breech'screw; a hole
was made through the screw so that, in k>ading, the shell and
cartridge oouki be passed through it after the breech block had
been removed. After loading, the block was dropped into its
place and the breech screw turned rapidly so that it might jam
the block against its seating, and so prevent the escape of powder
gas when the gun was fired. Tbb gun was most successful, and
a great numbv of guns of thb type were soon introduced into
the British army and navy.
They were employed hi the China campaign of i860, and
satisfactory reports were made as to their serviceablencas; but
whiie the breecik4oadang systcmhad obtained a firm footing on the
Continent of Europe, there was a strong prejudice against it in
England, and about 1864 M.L.R. guns wen adopted. Breech-
loaders did not again find favour until about xSSa, when a demand
was made for more powerful guns than the MX.R. In oonse-
queace, M.L. guns bsiving enlarged chambers for burning large
chaiges of prismatic powder were experimented wfth by the
Elswick Ordnance Co. and subsequently by the War Office.
The results were so promising that means were sought for further
improvements, and breech-loading guns, having the Elswick
cup obturation, were reintroduced.
Up to about i8jb the dlnensions of canon had been propor-
tioned by means of empirical rules, as the real principles under-
lying the construc t ion of ordnance had been little
understood. It waa known of course that a giin was
subjected to two fundamental stresses -a drcum-
ferentiai tension tending to split the gun open longitudinally, and
a longitudinal tension tending to puU the gun «part lengthwise;
the longitudinal strength of a gun is usually greatly in excess
of any requirements. It is eaay to demonstrate that any so<alled
homogeneous gun, ia. a gun made of solid material and not
built up, soon reaches a limit of fhirknwa beyond which
additional thickness is practically useless in giving strength
to resist circumferential stress. This is due to the fact that the
stress on the metal near the bore is far hi^^aer than that oa
the outer portion and soon reaches its maximum resistance which
additional thicknesa of metal does not materially increase. The
gun can, however, be arranged to withstand a considerably
higher working pressure by building it up on the principle of
initial tensions. The inner layers of the metal are thereby
compressed so that the gas pressure has first to reverse this
compression and then to extend the mctaL The gun barrel
supported by the contraction of the outer hoops wiU then be able
to endure a gas pressure which can be exprosed as being pro-
portionalto theinitialcMi^efriMplua theexfM«lMi,wbercasinthe
old type solid gun it was proportional to the extenncn only. The
first to employ successfully this important principle for all parts
of a gun was Lord Armstrong <9.v.), who in 1855-1856 produced
Pia II.— Armstrong B.L. Construction.
a breech-loading fidd gun with a tted barrel strengthened by
wrought iron hoops. In this system (fig. zi) wrought iron coils
were shrunk over one another so that the inner tube, or banel,
was placed in a state of comp r e ss ion and the outer portioBS in
a state of t ens io n the parU so proportioned that eadi perftoas
its maximum duty in re^stlng the pressure from witUn. Farther,
by forming the outer parts of wrought iron bar coiled round a
mandril and then welding the coil into a MUd hoop» the fibre
of the iron was arranged drcomfeieatiany and was thus in
the best position to resist this stress. These outer ooQs were
ghrunk over a hollow breech-piece of forged iron, having the fibre
mnnlBg lengthwise to resist the longitudinal stress. The several
cylinders were shrunk over the steel inner tube or banci To
obtain the necessary co mp re ss ion the exUrior diameter of the
inner portion is turned in a Uthe slightly greater than the interior
diameter of the outer coiL The outer coll is heated and expands;
it b then sUpped over the inner portion and contracts on cooling.
If the strength of the two parts has been properiy adjusted the
outer will remain in a state of tension and the inner in a state
of compressioiL
Cvery nation has adopted thb f^damental pifndpie which
governs id systems of modem gun construction. The winding.
at a high tension, of thin wire or ribbon on the barrel or on one of
the outer coils may be considered j» having an exactly similar
effect to the' shrinking of thin hoops over one another. The
American, Dr Woodbridge, claims to have originated the system
of strengthening guns by wire in 1850; Brunei, the great railway
engineer, also had similar plans; to Longridge,- howcrer, belongs
the credit of pointing out the proper mode of winding on the'
wire with initial tension so adjusted as to make the firing tension
(Ce, the tension which exisU when the gun is fired) of the
wire uniform for the maximum proof powder pressure^ Great
<^4
ORDNANCE)
success attended the eariy IntiodwtioB of Hm cafl tystem.
Large nombers (about $$<») ^f breech-loading Armstrong guns
from a- 5 in. to 7 in. calibre were manufactuied for En^and
alone; most of these had barrels of coiled Iron, bu t solid forged
iron barrels were also employed and a few p*
were of steeL Tins manufacture continued bsss
until 1867, when M.L. guns built up on the coil
system (fig. 12) with the French form of rifling
were adopted; but as the knowledge of the
proper treatment and the quality of the steel
had improved, steel barrels bored from a solid
steel forging were mostly used; the exterior
layen were still iron hoops with the fibre of the
metal disposed as In the original type. In
order to cheapen manufacture the coUs were
thickened by Mr Praser of Woolwkh Arsenal,
so that a few thick ooils were used Instead of
a number of thin ones (fig. 15).
In the Fraaer system an attempt was made to
obtain rigidity of construction and additional
kngitudinal strength by interlocking the various
coils from breech to muzzle; this feature sttU
exists in all designs adopted by the English
govenunsnt, but foreign d^enen do not favour it altoge th er, and
many of their gnns of the latest type have a number of sliort
independent hoops shrunk on, especially over the chase. Their view
is tnat movements — such as stretchmg of the inner parts — are
bound to take place under the huge forces acting upon the tubes,
and that it is better to allow freedom for these to take place
naturally rather than to make any attempt to retard them. On
the other hand it cannot be denied that the rigid oonstniction is
(HISTORy AMD OONSTRUCnon
A stronger material than ocdinary carbon gnn steel was conse-
quently demanded from the stecl-makefB, in order to keepthe weights
of the heavier natures of guns within reasonable limits. The demand
was met by the introduction of a giia aiflei haying about 4% «l
nickel in aoditmn to about 0*4% of cattxm. This alloy 1'
Fig. 13.— M.L. Gun G>nstnictJon.
eotodiMbtt to strength and dumbili^, but it is essential that massive
tabes of the highest quality of steel should be empbycd.
The actual building up of a gun entails operations which are
exactly aimilar, whether it be ^ the M.L. or BX. system; and
the hnrdeninc treatment of the steel is also the same—the coiled
iron hoops when welded, of course, received no such treatment.
Ftc. 14.— Modem B.L. Construction,
toughness and endurance under a suiuble oil hardening and anneaKng
process, the yiekling stress being about a6. tons to 38 tons and lbs
breaking stress from as tons to SS tons per squaie inch, witk an
elongation of 16%. The tests for ordinary carbon gun steel arc:
" yield not less than ai tons, breakiog stress between ^ tons and
44 tons per square inch, and elongatkM 17%."
The toagfaness of nickel steel tocgings renders them mnch main
difl&cult to machiae. but the advantages have been so great that
practkally all barrels and hoops (except jackets) of modem guns
are now made of thb material.
The gun sted, whether of the cubim or nickel quality, osed In
England and most foreign countries, is prepared by the open hearth
method in a regenerative jeas furnace ol the Stemena* ^
Martin type (see I EON AND bTBBL). The steel u ran from ?*.
the furnace into a large ladle, prevbusly heated by gas, '**Mmm
and from this it b alfowed to ran into a cast iron ingot mould of
from 10 to 12 ft. high and 3 ft. or more in diameter. With very
W large ittflots two furnaces may have to be employed. The external
shape of these ingots varies in different steel works, bnt they are so
arranged that, as the ingot slowly coots, the contraction of the metal
shall not set up dangeroos internal stressea. The top of the ingot
b generally porous, and consequently] after cooling, it b 1
Fig. 13.— M.L. Gun Constraction (fraser).
Fig. 14 shows the various stages of building up a B.L. gun and
illustrates at the same time the principle of the interlocking
system.
The steel faarrds of the M.L. guns were focged solid; the material
was then tested so as to determme the most suiuble temperature, at
which the oil hardening treatment should be carried out after the
barrel had been bored. The bored barrel was simply heated to the
required tempenture and plunged vertically into a tank of oiL
The subsequent annealing process was not mtroduced until some
yean after; it b therefore not to be wondered at that steel proved
untrostworthy and so was used with reluctance.
Since f Mo the steel industry haa made so mach inuaiiss that thb
material b now inarded as the metal most to be feUedoo. Thek>ng
high-power gnns, however, require to be worked at a greater chamber
pressure than the older B.L. guns, with which 1% tons or 16 tons per
square Inch was co n sidcrp d the maximum. With the designs now
produced 18*5 tons to ao tonaper square inch worldag pressure in the
chamber b tiie genersl rule.
for^^out one-third of^the length of the ti^p>t to be cut from the top
a small part of the bottom b abo of ten <
The centre of the larger ingots b also inclined to be unsound, and
a hole b therefore bored through them to remove thb part. In the
Whitworth and Harmet methods of flukl com p res std steel, thb
porosity at the top and centre of the ingot does not oooir to
the same extent, and a much greater portion can therefore be
utilised.
The sound portion of the Ingot b now heated fai a reheating ns
furnace, which b usually buUt in dose proximity to a hydraulic
fofgfaig prea (fig. is, Plate I.). Thb press b now almost exdnsively
used for forging the steel in place of the steam hammen whidi were
formeriy an important feature in all large wmIes. The laigest of
thcae steam hammers oouM not deliver a blow of much more than
some 500 ft. tons of energy; with the hydrsulic press, however,
the pressure amounts to, for ordinary purposes, from 1000 tons to
5000 tons, while for the manufacture oif armour plates it may amount
to as much as 10,000 or 13,000 tons.
For foigings of 8-ia. internal diameter and upwards, the bered out
ingot, just mentioned, b focged hoUow on a tubular mandril, kept
CCMM by water running throufl^ the centre; from two to four hours
forging work can be performed before the metal has cooled down
too much. GenersUy one end of the ingot b forged down to the
proper siae; it b then reheated and the other end simibily treated.
Theforgiqgof the steeland the subsequent (^)erations have a very
marked influmor on the structure of the metal, as will be seen from
the micro-photognphs shown in the article Alloys, where (a) and
(b\ show the structure of the cast steel of the actual ingot: from
thb it will be nolked that the crystab an very large and prominent,
but, as the metal passes through the various operations, these
crystab become smaller and less pronounced. Thus (f) and (tf)
show the metal after forging; (e) shows the peaiCte structure with
a magnificatwn of 1000 diametera, which disanpeare on the -^— '
^' "* .'^. tiieoil hardened and ann
being ofl hardened, and (f) l _ _ _
crystals. At the Bofcwa Works in Sweden, gun barreb up to 34 cm.
(9*5 iu.) calibre have been formed of an unfocged cast steel tube;
but thb practice, although allowing of the productioo of an in-
expensive gun. b not followed by other natmns.
After the forging b completed, it b annealed by reheating and
oooUqg sfewly, ana test pieces are cut from each end Ungentially
HISTORY AND CONSTRtlCTION]
Co the drcumftfence'or th« bore; these are tested to ascertain the
quality of t))e steet m the soft sute.
It is found that the Quality of the steel is grmtfy improved by
forging, so long as this m not carried solar as to set up a laminar
structure in the netal, which is therd>y t en d eta d less suitable for
gun construction — ^beins weaker across the kmiaac than in the
other directions. It is tacn termed over-fofgcd.
If the tests are satisfactory the forging is rough*tunicd and bored,
then reheated to a temperature of about i6oo*Th and hardened by
plunging it into a vertical tank of rape oiL This proocas is a some-
what critical one and great care is observed in tuiifonaly hcatingr
to the rtqaii«d tempeistuic, the whole of the forging in a furnace
in clote proximity to the oil tank, into which it is plunged and
compfetefy submerged as rapidly as possible. In soom cases the
oil in the tank is dreuUted by pumping, so that onifonnity of cooling
is ensured; and, in addition, the oil tank is surrounded by a water
jacket which also helps to keep it at a uniform heat. The forging is
subsequently again heated to about laoo* F. and allowed to oool
sfewly by being placed in warm taad, Ac. This hut operation is
termed annealing, and is intended to dissipate any internal stress
which may have been induced fai the forging by any of the prevhwa
processes, especially that of oU-hardciuiig. After this anneafiag
process a seomd set of test piecest two for tensile aiul two for bending
test, are cut from each end of the forging in the posithms above
nentiooed ; for guns of less than vin. catibie only half this number
of teat pieces is taken; and with noopa of less than 48 in. in length
the test pieces are taken only from the end which focned the upper
part of the cast ingot.
In all caaes of annealed steel the test pieces of a In. length and
e*S33 In. diameter must jrive the stipulated tests according to the
character of the steeL for breech scfiews the steel is made of a
harder qualitv, as it has to resist a crushing stress These are the
tests requireo in England, but they differ in diflferent countries; for
Instance in France a harder dass of carbon sted is employed for
hoops, in which the tensile strength must not be less than 44«s tons,
nor the clastic limit less than 38*5 tons per square inch, neither must
thedongation fall betow 12%,
Assuming that the tests of the annealed forging arw satisfactory,
the forginff, which we win suppose to be a barrel, is tasted for straight-
ness and if necessary rectified. It is then rongh>4unied in a bthe
(fig. )6) " to break the skin " (as it is termea technically) and so
ORDNANCE
195
The covering
interior of the covering tuba «r hoop finished to suit
hoop is alloaicd usually only a «aaU shrinkage, or sometimes none,
as It is simply intended as a protection to the wire and to givo
loogitiidinal strength; but in order to placa it over the wire it must
be nested and thus some little contraction always does take plaoo
00 cooling. The heat to whkh these hoops are brought for shrinking
never exceeds that used in annealing, otherwise the modifyiiy
effects of this process would be interfered with.
In the earliest modern typa B.L. guns, the breeth scvew engaged
directly with a screw thrnd cut la the barrd, whidi thus hadto
rssist a Urge portion, if not all, of the kmgitudinal stress. This was
also the system first adopted in France, but there are certain
objections to it. the princtoal bdiur that the barrd must be made of
laige diameter to moetthe longitudinal stress^ and this in consequence
rechices the drcumferential strength of the gun. Agun, the diameter
of the screw b alwaya consideraDly larger than the breech opening,
and so an abnmt tnange of section takes dace, whkh it is always
best to avoid in structures liable to sudden shocks. The thick
barrel, however, gives stiffness against bending and, moreover, dots
not materially lengthen with finng; thia barrels on the other hsnd
are gradually extended by the drawing out action d the shot as it
is forced through the gun. In some lar« guns with exoessivdy thin
barrds this action was so pronounced as to- entail considerable
inconvenience. In the Enguah system the breech screw is engaged
dthec in the breech piece, i^. the hoop which is shrunk on over
the breech end of the barrd, or in a spedd bush screwed into the
breech piece. This latter method suits the latest system of con-
structKMi in which the breech piece is put on the barrd from' the
muzde, while with the earlier type it was put on from the breech end.
With the earlier modem guns short noops were used whenever
possible, as, for instance, over the chase, prindpally because the
sted in short lengths was less Kkdy to contain flaws, but as the
meuUurgical pi o tcs s ea of stesl making devdoDod the necessity for
this disappeared, and the hoopa beosme gradually hMiyer. This haa
however, increased conrespoiulittgly the difficulties in borisg and
turning, and, to a much greater extent, those encountered in butldiag
up the gun. In this operation the neatest care has to be taken, or
warping will occur durmg heating. The tubes am heated in a vertical
cyliadncd furrurae, gas lets playmg both on the exterior and interior
Of the tube. When sufficiently hot, known by the diameter of the
tube expanding to aqud previously prepared gauges, the tube is
Via, 26.— latha need In Gun CoBifinctiott.
It
then
prevent warping during the subsctiuent operations,
bored out to neariy tbie finished dimension and afterwards fiae
turood on the extenor. In the meantime th^ other pOriioos of tho
gu A are in progress, and ss it is far easier to turn down the outside
of a tube tnan to bore out the interior of the superimposed one to
the exact mea surem ents required to allow for skriiikage, the Interior
of the jacket and other hoops are bored out and finished before the
exterior of the internal tubes or of the barrel is fine turned. The
process of boring is illustrated in flg. 17. The barrel Or hoop A, to
be bored, is paned through the revolving headstock S and firmlv
heU by jaws C, the other end being supported on rotlen D. A
head E, mounted on the end of a bonag bar F. is drawn gradually
through the barrel, as it revolves, by the lending screw K actuated
by the gear C. The boring head is provided with two or morw
raised out of the furnace and dropped vertically over the barrel or
other portion of the sun (fig. 18, Hate II.). In coding it shrinks
k>ngitudinally as wefl as druunferentiallv, and in order to avoid
gaps between adjoining tabes the tube is, altar bdng placed in
position, cooled at one end by a ring of water lets' to make it grip,
white the other portions ase kept hot by tings of burnhig gas
flames, which are successtvdy extinguished to allow the hoop to
shorten gradually and thus prevent internal longitudinal stress. A
stream of water Is also directed aktng the interior of the gun
during the building up proccas, in order to ensure the hoop cooling
from the intoior. Alter the building up has been completed, the
barrel is fina-bored, then chambered and rifled. The breech is then
screwed dther for the bush or breech screw and the breech
medianism fitted to the gun.
Fia i7>-
Ctttllaff took, and also with a number of brass pfns or pieces of
hard wood to set as guides, in order to keep the boring head central
after it has entered the barrel The revolving headstock B is
driven by a belt and suUabte geirfng.
WMi irtiw guna the jmu d ui a: la s Mw o fcl t d«gawnt> The wuc
ia wound on to its tube, whkh has been previously fine turned the
exterior diameter of the wire is then carefully roeasarcd and ih$
In order to obtdn additkmd lonntudinal strength the outer
tubes are so arranged that each hooks on to its neighbour from
mucde to breech. Thus, the chase hoop hooks on to the barrel by
a. step, and the aoarcding hoops hook on to each other until the
jacket is reached arhich is then secured to the breech piece by a
strong screwed ring. In all the latest patterns of Ea|^ gam
tlwre is a dagle ehaaa hoop 4
t covering the forward poetiP'
196
ORDNANCE
gun and a jacket covering the breech pMtioa. an arrangement
which Bimphfies the design but increases the difficulties qf manu-
facture.
Wire
to la
re guns are now made of almost all calibres, ranging from 3 in.
I in. Many authorities objected to guns oi less calibre than
Elswidt SysUm Woohrich System
Fig. 19.— Wire Fastening.
4*7 in. being wound with wire, as they considered that on diameters
so small the interior surface ol each layer of wire is over*compres8cd,
while the exterior is too much extended; but by proportioning the
thickness of the wire to the diameter of the tube on which it is
wound there is no reason for this to be so.
The wire Is wound on the barrel at a certain tension, ascertained
by calculation, and varying from about 50 tons per square inch for
the layers first wound on the gun, to about 3p or 40 for the outer
layers. To fasten the wire at the beginning andend several methods
are adopted. In the Woolwich system a narrow annular ring
(fig. 19), with slots cut into one of its faces, b dirunk on to the
gun; into these slots one end of the wire is inserted and secured
in position by a steel screwed plug. The wire u wound on for the
distance desired and then back again to the ring, where the end is
fastened off in the same way. At Elswick the wire is fastened by
bending it into a shunt cut groove in a similar annular ring, but
the wire is only fastened off m the same way after several layers
have been wound.
With each succeeding layer of wire the interior layers are com-
pressed, and these in turn compress the barrel It is therefore
fHISTORY AND OMfSTRUCTION
necessary, in order to prevent the fatigue of the material to make
the barrel comparatively thick, or. better still, to have an outer
barrel superimposed 00 the inner one. This latter arrangement
is now used in all runs of 4 in. calibre and upwards. It is oot so
important with smaller guns as the barrel is always reiatavdy thick,
and therefore meets the conditioos.
With many modem guns the interior of the outer iMrTel, termed
the " A " tube, is taper bored, the larger end being towards the
.breech; and the exterior of the ianer oarrel or liner, called the
" inner A tube^" is made tapered to oorrenood. The latter is, after
careful fitting, inserted in the outer baml while both are o^di *
forced into position by hydtmulic pressiinr or ' '
The dctaib of the machines for winding on the wire (see fig. 20)
differ somewhat in different works, but alTare airanged so that any
desired tension can be given to the wire as it is beiivi wound on to
the gun. The wire n manufactured in much the same way as
ordinary wire. A red-hot bar of steel, gradually rolled down between
rollers to a section about double that which it is finally intended to
hkve, is annealed and carefully pickled in an acid bath to d^ach any
scale. It is then wound on a drum, ready for the next procesi^
which consists in drawing it through nacluated holes made in a
hardened steel draw-platei the wire beinff often annealed and
pickled during this process. The drawplate noks vary in sixe frooi
slightly smaller than the rolled bar section to the finished sire of the
wire, and, as a rule, the sharp comers of the wire are only given
by the last draw. It is found that considerable wear takes place ia
the holes of the draw-plate, and a new plate may be required for
each hank of 300 or 600 vds. of v^re. Great importance is attached
to the absence of scale from the wire when it is being drawn, and,
after pukling, the rolled bar and wire are treated with lime or some
simikir sub^noe to facilitate the drawing. The tests for the
finished wire are as follows: it has to stand a tensile stress of from
^ to no tons per square inch of section, and a test for ductih'ty
in which a tiion length of wire w twisted a considerable number of
turns in one direction, then unwound and re-twisted in the opposite
direction, without showing signs of fracture. It will be seen that
the wire b extecrody strmig and the moderate stress of from ^s
to 50 tons per tqyue inch, which at roost it is called upon to witK-
stand in a gun, is far less than what it could endure with perfect
safety.
The wire after bdng manufactured is made up into hanks for
storage purposes; but when required for gun construction it is
thoroughly cleaned and wound on a drum K about 3 ft. 6 In. in
diameter, which is placed in one portion of the machine in connexioa
with a powerful bsind friction brake M. The wire u then led to the
gun A placed between centres or on rollers B.B. parallel to the axis
of the wire drum. By rotating the gun the wire is drawn off from the
drum against the resistance of theoand brake, which is so designed
that, by adjusting the weight S suspended from the brake strap,
any desired resistance can be given in order to produce the necessary
tension in the wire as it is being wound on the gua. The stress on
FXo. ia-^WSre-«iadiag MacUoft
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTIOM]
the wife is indicated on a dial, aod tbe beadstock. ooQCaioang the
drum of wire, is capable of being moved along the bed G Dy a
leadtMf screw H, dnven by a belt thfough variable speed cones I;
the bdt is moved along the cones by forks J, travcnod by Krews K,
whkh in their turn are actuated by ch«n belts from the hand
wheel L. The traversing speed is regulated to suit the speed of
winding by moving the belt along the speed cones.
The wire is rectangular in section, 0*95 in. wide and 0«o6 in. thick,
and after it has been wound on to the gun it pjnaenta a very even
surface whkh requires little further preparation. The diameter
over the wire is gauged and the jacket or other covering hoop is
<nrefully bored equal to this, if no shrinkage is to be allowed; or the
dimension is diminished in accoidance witn the amdbnt of shrinkage
to be arranged for.
The gun is built up, after wiring, in the same manner as a ^n
irithout wire, the iacket or other hoop being heated ia the vertical
gas furnace and when hot enough dropped into place over the wire,
cooled by the nng of water jets at the end first required to grip and
kept hot at the «^hcr, exactly as before described.
The machine arranged for rifling modem guns Is very nmilar
to that employed for the ok! munle-loaders: it is a special tool
g^^m usea in gun construction only (hg. 2i)j and is in reality
^g^f^^fti * coi^ng machine. A steel or cast-iron bar J _ which
"^ forms the copy of the developed rifline curve is first
made. The copying bar — which is straight if the rifting is to be uni-
form but curved if it is to be increaslng^s fixed, inclined «t the
ORDNANC£
197
buttet, from the musdc; Iai$36Rt«iaBMdealafveiuiiiiber«f
experiments with a rifled gun invented by Monttgny, a Belgian;
itiis was not a tiKcess, but in Engkuid the guns invented by
Major Cavalli, in i84S> &nd by Baion Wahrendorff ia 1846,
obtained some measoee of favour. Both these guns arerebreccb-
leaden. The Cavalli gun had a bore of 6*$ in. diameter, it ivaa
rifled in two grooves having a unifonn twbt of x in 95 calibfca,
and the elongated projectile bad two ziba cast with it to fit the
grooves, but no means were taken to prevent windage. Tbe
Wahrendorfi gun bad an enlaig^ chamber and the ben of
6-37 ilk dismeier was xifled in a ftooves; the pn^iectik ksid riba
simiUr to that for the Cavalli gun; but Wahiendotf had also
tried lead-coated projectiles* the coating being attached by
grooves undercut in the outside cf the shcU. In 1854 Iiinfiiitfr
submitted his plan of rifling: ui this (lig. aa) the bove was made
of an oval section which twisted round the axis of thegunfroafe
the breech to the muzale; a prqjcctile having an oval lectkA
was flred. Several oU castriron guns bond on this uytkat
burst in the Crimean War from the projectile wedging in the
gun. In 1855 Armstrong experimented with a bretcbJoadiflg
rifled gun, firing a lead<oated projectile. The rifling amssted
Fig. 3 1. ^Rifling Machine.
profier angle, to standaids K on the machine. The cutting tool is
carried at one end C of a strong hollow cylindrical rifling bar B, the
other end of which is fixed to a saddle M. This is moved along the
bed <jt th« machine by a k>ng screw N, and the rifling bar is conse-
duently either pushed into the gun or withdrawn by the moctoa of
Uie saddle along the machine. During this nwtioa it b made to
rotate slowly by being connected to the copying bar by suitable
gearing I. It will thus be seen that the cutting tool will cut a spiral
groove along the bore of the gun in strict confornrity with the
copy. In most English machines the cutting tool cuts only as the
rifling bar is drawn out of the gun ; during the reverse motion the
cutter F is withdrawn out of action by means of a wedge anange*
ment actuated by a rod passing through the centre of the rifling bar,
which also pushes forward the cutter at the proper rime for cutting.
One. two or more grooves may be cut at one time, the full depth
being attained by slowly fccdine the tool after each stroke. Alter
each set of grooves is cut the rining bar or the gun is rotated so ad
to bring the cutters to a new position. In some foreign machines
the cut is taken as the rifling bar is pushed into the gun.
Kifling is the tcnn given to the numerous shallow grooves
cut spinlly along the bore of a gun; the rib between two
HH^ grooves is called the " land." Rifling has been known
for many years; it was supposed to incroase the iange«
and no doubt did so, owing to the fact that the bullet having
to be forced into the gun during the loading operation became
a mechanical fit and prevented to a great extent the loss of gas
by windage which occurred with ordinary weapons. Kotter
(1520) and Danncr (is$2}, both of Nuremberg, iirc respectively
credited as being the ^st to rifle gun barrels; and thcro is at the
Rotunda, Woolwich, a muzzle-loading barrel dated 1547 rifled
with six fine grooves. At this early period* rifling was applied
only to small arms, usually for sporting purposes. Ibc
disadvantage of having, during loading, to force' a soft lead (or
lesd-covered) ball down a bore of smaller diameter prevented
its general employment for militazy use. In x66x Prussia
experimented with a gun rifled in thirteen shallow fl^ooves, and
in 1696 the elliptical bore— similar to the Lancaster— had been
tried in Germany. In X745 Robins was experimenting with
rifled guns and elongatedshot in England. During the Peninsular
War about 1809, the only regiment (the " Rifle Brigade,"
formerly called the 95tb) equipped with rifled arms, found con^
•iderabie diflkulty in loading them with the old spherical lead
of a large immbcr of shalknr g roo i^ having a unifonn twist
of X in 38 calibns. When the gun was fired the lead^ooated
projectile, which was slightly hr^ fai diaaseter than the bora
of the gun, was forced into the rifling and so gave rotation to
the dongated projectile. Wkitwortb in 1857 fareught out bia
MCWMOVC /AM Stttmff
lA^V/
i^mm^f^
t
a good
Fkc. 2a.--Sectlons of Rifling.
boro method of rifling aad a projectik wbicb 1
BNchaaiGal fit lo tbo bonk Good RMlta WMS
198
ORDNANCE
{HISTORY AND CONSTRUCnON
but althougti tUs ayst«m had certain advantacta It did not
fulfil all itqulremeata.
In 1863, England reH>pened the whole qoestion, and after
exhaustive triab of various Inventions decided on the adoption
of the muzxie-loading tjrpe for all guns, with the French system
of rifling. This system was invented in 1849 by Colonel TreQlUe
de Beaalieu and ooosisted of a few wide and deep grooves which
gave rotation to a studded projectile. At the fint trials two
grooves only were tried, but the number was afterwards in-
oeased to three or more, as it was found that two grooves only
would not conecUy centre the projectile. The adoption of the
nuizale*loading qrstem with studded shot was a distinctly
retrogrsde step, as a considcvable amount of deamnce was
necessary between the bore and projectile for the purposes of
loading, and thia resulted in the barrel being seriously eroded
by the rush of gas over the shot, and also led to a considenble
1ms of energy. In the Wahrendorff and Armstrong systems
however the lead-coated projectiles entirely prevented windage,
besides which the projectile was perfectly centred and a high
degree ei accuracy was obtained.
Shunt lifling waa a brief attempt to make loading by the
muxxle easy without forfeiting the centring principle: in this
the rifling varied in width and in depth, at different portions of
the boro in such a manner that, during loading, the studs on the
projectile could move freely in the bore. When the gun was fired
the studs of the projectile were forced to travel in the shallow
part of the rifling, thus gripping and centring the projectile as
it left the muzzle.
With uniform rifling on the French system, the few studs—
generally two per groove— had to bear so high a pressure to
produce rotation that they sometimes gave way. This subject
was investigated by Captain (Sir Andrew) Noble, who showed
that by making the rifling an increasing twist, commencing with
no twist and gradually increasing until the necessary pitch was
obtained, the maamum pressure due to rotation was much
reduced. Increasing rifling was consequently adopted, with
beneficial results.
In order to prevent the heavy erosion due to windage, a gas
check was adopted which was attached to the base end of the
studded projectiles. In some guns the ntmiber of grooves of the
rifling was sufficiently great to admit of rotation being insured
by means of the gas check alone; in these guns studded pro-
jectiles were not employed, but the gas check, called " auto-
matic," to distinguish it from that fitted to studded projectiles
was usually indented around its circumference to correspond
with the rifling of the gun. It was found that the studless
projectile had oonsidetably greater range and accuracy than the
studded projectile, with the additional advantage that the shell
was not weakened by the stud holes.
The introduction of the plain copper driving band for rotating
projectiles with breech-loading guns indudM a return to the
polygroove system with shaUow grooves; this still exists, but the
continuous demand for greater power has had the effect of in-
creasing the number of grooves from that at first considered
necessary, in order to keep the rotating pressure on the driving
band within practical limits.
Many ingenious devices for giving rotation and preventing the
escape of gas past the projectile were tried in the early days of
modern rifling. ExperimenU of this nature still continue to be
made with a view to improving the shooting and to prevent the
erosion of the boro of the gun. Briefly considered, without
going into any detail of the numerous plans, all rotating devices
fitted to projectiles can be divided into three classes— the
"centring, " the ** compressing " and the " expansion " systems.
The two last Mmed almost invariably inchide the " centring "
type. Studded (fig. 95) and Whitworth (fig. 24) hexagonal
projectiles, which can freety slide in the bore, come under the
first system.
In the compression dasa. the coating or rings on the projectile
are larger in diameter than the bore and when fired the coating
(erringi) is squecaad or engTseved by the rifling to fit the bore—
the pNJIictiit to MMsqacBtly «ko oentrad. The old-f aaUoubd
lead-coated she!! (fig. 35), and the modem system of plain copper
driving bands (fiig. 26), come under this dass. Most variety
exists in the expansion type, where the pressure of the powdtf
gas acts on the base of the projectile or on the driving ring and
compresses a lead, copper or asbestos ring into the rifling grooves.
One of the earliest was the Hotchkiss (1865) shell (fig. 27), in
which a separate base end B was driven forward by the gaa
pressure and squeezed out the lead ring L into the rifling. The
automatic gas check (fig. 28), and the gas check driving band
(fig. 29), belong to this system; in the last the lip L is expanded
into the lifling groove. In fig. 30 a copper driving band to
Fig. S4.
Fig. 25.
Fig. 37. Fig. 29.
fE3> g=>
Fig. 23.
flEE>
Fig. 36.
Fig. 29. Fic. 30.
Fkcs. 23-30.— Projectiles for Rifled Ordnance.
associated with an asbestos packing A, contained in a canvaa
bag or copper casing made in the form of a ring on the prindple
of the de Bange obturator; but the results of this have not been
entirely satisfactory.
It will be seen that with breech-loading guns the projectile
is better centred, and the copper driving band fornu a definite
stop for the projectile; and, in ooosequence, the capacity of
the gun chamber to practically constant. In addition, the use
of a copper driving band ensures a uniform resistance while
this to being engraved and the projectile forced through the
gun, and also prevenU the escape of gas. These elemenu
have a very great influence on the accuracy of the shooting, and
fully account for the vastly superior results obtained from breech-
loading ordnance when compared with the muzzle-loading typew
Driving bands of other materiato such as copro^ckd ioA
ferro-nickel have also been tried.
Many authorities believe that the best results are obtained
when the projectile to fitted with two bands, one near the head and
the other near the base, and no doubt it is better centred when
so arranged, but such shot can only be fired from gunS rifled with
a uniform twist, and it must also not be forgotten that the groove
formed for the ^ont band in the head of the projectfle nrrnsiiHy
weakens that part of the projectile which should be strongest.
Projectiles with a driving band at the base only can be fired
from guns rifled cither uniformly or with inaeasing twtot.
The introduction of cordite (q.v.) about 1890 again bronglht
into special prominence the question of rifling. The erosion
caused by this explosive soon obliterated the rifling for some 4
or 5 calibres at the breech end. The driving band of the sheU
consequently started with indifferent engraving, and with the
increaang twtot, then in general use, it was feared that the wear
would quickly render the gun usdess. To remedy thto the tote
Commander Younghusband, R.N., proposed straight rifling,
which was adopted in 1895, fbr that portion of the rifling mostly
affected by the erosion, with a gradual increase of the twist
thence to the required pitch at the muzzle. Thus, any erosion
of the straight part of the rifling would not affect that portion
giving rotation, and It was argued that the gun would remain
efficient for a longer period. The defect in thto system to that
when the projectile arrives at the end of the straight rifling it
has a considerable forward velodty and no rotation. Rotation
to then imparted by the increasing twist of rifling, and the
mSTOKV AND C(»ttfltUCnOlll
ORDNAMOB
«99
iflMildiig fnewirc oq Uw eagnvad lifct of the diMog tend ri^
suddenly to a maximum which, in high velocity guns, the
driving bapd is unable to Ksist. For this resaoa the straight
portion at the commencement of the rifling has been discarded,
and with high power gansfixiogaslow burning propellant uniform
riffing has again found favour.
It b evident that in order that a.pmtectile asay have a definite
aoMiant of spin as it leaves the gna a deccrmioats anuraat of work
must be imparted to route it duciag iu paange alooc the rilled
pMtioooftbeboce. Put briefly, thiB work is the aum of tbe products
of the prannn between the e^raved ribe on the driving band and
the laad» of the rifling in the gun multiplied by the length of the
rifling over which this pfeawre atts. Sir Andrew Noble has praved
theosericslly and experimenuUy (tee Phil, Mag., 1863 and 1873;
also Fr&e, key. Soc vol. so) that the rotating pnesnire depends on
thepropriHng prcasureof the powder ns on the baae of the projectile
and on the curve of the rifling. If this cnrve was so proportioned
aa to make the rotating pressure appnndroatelir ooaatant along the
boR^ Che result was aa iacressins or proareseive curve ptftaUng
of the nature of a parabola, in which case it was usual to make the
last two or tbcee ealibies of rifling at the mossle'of uniform twist
for the purpose of steadying the projecrile and akfiag aocuxacy.
In umfonn rifling the curve is a straight line and the rotating
pnasuiu is consec|uently maialy proportional >to the propelling gas
pressure. The pressure for rotation with uniforei rining therefore
rises to a maximum with the propeliiag pressure and falls aa it
becomes less towards the muzzle.
With incieasing rifling, owing to the angle of twist continually
chaaging as the (srojectUe traveto along the bore, the ribs originally
engraved by the rifling on the driving band are forced to channe thetr
directJon ooneqxmdingly, and this occurs by the front soriaoe of
the .ribs wearing away. They are therefore weakmed oonwderably,
and it b found that with high velocities the engraved pan of the
band often entirely disappears through this progfessive action.
It will thus be seen that althooeh an increasing twist of rifling
may be so arranged as to«give uniionn pressure, it is evident that
if wtartakes place, the enmaved rib beoomee weaker to icstst shearing
as the shot advances, and the rate of wear also increases owing to
the increase of beat by friction. With the very nanrow driving
bands used for k>w velodty guns this action was not a» detnmentaT
With the longmodem guns and the high muszle vdocities leqnifed,
the propelling gas pressures along the twrs rise coihpacativcly sbwiy
to a raaximam ana gradually fall until the mussle is reached. The
pressure of the gas at all points of the bore is now considerably higher
than with the older patterns of B.L. guns.
For modem conditions, in order to obtain aa increasing curve
giving an approximately constant driving pressure between the
rifling and driving band, this pressure becomes comeantlvily high.
The maximum rotating pressure, with uniform rifling, is certainly
somewhat hii^her. but not to a very great extent, and as it occurs
when the projectile is still moving slowly, the wear due to fricUon
win be correspondingly low; the pressure gradually falls until the
munle is readied, where it b mnch lower than with increasing
rifling. The projectile thus leaves the gun without any great
dfsturbaaoe from the rifling pressure. Further, as the Dana b
engraved once for all with the angle it will have all along the bore
the pressure is dbtributed equally over the driving face of the
enipraved ribs instead of being concentrated at the front of the ribs
as in procrcssive or increasing rifling.
The foltowing formulae showing the drivinr pressures for incrras-
ing and uniform rifling are calculated from Sir Andrew Noble's for-
mula, which Sir G. Greenhill has obtained independently by another
method.
Let R a total pressure, in tons, between rifling and driving band.
G "gaseous pressure, in tons, on the base of tbeiwojcctile.
f" radius, in feet, of the boss,
jiv" coefficient of friction.
#" radius of gyration of projectile.
I "angle between the normal to the driving surface of groove
and radius.
Jk "the pitch of the rifling, in feet.
A "cotangent of angle of rifling at any point of rifling.
M •- weight of the projectile in pounds.
s"the length, in feet, travelled by the projcctOab
Then for parabolic rifling
tt a/i^(G«^-MiO
For uniform rifling
R-
Ui»sin«*+4«)* ■*■ '(4'+*')*
>v^
' l«,(g>p>t>r*) (a*<^-frU)sinl
(l + A«)* "^ (A«+8in^)»
For modem rifling I -90*: therefore siiti-i; by which tiK above
cxpresrions may be considerably simplified.
Fsrpsiabolis
For uniform rifling wa can write U«3er and the expicssioa seduoes
|il(s?*-T)+S^+l»
Fig. 31 shows graphically the cslculated resulu _
4*7-ia. gocalibre gun which has a shot travel of 17-3 ft. ;
obtained for a
t
!|
1
\,
44m*a.
\,^, v,«.s4«r4^
\
_
ififT^
ii-—
IT
1
•
^^
^.
" \
»
1 >y
s_
I.'
^
'
•
^5?!^
''*<; :^,
9
1
•
:^!-uiJ
•
*
1
•J
i
1
4
i
1
1
^L
MBT,
a«7twcii SPCatiBwe ouN
FlC 31.— Pressure Curves (uniform and increaring twbt).
curve A b for a rifling twist increasing from 1 la 60 calibres at the
breech to 1 in 30 calibws at the muszle; curve D b for rifling having
a uniform twist of i in 30 calibres*
It must be remembered that this comf>aribon b typical lor modem
oditionsi with oU-fashiooed guns firing blade or brown powder
the maximum rotating pressure for unifoon riiUag could attain a
value SD% above that for increasieg rifling.
In this example, with the increasing twist there b a loss of onergy
of about ii%>of the total muzcle energy, and for the uniform'
rifling a loss of about 8%. Thb explains the nsasoo for uniformly'
rifledgoas giving a higher musale velocity than those with incnasiag
rifling, supposing the guns to be otherwise similar.
The pitth of the rifling or the amoant of twist to be given to it
depends altogether oa the length of the projectile; if this b short
a small amount of twist only is necessary. If kmg a mater amount
of twist must be arranged for, in order to spin the shml more rapidly.
Sir G. GreenhiU has shown that the pitch of the rifling neoeasary to
keep a projectile in steady motion is independent 01 the vekxaty,
of the calibre, or of the length of the gun, but depends principally
on the length of the shell and on its <lescription, so that sor simihr
projectiles one pitch wouM do fo** all guns.
Table I., on foUowing page, has been, calculated from Greenhiirs
formula.
In most modem guns the projectile varies in length from 3*5 to
4 calibres, so that the rifling b made to terminate at the muzsle
with a twbt of 1 turn in 30 calibres, which is found ample to ensure
a steady flight to the proiectile. In the United States a terminal
twist of I in 3<J calibres b often adopted; Krapp also uses thb in
some ffuns. With howitzera the projectile may be 4*3 calibres k>ng,
and the rifling has to be nude of a quicker twist to suit.
If the gun nas, as b usually the case, a right-hand twist of rifling
the projectile drifu to the right; if it has a left-hand twist the
drift takes pface to the left. The drift increases with ^^^
the range but in a greater ratio; further, the greater the """'
twist (i.r. the smaller the pitch of rifling) the greater the drift. On
the other hand the smooth B.L. projectiles dnft less than studded
M.L. nroiectilcs.
To find the aasle, usually called the ftrmamaU aagb of d^fUciwH,
at whkh the sights must be inclined to compensate for the drift,
a number of shots are fired at various ranges. The results obtained
are plotted on paper, and a straight line is then drawn from the point
representing the mussle through the mean value of the plotted
The eariy guos were fired by inserting a red-hot wire into the
vent, or by filling the vent with powder and firing it by a red-
hot iron. Slow match held in a deft stick afterwards
took the place of the hot iron, and thb again was j ^ j'L
replaced by a port-fire. Filling the vent with loose ZtST
powder was inconvenient and slow, and to improve
matters the powder was placed in & |Mipcr» tin or quill Uibt
ORDNANCE
IQO
which wu limply poshed into the vent and find by the itovr
match or port-fire.
The first attempt to fire guns by mechanical means was made
in 1781 by Sir Oiarles Douglas, who fitted flint locks, similar
to musket locks, but with the trigger actuated by a lanyard, to the
guns on board his ship H.M.S. ** Duke." A double flint lock
introduced in x8x8 by Sir Howard Douglas, HA., continued to
Table I.
IHISTORY AND COMSTRUCTKMf
- one tun in • caUbtci; or a pitch of • alibna.
^
CMttatOOUHB
SolUitselbuBct
(t^ctbm^ri).
(•«-too).
m.
■.
»
■.
a-0
•I
6387
59«4
P*S
VT
n
•2
56-31
62-67
63-67
74-3*
•3
53«9
59-19
60-14
70-20
•4
50-41
36- (0
57-00
66-53
i
U
53 3*
SO St
54-17
51-62
Un
i
43-61
4«33
49'rs^
?r-^3
41-74
4645
47 1^
^5<J^
•9
40-00
+154
45^5
5'73
30
38;45
4J7?
4Ji7
5'i74
•1
3*'99
41^16
4&-ii2
•2
35-64
J9'66
^^'¥^
47-04
•3
34-39
i»27
3bS+
43^4
•4
33-"
3^97
37*S6
:|
3213
3575
3^33
4J *0
31"
34 <^
35*17
4l'"S
i
30-15
3J55
3409
%S
28-40
27-60
3J55
3.V07
•9
31*^1
32*11
3748
40
^&
31-21
3645
•I
26-85
30*3^
35 43
•a
26-13
«r*
2«-0t5
3736
34 4*?
•3
•4
24-81
28-33
27-61
3V5*
3^74
:|
24*20
26-93
31 -w
n:s
alS
JflJI
31^1
i
J':>fl4
a»-5J
25-oB
2548
^■>-4
•9
v,^
24-51
24-91
;.|.^..7
5-0
a3-98
a3-84
2. '>..,.[
•1
21-08
a3-46
S'-^.l
•a
20-64
22-97
'^M
*7-"4
•3
20-22
22-50
26- 1*
•4
19-81
22-05
22-40
26-14
3
•7
X9-4*
2I-6I
21.96
2563
II2J
21-19
20-79
2153
21.12
Siil
•8
18-33
20-40
20.73
24-20
•9
X8-00
20H^
20-35
19-98
16-95
33-75
60
70
17-67
14-99
ii:S
\m
8.0
13-02
14-48
i2-8o
14-73
17-18
9*0
11-50
13-00
I5-I8
lO-O
10.31
11-47
1165
13*60
pattcia field gvns the firfag getr kaak part ol
An modem breech mechanisms form two gnmpe (s) the afidiat
type as with the Knipp wedge system, (b) the swingmg type aa in
the interrupted screw system. Either type may be „,„, ,
used with B.L. guns (i^. those with which the charge is JjJ^dl^
not contained in a metallic cartridge case) and Q.F. guns ^^^
' '£. those with which a metallic caitridge case is wed). ^^
Slidiiiig mechanisms may be divided into two fonns: (l'
(t.e. those with which a metallic caitridge c
Sliding mechanisms may be divided into two fonns: (i) those
having the block or wedge sliding horiaootally, and (2) tliose in
be used until about 184a, when it was replaced by a percussion
lock invented by an American named Uiddcns. In this lock one
pull on the lanyard caused the hammer to (all and strike a per-
cussion patch or cap hung on a small hook over the vent, and
afterwards caused the hammer to be drawn backwards out
of the way ol the blast from the venL These somewhat
clumsy contrivances were swept away on the adoption in 1853
of friction tubes (see Ammunitign), which had simply to be
placed In the vent and the friction bar withdrawn by means of
a lanyard.
Friction tubes continued to be used with all muzzle-loading
ordnance except in one or two natures with which the charge
was ignited aidally at the breech of the gun. In these a vent
sealing friction tube retauied in the vent by a tube holder was
employed. With breech-loading field guns ordinary friction
tubes were also used until the introduction of cordite, which
eroded the vents so quickly by the escape of the gases that vent
sealing tubes became a necessity.
Id all other fctrffh-loadii^ ocdnaoct and wHh the Intott
whkh the block works in a verdcal directkm. (1) k that l _
prindpaUy by Knipp; (2) is best iUustiated by the Hotchkiss
system for small Q.F. guns; the Nocdenfelt, Skoda and the Drigga-
Schroedcr mechanisms for small QJ^. guns are an adaptation oimi
same principle.
The Knipp sear is in reality an impravod CavalO sscdiaaism;
it is capable of being woriced rapidly, is simple, with strong parts
not liable to derangement, except perhaps the obturator. The
breech end of the gun, however, occupies valuable space cipecially
when these ^os are mounted in the restricted turrets or gun houses
on board ship.
Later it will be seen that owing to the di£Bculty of amnging a
convenient and efficient obturating device for the smokeless nitro*
powders, which have a peculiariv severe, swinrhing effect, a metal
cartridge case has to be used with even the heaviest guns; natarally
this aMumes lane dimensions for the ^5 m/ra. gun.
The wedge (fig. 32) is housed in the breech piece, which covers
the breech oaxt of the barrel, made very massive and e atcn de d to
the rear of the barreL A sbt, cut transversely throt^ the cxttsided
portion, forms a seat for the sliding block. The dot b formed so
that its front is a plane sucfaoe peipendicnlar to the axis of the gun,
while the rear is rotmdcd and slightly inclined to the axis. One or
more ribs similarly inclined 00 tlie upper and lower surfaoea of the
riot guide the brnch block in its movementa. For traversing the
block a quick pitched screw is fitted to its nppfT surface and works
in a nut attached to the upper part of the slot (in small guns this
traverring screw is dispensed with, as the bkick can be easily n
by hand). As the rear seat of the sUdin^^ bkick Is inclined, th
a tendency for the block to be moved sidewaya, when the gun is
fired by the pressure in the chamber acting on the front face of the
wedge; thb is prevented by a locking gear, consisting of a cylinder,
having a series of interrupted coUara. which is mounted on a screw.
When the breech has been tnvcma into position, the oollara are
rotated, by a cross handle at the side of the bk>ck, into grooves cut
in the rear surface of the slot; a further movement makn the
screw jam the collars hard in contact with the gun and secures the
breech. With small guns having no travernng gear a short strong
•crew takes the place of the coUan, and on the handle being turned
enters a threaded portk>n at the rear surface of the stot, actuates the
breech for the last (or first in opening) portion of its movement in
closing and secures it. To open the gun the movements are reversed.
The gun is fired bv a friction tube, screwed into an axial vent bored
through the sliding block, or. in field gum. by a copper fraction tube
through an oblique vent drilled through the top of the breech end
of the gun and through the Uock.
There is also fitted in some guns a percussion arrangeoMat far
firma a percussion tube.
Tne obturation is effected by a Broadwell ring or
tiott of it; this is placed in a recess cut in the gun and rests
a hard steel plate fitted in the breedi block.
For modem Knipp mechanisms, for use with cartridge caseSk the
arrangement (fig. 33) is very similar to that described above, but
some improvements have added to its simplicity. The transporting
screw is fitted with a strong projection which, at the end of the
naovement for closing the breech, locks with a recess cut in the upper
surface of the riot and secures the breech. The extra locking device
is consequently dispensed with. The firing gear consists of a striker
fitted in the sliding block in line with the axis of the gun; the
striker is pushed back by a lever contained in the block and, on
release, is driven forward against the primer of the cartridge case by
a sptrsl spring.
In the Hotchkiss |^n the mechanism has a vertical breedi block
of a rectangular section. The actuating lever F (fig. 34) is on the
right side oif the gun, and connected to a powerttil crank arm C
woridng in a groove E cut on the right side of the breedi block.
By pulling the lever towards the rear, the crank arm forces
down the okxHc A and extrscU the fired case by an extractor X.
which is actuated by a cam groove Y cut on one skle or on
both sides of the block. As the mechanism is opened the hammer H
is cocked ready for the next round. To dose the mechanism
the lever is puriied over to the front, and by releasing the trigger
scar by puHing the lanyard the hammer falls and fires the cap of
the cartndge case.
Automatic gear is now generally fitted which opens the breech
as the gun runs up after recoil and extracts the fired case by mcaaa
of a supplementary mechanism and strong spring actuated by the
recoil of the gun, and on pushing a new cartridge into the gun the
breech -a^ich wa retained by the extractor is released and doaes
■ ly.
mSTORYAND CONSTKUCTKIN]
ORDNANCE
The Nonfenfek mechaniOTi oMaistB of ft breech block (fie. 35)
end a wedge to wtam it. A hand lever on the ahaCt ia pulled tt>
the lear, and this works the action cam, which puUs down the
wedfe; the breech block is then cauaed to rotate and falls back to
the fear. This notion o( the bceech bktck adiiatea the extiaotor
201
thread cut on the interior o| the breech openinc of the «un. The
screjr amfaoe of the breech plug b cut away m sectMMM equally
divided and alternating with the threaded por ti on s . The acsew
surface of the breech opening b similarly cut away, so tliat the
plug can be pushed newly home into the braech opening without
trouble; by then
po^
Fig. 32— Knipp Breech Action.
and extracts the case. While the wcdee b being withdrawn the
firiM pin is pulled back and cocked tor the next round. The
mechanism b ckwed by reversing the hand lever; thb rotates the
breech block upwards and pushes home the cartridge case, and the
wedge b then forced up ana secures the breech bkx:lc.
Tmm small type Q.F. guns, which were introduced to cope with
torpedo boat*i ^re now, however, of little account, since experiment
has proved that nothing smaller than a la-pounder b tofnefent eo
to injure a modem torpedo boat as to stop it. Most of these small
guns are therefore in the English and in some other Services being
converted into " sulxalibre ' guns for exercise purposes. These
su^KAlibre guns retain their ordinary breech roechauiism, but the
bodies are hited with a stnwr sCeefplug screwed on the outside
in a simitar manner to the breech screw of the parent gun. The
sub<aUbre gun b i^aced in the parent gun and the screwed plug
engages in the threads of the breech opemng.
There has been a gradual developntent of ideas regarding the
repieUing power required by a vessel agaifHt torpedo boat attack.
The la-poundor QlF« 40<alibre guns were replaced by the more
(owerful la-nounder Q.F. sixalibre gun; this again l^ the 4-in.
ib^ power giin of 50 calibres, and now 6-in. guns are being used.
^^ other form of sliding mechanism b of importance owing to
its adoption for the 75 m/m. French k)ng recoil field gun (see below:
FiM »9»npm€Hts). Thb mcchanbm is on the Nordenfelt eccentric
screw system And b very similar to that proposed by Clay about
i8(So; it basa breech screw (fig. 36} of Urge diameter mounted in
the breech opening, which is eccentric to the bore. For loading, the
breech block has a longitudinal opening cut through it, so that when
the mechanism b in the open
positioo thb opening coincides
with the chamber, while a half
turn of the breech screw brings
its solid part opposite the
chamber and ck)ses the gun.
The mechanism b very simple
and strong, but it bonly
suitable for small Q.F. guns
using cartridge cases; the
firinf tear b siniibr to that
appuea to other types of
mechanism, and the nred case
b extracted by an extractor
actuated by the lace of the
breech screw as It b opened.
With the swinging type of
breech mechanism we are con-
fronted with numberless pat-
many of undoubted
and claiming certain
advantans over others, and
an showing the vast amount
of ingenuity expended in so
designing them that they may
be as simple, and, at the same
time, as effective and ciuick
acting as possible. It b impossible to deal with «n these, and there-
fore only the more important systems will be described. Thespecial
feature of this type is thst the breech b closed by an interrupted
breach screw; the screw b either supported in a carrier riiy or tray
hinged near the breech opening, or on a carrier arm which u hinged
near the outer circumference of the jgun.
The screw may be of the cylindnc interrupted, Wclin and coned
types; these^ or t neir modifications, practically embrace the various
forms used. The cylindnc form (fig. 37) b the simplest : it consbts
of a strong screwed plug engagmg with a correiEponding screw
the breech screw through a
small angle the screwed por-
tions of the plug and breech
openinsengasge. Thus if three
screwed sections alternate with
three plain sections the
angb of rwvotution necessary
to ensure a full engagement
of the screw surfaces will be
60*. The Welin screw (fig. \8)
b an ingenious adaptaoon
of the cyhndik type; in thb
the surface b divided into
secrioos each formed of two
or three cylindrical screwed
steps with A single plain por-
tions thus if there «ra three
sections, eadi section af whiph
has one plain division afd
two screwed diviuons, there will be in all six screwed portioqa ^id
three plain. The breech opening b correspondingly formed so
that the screwed threads would fully bngage with 40'^of movement.
There b consequently a greater amount of screwed circumferential
surface with the Welin screw than with the ordinary cylindric
interrupted type; the latter form has 50% screw surface while the
Wdin has 60%. For equal screw surface the Welin can therefore
be made shorter.
For medium guns the Ebwkk type of coAed screw (fig. 39) has
found much favour, and thb mechanism has been fitted to guns of
all calibres from 3-inch to 6-inch, both for the British and anmeroua
other governments. The cooed breech screw b formed with the
front pan conical and the sear cylindrical, to faciliute tts entrance
into the gun, and also its exit; this form* moreover* b taken ad-
vantage of by cutting the interruptions in the screwed surface
alternately 00 the coned part and on the cylindrbal part, so that
there b a screwed surface all round the drcuimfeeenoe of the beeech
screw. By thb means the itvsssb taken all round the ducuraierence,
both of the breech screw and in the guilt faistcad of in portions
alternately, as with other forms.
The Bofors breech screw b a modification. The aurfaoe b formed
of a truncated ogive histcad of a cylinder and cone, and the threaded
portions «re not alternate.
In the older types of mechanism for heavy B.L. guns the breech
was opened in from three to four different operatkMis which involved
considerable loss of time. Fig. 40 shows the general type for 9*9-in^
lo-in. and 12-in. B.L. suns. To open the breech the cam lever C
was folded up so that tt engaged the pin B in OMmrxinn with the
Fig. 33.— Krupp Breech Action.
ratchet lever E. Thb was worked and so dtseagaaed the breech
screw from the threads cut in the gun; tl^e cam lever was then
folded down as to to start the breech screw, and the winch handb Q
rotated and so withdrew the screw and swuns it dear of the breech
opening. During these operations the firing lode was actuated and
made safe, but the fired tube had to be extracted by hand. To doss
the gun these various operstbns must be reversed, and to open or dose
thegun would certainly occupy at least half a minute with trained men.
To compare with tms a niodem ia*in. breech mechanbm b shown
in fig. 41. In order to open thb breech U b only necessary to t>^
202
ORDNANCE
WsnroitY AND coMsntifcnoN
tiM haadwhed oontinuotMly In one duQpction, and to doie it again
the moCioa of the handwlwel is simply revenod; either closing or
cnening the breech by hand occupies about 6 teooods. Supposing
the breech clowd, the handwheel when rotated gives motion to the
link G thnmgh the «onn wheel S and crank F. By this meant the
Fig. 54.— Hotchldse Q.F. Breech M<
tooth B b moved from iu extreme left position to the right, and
so disengages the breech screw A from the threads in the gun; the
rack A' on the breech screw then comes into gear with the* pinion E
and draws the breech screw out of the gun into the carrier ring C.
whKh finally swings on the axb pin and clean the breech open>
ing. While the opening is being performed the firing k>ck L b
operated by the cam groove A*; this puts the firing mechanism,
either electric or percussion, to safety oy withdrawing the firing
needle, extracts the fired tube and leaves the primer chamber open
for a flesh pcfmer. All these operations are performed in the reverse
order 00 dosins.
Widi both these types of mechanism the de Bange system of
obturation, with the pad only slightly coned, is used.
With smaller guns the mechanism b simpler, as leas
nquhed for opening the breech. Thus, wbh the 6-in.BX.yim Marie
IV.. introduced about 1885 (fig. 42} the breech b openeo in three
separate operation»->(a) the cam lever, which also locks the breech*
b raised into the vertical position and pulled over to the left; tbb
direngages the screw threads; (6) the cam lever b foUed down m
Fic. 3S.~Nordenfeldt Q.F. Breech Mechanism.
that the cam actiqg on the rear face of the gun releases the de Bai^
obturator, and the screw b then pulled by hand through the earner
ring out of the breech; (f) the carrier ring and breech screw are
ro^ved together to the right, clear of the breech opening.
In a modem 6-tn. gun fitted with de Bange obbvator all these
operations are combined and the mechanbm (fig. 4^) worked by a
horizontal hand lever which b moved from left to right through »n
an^ of about aoo*. The hand lever A moves a hnk B connected to
a pin C on the breech screw D and disengages the screw from the gun;
a small Uteral movement b then given to the axis pan of the carrier
ao as to allow the obturator pad E to swing out of its seatii^; when
Fic. )6.— Eoeentric Screw, Breech Mechanism.
thb b qtthe free, the whole mechanism revolves on the asds nin mad
thus clears the breech opening. The firing lock F b actuated at the
same time and ejccu the fired tube G. A new tube b inserted whie
the gun b being loaded, so that immedbtely the breech b dosed the
charge can be fired without loss of time. In the oM mechaniama the
breech had to be dosed first, and the firing tube inserted after.
HiSTORV AND CONSTRUCTKWl
ORDNANfCE
The breech mechAniaini fof Q.F. B^Rft^riiiff Rirtatlic cartridge
cam 11 wDTli«d on nmiUr principles, bui U M>mew|iat limpk-r thiin
that Tor the (k B^ngc oNuratian, due pfiai,-t(>ti1(]/ to the fin pf i)»
firinft pHmcT being already cijniiJiicd tn the cartridge ca»t i*hcii ih||
it irkTriKlurKl into tbe fun.
In ihc English lervke the titer pattcmi of breech metlurihTn for
HKdium aad hcj^-y B.L. gym hdve a Wclio icrew^ with i " ticep
HAND «tA!|
203
Fig. J7. — Intermptcd Breech Screv — CyUiKSricaU
CQflc " de fianeie obluntor, toppotied on a cattfn- arm, Thl»
■iirangiFmciiL a]Iuw$ ^\iv tncirfianiMn (fig. 44^} lo itwinn clear of the
breech open] nig iinmc<,iialcty th« ihrcaili of (.frf breech tceew a.nf
du>engd(ied from tbi>w in the breech in a, i^imilir irtantifr to the
Q.F. guii4 5tt^ with a tone Kit v. The RK-vhinibA U pi^riutikl hy
the hjndhhnl L nbich rotaies the hmgie jAn-^ ittis in turfi, thtnign
gt^tjag, moves a crank arm 1> «)nneetcS» by a tii>lc &, to I he pin nn
the brtrfb kcrtw. By contlnu^iuiiiy tt^oving tht handwheef the
link B i« drawn towanis the hijige pin until the breech terpw thjie^di
are difenEaeed; the cutch C I Ken dvajtn inia a ^<K:k«t Qfi the brvcch
fcrew and Jui» it L<t the Carrier arni. The who^of tbr mechKni^rO
then rotates axount) the hinge ptn and leav« the Lm^h open n^^'ty
fof loaiiinff. Ai the breech icrew thjt:ad* a.rt t^ing *it^n^kgS^ the
clettric or pefcUKsion lock W a Disrated by a cam grcKrvc in a
timitar manricr to that already dcKnbed. In the Utest niodiAcaiion
of tbi* Tnechinisizi a roller at the end qf the crank arm D worki a
long lewr connected to the breech icrew by two pin*. Thii tormi
what ii tefnvd a ** pufp-cuuple " mechanivn and it a daimed ihji
greater eaie of w-orktug U rn^ured by its uat-. WhUt; tbc lutadipf |a
going on a new firing tub^ If
placeid in the vent, to that on
doting the gun, by turning the
handwheel in the oppotite
direction, the gun ia ready lor
firing. For 9'2-in. guns and
tboae of smaller calibre the
handwheel is replaced by a
hand lever pivoted on the
carrier (fig. 45). By giving
this lever a single motion from
left to right the mechanism is
opened.
For 6-in. and 4-in. guna
a shot support b attached
to the broech face which
operated by the breech
so that when
the breech b open the shot
support M in position for loading, and it Cslls out 01 the wty wboi
the breech b being closed.
In the latger types of all brcoch mechanisms ball bearinga are
employed i.i various parts, such as the hinge pin bearings, Ac. to
reduce friction and in most of the modern heavy nins 00 board
■hip the breech mechanism b arranged to be worked dv a hydraulic
cylinder placed on the breech face, or by a small hyoraulic engine
or electric motor olaced in some convenient position on the mountmg.
The hand gear, however, b always retained for emergency and a
clutch b provided so that it can be put into action at a nomcBt't
aotice.
The WeBn screw blarsdy used in the United States, but In bam
guns the ordinary cone (not " steep cone ") de Range obtumtor is
enployed. The screw b mounted either in a carrier ring or 00 a
r tray. In France the ordinary tyge ol iaterraptecT 1
adopted and this rests in a carrier ttav. The operations of opening
— d dosing are vrry simikr to those aiircady Jssi'iibsd
An the repent pattema of mechanhm have an extractor fitted
to extract the empty cartridge case with OS. guns or the fired
tuU with BX. ^ns. In Q.F. field guns it generally Ukes the form
of a lever working dn an axb pin. The longer arm of the lever b
formed into a jjaw which rdts.^ the inner face of the breech opening
beneath the run of the cartridge case, and the short arm b so
arrsnged that when the breech is Ooened the carrier, in swinging
mec h a n is m s, or the breech block itself, in sliding systems, suddenly
comes in contact with it; the long arm b thus jerked backwai^
and extracu the case. In B.U mechanisms the tube extractor b
Fig. 38.— Wetin Braech Screis.
arranged on the same prindple but in thb case usually forma part
of the box slide, U. that portion of the mechanism, attached by
interrupted collara to the rear end of the vent axH in which the
firfaig lodi slides as it b aauated by the opening of dosfaig of the
breech mechanism. When the breech b being opened the firing pin
01 the lock IS drawn ba^ to safety and the lock lahioved aside from
wa the tube; a tripper then actuates the extractor and ejects the
fired tube. The extractor and tripper are so o6ntrived that when a
new tube b pushed home the extractor b also pushed back into the
closed pontion, or, if the tube b somewhat still to insert, the actkm
?> cloang the mechanism moves the lock over the primer and forces
It home.
The firing kxk used m B.U pus b an important part of the
Flo. 59.— Elswick Coned Screw.
They ara all designed 00 the 1
prinaple* with
a view to safety and rapidity, and may be regarded as a miniature
sUding breech mechanism, in the oloer types the lock or ita sttb>
stitute was manipulated by hand, and with electric finng the wires
from the tubas wero ioined up to the boss ends of the firing datsMit:
204.
ORDNANCE [history and ooNSTRUcnoif
Fkc. 41. — 13-ui. GuDi
Mfaty depended thcnioiift oa ereiythlng being in order aad all 1 amncBd to be aaitonatic, and «Hclae electiic tubes are wed •»
opefatioiM axrectly perfomed. The gun ooold. Koiwver* be I that tininediately the bicccfa iwecha n iwn commenoea to opes, tbe
ired before the braech waa properly aeciutd and a senoua accident | lock itaelf js moved in the boot slide to as to uncover the vcflil
CMHed; to prevent tbia all the movcncnts of modera lodes 1
■re I opening. Dunng the fiiK pan of thb movement a Coot oa tki
HISTORY AND CONSTRIXTIONI
■Irilnr ridet ap an iadiiw I (fig. 49) on the bos alide and tbaa
pMhci back the •triber from contact with th« tube. The ex-
tractor dctcribcd above i» actnated at the nine tama^ Moit fecka
ORDNANCE
205
tiniooa iiflsfnf aoiae ii heard at the Mae time. H ta.aoiir uaoal to
fit a vpediu apparatus on the gun, so that directly the bieech ia
pertly opONd a Beat of Luwiaitd air ia allowed to enter the
rear end of the chaml^r and thus tmnp the whole of the
residual gas out at the nuiasle.
The purpose of the <d>turatQr is to render the breech
end of the gun gas-tight, and to prevent any escape of
na past the breech nychanisnu la the first ^
Armstrong BJ* gun f
I this okqect waa attained
bv fitting to the breech block a cooatr ring
tne exterior; the coned surface was forcibly presMd by
screwing up the breech screw against a corresponding
copper ring fitted at the breech opening of the gun
chamber. It is only possible to use this method when
Fig. 4a~Breech Mechanisms, Heavy Guna.
Consist of a steel frame with a socket for contaim'ng the striker
and main spring. They are contrived so as to be capable of firing
both electric and percussion tubes, but others are anangcd for
firing only electric,' separate locks beins emptoyed for use with
percussion tubes. The construction of Doth ia very similar, but
with the percuasion kick, or the combined lock, a trigger is provided
□
Fio. 4a.~Breech Mechanism. 6*in. B.L. Mark IV.
which drops into a notch in the striker when this is pulled back by
the lugs E E (fig. 45) on the outer attachment of the striker. On
the trigger being puUcd by a lanyard the striker is released and
fires the tube.
For p.F. guns with interrupted or coned breech screws the
striker is contained in the breecn screw, but. in order to provide for
safety, a small lever cam or other contrivance b fitted
which, when the mechanism commences to open, is
operated by the hand lever and withdraws the striker
from contact with the primer insetted in the cartrldte
case.
The striker consisU of a steel needle, with the stem
insulated by dionite or some similar material, contained
in an outer steel sheath. The sheath is formed with
a foot or lug which is acted upon by the safety gear; a
colUr is also provided for uking the thrust of the main
spring.
Another form of kick now much in favour, enedilly
for fiddicun mechanisms* is that known as a tnp lock.
It b mainly used for percuasion firine but can also be
combiaed for use with electric tubes. In this pattern the
striker is withdrawn, cocked and released by the con>
tinuous puU of a hand lever attached to the mounting frr
or by a Unyard attached to the kx:k. Shoukl a miss-fire
occur the striker may be actuated as often as necessary
by relouing the hand lever or lanyard and again giving
a continuous pull (fig. 46).
In all RMdern heavy guns, especully when firing to
windward, there b a tendency, when the breech b opened
^ - rapidly after firing* for a sheet of fiaoK to issue
"f^ from the opes breech. It was practically ua*
^^ known with the old bkck powders, but b of
frequent occurrence with all smokeless propcUanta. If
the gun b leaded immedbtdy after the breech b opened
the fresh charge may be ignited and an accident caused.
Several serious acddeats have already been traced to thb
the copper surfaces can be jammed together by a power*
f ul screw.
Except the above, all obtuiators in use are arranged
to act automatically, ia. the pressure set up in the
gun when it is fired expands the arrangement and scab
the opening; immedbtely the projectile leaves the bore
the pressure b relieved and the ooturator, by its elasticity,
regains iu origiaal shape, so that the breech mechan-
ism can b^ opened or dosed with ease. In the French
naval service BX. guns have been in use since 1864. and
the system of obturatkm was arranged 00 the same expansion
princmle as the leather packing ring oithe hydraulic press. A sled
ring A (fie. ^7) of cuppM form was fastened by a screwed plug to a
thick steel plate, carried on the face of the breech screw, so tnat it
could rotate when the breech screw was rotated in opening or cloa>
ing the gun. The outer lip of the cup fitted agaiast a slightly coned
seating formed in the breech end 01 the gun chamber. When the
gun was fired, the gas pressure expanded the cup ring and forced
It into ckjse bearing against the seating in the gun and the thick
steel pUte on the breech screw, thus preventing any ^cape of gas.
Very similar to thb was the Elswick cup obturator (ng. 48) intro-
duced by the Elswick Ordnance Company in 1881 ; its rear surface
was flat and it was hekl by a centraf bolt aaaiast the front of the
breech screw wWch was slightly rounded. The cup yielded to the
gas pressure until it was suppor te d by the breecn screw; thb
action expanded the lip against a copper seating, let into the gun.
which could be ren ewed when necessary. Many of both types
are still in use and act perfectly efficiently if carefully treated.
The use of modem smokeless powder renders them and simikr
devices, such as the Broadwell ring (^. 40). ftc.. peculbriy Uable to
danij^e, as a slight abrasion of tlie lip of the cup or ring, or of its
seating, allows gas to escape, and so accentuates the ddect with
each round firKl. Unless, therefore, the fault be immediately
remedied considerable damage may be caused to the gun. The
Broadwell gas ring b still in use in the French naval sennce, where
noubly one on the United States battleship
-* Missouri " on 13th April 1904. when 3^ lives were lost.
The flame b due to the larae amount of highly heated
carbonic oxide remaining in the gim from the expkMwn of
the diarge ; thb mixipi^ with the mcygen of the ab when
the breech
in rear of the gun.
I mixing with the oxygen ol tne air when
»pmed burns rapidly aa a sheet of flame
tin. and shoukl wind be blowing down the
the gun the
action is more intense. By kwking into the gun from the moazic;
' " often be seen burning
before the breech is opened, the gas c
with a pak^blue flame as it slowly
can
mixes
with air and a
Fig. 43^— Breech Mechanbm, Modem 6-in. Gun.
it is made of copper (6g. 50), and also of steel in a 1
(Piorkowski) in the German service (fig. 51 ) ; in the la«-i
owing to the defect already ns "
and heavy, use metal cartrtdge
named, all the latest guns.
In the French
. both light
navy, as io
2o6
ORDNANCB
raott'otlicr Mfviics. cutridfe omm mie nttd for the ■nailer i
D Rune only>
Om oT the mort cfiideat obturKtore not liable to damafe is tbe
plastk device intnxluoed by Cokmel de Banee of the French
service and adopted by the French army and alio by the British
and other govccnmenta. It oonaMs of a pMl (fig. 99) made up o(
a stnonK annular-ehaped canvaa bac A, cootaining a mixture of
asbestos fibre and mutton auet; the bag with iu oontcnu is placed
in a properiy Conned die and aubieded to hydraulic piessure by
which it becomes hard and firm. The pad ■> made is then placed on
the front of the breech screw B, and it is protected on its faces by
disks C» C, of meulUc tin or copper having steel wedge ring* on
the outer edges; the circumference of the complete pad and disks is
ukkW
FiC. 44< — English modem Breech Mechanbm, for heavy and medium guns,,
generally only slightly coned and fits into a corresponding seating
formed at the breech end of the chamber, the canvas of the ctrcum-
ference of the pad being in immediate contact with the seat. In
the English service the steep cone pattern (fig. m) of de Banee
obturator is used with mechanisms luving the Weiin screw. In
front df the pod b placed a ttrong steel disk formed with a spindle,
and called a mushroom head D, the spindle paasin^ through the
hole in the pad *nd through the breech screw, being secured in
rear by a nut. The firing vent ia generally drilled through the
mushroom head and spindle and the part is then termed a^' vent
axial." On the gun bein^ fired the gas exerts a great pressure on
thto mushroom head, which oompreaaes the ^d and aquecaes it
out on the drcumfeieaoe into doae contact with the seating, thus
forming a perfect gas seal. It is found that thi» apparently delicate
arrangeoient will sund considerable ill*asage and act peilectly lor
an indefinite time, and, as it is easily replaced. U is regarded as oA«
of the best and moat reticle forms of otatnrator. In some countries
the Freyre obturator Is in use; this has a somewhat similar axial
head to the de Bange, but the asbestoa pad is replaced by a single
(HISTORY AND CONSTRUCnOW
atecl wedge ring into which the axnl head fita. On firing the gas
the head is forcsed into the wedge ring and cxpandi it afvmt the
seating in Che gun.
One other means of obturation has to be considered, via.
metallic cartridge cases. These arc made df a kind of brass:
aluminium cases have been experimented with, but have not proved
satisfaaory. The case (fig. 54) acts on the same principle as the
cup obturation and i« extremely efficient for the purpose; more-
over, they have certain advantages conducive to taiMd firing when
used for small guos. The idea Ima devdoped from the use of such
cartridges in small arms, and larger cartridges of the aame type
were introduced for 3-pounder and 6-ponnder guns by Hotchkiss
and Nordenfelt abont the year 1880 for the purpose of rapid
firing against torpedo boats. Then in
1886 the EUwiclE Company produced
a 36>pounder (soon converted to a
45>pounder) of 4'7-in. caKbre with the
powder diarge contained in metallic
cases, and about 1888 a 6-in. too-
pounder gun using similar cartridgea.
A apedal advantage of the cartridge
case is that it contains the firing primer
by which the charge b ignited and con-
aequently renders the firing gear of the
gun more simple; on the other hand,
abould a mias>fire occur the gun must
be opened to replace the primer. This
M a proceeding liable to produce an
accident, unless a. long enough time i«
allowed to elaose before attempting to
open the breeui : suns having de Bange
obturators and firing tubes inseital
after the breech b closed are therefore
•afer in this respect.
Some means of extracting the case
after firing muat be fitted to the gun;
thb is simple enough with smatt gjuna.
but with those of heavy naturey the
extractor becomea a aomewhat pon-
derous piece of gear.
Metallk: cases of a short pattern
have been tried* for brge calibre guns;
although their action b quite cflicicnt,
they are difficult to handle, and if a case
must be used it is preferable to employ
a fairly -long one. it was for this reason
that in England up to 1808 it was
considered that for suns above 6-in.
calibro the de Bange obturatbn was the
most advantageous. Since then the de
Bange obturator has been employed ia
guns of 4-in. calibre and above, the cart-
ridge case being retained only for 5«in.
and smaller guns. Krupp, hoit-ever, usee
cartridge cases with all guns even up
to i3-in. calibre, but this is undoubtedly
due to the difficulties, which have already
been noticed, attending the use of
smokeless powder with the oidinary
forms of obturation applicable to the
wedge breech system. In the most
modem Krupp la-tn. guns the charge
is formed In two pieces; the pieoe
forming the front portion of the charge
b contained in a consumable eavelope*
while the rear portion b contaiaed la
a brass cartridge case, which fonna the
obturator, about 48 in. k>ng.
It will be seen that such large and
heavy cases add to the difficultiea which
ooCur in handling or stowing the am-
munition of Urge calibre guns, and although the use 01 cartridge
with small gans addk to their apidtty of firing this b aoi
the case with heavy ml,
advantages b certainly in favour of the de Bange system,
It aeems, therefore, that the balance of
' ' • - (or all
cart-
con-
guns except those of small calibre. VTnh ordinary field guns
nd« cases aie now oonsidered obligatory owing to their
^lenienoe ia loading.
While the ordina^ types of plastic obturators bst for an inde-
finite time a cartridge case can be used for a limited number of
rounds only, depending on the calibre of the gun; with field guna
from ten to twenty rounds or even more may be fired frma one
caae if care b uken to reform it after each round; with Urge
guns they will not. of coune. fire so many. Cartridge cases are
an expensive additkm to the ammuairion, so that there ahooU be
BO doubt aboot the advaatagas they oflbr befoie they are definitely
adopted (or heavy guns.
The rapidity with which modern guns can be fixed and the
enormous energy they develop ii c^ecially striking when one
iimwY AHV comrmcTiOfi]
ORDNANCE
207
consideis the same /acis in connexioQ with the eariy gvus.
Fav^ Atates in his Hisioire et (afiique its Iroit arma (p. 23)
that during the invasion of Italy in 1494 by Charles
"^ VIIX. the guns were so unwieldy and the firing so slow
that the damage caused by one shot could be repaired
before the next could be fired. The range, too, about
too ydt, for battering purposes, now seems absurdly short;
even at Waterloo 1 900 yds. was all that separated the antagonists
at the commencement of the battle, but they approached to within
200 or 300 yds. without suffering serious loss from either musketry
OTjgun fire. Nelson fought his ship^ side by side with the enem/s;
and fifty years after Nelson's day a range of 1000 yds. at sea
was looked upon as an extreme distance at which to engage an
enemy. Contrast this with the range of 1 3,000 yds. at which the
opposing Russian and Japanese fl^ts more than once commenced
a naval battle in 1904, while
the critical part of the action
took place at a distance of
7000 yds.
These long rangei naturally
Intensified the retjuirements
of the British and other
navies, and, so that tfaor
shall not be outclassed and
beaten by aa encsmy's long>
image fire, gans of continu-
ally increasing power are
demanded. In 1900 a la-in.
gun U 40 calibres was con-
sidered all that waaneccssary.
After the Rus^o-Japanese
War the demand rose first for
a4S-calibre gun and then for
a so-calibre gun, a^d muzzle
velocities from about 3400 f .s.
to about 3000 is. In 1910
greater slwU power was de*
manded, to meet which new
type guns of 13-5-iik apd
14-ln.alibre were being made.
In the days of M.L. heavy
guns one of the most difficult
problems was that of loading.
The weight of the shell and
powder was such that some
■aechanical power had to be
employed for moving ancf
ramming them home, and as
hydraulic gear had by that
date been introduced it was
generally used for all loading
operations. To load, the guns had to be run back until their
muzzles were within the turret, or, in the case of the i6-in.
80-ton guns of H3I.S. '* Inflexible," until they were just outside
the turret. The guns were then depressed to a fixed angle so as
to bring the loading gear, which was protected below the gun
deck, in line with the bore; the charge was first rammed home
and then the projectile. With this arrangement, and in order to
keep' the turret of manageable dimensions, the guns had to be
made short. Thus the x2-5-in. 38-ton MX. gun had a length of
bore of but 16 calibres, and the largest Eni^ish service gun of
ifr>in. diameter had a bore of 18 calibres in length; while the
largest of the type weighing 100 tons, built by Sir W. G. Arm-
strong & Co., for the Italian navy, had a bore of ly-ya in. and
a length of 30 calibres. The rate of fire was fairiy rapid-
two roimds could be fired from one turret with the iz-s-in.
guns in about three- miotttes, while it took about four minutes
to fire the saoie moaber firom the 80-ton and xoo-ton gun
turrets.
The posslbility of double loading M.L. guns was responsible
for the bunting on the tnd January 1879 of a 38-ton gun in a
turret on U.M.S. ''Thunderer '^ and it was partly due to this
accident that BX. ^ons were sobaaqaentiy laore favourably
regarded in England, as it was argued thU the double loading of
a B.L. gun was an impossibility.
With the B.L. system guns gradually grew to be about 30
calibres in length of bore, and they were not made longer because
this was considered a disadvantage, not to be compensated for
by the small additional velocity which the old black and brown
I^ismatic powders were capable of imparting with giua of
greater length. Increase in the striking energy of the projectile
was consequently sought by increasing the weight of the pro-
jectile, and, to carry this out with advantage, a gun of larger
calibre had to be adopted. Thus the xa-in. B.L. gun of about
25 caUbrca in length gave place to the i3S-in. gun of 30 calibres
and weighing 67 tons, and to the 16 35-in. also of 30 calibres and
weighing iix tons. The xo^ooo- or 12,000-ton battleships
Fig. 45.— 'Breech Mechanism for 6-inch BX. Gun
carrying these enormous pieces were, judged by our present-day
standard, far too small to carry such a heavy armament with their
ponderous armoured machinery, which restricted the coal supply
and rendered other advantages impossible; even the 34,000-ton
battleships are none too large to carry the number of heavy guns
now required to form the main armament.
The weight and size of the old brown prismatic charges had
also reached huge dimensions; thus, while with heavy M.L. guos
the weight of the full charge was about one-fourth that of the
projectile, it had with heavy B.L^ guns become one-half of the
weight of the shell or even a greater proportion. The intro-
duction of smokeless powder about 1890, having more than three
times the amount of energy for the same weight of the older
powders, allowed longer guns to be used, which fired a much
smaller weight of charge but gave higher velocities; the muzzle
or striking energy demanded for piercing hard-faced armour
could consequently be obtained from guns of more moderate
calibre. The i3*5-in. and i6' 25-in. guns were therefore gradually
discarded and new ships were armed with 1 3-in. guns of greater
power. As the ballistic requirements are increased the weight
of the charge becomes pfopprtiooately greater; thus for the
2o8
ORDNANCE
(HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
pNte&t Ugli vdocitjr gam It has reached t ratio of about 0-4 I the case at the present time as regards both projectiles
I and armour. As a matter o( fact, armour, at the present-day
fighting ranges, is
of the weii^t of the projectile.
^ VEifT JXML
SOX SliOE
ffmm LEves
Fig. 4&.
The prog ress of artillery and the improvements made in annour
have been reciprocal; as the protective value of iron and
Fic. 47.— French Obturator.
EUwick Cup.
subsequently of steel plates has increased, so \hz penetrative
force or quality of the projectile has advanced. Often, after a
Flc.4^
Fig. so.
Figs. 49-51.— Broad well Ring.
Fig. si.
period of apparent inactivity, fresh ideas or new metallnrgical
processes have enabled further progress to be made; this is
rather ahead of
artillery^^eacf
the demand for
greater power; bat
even with this the
probability of per^
foration is small,
and is usually only
obtained when the
projectile strikes
normally to the
surface of the plate;
the chance of this
happening in action
is somewhat re-
mote. During the
Russo-Japanese
War no instance of
perforation of the
thick belt or turret
armour is known;
the chief cause of
the Russian looses
was the bunting of
la-in. and 6>in.shclls
inside the un-
armoured portiom
of their ships; it
Is suted that no
ship survived after
being struck by ten
19-in. projectiles.
Some authorities
have lately sought
to increase the
£iiCTm€ FimHG WtRi muzale energy—
without adding
weight or length
to the gun— by in*
creasing the weight
of the projectile. Hiis can be done to a limited extent with
benefidal results, but it b impossible to carry the idea very far,
as the projectile becomes very long and difficulties may be
encountered with the rifling; or, if these are avoided, the
thickness of the walls of the shell is increased so much that
V\Q. sa.— De Bange Obturator.
Fig. 53.— Steep Cone de
Bange Obtuntor.
the heavier projectiles is in reality leas powerful owing to its in-
ternal buisdng charge being comparatively smalL Again, many
foreign gunmakers claim that their guns are, in comparison
with English guns of the same power, of less wcii^. This is
true in a limited sense, but sudi guns have nothing like the same
fiactor of resistance as English guns, or, in other words, the English
■ISTORV ikNO OONSTRUCnOM]
ORDNANCB
ZQ%
|uns are much stronger. This is an obvious advaatafe, but an I aa near the bnedc end as poaaible; by this means the ladiut
equally solid one is the fact that owing to the greater weight of | of the gun house is reduced to the smallest diflM&saoa and, ia
the hflime-made weapon the recoil energy . is lesa and consequently I conaequencet then is a great saving of weight of armour. The
extra weight of the gun is therefore
more than Gomt)ensated for.
^\\\\V\\\\\m\\\\>p^^^^ a^"^!^ Tti^K^y,^'lZ
• ^ ^ regulated with a view to the inter-
changeability of shot. In the follow*
ing century ordnance was divided into
daiaes, but even then, owing no doubt
to aumufacturjng difficulties, there
was no fixed sixe for the bore. The
Tabks IL-Vn. give some idea of the
sixe and weight of these pieces.
Table II. m Uken fnmi af^mlaiid'S
Notet, but corsected (rom "An Old
Table of Ordnance " (Proc, JLA.I^ vol
xxvifi. p. 3^); 'the latt coluimi gives
m\\\wm^mmvv\mK\\^^^^^^
the mounting
ht of the
Fzc. 94.— Meullic Cartridge Case.
can be made of a Hghter pattern. Besides, the | blank, a terrt u«l in tlio« <Uy«'t^ denote the
the range m •o^res of jnoea at pbinti
■ • - -• iJjrt p, ' •
line,
point-blank range was that
g;;;"i*^so di^^'as^tobrinTii; an^ o^^^kty I ^^'"^y^^*^ *^"~»''^^^
Tasle XL— Names ami Wnihts of Entfisk Cannon, 1574. Krt the gun On ito carnage to the
'' ' '^ fint graae of the shot on thelrariaoatal
plane when the axis of the gu|i was
daced horixontal ; this depended on the
height of the gun above the ground
plane, but it was the only metnod of
determining the relative power oC these
early guns.
In power, smooth-bore guns in Europe
did not differ ytrv much from each other,
and it may be taken for granted that the
" ' " " ' Che
Tablb III.
IbaSi.
Wdik.
tfSST
s^r
W^o'
Wei^tof
sSSS.
^L
Robioet
Falconet
Pakon .
Minioa .
Sacre
Demi-Culverin
Colvwin
Demi-Cannon .
CsaiMHi ...
Elisa-Cannon
Bstilwhf
tb
aoo
IIOO
isoo
8000
1
V
8
\
1
n
h
4
h
7
I
1
a
'A
s
.1
lb
I
3
4
5
.1
38
40
ii
30
30
SO
31
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Wtightof
Muzile
Velocity.
37'pr. 60 <xrt. . 4 . .
i3*-pr. 37-5 cwt
61 pr. aocwt. . . , .
Sipr. newt. .
27
3-375
1696
1720
Tablb W.—BriHsk Smooth Bort Gtmt, 1S60.
D'Antoni. in his Treatise </ Fin Arm$
(translated by Captain Thomtqn. R.A.),
gives particulars, <» Italiangunsol about
1746k which are shown in Table III. ;
It wiB be seen that the velocitleB
given in Thble III. are not InMor to
those obtafaied from guns actually ia
useb i860 (see Table IV.). They were
con4deraMy higher tfaso tlnso fcw
elongated fiflcd projectiles (Tahie V.)
for many years alter their iatfoduclioii;
the last-named, however, during fliglit
only lost their Vblodty slowly, wnlle tl«
spherical shot lost their vebcky so rapUly
that at aooo yds. range only about one-
third of -the initial velocity waa retained.
OflSdal Designation of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
ftojSctile.
Vd^.
Mussle
Energy,
Ia.
Tons.
IL
lb.
Ft. Sees.
Ft. Tons.
rte in. 87 cwt.
10
4-35
13
8831
1393
1033
1
3
11
68pr.9S ..
8it
475
16
66-35
1145
8111.65 ••
3»pr.58 -
: :
805
till
5S5
3-33
3-9
10
10
44875
31-375
m
sa „so M
18 .,38 ..
fix mI8 „
' • •
3.5
1-9
0^
8
6
4
III
1730
i
9 .. 13 M
4'M
0.65
3-5
936
1614
I 6 ,. 6 „
3-668
9-3
«5
623
1484
95
Table V.— British B.L. Ordnanee, t86o. Armstrong System,
Official Designation of Gun.
100 pr.
30
13
CaUbrei
In.
7
4-75
3-75
30
3-0
3-5
Weight of
Gun.
Tons.
08 j,
o*65{
0*435
03
0-175
Weight of
Charge.
«-5
l'I35
0-75
Weight of
lb.
103-75
4«-5
31-33
11*56
90
Muszic
Velodty.
Ft.S
1166
1164
1134
1114
1141
946
Easigy.
Ft-Tooa
978
390
?e
146
113
81
37
At a later date the velodttes of these
AX 4*
guns were altcced
* Two patterns were in esisteoca.
2tO
ORDNANCE
miSIORy AND OQMSnUICTKM
Official Dcaknation
ofGuS:
Calibre.
'"^''
Weight of
Chaxge.
Weight or
Projectile.
Mofsie
Velocity.
Mutile
Energy.
Perforatsoa
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
ruing
Roun&
Propdhnt
M.L. Gun*^
In.
Tool
D».
lb.
Ft. Sees.
Ft.Tonfc
In.
Per Minute.
17*73 in.
13-5
100
80
38
4SO
450
3 10
300O
I54fl
1540
1575
9!563
6,5lo
345
350
19a
Priam Black
PriMi Blown
Pciam Black
■a
13
II
35
13
X
y»
\%
15*3
13s
P*'
Ptebbk
10 ..
1 :
10
t
70
so
t^
1379
1440
f&
13.5
II-O
M
9
3S
179,
1390
«97
9.,
f«
4^.."
U
7
3-8
JO
10
"^
1535
1390
tl
1
1
r-iTg.*
B.L. Gun*-
16-35 ia.
I6-3S
110.5
^95
1800
3016
1914
54.390
38
)
SB.C
13-5 ..
19 t.
13-5
13
67
45
laso
714
r.rr
33
34*5
35-8
t
PtiuSBttmu
10 M
10
99
118
500
3100
15.390
m
r :
V
33
14
380
310
ao36.
3300
't^
33.3
30-0
1
*
6 ..
S
6
S
5
3
«
too
SO
y&
3.435
•a
135
9-3
4
4
»-3
la
as
1900
7*8
M
aF. Guna-
4-7 in.
6-pr.
4.73
334
3*1
0-4
13
1-94
*i
\p
99$
8-8
5-3
8
20
Q>.
3..
1-85
0.35
1-5
3-3
i»73-
40
30
••
* And many unaller guna.
TAiLB Vlh-^Britisk B.L. Ordnantt, f poo.
Official Deagnatkm
of Gun.
Calibre.
Wdjthtof
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muscle
Velocity.
Miiytle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
Firing
Propcdant.
In.
Tonfc
Ih.
lb.
Ft-Seca.
Ft Tons.
In.
Ptr Minute.
16*35 in.
16-3$
1 10*5
960
1800
^
54^90
38
\
^^'
13-Sin.
13*5
67
187
1350
35.330
h
33*3
Cordite
13 m. Mark VIII.
13
46
103
850
3367
33,000
•f
10 in.
o-»in.MaikX.
10
r
n
5?*
380
-3040
3601
\nn
n
w
H
14
33635
310
3300
7.046
30*0
M
6ia.MarkVIL
5ia.
6
s
7.
3
30
^00
SO
3493
1750
^
1:|»
4 in.
4
1*3
»5
1900
6136
7*8
^
Q.F. Cum—
6 iit
6
r
13-35
100
3300
3^6
i6h>
•»
4-7-
4 .»
4*7a
4
31
5-43
3-75
45
as
3188
3456
1.046
130
11-6
9
n
l3-pr.
3
048}
0-396'
135
3310
433
8*0
IS
••
6 m
3...
334
I-8I
04
0-35
6
3-3
1818
1873
•£.,
4-8
40
30
30
•1
As regard* rapidity of aimed fire — and no shooting is worth con-
nderation whicn is not aimed^-much depends 00 the quickness
with which the gun can be opened, k)aded and closed agam ready
for firing, but quite as much depends on the ease and convenience
of moving to any required directioo the gun with its mounting:
also on the system of recoil adc^ted and the method of sighting.
Two kfenticmly simifatr guns may conseouently give entirely
different rates of firing, unJesa mounted and nghted on the -same
system— without taking into consideration the peraonal element of
cne gun detachment or crew. The rates of firuig shown ia many
tabka are therefore not always a trustworthy criterion of the guns'
cap^ititics. The advantage of the Q.F. system (t^. a gm firing
charges contained in metallic cases), when suitably mounted, ow '
the old B.L. guns was exhibited in a very marked manner la 1887,
when the fint 47*in. Q.F. gun fired ten rounds in ^7*5 seconds
and subsequently fifteen rounds in one minute. The 5-m. B.L. guo
when fired as rapidly as pocsiUe only fired ten rounds in 6 minutes
16 seconds; so that the QJF. gun fired its tenth round before the
then servkx gun fired its second shot. Recent improvemeirts made
in the mechaioism of the B.L. gun enable it to compete with the
Q.F. system.
The tabulated armour-pierdng value of a guo ia based on tbe
Tabls VIII.—firt^uA OrdnoHct^ 19x0.
Official Designatkm
of Gun.
CaUbrt.
Weijihtof
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Wei^ht.of
Mnnir
VekKity.
Muzzle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
RouiiSL
Propellant.
13 in. Mark XI.
13 In. Mark X
10 in.
9.3 Marie X.
6 fn!'Mark VII.
4 in.
In.
13
13
10
4
Ton*.
66
58
16
7*4
i'3
•§■5
30
3-75
Ih.
300
100
25
Ft.S«ca.
3959
3640
3800
Ft. Ton*.
51.580
47.697
37,305
18.400
1,046
In.
51-5
5I-0
39-5
33-3
390
19-6
II -6
Per Minute.
9
M.D.Conlite
w
M
tt
M
M
Q.F. guns a* in 1900.
mSIORY AND ccmsTRucnoNi
results given by various formulas. These often vary conaidctably.
so in onkr that • direct oompariaon in the tables may be made.
tHU value Is obtained for wrought iron plate only, using. Tresidder's
formuhit which is one of the moat tni«t«M>rtfcy. The equivalent
thickness of Knipp cemented steel armour can be obtained
immediately by dividing the tabular^ value for wroulht iron bv a
"factor of dSect" of 3>3 to 3*4 for uncapped armour piarcmg
ORDNANCE
aii
therefore be
Tables "
alioQt S'O for capped armour piercing shelL These
depfndfnt on the "^tn ** of .the -projectile and mitat
e talcea as-appro»imare.
. cea as-appi
viii-xxir
aro obtained irom trust wurtby aourees.
bat as great secrecy b now observed in many countries there may
be a few inaoeumciess in sone cases the whole of the data are not
avallablo.
Table IX
^Frateh Natal OrinM
w. 191a.
Offidal Designation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charie.
Wet^ht.of
Projectiles
Muisle
Velocity.
Mujde
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rounds.
305 mm.
»74 -
340 H
JfkJL
164-7 mm,
140
100
U :
47 M
> In. ■
I3-OI
10-8
3
6*46
5*44
3«94
a.9
Tons.
81
413
lb.
IS
115
"d
31
"Is
33
Ft.'Seca.
3000
3870
3635
3395
3U6
3871
3871
Ft.>Tons.
S:SS
943
In.
46k>
37-0
34*5
30H>
13.4
in
7-9
Pfer Minute.
1-5
J»
9
4
1
6
13
13
15
Smokeless
B. Powder
M
M
M
M
M
•»
N
Table X^-Cefman Naval OrdaoMea*
Official Designation
of Gun.
Calibre.
*^i-
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Musde
Velocity.
Muaale
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iran.
Rate of
Rounds.
Propellant.
Q.F. Guns-
38 cm.
S4 f.
17 H
hi
5 n
In.
II<03
K*
6^
5-9
4-13
3-42
1-97
Tone
33-3
0-336
lb.
88-3
49-5
19-83
7-37
til
lb.
529
309
343
'S
386
Ft-Secs.
a854
3740
3461
3789
3165
Ft-Tows.
39.878
16,086
1U03
1.273
135
la.
40<3
31*0
36*1
36>l
. 18-0
1375
147
5-4
Per Minute.
I
li
3
5
J
10
11
Nitro-
Qycerine
powder
(•
w
••
w
Note.— It U sutcd that the new German 38 cm. 50 calibre naval gun weighing 43-9 tons fires, with a change of 391 lb, a projectile of
760 fb with a velocity of 3871 f a
Tablb XI
-r/ioluw MmT OrcfMae*. i^io.
Official Deslgnatwn
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
ProjcctUe.
Muide
Velocity.
Mttsde
Energy.
Parfontwn
of Wrought
Rate of
Rica.
Rpopellaa^
343 ani.
303 M
is :
76 »
57 M
47
In.
«35
It
1
6
4-73
30
t-34
1>8I
Tons.
679
51
30
19
5-7
3-1
0-6
0-4
0.25
lb.
187-3
5-5
317
1-05
067
lb.
1315
850
450
35a
100
a.
3-5
Ft-Secs.
3067
3580
3461
3536
3396
3116
3396
3198
3330
FL-Tona.
36.050
39.330
19.000
ii,o6o
3.655
1.397
457
301
«34
In.
34'©^
43.0
310
370
17.0
11
Per Minute.
( Scrip
}BalIistite
••
•t
»•
»»
•f
Tablb XU.—Russiam Naval Ordnancv, 1910.
Official Designation
ofCuiL
Calibre.
^^1"
Weight of
Charge.
Weight Of
Projectile.
Muzsle
Vdocity.
Muide
Energy.
Perforatwn
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
Propellant.
In.
Ton*.
Jb.
lb.
Ft.-Seci.
fL-Tons.
. la.
Per Minute.
( Nitro-
(CeUuloee
S3 is.
13
59
..
730
3600
33.710
39-0
10 M
to
33
, .
488
3550
33/)03
3frO
w
I:
8
6
't38
Sl«
188
91-5
3950
3Il8
11.34s
39-5
14-4
M
9 pr.
4-3
Q.87
4-88
37*75
1336
389
4-3
W
4 H
3*43
o^5
3-«
I5-0
1451
319
4-6
M
o.f:gum*
4 hu
6
5-75
38
91-5
350*
3^970
S3
f«
4-7 n
3-9 ..
i-ii ..
4'7»
af
15-4
3*53
45-0
10-8
9503
3T0O
•Si
1.
I-8I
0-335
3-3
3003
91-8
.•
212
ORDNANCE
IHISTORY AND CX>NSTRUCTION
Tai
ILB Xltl.-
'AusiHm Noma OrdnMce, 1910^
Official DdigMtion
of Gun.
Callbm
Wdghtof
Gun.
Weight or
Charge.
Weight of
ProjectHe.
Muule
Velocity.
MusEle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
R^X
PnpdlMt
In.
Tons.
lb.
lb.
Ft..Seca.
• Ft-Tooa.
In.
Per Minuta
30-5 cm.
I2-OI
990
2625
47,300
46.0
a4
9-45
V.i
120-6
f?i
2595
22,121
34-5
19
7-5
5$.
2700
'srj
273
3
- 15
5-9'
5a
28-8
iia-5
2608
32.0
10
13 ..
4-7a
a-o
9-7
52-4
l^
3.554
137
10
7
2.75
r3
15-a
'U
4-7 M
!::?
o-2i3
0-79
3-3
aS?
3-7 ..
iro
'
Table XIV.-
Official Designation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Wdght of
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzide
Velority.
Miizde
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
6ring
Rounds.
Pwpellant.
305 cm.
28 •
15 •
In.
la-oi
11-024 -
5-906
Ton$.
lb.
1984
220
1828
lb.
981
760
100
Ft-Secs.
2297
1722
2297
Ft.-Tons.
35.860
15.615
3.659
In.
37-8
22.5
17-2
Per Minule.
Tubular
Prisn
Table KV.*-United StaUs NmoI Guns, 1910.
Perforation
Rate of
Official Deagnation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
ProjIctUe,
Muzxie
Velocity.
Miinrle
Energy.
of Wrought
. Iron.
RounL
PropeUant.
In.
Tons.
lb.
B).
Ft-Secs.
Ft.-Ton8.
In.
Per Minute;
( Nino.
iCdluloae
13 in.
13
61-4
180
1130
2000
31.333
31-8
13 »
12
561
340
870
2950
52.483
52'
^
•S :
10
8
m
^1
?g
2700
2750
25.772
8,710
.38
3»l
ti
I :
I
Vs
58
\'4
?iKI
25-9
235
».
5 ..
5
5
23-8
50
3150
3439
21*1
n
4-7 •
4.72
45
2600
2,110
'.i?
4 »
4
2-9
'lis
33
2800
1.794
•I
i^.
3
I-O
'1
2700
657
II^O
■»**
224
2240
209
6-6
3 M
L-8l
3
2200
100
5-4
>.
Table XVh— United Siatts Coast Defence Guns.
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muule
Velocity.
Muzzle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron
Rate of
firing
Rounds.
PropeUant.
In.
Too*.
VtK
lb.
Ft..Sa:s.
Ft.-Tooa.
IlL
Per Minute.
J Nitro-
16 in.
16
127
612
2400
2150
77.000
464
14
14
50
880
1660
2150
53.220
36,730
41-0
12
12
59
340
1046
2250
37-6
10 ,.
10
34-3
^5
^
2250
21,200
31 '5
8
8
14-4
80
10,600
24*5
^
6 ..
6
f^
35
106
2600
4.970
21 -1
^
5 ..
5
20
58
2600
2,718
1712
^
4-72 ..
472
275
10-5
2600
2,110
15*5
4
4
l-6i
U
ft3
2300
1,210
12-0
3
3
1-2
I«
2600
704
11*25
2-24 M
224
0.38
. '•35
2400
240
7-3
^
la ..mortar
12
13
IS
1046
8?4
1150
1325
9.590
10,025
.,
"
Table XVII.— /a^BeseiV^saf Or<fnofic«, 1910.
Official Detigoation
of Gun.
Calibre.
*gg2«'
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Muzzle
Energy.
Perforation
ofWrvugfat
Iron.
Rate of
Rounds.
PrapeBant.
In.
Tons.
VtK
n>.
Ft.-Soc3.
Ft.-Tons.
In.
Per Minute.
>2-5
12
66
59
30s
168-5
§s
IC
36.500
46,200
37-3
47-2
0-2
2*0
MD. Cort«tt
10
34
.500
2850
28,170
40-9
30
„
8
6
. 17-5
7
44
35
. 250
100
»740
'f^
30-3
293
2-0
r
••
4.72
2'1
i-5
45
21S
1.494
120
„
t-24
0^
•94
;^i
2210
423
8«
12
,^
0.9
u\t
IO«2
j^
0.4
^5
•6-0
138
4*8
10
^^
1-35
0^25
0-4
3-3
1873
80
4«5
to
.»
Note. — ^The Japanese fleet has laainlvr been armed by Armstrong's Works, but the '
^ taken from the Russians during tne late ^
, _. - ' Katori •• was armed by Vickers*. awl tbost
— ^ _ „ J war are armed with guns from Knipp or Obucboff. Guna of all sizes are no«k
however, being oonstnicted in Japan^ so that the councry is no longer dependent 00 foreign factories.
HISfORY AHD CONSTRUCTION) ORDNANCB
T4BLS XVIII.— %$*- W, O. Afmstnni, WkUmortk 4f Co:s Gmu. AMd^i TaHt.
ai3
Official Dc»ignation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Weight of
Chargs.
Weight of
ProjectUe.
Muule
Velocity.
Muazle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
firing
Rounds.
Ptopcilaot.
In.
Tons.
lb.
lb.
Ft.-Secft.
FL-Tonfc
In.
Per Minute.
ij in.
13
69
318
850
3960
51.640
51-5
3
lo „
lO
36
JOO
500
yxo
33.3(8
440
3
r
2&
138
380
3030
24.190
40.8
4
21
90
250
3000
15.600
34-9
1
75..
7-5
1575
8-75
76
aoo
3000
13.481
331
6 V.
6
35-5
100
3050
lis
360
9
4-7..
4-7
3-3
15
45
JOOO
19-1
13
4 *•
4
ai
II
31
300D
1.934
17-3
13
3 ..
3
1*1
5-75
14-3
3030
9»a
«3-9
30
{ Semi-
^autooiatic
6 pr
2-7^
5*
113
6
2400
340
7-3
25
3 ..
i«5
as
•635
3-3
.2300
131
S-7
n
Note.—Tht most powerful gun of each calibre has beep selected.
1
Table XIX.
--Vickers, Sons and Maxim's Cums
Abndgtd TabU,
Offidal Des^nation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Chaive.
.Weight of
ProjectUe.
Muisle
Velodiy.
MuAle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
Ronnoa.
PropeUant.
In.
Tons.
lb.
lb.
Ft.-Sec«.
Ft.-Ton8.
In.
Per Minute.
13 in.
13
65-85
344
850
3010
S3«40o
38.335
S30
3
10 „
SO
27-85
173
496^
38^
4I-0
3
V:
V
a7-8
184
380
3070
24.835
413
J
\ti?
80*03
216-7
3090
M.350
33-9
7-5..
7-5
300
3007
t«.540
323
8
6 M.
6
7-8
43
100
3190
7.056
17-6
10
4-7 .»
4-7a
3-1
17
45-14
30S0
3.910
13
4 ..
4
3'l
1135
31
3030
1.975
15
3 ..
3
0-95
3-635
«>-5
3700
632
10-8
25
J Swii.
(autmatac
6pr.
3.34
0.46
1-55
6
3600
aBi
a-3
38
3 ..
1-85
0-38
I-066
3-3
3800
179-4
7-5
30
iVate.r— The most powerful gun of each calibre has beaa selected.
Table XX.—Kmpp*s Naml and Caast-Dtfenu Ordnance. Abridipdfrom TabU of Ordnance, 1906.
Official Designation
of Gnn.
Calibre.
Wright of
Gun.
Wright of
Chwfe.
Wright of
Pro]ecttle
Muale
Velodty.
Muxde
Eaei^.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
firinc
Rounds.
Pkopellaot.
30-5 cm.
28 „
24 tf
21 w
19 ..
17 I*
15 M
12 „
W-S ^
9 -
7-5 ..
5-7 ..
5^ *
In.
I3'OI
9-45
8-37
748
6-7
5-9«
4-72
4-13
3-54
2-95
3-34
197
Tons.
U6-4J
(40-4V
J 23.93 I
\ 2545 \
i 15*30 >
) 16-90 (
(II-A7)
( 1204)
\ ®*5§1
? 9-485
\ 5-5 \
\ 6-1 I
( 3-86)
I 3-18 5
C 1-92 (
\ 2*13 i
!I-38
1-45
( -74
•325
•367
•330
.348
Ibw
357
276
173-6
115-3
86-3
646
41-7
21-73
14-55
7.73
7-94
448
4-61
1-96
3-03
132
137
J 771-6
1981-0
J 595-2
(760-6
1374-8
( 474-0
i 249-1
/ 308-6
i 187-4
2359
[141 1
176-4
90-4
1 1 12-4
463
59-5
30-9
39-7
19-84
2513
19-84
25-13
11-46
14-55
11*46
14-55
ir
507
6-4
3-42
4-3
3-42
4-3
FL-Setis.
J?55
^S*4
3*51 i
^V^tt (
J'^lC \
JJ74
3281 I
J997
3S1J \
JIM \
3aT3 \
3 J SI i
jisfit
3*
Ft.-Tooa.
56,540
43.754
27,540
18,101
13.572
iOk»S9
6.6Q3
3.442
a.306
1.377
1452
797
840
350
369
236
249
In.
(53-0
520
1 490
S44-5
f 42-0
(386
I 3^*5
J350
331
320
303
i27-4
J26-1
[22-2
[20-8
i8-3
I 1 60
150
16-5
I 15-6
1 13-9
130
j lO-I
9-5
I to-5
Per Minute
2-3
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
6-8
15-30
20-35
25-30
30-40
4»-50
40-50
The explosive
for the
charges ol
guns of 10- 5
cm. and up-
wards con-
tains 35% of
nitroglycerin
The explosivt
for chargei
of guns up
to 9-5 cm.
contains40*«
nitrogfyccnn
VdU. — The above table includes a light and heavy type of gun. but for each the length of bore is ^o calibres; in the unabridged
table guns of 40 and 45 caUbrcs are included. Hie particulars ol the shorter pieces can be easily obtained from Table XX., aa tae
214-
ORDNANCE
IH1810RY AMD COMSTHUCTION
cofutfuctionof Knipp't oomplcle table m baaed ao very ample nikft
projectile and oC the chaise are, with few eaceptions, to proportion to the
Tbtti. for the aame reUtivt length of gun, the weight of the
^_^ _ _ . . the cube of the calibre. Again, the weight of the gun varies aa
the cube of the calibre multiplied by the length. The muzzle velocity is practically idcntica] for guns of the same relative length.
and varies aa the square root of the
are ^ven for every gun, but the m
practice. Simflar anthinetical procesacs
theieiore given.
oot of the knffth; consequently the muzzle energy varies
but the muzzle eneivy of eadi. for the aame charge, n
tical procesacs are utilized for the Schncider-Canet, Bofc
directly as the kngth. Two weights of i
, is identical; this result u never the case i
Bof ors and Skoda tables, and only the fictt i
Tabli XXL-SekMeuUr^CametCmM
. AbridttdTabU.
Official Designation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Weight of
Chaige.
Weight of
Projectile.
Musale
Velodty
Muzzle
Energy
Ferf oration
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
rSSSs.
In.
Tons.
lb.
lb.
Ft-Sccs.
Ft.-Tons.
In.
Per Minute.
505 mm.
UOI
576
826
3116
55.717
54-8
a74-4 .
10-9
41-9
606
31 16
49*1
240
^i
aS-o
407
3116
43a
aoo
i6«as
%
31 16
35-9
175 ..
689
IO-8
»
31 16
'km
3ai
150 ..
5-91
6-8
n
3116
a70
120 M
4.7a
3-5
3116
3.a68
ai-o
100 „
3-94
J-O
a8-«
31 16
1,931
iy.8
75 -
a-95
f-a
'U
3116
917
146
57 ..
3-24
•55
3116
400
10.7
47 ..
i«5
•30
3-3
3116
2a3
8-9
iVslt.— The unabridged t^le gives only 45 and y> calSire guns; the above table gives the particulars for 90 calibre guniL
Tabli XXII.— BctUdhsm SUd a.*« (hau, Abhdttd TaMc.
Oflkial Designation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
^.
Perforatioa
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
Rou^
PrapeUant.
In.
Tons.
lb.
lb.
Ft.-Secs.
Ft.-Tons.
In.
Per Minute.
18 In.
18
60
,,
aooo
aaso
70,185
4a-7
13 H
la
S3
850
a8ao
46.195
SI
Hi
's :
7 H
10
8
I
S.6
500
a8ao
a8oo
a900
a7.i74
6 ..
105
3900
6.180
a4^
5 ..
5
475
60
a900
a'.oa3
aos
4-724 «
4'7a4
*•?
45
3900
183
4
3 -
4
3
a>6
•85
33
ns
1.934
TV!
I7-0
117
aa4 ..
2-85 ..
a-a4
185
•43
•245
6
3
X
a40
14»
U
iVolf.— The most powerful gun of each calibre has been selected.
Modem naval artillery may be looked upon as the high water
mark of gun construction, and keeps pace with the latest
scientific improvements. For coast aefencc the latest pattern
of ordnance b not of the same importance; in general very
similar guns are emploYed. although perhaps of an older type.
Formerly in the Bntisn Service the heaviest guns have been
used for this purpose; but of late years, whore fortifications
could be erected in suitable situations, the largest gun favoured
is the 9'a-in. of the latest modeL Other governments have,
however, selected still heavier pieces up to la-in. calibre, mounted
in heavily armoured cupolas or gunhousea.
As regards field material, mobility is still ooe of the primary
conditions, and, as high power is seldom required, ordnance of
medium calibre is aH that is necessary. For sicce porposes guns
of 4-in. to 6-in. calibre are generally sufficient, but howitzers up
to 38 cm. (ii<<» in.) were used at the siege of Port Arthur.
1904. All authorities seem agreed that for ordinal^ field guns
75 mm. or y\tk. calibre is the smallest which can be efilciently
emplo)red for the purpose, and the muzzle velodty is in nearly
all equipments about 500 mA (1640 f.s.).
For mountain equipments all foreign governments have selected
a 7S-millimetre gun with a velocity of about 350 m^^ (1148 f.s.);
in England, however, a a-^s-in. has been supplied to mountam
batteries: this fires a projectile of 10 lb with 1440 f.s.
Field Hosntxer batteries abroad have pieces of fr»m 10 to 1 a
centimetres calibre and a k>w velocity; in England a s-in.
howitser is at present uaed^ but it u intended to adopt a
4'5-ifl. howitzer of 17 calibres m length for future manufacture.
Heavy shell power and long nuife fighting render the work of
tbe gun designer particularly difficult, especially when this is
^ ^ combbed with cooditioos ititrictiog length and
5ir^ weight; and, in addition, other ooosidentions,
cspMially for naval guns, may have to be taken into
account such as the allowable weight of the armament.
and the size of the gun house or turret. These and other similar
conditions are important factors in deciding on the type of design
which embodies most advantages for a heavy gun intended for
the main armament. For land defence more latitude it allowed
so long as this is combined with economy. With both heavy and
medium naval guns the length is often Ivnited to 45 calibres on
account of peculiarities In the design of the vessel, but usually
great rapidity of fire, high velocity and huge shell power ase
insisted upon. Again for Q.F. field guns, where high vdocity
is not of importance, ease of manipulation, rapidity qf workij^
and reliability even after months of arduous service are cacntiaL
Supposing, bowever, that the initial conditions, imposed by the
shipbuilder or by the exigency of the case, can be fulfilled, it
stiU remains to so design the gun that, when it Is fired, there is
an ample raar|^ of safety to meet the various stresses to whicli
the several portions of the structure are subject. The two
principal stresses requiring special attention ove the drcuia-
f erential stress, which tends to burst open the gun tongitudinally,
and the longitudinal stress. The calculation for the Ust named
is based on the supposition that the gun is a hollow cylinder, closed
at one end by the breech screw and at the other by the shot,
both being finnly fixed to the cylinder. The gas pressure exerts
its force on the face of the boeech screw and on the base of the shot
thus tending to ptill the walls of the cylinder asunder. Btt
besides these there Is the special stress on the threads of the
breech screw which must receive very careful consideration.
Regard must also be had to the fact that in baQding tip the
gun, the smaller the diameter of the hoop and the longer it h, tbe
higher must be the temperature to wUch it is heated bdore shrink-
ing. This is necessary in order that the dilaUtion may allow
sufficient clearance to place the hoop correctly In position on the
gun. without the possibility of its contracting and gripping before
being ao placed. Should it warp while being heated or while
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION)
ORDNANCE
215
being placed in position the hoop may prematurely grip on the
gun and mAy consequently have to be sacrificed by cutting it off
and shrinking on aiwther.
The dilitafion must be so adjusted that the required tempera-
ture to obtain it is not higher than that used lor snnfaling
the forging, otherwise the effect of this annealing will be modified.
There is, therefore, for this reason, considerable risk in shrinking
UP long hoopt of small diameter.
Before heating hoopa of large diameter two or three narrow
reference bands are turned on the exterior and theb diameter
measured; special gauges are prepared to measure these plus
the dilatation required. After heating the hoop but before
shrinking it, the diameter of the reference bands when tested by
these gauges should not be in czceie of them. The temperature
can then be easily ascertained by dividing the dilatation by the
coefficient of expansion of sted per degree F. or C, taking of
course the diameter into account.
For small hoops this method is not convenient, as the hoop
cooh too quickly; the dilatation must then be obtained by
ascertaining the temperature, and this is best done by the use
of some form of pyrometer, such as a Siemens water pyrometer,
before the hoop is withdrawn from the furnace.
It may also be desired to obtain a given striking energy or
vdodty at some definite range-^then, the weight of the pro-
jectile being decided upon, the mussle vdodty is found from
the formulas (see Balustxcs) given in Exterior Ballistics. From
this and the length of the gun allowable the designer has, with
the aid of former experience and the formulas given in Internal
Bailiafirs, to decide on the weight and nature of the powder
charge necessary and the internal dimensions of the powder
chamber and bore. Tbcse data are used to plot what is termed
a ^ guamakers* curve/' ue, the curve of pressures along the bore
which the powder charge decided upon will give. The (actor of
safety and the maximum allowable stress of the sted forgings
Of steel wire also being known, the necessary strength of each
section of the gun can be easily found and it remains to so
proportion each port as to conform to these conditions and to
meet certain others, such as facilities for manufacture, which
experience only can determine.
When the second course consists of a single long tube Into
which a tapered barrd is driven, as in the system adopted by the
English government, the two tubes are treated as a single tube
equal in thickness to the two together; but when the second
course consists of severd tubes shrunk on to the barrd the addi-
tiond strength, obtained by the initid tension of the shrunk
tubes, is sometimes taken account of in the cdculation, or the
two may be treated as one thick tube.
The gunmakcn* formulas for the strength of the gun are ob-
tained Irom considering the strength of a thick cyliiraer exposed
to unequal intcmd and cxtemd pressures. Supposing
a ttansvcne aectioii of the' gun to cut through a tuba*
the intcmd radius of the barrd » r» in., the external
ladius rt la., the exttnd radius of the tccoad oourK
is n and to on; and the cxftenal ndius of the jacket is tm.
Then if T»a circumfcrentid atress (tenaioD) m tons per
square toch, T»*a drcumferentid atfcss at rsdius r.
in., P*a radial stress (pressure) ia tons per square
inch, and P»«a mdid stress at radius r« in., the
formulas used in the calculation of the strength of built-
up guns are as foUowsr^
P>-,r.,.»- P,r,« . r>,.V,« P.,, -P.
consider that the proof tensSoo of the band shouU not caoeed 1$
tons and of the outer hoops 18 tons per square inch; with nickd
gun steel these become ao tons and 24 tons respecttvdy. If the
n** hoop is the exterior tube then P»*o; neglecting the atmospheric
pressure.
In all gun calculations for strength three cases must be con-
(a) When the built-up gun is fired, the stress b called the Fuini
Stress and is obtained by the repeated use of equation (4):
(6) When the gun, supposed to be a solid homogeneous Mock of
metd is fired, the stress is termed the Powder Situs and
is obtained from the equations (1) and (3);
(c) When the built-up gun u in repose, the stress is then oslled
the InilM Sitesior Stnfs 0/ Rt^.
Between these three cases the following rdatioos hold >—
Initul Strtss-k- Powder Strtu m Firing Streu (5).
It u best to use different symbols to distinguish each kind of
stress. We will use for the Firing Stress P, T; for Powder Strsss
^, <: and for the Initid Stress Ip), It).
The method of working will be illustrated by a practicd example.
Take, lor instance, a section across the chamber of a 4-7-in. QJP.
Eun. for whidi the diameter of the chamber is 5 in., that of the
Mcrd 8-a in., and the extemd diameter of the jacket ij io.
Here
T^*i9:T|«l8: Pa*H».
From (4) for the Firtng Stress
Pi-|ji|^^^i}]Jxi8-97a tons per square inch.
Ps-|jf7Jl^{|if||X(i5+9-72)+9-7a-ai tons per square inch.
From (3) the teosioo T'» of the outer fibres of the hoops is obtdoed;
thus
T^mPi+Ti-Pi* 18-9-73 «8-28 tons pet square inch.
T'i«Pi+T»-Ps-9-73+iS'» *3*7a toa» per square inch.
For any intermediate radius r the stress can be found by using
equations (1) and (3) or (1) or (3) and (3).
For the Powder Stress equations (i) and (3) are used by putting
n«i|, and then ^-'o (also remembering that, aa there are two
hoops, the outer radius nutst be written r^; the formulas become
*.SP^ (7).
When r*»s*3'S* '""'ik Ai*P« already found and:
For the tension of the fibres'at the outer drcumference
l'i-36>35>3t -5'3S tons,
from (5) and for a rsdius ri«7*^ inches.
The strew for any intermediate radius r can be obtained from
(6) and (7) or, from (6) or (7) and (3).
Subtracting the Powder Stress from the Ftrfng Stress the luitiai
Stress is obtained, and the various results can be ubulatod as
follows: —
Tensions.
Pressures. |
At Radius.
Firing
Stress.
Powder
Stress.
Initid
Stress.
Firing
Stress.
Powder
Stress.
Initid
Stress.
Barrd
Jacket
r»-3-5
ri-41
r,-4I
ri-7S
150
|80
838
36*35
ti-57
11-57
-1135
3-03
3I-0
9-7*
972
31 -o
6.33
633
3*4
3-4
T-J;
(I)
«_ r^iV,«P>^i-P. P-4r>,,«-P.f,« ,.
where r is any intermediate radius in the thickness of a tube
T.-P.-T-P
(3)
In the same tube; also the pressure be tn eca the (n-i)** and n**
hoops is
P*^-
f?+^^
^(T^+P.)-|.P.
(4).
Equation (4) is usually known as the Cunmakers* formida and
Irom it, when Pa and T«_i. T*-a ... are known the other pressures
can be found. The proof tension of the matcrid is kept well below
the yieUiag strsss. For ordinary carbon gun sted it is usual to
It is generally stipubtcd that the initial compression of the
material at the interior surface of the barrel shall not exceed
36 tons per square inch, i^. (l^«-36 tons; in the example above
(l»)«-ii'35 tons only, but ia wire-wound guns wpedtl attention
this condition is necessary.
It now remains for the designer so to dimension the 1
hoops that thev shall, when sonink together, give the si i iaiis
found by calculation. To do this the exterior diameter of the
barrel must be a little larger than the interior diameter of the
covering hoop; dter thb noop is shrunk on to the barrel its
exterior diameter is turned in a lathe so that it is sightly lavger
than the interior of the next course hoop and so on. It will oe
wen that the fibres of the barrel most be compressed while the
fibres of the superimposed hoop are extended, and thus produce
the Initial Stress. The shrinkage S may be defined as the exccsa
of the external diameter of the tube over the intemd diameter of
the hoop, when separate and both are in the eoM state. Then
2r6
ORDNANCE
(HISTORY AND OONSTRUCTIOM
if A^x6emabt»tht fhrittkige between tbe «** and (ii*f i)*^
bao|»
-(''.)]
(8)
-^■[(4)-«^)+j4^ICA^)+C^.)j] (9).
Here M can be talcen as 12,500 tons per square inch for
Kn stcd. In the example already calculated the shrinkage
Lween the jacket and barrel is 0-009 in.
S-Iil^[6«+"»S+^$^(-n-»5+3-4)]
'•O'Ooyin.
In that portion of the gun tn which wise is used in the con-
struction, exsctly the same principles are involved. It ma^ ^
,1-^ assumed that the tube on which the wire is wound is so
l!^ large, in comparison to the thickness of the wire, that
^^ the compcession of the ooneave surface of the wire and
the extension of its convex surface may be neglected without
sensible error.
The greatest advantage is obtained fiom the wire. Coils when
in the Firing Stress the tension T is uniform tlirbughout the thick-
ness of the wirii^. The Firing Stress T in the wire may be as low
as 35 tons per square inch and as high as 50 tons, but as the yielding
strength of tht wire is never less than 80 tons per square inch nor
its breaking strength less* than 90 tons, there is still an ample
margin especially when it is remembered that the factor of safety
is included in the cakulation.
If the wire is wound, lirect on to the barrel and is covered by a
jacket, ft, fi being the radii in inches of the barrel, ft, n the radii
of the internal and external layeiv of wire, and ft, fs the radii of the
jacket ; then for the Firing Stress in the wire
At Radius.
Tensions.
Pressures. 1
Firing
Stress.
Powder
Stress.
Initial
Stress.
Firing
Stress.
Powder
Stress.
Initial
Stress.
Wire ;;:3:j5
06
-5-4
as-o
250
7-5
5»5
26-25
13-125
13125
7-5
75
525
-4S-65
-I«'525
11875
17-5
21^
I5H>
225
225
ai-o
7f75
7-875
225
225
Mas
7125
T(rr-r)-P»-P«rt
(9).
TCr-fi)-Pifi-Pr (10).
By comfaining these the guomakers* formula for the wire is obtained
^(T+PO+Pi
(lax).
As T is to be uniform, when the gun is fired, the Initial Tensions
of the wire are arranged accordingly, and the tensions at which the
wire must be wound on to the guns have now to be determined.
Let 9 « the winding tension at radius r in.
(() ^the initial tension at radius r in.
(^}*-the radial pressure between any two layers of wire at
radius r in.
It is assumed that M u uniform for the gun sted and wire.
Then
(").
(13)*
( of these two equations and (9) the expreauoo (li)
where
and
(O-T-P.^^
-I+.
where
(14).
E--(T+P«>.
F-(T+P.)r,^fT+P.)ffc
G-(T+P,)r,+(T+P,)f^
To compare with the previous example, the stress for a 4-7-in.
Q.F. wire gun will be calculated. This consists of a barrel, inter-
mediate layer of wire and jacket.
Here f» = 2-5; ri«3-75; fi-5-5;r«-7'5 inches; the firing tension
Ti to T'b of the wire -"25 tons per square inch, suppose.
Take Pi«2i tons per square incn and consider that the jacket
fits tightly over the wire, but has no shrinkage. Then for the
Firimi Stress, from (2), Pa«2'25 tons,
and from (9) and (10), TjCrm) - Pi^i-PiTi
Pi»i4-97,aay I5t0(is:
from (4) we can obtain T« and Ti since P», Pi and Pt are known ;
from (3) T« » 0*6 tons. Ta - 7*5 tons.
T'«»-5*4 tons (a compression),
and
Ti-5-25 tonsL
The Pamdgr Stress is obtained in the same way as in the previous
oample, so also is the Jnitiai Stress; therefore we may tabulate as
follows:—
As the wire is wound on, the pressure of the external layers will
compress those on the interior, thus producing an extension in the
vore which is equivalent to a reduction in the winding tension #
of the particular layer at radius r oonsidend. If r xepreaenu this
reduction then
where
At the interior layer of wire r is the initial stress on the exterior
of the barrel and the winding tension must commence at
•-lx>875+i8-525«30-4 tons per square inch.
As the jacket u supposed to have no shiiidBge T«o and ton-
seqaently
• ■"CO"" 17*5 tons per square inch.
These winding tensions can be found directly froa fonnula (14)
and then
E— 149875: F-34.875; G-264.875.
Sir G. Greenhill has put these formulas, both for the buflt-np and
wire-wound guns, into an extremely neat and practical geometrical
form, which can be used instead ot the arithmetical pmoesaea; lor
these see Text-BoQh ttf (huumy, Tnaiise of Strwiu Ordsmmur 1893.
and Journal of the United States Artiikry, vol. iv.
The bngitudinal strength of the gun is very important espedatly
at the breech end ; along the forwardportion 01 the gun the " * *
of the barrel and the interiocking 01 the covcrlnglioopa
provide ample strength, but at the bceech speoal pro-
vision must be made. It is usual to provide tor this by
means of a strong breech piece or jacket in small guns or
by both combined in large ones. Its amount is easily calculated on
the hypothesis that the stress is uniformly distributed tluCHigbout
the thickness of the breech piece, or jacket, or of both. If r« is the
largest radius of the gun chamber, ru the radius of the obturator
seating, n the external radius of the barrel, and P« the maximum
powder pressure, then, with the usual form 01 chamber adopted with
guns fitted with obturation other than cartriikre cases, there will ba
a longitudinal stress on the barrel at the breech end of the chamber
due to the action of the pressure P« on the rear slope of the chamber,
of
J(f^-fM*)P» tons
this b resisted by the barrel of section ^ (fi'-f^) ao that the re-
sistance
R-
This portion of the longitudinal stress is not of great i
as the breech end of the barrri is supported in alTnodefn designs
by the breech budi. In Q.F. guns, tje, those firing cartridge caaes,
the breeoh end of the chamber has the largest diameter, and nr-ffei
so that there is no longitudinal stress on the chamber part of the barreL
For the breech piece or outer tube of radii fi and r$, the reaistaact
R» j" | Pt tons for B.L. guns
■sa?p.
^^;^P# tons in Q.F. guna.
If the longitudinal stress is uken by a jacket only, the r
is found in the same way.
Generally for ordinary gun steel, the longitudinal stress on the
material is always kept below 10 tons per square inch or 13 tons for
nickel steel; but even with these low ^ures there is also included a
factor of safety of i'5 to 2. In large guns it is best to consider the
jacket as an auxiliary aid only to fortgitndinal resistance, as, owing
to the necessary connexions bstweejs it and the bceech bush and its
distance from the centre of pressure, there is a possibility that it
may not be taldng its proportionate share o( the stress.
The thread of the breech screw aix! of the breech bush (or opening)
must be so proportioned as to sustain the full pressure on the maxi-
mum obturator area; V or buttress shaped threads are always used
as they are stronger than other forms, but V thrca<ls have the great
advantage of centring the breech screw when under pressure.
In most modem B.L. guns fitted with de Bange ofatnratian the
rnnsmr and constkuction
ORDNANCE
217
r of the aatinf b made jittt large enough to freely admit
the fw^jectile; this U usually considenbly Mnaller than the maximum
diameter of the chamber, consequently a less area a exposed to the
gaspreMure and less screw thread section b required.
The principal features of the various systems of construction of
modem heavy guns may be briefly described*
Z
M
>
o
S
M
z
<
Z
1
J
nos. 35-57.— British, French and Amerkan CoostnictioB.
Fi^. ^s u that adopted ta England. The barrel or " inner A
tube M surmounted by a secondT layer which b cither shrunk on
. in two or three pieces, as at Elswick, or is formed of one
"'long piece called the "A tube." as in the Woolwich
system. Thb second layer b covered with wire, and
over thb b shrunk the chase hoop or B tube and the
The breech bush b screwed into the rear end ojf the A tube
the principal longitudinal stress is taken by thb tube.
S6 b the system adopted in the French service. In thb the
•armonnted over the breech end with two Uyers of short
which oonseqtiemly approximate to the win syitem.
jacket,
so that
banS'
Over the mnnfeend two or three loog totiet are shrunk; tht chnt
hoop b abo screwed to the barrel near the muzsle. A facket b
shrunk over the breech portkm of the gun, and the breech bush b
screwed mto it at the rear end. The gun b further strengthened by
a long tube in front of the jacket to which it b attached by a screwed
collar.
Fig. '57 shows the design adopted for the United Sutea navy.
Here the barrel b surmounted by a second course in two lewths*
and over the breech a third and fourth layer are shrunk. The
breech screw b screwed into the rear end of the second coufse.
, Fia. ^ b the Krupp system, of whk:h,however ,it b an oM cbtample :
tt b Delieved. however, that Kmpp still retains the essential pecu*
Ibritbs of thu design, via. that over the breech end of the barrel b
shrunk a solid breech piece, made partkuUriy massive in rear
where the breech wedge b seated. The remainder of the kiyers
consbt of hoops whkrh are comparatively short but may be covered
with kMiger thin tubes.
FiC. 58. — Krupp Construction.
When guns arc fired, the interior surface b gradually worn away
by the action of the powder gases; the breach end of the rifled
portion of the bore becomes enlarged, and the rifling ._ .■_ .
Itself partly obliterated. The ballistics suffer in conse- """•*•
qucnce of the enlarged dbmeter of the bore, and the rifling may
be worn so much as not to properiy rotate the projectile.
In all modern gun dcsiens provisron has^ therefore, to be made
for repairing or replacing the barrel when it is worn out. There are
two methods of providing for the repair in the original de si gn the
first is by replacing the whole of the barrel by an entirely new one;
the second b to make the original barrel thick so that when it fs
to be removed aa a whole, tapered from end to end. so that by warming
the gun in a vertical position breech downwards to about 300* F.
and then suddenly cooling the barrel by a jet of water it can be
knocked out by heavy blows from a falling weieht. A new tapered
barrel can then be inserted by driving it in. When a sun whicn had
originally a thick barrel is lined part of the barrel b bored out in a
machine, and it is usual to make the hole tapered so that a new
tapered liner can be inserted and driven home.
The wearing of the barrel owing to erosion b one of the most
difficult problems the gun constructor has to face. Sir Andrew Noble
(sec" Some Modem Explosives, a paper read at the Royal Institution,
ipoo, also " Researches on Explosives," part iil., Pfttl. Trans. Roy.
5tfc.) has conclusively proved that the erosion i» mainly depeiMlent
on the very high temperature fo which the interior surface of the
gun b raised and on the quantity of this heat. Both these factors
are, for an)r particular explosive, determined by some function of
the proportion of the weight of the charge to the extent of the
exposed surface. The passage^ for the products of combustmn
gradually reduces from toe maximum dbmAer of the chamber to
the diameter of the bore. The highly heated gases therefore impinge
more directly on that part of the bore which forms the seatirig ior
the shot and acts on it for the loosest time, i^. for the whole time
the shot is in the gun. Consequently thb part suflftra most wear.
It may be assumed that the weights 01 the charges vary as the
cube of the diameters of the bore, while the circumference of the
bore varies directly as the calibre; now as the wear depends princs>
pally on the weight of the charge in reUtion to the expopcd surface
at the shot seating it varies as the square of the calibre. It b
evident too that the allowable wear will vary as the calibre, so that
the life of the gun or the number of rounds whkrh can be fiitd b
Inversely proportionate to the calibre.
The heat ol eombusdon and the time of buminc of the C9ipk>sive
are factore in deternuning the amount of heat developed per unit
of time, and thus influence the proportion of heat conducted atray
from the interior surface of the gun. The time of burning of the
explosive depends on the siae and form of the explodwe and on
the density of kuding, while the heat of .combustion depends on it«
compositmn and cannot be treated of here, but it may be stated
generally that for equal weights Ballbtite is more erosive than
Cordite Mark I., and Cordite Mark I. than Cordite M.D. All xA
these explosives contain a fairly large proportkMi of nitro^ycerine.
and it b found that as the pcoportKM of thb ingredient b reduced
the eroskm abo decreases, so that for pure nitno-cellukise powders
it is less still. Unfortunately pure nitnxcllulosc powders are not
ballistically equal to the same weight of nitroglycerin powder;
the advantage of the less erosive acrion is lost ewmg to the grentar
wei((ht of pure nitro<elhikMe cxplorive required to ^tain the sanie
ballistics.
The effect of erosion on large high-power guns b serious, for in a
2l8
ORDNANCE
(FIELD ARTnXBRY BQUIPMEinB
la-in. gun after mne 150 or fewer rounds are fired with a full charge
the barrel is worn ao much as to need replacing. In the Britbh
service it is considered that the wear produced by firing 'sixteen half
charges is equivalent to that of one full chaige.
In small high-velodty guns the number of roumb with full charge
which can be nred without replacing the barrel is considerably greater ;
whik for bw- velocity guns the. number is higher still. In some guns
this number appears abnormally high; in others of exactly similar
type it may be low and for no apparent reason.
The first effect of the powder gases on the steel b a very charac-
teristic hardening of the surface of the whole of the bore: so much
is this the case that it is difficult to carry out any mechanical opera-
tion, except grinding, after a gun has been fired. When ignited the
explosive contained m the chamber of the ^un bums fiercely, and as
the projectile travels along the bore the highly heated gases follow.
The surface of the bore near the chamber is naturally the most
highly heated and for the longest time; here too the rush of gas b
greatest. There b in consequence a film of steel swept off from the
surface, but thb becomes less as the dbtance from the chamber
becomes greater, owing to the abstraction of heat by the bore. It
b a noticeable fact tliat only where a decided movement of gas
takes pUce b there any erosion: thus, towards the breech end of
the chamber where no rush of gas occurs there b no perceptible
enmottr even after many rounds have been fired. Again, at the
muule end there b very little erosion, as here the gases are in
contact with the bore for a minute fractbn of time.
As the fiyring procee d s, the interior surface of the bore, where the
erosion b greatest, becomes covered with a net work 'qP very fine
cracks running both bngitudinally and circumfcrcntially. The
sides of these cracks in their turn become eroded and gradually
fissures are formed. With the old .black and brown powders these
fusures were a feature of the erosion; while with the new tyi>e
smokeless powders the eroded surface is usually smooth, and it b
only after prolon^d firing that fissures occur aJthough fine cracks
occur after a con^nrativciy few rounds have been fired.
BjBUOGitAPuy. — English: Nye. The Art of Cunnery (l67o);
Norton. Tiu Gunner^ showing the whole Practice if ArlHUtie (London,
162$): Sir Jonas Moore, Treatise of Artillery (London. 1683);
Robins. New Principles of Gunnery (London, 1 742): Hutton, Tracts
(London, 1812); Sir Howard Douglas, R.A.. Naval Gunnery (London,
1855): Mallet. ConsUuction of Artillery (London, 1856); Boxer,
Treatue on ArlilUry (London, 1856): Owen, Modern Artillery
(London, 1871); Text-Book Rifled Ordnance (London. 1877);
Treatise m Construction of Ordnanu (London. 1879): Lloyd and
Hadcock, Artillery; its Progress and Present Position (Portsmouth,
Annual, United States: A. L. Holley, Ordnance and Armour
(New York, 1865); E. Simpson. Ordnance and Naval Cunnery (New
York, i86»); Resistance of Guns to Tangential Rupture (Washington,
1893): Annual Reports of Chief of Ordnanu; Fullam and Hart.
Texl-Book of Ordnance and Gunnery (Annapolis. 1905) : O. M. Lissak.
Ordnance and Gunnery (New York, 1907). French : Jacob. Resut-
once et consiruction dies touches d feu (Paris, 1909) ; De Lagabbe,
UaUriel d'artiUerie (Paris, 1903); Manuel du canonnier (1907);
Alvin, Leonu sur I'artillerie (Paris, l9o8). German and Austrian:
Kaiier, Konstruklion der getogenen CeschHtwdkre (Vienna, 1900);
Indra, Die wahre Gestatt der S^nnungskurve (Vienna, 1901).
lulian: Tartaglb, La Nuomi Scusnta (Venice. 1562): Bianchi,
Materiaie d'artiglieria (Turin, 1905). (A. C. H.)
U« Field Artillesy Eqdzpments
General Principtes.—K field gun may be cooadered as a
machine for delivering shrapnel bulleta and high-explosive shell
at a given dbtant point. The power of the machine is limited
by its weight, and thb b limited by the load which a team of
six horses b able to puU at a trot on the road and across open
country. For under these conditions it b found that six b the
maximum number cA horses which can work in one team without
loss of efficiency. The most suitable load for a gun-tcam b
variously estimated by different nations, according to the size
of the horses available and to the nature of the country in the
probable theatre of war. Thus in England the field artillery
load b fixed at 43 cwt. behind the traces; France, 4t'5 cwt.,
Germany 42 cwt., and Japan (1903) 30 cwt. Thb load consbts
of the gun with carriage and shield, the limber with ammunition
and entrenching toob, and the gunners with theb kits and
accoutrements. The weights may be variously dbiribated, sub>
jea tc the condition that for case of draught the weight on the
gmi wbeeb must not greatly exceed that on the limber wheels.
It b stili usual to carry two gunnen on teau on the gun axletree,
and two on the limber. But a Q.F. gun capable of firing ao
rounds a minute leqtures to be constantly accompanied by an
ammunition wagt», and the modem teodeoqr is to take advuit*
age of thb to carry lome of the gunners on the wagon. Thus in
the Britbh field artillery two gunners are carried 00 the gun
Umber, two on the wagon Umber, one on the wagon body and
none on the gun. These five gunnerB, with the sergeant, called
the No. I, on hb horse, make a full gun-detachment. Three
wagons for each gtm usually are provided, two of which, with the
spare gonnets and non-commissioned officers, are pasted under
cover at some dbtance behind the battery. Besidct ligihtening
the weight on the gun, the presence of the wagon allows the
number of rounds in the limber to be reduced. Tl>e result of
thb redbtribution of weights b that field artillery may now be
equipped with a much heavier and more powerful gun than was
formerly the case. A gun weiring 24 cwt. in action b^bout as
heavy as a detachment of six can man-handle.
The power of a field gun b measured by its muszle Energy,
Miich b proportional to the wdght of the shell multiplied by the
square of its velocity. The muzzle energy varies in different
equipments from 230 to 380 foot -tons. Detaib of the power,
weight and dimensions of the guns of the principal nUlitary
nations are given in Table A.
A gun of given weight and power may fire a heavy shell with
a low velocity, or a light shell with a high velocity. High velocity
b the gunner's ideal, for it implies a flat trajectory and a small
angle of descent. The bullets when blown forward out of the
shrapnel fly at first almost parallel to the surface of the ground,
covering at medium ranges a depth of some 350 yards, as against
half that distance for a low-velocity gun. Under modern
tactical conditions a deep zone of shrapnel effect b most desirable^
On the other hand, for a given power of gun, flatness of trajectory
means a corresponding reduction In the weight of the shell;
that is, in the number of shrapnel bullets discharged per minute.
We have accordingly to compromise between high velocity
and great shell power. Thus the British field gun fires an x8i ^
shell with muzzle velocity of 1590 ft. per second, while the French
gun, which b practically of the same power, files a t6 lb shell with
M.V. of 1740 f.s. Again, a shell of given weight may he fired
either from a large-bore gun or from a small-bore gun; in the
latter case the length of the shell will be proportionately increased.
The small-bore gun b naturally the lighter of the two. But the
longer the shell the thicker must its walb be, in order not to
break up or collapse in the gun. The shorter the shell, the
higher b the percentage of useful weight, consbtlng of powder
and bullets, which it contains. We must, therefore, compromise
between these anUgonlstic conditions, and selea the calibre
which gives the maximum useful weight of projectiles for a given
weight of equipment. In practice it b found that a olibre of
3 in. b best suited to a shell weighing 15 lb; and that, starting
with thb ratio, the calibre should vary as the cube root of the
weight of tJie shelL
As to rifling, the relative advantages of uniform and increasing
twbt are dbputed. The British field guns are rifled with uniform
twbt, but the balance of European opinion is in favour of a
twbt increasing from i turn in 50 cab'bres at the breech to i in 25
at the muzzle. Mathematically, the development of the groove
b a* parabola.
For field guns the favourite breech actions are the interrupted
screw and the wedge. The btter b simpler, but affords a less
powerful extractor for throwing out the empty cartridge case.
Thb point b of importance, since cartridge cases hastily manu>
factured in war time might not all be true to gauge. Modem
guns have percussion locks, in which a striker impinges upon a
cap in the base of the metallic cartridge. All Q.F. guns have
repeating trip-locks. In these, when the firing-lever or lanyard
b pulled, the striker b first drawn back and then released, allow-
ing it to fly forward against the cap. The gun b usuaU fired
by the gun-layer; it b found that he Uys more steadily if he
knows that the gun cannot go off till he b ready. A field gun
has to be sighted (see Sicirrs) for laying {a) by direct vision
(ft) by clinometer and aiming-point (see Aktillery). The first
purpose b served by the ordinary and telescopic sights; the
sccoiul by the goniomctric sight or the panorama sight. Tlie
FIELD ARTILLERY EQUtPMEm^
C1U>NANCE
" 1
* -I
< §
I
Hi
it
U
n
u
U
iu
u
3 to
u
«««a •pc88?» - ^ «o ♦o« o tut* ajt« A- ^ ^ o CO r«.*«
-|i 5iS|s^ ^ I ^ '^s^: 2 g^ ss -^ * ^ ^ S ^*
n? ^P2 5 * ^ ^^5 S ^% ^f a: ;t ? ^ s ;s-2
^j** ^•tr*'« 2* it
8 S
fjH Hi-t It -"^^r^ ^9, ^? b; a a ? ? <ft*2
It "^^^ ? S - '^: :S Jil 5s «='?«* ^ ^"
ij<o'ft ^J?'^ 2''*- "^V^ t^^ uiA^"*!^^
?-| »:5pt I S IS *?? :S t^2 ^? o; Si * R « ST**
fl% ^§5" 8 ft s "Sv ^ d-a 2iS -^ =f " S^- a ^"5
?f? i^t^l n r? -«:: ;i PR 4 o: * ^ R i I'
^53 *4|5S: I I t "?> 2 "» s;? »; a a * »
??i *lSH| 8 i s "«? 5 »:* 3;S b: % * 5 »
«:% S^j
% s s r«
"66
zz
S:
8:
Si
J!
s-3 ?
I
s
219
I
I
m
i
•S-l
T
a
1
si
e e
& ^
ll
"i 1
M 1
^ 1
II
II
i\
220
indcpendoit line of si^t b an arrangement of sights and elevating
gear found in many modem field guns, which divides between
two gunners the work of aiming (called laying) the gun, and of
giving it the elevation required to hit the target.
In fig. 59 the gun is shown mounted on an intermediate
carriage elevated and depressed by the screw A. The telescopic
ORDNANCE
mELD ARTIULERY EQUiniENTS
Fia 59. — Diagram illustrating the independent line of sight.
or ordinary sight is fixed to this carriage. Hie gun, in its cradle,
is elevated and depressed by the screw B. To lay the gun, the
layer works the laying screw A till the telescope points at the
target; the gun also, if no elevation has been given, is then
pointing straight at the target. To give the gun the elevation
necessary for the range, the elevating number on the right of
the gun nowworksthc elevating screw B till the gun is sufficiently
elevated, the amount given being shown in yards of range on
a drum. The motion given to the gun docs not disturb the
intermediate carriage with the telescope attached to it, and the
telescope still remains layed on the target. Once the sights are
layed on the target, the elevation of the ggn may be changed
in a moment by a turn of the elevating wheel, without disturbing
the laying. The layer does not have to concern himself about the
elevation; he has only to keep his sights on the target while
the other numbers continue the service of the gun. This device
is especially valuable when firing at moving targets, when the
range and the bying have to be altered simultaneously.
"uie same result may also be obtained by other mechanical
devices without the use of the intermediate carriage. Thus the
British field guns have a long elevating screw with the sight
connected to its centre, the lower end passing through a nut at the
side of the upper carriage, the upper end through a nut at the
side of the cradle. Then, if the lower nut be turned by the
laying wheel, the screw, the sight and the gun will go up or down
together; tf the upper nut be turned by the elevating wheel, the
gun witt go up or down the screw without moving the sights.
Colonel Scott's ** automatic " line of sight is an improvement
on the ordinary gear in that the sight can be cross-levelled to
eliminate the error due to difference of level of wheels. Krupp
has a similar device in which the sight-socket is on the cradle so
that it can be czoas-levelled. The sight itself is conneaed to the
elevating gear, and is screwed out of its socket as the breech
of the gun is depressed, so that the sight remains in the same
place.
CanstnuHoH of Ike Gun. — Field guns aie made of stcd. usually
containing a Bmall percentage of nickel or chromium, or both, and
having a tensile brcakine strain of about 50 tons per square inch.
In Au.stria, for facility of local manufactnre, faaid-dniwn bronze is
still used, although this is considerably heavier than steel.
TV Carnage (see AariLLiRV, Plate L).— The firat field guns
used in war were supported bf crossed sukes under the muule and
anchored by a spike on the breech which penetrated into the
ground. The next improvement was to mount the gun on a sleigh.
This method is still used in Norway and in Canada. The next step
was to mount the gun on a two-wheeled carriage, conneaed to a
second two-wheeled carriage (the limber) by a flexible coupling.
For centuries the gun-carriage was a rigid construction, recoiling on
firing, and having to be run up by hand after each round. In 189^
— ■■ ■'t equipments were intruduced. In these a spade attached
to a helical spring tras set under the carriage; on discharge the
spade dug into the ground, compressing the spring as the carriage
recoiled. The extension of the spring ran the gun up again without
asnstance from the gunners.
The British ic pr. used in the South African War (t899>i903)
had a spring spade carriage designed by Sir George Oarke. Similar
equipments were introduced by several continental powers. The
Japanese gun used in Manchuna Ci9<>4) had dragshoes attached by
wire ropes paasiRg round drums on the wheels to a strong spring in
the traiL On recoil the wheels revolved backwards, compressing
the spring: after recoil the pull of the spring on the wire ropes
revolved the wheels forward and returned the gun to its former
position. The Italian 1902 semi-Q.F. carriage was constructed on a
very similar principle. All these •emi^.F. equipmeata were open
to the objection that the gunners had to stand clear of the shield
every time the gun was fired. They have since been superseded
by jQ.F. gun-rocoil equipments.
The guu'carriage must be strong enough to carry the gun across
country, and it must be so co nst r ucte d as not to move when the
gun is fired. If the gun-carriage were allowed to recoil to the rear
on discharge, tht gunners would have to stand clear on firing,
abandoning the protection of the shield, and, moreover, the loss ol
time entailed by running up and relaying the gun would render the
fire slow. The requirement of steadiness of the carriage is met by
allowing the gun itself to recoil on its carriage. Its motion is gradu-
ally chocked by the hydraulic buffer (see bdow) and the gun is
returned to the firing position by helical springs, or, in the French,
Spanish and Portuguese equipments, by co m pre ss ed air. The
carriage is held from reeoiUng by a spade fixed to the point of the
trail, which digs into the earth on discharge, and (usually) by
brakes on the wheels. This is known as the gun-rocoil system, and
is now universally adopted. Field guns constructed on thu princif^
are styled Q.F., or quick-firing, euns.
Slemhness iff Carnage. — in the gun-reomi equipment the con-
structkmal difficulty lies not in preventin|^ the carriage from re-
coiling but in preventingthe whceb from rising off the ground on
the shock of discharge. The force of recoil of the gun. acting in the
line of motion of the centre of gravity of the recoiling parts, tends to
turn tha carriage over backwards about the point 01 the trail, or.
more correctly, about the centre of the spade. This foroc is resisted
by the weight of the gun and carriage, which tends to keep the
wheels on the ground. The leverage with which the overturning force
acts is that due to the distance of lU line of motion above the centre
of the spade; the leverage with -which the steadying force acu is
that due to the horizontal dIsUnce of the centre of gravity of the
gun and carriage from the centre of the spade. If the force of recoil
be 6 f t.-tons. and if it be absorbed during a recoil of 3 ft., the average
overturning force is 2 tons; since the weight of toe gun in action
may not greatly exceed 1 ton, the trail must be so long as to pve a
leverage of at k»st two to one in favour of the steadying force.
It follows from the above that the steadiness of the carriage, for a
given muule energy, may be promoted by four factors, (a) In-
creasing the weiaht of the gun and recoiling parts. This reduces the
recoil-«nergy. (p) Increasing the length of recoil alkywed. This
reduces the overturning puU. {e) Keeping the gun as k>w as possible,
cither by reducing the height of the wheels, or oy cranking the axle-
tree downwards. This reduces the leverage of the overturning force.
id) Increasing the length of the trail. Thu increases the leverage of
the steadying force.
It will be seen from Table A that the condition of steadines b
satisfied in the various Q.F. equipments by not very HfHmi>rir
combinations of the above factors.
TYtc^cradU is the portion of the carrian upon which the gun slides
when it recoils. It also contains the buffer and running-up springs,
which arc fixed either above or bebw the gun. The latter method
gives the stroittcr and simpler construction, and is favoured by all
nations except ureat Briuin. By putting the buffer on top the gna
can be set lower on the carriage, whkh is an advantage as regards
steadiness. A top-buffer crad^ is of ring section, surrounding the
gun ; the gun is formed with ribs or guides extending for ita whole
length, winch, on recoil, slide in grooves in the cradle. The cradle
is pivoted on horixontal trunnions to the intermediate carriage and
carries the buffer and springs on top. Thb construction is shown
in the illustration of the 18 pr. Q.F. gun (fig. 60, Plate III.).
In carriages having the buffer under the gun the cradle is a trough
of steel pbte, usually closed in at the top. It has guides fonned on
the upper edges fitted to take guide-blocks on the gun. The cradle
contains the buffer-cylinder, which is fixed to a horn projecting
downwards from the tireech of the gun, and recoils with it; the
piston-rod is fixed to the front of the cradle. The running-up springs
are usually coiled round the buffer-cylinder, and. on recou. are
compre s sed between a shoulder on the front end of the cylinder and
the rear plate of the cradle.
The cradle is mounted on a vertical pivot set in a saddle pivoted
on horizontal trunnions between the sides of the trail (Krupp);
or, as in the earlier Ehrhardt equipments, the vertical pivot is set m
the axletrce itself, which has then to turn when the gun is elevated
or depressed. The Krupp cradle b shown in the drawing of the
(German gun.
The trtiffer consists of a steel cylinder oeariy filled with oQ or
glycerine. In this cylinder works a piston with |Hston-iTxl attached
to the carriage: the cylinder is attached to the gun. On recoil the
IMSton b drawn from one end of the cylinder, to the other, ao that
the liquid is forced to flow paM the piston. The friction thus caused
gradually absorbs the recoil of the gun and brings it aently to a
standfttifl. As the gun recoils the centre of gravity of the gun and
carriage shifts to the rear, reducing the stability. The buffer^
re»i!ktanre has to be gradually reduced proportionately to the r *
FIELD AATUXERY EQUIPMENT^
tubility.
ORDNANCE
391
,. To tJIknw the, bauid to flov past, the pwtoa, srooves
(called ^eris) are Conned in the sides of the cylinder, and by varying
the depth 01 the grooves at diScrent ooints the resiataiice caa be
adjusted aa required.
Running'Mp Gear.— In oompresKdrair equipments a sepafate
piston is attached to the gun. working in,a cylinder on the carriage
connected with a reservoir of air at a pressure of about 300 lb to the
square inch. This gear is much lighter than the springs, but the
difficulty of keeping the piston and gland light is a serious objection
to it. although this difficulty b partly ovenconne by filling the cylinder
with glyccnne so that the air has no direct access to the piston or
the gland. In spring equipments the principal difficulty ■ lies in
providing a sufficient length of recoil without undue compression of
the column of springs. Thus if the spring column be 6 ft. long
and the gun recoils 4I ft. the spriiws are compressed into a space
of 1 1 ft., or a quarter of their working length. This treatment is
liable to crush the springs. German gun-makers set over this
difficulty by the use of very high-class springs made of steel having
a tenaaty of atx>ut 140 tons to the square inch with an clastic limit
of 90 tooa. They also use a valve in the buffer piston which relieves
the springs of resistance in running-up. and so allows slighter ^rings
to be used. But in England the telescopic spring-case patented by
the Elswick Ordnance Company is preferred. Suppose that thia
spring-columns before firing are each 4 ft. long ; then 11 the telescopic
gear M pulled out for a distance of 4 ft. on recoil, each spring column
will be compressed to 2 ft., or only tp half its length. Tensile runiug-
up springs are used by tome firms, as Cocherill of Seraing (Litgej.
Tney are open to the objection that 'if a spring breaks the gun is
for the time being rendered useless, which is not the case with
compression aprings.
The Intermediate carriage is used chiefly in equipments wifil'
buffer above the gun ; it serves as a means of connecting the cradle
to the lower carnage. When the spade is fixed in the ground it is
impossible to shift the carriage laterally in order to correct the
aim. the intermediate carriage is therefore pivoted so that it can
traverK laterally about 3 degrees each way. Instead or using an
intermediate carriage the direction may be given to the gun by
shifting the whole carriage sidewaya along the axle is an arc about
the point of the trail, which ia fiaad by the soade. This ayatem b
used in guns of French manufacture and in the 1903 Russian gun-
It is dmpie hi action, but requim the shieM to be cut away on either
tide 10 dear the wheels at extreme travene.
The trail is either a drawn atcel tube, of circular section aa in the
18 pr., or of closed U section aa ia the Ehrhardt carriages, or dee a
box trail built up of sheet steeU la the Kfupp equipments the
trail ia bent downwards to give a greater range of efevatiM to the
gun.
Ekntimg (kar, in order to save apace, ia usually of the telescopic
screw pattern, in which one screw is inside the other ao that the
two pack into half the length of a single screw. The spade is of the
shape shown in the illustration o( the 18 pr. Q F. guii. ¥yt equips
i may have to be used on rock, such aa the Swisa gun,
the spade ia made to fold upwards when desired. The axictree ia
with the ends tapered to receive the
lUy a bolkMtf steel forging
eia. The Wheels are of
with navaa of auroped
Steel wheels have been tried but are less elastic than wood and have
been found unsuiuble. England and the United States use 4 ft, 8 in.
wheels; most European nations use wheels 4 ft. 3| in. in diameter.
The skidd u made of hard steel, from O'll to 0-236 in. thick.
The siie and thickness of the shield are limited by considerations
of weight. Thus if 150 tt> of weight be available this will provide a
ahield about 5 ft. square and 3) mm. or 0-138 in. thick, proof
against rifle bullets at disunces over 600 yds., and against shrapnel
bullets at all distances. The present tendency, since the introduction
of the French D bullet and German S bullet (see Ammunition:
BulUt), is to make shiekls thkker than this, 5 mm. or 02 in. being
the usual thickness. . . . ,
Recent Detdopmtnti of Uu Q.F. Cun-Carriatjt.—Tht pnnaple of
** differential " recoil gear b as follows: Suppose an ordinary Q.F.
field gun held in the recoil position by a catch, loaded, released and
alloawd to fly forward under the action of the running-up springs. A
valve m the buffer relieves the gun of anv resistance to running-up.
While in rapid motion forward the gun is fired by a tripper which
catches the firing lever. The gun then returns to the rccoti position
and b again held by the catch. On firing, the recoil-velocity is
reduced by the amount of the fonMutl veloaty previously imparted
to the gun. Thus if the ordinary recoil-vekxnty of a OF. Eun be
30 fa., ami it it he fired while running up at a v^ocitv of 10 is., the
recoil-velocity with respect to the carriage will be only 20 fs. And
aince the recoil-energy is proportional to the weight of the gun
multiplied by the square of the reooil-velodty, the recoil«energy b
neduced in the proportion of 900 to 400, or roughly by one-half.
This halves the overturning stress on the carriage, and tenders it
poetible to make the gun and carriage lighter for the same power,
or to obtain greater power for the same weight. Thb increase of
cflkkncy b due to the fact that the whole of the recoiUenergy b not,
•a in oniinary Q.F. guns, absorbed by the friction in the buffer,
but that part of it is stored up and used to counteract the recoil
of the next round. If the hydraulic buffer be dispensed with, and
th« whole of the raooil taken on the aprinp or compressed air gear,
the overturmng «ress b reduced to one>fqurth of iu normal amoit^t*
One practical difficulty in the way of applying the differential
avsuro to held guns lies in the vibration and slight lateral motion
01 the carriage during runninjs-ujp. Since thb motion takes place after
laying and before finn^ it is hable to cause inaccuracy. The only
equipment on thbprinciple as yet in use b the French 1907 mountain
gun referred to below.
" Semi-automatic " Q.F. field and mountain guns are made by
the leading firms, but have not been generally introduced. In these
equipments the breech is thrown open by tripping gear during the
run-up, and the cartridge case b ejected. When the gun b reloaded
the action of introducing the cartrictoe releaaes the breech-bhx:k,
which is closed by a siwing. In the Krupp semi<>automatic gun the
breech«block is set vertieally to fadlitate blading. Thb equipment b
capable of firing thirty niuada per minute. Th^ principal aavaotage
of the semi«automatic system lies not in the increased rate of lirl
but in the fact that three gunncn are sufficient to carry out the
service of the gun* Thb is of importance in mountain equipments,
where the siae of the shield b limited.
The introduction of airships into military operations has pro-
duced the anti-airship gun. which differs from the ordinary beld
gun in almost every respect. The attack of airships presents spedal
probkms. High elevation, higher even than the howitxer's, may
have to be given, and, unlike the howitier, the airship gun must be
a high-velocity weapon, both ranging power and flatnesa of tra-
jectory being essential. As refords t& shell, to bring down a gaa*
bag, or even to kill a crew, witK time shrapnel is difficult, cmitxg to
the speed of the aifship and the difficulty of observing bunts.
Direct hits with ordinary shell are equally hard to obuin, unless the
balloon is stationary and the range known. Even if such a hit were
got. the ordinary fuse would not ut on enawiit e ihn tire dight
resisunce of the balloon envelope. As regards the equipment, the
absorption of recoil at high elevations presents dinicultiea, the
exaggeration of the angle of sight makea tfie sightiM amngenMmtt
oompUcatedt and rapidity in changing the line of nre b essential.
The most powerful equipment that, in June 1910, had been constructed
CO meet tiieae conditions waa the Krupp 75 mm.» which b mounted
on a motor lorry, the weight of theequ^imeat and carnage, without
gunners, being about 4\ tona. The equipment b constructed 00 the
differential recoil principle, with rcartrunAions on the cradle. The
shell b a 12 R) H.E., fitted with a highly sensitive fuse and can-
tainihg. beside the H.E. burster, a quantity of composition which
gives off a trail of smoke to fadlhatc ranging.
Tk€ Brituh tS'pr. Q.F. FuU dm (i^>5Hsee Plate 111., figa. 60
and 61 ; also AjtliLLsav, Pbte II.).— Taking fif(. 60 from the tap,
we see the buffer, teleacopic nring-case and springs on top of the
cradle, the buffer being attached to the horn projecting upwarda
from the breech. The cradle, of bronie, surrounds the gun. and b
pivoted on horiaootal tranniona on the upper carriage. The gun
recoils in the cradle on tha ^ide riba, which extend for ita whole
length. The upper carriage la pivoted vi*itkally on the trail and ia
traversed by the handle seen bekiw the breech. The long elevating
screw is formed as a telescopic screw at its lower end to avoid any
downward projection; the acrew doea not turn, but the nut at
battom raises the gun, screw and sights for laying, while the nut at
top raises and lowers the gun alone for giving elevation. The
tubular trait suppons the brake-arms, which. also carry the seats for
the layer and elevating number. The spade and traversing hand-
spike are seen at the end of the trail. The telescopic sight b on the
left of the gun. The shiekl is curved well back to give aa much
{»otection as posuble to the detachment. The lower portion of the
shield is hinged and folds up for travelling.
TJU Pfemck Q.F. Field Cmm O898) <fig. 6a, Plau III.; aaa also
Abtillbrv, Plate ll.).~Thb b a powerful gun, of unusual length,
namely 36 odibres. The breech mechanism is of the eccentric screw
type (see Part I . of this article). Thegun has compressed-air running-
1 up gear and traverses along the axictree. The carriage b anchored
by a trail spade and two brake-blocks which are arranged so as to
go under the wheels, forming dragshoes, on firing. This method of
anchoring causes some delay 00 coming into action and considerable
delay in changing on to a fresh target. The gun has a goniometric
sight with independent line of sight. The body of the ammunition
waeon b tilted alongside the gun. and. with its armoured bottom
and steel doors, forma a good protection for the gunners supplying
amnranition.
The German Q.F. Field Gun </potf) (fig. 63).~Thb b the 1806 gun
remounted on a Q.F. carriage. It is not a powerful gun, the ballistics
beingthesameasthoseof the British i^pr^B.L. of 1803. It has a
single-motion wedge breech action. The gun b mounted on a cradle
with buffer and springs under the gun; the cradle traverses on a
vertical pivot let m a traversing bed which turns about the axletree.
The gun has an arc sight with prbmatic telescope and a clinometer
'--* — it. and a circular laylng*pbne for layiiif^on an aoatlbry
It has not the Independent line of sight, tlie shield ia In
three pieces, the top flap folding down lor travelling. The cantate
standa perfectly siMdy on discharge.
The Rmtsiam Q.F. Field Gun Uooj) is intended as an improvement
on the French gun. heine of even greater power. Springe ai« need
for runninv-up Instead of compressed air. To ensure stMdInett the
gun is kept very low on the carnage; thb b effected by the um of
>24
ORDNANCE
bitt they liAve ^listed for a specific pmpose, uid ordnance I
originally designed for quite other functions has, from the
exigencies of war, been occasionally utilized in the field, as was
Che case in South Africa and Manchuria, but the heavy field
battery as we know it to-day is a new military product. Its
r6Ie is an extensive one, as it embraces many of the functions of
ordinary field guns as well as some of those usually attributed to
Ught aiege piecca. In the heavy field armaments of the Powers as
they stand at the present time will be found guns, howitaers and
mortars, and projectiles that vary from 50 lb to more than five
times that wei^t, and no boundary h'ne can be assigned which
will separate these field equipments from those of the light units
of a siege train It wUl be convenient to consider in turn the
three natures of ordnance (guns, howitzers and mortars) employed
and to quote some typical instances of each kind
Tke uniud States (h pr. Gun.—ThM gun and its equipment are
•4 modem type (1904) Its aencral appearance is shown in figs. 69
-^ and 70, Plate V. The calibre is 4-7'; the charge 5*94 ro
"""^ of saokeleas powder and the muzzle velocity developed
is 1700 f.s. Fixed ammunition is employed, and with an elevation
of 15* the range u 7600 yds The %veight of the equipment timbered
up is given a« 71I cwt. : it is known as a st^e gun
In Its general aspect the carriage resembles a fiekl carriage, but of
stronger type, with a special arrangement of cradle.
. In fig. 71 two sections are given; the cradle, it will be seen,
eonsiatsol three cylinders (seen m leaion in the upper figure) which
fkOM Lkot. •Colonel Onaood IL lissk's Ort^MM* Aitf CwMMOk
FiGv 71. — Diagram of 4«7-in. Siege Gun, U3.A.
6, Traversing bracket, r , Rails. ar. Axle.
p. Pintle bearing. r, Spring cylinders, y, Pintle yoke.
are bound together by broad steel bands; the two outer cylinders
carry raib r upon which the gun slides in recoil. The centre cylinder
contains the hydraulic gear for checking recoil, the two outer contain
the runrang-up tprings s. These springs are arranged in three con-
centric' columns, the front end oi each outer column being con-
nected to the rear end of the next inner column by a steel tube,
flanged outwardly at the front end and inwardly at the rear end.
A rod carrying a head which acts on the inner coil only passes
through the centre of the cylinder and b fixed to a voke that is*
connected with a lug at the breech of the gun. The Hanged tubes
thus convey the preuure from the innermost coil to the next outer
coil and finally to the outermost coiU so that in each cylinder the
springs work in tandem and have a long stroke ^ith short assembled
length. It is thus seen the recoil takes place partially on the carriage
and only a portion of the energy remains to tend to cause movement
in the mourning.
The cradle is supported by tninnk>ns in the casting y, which is
itself seated in the casting ^ which forms a bearing for it. This
bearing is mounted between the front ends of the trail brackets, its
f«ar end embracing the hoUow axle x. Attached to the lower suKsce
of y is the traversing bracket 6, which extends to the rear under
the axle and fornw a support for the traversing shaft / and for the
elevating mechanism.
For travelling (Pbte V., fig. 69) the gun is withdrawn to the rear
and the breech is attached to a holding-down arrangement about
the middle of the trail. A apwle is hinged at the point of the traiL
(HEAVY FIELD AND S18GB
Tk» Bfitisk 6» pr, OiNi.-*Thlb is known aa a heavy battefy goai
its calibre is 5'. its length 3a calibres, iu weight 39 cwt.; ito chaife
is 9|^ lb of cordite, its muscle vetocitv ao8o f .a. and iu effeaiva
ahrapoel range 10,000 yda. The weight behind thie team u 106 cwta.,
Tk» Gtrman to cm. Gum is called a beavv battery gun; its calibue
is 4', its effective shrapnel ranffe is 5730 yds., but common shell can
be used up to .11.000 yds. Tne organization is a six-gun battery,
but a plat form has always to be used. ^
A howitaer is a comparatively light piece that fires a comparatively
heavy shell with a comparatively low muzzle velocity, and changes
in range are effected somerimes by alteration of charge „ ^
as welt as of elevation. On the continent of Europe "™— —
howitzers are more popular than guns for heavy field batteries
and light siege units.
The Frgnck 1$ cm. (Rimailko) ffowilser.— This piece is at the
present time very popular in France, where, in 1907. some 120 bat-
teries of the field army were said to be armed with it. It came into
being from the conversion of an old pattern siege howiixer and its
adaptation to a new form of carriage, accordins to the plans of
Commandant Rtmailho. The gun {.canon de tS5 a) is a short piece,
made of steel, with a calibre df 6-1'; the shell weighs about 94 &
and has an effective range of 7000 yds. The breech opens auto>
matkraUy after each rouad ana a rapidity of fire of from 4 to 5
rounds a minute is claimed. The howitzer is supported 00 two
trunnions near its rear end so that the weight pivots about a point
near the breech, with the result that the latter remains nearly 5 ft.
above the ground level at all aneles of elevation ; space is thus left
for recoil, which is checked by a buffer, the construction of which is
a secret; running^ut springs are provided to return the gun to the
firing position. The piece recoils in a cradle to which is attached
the elevatbn scale, but the elevating ^r is independent of the
carriage proper; the line of sight is also independent. The howitaer
has a special transfwrting carriage, but it can be placed on its firinjg
carriage, it is said, in two minutes. The weight behind the teams is
in each case about 47 cwt. On a war footing three ammooitioa
wagons per howitzer would be provided.
Tk* German 15 cm. f/tfwilssf .— The Germans also pos sess a f S cn^
howitzer of modern type; its rate of fire is a to 3 rounds a minute;
its shell is 87) lb in weight and the weight behind the team is about
5J cwt.
The British 6' B.L. Hffimtxer.—This piece is made of steel, it
weighs 30 cwt.. its shell weighs 122 lb and has an effective range off
7000 yds. The weight behind the team is 65 cwt.
Fig. 72 shows the howitser and cradle A mounted on the travelUng
carriage, from which it can be fired up to an angle of 35*: in fig. 73
Fic. 7a.— Diagram of British 6-in. B.L. Tlowitser.
the wheels have been removed, the trail B has been towered 00 to
the pivot plate C and secured to a pivot plue screwed into the
plate: to the trail is fitted the top carriage D. and when the hq^itser
and cradle are thus mounted 70* elevation can be given. The
howitzer recoils through the cradle, in whkh are two hydraulic
buffers side by side. fig. 7^. whose piston rods E are attached to the
howitzer so tnat the recoil of the laner draws the pistons J to the
rear. Connder now. in fig. 74, the right buffer only; forged in one
piece with the piston and piston rod is a tail rod F of larger diameter
than the piston rod. and in the front of the cylinder is an annular
bronze casting G. called a floating piston, which bears against the
rear of the springs. On discharge, the howitzer slides along the
cradle to the rear, the piston rod £ is drawn out of the cylinder
and the tail rod F is drawn in. and from its larger diameter causes
a pressure of oil against the floating piston G. which slides forward
and compre&scs the springs which are prevented moving by the
rods H. The action is the same in each buffer. After recoil the
springs expand and return the howitzer into the firing .poatkm.
HBAVy FIELD AND SlfiGE]
Th* floattac oistom are taptrad ■Uglitly iniidfttomdt tli» from
to pieveat violence in the running out action. The elevating gear,
ba placed 09 the left side of either the trail or the top
ORDNANCE
ais
>pceveat
wmcb can „ , ^ ^
carriage, actuates the arc K, bolted to the left side of the cradle.
When tae guo is fired on wheels (fig. 72) an anchorage buffer. M,
attadbed to the platform, checks the recod, whilst the springs with
which it ia provided cause the carnage to return to iu posuion.
Tht Uniltd Statu &''BcmUM*f, — ^rh'is is a more modem equipment,
•its data being 1905. The howitser is a short piece. 13 calibres long;
it fires a iio-lb shall with a muszle velocity of 900 f a It has an
^'^.>
fko. 73.^Diaffram of British 6-Ia. B.L. Howitaer
(70* elevation).
extreme elevation of 45* and an effective range of 7000 yds. The
weight behind the team is 70| cwt. The carriage b cl peculiar
constmctioo (fig. 73). The nowitaer is supported under iu cradle,
which ia carried on trunnions seated in the top carriage. The
cradle consists of three cylinders generally similar in arrangement
and in functions to those described for the 47" 60 pr. gun: the
\ in a sincfe forging and carries a laa on iU breech
end for the attachment oithe recoil piston rod and tne yoke for the
rods of the spring cylinders: flangeo rails are formed on. its upper
nston rod and
^. . . _, , „ — rails are fom — _... — _^, —
surface, which support it on its cradle. The top carriage rests on a
framewt>rk called a " pintle bearinff." FlangGi m the former engage
under clips In the latter; the pintle bearing is riveted to the front
carriage and all supported by it have a movement of 3* tiavene on
either side.
This movement of traverse b effected by a shaft and worn: the
former b supported in a fixture attached to the left tiail bracket,
and the latter worici in a nut pivoted to the top carriage.
Elevation b effected by a forgins called the rocker. The rear
part of the latter b U-shaped and passes under the gun, betqg
Fio. 74.— Hydraulic buffers of Britbh 6-in. BX. Howitier.
(MB.—Spiral, instead of volute springs, are now used.)
attached to the cradle by a pivoted hook k. From either side of the
U arms extend which embrace the cradle trunnions between the
CTKlle and the cheeks of the top carrbfe so that the rocker can
rotate about the cradle tninnkms. The elevating gear b supported
in higs on the under side of the top carriage, while the upper end
of the elevating screw b attached to the bottom of the rocker. The
rocker thus moves in efevatbn in the top carriage and gives elevation
to the cradle, and therefore to the gun, by means of the pivoted
hook above referred to.
The brackets of the trail extend separately to the rear, sufficiently
providing for free movements of recoil at any elevaticm: they are
then joined by transoms and top and bottom plates and tenninate
in a dalachabia qiadt which ia aecnred fo the top of tha tal in
travelling. l>e axle b of special shape to admit 01 the mowemema
of the cradk: it b fewer in the mkkUe than at the sides and ib
made in three parts, held together by shrinkaga in cylinders focased
in the sides of the pintle bearing.
A peculiarity 01 thb carriage b that recoil b automatically
ortcned as elevation in ..,.-..
shortened k
Thus the length of reooa b 50^
mm n* 9i\ 9C* tW* me\*' •■ trrmAtt<%\\%.m
at angbs of l&rin^ from -^* to o*. from o* to 3^* the 30" b gradually
reduced to 28", which u not diangod for higher angles. Thb is
effected as follows: Four apertures are made in the pbton ojf the
recoil cylinder and there are two longitudinal throttling grooves
in the walb of the cylinder. All apertures being open and deepest
part of fijooves in use would corre^)ond to a 50" recoil; apertures
closed and grooves alone at work wouU mean a 2%" recoil. A
rotating disk with- apertures similar and similarly plaoed to those
on the piston b canicd by the pbton rod and rests against the
front of the piston, and b actuated during recoil by two Ium pna-
iccting into helical guide sk>ts cut in the walb of the recoil cylinder.
The Utter b mounted so as to be capable of rotation ia thecradte,
and its outer surface carries teeth which engage with similar teeth in
a ring surrounding the right spring cylinder. >Vhen the elevation b
between o* and 35* these latter teeth engage in specbl gcarina which
b seated in the hollow trunnion of the cradle and b attachea to the
right cheek of the top carriage. The buffer conditkms are thus
made to correspond with the elevation.
The mortar is a short piece of ordnance that b always fired from
a bed. Changes in range are usually effected by varying Murtan,
the charKe.
United Sto»a y6" Mortar.— TYm equipment b not modem; the
piece was intended for vertical fire against trooi» in entrenchments;
the mortar weighs 345 lb, and its bed. which b made in a single
casting of steel. 300 ■». The latter rests in action on a wooden plat-
form and b hclddown by ropes and fuckets.
The German 8-4' Mortar. — ^Thb equipment is perhaps the I
field eciuipment existing. The mortar in actk>n weighs about a-9
tons; it has to be transported in a specbl vehicle and can only be
4red from a platform; tour hours are required for bringing it into
action. Two platform wagons are attached to each mortar, weighing
respectively 2-9 and 4-9 tons. The equipment can be movedat a
walk on good roads, but two companies of infantry are always
attached for haubge in case of need. A battery coosisu of a mortars,
and 160 rounds are carried. The shell weighs ay) lb and carries a
heaty charge of high explosive, with or without delay action fuae.
* spedalec * • . . *- ..^ • . . w«
.... figs. 76 a-_ ... „
with consunt k)ng recoil, whkh b fired, like a howitxer from its
iiju equipment (iesigiied by Messrs ICnipp
76 and 77. It b a mobile mounting lor
b shown in Pbte
an 8*26''
wim cuivuinfc njiig icvwu, whk.ii tm lucu. ukc • lAWltXCI^ liuiii iu
travelling carriage without a platform. Thb equipment we^hs about
5 toas in action.
All the foregoing equipments may be considered fiu>Mb; that b
to say. the batteries in which thev are organized are self-contained,
can move from place to plaoe without external asststanccu and may
be emfdoyed on either field or siege duties. Their uses may be
summed up as foUows: The first object of the heavy artiUecy
acoompanyuif an army b to demolish the barrier forts or other
frontier fortifications of a permanent nature in order to enable the
army to penetrate into the enemy's country. After this has been
done, a small portion of thb artillery will be employed in connexion
with the siege of fortresses, while another, by far the more con-
siderable portioo* will accompany the advance of the field army.
Heavy Sieie Units. — ^Wheh a teriotis siege has to be under-
taken it b necessary to organise one or more siege trahis in
addition to the troops of the field army. Both heavy and light
siege units enter into the composition of a siege train. As to
the armament of the latter, we have said that it b not
exactly dbtinguishable from that of heavy field batteries,
and it has already bean described. That of the former b
less definite. Heavy siege units are seldom mobile in the
sense that light siege units are: the ordnance comprising
the former has usually to be transported by some special
means; thus it might be conveyed by ordinary rail or ship
to some place from which special siege railways would admit
of its conveyance to its place in battery, and probably great
variety of calibre and mounting would exbt. For ezamplo,
during the uege of Sevastopol a dvil engineer, Robert
Mallet (i8io-i88x), designed a 36' mortar; it did not, how-
ever, reach the seat of war; and in 1904 the Japanese made
use of their xx-x' coast howitzers at Port Arthur. At the siete
manoeuvres in France in 1906 the heavy siege units were repre-
sented by their 6*x' g\m and their xo*7' bowitaer. Theoffidal
British pieces are a 6' gun and a 9-4' howitaer. Generally
speaking, whereas the most suitable armament of the light units
can as a rule be foreseen, that of the heavy would depend very
much on drcuixistaBcea.
226
ORDNANCE
n§ Avaeft tO'T' limrilm,-''-AM a typkal piece the io-7' Kowhnr
nMty be taken, which the French truuported by tpecul hocw
dnufbt, as it waa found boo heavy for tne type of nefe railway
made tue of at the mock aic^e of Langres in 1^7. Its total equip-
ment wdffhs 23 tons and it is transported m four components,
namely, Uie piece, the carriage, the slide and the nlatforin. A
baucry of six pieces would thus require, exclusive 01 ammunition
Km Ikat'Coloael Ormowl U. Lfank'* (MntMct end Gmutry.
Flc. 75.— Diagram of 6-in. Siege Howitzer, U.S.A.
1 Hand-wheel actuating wheel k. Hook, i, 2, 3, 4 and 5 me>
Ijf^lcn. chanism for loading position.
«. E3rMcii« hand-whed. «. E»«vatinf screw.
K Uaadte. ^ Traversing wheeL
\ vehicles that would weigh i;jo tons. The howitzer
! originally for coast defence; it weighs about 5} tons
«Mi rfes b«rf weighed 6| tons: to this equipment was added a slide
«it a pteesarak coasutii^ of a thick plate of iron upon which
-at «i^ M^TS. The pbttorm is provided with a pivot upon which
d« txttt port c^ the sl*W 6t». The Utter coniists of an iron framc-
wc«. \»«M< Uwral BK>\vracnt around the aforesaid pivot; its
.^^ ^wnaM • pcwid(«l •Sth rolten to facilitate its movement on
^«. — Its wi^^r portion conui^s of two inclined rails along
<Mto^t .fts <»oi oc cuTuc* m( the hu>»ii<cr slklea. To check recoil a
fGAHRISON MOUNTINGS
hydnulk buffer is attached to the fitNit of the rfide aad abo to the
bed.
The fighting uniu of siege artillery In the British service are
companiM and brigades; each company would be armed with
from ^ to 6 light siege pieces or from 2 to 4 heavy pieces. A com-
Kny IS usually a major's command. Three such companies would
m a si^e brigade under a lieutenant-colonel. If a siege train of
any magnitude were organized it might
be necessary to combine two or more
brindes into a division under a colonel
or brigadier. In the French servkc
each siege train consists of three divi-
aions. A division is divided into groups
and comprises tome 50 pieces 01 ord-
nance, heavy and light. 0- R- J- J-)
IV. GAUtlSON MOUMTINCi
The arroAment of modem coast
fronts consiiu of (a) heavy B.L. guns,
9' and upwards; (6) meditim guns,
4' and upwanUr and (c) Ught Q.F.
guns; ail these being for direct fire;
and (d) guns, howitxea or noortars of
varioua calibres for high angle fire.
Typical guns of type (a) are the Krupp
12' gun and the British 9-2 BJ«. gun.
The Krupp 12' gun is boUl up of
crucible cast nickel steel, not wire
wound. It is 45 calibres long and
has the Krupp wedge-shaped breech-
dosing apparatus. It is fitted with
a repeating trip lock. The cartridge
is a metallic case containing a charge
of 290 lb of tubular powder. The projectiles are of two
weights, 770 lb and 980 lb, and the respective muxzle
velbdties are 3025 f.s. and 2700 f.s. The British 9*2 BX. gun
is of wire-wound construction and is over 48 calibKt k>ng.
It has the asbestos pad and Welin saew system of obturation,
and its charge of 103 lb of cordite, contained in a cartridge of
silk cloth, firei a 380 lb projectile with a muzzle velocity of
2643 f.s. A typical gun of class {b) is the British 6' mark VII.
It is similar in construction and breech mecfaanbm to the- last-
named and fires a too lb projectile with a charge of 23 lb cordite,
giving a muzzle vebdty of 2493 f.s. A typical gtm of class (c)
is the British 12 pr. Q.F.; its weight is 12 cwt., it is made of
stod. is 103 calibres long, and with a cordite charge of i lb 15 oz.
it fires a projectile 12^ tb in weight with a muzzle velocity of
2197 f.s. and a possible rale of 15 aimed rounds a minute. A
typical piece of class ((f) is the 11' Krupp howitaer. It is is
odibres long, has a charge of 28f lb smokeless powder and fires
steel shcU weighing 470 lb or 760 lb. It is provided vjth a
shrapnel shell of the former weight which con|aiiit 1880
bullets.
The methods of mounting of coast ordnance are many; space
only permits of referring to certain typical arrangements.
I . rke Aloncrirff PrinctpU. — ^The disappearing carriage originated,
at all events in ^gland. with Colonel Sir A. hfoncriefi, who^ about
1864, propoficd to utilize the energy of recoil to bring a ^^^
gun into a protected position and at the same time to ~^ ^
store up sufficient energy to raise it to a firing position when . ^L^^
loading was completed. To effect this a heavy counter- j^^
M-cight was so adjusted that its tendency was to raise the^ '"•"'
gun; when the latter was fired, it raised the counterweight and a
ratchet and pawl followed the action up: when the pawl was re'
leased the counterweight brought the gun back to the firiiy position;
this application of the principle had many drawbacks, and never
had any success with guns over 7 tons in weight. It was not until
Moocriefl invented the hvdropneumatic ap^MUances that any real
progress was made. In 1888 was introduced into the British service
the first of a large group of disappearing mountings for auns of types
(a) and {b), where (he energy of recoil was absorbed chiefly by forcing
a large vc^ume of liquid through a narrow opening or recoil valve,
and also by further compressing a large volume of already highly
compressed air; when recoil was completed the recoil valve closed
and rhe air was retained at very hi^h pressure: the ener^ thus
stored up returned the eun to the finne position. The actjon «'ill
be understood from the f oUowing example.
Tk€ British 6' B.L. Gun tm fl.P. llcunlini, %farh /IT— Fig. 7«
shows, a general view of the mounting; fig. 79 is a vertical and
GARRISON |I0UNT;NGS1
GRDNANCB
22J
Fic. 78.— British 6' B.L. Gun on H.P. Mounting, Mark IV.
fig. 80 a transvene section through the recoil cylinder. The gun
trunnions (fig. 78) are supported by the two arms of the elevator A.
which b pivoted to the front of the lower carriage at B. The breech
is supported by the two elevating bars C whose lower ends are
attacked to the elo'^ting srcs D. These arcs arc worked by the
elevating gear actuatrH by The hand-uhoLl E. The arcs are struck
with the bars C as radii,, their ccntrt.-^ Ikiw^:, points at the upper
end of the bars wheti The gun la in the loading :osttton. Elevation
can thus be given to the jtun whilst it is b<. in^ loaded. The lower
carriage rests on a ring of hve rulten G, wWuh ire free to traverse
round on a circular racer K, motion being aiven by traversing gear
actuated by the hand wheel (. Suppurted by vertical stanchions
attached to the lower carmge is a h<itiioni3\ circular shield J
through which the gun nu.% to th«^ ^rinij puAition. The manganese
bronze ram F which is aUAcked to ih^elcvaton A by the cross-head
L is forced on recoil into the ce-ntnil cha^ttber of the recoil cylinder
(see fig. 79), which is fill ppc^ned by trunnions M fating in the brackets
of the tower carriage. There arc ten chjifiil>erv N (ngs. 79 and 80),
all of which are cornccicid at the lAttcum \iitli the recoil valve
chambar O, and con cquently with e^ch oitiir. Nine of these
contain liouid in thiir lower portions and tu^Jily compressed air'
above, ana are connect id at the top by a c haninl P to M^ualise the
pressure in each chamtx r. Thf u-Mih chanal^cr N\ which is situated
lowest in the cylinder, ^tutain^ lj<]uid ajcme und has at its upper end
the raising valve Q. On ftrnil ch^ li'^uid in ihe central chamber is
forced by the ram Uir ^ ■' - » .■ . v. _. the outer chambers
N, thus further compr.- 11/ -: ... .... >n>retum valve the
air b maintained in thu Highly compressed state during loading.
The gun b raised by pushinc the lever S (fig. 78) to the front whkh
actuates the rack T (fig. 79). thus opening Q, which altows the air
in the nine chambers to force liquid from the tenth chamber N'
into the centre ram chamber, lifting the ram. U is a pump (fie. 79)
by which the gun can be pumped down at drill. The liqukl employed
in the buffer la a muture of methylated spirits, mineral oil. distilled
water and carbonate of soda, and its aeration, due to the churning
it receives on recoil, b a serious drawback to thb class of mounting.
From a 6' B.L. gun mounted in this fashion somewhat more than
one aimed round a minute can be obtained ; from a 9'j' B.L. about
(bar such rounds in five minutes.
The foregoing detcriptioo b now, however, principally interesting
•a shosring an ingenious application of mechanical principles for
military purposes. Mountmgs of thb type are being gradually
withdrawn from the British service.
Tkt Bu^niUm-Crotier PrineipU.-An the United States a type of
disappearing carriage known as the Buffi ngton-Crosier (fig. 81) b
used. Here, as in the eariier types of MoncriefT carriage, a counter-
„ : b employed, but the energy of recoil b partly absorbed by
a buffer, and the counterweight, which is constrained by guides to
move vertically u|i and down, b just able to raise the gua to tiM
firing posidon. AtatbrafCtonr
rate of fire b claimed for tliia
mounting. Which has recently
been improved.
Balanced Pittor,-^hac^htx
type of disappeaiinff mount-
ing for guns of type \V\ or (c).
Iniown as the balanoed piflar.
b found on the continent of
Europe and in the United
Sutes, where it b used lor 5'
guns and under. Atoogsteel
cylinder, which supports the
gun and iu carriage, has a
vertical movement 01 about
2Jk ft. in an outer cylinder.
The inner cylinder and all
that it carries b ba kBc ed by
a counterweight. After the
gun b fired it can be brought
srith its length parallel to the
parapet. Then by the actton
of the mechanbm the inner
cylinder can be made to sink
Fig. 80.— >Transverae See>
. „ ,. Vertica! Secti™ thftwch tton through Recoil Cyliodcr
1 ^Lcoil CyUiiderofCuii «ho«'n in Eg. 78^ of Gun shown in fig. 78.
Fic. 79.-
in the oirter cylinder snd th« gun b brouaht down to the 1
{•citfiiion^ ihe reWase of the cuunterwcight will cause it to rbe
ct^^ifl. The i^in bu tW u^ii^l motion of traverse round the
cocoiiHW aijs ^ the tWQ cyliodcri.
izS
ORDNANCE
{GARRISON MOUNTINGS
The hesvy cun cupola b foand on the continent of Europe in tlie
nentt of varioue PMrara for gum of type (a), the German
A heaivy chilled cast-iron collar protects the ooder ddc of the
armoured structure and the working mechanism of the guns. Fig. 83,
Plate VI., I ^ '
TkG. 8l.-*Buffington-Croxier Disappearing Carriage for 10' B.L. Gun, US.A.
practice being occasionally to mount two 11' guns in the same cupola.
The cast-irao cupola was introduced by Cruaon of Magdeburg,
C^^^ but nickel steel is now generally emplojred by Kru|^
^^^^ In Gruson*s dc«gn the gun and mounting are placed
upon a turn-table upon which also rest the bases of a series 01 cast-
iron plates; these are verv massive, are curvilinear in section, and
are built up into a shallow dome which completely covers the
roountincs as with a cap: the whole structure turns together, being
traverseo round a central pivot. The chase of the gun emerges
through a port which admits of the n ecessa ry olay of devatbn.
A notable example of a cupola was erected at Spezzia containing
two laotoa Kruppgum. the structure complete wcigh(ng3050 tons.
A Krupp cupola 01 chilled cast-iron for two aS-cm. (i ir) is shown
in fig. 8a. These are designed principally for coast defence in low
sites. The cupola, which is built up like a Gruson cupola of several
Inavy iron masses, is revolved and the guns laid by hydraulic power.
krupp mounting for
an 1 1 '2' howitaer. with
a cupola-like «uekL
Thb b worked both
electrically and by
hand^ Vertical fire
from a weapon of thb
type b suflkiently
powerful to penetrate
the protective deck of
a vesseL Light and
medium cuns, types
(6) and (e), are some-
times mounted in
cupolas, especially on
land fronts (lee below),
and disappearing
cupolas have also been
proposed for tnes :
In the latter the whole
structure b made to
sink by the action of
mechanism till the top
of the cupola b kvd
with the ground.
Types and further de-
uus will be found in
the article Forrin-
CATION AMD SnCS-
CtAPT.
Mountings of the barbette type are much favoured in the British
service for guns of types (a) and (b) ; one of the most ~- - ^-
modembshowninfig. 84.wherea9'3'B.L.8run, MarkX., JJjTJjJJ/
b placed upon a Mark V. mounting, a combination which ^|g,^
admits of over five aimed rounds in two minutes. ^^
The British 92' B.L. Gim.~Fig. 8^ shows a general view of the
mounting, fig, 85 a kmgitudinal section through the cradle on a
lareer scale. The gun, which is trunnionlcss, carries a cross-head A
and recoiU in the cradle C, being supported by iu i^idea D, which
slide in longitudinal grooves in the cradle. To this cross-bead b
attached the buffer cylinder B (see fig. 85) which recoils with the
gun, while the puton rod L is attached^ to the front of the cracUe:
engaging with the buffer c>'linder and in the same axial line b a
bronze casting containing two air chambers F and G: the casting b
attached to the rear of the cradle, which is supported by trunnions
E in the lower carriage. Thus on firing, the gun carries the buAer
i^^i'i^^^j^s^^^^^*
Fio. 83.~Knipp Cupola for two a8-cm. Guna.
CAStoON MOUNTtNC^
ORDNANCE
Sii9
i=~-3
Flo. 84.~BritMh 9*a' BX. Gun. Mark X., on Barbette Mounting.
cylinder bftckwarda with, it, draws k off its piston rod L and forces
it into the air chamber F. The air in the chambers F and G is at a
high initial tendon and, on recoil, the air in F is further compressed
ami forced through the valve H into the chamber G. At the con-
clusion of recoil the air expands and forces the buffer cylinder to
the front, which carries with it the gun into its loading position;
but the valve H doses and the air has to make its way through a
narrow bole before it can act on the end of the buffer, thus preventing
violent acdoo. which is further guarded against by the " control
tam " M which is bolted into the rear end of the buffer. To prevent
leakage of air between the air chamber and the buffer at the gland
K the packing em^^oyed is a viscous liquid which is in communication
by means of the pipe J with the intensifier I. The latter consists
of a cvlindcr containing a piston and rod free to move: the front
lace ol this piston b subject to the pressure of the air in the air
chamber, the rear face is m communication with the liquid in the
gland. Now, as the piston head b held in position by the pressures
on either side of it, and as the effective area of the front face is
greater than that of the rear — on account of the rod — the liquid
pressure per square inch of the fluid in the gland. &c., inust be greater
than that of the air in the air chamber, hence the latter cannot
escape through the former. The pressure in the chambers F and G
is adjusted on preparing for action by an air pump worked by hand.
The energy of recoil is further utilized as follows: hydraulic
cylinders called compressors arc held in the cradle, and m them
work cams connecCiro. with the cross>head A. (see fig. 85) : they are
\i iin*i ciho c>hniinr^i vtK9 contaimng springs a.
i.: Ln- > h ^ [ ^^le g%n\ t.'. ,1 pi 4on rod C with piston D.
ing aa o;.'<.iuae cr " pen '' E, through whtdi the oil
il, the pressure in the ouffer, which would otherwise
-rf— fcj~0— ^
^^^^n
Fig. 85.— Details of Mounting shown in fig. 84<
form RR. whidt for mt a. fliicid, i« 4n overhead railway QQ, on which
run trollies, each tjiking a pr^jjtxinc. The projectiles are stored in
the recess sho^n in vxtion ^t O- liy mt^ans of a shell barrow any
projectile can Ixi placcvl an il^c Ufi W itnij raised to a trolley which
can be run round over ihc Hh VV. wttuh raises the projectile, as
shown at St to j pmnt suitabk tut kto-dmi-
Th* British 0' B,t. Gitn.—h typiL^ii mounting for guns of type
£) is afforded by tJit Br^ii^i C-P* fctriTr.il pivot), Mark 11. mounting
r the 6' B.L. M^trk VU- ftuo^ & Eiijnibjikation which admits of six
rounds a minuiiu limrtt fm^ Fi|^,. 86 sliovs a side elevation of the
mounting with tutf tUc fihield rt-mov%'«l: fig. 87 a longitudinal
section of part of tW crvJlv throtii^b the axis of the buffer. Tlie
gun, which is rrunnionkjid. rcc^tU in t ho cradle A; the latter con*
tains a buffer ^n<J vn^ c>liniLrlr^l tx^ncs containing springs S.
AtUched toth: Lr " ' ' . ^ . . . -^
the latter having (
passes on recoil, the pressure i . , ^
vary with the vekxity of the recoil, bein^ kept consunt by the
vanaticn in the area of aperture afforded bv L. This area is governed
by the action of the valve key strip F 01 varying section, which is
inserted in the buffer in such a way that as the gun recoik the port E
is constrained to pass over it. On recoil the rods J, which are
attached to the gun in rear and screwed into the flanged cylinder H
in front, force back the front of the springs 5, whose rear ends butt
up against the rear of tlie spring boxea. After recoil the springs
return the gun to the firing position. To check the violence of this
action a control ram G is made use of: the
piston rod has a cylindrical hole in front
which, as the gun recoils, becomes filled
with oil. and before the piston can come
up against the front of the buffer this oil
has to be displaced by the thrust of the
ram G which checks the forward movement
of the gun. The cradle A rests on its
trunnions in scatings in the lower carriage
and b elevated or depressed by the gear
K'. The last-named drives the elevating
arc L. which b attached to the cradle at
M. the axis of the gun moving parallel to
the axis of the cradle. In fie. 86 the k>ucr
carriage is almobt entirely nidden by the
gears carried on it, namely, the elevatine
gear K, the traversing geau- N. which
works a spur pinion, gearing into the rack
O attached to the pcdesul P: the
elevation indicators Q and R for record*
^lao connected with a hydrauKe accumalator (not shown) which
€MA be pkMcd in any convenient position in the work, and the power
thus stored up be employed for raising the projectiles, for which
purpose two hfts are provided. One of these (W) b in the floor of
the eroj>lacement, the other (WO b attached to and moves with the
Uodemcath and suspended from the circular gun plat-
ing the angle of elevation of the gun
and the bracket S' whkrh support the 6' armour plate T. The weight
of the lower carriage, cradle and gun is taken by a horizontal ring of
hard steel balls resting on the top of a ma9si\-e lorgjcd steel " pi\'ot **
U. the lower portion of which b shown support^ in the cast-iron
pedestal. The elevatk>n indicator consists of a sector Q bolted to
the cradle trunnions; to its edge b attached a metal tape, the
93^
ORDNANQE
fNAVALGIMS
'^W'lii*'-'^
Fig. 86.
Fig. 86.— Bridih Marie IT. BariMtte Mounting for 6' BX. Gun.
Fig. 87.— LoRfitttdioal Section of Part o( Cradle of Gun shown in fig. 13. through Axis of Buffer.,
other end of which b fixed to the spindle supporting a pointer,
reading angles of elevation on the drum R. As the gun elevates
the tape b paid out, the slack being taken in and the pointer re-
volved by the action of a clock spring.* The nx>unting carries an
automatic sight (see Sights. Gun Sishts).
The British ti-pr. Q.F. Gun. — ^A typical mounting for guns of
class (r) is the British pedesUl mountmg for the i2-pr. Q.F. gun.
This mounting consists of a cradle, a pivot, a pedestal and holdfast.
The cradle b a gunmetal casting, provided with trunnions that
rest in bearings on the pivot; the gun recoils in the upper ixntion
of the cradle and the lower part of the latter b bored at tne rear
for an hydraulic buffer and at the front for a running-out spring.
The pivot is of steel, is fork-shaped at the top end. where arc the
trunnion bearings for the cradle; its lower end b conical and fits
into bushes in tne pedestal, where it is free to revolve but is pre-
vented from lifting by a 'holding-down screw.* The pedestal is
bolted down to the pbtform. The gun has a shoulder-piece and it
can be trained and devated by the bycr. It has also an automatic
sight.
A typical Krupp mounting of thb kind b shown in fi|{. 88, Plate VI.,
which represents an 8-S-cm. (3*4') automatic gun firing, it b suted,
40 aimed rounds in the minute.
The United States 12" Mortar. — A typical mounting for pieces of
class (<0 is afforded by the United States mounting, model of 1896.
for the 13' B.L. mortar. The piece b mounted in a top carria^or
saddle consisting of two arms connected by a heavy web. Thb
saddle b hinged on a heavy bolt and is connected to the front of
the turntable (fig. 89). The saddle inclines to the rear and upwards
at an angle of 45*, the upper ends forming trunnion bearings: it b
supported at a point about one-third of its length from the bolt or
fulcrum by five columns of double springs arranged in a row, side
by side. The recoil b checked by two hydraulic cylinders, one on
each side, the pistons of which are attached to the saddle near the
trunnions of the piece. When the mortar b fired the saddle revdves
about its fulcnim to the rear and downwards, carrying the mortar
and compressing the spring columns until the action is stopped by
the hydraulic buffers; the sprinA^then assert themselves and return
the piece to the firing position. The mortar must always be brought
horixontal for loading.
* The devation indicators are now read on a plate provided with
a spiral jsroove, which guides a stud oa the reader along the scale of
g;raiduations.
s In a later oiark there b no holding-down screw for pSvot
The fighting units of coast artilleiv in the Britidi tervioe are the
fire command, the battery commana and the group. The Umits of
a fire command are governed by the possibility of^ efficient surveU-
lance and control that can be exercised by an individual, and these
limits vary much from time to time. Usually a number of forts or
emplacements are included in a fire command. The fire command
b broken up into battery commands, in every one of which it must
be possible for its commander actually to take charge of the guns
therein contained in all phases of action. The battery command b
divided up into gun groups, each consisting of one or more pieces
of like calibre, nature and shooting qualities. As a rule a fire
comnuindcr b a field officer, a battery commander a maior or a
captain, a gun group commander a subaltern or senior N.C. officer.
In connexion with coast artillery ranee-finders (q.v.) and electric
lights (see Coast DcrcNCE) are installed and dectriccommunicatioia
established for the chain of command. (J. R. J. J.)
V. Naval Guns and Gxtmkbkt
In dealing with naval guns and gunnery, we shall take the
British navy as the basb. At the dose of the 19th and at the
beginning of the aoth century it appeared that a type of British
battleship (see Ship) had been evolved which was stable as
regards deposition of armament, and that further advance
would consist merely in greater efficiency of individual goos,
in improvements of armour rendering possible the protectioa
of greater areas, and in changes of engine and boder design
resulting in higher speeds. The " Majestic," " Glory," ** Ea-
mouth,*' " London " and '* Bulwark " classes differed from each
other only in such detaib, all of .them subordinate to tliemain
raison d'Hrc of the battleship, ix. the number and nature oC
the guns which she carries.
The strength and disposition of the armaments of the shipa ol
these classes were identical except in small details (see fig. 90).
In every case the main armament consbted of a pair of i}-in.
guns forward and a pair aft. each pair cndoaed in a koodcd
barbette, which was more commonly designated a toitct. Tht
turrets were on the midship line, and the guns in each com-
manded an arc of fire of 240**, i.e. from right ahead to 30* abaft
the beam on either side in the case of the foce tunet, and fraa
NAVAL GDMSI
ORDNANCE^
23f
i to lo* befoce dtUr betln in the caaQt>f the after turret.
The iecondary aiaament, consisting o£ twelve 6-in. guns, was
also symmetrically disposed. Two guns on either side (four in the
*' Majestic " dass} were mounted with arcs of fire of from 60**
capacity which were to hill and demoralise his perseiuici; piocs
his funnels, destroy any navigational or «igtoing appliances
which were exposed, set his woodwork on fire and render extinc*
tion of the fixes impossible, and by piercing or bursting on
^i^t^,^
Fio. 89.^13' aU Mortar, Modd 1896. U^SkA.
before to 60* abaft the beam, while two guns each side forward
and two aft (one forward and one aft in the " Majcsiic " class)
fired through similar arcs to the turret guns, but on their own
sides only. Four of these 6-in. guns were mounted on either
side of the main deck and two on cither side of the upper deck,
all being enclosed in casemates.
In the armoured and large protected cruisers built contempor-
aneously with these classes of battleships, the 9- 2-in. gun had been
largely mounted, and it was the improvements brought about by
practical ex[Kricnce in the rate and accuracy of fire of this gun
that suggested its adoption in battleships to replace the whole
or a part of the 6-in. armament. During thrpcriod in which the
battleships referred to above were constructed, the idea of the
<^a
T- ^^
Xoodon*
FiC 9a — Diagrams showini; Disposttlon of Armament in
Typical Ships,
functions of the respective divisions of the armament was that
the 12'in. guns were to injure the enemy's vimb by piercing
his armour with armour-piercing shot or shell, while the business
9I the 6-in. guns was lo cover him with a hail of shells of large
unarmourcd portions of his side diminish his reserve of buoyancy
and so impair his sea-going qualities.
These ideas were gradually losing favour; it was realized
that the damage done by an armour-piercing shot, whether or
not it hit and pierced armour, was limited to its own path,
while that done by an armour-piercing shell striking an un-
armourcd portion of the ship's side was inconsiderable as com-
pared with that effected by a common shell of the same calibre.
Further, the area of side, by piercing which an armour-piercing
projectile would reach any portion of the propelling machinery
or magazines of an enemy, was so small compared with the whole
exposed area of his side and upper works that it was scarcely
advantageous to lire at it projectiles, the effectiveness of which,
if they struck another portion of the enemy, was small in com-
parison with that of other projectiles which might equally well
be fired from the same gun. Again, the less5ns of practical
experience showed that ships might be and were defeated by shcN
fire alone, while their armour remained unpierccd, and propelling
machinery and magazines intact.
All these considerations led to the conclusion that it was to
intensity of shell-fire, and especially to the fire of large capacity
and high explosive shell, that attention should be directed. At
the same time, while the rate of fire of the 6-in. guns, to which
great attention had been paid, remained stationary or nearly so,
the rate of fire of the 9-2 in. and 12-in. guns had considerably
improved, and their ballistic powers rendered possible more
accurate firing at long ranges than could be cfTccted with the
6-in. guns. The explosive effect of a shell is said to vary as the
square of the weight of its bursting charge. The bursting charge,
with shell of the same type, bears a constant proportion to the
weight of the shell. Now the weight of the 1 2-in. shell is 850 lb,
that of the 9' 2-in. 380 lb, that of the 6-in. 100 lb. Hence it
would require fourteen 6-in. shells to produce the same effect
as one Q-2-in., and seventy-two to produce the .same elTcct as
one 12-in. shell, consequently the 6-in. gun to produce the same
shell effect as the 12-iD. or 9- 2-in. gun must firr 72 times, or 14
times, respectively, faster. The rale of fire of guns in action
depends upon a variety of conditions, an important one being
that of smoke interference, which tends to reduce the maximum
rate of fire of the smaller guns nearer lo that practicable with iK
heavier guns, but the raic of fire of the three guns in qucsti*^
232
ORDNANCE
HUVALCUMS
under battle ooodidons, is in the apptoadmate proportions of
i: 1*5: 4, which would thus pxodooe a shell effect (supposing
ihe hits nuute by each type of gun to bear a fixed proportion to
the rounds fired), in the proportions of 72: 32: 4, for the xa-in^
9*3-in. and 6-in. guns respectively. This argument of course
takes no account of the probably greater effect produacd by the
dispersion of the larger number of hits of the smaller gun over
the exposed area of the target^ nor, on the other hand, does it
take account of the greater armour-piercing power of the la-in.
shell which would have the result that a larger proportion of the
hits from the smaller gun would be defeated by the enemy's
armour, and so prove innocuous.
The shell effect forms a strong argument for the weight avail-
able for the heavy gun armament of a ship being disposed of in
the form only of the heaviest gun available. Another strong
argument is that deduced from the fact already stated, that, as
the callbro of the gun increases, its ballistic powers enable
accurate shooting to be made at a longer range.
The accuracy of a gun at any range depends mainly, for
practical naval purposes, on what is known as the " dangerous
space," or the limit within which the range must be known in
order that a target of a given height may be struck. Again, the
dangerous space at any range depends upon the remaining
velocity of the projectile at that range, which, as between guns
of different calibres but with the same initial muzzle vek>dty, is
greater, the greater the calibre of ;he gun and weight of projectile,
the advantage possessed by the larger gun in this respect being
much increased at great ranges. As a practical example, for a
target 30 ft. high at a range of 8000 yds., the dangerous spaces
of modem i3-in., 9-2-in. and 6-in. guns, which do not differ
greatly in muzzle velocity, are 75, 6$ and 40 yds. respectively.
At whatever range a naval action is to be fought, it is evident
that there must be a period during which the enemy is within
the practical 12-in. gun range, and outside the practical 6-ln.
gim range, and that during this period the weight allotted to
6-iD. guns will bo wasted, and this at the outset of an action,
when it is more important than at any time during its progress to
inflict damage on the enemy as a means of preventing him from
inflicting damage on ourselves. But if all the weight available be
allotted to 12-in. guns, the whole of the armament which will
bear on the enemy will come into action at the same time, and
that the earliest, and consequently most advantageous, time
possible. This train of argument led to the substitution of
9-2-in. guns in the 8 " King Edward VTI." class (the first of
which was completed in 1905) for the upper deck 6-in. guns, and
eventually in the " Lord Nelson " and " Agamemnon " (com-
pleted in 1908) to the abolition of the 6-in. armament, which
was replaced by ten 9-3-in. guns.
At the be^nning of the present century the subject of " fire
control " beym to receive considerable attention, and a short
statement is necessary of the causes which render essential an
accurate and reliable system of controlling the fire of a ship
if hits are to be made at long range. In the first place, even with
the 12-in. gun, the range must be known with considerable
nicety for a ship to be hit. At a target 30 ft. high, at 8000 yds.,
for example, the range on the sights must be correct within
75 yds. or the shot wiU fall over or short of the target. No range-
finder has yet proved itself reliable, under service conditions,
to such a degree, and even if one were found, it could not be
relied upon to do more than place the first shot in fair proximity
to the target. The reason for this lies in the distinction which
must be drawn between the distance of a target and its " gim
range," or, in other words, the distance to which the sights must
be adjxisted in order that the target may be hit.
Thb gun range varies with many conditions, foremost among
which are the wear of the gun, the temperature of the cordite,
the force and direction of the wind and other atmospheric
conditions. It can only be ascertained with certainty by a
process of " trial and error." u«ng the gun itself. The error,
or distance which a shot falls short of or beyond the target, can
be estimated with a greater approach to accuracy the greater the
height of the observer. It is the process of forming this estimate
which is termed "spotting/' a doty the pcffdmanoc of whU
calls for the exerdae of the moat acoumte judgBHnt on the part of
the " spotter," and which requires nudi pnctioe in order that
efficiency may be secured. In practice, the first shot it fired
with the sights adjusted for the distance of the target given by the
range-finder, corrected as far as is practicable for the various ooa-
ditioDS affecting the gun range, llie first shot is spotted, and the
result of the spotting observations governs the adjustment of the
sights for the next shot, which is spotted in iu turn, and the
sights are readjusted until the target is hit. From this time
onwards it is (in theory) only necessary to apply the change in
range, due to the movements of our own ship and of the enemy,
for the interval between successive shots, in order to continue
hitting. This change of range, which may be conaiderable
{e.g. 1000 yds. per minute in the extreme case of ships approaching
each other directly, and each steaming at the rate of 15 knots), is
in practice extremely difficult to estimate correctly, and the
spotting is conseqtsently continned in order to rectify errors
in estimating the rate of change in range. For various reasons the
" gun range " which has been referred to ii not the same for
different natures of guns. This is mainly on account of the
difference in the height attained by their projectiles in the coune
of their respective trajectories. While it is possible, by careful
calibration (m. the firing from the several guns of carefully
aimed rounds at a fixed target with known range and undu
favourable conditions for practice), to make the shots from all
guns of the same nature fall in very close proximity to each other
when the sights of all are similarly ad just«l, it has not been found
possible in practice to achieve this result with guns of different
natures. Consequently guns of each nature must be spotted for
independently, and it is obvious that this adds considerably
to the elaboration and complication of the fire control system.
This constitutes one of the reasons for the adoption of the
uniform armament in the " Dreadnought " and her successors;
another important reason lies in the fkct that with the weight
available for the heavy gun armament disposed of in a small
number of very large guns, a greater proportion of these guns
can be mounted on the midship line, and consequently be avail-
able for fire on either side of the ship (see fig. 90). Tbus in the
" Dreadnought," eight of her ten 12-in. guns can bear through a
considerable arc on either beam, while in the " Lord Nelson,**
although all her four 12-in. guns can bear on either beam, half
at least of her 9-2-i'n. armament {i.e. that half on the opposite
side to the enemy) will be at any moment out of bearing, and
consequently be for the time a useless weight. The same principle
of a uniform armament of 12-in. guns has been adopted in the
" Invincible " type, the only large cruisers designed smce the
inception of the " Dreadnought." Thus the la-in. gun forms
the sole heavy gun armament of all battleships and large cruisers
of the "Dreadnought" era. The gun so carried is known
as the Mark X., it is 45 calibres in length, and fires, a projecUle
weighing 850 lb with a charge of cordite of 260 lb, resulting in
a muzzle vdodty of 2700 ft. per second. The Mark XI. gun was
deigned to be mounted in the later " Dreadnoughts." Following
the same line of development as resulted in the Mark X. gun, it is
longer, heavier, fires an increased charge of cordite, and has a
hi^er muzzle velocity, viz. of 3960 ft. per second. This gun
appears to mark the climax of devekpmeot along the present
lines, since the price to be paid in greater weight, length and
diminished durability of rifling is ont of all proportion to the
small increase in muzzle velocity. Further developments would
therefore be looked for in some other direction, such as the
adoption either of a new form of propeUant or of a gun of larger
calibre. A modem gun of to-in. calibre is found in the battle*
ships " Triumph " and " Swiftsure." The next gun in importance
to the 13-in. is the 9-3-in., which forms part of the armament of
the " Lord Nelson " and " King Edward VIL" classes of battle-
ships, and the principal armament of all armoured cruisers (ea-
cepring the " County " dass) antecedent to the '* Invindblet."
The latest gun of this calibre has developed from eariicr types in a
similar manner to the x2-in., that is to say, it has experienced
a gradual increase In length, weight, and weight of chvge, witJb
HAVALCHm
ORDNANCE
a33
a oontequently incitaaed mustle velodty. The Utest type,
which i> known w the Mark XI., and b mounted in the '•' Loid
Ndton ** and " Agamemnon," it 50 calibres in length, weight 28
tons, and with a charge of cordite of 130 lb gives to a projectiie
of 380 lb a muzde velodty of 3875 ft. per lecond. The 7*5-in.
gun forms the secondary armament of the ** Triumph " and
*' Swiftsorei" and is mounted in the armoured ouiseis of the
"MinoUur»" "Duke of Edinburgh*' and " Devonshiia "
classes. The 6-in. gun, of which there are a very huge number
afloat in modem, though not the most recent, battleships, and
in armoured and first and second dass cruisers, is the Urgest gun
which is worked by hand power alone. For this reason, and on
account of its rapidity of fire, it was for many years popular as
an eifident weapon. It was evolved from the 6-in. 8o>pounder
B.L. gun, constructed at Elswick, which was the first breech-
loader adopted by the Rojral Navy, and whose development has
culminated in the 6-in. Mark XI. gun of the " King Edward
VII." dass and contemporary cruisen, which fires a loo-Ib
projectile with a muxsle velodty of 4900 ft. per second. It has
only now passed out of favour on account of its inferior hitting
power at long range as compared with that of guns of larger
calibre, and as a secondary armament of 6-in. guns is still being
induded in the latest battleship designs of more than one foreign
navy DoUbly that of the Japanese, with their practical experi-
ence of modem war at sea — ^its abandonment in the British Navy
can scarcdy be considered finaL The 4-in. Q.F. gun is mounted in
the third-class cruisers of the " F " dass as their main armament,
and an improved gun of thb calibre, with nuzile velodty of
about 2800 ft. per second, is mounted in the later ** Dread*
noughu," as their anti-torpedo-boat armament.
I^e increase in size of modem torpedo oaf t and the increased
range of modem torpedoes has led to a reoonsidcraiion of the
type of gun suitable for the protection of large ships against
torpedo attack. The conditions under which the anti-torpedo-
boat armament comes into play are the most unfavourable
possible for accurate gun-fire. The target Is a comparatively
small one; it comes into view suddenly and unexpectedly; it
b moving rapidly, and the interval daring which the boat must
be stopped, i.e. that between her bdng first sighted and her
arrival at the distance at which she can expect to fire her torpiedo
with nccess, is in all probability a very short one. Moreover,
in the great majority of cases the attack will be made at night,
when the difficulties of rapid and correct adjustment of sights,
and of range-finding and spotting, are intensified. Two requiro-
mcnts then are paramount to be satisfied by the Ideal anti*
torpedo-boat gun: (i) it must have a low trajectory, so that
its shooting will not be seriously affected by a small error in the
range on the sights; (2) one hit from it must suffice to stop a
hostile destroyer.
For many yean it was considered that these requirements
would be met by the ts-pounder, which was the anti-torpedo-boat
gun for battleships from the " Majesties " to the " Dreadnought,"
the X2-pounders mounted in the " King Edwards " and the
'* Dreadnought " being of a kmger and heavier type, giving a
higher muzzle vdodty. The introduction of a larger gun has,
however, been considered desirable, and a 4-In. gun of new type
b mounted in the later " Dreadnoughts," while in the older
battleships and large cruisen with secondary acmamenis it is
coasidered by many oflken that the 6-in. guns will prove to be
the most effective weapon against torpedo craft. The gun
armanent of destroyen being required to answer much the same
purpose as the anti-torpedo-boat armament of large ships,
namdy, to disable hostile torpedo craft, the type of gUB used has
folkmed a similar line of development.
Starting with 6-pounden hi the fint d ntro yen built, the
najoiity of the new dcitroyen have a fixed armament consisting
ol one :i a-pouader forward, and four 6-pounderB, This armament
has been ckaaged In the larger destroyen to one oi la-poundea
galy, while the latest ocean-going dntroyen have two 4-iB. guns.
Owing, however, to the stroigth of the decks of such cmft being
iasuflkient to withstand the stresses set up by the diKbarge of a
fBB giving very high muiak velocity, the 4-iB* gun for uk in
light craft is one giving 2300 ft. per second muzzle vehxity only
and has a very long reooiL The 6-pounder and 3-pounder Q.F.
guns are no longer being mounted as part of the armamenU of
modem ships. A very high rate of fire was attained in the
" semi-automatic " mounting of the 3-pounder, which was lut
fitted In the " Duke of Edinburgh " dass, but for reasons already
given guns of this type are no longer required; and the 3-pounder
is retained only aa a boat gun for sub-calibre practice.
All double-banked pulling boats and all steam-boats are
fitted with arrangements for mounting one or two guns, according
to the siSe of the boat; the object of the boat armamenU being
for use in river operations, for covering a landing, or in guard-
boats. Three descriptions of gon are used, the 1 2-pounder S cwt.
and 3-pounder, light Q.F. guns, and the Maxim rifle-calibre
machine gun.
(^im^MHiltiift.— OuB mauntings in the British navy may
be divided broadly into two classes, power-worked and hand-
worked mountings. The former dass indudes the mountings
of guns of an csUbm moimted in turrets or barbettes, alio of
9-2-ln. guns mountod behind shields; the latter dass indudes
mountings of guns of all sizes up to the 7*s-in. which are
mounted in batteries, casemates or behind shidds.
Hydraulic power has been adopted almost universally m the
Britbh navy for power - wor k ed mountings, although dcctridty
has been experimiented with, and has been lugdy applied in
some foreign navies. The prindpal advantages of hyclraullc,
as compared with electric, power are its comparative noisekssneis
and reliability, and the ease with which def ecu can bo diagaesed
and rectified. On the other hand, dearie power is more easily
transmitted, and Is already installed in all ships for working
electric Hght and other machinery, whereas hydraulic power,
when used, is generslly installed for the purpose of working the
guns only. The 12-in. guns in the '' Majestic " dass, following
the practice with the earliest heavy B.L. guns, were loaded
normally at extreme elevation of 13)', and the turret had to be
trained to the fore and aft line and locked there for each occasion
of loading. An alternative loading position was also prodded.
In which the guns could be loaded at i* of elevation and with
the turret trained in any direction. Loading in the alternative
position could, however, only be continued until the Umit^
supply of projectiles which could be stowed in the turret was
exhausted. Experience showed that a greater npidity of fire
could be obtained by the use of this " all round " loadmg position,
as it was termed, and in the latest ships of the " Majestic "
dass, and In subsequent battleships, the fixed 1oa<fing position
has been abandoned.
The dctaib of recent ii-in. mountings vary con s iderably, a
drawing of ooe of the most Rcent being shown in fig. 91, for imidl
thaalaare doe to Meawi Vfcken. SoosA Maxim, but in the BMJoffity
of caKs there n a " working chamber " revolvifig with the torvet.
A fixed ammunition hoist bmn the shell and cartridges from shell*
mom and roanrinc respecrivcly into the woridng chamber, where
tbey are tranaicrred to a cage which takes them upt by hydrealic
power, to the rear of the gun. The gun u strapped by ttsd bands to
a ctadle f«ea fig. 91) wAutitx moves In and out auMg a slide on recoil.
the gun always remaining puaHd to the slide. Gun, slide and cradle
are mvoted for efevatmn on tnianiona carried in trunnion bearings
fixed to the structure of the turret, and the whole movtaig weight Is
balanced with the gun in the ** ma out " position. The recoil of
the gun on firing is taken up by a bydreulic press pboed underneath
the alkie, and the gua is run out man into the firing positloo by
hydraulic wwer. Loadhig is carried out by means 01 a hydraulic
rammer, with the gun in the " run out " poaltk>n. and at an angle of
devatioa which varies with diflereot OMuotinn. In the most
recent mounting loading can be carried out with the gun at any
deratKNi, thus affoidtag cooskl^mbly greater facility to the gun*
kyer for krepiag his s^fata on the tamt daring the preeeas of
faadiag. and so increasing the rare of fi re oy caahji ng the gi mtobe
discfaaraed imm ediately the loadiag operationn are compnicd*
Elevatinf Is by bydraufic power, and^aileatod by cyliiidereplaeBd
undemrath the dkle, the pistons w rekiug 00 aa ana proMctiw
downwards. Turret turning engines are also hydraulic, and mwca
attentioa has been given of lare yean to the perfectaoo of elevatina
and tuning gear soieh aa wiH enable the turret or gun to respond
insnnily to the wUi of the gun<4ayer, and to move dther with ooo*
sklcrsble rapidity, or very slowly ami steadilsr as would be the c
» following a Urget at long range and with but little motkm oa
theship. The breach is opened aad closed by hand or brhydaaoUr
234
ORDNANCE
INAVALCUW
•r-:--V
-3-
A, Roller ring. K,
B, Gun slide. In
C, Recoil buffer.' N,
D, Gun cradle. Pi.
C,
power, and a douche of water or blast of air, or a combination of
boib. reroovct anv Miiouldering fragments of cordite or cartridge
material before a f nesh round is loaded.
Ahhougb there b little difference in principle between the anange-
ments of the mountings in the later Majesties " and those in the
** Dreadnought," improvements in detail have enabled the interval
between successive rounds to be reduced from about ss seconds in
the former case to 15 or ^ seconds in the bttcr.
In the turrets containinE o-a-in. and 7*S-<n* ^m* which exist in
most British armoured and lirit<lasa protected cruisera. the nmving
weights are. of course, not so large, and. as might be expected, the
assisunoe of hydcaotic machinery b not necessary in so many
operations. A drawing of a typical 9-a-in. gun and mounting w
shown in fig. 9a.
Training the turret and devating the guns are. however, in all
cases performed by hydcaulic power, as ts the raising of the pro-
iectiles to their place on the loading tray in rear of the gun, but the
breech b opened and cloaed. and the charge and projectile rammed
home, by hand power only, whfle the gun. after reonl. b forced cot
aoain to its firing position by means of springs. A ready supply
ct tJiirty^two projectiles b stowed in a " shell carrier," which b a
circular trough running on rollera raund the turret, but independently
of it. When a projectile b required to be loaded into the gun. the
shell carrier b routed until the required projecrile b under a hatch
in rear of the ^n. when the projectile b raised by a hydraulic press
on to a swinging loading tray. It b intended that the shell carrier
shaU be replenished direct from the shetl*room during the pauses of
an engagemenL A new type of 9*i-in. mounting has been installed
in the "Lord Ndaoa " aid " A^unenmon." in which greater use b
made of hydraulic power with a view to improving rapidity of fire.
In thb mounting, each projectile b brought up from the dieli-
noni as it'b required, and the loading operations are performed
by hydraulic power instead of by hand.
The " King Edward VII." cUss of battbships and " Duke of
Edtnbnrgh " class of cniisere are the last ships in which any 6>iii.
guns have been mounted, and with the eeception ol the 7*5*1".
guns in the " Triumpn " and " Swiftnre," these are the largest guns
which aft worked entirely by hand. Other hand-wiorked gwan are
type.
rnm a dnwfaff nnlied by KcMS. Vkkm. Soas A Mads.
Fic. 91.— Diagram of la-in. Gun Mounting, " Dreadnought
Elevating presses. Rti Transferring ranmer pio-
Guide ran Tor loading cage. jectiles from trunk cage to
Trunk cage. gun-loading cage.
_.. Breech bkick in open posKion. R«, Transferring rammer for
Ps» Breech operating hand powder charges from trunk
wheel. cage to guiHoading caga.
Rst TiansMmng chamber*
R«, Traiaif^ rack.
R«, Training engine.
S. Rotating trunk.
T, Tumuble.
W. Casing for chain laniM
the 4-in. and i3-pounder. which are nsounted in amall cruisen and
destroyers.
« The principles of the 6-in.. 4*Sn. and 12-pounder moantlitgs are
aimibr. The rear part of the gun b partnlly enctoeed in a metal
cradle, which carries the recoil cylinder and running out apriag boa.
The gun and cradle are balanced for elevation about tninnioas on
the cradle, which fit into trunnion bearings on the carrbge. The
htter carries the elevating and training gear, and the whole moving
weight b borne by a pivot pin which rotates on a ball bearing. The
gun reooUs in the line of fire, and the energy of recoil is absorbed by
meam of the recoil pbton, whose rod b secured to the gun, passing
over a valve key secured to the cradle, in such a way as to produce
a channel of var>tng sectional area through which the liquid in the
recoil cylinder must pass from one side of the piston to the other.
Springs run the gun out again after firing into its original position.
The breech b opened by the single motion of a^hand lever. A
" bare " charge is used in the 6-in. and 4-in. guns, with the de Bange
type of obturation, while a brass cartridge case has been retained
with the i3-pounder, as with the eariier Q.F. guns.
Firing b by ebcttidty, pcrcuarion being available as an alternative
if required, and the current b usually tucen off the dynamo mahaB
of the ship.
SffAHng.'-The gnett advmooes recently made in ncanBcy
of fire have been rendered possible, to a very greet extent, by
the toe ef telesa)pic lighting appanttus. Amngements are
made in all modem sights for the bars or diakt which cany
the ranfe grtduations to be of considerable length or diameter
respectively, in oitler that no dUficnlty may be found in
adlosting the sights for every 95 or 50 yds. of r%nge. In tiae
hoger faand«worked mountings, where the laying of the gun fer
elevation and for direction is effected by two men on cpfwrite
sides of the gun, the sights used by them are *' cross-connected, "
i^. connectMl by rods and geating to one another in such a way
that, initial peralleikm of the axes of the two telescopes hnvinf
HAVALCUNSI
ORDINANCE
|^n« A tewli« wppHmI by Mom VIckta, SoM * Muiifc
Fig. 9a.— Diasvain of a 9'2-ii>. Cun and Mounting, " Hogue *' type.
A, Roller ring. G, Elevating pre» p.. Breech opa^^ng hand-
B, RccoO buffer. H, ShelUliftuig pre«. . . '—
C, Gun cndle slide frame. K« FixH armoured trunk.
Loading tray.
Shell carrier.
Ft Pressure water pivot pipes.
L Radial sbeU-lifting cmne.
M. Axial powder hobt.
Pi, Breechblock.
Ra, Training nek.
Ri, Training engine.
T. Turntable.
u, -^ -
beeo flflcuredi the adjustments to one sight made by the sight'
aetter are simultaaeoualy efiectcd at the aigfat on the opposite
of the fan.
In ptactice with the 6-in. end 4-in. guns, one man is responsible
for the lajring of the gun for direction, and has consequently only
to think about the coinddeoce of the vertical cross-wire with the
target, while another man, who also fires, keeps the gun laid
for elevation, and is responsible only for the coincidence of the
targK with the horisontal cross-wire. The xs-pounder haa one
Sight only, one man bdng consideced suHicient to keep the gun
laid for elevatk>n as weU as for direction, and to fire. It is
cHcntial that the sighu shall be unaflected by the recoil of the
gun, so that they can be adjusted up to the moment of firing
by the sight-setter, and that it shall not be necessary for the gun-
layer to remove his eye from the telescope while the gun is
being fired and reloaded. It is also essential that the sights shall
move automatically in elevation and direction with the gun.
These two requirements are easily met in the hand-worked
mountings by the attachment of the sights to the cradle, which
does not move on recoil, and remains constantly paralM to the
gun; but in turret mountings the case is more compb'cated and
involves greater complexity of gearing.
The older turret stgnting arrangement consisted of two faorixontal
shafts, one for each gun. running across the turret, which were
rotated by pinions gearing into racks underneath the gun-slides,
the bttcr remaining of course alwavs parallel to the sauns. Pinions
keyed to these shafts g ea red in their turn into caus formed on
vertical sighting oolumna ia the sighting positbos, these columns,
which earned the sighting telescopes, accordingly moving up and
down with the guns. With this arrangerocnt an appreciable amount
of backlash was found to be inevitable, bwing to the play between
the teeth of the several racks and pinions, and to the torsion of the
jhafta, and the artanceitieiit was also open to the obiection that the
tik e B i ip is were nlieh caxmtd lo possible injury from an enemy's
fire. These defects have been very laigelv obviated by the " rocking
motion sights,** which have been fitted in the turrets of the latest
Riitiah battkahips and crotsers. In these sights a sight-bracket Is
secured to and rotates with the trunnion of the mounting: the
sight-carrier and telescope move along the top of the si^t-bracket.
on a curved arc of which the trtmnion is not the centre. When the
sight is at sero. the telescope is parallel to the axis of the gun. while
to adjust the sight, the sight<arrier with tetetrope hi moved aVtng
the curved arc by means of a rack and pinion a disunce corresponding
to the graduations shown on the range dial, which is coocentrie
with the pinion.
Organizatum. — The organization of a large ship for action is
necessarily highly elaborate. Among the officers, next to the
captain, the most important duties are probably those of the
fire-control officer. He is in communication by telephone or
voice tube with each of the several units composing the ship's
armament. This office is usually filled by the gunnery lieutenant.
In the conning tower with the captain is the navigating officer,
who attends to the course and speed of the ship, aa^sted by
petty officers to work the wheel and engine-room telegraphs. The
torpedo UeuLeoant, or another officer at the torpedo director,
is also in the conning tow, prepared to fire the torpedoes if
opportunity often. Other oflkers of the military branch, and
marine officers, are in charge of various sections of the
" quartere."
The rate of advance in naval gunnery has been much accelerated
since 1903. The construction ol the " Dreadnought.'* which em-
bodied a new principle both in nature and disposition of armament,
the rise of the United States and Japanese navies to the fint rank,
and the practical experience of tne Rus80>Japanese war, were all
facton which comributcd to the increase of the normal rate of
advance due to progress in metallurgy and engineering science. In
the British as well as in other navies. notaMy those of Germany,
the United States and Japan, ever-increased attention u being
devoted to the attainment of a rapid and accurate shell-fire, and
kree sums are being expended upon fire control instramcnta and
elaborate aiming and sighting appliances. Size 6f armaments,
power of guns, resistance of armour, efficiency of projectiles, and,
above all. rapidity and accuracy of fire, all seem to be advancing
with giant strides. But there are two important ingredients of
naval gunnery which are not subject to change: the human factor,
and the factor of the element*— wind, sea and weather. The
latter ensures at any rate one datum point to the student of the
science, that is, that the extreme range in action is limited by
the maximum distance at which the enemy can be clearly seen,
which may be considered to be a distance of 8000 to 10.000 yds.
The permanence Of the hunuin factor asaum that, howe v er gt«it
the advance in raaurial. and. p rov ided that no great discrepancies
exisc in this respect between opposing naviee, success at sea wiU be
the lot of the nation whose omcers are the coolest and most In-
telligent, whose men are the best disciplined and best trained, and
whov navy is In all respects the most tmbued with the habits and
traditions of the sea. (^ ~
iZt
ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM
OROOVICIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the group of strau which
occur normally between the Cambrian below and the Silurian
above; it is here regarded as including in ascending order the
Arenig, Llandeilo, and Caradoc or Bala series {qg.v.). The
name was introduced by C. Lap worth in 1879 to embrace those
rocks— well developed in the region formerly inhabited by the
Ordovices — which had been classtd by Sir R. Murchison as
Lower Silurian and by A. Sedgwick in his Cambrian system.
The term is convenient and well established, but Lower Silurian
is still used by some authors. The line of demarcation between
the Ordovician and the Cambrian is not sharply defined, and
beds on the Tremadoc horizon of the Cambrian are placed by
many writers at the base of the Ordovician, with good palaeonto-
logiod reasons.
The rocks of this system include all types of sedimentation;
when they lie flat and undisturbed, as in the Baltic region and
Russia, the sands and clays are as soft and incoherent as the
simihur rocks of Tertiary age in the south of England; where
they have been subjected to powerful movements, as in Great
Britain, they are represented by slates, greywackes, quartzites,
chlorite-, actinolite- and garnet-schists, amphibolites and other
products of metamorphism. In Europe the type of rock varies
rapidly from point to point, limestones, shales, sandstones,
current-'bedded grits and conglomerates or their metamorphosed
equivalents are all found within limited areas; but in northern
Europe particularly the paucity of limestones is a noteworthy
feature in contrast with the rocks of like age in the south, and
still more with the Ordovician of North America, in which
limestones are prevalent. In the Highlands of Scotland, in
north-west England, in Wales and Ireland, there are enormous
developments of contemporaneous lavas and tufifs and their
metamorphosed representatives; tu£fs occur also in Brittany,
and lavas on a large scale in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
Distribution. — ^The Ordovician system is widely distributed.
The accompanying map indicates rou^y the relative positions
of the principal land-masses and seas, but it must be accepted
with reserve.
A study of the fossib appears to point to the existence of
definite faimal regions or marine basins. The Ordovician rocks
waters, embracing China, Siberia and the Himalayu; 000-
ceming the last-named marine area not much b known. In
the opposite direction, the Baltic basin may have communicated,
through Greenland, with the North American and Arctic seas.
Over central and eastern North America another large body
of water probably lay, with open communications with the north
and west, and with a more constricted connexion with the
m 111* f i/i^
Ordfyvtciaji PeHod
Atlantic sea. The lagoonal character of^aome of the rocks of
the Tunguska region of Siberia may perhaps be indicative of
continental border conditions in that quarter.
Some of the principal subdivisions of the Ordovidan rocks
are enumerated in the table. Owing to the universal distribu-
tion of the graptolites, the correlation of widely sepftrated
areas has been rendered possible wherever the itauds and shales,
in which their remains are preserved, are found. Where they
are absent the correUtion of the minor local subdiviaSons of
distant deposits Is more difficult. In Gftat Britain, through
OaooviciAN System.
Ordotidan Rocks: Ctneraliud CorrOaHcn TabU.
N.-W.
BncMoBod MQS.
rruwdMi beds.
DknmotHftmi
Ds.
GitedelUjr.
Okalrcdc
LrckholiDtMd*.
Wcscnbcrg
deakOa ShalM
Ch«»m»pt
linoftoiM.
Cruidmm
Dt.
Di>.
Jew*. lUcr. and
Kuckmbed*.
(Lftnvita)
TtmcnpUt
krymiAtt.
RadioUnaB
Cbcrtft
and
Gnptoliub
and
DiA
Gt»s
Amorieala
(part*.
Vacinatus
Tremadoc beds, Crra/o/>7£e beds, and beds with £M{oma-iyr*b6e fauna here regarded as Cambrian: not invariably present.
of the British Isles seem to have been deposited in a North
Atlantic sea which embraced also the north of France and
Belgium. Confluent with this sea on the east was a rather
peculiar ba^n which included Bohemia, southern France, Spain,
Portugal,, the eastern Alps, Thuringia, Fichtclgebirge and the
Keller Wald. Another European basin, probably separated
from the Bohemian or MecUterranean sea in eariy Ordovician
times, ky over the Baltic region, Scandinavia, the Baltic pro-
vinces and north Germany, and communicated eastwards by
way of Russian Poland and central Russia with far eastern
C. Lapworth and his school, and J. E. Marr and the Cambridge
school, and in Scandinavia and the Baltic region, through
W. C. Brogger, S. A. Tulberg, F. Schmidt and others, the most
elaborate subdivision of the Ordovidan rocks has been attained.
In the Baltic provinces of Russia, F. Schmidt describes the follow-
ing ttans, in deioendii^ order: (Suge F) the Lyckholm and
Borkhoba xooes. a highly fosBlUferous series, eauivatent to the
Middle Bala of Britain ; many of the limestones are largely formed of
RhabdoporeUa and other calcareous algae. (E) Wesenberg noe**
Bala. (D) lewc and Kegel aone. (C) Itfer beds, Kuckers Shalt
(bitunuoou* limesioaea and mads •Braadachiefer), Echinoiphaeritt
ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM
237
e« Upper Ortliocentite llm^tone of Sweden. (B) Ortho-
ceratite (Vutnaten) limestone •Orthoceratite limestone of Sweden,
GUyooaiticlincstoat, Glaaoonitic aand (Greensand). The la«t-
ncntiooed repoaet on Cambrian Dietyoiuma shafes. While the
Ordovician rocks in Scania, the Baltic provinces and oorth-centraJ
Russb are undisturbed and level-bedded, those on the western side
of the Scandinavian axis and in the Urals have suffered movement
and are metaroorphooed into schists,' phyilites, quartzite, marble,
ftc.; and. espKially In Scandinavia, have been extensively thrust.
The Bohemian Onfovidant '* stage D " of Barrande, consists mainly
of greywacbes and shales with some ironstone beds and eruptive rocks
in the lower parts. In Gennaoy the only larse areas are found in the
Thorii^er Waki. Fkhtelgebitve« Frtnkenwakl and Vogtland. where
they consist iMincipally of unfossillferous greywaclws and shales
witQ some oolites and stauconitk: ironstone (chamosite) in the lower
part. They an divisible into the Hauptschiefcr or Lcderschiefcr and
the Obet^Thuriiiffit bads abovo, and the Griffdschiefcr and Unter>
Tburiagit beds below, which rest upon the Leitmitaschiefer of
the Euioma-Niobc (Cambrian) horizon. Across northern Russia
Ordovidan nxrks cover a great area; they consist of days, bitumin-
ous anif calcareous shales, sands and maris, which In the Ural region
have been metamorphosed; the Bukowka sandstone of Russian
Poland b of this an. In aocth>west France this system is represented
in Brittany and Normandy by the slates of Riadan, the er« de Afsy.
the schism d calymhus (with an ironstone bed at the base) and the
gris amurkain. In the Ardennes are the tekisUs de Gembhux,
lestinf upon gfaptolitic shales of Arenia a^ Sandstooss and shales
occur m Languedoc, and various rocks in the Pyrenees. In the
Iberian peninsula Ordovician rocks are widely spread, represented
by sandstones, slates and shales covering the whole of the period ;
they are well developed in Astnria and Galicia. In the eastern Alps
about Gras are found calcareous shales with crinoids. the ** Schock-
and " Semriacher *' shales; the Marthener beds of the
Camic Alps are of this age. In Cblm (Kiang>su. Kian-chane), in
Burma (Mandalay) and In the Himalayas (Nlti and Spitl) Ordo-
vidan fossil'bearing rocks are kaown^
Oa the North American oontiaeBt Ordovkaaa racks cover a very
laife area in the central, eastern and northern parts (north of lat. 30*>.
As regards the classification and correlation of the strata, whicn
change in character from point to pdnt, as is natural over so larve an
area, much remains to be done. In the table the divisions 01 the
system that obtain in the New York district are enumentcd; but
ia each state there b a k>cal nomenclature for the beds. Thus in
Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota we find (i) Lower Magnesian lime-
stone, St Peter's sandstone; (a) Tfvnton limestone, Galena lime-
stoae; (3) Hudson river diates; in ArkaiAu, the California or
Maanesun limestone. Sacra midal limestone. laud limestone and
Polfc Bayou limestone: in Oklahoma, the Arbuckle limestone,
Simpson series, Viola limestone and Sylvan shales: and in east
Tennessee, the Chlckamauga limestone, Athens shale, Tdlia sand-
stone, Sievier shale and Bays sandstone. In Massachusetts there
are enormoua series of schbta which have been assigned to this
period. In west Virginia are the Martiosburg shales (1000 ft. or
more). In Canada the Ordovician rocks (Quebec group) are thickly
developed. In the upper division there arethe fewest of the AnticosU
limestones, the Huoson river beds, and Trenton limestone; to the
middle divbioa betong the Cetnip^Uus shales; and the fewer
division consisU of the Levb shales with SiUery beds at the base
In Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are the lower and upper divisions
of the Cobequid group, a scries of shales, quartzites and conglomcr-
Ltes with wneoin racks. In the polar regions Ordovician rocia are
rspressMted 1
UiKl;byKi
aodintheBi ,
In North AJfrfea Ordovician rocks are probably present, and in
Hew ZesJand the Arorere series (Wanaka group), aiid in Australia
(Victoria) tht graptolitic, gold4icaring shales and slates bcfeng to
thb perfed. Doiuig thb period there appears to have been a general
Ccodmicy for the sea to transgress on the land, a tendency which
increased to ward s its dose, especially in the northern hemisphere
(Europe and the Appalachian regions). One of the results 01 thb
St waa the interdiaive and commingling of man)r prevfeusly
I laoaal groups. About the bcginniiv 01 the period the sea
with Igneous racks, in tne poiar regions uraovtctan rocKs are
MMM by the Tienton limestone in Boothia and King William's
; by Kmeatooes with CaryoeysUs trtnutum in east Greenlaad;
1 the Barrow Straits by beds with Asapkus and Madwea.
separa ted
withdrew:
The
trcw from the land in Texas and south oTthe Roclcy Mountains.
oldaaa of the Appalachiaas was in piogrts s early in Ordovidan
aadlaterta the period the 6sst symptoma of the Scandinavian
ydconU Acthitf.'^'Uoi peiiod was one of great vokanic
activity in several widely separated regions. "In Aynhire
and tbc aouth-weatem districts (of the southern uplands), where
the voIcsbIc coBStttucnts attain a great development, they
cooaist of basic lavas (diabase, &c), with intercalated tuffs
and agglomct&tcs. A characteristic feature of these lavas is
tba devdopment of ellipsoidal or pillow-structure in them.
TUs volcanic platform appears to underlie the Silurian region
over an area of at least aooo sq. m., inasmuch as it comes to
the Miilaoe wherever the ciasu of the anticlines brine uP *^^'
dently deep parts of the formations. It is thus one of the moat
extensive as wdl as one of the most andent volcanic tracts
of Europe " (Sir A. Gdkie, Text-hooft of Geology, 4th ed. vol. ii.
p. 95i)> In the west of England and in Wales there was also
a very active volcanic centre.. In the Snowdon district thousands
of feet of contemporaneous ^elsitlc Uvas and tufis occur in the
Bala beds; while in Cader Idris, the Arenig Mountains and
the Arans there are- similar eruptfens of fel^tic and rhyolitic
lavas, tuffs and agglomerates— t>n>bably many of them sub-
marine— interstratified in the Arenig formation. In the Lake
district a great aeries of lavas and ashes—the Borrowdale
series— was erupted during the middle of the period; the earlier
effusions were andesitic, the later ones feUitic and rhyolitic.
In Ireland the Arenig lavas of Tyrone resemble some of those
in Scotland. Volcanic rocks (porphyritcs, syenites and lavas)
occur in considerable force in the Ordovician rocks of Nova
Scotia and New Brunswick and New Zealand. Tuffs of this
age are found in Brittany, and diabase in Bohemia.
The tanwnie proiucU obtained from rocks of this perfed include
gold in Australia. New Zealand and Wales; iron ore in Fiance;
lead and anc from the (jalcna and TVenton horizons in Wisconsin,
Iowa and Illinois; manganese in Arkansas; oil and gas from the
Trenton stage in Ohfe and cast Indiana; roofittg slates and slate
pencils in Wales and the Lake district; limestone in Great Oritaia
and Tennessee; jihosphate beds in Wales and Tennessee: marble
in the Appalachian district; graphite (plumbago) in tne Lake
district; and jasper in Wales anid southern Scotland.
Ordovician Life.— Compiled with the preceding Cambriao
period, the Ordovidan is remarkable for the great expansion
in numbers and variety of organisms, apart from the fact that
fossils are better preserved in the younger formations.
All the great cUsses of mollusks were repres e nted, the most numer-
ous being the brachiopods, which, in additfen to the simple forms of
the Cambrian, began at this time to develop spiic-bcartng genera
OCkoneUs, Orthis, Orthisina, Stropkotnena, Crania^, Schixotrda,
ForamboniUs, Rafifusfusna, LeptaeHO^Zytospira). The gasteropods
now developed all the leading types of shell (Pltwotemaria, OmpkaiO'
troekus)', but both this dass and the peleci
pelecypods (Lyrodesmm,
i in importance to the
Oemdonta, ModMtoptis) were subordinate i ^
wphalopods. These mollusks were probably the most powerful
living creatures in the Ordovician seas; straight-shelled, slightly
curved, and nautitoid forms predominated {Ortkoceras, Cyrtoeeras,
Gyroetras, l>oekoliiot, Badocenas, Utoetras, LUmiUa, AeHnoeemi}.
Some of the strsiaht shells were of eaaraiotts siae. la to 15 ft. fesig .
and as much as 1 ft. in diameter, ia the widest part. Trifebites wen
present in great abundance, and in this period they reached the
cjtmax of their devdopmeitt. In the fewer stage we find AgnostM,
Co/ynssM, Asaplms, iiUmm, Plaeoparic; on the Llanddio horiaon,
As9Phus, Metalaspis, JUlmanitis; and, at the summit*
Trinudeus and Hmnalonoius. In the transitfen aone between
CwynssM,
Ordovician and Onmbrian, Ceraiopyg^, Euloma, Niobe, flourished.
Other important genera are Ofyfw, Cketrmrms, ffarpest Acidaspis.
Ostrscods {Ufmdm^ BeyHckta), eyprids {Bawdus, Uacfocypris'^
eiyUocarids (UrslMcoru, Peiioeohs), drripcda (JUpidoeoloms), aad,
tcr. eurypterids represented other crustacean groups. The
brvoxoans, StomeioporOt Momtictdipora, nyUoporitta, FenesldJa and
otners, were abundant and frequently formed beds of llmestonr.
Among the echinodenns the cystoids were the most prominent
(Fkmrocysiis, Arisioeyttis) and at this period reached their dimax;
crinoids (Archaeoainus, Dendrocrinus) became more important;
while ophIuroids.echinoid« (Bothriocidaris) and asteroids (TaeniasUf,
PaUuaster) made their appearance. Corals (Strepieiasmo, ColutM'
noHa) were scaroe, and sponges (Ami^copium, Caryospitmeia, A tthtu*-
eyolAiw) were not particolany if
are well-known fossiU doubl
assisted in the formation of _
have been observed. The remarkable group, the mptolites, eW-
dently inhabited the seas in conntfess numbers and have left theit
remains in the dark shales of this period all over the world. At this
time the diprionidian forms alone were represented by such gensca as
Tetragra^us^ Phylhtrapius, Didymograptus, DiceUogmptns^ Dipio-
gra^f and others. Of great interest are the eariiest Known indica-
twos of vertebrate life in the form of dermal platce and teeth of fish>
like otganmns from the Ordovidan of Colorado. The teircstrial life
of the period is very meagicly represented by the remains of land
plants, mostly poorly preserved in certain sandstones, and by scor^ons
and several orders of bisects. ProlMimtx (Sweden), PalaeobiaitiM
(Coferado).
One of the most strikiac facts brought oat by the study o< the
dtstributfee of Ordovician lossib is the wide range of the northera or
" periarctk: " faunal assemblage- )This periarctic fauna prevails over
the whole worki— so far as our present knowledge shows— with the
caceptfen of the peculiar Bohemian or Meditenanean region, whidi
238
0RDU--ORE-DRESSING
ladndei nordi-WMt and aootK-vcat France, Spein, lulv. tfve Alfis.
the FichtdffetMrge. cut Thuriagia* Han and Kheniih Moontaina.
AUTHOiiTiBS.— Sir R. 1. Murchiaon. Silurian SysUm (1819) and
SUuriA (1854. 1867); A. Sedgwick. Synopsis of the Classi/uatton of
]he British ralaeouric Recks (i8S5): J. Barrande, Sysilmt silurundu
€tntn de la Bokimo (iSsa-lSSTj; J. J. Big«by, Thesaurus Siluricus
(London, 1868): J. E. Marr. The tUus^LcaUon of the Cambrian and
Silurian Rocks (Cambridge, 1883); Charles Lapworth, "On the
Geologxal Distribution of the Rhabdophora/' Annals and Mag. NaL
"' ' -.•-.»- --* *--— -««-». n «.» w,-^ •_ »^ fioi-nc,
, icotUnd,
,--,,. - ' Lethaea geog-
noatka," Thtil u Buti^'2 {Letkaea palaeoaoiea) (Stuttnrt, 1897-
UeologKal uistncmuon ot tnc Kiiaixiopnorft, jinnais ana Mag
Hist. scr. 5. vols, iii., Iv.. v.. vJ. (1870-1880) ; B. N. Peach, J. f
J.J. H. Teall, " The Silurian Rocks of Great Brittin.** vol. t., Scoi
Mem. Geel. Survey (1899); F. Freeh and others. *' Lethaea
oostka," Theil L Band 2 {Letkaea palaeoaoiea) (Stuttnrt,
1902); Sir A. Geikie. Text-book ofGeotogy Uth ed.. 1903); and for
recent papers, Ctotogicat Literature, Geo!. See ^London, annual).
See also Cambrian and Siluuan Systems. (J • A. H.)
ORDU (anc. Colyora, where the " Ten Thousand " embarked
for home), a town on the N. coast of Asia Minor, between Samsun
and Kerasund, connected with Zara, and so with SIvas, by a
carriage road, and with Constantinople and Trebizond by
steamer. Pop. about 6000, more than half Christian. Ordu has
exceptionally good Greek schools, and a growing trade in filberts.
ORDUIN - NASHCHOiON, ATHANASY LAVRENTEVICH
(?-x68o), Russian statesman, was the son of a poor official at
Pskov, who saw to it that his son was taught Latin, German and
mathematics. Athanasy began his public career in i643asK}ne
of the delineators of the new Russo-Swedish frontier after the
peace Joi Stolbova. Even then he had a great reputation at
Moscow as one who thoroughly understood " German ways and
things." He was one of the first Muscovites who diligently
collected foreign books, and we hear of as many as sixty-nine
Latin works being sent to him at one time from abroad. He
attracted the attention of the young tsar Alexius by his resource-
fulness during the Pskov rebellion of 1650, which he succeeded in
localizing by personal influence. At the beginning of the
Swedish War, Orduin was appointed to a high command, in which
he displayed striking ability. In 1657 he was appointed minister-
plenipotentiary to treat with the Swedes on the Narova river.
He was the only Russian statesman of the day with sufficient fore-
Bight to grasp the fact that the Baltic seaboard, or even a part
of it, was worth more to Muscovy than ten times the same
amount of territory in Lithuania, and, despiu ignorant jealousy
. of his colleagues, succeeded (Dec 1658) in concluding a
three-years' truce whereby the Muscovites were left in possession
of all their conquests in Livonia. In 1660 he was sent as pleni-
potentiary to a second congress, to convert the truce of 1658
into a permanent peace. He advised that the truce with Sweden
ihould be prolonged and Charles II. of England invited to
mediate a northern peace. Finally he laid stress upon the
immense importance of Livonia for the development of Russian
trade. On being overruled he retired from the negotiations.
He was the chief plenlpotentiaiy at the abortive congress of
Durovicha, which met in 1664, to terminate the Russo-Polish
War; and it was due in no small measure to his superior
ability and great tenacity of purpose that Russia succeeded in
concluding irith Poland the advantageous truce of Andrussowo
(Feb. XX, 1667). On his return to Russia he was created
a boyar of the first class and entrusted with the direction
of the foreign office, with the title of *' Guardian of the great
Tsarish Seal and Director of the great Imperial Offices." He
was, in fact, the first Russian chancellor. It was Orduin who
first abolished the onerous system of toUs on exports and imports,
and established a combination of native merchanU for promoting
direct commercial relations between Sweden and Russia. He
also set on foot a postal system between Muscovy, Courlandand
Poland, and introduced gazettes and bills of exchange into
Russia. With his name, too, b associated the building of the
first Russian merchant-vessels on the Dvina and Volga. But his
whole official career was a constant struggle with luirrow routine
and personal jealousy on the part of the boyars and clerks of the
council. He was last empk)yed in the negotiations for con-
firming the truce of Andrussowo (September 1669; March 1670).
In January 1671 we hear of him as in attendance upon the tsar
on the occasion of his second marriage; but in February the
aame year be was dismissed, and withdrew to the Kruipetsky
monastery near Kiev, where be took the tonsure under the name
of Antony, and occupied himself with good works till hiajdcaili
in 1680. In many things he anticipated Peter the Great. He
was absolutely incorruptible, thus standing, morality as well ai
intellectually, far above the level of his age.
See S. M. bolovcv. History of Russia (Rus.). vol. xi. (St Pet^nbusp
1895, seq.); V. I konnikov. '* Biography o( Otduin-Nashchokia " (u
RuukayaStarina, Nos. 11-12) (St Petersburg. 1883); R. Niabet Bain,
Tke First Romanovs (London. 1905, chapa. 4 and 6). (R. N. Bw)
dREBRO, a town of Sweden, capiul of the district {Utm) of
Orebro, tying on both banks of the Svarti a mile above its entrance
into Lake Hjelmar, 135 m. W. of Stockholm by rail Pop. (1900),
22,0x3. In great part rebuilt since a fire in 1854, it lias a modem
appearance. An andent castle, however, with foar round towcr^
remains on an island in the stream. It is used as & museom.
There may be mentioned also the cburch of St Nicholas, of the
13th century; and the King's House {Kumisstugia), an old and
picturesque timber building. In front of the modem town hall
stands a statue, by Karl Giistav (^varnstrOm (x8io>x867), of the
patriot Engelbrecht (d. 1436), who was bom here. The Swedish
reformers of the r6th century, Olaua and Laurcntiua Petri, are
commemorated by an obelisk. Orebro is in dose ooniKxion with
the iron-mining district of central Sweden; it has ntechanical
works and a technical college. A large trade Is carried on, by
way of the Orebro canal and lakca Hjelmar and Milar, with
Stockhohtt.
Orebro was in existence In the i xth century. Its castle, erected
by Birger Jari in the X3th century, played an important part in
the early annals of Sweden; and no fewer than twenty dicta
or important assemblies were held either in the castle or in the
town. Such were the Orebro concilium of x 53 7, the diet of XS40
in which the crown was declared hereditary, and that of i8to
when Bemadotte was elected crown prince.
ORE-DRESSING, one of the principal prooeesee in the work
of mining ((ft). Wlien the miner hoists his ore * to the surface, the
contained metal may be either in the luitlve unoombined sute,
as, for example, native gold, native silver, native copper,
or combined with other substances forming mineials of more
or less complex composition, as, for example, telluride of gold,
sulphide of silver, sulphide of copper. In botli cases the
valuable mineral is always associated with minerals of no value.
The province of the ore^iresser is to separate the " values *'
from the waste — for example, quartz, felspar, caldte— bjr mechan*
ical means, obtaining thereby " concentrates " and " tailings."
The province of the metallurgist is to extraa the pure metal
from the concentrates by chemical means, with or without the
aid of beat. There are also a number of non-metallic minerals
which do not have any value, or at best do not reach their highest
value until they have been subjected to some form of mechanical
preparation; among them are diamonds, graphite, oonmdura,
garnet, asbestos and coal. Ore-dressing, for the purposes of thie
article, may be divided into three parts: (i) properties of
minerals which render aid in thdr separation; (3) simplfe opera-
tions; (3) operations combined to form p rocsss es or niilli.
X. The spettfic gravUy cf miaemis varies greatly, some hdag
heavy, others fwht. The rate of settling in water is affected by the
specific gravity in this way: of two particles of the same |^„-,,f.,,
sice but different specific gravity, the heavier settles more '^^^"^'^
rapidly than the bghter. while of two particles of different specific
gravity which settle at the sane rate hi water* that of higher spedfic
gravity is of smaller diameter than the other. The same state-
menu are tree in regard to settling in air, and in regard to Bi um e cfm
in air when the paitides are thrown out in a horiaootal dinctaoa.
Colour, lustre and fracture are of tapeaal value in haad-picfcaQg. to aid
the eye in sdcctiag the mineral sought. Inauooes ere, of coloaii»
the white of quartz, the pale straw colour of felspar, the dull yeUow
of limonite. the brass )t11ow of chafcopyrite, the pale metallic veDow
of pyrite; of lustres, the vitreous of quartx. the adamantiiie of
diamond and oenisaite. the resinous of blende, the earthy of ttflKmite.
and the metallic of pyrite; and of fractures, the deavaie plaiiea el
felspar and galena, the coochoidal fracture of quarU ana pyrite. the
granular of some forms of magnetite and blende. Magnetism is a
most direct and simple method of separating mmerals where it is
available. The discovery that by the use of clectn>>magwets of great
^ The O. Eng. word was 9ra. corresponding with Dn. oer, the origia
of which is unknown. The form *' ore " represents the O Sa§. dr,
brass; cf. Lat. aes, Skt. ayas.
ORE-DRESSING
239
ntmtr niatrab fomcrly r et ar de d as non-mtgnctic are attracted.
Iiat nude h poanble to aeparate •evcral dastes of mineral* present
in aa ore; for example, the strongly magnetic mineral may first be
taken out. then the mildly magnetic, and last the weakly magnetic
the non-magnetic being left behind. Adiusion acts when bnghily
tMimishcd particles of gold issuing with the aand from the stamp
mill ooroe in contact witn an amalnmated copper plate, for they are
insuntly plated with mercuiy and adhere to the copper, while the
sand is carried forward by the water. In this way a very perfect
separation of the gold from the sand is effected I n t he Sout h African
diamond fields it has been found that if the diamond- bearing sand
is taken in a stream of water over a smooth surface covered with a
saitaMe coating of grease, the diamonds will adhere to the grease
while the sand does not.
a. The concentration of ores always proceeds by steps or stages.
Thus the ore must be crushed before the minerals can be separated,
and certain preliminary steps, such as suing and classify*
tng. must precede the final operations which produce the
''finished concentrates. The more important of these
rimple operations will now be described
The ore as mined contains the valuable minerals attached to and
cn cl oeed in lumps of waste rock The province of crushtrnt or dis-
integrsting is to sever or unlock the values from the waste so that
the methods of separation
are then able to part the
one from the other In
crushing ores it »s found
wise to progress by stages,
coarse crushing being best
done by one class of
machine, medium by
another, and fine by a
third. Coarse crushing is
accomplished by breakers of
the Blake type (fig i ) or of
the Gates Comet type (fig
3). Ail ol these machines
break by direct pfessure,
caused by a movable jaw,
« (figs. 1. 9), approaching towards and receding from a fixed jaw, b
The largest site ever fed to a breaker is 34 in in diameter, and the
amallest sixe to which the finest crushine commonly done bv these
macfiines brines the ore is about i in diameter. The machine is
generally supplied with ore in lumps not larger than 9 in. in diameter,
and crushes tnem to about 1^ in induiinctcr Medium-size crushing
is done mostly by rolls or steam stamps. Rolls
(fig- 3) crush by direct pressure caused by the
ore being drawn between two revolving rolls
held closely together They make the least
fine slimes or fines to be lost in the subsequent
treatment, and »n therefore preferred for all
bnttle minerals The steam stamp works upon
the same principle as a steam hammer, the
pestle being forced down by steam prsssure
acting through piston and cylinder with great
. rrushmg forcejn the mortar Steam stamps
have been very successful with the native
K* copper rock, because they break up the little
leaves, flakes and filaments of copper, and
render thom susceptible of concentration,
which rolls do not Fine crushing is done by
gravity stamps, pneumatK stamps, by cen-
trifugal roller mills, by amalgamating pans,
by tnll mills, by Chile edgcstone mills, by
tube mills and by arrastras. The gravity
stamp (fi| 4) IS a pestle of 900-lb weight
Fig. I.— Blake Breaker
a, Movable jaw.
b, Fiaed jaw.
Fio. a.— Oatea
Breaker.
a. Movable Jaw.
b. Fwed jaw.
<. Gear with eccen- ^ , ,, ^ , .^
trie hub and with more or less which is lifted by a revolving
fit on the cam and falls by the force of gravity
spindle. strike a heavy blow on the ore resting
on the die in the mortar and do the work
of crashing: the frequent revolution ol the cam gives a more
or less rapid succession ol Wows. Crsviiy stamps are especially
adapted to the fine crushing of gold ores, which they reduce to
A-in. and sometimes even to A-in grams. The blow ol the stamp
upon the fragments <»f quartz not only liberates
the fine particles of gold, but bnghtens them
so that they are quKkly caught upon the
smalgamatedplates The (entnfugal rMer mills
are suited to nne crushing of middle products,
namely by-pnoducts composed of grams con-
taining botti values ana waste, nnce thev
avoid making much fine slimes They crush
by the action of a roller, rolling on the inside
of a steH ring both havins vertical axes The omaleamalint
pan is suitable \ot grinding silver ores for amaljpmation where the
finest grinding is sought, together with the chemical action from the
contact with iron It crushr^ bj- a true grinding action of one surface
sliding upon another The Chile edgeslenr mtU is employed for the
finest grinding exrr used preparatory to concentration The arrastra
or drag-etone mill grinds still finer for amalgamating. The ball mUS
Fig 3.— Crushing
Rolls.
is a horiaontal revolving cylinder with iron balla in it wfakh do the
grinding: the pulverised ore passes oat through screens in the
cylinder wall It is a fine grinder, making a sinall amount of im-
palpable slimes. It is used for preparation for conoentiating. Tb«
lube m$U is of umilar construction, but it
u fed through the hollow shaft at one end
and discharged through the hollow shaft
at the othor; the finely ground ore ia
floated out by water and contains a large
proportion of unoalpable sbmca. It b used
lor preparation lor cyanidii^ of gold.
A considerable dass of workable min-
erals, among which are surface ores of iron
and surface phosphates, contain worthless
day mixed with the valuable matenal,
the removal of which is accomplished by
the log washer This is a disintegrator
consist in|: of a k>ng narrow cylinder re-
volving in a trough which is nearly hori-
zontal Upon the cylinder are kmves or
paddles set at an angle, which serve the
double purpose of bruising and disintegrat-
ing the day and of conveying the cleaned
lump ore to be discharged at ttie upper end
of the trough, the water meanwhile washing
away the clay at the k>wer end
Roasttng for Frtabtltty. — When two min-
erals — for example, pyrite and cassiterite
(tin ore) — one ol which is decomposed and
rendered porous and friable by heat and
oxygen — are roasted in a furnace, the pyrite
becomes porous oxide of iron, while the .
caasitente is not changed. A gentle crush- '
ing and washing operation will then break
and float away the lighter iron oxide,
leaving the cleaned cassiterite behind.
Stting. — ^Thb is the first of the pre-
liminary operations of separation. It ia
found useful in concentration, for dividing
an ore into a number of portions graded pjQ 4.— Gravity Staraow
from coarser sizes down to finer sizes. / •»
Each portion is made suitable for treatment on its respective machine.
If crushed one be sifted upon a screen with holes of definite sue. two
products will resttlt^he oversize, which isunableto pass through the
screen, and the undersice, which does pass. If the latter sise be sifted
upon another screen with smaller holes, it will again make oversise
and undersize The operation can be repeated witn more sieves until
the desired number of portions is obtained. P von Rittinger adopted
for close string the following diameters in millimetres for the holes in a
set of screens 64. 15 a. 53. 33<6. 16. 11-3, 6. 56. 4, a-8, a, 1-4, I.
Each of these holes has an area
double that of the one next bdow it;
this may be called the screen ratio.
A process which does not need such"
close suing might use every other
screen of the above set. and In ex-
treme cases even every fourth acreen. Pic. 5. — ^Trommel or
I n mills the screen ratio for coarse sizes Revolving Screen,
often differs from that for fine. Sixinr .....
is done by cylindrical screens revolving upon their inclined axea
(fig 5) by flat shaking screens, and by fixed screens with a com-
paratively steel slope Either wire cloth with square holes or sted
plate punched with round holes is used. To remove the largest
lumps in the preliminary sizing, fixed- bar screens (grixzUes) are
preferred, on account of their strength and durability.
Sizes smaller than can be satisfactorily graded by screens itfc
treated by means of hydraulic classifiers and box classi/iers. The
lower limit of screening and therefore the beginning oi this work
y. /iM/^Mi
Fio 6.— Hydraulic Oassifier.
vanes from grains of 5 millimetres to grains of i mmimetrv in
diameter A hydraulic dassifter (fig 6) is a tiooBh-like washer
through which the water and sand flow from one end to the other.
In the bottcmi. at regular intervals are pockets or pits with hydraulic
devKee which hinder the outflowing discharge of aand. b. by an
inflowing scream ol clear water, a By reguteting the speed of these
water currents, the sisv of the grams m the several discbarffea can br
regulated, the first being the coarsest and the overflow at the end
the finest Box classifiers (sptitkastem) are simibr. except that the
pockets are much larwer andf no inflowing dear water b need , they
therefore do their work moch less perfectly Classifiers do not tf-»-
size the ore, but merely dass together grains which have
settling power In any given product, except the firK, the '
high apcdfic gravity wUl always be smaller thaa Chv of Ir
340
ORE-DRESSING
hot cliwiferi are tahed to- treatint finer sites than the hyvbaulic
dusifien, and therefore follow them ta the mill tKatment.
PiektMg Floors, the first of the fioal opecations of separation, are
areas on whkh men, boys or girts pick out the valuable mineral
which is rich enough to ship at once to the smelter. The picking is
often accompaniedand akled by breakinc with a hammer. Ptcktng
iMu are generally so constructed that tat pickers can sit still and
have the ore pass before them on a moving surface, such as a re*
voiving circular table or traveUing belt. Stationary picking ubies
require the ore to be wheeled to and dumped in front of the pickem
Picking out the values by hand has the double advantage that it
saves the power and time of crushing, and prevento the formation of
a good deal of fine slimes which are difikult to save.
y«|x treat ores ranging from li in. in diameter down to ^ in. If
an intermittently pulsatmg cument of water b passed up through a
horiaontal sieve on whkh u a bed of ore, the heavy mineral and the
quartz quicUy form layers, the former beneath the latter. The
machine by which this work is done is called a jigt and the operation
is called jigging. In the hand jig the sieve is moved up and down in
a tank of water to get
the desired separation.
In the power jig (fig. 7)
i ^ i^ > « ^ .the sieve, a. is stationary
\LMA
Fig. 7.~Hars Jig.
P^and the pulsating current
is obtained by placing a
vertical longituoinal par-
tition, c. extending part
of the way down to the
bottom of the jig box
The sieve, a, is firmly
fastened on one side of
the partition, and on the other a piston or plunger, tf, is moved
rapidly up sind down by an eccentric, causing an up-and-down
current 01 water through the sieve, a. The sieve is fed at one end.
t, with a constant supply of water and ore, and the quarta over-
flows at the other. Ooir water (" hydraulic water ") it brought by the
pipe. «, into the space, g, bebw called the hutch, to regulate the oondi-
tbn of the bed of ore on a. The consuntly accumulating bed of con-
centrates is either discharged through the sieve into the hutch, g, or
by some special device at the side. On jigs where theconcentretes pass
tnrough tne sieve, a bed of heavy mineral grains too large to pass
holds back the lighter quarta. Tne quartz overflow from one sieve,
a. generally carries too much value to be thrown away, and it is
therefore jigged Main upon a second «eve. h. In jigging difficult
ores» three, lour, mre ana even six sieves are used. A succession of
sieves gives a set of products graded both in kind and in richness, the
heavier mineral, as galena, cohiin^ first, the lighter, as pyntes and
blende, coming later. The best jigging is done upon closely sued
products using a larfe amount of clear water added beneath the
sieve. Veiv good Jigging may. however, be done upon the products
of hydraulic classifiers, where the heavy mineral is in small grains
and the qnarta u large, by using a bed on the sieve and diminished
hydraulic water, which increases th^ suction or downward pull by
the retaming pluoger.
Bumping TabUs. — Rittinger's table b a rectangular aently
sloping plane surface which by a bumping motion throws the neavy
particles to one side while the current of water washes down the
quarta to another, a
wedge-shaped divider
separating and guiding
the concentrates and
tailings into their re-
«-spective hoppers. The
capacity on pulp of i%
to ^ in. sixe b some 4
tons in twenty - four
hours. In the Willky
table (fig. 8) and tlioee
derived from it a gentler
vannin|( motion is substituted for the hareh bump; they have a
greatly increased width and a set of nflle blocks, b, at right angles to
the direction of flow, c. Upering in height towards the side wh«re the
concentrates are diacharK^. d. Thb combination has pvoAuctA a
ubie of great efliciency and capacity for treating grains from I in.
in diameter down to t|s >»• or even finer. The capaaty on ^ in. pulp
b from 15 to 3$ tons in twenty-four hours.
Vmnat are machines which treat ores on endless bdta, genertlly of
rubber with flanges on the two sides. The belt (fig, 9) travels up a
gentle slope, o. 00 faoriaontal tranaverae roHera, and b shaken about
aco times a minute, either sidewise or endwise, to theczrent of about
I in. The lower 10 ft. b called the concentrating plane. 6. and
978% more or less from the horiaontal: the ' '
F1C.8.— WUfleyTable.
. ., „ J upper 2 ft. of
laagth IS called the cleaning plane, e, and sbpes 4*45% more or less.
The fine ore b fed on with water Ctechnically called pulp) at the
ioterrection 6f the two planes, d. The vibration separates the ore
into layers, the heavy minerals beneath and the light above. The
doamward flow of the water carries the light waste off and discharges
it over the tail roller » into the waste launder, while the upward travel
^ belt carrica up the heavy mineral. On the cleaning plane the
passes under a row of jeu./, of dean water, which remove the
last of the waste rack; it dinga to tl« bdt whilt It \
head roller, and only leaves it when the bdt b foeoad by thad
roller to dip in the water of the cioncentrates tank, f. The ( .
bdt then continues its return journey over the guide raOer h t0 the
tail roller e. which it passes round, a
and anin does concentration fiJ y ^ ♦■^at
duty. Experience proves that for *\^ •
exceedin^y fine ores the end
shake with steep slope and rapid
travd doea better work than the
side-shake vanner. For ordinary
gold stamp-mill pulp, where deao-
nessof eadings IS the most import
engineer b willing to throw a little quartx into the
Ftol 9.— Frue Vanner.
tt end, and where to gain it the
,uartx into the oonoentretes, the
end-shake vanner b again probably a little better than the side-
shake, but where rlrannrss of coaoentrates b sought the sidr shake
vanner b the most satisfactory. The latter b auidi the most usual
form.
Skm^TaUa are areolar revolving Ubles (fig. xo) with flattened
conical surfaces, and a slope of 1 1 in. more or less per foot from oenift
to rircumferemse; a common nae b 17ft. in diameter, and a tonmum
speed one revolution per minute. These tables treat matenal of
Ti«in. and less m diameter coming from bosdassifienu Thcpriodple
on which the t^le works b that the film of water upon the smooth
surface rolb the larger grains (quarta) towards the margin of the
taUe faster than the smauer grains (heavy mineral) which are in the
slow-moving bottom cuncnt. The revdntion of the ubIe thee
discharges tne ouarta eariier at a, a, a, a. an Intermcdbte middling
product next at a. and the heavy mineral last at c. Suitable laundcra
or troughs and catch-boaes are supplied for the three producta. The
capacity of such a table b la tone or more of pulp, dry weight, in
twenty-four houra. fminet, ursd in concentretiaa tin ore in Corninall,
are rectangular slime-tafales which separate the waste from the
ooooentrates on the same prind|db as the circular ttbhn, though they
Fig. io.~Convez Revolving Slime-table.
run intermittently. They treat very fine pulp, and after being fed
for a short period (about fifteen nunutea) the pulp b shut off, the
concentrates are flushed off with a douche of water and cau^ in a
box. and the ieed pulp w anin turned on. Camas tabUs are rect-
angular tables with plane surfaces covered with cotton duck (canvas)
free from seams, they sk>pe about ij in. to the ioot« They are fed
with sump-mdl pulp, with the tailings of vannere. or, bat of all.
with very fine pulp overflowiiiff from a fine classifier. The rough
surface of the duck is such aa emdent catching surface that they caa
run (or an hour bdore the concentrates are removed— an opoatioa
which IS effected by shutting off the feed pulp, rinsing the surface
with a bttle clean water, and nosing or bro(Mning off the conoentratca
into a catch-box. The feed-pulp la thea agun turned ea and the
work resumed They have oera more su^essful than any other
machine in treatina the finest pulp, especially when their oooccn-
t rates are finally cleaned on a stem slope cnd-ahahe vaanar (the
G G Gates canvas table wstem of California).
Buddies act m principle uke slime-tables, but they are statioaafy.
and they allow the sand to build itsdf up upon the conical furfarr.
which b surrounded by a retaining wall. When chaived. the tailinga
are shovelled from the outer part of the cirde, the miadlin|a fron tne
interveiing annular part, and the concentrates from the mner part.
They treat somewhat coaiaer Bises than the slime-table. The term
buddk b sometimes applied to the slime-tables, but the maiority
confine the phrase to the machine on which the sand builds up in a
^Riffles.— Vfhtn wooden blocks or oobble-stonea of imifona sine are
placed in the bottom of a sluke, the spaces between them are called
nfflts; and when gdd-bearing gravd b carried throi^h the sluice by
a current of water, a great many eddies are produced, in wfafeh tlia
gold and other heavy minerab settle.
Kiaes. — ^The fores or doUv-4ub b a tub as large or larger than an
ordifwry oti-barrel, with sicfes flarina slightly upwards alt the wav
from the bottom. In the centre is a little vertical shaft, with han<^
crank at the top and stirring blades like thoae of a propeUcr at tha
bottom. Fine concentrates from buddies or sHme-tablca are still
further enriched by treatment in the kieve. The kieve is filled
perhaps half full of water, and the paddles set in rootidn: coaocn«
trates are now shovdled in until it b neariy full, the rotation ia
continued a little longer and thea the shaft b quickly withdrawn and
ORE-DRESSING
241
tbe side o( tbe kkvc iteadity thttiAped fay A bttrnplng-bar as long: as
tetlliag awtioiics. Whea this is compwted, the water is siptioaed
off. the top oiad ikimnwd off and sent back to the buddle, and the
cBiidied boctora shovcHed out and sent to the smeher.
3. la daigmng conoentration works, the millwright seeks so to
oMBbiae tlM vanous metliods of coarse and fine crushing amd of
fnCninary and 6aal concentration that he will dbtatn the
noBnani return from the ore with the minimum cost.
^ Some of the toon important of these miH schemes will now
bcdexribed.
The haod-j^K pnoess used for the xinc and lead ores of Missouri
s firat to dean the ore from adhering day by raking it back and
lartii ia a shiice with a running stream of water, and then shovel
it opOB a dopms screen with holes of about 1 in., where it yields
atauK aad uadeniae. The former is hand*picked into lead ore.
anc Oft aod waste, while the latter is jincd upon a hand-jig and
fields sevenl bycfs of minerals removed b^^ a hand-skimmer. The
lof) simimii^ are waste, the mkidle skimmings come back with the
aeit chaife to be figged over, and the bottom skimmings go to a
acoed og with finer screen. The coarsest of the hutch product, i.e.
tfce prodKt whidi paaaed through the sieve and settled at the bottom
of the tank, goes to the aecond jig, the finest is sold to a sludge mill
isfac fiaistedoa buddies. The second jig makes top skimmings whkh
«c sent back to the firsc jia, midclle skimmings which are sine
ouaoeotntes, and bottom skimimngB and butch, which are lead
OQBctatrates.
Ia the Missouri anc-conoentratittg mill the ore carrying blende
tad olunine with a little galoia ia in very large crystallizations
aet oNitaiofl. when crushed, very fittle in the way of included
{taias. It ts cradted by Blake breaker and rolls, to pass through a
Kvt vkh boles | in. in diameter, and is then treated on a power jig
with ax oNnecutive sieves, yielding dischat^ge and hatch products
from csdi neve, and tailings to waste. The eariier dischai^es are
lifiiSed products, while the later are re-crushed and re-treated on
tk Boe jig. The hutch prodncu are treated on a finishing'jig with
^ utfcs. and yield galena from the first discharge and hutch, and
Biie ore from the others. The capacity of such jigs Is very large,
mo to 75 or 100 tons per day of ten hours.
la tSte diamond washing of Kimberiey, South Africa, the material
tikes ftofa the mine is weathered by exposure to the air and rain for
■nmi months, and the softening and disintegration thus well
rjned are completed by stirring in vats with water. Breaker and
n^b vert tried in older to hasten the process, but the taiger diamonds
wre fafohni and ruined thereby. The material from the vau is
araned and jigged, and of the jig concentrates containing about
3% of diaoionds the coancr are hand-picked and the finer are
tr.ited 00 a greased surface.
Lead 2nd copper ores contain their values in brittle minerals, and
ve OQoceatratcd in milb which vary somewhat according to local
ondituos: the one here outlined b typical of the class. The ore is
cTJifaed by breaker and rolls, and separated into a scries of products
dBsiaishii^ in siae by a set of screens, hydraulic classifier and box
cBaaAer. Ail the products of screens and hydraulic classifiers are
k^cd oa separate iigs yielding concentrates, middlings and tailings;
tkw of the box cfaasiher are treated on the sUme-tabk*. vanner or
Vl^y taUe. yielding concentrates and tailings and perhaps midd-
Bsts. The coarser middlings contain values attached to grains of
jMitz aad are therefore sent back to be re*crushed and ire-treated.
TWfiacr middlincs contain values difficult to save from their shape
csly. ittd are sent l»ck to the same machine or to another to be
ini^itd.
The native copper rock of Lake Superior is broken by powerful
beaten, somctima
ttna,]iioreoi
y*Mat rich ,_._ . . .^ ..
ndtcr; at some mines a aecond grade is also picked out which goes
A a ttttn fiflishing-hafluner and yields cleaned mass copper for the
■aeittr and rich stamp stuff. The run of rock which passes by the
^^•picbers is of a siae that will pass through a bar screen with bars
3 is. apart, and goes to the steam stamps. The stamp crushes the
pck aad discharges coane oop(>er through a pipe 4 in. in diameter,
is «^kh it descends against a rising stream ot water which lifts out
ite filter nek. The copper is let out about onoe an hour by opening
> |Ke at the bottom. Toe rest of the cock is crushed to pass through
lanes with round holes i in. in diameter, more or less. This sand
a ticatcd in hydraulic classifiers with four pockets^ the products
tram the pockets being jigged by four roughing-jigs yielding finished
■iatal copper for the smelter, tndudod jcraina for the grinder,
Pi'ttriljr ooaoentrated products for the fimshing-jigs. and tailings
«» 10 to waste. The overfiow of the hydraulic dusifier runs to a
Oak of which the overflow is sent to waste in order to diminish the
quality of water, while the discharge from beneath, treated upon
wne-uUes, yields concentrates, middlings- and taiiinga. The
•^id&ifi are re-treated. All the finished concentrates put together
^ astty from 60 to te% of copper according to drcumstances.
Tw extraction from the rock is from 50 to 80% of the copper eon*
hned in it.
ComaU Tin. — ^Tmstone in Cornwall occurs associated with
wshtdcs. wolfiaai. quarts, felspar, sUte».Ac.. and is broken by
i^ttini-hammera to 3-in. lumps. Hammcn flB^ka kaaalixaca thaa
JU15
the roek-breakers, and thef also Ineak the ore more advantageously
for the hand-pklong. The latter rejects waste, removes as far as
possible the hurtful wolfram, and classes the values into groups
according to richness. Gravity or pneumatic stamps then cru^ the
orp to kS >n.. and stripes (a species of long rectangular buddle) yield
heads, middlings, tailings and fine slimes: the nrat three are sent
separately to circular buddies, and the last to frames. The buddUa
yield concentrates, middlings and tailings: the middlings are re-
treated, the tailings are all waste; the concentrates are still further
enriched by kieves, which yield tops to the buddle again and bottoms
shipped to the smelter. The fine slimes are treated on frames, the
concentrates of which go to buddies; of these the concentrates go to
kieves.
The Missouri n'nc-lcad sludge mill takes the finest part of the
hutch product of the hand-jigs. The treatment begins on revolving
screens with two sizes of holes, 25 mm. and i mm. : these take out
two coarser siiaes, of whieh the coarser is waste and the other is jigged,
yielding concentrates and waste. The main treatment begins with
the finest size, which n much the largest product. It is fed to a
convex circular buddle (first huddle), and yields a coarser product at
the outer part of the drde and a finer product in the inner. The finer
product is treated by a series of buddlings which vary somewhat,
out tn geneml are as follows: fed to a second buadte it yields zinc
and lead ore in the centre, next zinc ore, next middlings which come
back, and, outdde of all, tailings. The zinc-lead ore is set on one side
until enough has accumulated to make a buddle run, when it is run
upon a third buddle yielding in the central part pure lead concen-
trates, next lead ore (which is returned to this treatment), next zinc
ore, and outside of all a zinc product which b fed to the second
buddle. The coarse outside product of the first buddle is treated to
much the same way as the fine, but it yields practically no lead zinc
product, whkh simplifies the series of buddlings necessary.
Cold Mill. — Gold ores usually contain their value in two con-
Jition»— the free gold, which can be taken out by mercury, and
the combined gold, in which the metal is either coated with or
combined with compounds of sulphur, tellurium, &c The usual
goM-milling scheme is to crush tne ore by rock-breaker to about
li in. diameter, and then to crush with water by gravity stamps, a
little mercury being added to the mortxu- from time to time to begin
the amalgamation at the first moment the gold is liberated. The
pblp leaves the mortar through a screen with holes or slots ^ to 1^ in.
in width, and is then ^ssed over amalgamated plates of copper or
silver-plated copper. The free gold, amalgamated by the mercury,
adheres to the mercurial surface on the plate; the rest of the pulp
flows on through mercury traps to catch any of the mercury, which
drains off the end of the plate. The plates and mortar are periodic-
ally cleaned up, the plates being scraped to lecoverthe amalgam and
leave them in good condition to do their work: if plates are used
inside the mdrtar, they are cleaned in the same way. The residue of
partly crushed ore in the mortar, with amalgam and free mercury
scattered through it, Is nound for a time in a baU mill, panned to
recover the amalgam, and returned to the mortar. The palp flowing
away from the mercury traps flows to a Frue vanner or Wilfley
table, on whkh it yields concentrates for the chlorination plant or
smelter and uilings: these are waste when the heavy mineral b of
low grade, but if the vanner concentrates are of high giade, they stiH
contain values in very fine sizes whkh can and should be saved.
Recent improvements in California for saving thb material have been
made. The vanner tailings are sent to a fine dassifier, from which the
light overflow only b saved; thb b treated upon canvas tables
yielding concentrates and tailings, and these concentrates, treated
upon a little end-shake vanner with steep slope and rapid travel,
give clean, very fine, h^h-grade concentrates for the ciilorination
Iran Ores. — ^Tbe brown ores of iron from surface deposits are
contaminated with a considerable amount of clay aud some quarta.
The crude ore from surface pits or shallow underground workings
n treated in* a log-washer and yields the fine cby, whkh runs to
waste, and the coarse material which b caught upon a screen and
hand-picked, to free k from the little quartz, or jigged if it contains
too much quartz. The magnetic oxide of iron oocun assocbted
with felspar and quartz, anacan often be separated from them by
the magntt. The ore, after bdag broken by breaker and roils to
a size varying from | to /t of an inch in diameter, |oes. to a
magnetk machine whkh yklds (1) the strongly magnetic, (1) the
weakly magnetic, and (3) the non<magnetk portions. The second or
middlings product contains grains of magnetite attached to quartz,
aad is therefore re-crushed and sent back to the magnets: the
strongly magnetk portion is shipped to the furnace; and the waste
to the dump heap. I n concenUatang by water certain zinc sulphides,
siderite (cvbonate of iron) follows the zinc, and would serioialy
injure the furnace work. By a carefully adjusted roasting of the
product in a furnace the siderite is converted into magnetic oxide
of iron, and can then be separated by magnet from the zinc oce. A
spedal magnet of very high power, known from its inventor as the
Wetherill magnet, has been designed for treating the franklioite of
New Jersey, a mineral which b non-magneric in the usaal maohiaea.
The ore. crushed by bitnker and rolls and haad-pkked to remove
garnet, b treated upon a belt with a roughiag magnet to take out the
moat qiagaetk portioo. and thm very dotay aiaed fay wiix i with
24'
OIU3GON
16. 34* 30 and so mohct per finetrinch. Theaevcral producuai*
treated each on its own magnetic machin^ yielding the frankUnite
for the zinc oxide grates, and followed by sptegel (urnaoc; die residue,
which is jigged, yields the sine silicate ana oxide for the spelter
furnaces, and waste carrying the calcite. quaru aAd fnica.
Asbestos, when of good guality, is in compact masses, which by
suitable bruising and beating are resolved intp fine flexible fibres.
The Canadian asbestos is associated with serpentine, and is cnMhed
by breakers to } in., screened on A-in. screens to meet 6ne& Hmt
values are removed by haad'picking and are crushed by rolls carefully
let so as not to break the fibre; this product is then sand by screens
and the various sizes are seat to the Cvclone pulverixei« which bj
beating liberates the individual fibres, ft then goes to a screen witl
and the various sizes are seat to the Cvclone pulverixei« which by
beating liberates the individual fibres, ft then goes to a screen with
eleven nohs to the linear inch, and vields a granular undersiae and
oversize, and a fibrous oversize which is drawn off by a suctioa fair
to a settling-chamber with air outleu covered by fine screen cloth.
This fibrous product is the clean mineral for the market. A special
treatment separates the fibres of different lengths.
The usual method of dressing €anmdiam and emtry, after the
oreUminary breaking, is to treat the material in an edge-stone mill
btted with light wooden rollers. The action is that of fading one
particle aninst another, when^y the talc, chkirite, mica, Ac., are
worn off from the harder mincraL A oonatant current of w^lA
carries off the lurht impurities. This b called the "muller"pPooeas.
At Corundum Hill» North Carolina, the first step in removing the im-
purities from " sand " corundum is to subject it to the soourins action
of a stream of water whik it is being sluiced from the mine tuthfi miUL
the action being increased by several vertkal drops of 5 to lo ft.
in the sluice. After reaching the mill all that wiU not pass
through a l4-mcsh screen is crushed by rolls, and the underaize of
the screen is treated in a washins trouf^b; this removes part of
the li^ht wMte, And the ** muUetm " oientiooed above oomplcte the
cleaning.
CrapkUt occurs in schist, but being of less specific gravity than the
other minerals which enter into the composition of the schist, it
settles htiu than they da It also breaks into thin scales, which,
rcducea iu settling rate still further. The ore is broken by breakers,
and by Chiki edge-stone mills or by gravity stamps, to a sice varying
with the character of the minerals from perhaps ^V to lAi in. diameter.
The pulp is then conveyed through a series a settling tanks of which
the later are luffx than the eainier. The quartz and other waitc
minerals settle in the eariier tanks, while the graphite settles later:
the latest tank gives the best graphite. In the Dixon Company's
works i n New York some forms of oonoentraton are believed to have
leplaoed the slower settling tanks.
The phospkaUs of Florida are of four kinds: hard rocL soft rock,
land pebble and river pebble. The hard rock is crushed by toothed
rolls, and cleaned in Ipg washers. The washed product b screened;
the sixes finer than A in. are thrown away because too poor; the
other sizes are dried and sold, some waste havii^ been picked out of
Che coaraest The soft rock b simply dried, ground and soU. Land
pebble b treatted by kg washers, any clay oalb remaining being re-
moved by a screen, and the phosphate dried and sold. ^.
' pebble is treated by hydrauUddng, folkwed by^a log
waiheri andthb anin by a powerful jet washer, to remove the last
the day. River pebble is taken from the river by oentrifugal pumps^
and screened on two screens with i-in. and A-in. holes respectivdy ;
the ovcrsiae of the first sieve and the undenize of the secooa sieve ai«
thrown away because of too bw grade. <R. H. R.)
ORBOOH, a North- Western state of the American Union,
on the Padfic slope, lying between 43* and 46" xS' N. lat. and
116* 33' and 134"* 3a' W. long. It b bounded N. by the sUte
of Washington, from which it b separated in part by the Columbia
river, the 46th parallel forming the rest of the boundary; E.,
by Idaho, from which it b separated In part by the Snake river;
S., by Nevada and California, and W., by the Pacific Ocean.
It has an exUeme length, £. and W., of 375 m., an eztxeme
width, N. and S., of 990 m., and a total area of 96,699 sq. m.,
of which 1093 sq. m. are water-corface.
Tppo mpky .—Tht coaat of the state ortendsin a genera! N. and S.
^imctwtt for about 300 m., and consists of k>ng stretches of sandy
beach broken oocasioaalty by bteral spurs of the Coast Ranee, which
project boklly into the sea and form high rocky h r a dhnd a with the
exception of the mouth of the Columbia river, the bayaand inleuby
which the shore b indented are small and of very little Importance^
Parallel with the coast and with its oaain axb about so m. inland b
an irregular chain of hilb known as the Coaat Range: It does not
attain a great height, but has numerous bteral spun, especially
toward the W. Euchre Peak (Lincoln county), probably the highest
Mint in the range in Oregon, rises 396a ft. above the sea. Insouthem
Oregon the general elevatiooof tlua range b greater than in the Nn
but the individual peaks are less prominent, and the range in some
tcspecta resembles a plateau, lu wcatera slope b generally hmger
aaa more gentle than the eastern. A nund)er of small streams,
among them the Nebalem, Coquille and Umpqua rivers, cut their
way Oifough the Coast Range to reach the ocean. For the greater
Vottion ^ Its leactk in Omgofl, in tfat northen half of the statsi, tte
Coast Rai«e b bordsred on the E. by the WUbmaCte Valley, a
region about aoo m. long and about 30 m. wkle, and the moat thkkly
populated portion of the slate; here, therefore, the range b easily
defined, but in the S. near the Rogue river, it mergea apparent^
with the Cascade and Uie Sierra Nevada KTountains in a large complex
group designated as the Klamath Mountains, lying partly in Ornm
and partly in California, and extending from the northem extremity
of the Sierra Nevada to the sea. The Klamath Mountains separate
phically aouthem Oregon from aorthera CaKfomia.
of ridges and peaks bearing special names, such aa the Rogoe
xiver. Umpqua and Siskiyou Mountains* bdoiw to thb group.
The Cascade Mountains, the most imporuot range m Onsoo, extend
paraltel with the coast and lie about 100 m. inlaiid. The peaks of
^'~'' system are much higher than -those of the Coast Range, varying
from 5000 to 11^000 ft., and the hjeheat of them are conea of exttacc
vokanoesb Mpunt Hood (1 1.325 ft.), which b the hidiest point in
the sUte. Mount Jefferson (10,300 ft.), the Three SisterPeaks, Mount
Adams, Bachek>r Mountain, and Diamond Peak (6807 ft.) aU have
one or more gbdcrs on their sidea. The Calapooya Mm
forming the watcr^partiiie between the WiUamette and the Un.,
rivers, are a bteral spur of the Cascades, and extend westward 1
as the Coast Range. The Cascade Mountains divide the state topo*
graphically into two shaiply contrasted pans. West of thb range the
'^"^'' ' 'surtaoestr
country exhibits a creat variety of
and densely wooded; cai
e structure, and b humid
fed; cast of the range it consists of a broken tabl»
land, arid or semiand» with a eeneral eknratioo of 5000 ft. "^ '
eaftem tableland* though ready very tugjieA and mountainous,
seems to*have few striking topona^ihic features when compared with
the more broken area V9 the W. In the north-eastern part of thb
eastern pbteau Ue the Blue "Mountaina, which have an avenge
elevation of about 6000 ft. and decline gradually toward the N. A
south-western spur, about 100 m. in len^h, and the principal ridge
toeether enckMS on several aides a wide valley dratoco by the
tributaries of the John Day river. South of these mountalna Ilea
the northern limit of the Great Basin region. In Oregon thb area
extends from the Nevada boundary northward for about 160 m., to
the head of the Silvies river, and embraces an area of about 16.000
sq. m. None of its streams reaches the sea, but all kise their waten
by seepage or evaporation. On the E., N., and N.W. the Great
Basin is bounded by the drainmrn systems of the tributaries of the
Columbb river, and on thie S.W. by the drainage system of the
Klamath river. Its boundaries, however, cannot be dnnitcly fined,
as they change with the periodaof humidity and drought. Goose
Lake, lor example, lies in the Great Basin at some seasons; but at
other times it overflo w s and becomes a part of the drainage system of
the Sacramento river. Many of the mountains within the Baiia
region consist of great faulted crust blocks* with a general N. and &
trend. One face of these mountains b usially in theformof aateep
palisade, while the other has a vecy gradual sbpe. Between these
ridgm lie almost level valleys, whose floors consist partly of hvn
* • • • ' • •• " rtlyocd
flows, partly of volcanic fra^mental materbl. and partly c
from the bordering mouataina. During the wet s e ason the vaDcys
o^ten oootaia ephemeral lakes^ n^oae waten 00 evaporating leave
a pbya, or mud flat, often covered with an alkaline encmstation of
snowy whiteness. Some large permanent lakea occupy the troughs
between faulted bkwks in southern Orwon. The greatest level, or
approxinuttely level, area in the Great Basin nfpnn et Oregon b the
so<alled Great Sandy Desert, a tract about 150 m. long and from
Kto 50 m. wide, lying in parts of CrooL Lake and Harney counties^
I surface consists of a thick riieet of pumioeous sand and dust,
from which arise occasfonal buttes and mesaa. On account of the
small amount of predpitatkm, the fissured coodition of the under-
lying bva sheets, and the porous soil, the Great Sandy Desen has
_„, no surface streams even in the wet season, and within its
Jmita no potable waten have been found. The osoat prnminrat
mountain range In the Oregon portion of the Great Basin b the
Steens Mountains in the S.E., which attain an altitude of about 9000
ft. above the sea and ofsooo ft. above Alvord Valley, which lbs
along the eastern base. Thb range b a large monodinni bkick, with
a trend almost N.E and S.W., presenting a steep escarpment toward
the E., and stoping very nadually toward the W. It exhlbita nnidi
evidence of powerful erosmn, having deq» canyons in its sides, and it
bean evidence of nrevkMsgladers. The region adioinlagthe Great
Baan on the E is usually known as the Snake River Plains^ and
embraces an area of about laoosq.m. la Malheur oounw. Herethe
hills are deeply sculptured and the valleys much carved by streams
whkh often flow through deep canyons. Where the streanw cot
their way through sheets of basaltic lava thdr banks are steep, almost
vertical diff s, but udiere they cut through sedimentary roicks the
skies have n more gentle slope. When several alternate laycn of
hard and soft rock are cut throiigh by a stream lu banks some*
tiroes have the form of stcpsi The destrucdoo of the grasses on
the hillsides by overgraang in recent yean haa increaaed the
flooding by temporary streams, and consequently has ttndfd to
deepen and inoeaae the gulleys and chaaneb of the m oun tain s
and valleys.
The state as a whole has an average elevation of 3300 ft.: with
90,300 sq. m. below 1000 fL; 19,100 sq. m. between looo and 3000
ft.; 33»y » sq. m. betw een 3000 and 9am ft.; and 33,090 aq. m.
between 3M0 and 9000 it»
LocaiMM.
Kwntyp*.
Ridiis
No
i\
OREGON
*f3
iBtMCclQMiisrivcf«iriiicaiofnnth6
. for 300 gu and wci iw t t directly the wmtwog «ll
the imporunt rivcre in the ilatieannt a few io the SMt,
and a few in the extreme E. About 160 m. from iu mouth
are the Caieadee. where the river cnu throu|h the lava bede of the
Cascade Moudtaine and makes a deioent of about 300 ft. through a
canyon 6 m. long and nearly 1 m. deep. The paeeage of vomb
through the river at this point i« made poi«ble by mcaae of locks.
Fifty-three m. farther up the etreara is a second set of rspido
known as the DaQes, where the stream for about 3 m. b conlned
within a narrow channel from 130 to mo ft. wide. The leigest
tribuury of the Columbia Is the Snake river, whkh for nearly 300 m.
of its courm forms the boundary bct w eea Oiegon and Idaho. It
Hows through a canyon from aooo to 5000 iu deep, with steep walls
of bamltic and kindred rocks. The powerful erosion has often caused
the columnar black basalt to assume weird and fantastic shapctw
The chief tributaries of the Snake river in Oregon are the Grand
Ronde, Powder. Burnt, Malheur and Owyhee rivers. The principal
tributaries of the Columbia E. of the Cascade Mountafais and lying
whollv within the state are the John Day river, whfch rises hi the
Blue Mountains and enten the Columbia 99 m. abevo the Dalles
after pursuing a winding course of about 950 m. : and the Deschutes
river, which riies on the eastern slope of the Cascade Mo(mtaino» and
after flowing northward for about 390 m. eaters the Columbia 13 m.
above the Dalles. The Deschutes river drains a rerion which is lew
arid than the plateau farther E., and which oontalna a number of
small lakes. A peculiar feature of the stream Is the uniformity of Its
volume throughout the year; the great crevasses In the lava bed
through which it flows form natural spillsrays and check any tendency
of the stream to rite within its banks. The Willamette rfver, W. of
the Cascade Mountains, is the most Important stream lying wholly
within the sute. It rises on the western slope of the Cascades and
enten the Columbia river about too m. above Its mouth, having
with its branches a length of about 300 m. In the western pairt of the
slate a number of short streams flow directly into the Pacific Ocean,
the most important of these beinff the Rogue and the Umpqoa rivers,
which have their sources in the Cascades.
In Southern Oregon, especially in the Great Basin region, there aie
noroerouB lakes. Malheur Lake. In Harney county, during the wet
n^ season is about 35 m. k>ng and has an average width of
5 or 6 m. It is not over tort, deep in any part, and b only
a Tew inches in depth a mile from the shore. In the summer most of
its bed b a pbya or mud flat. Almost continuous with this body of
water on the S.W. is Harney Lake, roughly circubr in form and
about 7-8 m. in diameter. The waters of botn lakes are alkaline, but
Malheur Lake is often freshened by overflowing into Harney Lake,
while the latter, havine no outlet, is growing continually more
alkaline. East ol the Stcens Mountains there Is a chain of very
small lakes, such as the Juniper, Manna and Alvord bkes, and also a
playa known as the Alvord Desert, wh^ch in the spring b covered with
a few inches, or perhaps i or 3 ft., of water, and becomes a lake
m-ith an area of 90 or 60 sq. m. In the summer the dry bed b smooth
and very hard, and when the skies are clear the monotony of the
kxndscape is sometimes broken by a mirage. In Lake county.
ocoipving fault-made troughs, are several brge bodies of watei^—
Lake Abert (about 5 m. by 1^ m.), Warner Lake (50 m. kmg. 4-8 m.
wide). Summer Lake (a little smaller than Abert). and Goose Lake,
the one last named lying pertly in Californb and draining into the
Sacramento system. The Vpper and the Lower Klamath bkes of
Klamath county are noted for their scenic beauty. Near the north-
western boundary of Kbmath county b the famous Crater Lake.
whose surface is 0339 ft. above the sea. Thb lake lies in a great pit
or caldcra created 1^ thewiecking in prehistoric times of the volcano
Mount Mazama. which according to geologists once had an altitude
of about 14,000 ft. above the sea and 018000 ft. above the surrounding
tableland: the upper portion of the mountain fell inward, possibly
owine to the witndrawal of interior lava, and left a crater-like rim.
or caTdera. rbing 3000 ft. above the surrounding countxy. The bke
is 4 m. wide and 6 m. long, has a depth in some i^ces of neariy
3000 ft., and is surrounded by waHs of rock from 500 to aooo ft. high.
In spite of its great elevation the bke has never been known to freexie,
and though it has no visible outlet its waters are fresb
Fauna and flt^ru.— Large game has disappeared from the settled
areas, but is still fairly abundant on the pbins of the east and among
the mountains of the west. In the mountain forests Of south-western
Oregon bears, deer, elk, pumas, wolves and foxes are plentiful.
Among the south-eastern plateaus antelope are found at all seasons,
and deer and bie-horn (mountain sheep), and occasionally a few elk.
in the winter. Bears, wolves, lynxes and foxes are also numerous in
the cast, and there the coyote b found in disagreeable numbers.
The pocket-gopher and the jack-rabbit are so numerous as to be
great pests. The principal varieties of game-birds are ducks, gccae.
8 rouse and California quail. Sage-hens are occanonally seen on the
ry plateaus and vafkrys, especblly in Harney county. The Oregon
robin {Jlierula naevia) and the Oregon snowbird {Junce Oretonm) are
common in Oregon and northward. On the rocky headlands and
iabnds of the coast nest thousands of gulls, cormorants, puffins,
guillemots, surf -ducks (OedMRSo), dotterels, terns, petrels and
Aumcfous other birds. There, too, the Steller's sea-lion lEumetcpias
|«itfin>*peadstheniatiaf eeason. The marina fauna b abundAat
aadoffitBteooMMieinpofftanDe^ The river faui* of the coast b«(
two distinct types: the type of tha Columbia faana in rivws noctb
of the Romic; and another type in the Klamath and kstribatariea.
Typical of the Columbb river is CatasUmus maenduHms and of the
Klamathf C. rimiemius. Lampreys, s tic k l eb acks, cattoids, sturgeons
—Che white stuiveon (A^iptmur Irmumonlmusy b commooly knowB
as the " (Xcaoa stusfson " — trout and salmon am the principal
anadromous fish, the salmon and trout being the most important
economically. The best varieties of the sahnon for canning are:
the king. Chinook or qainnat (OMeerkymekma tscluwyiteka), far better
than any other variety; and the staei-head, bhm bscfc or aukkegh
iO. ntrka).
The total woodbnd area of the state according to the United States
census of 1900 was 54,300 so. m. or 56'6% oithe bad area. The
Federal g overnme n t established in 1907 and 1906 thirteen forest
reserves m the state, ten of which had an area of more than I /)00,oao
acres each; their totel area on the 1st of Janaarv 1910 was 35.345
«|.in. From the coast to the eastern based the CasndeMountams
the state b heavily timbered, esuxpt in small prairies and rJparingB
in the WtUamecte and other valleys, and the moot important trse
b the great Douglas fir, pine or sonioe (Psctidolntfs ZTDnebssi),
lied Oregon pine, which sometimes grows to a ncSgfat
of 300 ft., and whkh was formerly in great demand for aaasu sumI
qsars of sailiar>vcsseb and for bridge timbera; the Douglas fir grows
more commerdal timber to the acre than any other Amencaa variety,
and constitutes about five-sevenths of the total stand of the state.
Timber b also found 00 the Blue Mountains m the north-east and on
a nambar of mountains in the central and south-eastern parts of the
state. East of the Cascades the valleys are usually treeless, save for
a few willows and oxtoowoods In the vfcbuty of streams. Over the
greater part of thb region the sage-brush b the most common plant.
and by its ubiquity it imparta to the bndscape the monotonous
neybb tint so characteristic of the arid regionsol the western United
States. West of the Cascades most of the trees of commercbl value
consist of Douglas fir. Cedar and hemkxk also are commerdally
valuabbi There are small amounu of sugar pine, ydlow pine, red
fir and silver fir (Abitt ramdis and A. n^is) and spnioe; and
among the broad-leaved varieties tha oak. ash. maple, mahogany*
birch or mountain mahofany (Cmcacerpnf MifoUm}, *9^« cotton-
wood and balmm ai* the most common. East of the Cascades the
foresta consist for the most part of yellow pine. In the south-east the
Mils and tower slopes of the mountains are abnest bare of trees. At
higher altitudes^ nowevar, tha moisture increases and scattered
junipera begin to appear. Blending with these at their upper limit
and continuing above them are dumps of mountain mahogany,
whidi sometimes attains a height of 30 or 30 ft. Above thb belt 9
mahogany, pines and fire are sometfanes found. In thb region the
mountains have an upper, or cold, timber Hne. the height of which
depends upon the severity of the climate, and a lower, or dry. timber
line, whfeh b determined by the amount of raiofalL Theee upper and
lower limita of the timber belt are sometimes very sharply defined,
so that tall mountains may be marked by a dark girdle of forest,
above and below which appear walls of bare rock. In a very arid
region the dry timber line may rise above the cold timber fiae, and in
such a case the mountain will connuino forests, Of thb phe n omenon
the Steens Mountains furnish a consfMCuous example. It waa
estimated that the forests of Oregon contained in 1900 about
150,000.000,000 ft. of Douglas fir or spruce, 40.000,000.000 ft. of
yeltow pine and 3SAWX>oo.ooo ft of other s p ecks ch iefly cedar.
hemlock and spruce. In the most heavily wooded region along the
Pacific coast and the lower course of the CdumMa river are foresta of
the Dougbs fir with stands of 100.000 ft. of timber per acre. The
value of the lumber and timber producta increased from tt .014.91 1
In 1870 to S6.530.757 m 1890, to 110,357,169 in 1900, and to
•i»j4«3.908 injW
C/tsMfr.— Perhaps
variations in its climate 1
b humid, mild and unifo _ _ ^
like the climate of the British Isles; In the eastern two-thirds of the
state, from which the m<Msture>bdeifi winds are excluded by the high
coastwise mountains, the climate b dry and marked by great daily
and annual ranges of temperature. The mean annual temperature
varies «rith the elevation end the distance from the sea, being highest
ak)ng the western sbpe of the Coast Range at altitudes below aooo
ft., and h>west in the elevated regkms E. of the Cascade Moumains.
The temperatures along the coast are never as high as 100* F. or as
low as lero. In the valleys between the Coast Range and the Cascade
Mountains the range of temperature b much greater than it b afong
the coast; the absolute maximum and minimum being respectively
103* and -a* at Portbnd, in the N. W.. and 108* and -4* at Aahbnd.
in the S.W. Owing to its greater efevation the southern portion
of Oregon experiences greater extremes of temperature tmn the
northern. In that part of the state E. of the Cascades the dimate b
of a continental type, with much greater ranges of temperature than
in the W.. although in a few knr valleys, as at the tulles, the
extremes are somewhat modified. While flowcre bloom throughout
the year at Ponbnd. frosts have occurred in every month of the
year at Lakeview, in the Great Basin. At Astoria, near the mouth of
the ColurobU river, the mean annual temperature is 53* F., wkh
extremes recorded of 97* and lO*: but at SIvcr Lake, m the GicM
laps no state In the unkm has such great local
:limate as has Oregon. Along the coast the climate
nd uniform, and. as has often been remarked, very
24+
ORSGON
Buin TCffioa, whik the mean annual teomsitui* b ^ , the
and loweat ever fccocded ace leapectivMy UH* mo ^^*'
ROKds affood a striking illuatntion of the moderating influ
hehMieat
!•. These
of
the ocean upon dimate.
As is the case in all the Pacific stabts, the anuMint of rainfall de-
cfeaaea from N. to S., and is greatest oii the aeawaid slopes of the hills
and mountains. As the winds from the ocean are derived of their
notsture oo reaching the Coast and Cascade mnges, the amount of
«Miual precipitation, which in the coast coontiea varies from 75 to
13B in., oonstantly diminishes toward the E. until in the extreme
aouth-eaatem part of the state it amounts to only about 8 in. No
other state, except perhaps Washington, has such a great variation
in the amount of its rainlaU. Prsoptthtioo on the Coast Range at
altitudes above aooo ft. amounu to ahuit 138 in. annually ; in the
valleys E. of this range it Taries lirom ao<2 in. at Ashland to 78*2 in.
«t INxtlond. (Hi the western slope of the Cascades it varies from
SO in. in the S. to too in. in the N.; in the Columbia Valley the
aanount is from 10 to 15 in.; in the valleys and Coothilla of the Blue
Mountains, la to aj in.; and in the plateau region of central and
«outh<astcm Onson, 8 to 22 in. In the region W. of the Cascade
Mountains there is n 8o<alled wet season, which lasts from Ocrober
to March* and the aummers are almost rainless. In the rest of the
atate there is a maximum rainfall in the winter and a s eco n da r y wet
aeason in May and June, with the rest of the summer very dry.
During the wmter the prevailing winds are from the S. and bring
moiatnre: during the summer they are from the N.W< and are
accompanied bv doudless skies and modexBte tempeiaturest Winds
from the N£. bring hot weather in the auaimer and intense coM ia
the winter.
5mfs.— The atate has ahnoat as great a variety of aoiiaaa of diauttc.
Intbe^^Uamctte Valley the soils are mostjyday loama,of a basaltic
nature on the foothills and greatly enriched in the tiytr bottom lands
hy washings from the hills and by deposits of rich black humua. Ia
nouth>weslern Oregon, in the Rogue and Umpqua valleya, the char-
acteristic soil is a reddish day, though other varieties are auraeroua.
In eastern Oregon the soils are of an entirdy different type, being
usually of a greyish appearan<:e. lacking in humus, and compoaed et
vdcaaic dust and alluvium from the uplands. They are deep, of
fine texture, easily worked and contain abundant plant food ia the
form of soluble compounds of caldum, sodium and potaaium. At
times, however, these salta are present in such exoessaa to render the
floils too alkaline for plant growing. Where there is no excess of
alkali and the water supply is sufhcient, good onopa can be grova
ia this soil without the use of fettUiacn.
ApiaitMn and iSfocik-JSauiag.—OrefOfl haa aome of the mort
proauctive agrkultuial lands in the United Statca, but they are
lather limited in extent, beii^ confined for the most part to the
valleys west ol the Cafiradr Nloutttaina and the counties bordering
on the Columbia river cast of these mountaina. The other parts of
the state are generally too dry or too OKmntainoua for grqinng crops,
but contain considerable areas suitable for giasiag. la 1900 only
about one<«xth of the total land surface was i nd uaed in farms, and
a trifie less than one-third of the farm land araa impaoved. There
wtre 3S1837 farma. and their average siae was 481 acres. Of the whole
' r 33*0% (11,8)7) contained leas than 100 acres each.
K> acres each, 30'5%
I, and 104% (3727).
> acres or laore eaclK
(■>.0SS) contained from 100 to 175 acres each,
devoted mainly to stock«faiaing, contained 500 (
Neariy four-fifths of the farms (23.636) were operated by owners or
part owners, 37^9 wc<« operated by share tenants, 2^7 by cash
tenants and 835 by owners and tenanu or managers. The prmdpal
crops are wheat, oats, hay, fniita, hops, potatoes andmiscdUoeous
vegetables. Sheep and cattle are raised extensively on ranches in the
aemi-arid regwns, large herds of cattle are kept on lands too wet for
cultivation m the western countieik and stock-raising and dairving
have become important factors in the operation of many of the best
farms. The acreage of wheat was^iOfOoo in 1909 and the crop was
16,377.000 bushels. The oat crop was 10^886,000 bushels. The barley
crop was 1,984,000 bushels. The nights are so cool that Indian corn
is successfully erawn only by careful cultivatbn, and the crop
amounted to onj^ S53.ooo bushels m 1909. The hay crop. 865,000
'imadec
i quite largely from wild glasses and grains cot
green; on the irrigated lands alfalfa is grown extenijvely for the
tons m 1909, ts n
cattle and dicep, which are otherwise almost wholly dependent for
sustenance upon the bunch grass of the semi-arid plains. Both cattle
and sheep ranches in the region east of the Cascade Mountains nave
been considerably encroached upon by the appropriation of lands
for acicultural purposes, and the cattle, also, have been forced to the
south and east oy the grazing of ahcep on lands forroeriy reserved
for them; but the nunibers ot both cattle and sheep on the farms
have become much larger. The whole number of sheep in the state
was 2,581,000 in 1910. The number of cattle other than dairy oows
was 6^,000 and that of dairy cows 174,000. The dairy busineas is a
promising industry in the (armtag nsions, especially in the Willam-
ette Valley. The number of horses m 1910 was 308,000. The small
number 01 swine (267,000 in 1910) is partly due to the small crop of
Indian com. Fruit-growing has been an increasingly important
industry in the region between the Cascade and Coast Range? and
(to a less degree) east of the Cascade Range: and the cultivation of
apdes ii especiailly important. The cultivation of hops was bcfun
ia Oregon about 1850; the soil and dimate of the Willamette \'Jiip^
were found to be eimtfwIiBgiy favourable to tfadr growth. Md the
product increased to 20,qooi,OQD lb in 1903, when tha stAte (uhed
Brat in the Union in this mdustty.
The agricultural reronroes of the atate may be coasidenUy in-
creaaed 1^ irrigation east of theCascade Mouotain^ The irrigated
areas, which are widely distributed, increiarri from a total of 177^944
acres in 1889 to 388,310 acres in 1002. Ia 1 894 Congresa p a s sed the
" Carey Act " which authoriaea the Secretary of the latcrior. with
the approval of the I^reaident, to donate to eadi of the ilatea in which
there are Federal deaert laads as much of suc^ landi (kae than
id00o/)QO acres) ^ the atate may apply for, an coaditloo that the
state reeiaim by irrigation, cultivatioa and occupancy not less thaa
ao acren of each i6o»«cre tract within ten yean^ and under the
operaiioa oi this Act the state chose 433.ao3 acres for redanation,
mostly in the baain of the Deschutes river. Forthennore there is
a atate assoeiatioD engaged ia irrtgatmn projecta, and the United
Sutes RbclaflMtMm Service, established by an Act of C«imm in
1902. haa projects Cor utilidag the flood watera of the Umatilla,
Malheur, Sdviea and Grande Ronde rivers, the waten of the Owyhee
and Wallowa rivera and Willow Creek, and the waters of aome el the
lakea>in theeentralpait of the aute. Two of these prqiccu had been
begun by 1909; the Umatilla project ia Umatilla county, to isrioate
30*440 acres with water diverted from the Umatilla river by a dam
(9ft ft. high, 3S0O ft. Jong) 2 an. above Echo, with a reaervoir of 1500
acres, was autborired in 190S and was 85! % finished in 1909; the
Klamath projea, to irrigate 181,000 acres in Klamath oouaty.
Chtgon (about 145.000 acres) and Siskiyou and Modoc counties,
Calitornia^ bv two canals from Upper Klamath Lake and by a storage
dam (33 It. high. 940 ft. long) in the Clear Lake reaervoir of 25,000
acroi, waaauthorued in 190^ and was 38% completed in 1909. It
haa been estimated that the irrigated and irrigable area undo- private
canals is about 80.000 acres, and that that still undisposed of in 1909,
irrigated by the eute under the Carey Act, amounted to ito^ooo
Fishninf^XYtt Columbia river has k>ng been famous for its aalmoa.*
and aa the supply seemed threatened with cxhaustioa for 8e\'eral
yeare following the maximum catch in 1883, the state legislature in
1901 passedan act establishing a dace season borh early in the apring
and late in the summer andprohibiting any fishiiuz, except with
hook and line, at any time, without a Ucenqe. In 1908 two laws pro-
poecd by initiative petition were passed, stopping all fishing by night
and fishmg in the navigable channels of the lower river, limiting the
length of seines to be used in the lower river and abolidiing the use
of gear by fishermen of the upper river — the mouth of the Sandy
river, in Multnomah county, heing the dividing line between the
upper and k>wer Columbia. Severalhatcfaeries have been establidied
by the state .authorities of Oregon and Washington and by the
Federal government for propagatmg the best varieties; the Chiaooks
\0. isekawytuha\ the blncbacks (O. fMrha)and, whea the bluebacks
became scarce, sdversides XO. kuuUk). yhe total catch of salmon
on the Oregon side of the Columbia river m iQOi was 16,725435 lb;
from this it rose to 24,575.228 lb in 1903, but tell to 18.151,743 ih ia
1907 and 18,463,546'in 1908. Salmon are caught in smaller quantities
in the coast streams: 4.371,618 lb in 1901 and 8,043,690 lb in 1906,
but only 6,738,68s fit in 1907 and 6422,51 1 &> in 1908. Some catfish,
shad, smelt, halibut, hemng. perch, stureeon, flounders, oysters,
dams, crabs and crawfish are also obtained Trom Oregon waters.
iluKraAr.-^^Id was discovered in the Rogue and Klanuth riven
in the S. part of Oregon in i8u, and placer-mining was prosecuted
here without interruption untu i860, when the txneui waa found in
larger quantities on the streams in Baker and Grant counties in the
north-eastern part of the state. Quarta-mining haa since very largely
taken the place of placer-mining, out the two prindpal gdd-produdng
districts are still that traverseo by the Blue Mountains in the north-
eastern quarter and that drained by the Rogue river in the south-
western c3orner,a continuation of the California field. The value of
the total output of the sute was $2,113,356 in 1894, but only
$S6^j0fj6 in 1908. Silver b obtained almost wholly in the form of
state. aithou[j^ there are outcroppiqgs of the mineral all along the
Coast Range N. of the Roeiie river, along the W. foothills 01 the
Cascade Range and in the Blue Mountains; this coal is suitable for
steam and heating purposes but will not coke. The quantity of the
output was 86,259 short tons in 1908. Copper ores are known to be
quite wUely distributed in the mountain districts, but there haa
been little work on any except some in Josephine and Grant counties:
in 1908 the state's output amounted to 291,377 &> of ooi>per. Iroa
ore, platinum, lead, quicksilver and cobalt have been ofa^ned in the
state in roercbantabfe quantities, and there is some zinc ore !n the
Cascade Range. In Union county b a great amount of blue lime-
stone, and there is limestone, also, in Baker, Grant, Wallowa, Jackson
and fosephine counties. Sandstone is abundant, and there is some
firamte* in the Coast Range. A variegated marble is obtained in
Douglas county » and other marbles are found in several countiea.
Qays suitable for making brick and tile are found in nearly every
part of the state: in 1908 the clay producta of the state were valued
at $555,768. Soapstone is abundant in both the E. and W. countiea
' Ochre, or mineral paint, and mineral waters, too, are widdy
OREGON
Them it mam ro^fiat f^^ <l«^ th» Rmiw rivo',
muumI cement, nickel ore. biemutk and wolf nmite in Dougfiscountv.
gypsum in Baloer county, fiie-clay in Clatsop county, borate of aoda
on the marsh landt of Harney county, infuiorial earth and tripoli
in the valley of the Deschutes riv«r, chramate of iron in Curry
and Douglas counties, molybdenite in Union county, bauxite jn
Clackamas county, borate oi lime in Curry county, nuuigancse qre jin
Columbia county, and asbestos in several of the southern and
eastern counties. The total value of all mineral products in 1908 was
i/aiMj/a«fifr««.--<Manufacturine is encouregod both by the variety
and abundance of raw material tumished by the mines, the forests,
the farms and the fisheries} and by the coal and irt'tr :;—r:tr r.-iil-
able for operating the machinery. The total valuta <ii inMumi^ i urcs
increased from 110,031.333 in 1880 to 141432,174 ■» it^ju. or ij^%
in ten yeanu and althoiign pro gi rs s was slofW fnoni 1 ^ 10 t^cio t Kere
was a rapid advance again from 1900 to 1905, %ritrt ihc valui- of
factory products increased from t36.593.714 to 15^.5^5,1 ?j- The
oianttfaGtarca of greatest value are lumber anrl umli,:^r prdcliicts
($13483.908 in 1905). Portland and Astoria art; the c>iic( m-tnu-
tacturtng centres; in 1903 the value of the factorv ptoOucu cf 1 hese
two cities was 37*3% of that oC the factory prtNJuct* or th^t enure
state.
TramptrMim and CMNiwrti.'— For 1 10 ra. from the mouth of the
Columbia river to Portland, 13 m. up the Willaractte liver, b a
channel whkh in 1909 was navigable (20>^3 ft. deep) bv larve ocean-
going vessels, and which will have a minimum depth of 35 ft. at low
water apon the compfetkm of the Federal project of 1903. From the
mouth of the Willamette river vessels of light dnk ascend the
Columbia (passing the Cascade Falb through alock canal. Which was
opened in 1806 and has a depth of 8 ft., a width of 93 ft. and two
locks, each 4/ba ft. long) to the mouth of the Snake river (in the state
of Washington), up that river to the mouth of the Imnaha, in
Wallowa county, on the eastern boundary ol Oregon, and. when the
water u high, up the Imnaha river to the town of Imnaha, ^16 m.
from the sen. The Willamette river is navigtsble to Hamsburg,
133 m. above Portland, but boats seldom go farther up the river
than Corvallis, 1 19 m. above Portland, and the depth at low water
CO CoKvaHis is only 3 f t. Oothecoast, Coos Bay. a tidal estuary, is
the principal harbour between the mouth of the Columbia and San
Frandaco; it admits veisela drawing 1^ to 16 ft. of «ratcr, and both
Che north and south forks of the Com nver are navigable for vessels
of light draft (the depth at lew water b only 1 '3 ft.) 14 m. from the
mouth of that river, and 8*3 m. on each fork. Farther north.
Yaqutna Bay and Tillamook Bay also adroit small steamboats.
The Coquille river b navisable (or about 37 nu, the Yiqoina river
for 33 m. with a depth 01 13 to 15 fc, the Siuslaw river for 6 m.
(for vesseb drawing less than 6 ft., 13 m. farther for very light
draft veaseb) and a few other coast stretait for short distances.
The beginntfw of railway building in Oreeon was dehyed a few years
bv a contest between parties desiring a line on the east side of the
Willamette river and parties desiring one on the west side. Finally,
cm the 14th ol Mav 186B. ground was broken for the propoaed line on
the west side, and two days bter it waa broken for one en the cast
side : that on the east side was completed for ao nu south of Portland
fan 1869 and that en the west side was completed ts the Yamhill river
in 1873 In 1870 the mileage was 199 m. The principal period of
railway building was from 1880 to 1890. durinr whieh 931 •97 m. were
built and the state's mileage increassd from 508 m. to 1439*97 m.
In 1909 the total mileage waa 3089*46 m. Theee b a atate raiU
way commission. The principal rsilwaya are: that of the Oreeon
Railroad & Navigation Compare f. ntmnr- -^^ "^ " ' "^dftc).
whkrh crosses the north-eastcrv" -. 'M' .■i.^:>. »...,,.......,. .slong
the bank of the Cohimbb ri S^^nl.jfid; throf Imiir-s <l the
Southern Pacific in the Wilbn . : Lh v , t he m'l i n I b nr ^ ^ »\ r^^jcthig
Portland with San Francisco: l . A.;u[Ld & CobmLLi Rivli, con-
necting Portland and Astoria: ihc Cu^k Ii.iy^ RoMburji ^ J-loatem
Railroad A Navigation Compjny f owned by th* SovTliL-m Pjcilic).
connecting Coos Bay with one of ttic Southern Piclfv line*^ And the
CorvalUs & Eastern (owned by tht Souihtm Pacific^ f'^riniTcting
Yaquina Bay with all three line ^'of thf^Scmtbcfn Fadftr^ l^n. i;{hoat
the Cascade Mountain Region 4ind lUc E^rcjt » mi- arid w^y^-i^ i ast of
those mountains, which togethn L-julr^ce mote tJuu iw.j-ihLfds of
the state's area, there b not a railway.
The state carries on an extensive commerce with the Orient and
with the Canadian provinces. Its exports are principally lumber,
wheat. live-stock, fish and wool; its imports are largely a variety of
products of the Oriental countries. There arc four customs districts :
fiouthem Oregon, with Coos Bay as the port of entry; Willamette,
with Portland as the port of entry; Oregon, with Astoria as the port
of entry; and Yaquina, at the mouth of the Yaquina river.
PopulaHon. — ^The population of Oregon was 13,394 in 1850;
53»465 in i860; 90,913 in 1870; 174,768 in 1S80; 317,70401 1890;
4t3,S36 in 1900, an increase of 30'3%ia the decade; and 671.765
In 1910, a further increase of 61*7%. Of the total populatk>n in
1900, 347i7M, or 84«i%, were native-born, 65,748 were foreign-
bom, 394t583i or 9S'4%* were of the while race, and 18,954
845
Of Uiose born within the United Suttt only
164,431, or less than one-half, were natives of Oregon, and of
those bom in other sUtee of the Union 128,654, or about seven-
tenths, were natives of one or another of the following states:
Missouri, lUinob, lows, Ohio, Califonua, New York» Indiana,
Kansas, Washington, Wisconsin and Penns^vania. Nearly
thrco4ourths of the foraign4x>m were composed of the following:
13,393 Germans, 9365 Chinese, 9007 Scandinavians, 7508
Canadians, 5663 English and 4210 Irish. The coloured popula-
tion consisted of 10,397 Chinese^ 4951 Indians, 3301 Japanese
and 1x05 negroes.
The Indians are lemnaats of a targe number of tribes, moat of
which are aboriginal to thb region, and they represent ten or mom
dbtinct linguistic stocks. Most of them have been collected under
five government schoob; the CUckamas, Cow Creek, Cabpooya,
Lakmiut. Mary's River, Mobb. Nestucca, Rogoe River, Santbm.
Shasta, Tumwater, Umpqua, M^pato and Yamhill, numbering las
in 1909, under the Grande Ronue school, on the Grande Ronoe
reservation in Polk and Yamhill counties; the KUmath (638),
Modoc (216), Paiute (103), and Pit River or Achomawi (36), under
the Kbmath school on the Kbmath reser«atk>n (i362'8 so. m.) In
Kbmath and Lake counties; the Alsea, CoquiUe, Kusan. Kwatami,
Rogue River. Skoton. Shasta, Saiustkea, Siuslaw. Tututni, Umpqua
and several other small tribes, numbering 442 in 1909, under the
Silctz school, on the Silets reservation (s sq. m.) in Lincoln
county: the Cayuse. Umatilb and WalbwaUa. numbering 1203 in
1908, under the Umatilb school, on the Umatilb reservation (124*73
sq. m.) in Umatilb county, and the Paiute, Tenino, Warm Springs
and Wasco Indbns. numbering 765 in 1909. under the Warm
Springs school on the Warm Spnngs reservatmn (S03'99 sq. m.) In
Wasco and Crook counties. Most of the Indbns are engaged In
fanning and stock-raising, but a few still derive their maintenaace
mainly from fishing and bunting.
Roman Catholics are the most numerous religious sect b
the state (in 1906 out of a total of 120^229 communicants of
all religions bodies, they numbered 35,317)* The rural popub-
tion (f.^ -population outside of incorporated places) b very
sparse, only about 2|, in 1900, to the square mile, and while
it increased from 203.973 in 1890 to 229,894 in 1900, or only
ti'3%t the urban (i.c popubtion of places having 4000 in-
habitants or more) together With the semi-urban {i.e. poptriatkm
of incorporated places having less than 4000 inhabitants) b-
creased during the same dcatde from 113,731 to 183,642, or
6i'5%. The principal cities an Ptetland, Astoria, Baker
City and Salem, which b the capitaL
Administraihn.— The state b still governed under its original
constitution of 1857, with the amendments adopted in 1903,
1906 and 1908. Thb constitution may be amended: by a
majority of the popular vote at a reguUr general electioo, if
the amendment has been passed by a majority vote of all the
elected membera of each bouse of the legisUture; or by an
initiative petition; or by a constitntional convention, whidi
may not be called, however, tmless the bw providing for It
B approved by popular vote. The right of suffrage b conferred
by the constitution upon all white male citizens twenty-one
years of age and over who have resided in tbe state during the
six Months immedbtefy preceding the election, and upon every
white male of the required age who has been a resident of the
state for six months, and who, one year before the election,
has declared hb intention of becoming a dtiiett and who has
resided in tbe United Sutes for one year and in tbe state for
six months prior to the election. Idiots, insane peisons and
persons convicted of serious crimes are disfranchised. The
clause excluding negroes and Chinese from the suffrage has
never been repealed, although it has been rendered nugatory
by the Fifteenth Amendment to the Federal Constitution.
Another provision which has been annulled by amendment
to the Federal Constitution, but which still remains in the state
constitution, b a cbuse forbkkling free negroes or mubttoes.
not residing in the state at the time of the adoption of the
constitution, to enter tbe state or to own real esUte or make
contracts snd maintain suits therein, and bidding the legislature
provide for the removal of such negroes and raulattoes and
for the punishment of persons bringing them into the state,
or employtni; or harbouring them. The constitutkm provkies
that no rtiinaman^ not a resident of the state at the time of
346
OREGON
the adoptSon of tlie constitution, shall ever bold tny ltd crttle
or mining claim, or work any mining dalm in the state.
The chief eiecntive functions are vested in a governor, who
b dected for a term of four years, and who miist be at least
S^ years old and must have been a resident of the state for
three years before his election. He b not eligible to the office
for more than eight years in any period of twelve years. He
has the right of pardon and a veto of legislative acts, which
may be overridden by a two*thirds vote of the members present
of each house of the legislature. The other important adminis-
trative officers are the secretary of state (who succeeds the
governor if he dies or resignsr-tbere is no Ueutenant-govemor),
treasurer, attorney-general, superintendent of public instrtiction
and labour commissioner. No public officer may be Impeached,
but for sufficient cause the governor may remove a justice of
the supreme court or a prosecuting attorney from office, upon
a joint resolution of the legislature adopted by a two-thirda
vote io each house. A public official may be tried for Incom-
petence, corruption gr malfeasance according to the .regular
procedure in criminal cases, and if convicted he may be dis-
missed from office and receive such other penalties as the law
provides.
The leaialative department (officially called "the legislative
assembly ) constsu 01 a Senate of thirty' mcmbefs choocn for four
years, with half the membership retiring every two years, and a House
of Rejxtsentativcs with sixt^r^ members elected biennially. A
senatorial district, if it contatos more than one couflty. mubt be
composed of contiguous counties, and 00 county may be divided
between dtifefcnt senatorial districts. The sessiuns of the Icsislature
are biennial. Bills for raising revenue must originate in the Rouse of
Representatives, but the Senate may offer amendments. Until 1903
the legislature was the sole law-makinr body in the state, but on the
and of June of this year the voters adopted a constitutional amend-
ment which declared that " the people rcKrve to themselves pother
to propose laws and amcodments to the constitutwn. and to enact or
reject the same at the polls, independent of the legislative assembly,
and also reserve power at their own option to ai>prove or reject at
the polls any act of the legislative assembly." This provision Tor the
initiative and the referendum was made ettective by a legislative act
of 1903. Eight per cent of the number of voters who at the last
preceding ckxtion voted for a justice of the supreme court, by filing
with the secretary of state a petition for the enactment of any law or
constitutional amendment— the petition must contain the full text of
. the law and roust be filed at least four months before the electbn at
which it is to be voted upon — may secure a vote on the proposed
measure at the next general ekction. and if it receives the approval of
the voters It becomes a law without interposition of the legislature,
and goes into eifect from the da)r of the governor's proclamatioo
announcing the resalt of the election. A referendum of legislative
enactments may be ordered in two ways: the legislature itself may
refer any of its acts to the pet^le for approval or rejection at the next
regular election. In which case the act may not be vetoed by the
governor and does not go Into effect until appioved at the potla; or
A % of the number of voters at the last elcctk>n for a supreme conrt
for
to 1 ^
petition must be filed within ninety dayii after the adjournment of
the session in which the act was passed. The socfctary of state is
•BQuirad to mail to every voter whose address he hsaa pamphlet
containing the text of the laws to be voted upon at the ensuing
mentsin , _ ^ „
measure and the cost 01 the extra printing Is paid by the initiators.
I.. "\ , ' ' y the expense of the printing
may submit arguraenu in opposition to any proposed measure, ana
I. Along with the text of the law, the state will print argu-
n Its favour if any are submitted by the persons initiating the
e and the cost 01 the extm printing Is paid by the initiaton
In like manner, any one who wiU defray the expense of the printin
may submit arguraenu in opposition to any proposed measure, am
these will be included in the pamphlet and distributed by the state
at iu own expense. This " text-book ** for the voters contained 60
page* in 1906 and is6 pages in 1908.
The power of the initiative was first exercised by the people of
Oregon in 1904, when they proposed and enacted a local option liouor
law and a direct ^mary law. As a result of the nrst of tnese
measures, in 1908 nineteen of the thirty-three counties of the state
had prohibited the sale of intoxicants since 1905. The most important
effect of the direct primary law has been the.cboicc of Unitto States
■enators by what is practically a popular vote. Candidates for the
United States Senate are voted for in the primaries, and between 1904
and 1909 candidates for the state legislature were required to say
whether or not they would 'Support the people's choice for United
' The constitution set 30 ns the maximum number of senators,
60 as the maximum number of representatives, and provided for 16
senators and 34 representatives in 1857-1860. It provided for an
enumciation and a reapportionment cada tenth year after 1865.
Stsitet aenator wgu^ it m of iMr own piefersnees.* In the suta
election in June f 908 a Democrat received the flilghest popular vote
for the senatorship, and as a majority of the legislature of 1909 had
committed itsetf to vote for the people's chofee, he was olceced by
that body, although five-sixths of its members were Repoblicans.*
This was an anomaly in Amerkan |x>litics. In June 1906 five lawe
and five amendments to the constitutmn, proposed by initiative
petitions, and one law on which the referendum was onlersd by
petition, were submitted to a popubr vole. An ameadment giving
women the right to vote was defeated. and among thoseadopled was
one providing for the Initiative upon snedal and loeal taws and parts
of laws, and another giving cities and towns the cadoslve rbht to
amend their own charters, subjcet only to the cunstitutk-
Mi oonsisteo 01 eici«n laws or oou-
led by initiative petition, four coo-
I to the peopb by the legislature, and
B had ordered a referendum. Among
enact or A , — , ,
and the criminal bws. Oregon was thus the first American stttc
to grsnt complete home rok to its municipslities. At the election
in J one 1908 the number of initiative and referendum mensum
atnouMed to nineteen, and the ballot required forty-one sepaaatc
marks and was over a| ft. long.
The mcasurss to be voted on consisted of eleven laws or oon-
stitutional 1
stitutional amendments referred t
four laws upon winch the votcn li
the measures defeated were the fourth woman's suffnage amendment
voted down in Oregon, a shrgl&'tax biB and an *' open town '* bill
designed to defeat the purpciic of the kical option Uquor law. Amone
the measures adopted were: a. law (of doubtful ooastitutionalicy)
requiring legisUtore to vote for the people's choice for a United
Sutes senator«-Hhis was adopted by a vote of 69.666 to ai,i63: a
eorrupt practioes act, rcsnlatmg the expenditure of moneys in
politkal campaigns and limiting a candulase's ea p eus es to one-
founh of one year's salary: an amendment permittiiy the establish-
ment of state insrittttions elsewhere than at the capital: an amend-
ment changing the time of sute elections from June ta November;
aa amendment permitting the legisbtnre to pass a Uw providing for
proportmnal . refMesenuoon, f.e. repcesenmtion for each pobiical
party in proportion to iu numerical strength, by providing for first
and second chokx in voting^-the svstem of preferential voting
adopted in Idaho in 1900: and the '^recall." by which the voters
may remove from ofllce after six months' service by a special eleaioo
any local official.^
jM^MMfy.— The judicial depaitmcnt of the sUte comists of a
supreme court, cireuit coorts, eounty courts (held by a county judge
in each county) and the courts of local jostioes of the peace. The
supreme court consists of five (before 1^ the number was three)
justices elected for a term of six years, and its jurisdiction extends
only to apfwals from the jdedsions of the ciicuit courts. Thejud|i;es
of the circuit courts were fonneriy supreme court justices on ctreuit :
they also are chosen for six years, and they have cognisance over all
inchiding appeals from inferior courts, not specifically re-
' '~ ' ' 01 the cou
served by law for soose other tribunaL The judges <
t county
courts are elected for four years, and their courts have jurisdictMn
over probate matten, dvif cases involving amounts not exceeding
$500^ and criminal cases In which the ofl[enoe is not punishable by
death or imprisonment in the penitentiary. Each county b divided
into a number of di^tricu or precincts, for each of whkh there b a
justkse of the peace, elected bienniaUy and having ju ri sdi cti o n io
LotBoi C s mrwn si w I.'-For the purposes of local gnvemmeat the
state b divided iato thirty-^our counties. The constitutmn provides
that no county nay havean area of less than 400 sq. m., and that no
new oouttty may be created unless iu population b at least isoo.
that no county nay have an area of less than 400 sq.
new oouttty may be created ankss its population b at le
County afiaire are admintstered by the county judge acting with two
Any portion of a county oontaining as many as 1^
tts may be incorporated as a town or city, and as such it
complete seU'govemment in all purely kxal matters* even
* Before 1904, under a law of 1901 . the peof^e voted for candidates
for the United Sutes Senate, but the legisUiivc assembly was in no
way bound to carry out the decision of the popular vote; and io
1904 the legisbture chose as United States senator a candidate for
whom no votes had been cast in the popular election.
' It u to be noted that the Republican party had not favoured
requiring a pledge from members of the legislature that they would
vote for the people's choice for senator: that the Dcmocratk candi-
date for senator (Gov. C. E. Chamberlain) was a prominent
advocate of the initutive, the referendum and the direct election of
United States senators: and that a wing of the Republican party
worked for the choice 01 the Dcmocmtx: candidate by the people in
the hope that the (Republicsn) l^islature would not ratify the
popular choice and so would nullify the direct primary law.
*At times the two law-making bodies — the lcgi<iiature and the
people — have come into conflict. In 1906. for example, the people by
the initiative secured a law forbidding public officers from accepting
free passes from railways. In 1907 the legislature repealed an las^
on this subject and required milways to famish free transportation
to certain officials. Upoa this measure, however, the people ordered
a referendum and it was rejected at the polls. In 1908 the peof>le
voted against Increasing the number of supreme cx>uit judges: in
1909 the iegidature increased the number.
OREGON
«47
having the pemtir to nymt Itt own charter. A comtitiitiooal emend-
Jby . .
* The legislative a«embly shall not enact, amend or repeal anv
charter or aa of incorporation for any munidpality. dty or town. '
The initiative and the referendum are employed in municipal
ordinancca aa well as in aute laws; towns and cities make their own
provisions as to " the manner of exercising the initiative and refer-
endum powers as to their own municipal legislation ": but '*aot
more than lo % of the Ic^bI voters may be required to order the
referendum nor mooe than is % to propose any measure by the
initiative, in any city or town. '
MiutUaiuotu Lams.^^Tht value of the homestead exempt from
judicial sale for the satisfaction of liabilities is limited to $1500: the
homestead must be owned and occupied by some member of the
family claiming the exemption and may not exceed in area one block
in a town or aty or ite acres outside of a municipality. The ex-
emption IS not valid against a mortgaet, but the mortgage must be
Executed by both husband and wife. 11 the hooseholder is married.
The debtor claims the exemption where the levy is made, but if the
sheriff deems the homestead greater in value than the law allows, he
may choose three disinterested persons to appraise it and sell any
portion that may be adjudged in exeess of the legal limit. The
ooostitution provides that the property and pecuniary rights of every
married woman, at the time of her marriage, or afterwards, acquired
by gift, devise or inheriuncc, shall not be subject to the debts or
contracts of the husband; and that laws shall be passed providing
for the regis! ntion of the wife's separate property. Marriages
between whites and persons of negro descent, between whites and
Indians, and between first cousins are forbidden or are void. One
year's residence is necessary to secure a divorce, for which the causes
rccogniacd are a coniiction of felony, habitual drunkenness for one
year, physical incapacity, desertion for one year and cruelty or
peiaooal indignities.
Edtuati^n.^The public school system (ornniied iBj^ It ad-
ministered by the state su|^ntendent of public instmction, who
exercises a general supervision over the schools, and by the state
board of education, whidi prescribes the general rules and rKubtions
for their management. For the support of the schoola there is a
tcliool fund, amounting on the 1st dt April 1909 to S5.86i*475* and
coiuisting of the moneys derived from the sale of lands donated by
the Fedeni government and of small sums derived from miscellane-
ous sources. The fund ia administered by a board consisting of the
governor, the secretary of state and the state treasurer, and the
income from it is apportionod among the counties acoording to the
number of chiklren 01 school age. The countiea are also required to
levy special school taxes, the aggregate annual amount of which
shall be eoyivalent to at least seven dolbrs for every chtM between
the ages <m four and twenty years. If the total annual fund for a
sdwol district amounts to less than $3oa the district most levy a
special tax to bring the fund up to that sum. Each achool district
in the state is required to have a school term of six months or more.
Special county taxes are levied for the maintenance of public school
libraries also. For all children between the agea of nine and fourteen
inclusive, school attendance la compulsory.
The total numb^ of teachers in the public schooU in 1908 was
4243; the total school enrollment, 107,493: the average daily
attendance 94,133. lu 1908 there was paid for the support of
common aehools >3,06i^094; the average monthly salarj^of mrai
teachers was S49*6o, amf of school principals. Ite-S?. the pro-
portion of illiterates is low : in looo ol the total population 10 years
of age or over only 3-3 % was ilHterate; of the male population of
the same age ^-9 To. of the female 3*3 % and of the native white
population only o*8 % were illiterate.
In addition to the public schools* the sute mainuins; the Uni-
versity of Oregon at Eugene (<q.v.)i the State Agricultural College
(1870}. at CorvalHs (pop 1900. i8i9)i the county-seat of Benton
county, and the State Normal School (1882) at Monmouth (pop. in
1900. 606). in Polk county Among the institotiona not receiving
sute aid are Albany College (Preshyierian. 1867). at Albany : Colum-
bia University (Roman Catholic, looi), at Pbrtland: Dallas College
(United Evangelical. 1900). at Dallas; Pacific University (Congne-
ifationat. 1853). at Forest Grove: McMinnvilte College (Baptist,
1858), at McMinnvllle: Pacific College (Friends, founded in 188^
aa an academy, colfege opened in 1891), at Newberg; Phitonnath
College (United Brethren. 1866). at Phik>math: and WilUmctte
University (Methodist Episcopal. 1844), at Salem.
CkantabU and Coftutional instUtUions,— The state supports the
fotlfowing charitable and correctional institutions: a soldiers' home
(r894> ■( Roseburg and a school for deaf mutes (1870), an institute
for the blind (1873). a reform school, an insane asylum and a peni-
tentiary at Salem, the capital of the sute. These institutions
(except the penitentiary, 01 which the governor of the sUte is an
inspector) are governed each by a board of three trustees, the
governor of the state and the secreury of state serving on all boards.
and the third trustee being the state treasurer on the boards for the
suie iMane asylum, the sute reform school and the institnte for
the feeble-minded, and the superintendent of public instruction
on the boarda far the achool for deaf muUa aiict tht institute for
the blind.
Ffnanct.^The constitntion forbids the establishment or Incorpora-
tion by the legislative assembly of any bank or banking company;
and it forbids any bank or banbng company in the sUte uom issniaf
bills, checks, certificates, promissory notes or other paper to circulate
as money. Except in case of war the legislative assembly' may not
contract a sute debt greater than $50,000. To pay bounties to
soldiers in the Civil War a debt of 9237,000 was contracted; but In
1 870 only I90.000 of it was atill ootsuoding. An issue of bopda (to be
redeemed from the sale of public lands) for a privately built caiial at
Oregon City was authoriaed in 1870. About (1 7S,ooo mere of debt
was incurred by Indian wars in 1874 and 1878; in the latter vcar the
public debt amounted to more than $650,000, but about l3y>,ooo
of this was in 10 % warranto lor rond>bui]ding. ftc: the bonds and
warranto (with the exception of some never presented for redenotion)
were speedily redeemed by a special property Ux. Revenues for the
support of the government are derived from the following sources : the
general property Ux, the poll Ux (the proceeds of whldi accrue to
the ooumy in which it ia collected), the inheritance tax, corporation
taxes, business taxes and Ucenaea and fees. By far the most ifOh
portant source of revenue ia the general property Ux, which ia
assessed for sute. county and municipal purposes. The amount of
revenue to be raised for state purpoaes each year by this tax is com-
puted by a board consisting of the governor, the secneury of sUtt
and the sute treasurer, and it ia apportioned among the counties oa
the bosb of their average expenditures for the prcvioua five yeara.
At the close of the year 1907 the state was free from bonded
indebtedness; receipto into -the treasury during the year were
$2,851,471, and the expenditure waa $2,097,645.
History. -^A» to the European who first saw any portion at
the present Oregon there is some controversy and doubt. It
it known that within thirty yteara after the discovery of the
Pacific Ocean the Spaniards had explored the western coasts
of the American continent frCHn the isthmus (o the vidnily
of the forty-second parallel of north latitude, and it is possible
that the Spanish pilot Bartolom6 Ferreto (or Ferrer), who fn
IS43 made the farthest northward voyage In the Pacific r^>
corded in the first half of the ]6(h century, may have reached a
point en the Oregon coast. The profitable trade between the
Spanish colonies and the Far East, however, soon occupied
the whole attention of the* Spaniards, and caused them to
neglect the exploration of the coast of north-western America
for many years. In 1579 the Englishman, Francis Drale,
came to this region seeking a route home by way of the North-
west Passage, and in his futile quest he seems to have gone
as far north as 43*.* He took possession of the country in the
name of Queen Elicabeth and called it AlbkMi. Near the end
of the century peiststent stories of a North-west I^ssage caused
the Spanish rulers to plan further explorations of the Padfie
coast, so as to forestall other nations in tbe discovety of the
alleged new route and thus retain their monopoly of the South
Sea (Padiic Ocean). In 1603 Sebastian Vixcaino, acting under
orders of the viceroy of Mexico, reached the latitude of 42* N.,
and Martin Aguilar, with another vosel of tbe fleet, reached
a point near latitude 43* which he called Cape Bianco and
daamed to have discowered there a brge river. For the next
centuiy and a half Spate again neglccied this region, untif the
fear of English and RussUn encroachment caused her to resume
the work of exploration. In 1774 Juan Petes sailed up the
coast as far as 54* N. lat., and on Ms return followed the shore
line very ckxely, thus making the fint real and imdiipuled
exploration of the Oregon coast of which there Is any record.
In the folkming year Bruno Hcceta landed off what is ncm
called Point Greoville and took formaJ pOMcssiott of the country,
and later, in lat. 46V* be dinovcred a bay whose swift current*
led him to suspect that he was fai the mouth of a large rivcv
or stiaiL In 1778 Jonathan Camer (^.o.) published in London
Trneis Ikroutfimd tk$ iiOmm Pvit of NoriM Amtrka, in wbkh^
following the example of the Spaniards, he asserted that there
was a great river on the western toast, although, so far as is
known, no white man had then ever seen such a stream. W'hcthei
his declaration was based on stories told by the Indians of the
interior, or upon reporU of Spanish sailors, or had no basis at
all, is not known; its chief importance lies hi the fact thai
Carver called this undiscovered stream the Oregon, and that
* Some cariy writers asaert that Drake even reached tbe lat. ol
48* N. and anchored in the Straits of Juan de Fuca.
246
OREGON
Ibis name was ev«ntuaUy applied to the territory drained by
this great western river. The name, like the whole story, may
have been of Spanish oc Indian origin, or it may have been
purely fanciful.^
The Spam'ards made no effort to colonize north-western
America or to develop its trade with the Indians, but toward
the end of the i8th century the traders of the great British
lor companies of the North were gradually pushing overland
to the Pacific. Upon the sea, too, the English were not Idle.
Captain James Cook in March 1778 sighted the coast of Oregon
in the iat. of 44*, and examined it between 47° and 48^ in the
hope of finding the Straits of Juan de Fuca described in Spanish
accounts. Soon after the dose of the War of Independence
American merchants began to buy futs along the north-west
coast and to ship them to China to be exchanged for the products
of the East. It was in the prosecution of this trade that Captain
Robert Gray (1755-1806), an American in the service of Boston
merchants, discovered in 1793 the long-sought river of the West,
which he named the Columbia, after his ship. By the discovery
of this stream Gray gave to the United States a claim to the
whole territory drained by its waters. Other explorers had
searched in vain for this river. Cook had sailed by without
suspecting Its presence; Captain John Mcares (c. 1756-1809),
another English navigator, who visited the region in 1788,
declared that no such river existed, and actually called its
cstuaiy " Deception Bay "; and George Vancouver, who
visited the coast in 1793, was sceptical until he learned of Gray's
discovery.
Spani^ claims to this part, of North America did not long
remain undisputed by England and the United States. By
the Nootka Convention of 1790 Spain acknowledged the right
of British subjects to lisbi trade and settle in the parts of the
northern Pacific coast not already occupied; and under the
treaty of 1819 (proclaimed in 1821) she ceded to the United
Stales all the territory claimed by her N* of 43'. But even
before these agreements had been reached, Alexander Mackenzie,
in the service of the North-west Company, in 1793 had explored
through Canada to the Pacific coast in lal. about 53° so' N.,
and Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, Aznerican explorers
acting under the orders of President Jefferson, in x8o5~i8o6
had passed west of the Rocky Mountains and down the Columbia
river to the Pacific Ocean. Both British and American
adventurers were attracted to the region by the profiuble fur
trade. In 1808 the North-west Company had several posts on
the Fraser river, and in the same year the American Fin- Company
was organised by John Jacob Astor, who was planning to build
up a trade in the West, In x8ii the Pacific Fur Company, a
kind of western division of the American Fur Company, foundied
a trading post at the mouth of the Columbia which they called
Astoria, and set up a number of minor posts on the Wiilamette,
Spokane and Okanogan rivers. On bearing of the war between
England and the United States, Astor's asodatcs, deeming
Astoria untenable, sold the property in October 1813 to the
North-west Company. In the following month a British ship
arrived, and its captain took fonnal possession of the post
and renamed it Fort George.
Soon after the restoration ol peace between England and the
United Sutes by the treaty of Ghent (1814). there arose the
so-called " Oregon question " or " North-western boundary
dispute," which agitated both countries for more than a genera-
tion and almost led to another war. As that treaty had stipahiled
that all territory captured during the war shouki be restored
to its former owner, the American government in 1817 took
* There have been many ingenious, bot ouite unatis(actor>'.
efforts to explain the derivation of ihe word Oregon. They arc
enumerated at length in Bancroft's History of Oregon, vol.1, pp. 17-35.
It seems that after the publication of Carver's b<x>k the word Oregon
dkl not appear aeain in print until William CuUen Bryant empfoyed
it in his poem Tkanatofsut in 1817. It was applied to the territory
drained by the Columbia river for the first time perhaps, by Hall
J. Kcllcy, a promoter of immigration into the North-west, who in
memorials to Congress and numeroos other writings referred to the
country as Oregon
steps to reoccupy the Columbia Valley. The British government
at first protested, on the ground that Astoria was iMit captured
territory, but finally surrendered the post to the United Sutca
in x8t8. The United States was willing at the time to extend
the north-western boundary along the forty-ninth parallel from
the Lake of the Woods to the Pacific, but to this the British
government would not consent; and on the 20th of October
f8i8 both nations agreed to a convention providing for the
"joint occupation" for ten ycai» of the country "on the
north-west coast of America, westward of the Stony
[Rocky] Mountains." In the following ycar» aa already
stated, Spain waived her daim to the territory north of 4^*
.In favour of the United States. In 1831, however, Russia
asserted her claim to all lands as far south as the fifty-first
parallel. Against this claim both EngUnd and the United
States protested, and in 1834 the United States and Russia
concluded a treaty by whidi Rusua agreed to make no settle-
ments south of 54* 40', and the United States agreed to make
none north of that line. From this time until the final settle-
ment of the controversy the Americans were disposed to believe
that their title was dear to all the territory south of the Rtissian
possessions; that is, to all the region west of the Rocky Mountains
between 43* and 54** 40^ N. Iat. In 1837 the agreement of 18 1&
between Great Britain and the United Sutes as to joint occupa-
tion was renewed for an indefinite term, with the proviso that
it might be terminated by dther party on twelve months' notice.
For the next two decades the history of Oregon is concerned
mainly with the British fur traders and the American immigrsnts.
The Hudson's Bay Company absorbed its riv&l, the North-west
Company, in 183 1, and thus secured a practical monopoly of
the fur trade of the North and West. Its policy was to dis-
courage oolonixatioB so as to maintain the territory in which
it operated as a vast game preserve. Fortunately for the
Americans, however, the company In 1834 sent to the Columbia
river as its chief factor andgovcmor west of the Rocky Mountains
Dr John McLoughlin (1784-1857), who ruled the region with
an iron hand, but with a benevolent purpose, for twenty-two
years. On the northern bank of the Columbia in 1834-1835
he built Fort Vancouver, which became a port for ocean vessels
and a great entrep6t for the western fur trade; in 1839 he bepa
the settlement of Oregon City; and, most important of all, he
extended a hearty welcome to all settlers and aided them in
many ways, though this was against the company's interests.
In 1833 four Indian chiefs from the Oregon country journeyed
to St Louis to obtain a copy of the wliite man's Bible; and this
inddent aroused the missioimry zeal of the rcHgiotis denomina-
tions. In 1834 Jason Lee (d. 1845) and his nephew, DanId
Lee, went to Oregon as Methodist missionaries, and with
McLoughlin's assistance they esublished missions in the
Willamette valley. Samuel Parker went as a Presbyterian
missionary in 1835, and was followed in the next year by Marctis
Whitman and Henry H. Spalding («. x8oi-i874)» who were
accompanied by their wives, the first white women, it is said,
to cross the American continent. Whitman settled at Wai4-lat-
pu, about 5 m. W. of the present Walla Walla and 35 m. from
the Hudson's Bay Company's Fort Walla Walla, and Spalding
at Lapwai, near the present Lewiston, Idaho. Roman Catholic
missions were established near Fort Walla Walla in 1838. In
this year Jason Lee returned to the Eastern states and carried
back to Oregon with him by sea over fifty people, missionaries
and their families. It is significant, if true, that part of the
money for chartering his vessel was supplied from the secret-
service fund of the United States government.
As eariy as 1841 the Americans in Oregon began to fed the
need of some form of civil government, as the regulations of the
Hudson's Bay Company were the only laws then known to the
country. After several fneffectual allcmpis a piwisional
government was finally organized by two mcctin j? at Champocg
(in what is now Marion county, north-cast of Salem) on the 2nd
of May and on the slh of July 1843. The governing body was
at first an executive rommhtee of three dtixens, bot in 184$
this committee was abolished and a governor was chosen. In
OREGON
2+9
ibe "lutidftAiCAtal :l«ws" of the provUdaal to«emn«At
were iooorporated a oumber of Artidea Iran the OrdinaBoe of
X 787, amoog them the otte prohibiting aiavcty. The new govero-
ment encountered the opposition of the mlaaienanct and of the
non-American popuUiion, but it was soon atrengthcned by the
" Great Immigration " in 1843, when nearly nine hundred men,
vomen and children, after assembling at independence, Miflsomi,
crossed the plains in a body and settled in the Columbia Valley.
Alter this year the flow of immigranta steadily increased, aboot
1400 arriving in i844r «od 3000 in 2845.^ Signs of hostility
to the Hudson's Bay Company now began to appear among
the American population, and in 1845 the provisional government
sought to extend its Jurisdiction north of the Colmnbia river,
where the Americans had hitherto refrained from settling.
A compromise was finally reached, whereby the company web
to be exempt from taxes on all its property except the goods
sold to settlen, and the officers and employees of the company
and all the British residents were to become subject to the
provisional government. Meanwhile the western states had
inaugurated a movement in favour of the immediate and definite
settlement of the Oregon question, with the result that the
Democratic national convention of 1844 dccUred that the title
of the United States to ** the whole of the territory of Oregon "
was '* dear and unquestionable," and the ptfrty made " Fifty-
four forty or fight " a campaign slogan. The Democrats were
successful at the polls, and President Polk in his inaugural
address asserted the claim of the .United States to all of Oregon
in terras suggesting the possibility of war. Negotiations, however,
resulted in a treaty, drafted by James Buchanan, the American
Secretary of Sute, and Richard Pakenham, the British envoy,
which the president in June 1846 submitted to the Senate for
its opinion and wUch he was advised to accept. By this instru-
ment the northern boundary of Oregon was fixed at the forty-
ninth parallel, extending westward from the crest of the Rocky
Mountains to the middle of the channel separating Vancouver's
Island from the mainland, ** and thence southerly through the
middle of the said channel, and of Puca's Straits, to the Pacific
Ocean."
Although President Polk immediately urged the formation
of a territorial government for Oregon, the bill introduced for
this purpose was held up fn the Senate on account of the opposi-
tion of Southern leaden, who were seekingto maintain theabstract
principle that slavery could -not be constitutionally prohibited
in any territory of the United States, although they had no hope
ci Oregon ever becoming slave territory. Indian outbreaks,
however, wfalch began In 1847, compelled Congresa to take
measures for the defence of the inhabitants, and on the 14th of
August 1848 a bill was enacted providing a territorial govem-
nnent. As then constituted, the Territory embraced the whole
area to which the titk of the United States had been confirmed
by the treaty of 1846, and included the present states of Oregon,
Washiogton and Idaho, and parts of Wyoming and Montana.
Its area was reduced In 1853 by the creation of the Territory of
Washington. The discovery of gold In California drew many
Oregon settlers to that country in 1848-1850, but this exodus
was soon offset as a result of the enactment by Congress in i8$o
of the'* hmd donation law," by which settleia in Oregon between
tBso and 1853 were entitled to large tracts of land free of cost.
The nnmber of claims registered under this act was over eight
thousand.
In 1856 the people voted fbr statehood; and in June 1857
they elected members of a constitutional convention which
drafted a constitution at Salem in August and September 1857;
the constitution was ratified by popular vote in November
* For many years it was generally believed that the administration
at Washington was prevented from surrenderins its claims to Oregon,
in return tor the grant by Great Britaiii of fishing stations in
Newfoundland, by Mafcus Whitman, who in 18^3-1843 made a
journey acroet the entire continent m the depth of winter to diauade
the government from this purpoae. Thi» story seems to have no
foundation In fact; It was not Whitman, but the Rtcat influx of
settlers In i8^3']844 that saved Orrgom, if, indeed, there was then
any danger of tu being given up. (Seo Whitmaw. Mancus.)
1857; and on the t4th of Pebruary r859 Oregon was admitted
Into the Union with its present boundaries. The new state
was at first Democratic in politics, and the southern faction of
the Democratic party in i860 made a bid for its support by
nominating as their candidate for vice-president, on the ticket
with John C. Breckinridge, Joseph Lane (1801-1881), then a
senator from Oregon and previously Its territorial governor.
The Douglas Democrats and the Republicans, however, worked
together AS a union party, and Lincoln carried the state by a small
majority. The so<aUeo union party broke up after the Civil
War, and by 1870 the Democrats were strong enough to prevent
the ratification by Oregon of the Fifteenth Amendment to the
Federal Constitution. In 1876, after the presidential election,
two sets of electoral returns were forwarded from Oregon, one
showing the choice of three Republican electors, and the other
(signed by the governor, who was a Democrat) showing the
election of two Republicans and one Democrat. The popular
vote was admittedly for the three Republican electors, but one
of the Republican electors (Walts) was a deputy-postmaster
and so seemed Ineligible under the constitutional provision that
*' no . . . person holding an office of trust or profit under the
United States shall be an elector." Watts resigned as deputy-
postmaster, and the secretary of state of Oregon, who under
the state law was the canvasing officer, certified the electioo
ofthe three Republican electors^ On the 6th of December the
three met, Watts resigned, and was immediately reappointed
by the other two. The Democratic claimant, with whom the
two Republican eleOtors whose election was conceded, reftised
to meet, met alone, appointed two other Democrats to fill the
two *' vacancies,'* and the " electoral college " of the state so
constituted forthwith cast two votes for Hayes and one for
Tilden. The Electoral Commission dedded that the three voles
should be counted for Hayesx-if the one Democratic dector had
been adjudgMl chosen, the Democmtic candidate for the prcsi*
dency, S. J. Triden, would have been elected. The political
complexion of the state has generally been Republican, although
the contests between the two leading parties have often been
veiy close. The Indian outbreaks which began in 1847 continued
with occasional periods of quiet for neariy a generation, until
most of the Indiana were eft her killed or plaecd on icaervhtiona.
Tlie Indians were very active during the Civil War, when
the regular troops were withdrawn for service tn the- easteni
states, and Oregon's volunteers from 1861 to 1865 were needed
for home defence. The most noted Indian conflicts within the
state have been the Modoc War (1864-73) and the Shoshone
War (i86d-68). Durinc the Spanish- American War Oregon
furnished a regiment of volunteers which served in the Philippines.
CovBaNoas op OaacoN
Under Ike Proniional GtPtrnmtnk
George Abemcfthy 1845-1849
Undtr Ike Territori^ Ccverument,
Ineeph Lane 1849-iSso
Knitzing Pritchett (acting) 1850
John P. Gaines 1850-1833
loaeph Lane 1855*
George Law Curry (acting) 1853
John W. Davis i8s3'i8S4
George Law Curry. ...... 1854-1859
Undef At SiaU CmemminL
John Whiteaker. Dem 1859-1862
Addison Crandall Gibbs. Rep i86a-t866
George Lemuel Woods. Rep i86fr-i870
La Fayette Grover, Dem 1870-1877
Stephen Fowler Chad wick (acting) . . 1877-1878
WilUam WiilUce Thayer. Dem 1878-1882
Zenas Ferry Moody. Rep i88a-»887
Sylvester Peonoyer. Dem 1887-1895
William Paine Lofd, Rep 1895-1899
Theodore Thurtton Geer , Rep. - I899-»90S
George Earie Chamberlain, Dem. . . 1903*'I909
Frank W. Bcmon. Rep. ... 1909-191 1*
Oswald Wc«t, Dem. • • »9»»-
■ Held oflice only three day*. May 16- to*
* Secretary of State : MHT««dcd G. E. Chamberlain, who redgned
to become a member of the U.S. Senate.
250
OREGON CITY*-OREL
BiBLiocaArHV.— See gmeially W. Na«h, Tk* StiOa't Uamdb9ok
lo Oregon (Portlaad, 1904): and publication* and reports ol the
various national and state departments. For administration: J. R.
Robertson, " The Genesis of Political Authority and of a Common-
wealth Govenunent in Oregon " in the Quarterly of the Orefon
fitstorual Socielyt voL i. (Salem, IQOi): Journal oj the CanstUutUnal
Convention of the State of Oregon held at Salem in i8s7 (Salem, 1882) ;
C. B. Bellinger and W. W. (Totton. The Codes andSlatutet of Orison
(a vols.. San Francisco, 1902); and Frank Foxcroft, " Constitution
Mending and the Initiative," in the Atlantie iioutUy for June 1906.
For history: H. H. Bancroft's History of the North-west Coast (2
vols.. San Fcandaco. 1884) and History of Oregon (2 vols.. San
Francisco, 1886-1888); William Barrows s Oregon: The Struggle for
Possession (Boston. 1883) in the " American Commonwealths"
series; J. Dunn's Oregon Territory and the British North American
Fur Trade (PhiUdelphia. 1845): W. H. Gray's History of Oregon,
t7QZ-i849 (Portland, Oregon, 1870); H. S, Lyman's Histori/ of
Oregon (4 vols., New York, 1903), the best complete history of the
state; Joseph Schafer's " Padfk Slope and Alaska," vol. x. of G. C.
Lee's History of North Anteriea (Philadelphia. 1904). more succinct
Oa special features of the state's history see W. R. Maniung's " "^^
Nootka Sound Controversy," — — -" "' '*- ^ '*'^
tood (Washington,
fTv.h- • ~
\ of the state's history see W. R. Maniung's " The
atroversy," pp. 279*478 ol the Annual Report for
, 1905) of the American Historical Association:
John kcLoughlin, the Father of Oregon (Cleveland.
lolman's Dr Jokn^hlcLoughlin, ,
1907): J. H. Gtlbect's Trade and Currency in Early Oreton, in the
Columbia University Studies in Economics, vol. zxvi.. No. 1 (New
York, 1907) : and P. J. de Smet's " Oregon Missions and Travels over
the Rocky Mountains In 1845-1846," in vol. xxix. of R. G. Thwaitcs's
E<ir/y Western Travels (Cleveland, 1906). For the Whitman contro-
versy sec WuiTHAK. Makcus. Much historical material may be
found in the publications of the Oregon Historical Society, eepeciaUy
in the Society's QuarUrly (1900 sqq.). and of the Oregon Pioneer
Association.
OBBGOH CITY, a city mud tbe county-teat of Clackamas
cottaty» Oregon, U.S.A., on the £. bank of the WiUaoiette
river, and S. of the mouth of the Clackamas river, about 15 m.
& by £. of Portland. Pop. (1890) 3063; (1900) 3494 iSiS being
lorcign-bom); (1910) 4a87< It is served by the Southern Padfiic
railway, by an electric line to Portland, by other electric lines,
and by small river steamboats. The principal business streets ace
Main Street, on level ground along the river, and Seventh Street,
en a bluff which rises abruptly too ft. above the river and is
reached by four stairways elevated above thettacksof the Southern
Pacific, The residences arc for the most part on this bluff, which
commands views of the peaks of the Cascade Mounuins. The
river here makes a picturesque plunge of aboat 40 ft. over a
basalt ridge extending across the valley, and then Sows between
nearly vertical walls of solid rock 20-50 fu high; it is spanned
by a suspension bridge nearly 100 ft. above the water. A lock
canal enables vessels to pass the. falls. The water-power works
woollen>mills, flour-mills, paper-mills, and an electric power
plant (of the Portland Railway, Light and Power Company),
which lights the city of Portland and traasmiu power
to that city for street railways and factories. The muni-
cipality, owns the waterworks. Next to Astoria, Oregon City
is the oldest settlement in the state. In 1829 Dr John
McLoQghUn (1784-1857), chief agent of the Hudson's Bay
Company, establislicd a claim to the water-power at the Falls
of the Willamette and to land where Oregon Gty now stands,
and began the erection of a mill and several houses. After 1840,
in which year McLougblin laid out a town here and named it
Oregon City, a Methodist Mission disputed his claim. He aided
many destitnte American immigrants, left the service of the
company, and removed to Oregon City. In 1850 Congress gave
a great part of his claim at Oregon City for the endowment of
a university, and in 1862 the legislature of Oregon reconveyed
the land to McLoughlin's heirs on condition that they should
give $1000 to the university fund; but the questionable title
between 1840 and i86a hindered the growth of the place, which
was chartered as a city in iSsow
(TREILLT, iOHN BOTLB (1844-1890), Irish-American
politician and journalist, was bom near Drogheda on the 28th
of June 1844. the son of a schoolmaster. After some years of
newspaper experience, first as compositor, then as reporter,
during which he became an ardent revolutionist and Joined the
Fenian organisation known as the Irish Republican Brotherhood.
he enlisted in a British cavalry regiment with the purpose of
winning over the troops to the revolutionary cause (t86j).
At this period wholesale corruption of the ainiy^ hi which thert
was a very large percentage of Irishmen, was a strong feature
in the Fenian programme, and O'Rdlly, who soon became a
great favourite, was successful in disseminating disaffection in
his regiment. In x866 the extent of the sedition in the regiments
in Ireland was discovered by the authorities. O'Reilly was
arrested at Dublin, where his regiment was then quartered, triAl
by court-martial for concealing his knowledge of an impend-
ing mutiny, and sentenced to be shot, but the sentence was
subsequently commuted to twenty years' penal servitude. After
confinement in various English prisons, he was transported in
r867 to Bunbury, Western Australia. In 1869 he escaped to the
United States, and settled in Boston, where he became editor
of The Piioi, a Roman Catholic newipaper. He subsequently
organized the expedition which rescued all the Irish militaiy
political prisoners from the Western Australia convict establisl^
menu ( 1876), and he aided and abetted the American propaganda
in favour of Irish nationalism. O'Reilly died in Hull, Mass.,
on the loth of August 189a His reputatwn in America oaturstty
differed very much from what it was in England, towards
whom he was uniformly mischievous. He was the atuhor of
several volumes of poetry of considerable merit, and of a novd
of convict life, Uoondynct which achieved a great success. He
was also selected to write occasional odes in commemoration of
many American celebrations^
Sec J J. Roche. Ufe of John BoyU O'XeiUy, (Boston, 1891).
ORBL» OR Orlov, a government of central Russia, bounded by
the governments of Smolensk, Kaluga and Tula on the N., and
by Voroncch and Kursk on the S., with an area of 18,036 sq. m.
The surface is an undulating pUteau sloping gently towards the
west; the highest bills barely exceed 900 ft., and none of the
valleys is less than 450 ft. above the sea. The principal riven
are the Don, which forms part of the eastern boundary, and its
tribuUry the Sosna; the Oka, which rises m the district of
Orel and receives the navigable Zuaha; and the Desna, with
the Bolva, draining the marshy lowlands in the vest. Geokgi*
cally Orel consists principally of Lower Devonian limestones,
marls and sandstones, covered with Jurassic clays, the last
appearing at the surface, however* only as Isobted islaiids,
or in the vaUcys, being concealed for the flMSt part under
thick beds of Cretaceous chalk, snarls and sands. The
Carboniferous limestones and days (of the so-called Moscow
basin) show in the north-west only at a great depth. The Jurassic
clays and marls are overlain at seyeral places with a stratum ol
clay cootaim'ng good iron-ore, while the Devonian aaadstfloes and
limestones are worked for building purposes. The whole ii
buried under a bed, 30 to 40 ft. thick, of boulder-day and locaa,
the last covering extensive areas as weU as the vslleys. The
soil*-a mixture of *' black earth " with clay^-is fertile, except m
the Desna region in the west, where sands and tcnadous clays
predominate. On the Oka, Zusha, Desna and Bolva there is a
brisk traffic an com, oil. hemp, timber, metal, glasa, duna, paper
and building-stone. Marshcsoccupy large areas in the basin of
the Desna, as also hi seveiml parts of that of the Oka; they an
mostly covered with foresu, which nm up to 50 to 65% of the
area in the districts of Bryansk, Trubchevsk and Karachev^
while to'wards the csst, in the basin of the Don, wood is so scaroe
that straw is used for fud The climate is moderstc, the average
yearly tcmpecatuie at Ord bdog 41*2" (14*8* in January asd
67-0'' in July).
The estiauted population In 1906 wan 1,365,700. It
eonsists almost esclusivdy of Great Russiana, bdodghig to the
Orthodox Greek Church; the Nonconformists are reckoned at
about 12,000, the Roman Catholics at 3000 and the Jews at
1000. The chief occupation is agriculture, which is most pro-
ductive in the east and towards the centre of the government.
The prindpal crops are rye, oats, barley, wheat, hemp, potatoes,
hops, vcgeublcs, tobacco and fruit. Of the grain not used in the
distilleries a large proportion is exported to the Bahic. Hemp
and hemp-seed oil are extensively exported from the west to
Riga, Ubau and St Petersburg. Tobacco is cultivated with
profit. Cattle and horse*breeding flouoshcs better than in the
OK£lr-^R£I^LI, p <X>
BOBbbMifing lov t m A m U ^HiK Otfel 1>reedt orb<Hk tneaamt Md
diwight bocscs bddg held ia esiinatioo throughout Rutnu
Bce>kcqiiiig is uruiely diffuied in tht foreii districts, as tie «ia«
the timber-trade snd the prepaatton of tac and pitch. Mantfi
Cactutes an capidly increaaog; thty produte Gast«iMMi nifak
machinery, looomoUve engines and rsilunsy wagons; glass,
hemp-yam and ropes, leather, timber, soap, tobacco and
chemical produce. Then an also disliUenies and a gnat many
smaller oi^works and ilour-mills. KaracfaeT and Syevsk aro
impoitant centres for heaq>'Csrding; fioOihov and Efeu are the
chief oentres of the tanning iadnstiy; while th^ districts of Elets,
Dndtrov SJid partly Miseask supply Hoiff and various food-
pastes. At firysosk then is a government cannoo-loundry.
The** Malthov works "in the district of Bryanskare an industrial
colony (30,000), comprising several iron, machinery, glam and
rope works, where thousands of peasants find tcmposary or
permanent empleyment; they havi their own technical 'school,
employ engineen of their e/mt training, and have their own
nnrrow^gauge nOwasrs and telegraphs, both managed by. boys of
the technical schooL Numerous petty trades are carried on by
the peasants, along with agriculture. The govemmeoi is divided
into twelve districts, of which the chief towns are OnU the
capital, Bolkhov, Bryansk, Dmitiovsk, Elets, Ksrachev, Kromy,
Livny, Makvarkhangelsk, Mtsensk, Syevsk and Trabchevsk.
In the 9th century the country was inhabited by the Slav
tribes of the Syeveryanes on the! Desna and the Vyatichis on the
Oks, who both paid tribute to the Khasan. The Syevcfyanes
ruoognlsed the rule of the princes of the Rurik fsmily from S84,
and the Vyaticfato from the mkldle of the loth century; but the
two peoples followed different hietorical lines, the former being
alworbed into the Susdal principality, while the ktur feD under
the rule of that of Chernigov. In the ttth century both had
wealthy towns and villages; during the Mongdl faivasion of
113^124 J these were all burned and pilhged, and the entire
territory devasuted. With the decay of the Great Horde of the
Mongols the western part of the country fell under Lithuanian
rale, and was the object of repeated struggles between Lithuania
and Moscow. In the x6th century the Russians began to erect
new forts and fortify the old towns, and the territory was mpldly
colonized by immigrants from the north. In 1610 the towns of
the present government of Orel (then known ss the tJkrayna
Ukraine, Le. '* border^region,") took an active share in the
insurrection against Moscow under the false Demetrius, and
suffered much from the dvil war which ensued. They continued,
however, to be united with the rest of Russia.
(P. A. IC; J T Bk.)
OREL, a town of Russhi, capital of the government of the
same name, lies at the confluence of the Oka%rith the Orlik, on
the Kne of railway to the Crimea, 338 m. S.S.W. fiTMn hfoscow.
Pop. (1875) 45.000. (1900) 70,675. It was founded in 1566, but
developed skywiy , and had only a very few houses at the beginning
of the 1 8th century. The cathedral, begun in 1 794, was finished
«m1y in i86f . The town possesses a military gymnasium (corps
of cadets), a public library, and storehouses for grain and timber.
The manufactures are rapidly increasing, and include hemp-
carding snd spinning, rope-making, flour-mills and candle
factories. Orel is one of the chief markeUof central Russia for
com, hemp, hempseed oil, and tallow, exported; metal wares,
tobacco, kaolin, and glass ware are also exported, while salt,
groceries and manuractured goods are imported.
CTRSLU MAX, the n&m-de-plume of Paul Btoim (iflL|8-
iQoj)* French author and journalist, who was bom in Brittany
in 1848. He served ss a cavalry officer hi the Franco-German
War, was captured at Sedan, but was released in time to join the
Veisailfisl army which overcame the Commune, and was severely
woundM during the Second siege of Paris. In 1871 he went to
England as correspondent of several French newspapers, and in
1876 became the very efficient French master at St PauKs school.
London, retaining that post until 1884. Whst induced him to
leave was the brilliant success of his firrt book, Jokn Bull ft ion
//e, which in its French and English forms was w widely read as to
make his pseudonym a household word in England and America.
251
Smreml other volume^ of a similar type dealing in a like spirit
with Scotland, America and Frahce followed. He married an
Englishwoman, who translated his books. But the main work of
the years between 1890 and 1900 was lecturing. Max O'ReU was
a ready and amusing speaker, and bis easy manner and his
humorous gift made him veiy successful on the pUtfonn. Ue
lectured often in the United Kingdom and still more often in
America. He died in Paris, where be was acting as coxrespondcnt
of the Nem York Journal, on the ssth of M^ 190(3.
ORELU. HANS KONRAO VON (1846- ), Swiss theolo*;
gian, was born at Zurich on the 35th of jamuuy 1846 and was
educated at Lausanne, Zurich and Eriangen. He also visitc4
Tubingen for theology and Leipzig for oriental langiwgrs. In.
1869 he was appointed preacher at the orphan house, Zurich, and
in 1871 PrivQido$ent at the university. In 1873 he went to Basel
as professor exiraordinarius of theology, becoming ordinary pro>
fesv>r in 188k. His chief work is on tl^e Old Testament; in addi*
tioa to commentaries on Isaiah, Jeremiah (x886), Esekiel and ihc
Twelve PropheU (1888), most of which have been Uanalatcd, he
wrote Die oUUstomenllkke WeUsagimg von der VoUendung dct
GotkfreUhes (Vienna, 1883; Eng. trans. Edinburgh, X885),
Dit fd mmliuk t n Bur$ckaaren (Basel, 1889), and a journal of
Palestioiaii travel, Dnrdu HeUigp Laid (Basel, 1878).
ORELU. JOHANN CASPAR VON (1787-1849), Swiss cUssical
scholar, was bom at Zurich on the X3th of February 1787. He
belonged to a distinguished Italian family, which had taken
refuge in Switserland at the time of the Reformation. His
cousin, JOHANM CoNSAO Okelu (1770-X836), was the author
of several works in the department of later Greek Uterature.
From 1807 to 1814 Orelli worked as preacher in the reformed
community of Bergamo, where he acquired the taste for Italian
literature which led to the publication of Contribulionx to tk$
Hittary «/ llalton Poetry (18x0) and a biography (18x3) of
Vittofino da Feltre, his ideal of a teacher. In x8x4 be bccmme
teacher of modem Uuiguages and history at the cantonal school
at Chur (Coire); in 1819, iMofesaor of eloquence and hermcneutics
at the Carnlmum m Zurich, and ia 1833 professor at the new
univemity, the foundation of whkh was largely due to his efforts.
His attentioo duiing this period was asainly devoted to clasaical
literature and antiquities. He had already published (1814)
an edition, with critical notes axid commentary, of the Antidosit
of Isocmtes, the complete text of which, based upon the MSS.
in- the Ambrosian aiKi Laursntian libraries, had recently been
made known by Andreas Mystosedes of Corfu. The three
works upon which his reputation rests are the following. (1)
A complete editioo of Cloero in seven volumes (X836-X838).
The first four volumes oontahied the text (new ed., X84S-X863),
the fifth the old Scholissu, the remahxing three (called One-
mastkon TniHdnum) a life of Cicero, a biblio^naphy of previous
editions, indexes of geogmphkal and historical names, of Uiws
and legal formulae, of Greek words, and the consular annals.
After his death, the revised editwn of the text was completed
by J. G. Baiter and C Halm, and contained numerous emends*
tions by Theodor Mommsen and J. N. Madvig. (3) The works
of Horace (1837-1838; 4th cd., 1886-189'). The exegetical
commentary, although confessedly only a compilatk>n from
the works of eariier commentators, shows great taste and exten-
sive learning, although hardly up to the exacting stsndard of
modem criUcism. (3) IneeripHomtm Lolincntm Settdamm
CoUectw (xSiS; revised edition by W. Hensen. i8s6), extremely
helpful for the study of Roman public and private life and
religion. His editions of Plalo (i 839*1 841. including the old
schoUa, in collaboration with A. W Winokdmann) and Tacitus
(1846-1848. new ed. by various scholaxs, 1875-1894) also
deserve mention. Orelli died at Zurich on the 6th of January
1849. He was a most liberal-minded man, both in politics and
religion, an enthusiastic supporter of popular education and a
most inspiilng teacher. He took great interest in the stiuggle
of the Greeks for independence. Ind strongly favoured the
appointment of the notorious J. I^. Strauss to the chair of dog-
malic theology at Zurich, which led to the disturbance of the
6th of September iai39'and the fall of the libeml govsnuntaL
252
ORENBURG-.^RENSB
See Uf9 hf hU vovnKtf.tifMher Conraa in Ntujakrsblali der
UadibMiolkKk Ziirieh (1851): J. Ackrt.^j&rai surU Vi« et Up
Travattx d$ J.CX). (Geneva, 1849)1 H. ScKweizer-Sadler. Ced4ckt^
nissrede aul J.CO. (ZQrich, 1874): C. Bursian, CesckuhU der
Uassischen FkUdlogie in Deutschland (1883).
ORENBURG, a government of south-eastern Russia, bounded
N. by the governments of Ufa and Perm, £. by Tobobk, S.E. by
Turgai, and W. by Uralsk and Samar*, with an area of 73i794
sq. ro. Situated at the southern extremity of the Urals and
extending to the north-east on their eastern slope, Orenburg
consists of a hilly tract bordered on both sides by steppes. The
central ridge occasionally reaches an elevation of 5000 ft.;
there are several parallel ridges, which, however, nowhere exceed
s6oo ft., and gradually sink towards the south. A great variety
of geological formations are represented within the government,
which is rich in minerals. Dioritea and granites enter it from
the north and crop out at many places from underneath the
Silurian and Devonian deposits. The Carboniferous limestones
and sandstones, as well as softer Permian, Jurassic and Creucoous
deposits, have a wide extension in the south and east. Coal has
been found on the Miyas (in N.) and near Uetsk (in S.). The
extremely rich layen of rock salt at Iletsk yield about 24.000
tons every year. Very fertile " black earth '* covers wide areas
around the Urate. The government is traversed from north to
south by the Ural river, which also forms its southern boundary;
the chief tributaries are the Sakmara and the Ilek. The upper
courses of the Byelaya and Samara, tributaries of the Kama
and the Volga, also Ke within the government, as well as affluents
of the Tobol on the eastern slope of the Ural range. Numerous
salt lakes occur in the district of Chelyabinsk; but several parts
of the flat lands occasionally suffer from want of water. Sixteen
per cent of the surface is under wood. The climate is continental
and dry, the average temperature at Orenburg being 37-4* Fahr.
(4- 5* in January, 69-8* in July), Frosts of -33* and beau of
98' are not Uncommon.
The estimated population in 1906 was 11836,500, mainly
Great Russians, with Bashkirs and Meshcheryaks (25%). Gold
is extracted chiefly from alluvial deposiu, about 116,500 oz.
every year; also some silver. Nearly one-fifth of all the copper
ore extracted in Russia comes from Orenburg (about 16,000 tons
annually); and every year x6,ooo to 90,000 tons of cast iron and
11,500 tons of iron are obtained. Agriculture b carried on on
a large scale, the principal crops being wheat, rye, oats, barley
and potatoes. Horses, cattle and sheep are kept in large numbers
and camels are bred. Kitchen-gardening gives occupation to
ncariy 11,000 persons. Various kinds of animal produce are
largely exported, and by knitting ** Orenburg shawb " of goats*
wool the women earn £10,000 every year. The growth of
the industries is slow, but trade, especially with the Kirghix, is
prosperous. The chief towns of the five 'districts into which the
government is divided are Oenburg, Orsk, Chelyabinsk, Troitsk
and Verkhne-Uralsk.
The government of Orenburg was formerly inhalnted by the
Kirghiz in the south, and by the Bashkirs in the north. The latter
were brought under the rule of Russia in 1557, and a few yean
later the fort of Ufa was erected in order to protect them against
the raids of the Kirghix. The frequent risings of the Bashkirs,
and the continuous attacks of the Kirghiz, led the Russian
government in the 18th century to erect a line of forts and
blockhouses on the Ural and Sakmara rivers, and these were
afterwards extended south-westwards towards the Caspian, and
eastwards towards Omsk. The central point of these military
lines was the fort of Orenburg, originally founded in 1735 at
the confluence (now Orsk) of the O with the Ural, and removed
in 1 740- 1 743 f 3o m. lower down the Ural river to its present site.
In 1773 it was besieged by Pugachev, the leader of the revolt of
the peasantry. (P. A. K.; J. T. Bb.)
ORBNBURO, a town of Russia, capital o{ the government
of the same name, on the^nJ river; connected by rail with
Samara (263 m.), and since 1905 with Tashkent (1150 m-)*
Pop. (1900) 65.906. of whom about 30% were Taurs. Jews,
Baahklit, ftc Tbo town now indodn the former suburbs of
Colubinaya and Novaya. It Is an episcopal tee of the Octbodoi
(keek Church and' the headquarters of the hetman of the Oicn-
buif Cossacks. To a " barter house," 3 m. from the town,
the camel caravans bring carpets, silks, cottons, lambskins»
dried fruits, Ice, from Bokhara, Khiva, Kokand and Tashkent,
to be bartered afainst the textiles, metallic goods, sugar and
manufactured wares of Russia. From 30,000 to 100,000 borMS,
40.000 to 160,000 cattle, and 450,000 to 750,000 sheep we aho
sold every year at tbe barter house. Formeriy owst of tbcae
were sent alive to Russia; now some aao,ooo head of cattle and
sheep are killed every year, and exported in ooki-stonige wagona.
Cattle are also bought by wandering merchants in the Steppe
provinces and Turkestan. Every year many tons of tallow,
hams, sausages, butter, cheese and game are exported by rail to
Samara. Besides these, neaily a million hides and sheepskins,
goat and astrakhan skins, as well as wool, horsehair, bristles, down,
horns, bones, fcc, are exported. There are two cadet corps, a
theological seminary, seminaries for Russian and Kirghiz teachers,
a museum, branches of the Russian Geographical Society and
the Gardening Society, and a miliUry arsenal.
ORBNDBU a Middle High (jcrman poem, of no great literary
merit, dating from the dose of the X3th century. The story b
associated with the town of Treves (Trier), where the poem was
probably written. The mtraduction narrates the story of the Holy
Coat, which, after many adventures, b swalk>wed by a whale. It
is recovered by Onendel, son of King Eigel of Treves, 1H10 had
embarked with twenty-two ships in order to woo the lovely
Brida, the mistress of the Holy Sepulchre, as his wife. Suffering
shipwreck, he falb into the hands of the fisherman Else, and
in hb service catches the whale that has swallowed the Holy
Coat. The coat has the property of rendering the wearer proof
against wouncb, and Orendel successfully overcomes innumcr*
able perib and eventually wins Brida for hb wife. A message
brought by an an^el summons both back to Treves, where
Orendel meets with many adventtures and at last di^oses of
the Holy Coat by pbdng it in a stone sarcophagus. Another
angel announces both hb and Brida's approaching death, when
they renounce the world and prepare for the end.
German translation by K. Stmrock (1845). See H. Harfcentce.
Untenuchungen abet das Sptetmannsgedickl Ortndd (1879); F. Vogt.
in the Zettakrtft fUr deutscke PkiMotU, vol. xxii. (1890) ; it. Heiaael.
Ober das Cedukt 9om K&ntg Ortndtl (1893); and K. MQllenhoff,
in Deutscke AlUrtumskundet vol. L (and ed.. 1890), pp. 33 seq.
ORBNSB, an inbnd province of north-western Spain, formed
in 1833 of dbtricu previously induded in Galicia, and bounded
on the N. by Ponrevedra and Lugo, £. by Leon and Zamora,
S. by Portugal, and W. by Portugal and Pontevedra. Pop.
(1900) 404^3Il; area 3694 sq. ou The surface of the province
is almost everywhere mountainous. Its western half b traversed
in a south-westerly direction by the river Mifio (Portuguese
Minko), which flows through Portugal to the Atlantic; the
Sil, a left-hand tributary of the Mifto, waters the north-eastern
districts; and the Limia rises in the central mountains and
flows west-south-west, reaching the sea at the Portuguese port
of Vianna do Castelb. The upper valley of the Limia k. the
only brge tract of levd country. The climate b very varied,
mild in some valleys, cold and damp in the highlands, rainy
near the northern border, and subject to rapid changes of
temperature. The railway from Monfortc to Vigo runs tluough
the province. There are a few iron foundries of a primitive
sort, but lack of transport and ol cheap coal hinder the growth
of mining and manufactures.
Though the soil b fertile and well watered, agricultural
producU are not so important as arboriculture. The oak.
beech, pine, chestnut, walnut and plane grow in abundance
on the hills and mountains; pears, apples, cherries, abnonds,
figs, roses and olives in the valh^ and even oranges and
lemons in shdtcred spots. The chief towns are the capital,
Orcnse, AUariz, Carballino, Viana, Nogudrads Ramuin. Boborist
CMti«lb.MidU V«BS. ScoaboGAUCU.
0RENSK--0RESTE8
^53
ORDItB, ui fipfscoital ue and Che capUttl tf thd Spaitith
province of Orense; on the left bank of the rfver Mtno, and
on the Tuy-Monfoite railway. Pop. (igoo) I5>i94> The river
is here crossed by a badge—one of the most remarkable in
Spain— oC seven arches, 1319 ft. in length, and at iti' highest
point 13 s ft. above the bed of the river. This bridge was built
by Bishop Lorenzo in ia30> but has frequently been repairiKi.
The Gothic cathedral, also dating from Bishop Lorenzo's time,
is a comparativoly small building, but has an Image, El Santo
Cristo, which was brought from Cape Finisterre in 1330 and
b celebrated throughout Galicia for its miraculous powers.
The dty^ contains many schools, a public Itbrsry and -a theatre.
In the older streets there are some interesting medieval houses.
Chooobite and leather ajt manufactured, and there are saw>
mills, flour-mills and iron foundries* The three warm springs
to the west, known as Las Burgas, attract many summer visitors;
the waters were well known to the Romans, as thdr ancient
name. Aquae Originis, Aquae Ureotes, or perhaps Aquae Salien-
tis> cleariy indicateai
The Romans named Orense Aurfom, probably from the
alluvial goM found in the Mifto valley. The bishopric, founded
in the 5th century by the Visigoths, w«s named the Sedcs
Auriensis (see of Anrium), and from this the modem Orense
is derived. The city became the capital of the Saevi In the
6th century; it waa sacked by the Moors in 716, and rebuilt
only in 884.
ORBODON (f.«. *' hiUock-tootB ")> the name of an OUgocote
genus of North American primitive ruminanU related to the
camels, and 'typilying the family OrtpdontidM, Typical oreo-
doots were long-taUed, four-toed, partially plantigrade rumfaiants
with sharp-crowned crescentic molars, of which the upper ones
carry four cusps, and the first lower premolar canine-hke both
in shape and function. In the type genus there are forty«Xour
teeth, forming an unfntermpted series. The vertebral artery
pierces the neck-vertebne in the normal manner. The name
OrtodoH is preoccupied by Orodus, the designation of a genus
of Palacoanc fishes, and is likewise antedated by Mttyeoid^dM,
which is now used by some writers. See Tylopoda.
ORBNf B» moOLAB (c. X39»-X382>, French bishop, celebrated
for his numerous works in both French and Latin on scholastic,
scientific and political questions, was bom in Nomuindy at
the opening of the X4th century. In 1348 he was a stqdent
in the college of Navarro at Paris, of which he became head
in 1356. In 1361 he was named dean of the cathedral of Rouen.
Chariea V. had hfm appointed bishop of Lisieux on the i6th
of November 1377. He died in that city on the xith of July
1382. One of his woiics, of great importance for the history
of economic coficepuons in the nuddle ages, was the De prigitu,
tuUmra, jMr$ U muitUiantbus moneUtrum, of which there is also
a French edition. Oresme was the author of several works on
astrology, in which he showed its falseness as a sdence and
denounced ito practice. At the request of Charles V. he trans^
lated the EtkicSt PoHHcs and Ec&nomies of Aristotle. In Decem-
ber 1363 he preached before Urban V. a sermon on reform in
the church, so severe in its arraignment that it was often brought
forward in the x6th century by ProtesUnt polemists.
See Frsnda Mcunler, Essai sur la tie tt Us ovtraaes de NieoU
Ortffm (Paris, X857); Feret. La Faeuttid* thielotie de VUnwersiU de
Pans (I^uiB. X896. t. ui. p. 290 sqq.): Emife Bridity. Nuok Oresm.
£awU des doctrines el des Jails ianmgues (Parts 1906).
OSBSTBt, in Gieek legend, son of Agamemnon and Gytaent-
nestra. According to the Homeric story he was absent from
Mycenae when his father returned from the Trojan War and
was murdered by Aegisthus. Eight years later he returned
from Athens and revenged his father's death by slaying his
mother, and her paramour {Odyssey, iii. so6\ xi. S4*)» According
to Pindar (Pythia, xl ss) he ^na saved by his nurse, who con-
veyed him out of the country when Clytaemnestra wished to
kill him. The tale b told much more fully and with many
variations in the tragedians. He was preserved by his sister
Electra from his father's fate, and conveyed to Phanote on
Mount ^massas, where King Strophius took charge of Um.
In his tweittleth year he was ordered by the Delphic oiacle to
return home and revenge his father's death. According to
Aeschylus, he met his sister Electra ttefore the tombof Agamcm^
non, whither both had gone to perform rites to the dead.; a
recognition takes place, and they arrange how Orestes shall
accomplish his revenge. Orestes, after the deed, goes mad,
and is pursued by the Erinyes, whose duty it is to punish any
violation of the ties of family piety. He takes refuge in the
temple at Delphi; but, though Apollo had ordered him to do
the deed, he is powerless to protect his suppliant from the
consequences. At last Athena receives him on the acropolis
of Athens and armnges a formal trial of the case before twelve
Attic judges. The Erinyes demand their victim; he pleads
the orders of Apollo; the votes of the judges arc equally divided,
and Athena gives her casting vote for acquittaL The Erinyes
are propitiated by a new ritual, in which they are worshipped
as Etunenrdes (the Kindly), and Orestes dedicates an altar to
Athena Arcia. With Aeschylus the punishment ends here,
but, according to Euripides, in order to escape the persecutions
of the Erinyes, he was ordered by ApoHo to go to 'Tauris, carry
off the statue of Artemis which had fallen from heaven, and
bring it to Athens. He repairs to Tauris with Pylades, the son
of Stmphhls and the intimate friend of Orestes, and the pair
are at once Imprisoned by the people, among whom the custom'
is to sacrifice all strangers to Artemis. The priestess of Artemis,
whose duty it Is to perform the sacrifice, is his sister Iphigeoeia
(7.V.). She offers to release Orestes if he will carry home a letter
from her to Greece; he refuses to go, but bids Pylades take the
letter while he himself will stay and be slain. After a conflict
of mutual aflfection, Pylades at last yields, but the letter brings
about a recognition between brother and sister, and all three
escape together, carrying with them the image of Artemis.
After his return to Greece, Orestes took possesaioa of his father's
kingdom of Mycenae, to which were added Argos and Laconia.
He is said to have died of the bite of a snake hi Arcadia. His
body was conveyed to Sparta for burial (where he was the c^ject
of a cult), or, according to an Italian legend, to Arida, whence
it was removed to Rome (Servius on Aeneid, ii« xx6). The story
of Orestes was the subject of the OrtsUia of Aeschylus {Agamem'
non, Ckoephofi, Eumenides), of the BUOr^ of S<^hocles, of the
Ekdra, Ipkigmcia in T&uris, and Orerler, of Buripides. Thers
is extant a Latin epic poem, consisting of about xooo hexa-
meters, called (kesHs Tragoedia, which has been aaciibed to
Dracontlus of Carthage.
Orestes appears also as a central figure in various- legends
connected with hts madness and purification, both In Greece
and Asia. In these Orestes is the guilt-laden mortal who is
purified from his sin by the grace of the gods, whose merciful
justice is shown to all persons whose crime is mitigated by
extenuating drcumstancea. These legends belong to an age
when higher ideas of law and of social duty were being establidied ;
the implacable blood-feud of primitive society giver place 10
a fsir trial, and in Athens, when the votes of the jodfea are
evenly divided, niercy prevails.
The legend of Oreetes is the subject <^ a lengthy momMnaph by
T. Zlelinski. "Die Orestcssage und die Rechtfertigungsidce'^in Neue
JahrbUcherfqr das klassische Altertum, ii. (1809). Ofvstcs, according
to Zielinski, u the son of the sky-god Zeus-Agamemnon, who over-
comes his wife the earth-godaess Gaia-Clytaemnettra; with the
assistance of the dragon Aegisthus, she slays her husband, whose
murder is in turn aveneed by his son. The religion of Zeus is then
reformed under the influence of the cult of Apollo, who slays the
dragon brought up by the earth-goddess on Parnassus, the seat of
one of her oldest sanctuaries. Parnassus becomes the holy mountain
of ApoUo. and Orestes himself an hypostasis of Apolk> *' of the
mounuin/* just as Pylades is Apollo "of the plain"; simihirly
Electre. Iphigeneia and Chrytothemls are hypostases of Artemis.
Zeus being firmly seated on his throne as the result of the slaying of
the dragon by Orestes, the theokigical significance of the myth
is forgotten, and the identificatiofiB Zeus-Agamemnon and Gaia-
Clytaemnestra are abandoned. In the Homeric Orestcia the soul
of the murdered wife has no claim to vcng^nce, and Orestes rules
I unmolested in Argos. But the ApolHnc religion introduces the theory
of the rights of the soul and revenge for bloodshed. Apollo, who has
urged Orestes to parricide and has himself ex^ated the cnme of
staying the drsgon. is able lo purify othera ia aunilar case- Heaca
254
ORFILA— ORFORD, ist EARL OF
Orestes, freed from the suilt of blood, b enabled to take posaenion
of the throne of hb father. Thb b the Delphic OrcstcU. But a new
idea b introduced by the Attic Orcstcia. The claim that Apollo can
in every case pnrify from nn is met by Athens with a counterclaim
on behalf of the state. It b the community of which murdered and
murderer were mcmbecB which has the right to exact revenge and
retribution, an idea which found expression in the foundation of the
Areopagus. If the accused b acquitted, the state undertakes to
appease the soul of the murdered person or its judicial repccaenutive,
the Erinys.
Others attach cnif t inv^onancc to inii hbyjnt; os Ncopialemus
(PytrfiuriJ by Oreatcs ai Hklphi; according to UAiJcrmicntr (Dus
Jena fill tm Uyihai titf HrUmnir i^j)^ Orestc* 13 an hvporta.'.ift of
Apollo, P'yTThu?. I he prinriple of cvAif which i* ovmxornc by the fi'-fl;
on I he other liatid* Ujcncc {Atchm fiir f?£itii<msixficn, vij., ih-^^^
3*4) ukcs OitottJ fgr ;i god ot winter arid ihe uo^krworld, a, (hjulle
of the Phocian Dionysu* the " ni«unt.iln " god f^ane *tic tiinbR> a
feummer-grjd, but in this ca« crfffi-s^wndirtg to DwtnyTsu* iHAo^ai-jh),
who »ubduL'9 l^yfTtiu* " iho lifiSt/' iti** drmhk tjf ApuHfi^ ihc whote
bcine a (orm of titc well-kiwwn mjth* of i he c^ipubbn nf fcuminer by
wiriLcr, S. Rcindch (rev4cwing t'* Maan** VOrfitud'Bahyk, r^fia)
defend? the thTOrt of iJAfhf'Etn^ whj find^ m ihc (cgci%d of Ort^cs
an tmliraiiflii of iKf d«sy of m4lriirth-il Idcw-
Sec aitkle by Hofcf »fl Ro*eli4T'» Lexilim der Mytkolctif; A.
OUvicri, "Sul miio di Oirizsli; ndia fetteraiitri tiasska '' (with a
et:jioit oti modem litcraiun?) \n Rhd^tn 4i FtldoziQ. xkvL iiS^j^i),
aiid J ebb's edition of ihc EUciia of Scplio:!' .
ORPILA, MATHIEV JOSEPH BONAVEMTURB (17S7-X853).
French toxicologbt and chemist* was by birth a Spaniard,
having been bom at Mahon in Minorca on the 94lh of April
1787. An bland merchant's son, he looked naturally fiist to the
sea for a profession; but a voyage at the age of fifteen to Sardinia,
Sicily and Egypt did not prove satisfactory. He next took to
medicine, which he studied at the universities of Valencia and
Barcekuia with such success that the local authorities of the
Utter city made him a grant to enable him to follow hb studies
at Madrid and Paris, preparatory to appointing him professor.
He had scarcely settled for that purpose in Paris when the out-
break of the Spanbh war, in 2807, threatened destruction to
hb prospects. But he had the good fortune to find a patron in
the chembt L. N. Vauqueltn, who dairoed him as hb pupil,
guaranteed hb condua, and saved him from expulsion from
Paris. Foiur years afterwards he graduated, and immediately
became a private lecturer on chemistry in the French capitaL
In 1819 he was appointed professor of medical jurisprudence,
and four years later be succeeded Vauquelin as professor of
chemistry in the faculty of medicine at Pftris. In 1830 he was
nominated dean of that faculty, a high medical honour in France.
Under the Orleans dynasty, honours were lavishly showered upon
him; he became successively member of the council of education
of France, member of the general council of the department
of the Seine, and commander of the Legion of Honour. But
by the republic of 1848 he was held in less favour, and chagrin
at the treatment he experienced at the hands of the governments
which succeeded that of Loub Philippe is supposed to have
shortened hb life. He died, after a short illness, in Paib on the
isth of March 1853.
Orfila's chief publications are TraiU iet poUons, or ToxicohgU
tjMraU (181A); EUmenls de ckimie mUdkaU (1817): Lei«ns dt
mtdScint Ugau (i82t): Traits des exhumations juridiqtus (1830);
and Recherckes tur lempoisonnewtent par l' acids arsentaix (1841).
He also vrrote many valuable papers, chiefly on subjects connected
with medical jurborudcncc. His fame rests mainly on the first-
named work, publisned when he was only in his twenty-teventh year.
It is a vast mine of experimental observation on the symptoms of
poieoning of all kindit, on the appearances which poisons leave in the
dead body, on their physiological action, and on the means of de-
tecting them. Few branches of science, so important on their bear-
ings on every-day life and so difficult of investigation, can be said to
have been creat«I and raised at once to a state of high advancement
by the labours of a single man.
ORFORD, EDWARD RUSSELL, Eaxl of (1653-1727). Britbh
admiral, was bom in 1653, the son of Edward Russell, a younger
brother of the ist duke of Bedford. He was one of the first
gentleman officers of the navy regularly bred to the sea. In
167 1 he was named lieutenant of the " Advice " at the age of
ci^teen, captain in the following year. He continued in active
service against the Dutch in the North Sea in 1672-73, and in
the Mediterranean in the operations against the Barbary Pirates
with Sir John Narboimigh and Artlwr H«lMt, «fter«rtrds enf
of Torringtoo, from 1676 to 1683. In 1683 he ceased to be
empbyed, and the reason must no doubt be looked for in the
fact that all members of the RusscU family had fallen into dis-
favour with the king, after the discovery of Williasn, Lord
RusacU's connexion with the Rye House Pk>t. The family had
a private revenge to take which sharpened their sense of the
danger run by Britbh liberties from the tyranny of King James
IL Throughout the negotiations preceding the revohition of
1688 Edward Russell appears acting on behalf and in the name
of the head of thb great Whig house, whkh did so much to bring
it about, and profited by it so enormously in pune and power.
He signed the inviution which WilUam of Orange insisted on
having in writing in order to commit the chiefs of the oppontkm
to give him open help. Edward RusseH's |»ominenoe at thb
crisb was of itsdf enough to account for hb importance after the
Revolution. When the war began with France in i68q, he served
at first under.the earl of Torrington. But during 1690, when that
admiral avowed hb intention of retiring to the Gunfleet, and of
leaving the French in command of the Channel, Russell was one
of those who condemned him most fiercely. In December 1690
he succeeded Torrington, and during 1691 he cruised without
meeting the French under Tourville (f .t .), who made no attempt
to meet him. At thb UmeRussdl, like some of the other extreme
Whigs, was discontented with the moderation of William of Onmge
and had entered into negoUations with the exiled court, partly
out of spite, and partly to make themselves safe in case of a
restoration. But he was always ready to fight the French, and
in 2693 he defeated Tourville in the battle called* La Hogue,
or Barfleur. Russell had Dutch allies with him, and they were
greatly superior in number, but the chief difficulty enooontered
was in the pursuit, which Russell conducted with great resolntion.
Hb utter inability to work with the Tories with whom William
UI. would not quarrel altogether, made hb retirement imperative
for a short time. But in 1694 he was appointed to the command
Qf the fleet which, taking advantage of the inability of the king
of France to maintain a great fleet in the Channel from want of
money, followed the French into the Mediterranean, confined
them to Toulon for the rest of the war, and co-operated with the
Spanish annics in Catalonia. He returned in 1695, and in 1697
was created eari of Orf ord. For the rest of hb life he filled posts
of easy dignity and emolument, and died on the 26th of November
1797. He married hb cousin, Mary Russell; but hb title became
extinct on hb death without issue.
See Chamock, Biog. Na». 1 354: Campbell's Lms tfOie Adminit,
!»• 3«7. (D. H.)
ORFORD, ROBERT WALPOLB. ist Eaxl or (i676>i745),
generally known as Snt Robut Walpolb, prime minist« of
England from 1731 to 1742, was the third but eldest surviving
son of Robert Walpole, M.P., of Houghton in Norfolk, by Mary,
only daughter and heiress of Sir Jeffery Burwell, of Rougham,
in Suffolk. The father, a jolly old squire of Whig politics who
revelled in outdoor sport and the pleasures of the table, tran»-
mitted to hb son the chief traits in hb own character. The future
statesman was bom at Houghton on the 26th of August 1676,
was an Eton colleger from X690 to 1695 and was admitted at
King's College, Cambridge, as scholar on the ssnd of April
1696. At thb time he was destined, as a younger son, for the
church, but hb two elder brothers died young and he became
the heir to an estate producing about £2000 a 3fear, whereupon on
the 25th of May 1698 he rcdgned his schoUrship, and was aoon
afterwards withdrawn by hb father from the university. In
classical attainments he was excelled by Pulteney, Carteret,
and many others of hb contemporaries in politics.
On hb father's death in November 1700 the electors of the
family borough of Castle Rising returned him January 1701)
to the House of Commons as their representative, but after two
short-lived parliamenu he sought the suffrages of the more
important coosUtuency of King's Lynn (July 23, 2702),
and was elected as its member at every subsequent dinolution
tutil he left the I ower House. From the first hb shrewdness
in counsel and hb seal for the interesu of the Whigi werefenoalty
ORFORD, itfr EARL OF
tiS$
ncognlsed. In June 1705 he wis appolBtod one of tbe cooncfl
to PriiKt GMTfe o( Denmark, the inactive hosbaod of Queen
Anne, and Chen lord high adnJrai of England. CemplanxU
against the administratien of the navy were then kNid and
frequent (Barton's Queen Amn^ ii. 93-51), and the responsibiiities
of his new position tested liiS capacity for pnblic life. His
abilities justified his advancement, in successiott to his lifelong
rival, Henry St Jehn, to the more important position of secreuryo
at-war (February 9$, 1708)1 which brought him Into immediate
contact with the duke of Marlborough and the queen. With
tJiis post he held for a short time (t7io)thetreBSBrershipof the
navy, and by the discharge of his ofBcid duties and by his skill
in debate became admitted to the inmost conndU of the ministry.
He could not succeed, however, in diverting Godolphin from the
great error of that statesman's career, the impeachment of
Sacheverell, and when the committee was appointed in December
1709 for elaborating the articles of impeachment Walpole was
nominated one of the managers for the House of Commons.
On the wreck of the Whig party which ensued, Walpole shared
in the general misfortune, and in spite of the flatteiy, followed
by the threats, of Harley he took his place with his friends in
opposition. His energies now shone forth with irresistible vigour;
both in debate and in the pamphlet press he vindicated (Sodolphin
from the charge that thirty-five millions of pubhc money were not
accounted for, and in revenge for Ms seal his political opponents
brought against him an accusation of personal corruption. On
these charges, now universally acknowledged to have proceeded
from party animosity, he was in January 171a expdled from
the House and committed to the Tower. I^ prison cell now
became the rendexvous of the Whigs among the aristocracy,
while the populace heard his praises commemorated in the ballads
of the' streets. The ignominy which the Tories had endeavoured
to Inflict upon him was turned into augmented reputation. In
the last parliament of Qwen Anne he took the leading part in
defence of Sir Richard Steele against the attacks of the Tories.
After the accession of George, the Whigs for neauly half a
oentuiy retained the control of English politics. Walpole
obtained the lucrative if unimportant post of paymaster-
general of the forces in the administration which was formed
under the nominal rule of Lord Halifax, but of which Stanhope
and Townshend were the guiding spirits. A committee of
secrecy was appointed to inquire into the acts of the bte ministry,
and especially into the Peace of Utrecht, with a view to the
impeachment of Harley and St John, and to Walpole was en-
trusted the pbice of chairman. Most of his colleagues in office
were members of the Houscof Lords, and the lead in the Commons
quickly became the reward of his talents and assiduity. Halifax
died on the 19th of May 1715, and after a short interval Walpole
was exalted into the conspicuous position of first lord of the
treasury and chancellor of the exchequer (October ix, 1715).
Jealousies, however, prevailed among the Whigs, and the
Gennaii favourites of the new monarch quickly showed their
discontent with the heads of the ministry. Townshend was
forced into resigning his secretaryship of state for the dignified
exile of viceroy of Ireland, but he never crossed the sea to Dublin,
and the support which Sundcrbnd and Stanhope, the new
adviseis of the king, received from him and from Walpole was
so gradfi^ng that Townshend was dismissed from the k>rd-
lieutenancy (April 9, 1717), and Walpole on the next morning
withdrew from the ministry. They plunged into opposition
with unflagging energy, and in resisting the measure by which
it was proposed to limit the royal prerogative in the creation
of peerages (March-December 1718) Walpole exerted all his
powers. This display of ability brought about a partial re-
\Donclltation of the two sections of the Whigs. Tb Townshend
was given the presidency of the council, and Walpole once again
assumed the paymastcrship of the forces (June 1720).
On the financial crash which followed the failure of the South
Sea scheme, the public voice insisted th.it he should assume
a more prominent place in public life. At this crisis in Enf;land's
fortunes Stanhope and James CregfTs. the two secretaries
fA state, were seised by death, John Aislabie, the chanccUor of
the enfacqver, was oommitted to the Tower, and Sunderiaad*
though acquitted of corruption, wa» compelled to resign the lead.
Walpole, at first lord of the treasury and cfaanodUor of the
exchequer (April 17S1), became with Townshend responsible
for the ootmt^'s government (though for some yean they had
to contend with the influence of (Carteret), the danger arising
from the panic in South Sea stock was averted by its amalgama-
tk>n with Bank and East India stock, and during the rest of the
reign of George I. they remained at the head of the ministry^
The hopes of the Jacobites» which revived with these financial
troubles, soon drooped in diaappointinent. Atterbury, their
boldest leader, was exiled in 1723; BoUngbioke, ia dismay
at their feebleness, sued for pardon, and was permitted to
return to his own' coanCty. The troubles which broke out ia
Irebind over Wood's patent for a copper coinage were allayed
through the tact of Carteret, who had been banished in April
X724 as its lord-lieutenant by his triumphant rivala. The conr
tinent was still troubled with wars and rumours ol wars* but «
treaty between England, Pruasia and France was successfuUy
effected at Hanover in t73S«
England was kept free from warfare, and in the general
prosperity which ensued Walpole basked in the royal favour.
His eldest son was raised to the peerage as Baron Walpole
Ottne zo, 1723) and he himself became a Knight of the Bath
on the 27th of May 1735, and was rewarded with the Garter
InMay 1726. Next year the first King George died, and Walpole's
enemies fondly believed that he would be driven from office,
but their expectations were doomed to disappointment. The
confidence which the old king had reposed in him was renewed by
his successor, and in the person of Queen Caroline, the discreet
ruler of her royal spouse, the second George, the Whig minister
found a faithful and lifelong friend. For three years he shared
power with Townshend, but the jealous Walpole brooked no
rival near the throne, and his brother-in-law withdrew from
official life to Norfolk in May 173a. Before and after that event
the administration was based on two principles, sound finance
at home and freedom from the intrigues and wars which reged
abroad. On the continent congieases and treaties were matters
of annual arrangement, and if the work of the plenipotentiaries
soon faded it was through their labours that England enjoyed
many years of peace. Waipole's influence received a serious
blow in 1733. 'The enormous frauds on the excise duties forced
themselves on his attentkm, and he proposed to check Smuggling
and avoid fraud by levying the full tax on tobacco and wine
when they were removed from the warehouses for sale^ His
opponents fastened on these proposals with irresistible force,
and so serious an agitation stirred the country that the ministerial
measure was dropped amid general rejoicing. Several of his
most active antagonists were dismissed from office or deprived
of their regiments, but thdr spirits remained unquenched, aa
the incessant attacks in the CrafUman showed, and when Walpofe
met a new House of Commons in 1734 his supporters were far
less numerous. The Gin Act of 1736, by which the tax on that
drink was raised fo aa excessive amount, led to disorders in the
suburbs of London; and the imprisonment of two notorious
smugglere in the Tolboolh at Edinburgh resulted in those
Portoous riou which have been rendered famous in the Heoft
of Midhtkian, These events weakened his influence with
laige classes In England and Scotland, but his pariiamentary
supremacy remained umimpaired, and was illustrated m 1737
by his defeat of Sir John Barnard's phin for the reduction
of the interest on the national debt, and by his passing of
the Playhouse Act, under which the London theatres are still
reguhited. That year, however, heralded his fall from power.
His constant friend Queen Caroline died on the 2olh of November
1 737, and the prince of Wales, long discontented with his parents
and their minister, flung himsdf into active opposition. Many
of the boroughs within the limits of the duchy of O>rowail
were obedient to the .prince's will, and he quickly attracted
to his cause a considerable number of adherents, of whom
Pitt and the Grvnvilles were the most influeniiaL The folding
orators of England thisndersd against Walpole in the senate.
«5^
ORP0RI>-O»GAN
and the prtas rettmaded with the tsanti of the poet and
pan^phleteer, illustrious and obscure, who found abundant
food for thdr invectives in the troubles with Spain over IH
exclusive pretensions to the continent of America and iu claim
to the ri^t of searching English vessels. The ministei long
resisted the pressure of the opposition for war, but at the dose
of 1739 he abandoned his efforts to stem the current, and with a
divided cabinet was forced, as the king would not allow him
to resign, into hostility with Spain. The Tory minority known
as " the patriots " had seceded from parliament in March 1739,
but at the commencement of the new session, in November
1739, they returned to ^heir places with redoubled energies.
The campaign was prosecuted with vigour, but the successes
of the troops brought little strength to Walpole's declining
popularity, and when parliament was dissolved in April 1741
his influence with his fellow-countrymen had faded away. His
enemies were active in opposition, while some of his ooUeagues
were lukewarm in support. In the new House of Commons
political parties were almost evenly balanced. Their strength
was tried immediately on the opening of parliament. After
the ministry had sustained 9ome defeats on election petitions,
the voting on the return for Chippenham was accepted as a
decisive test of parties, and,asWalpolewas t>caten in thedivisions,
he resolved on resigning his places. On the 9th of February
1743 he was created earl of Orford, and two days later he ceased
to be prime minister. A committee of inqxiiry mlo the conduct
of bis ministry for the previous ten years was ultimately granted,
but its deliberations ended in nought. Although be withdrew to
Houghton for a time, his influence over public affairs was unbroken
and be was still consulted by the monarch. He died at Arlington
Street, London, on the i8th of March 1745 and was buried at
Houghton on the 35th of March. With the permanent places,
valued at £15,000 per annum, which he hsui secured for his
family, and with his accumulations in office, he had rd>uilt
the mansion at great expense, and formed a gallery of pictures
within its walls at a cost of £40,000, but the collection was sold
by his grandson for a much larger sum in 1779 to the empress
of Russia, and the estate and house of Houghton passed to Lord
Cholmondeley, the third earl having married the premier's
younger daughter.
Walpole was twice, married — in 1700 to Catherine, eldest
daughter of John Shorter and grand-daughter of Sir John
Shorter, lord mayor of London, who died in 173 7* having had
issue three sons and two daughters, and in March 1738 to Maria,
daughter of Thomas Skerret, a lady often mentioned in the
letters of Lady Mary Wortiey Montagu. He was succeeded
in his earldom and other titles by his eldest son Robert (1701-
1751), who had been created Baron Walpole of Walpole in 1723;
the 3rd earl was the Uttcr's only son George (1730-1791), " the
last of the English nobility who practised the ancient sport of
hawking," and the 4th earl was the famous Horace Walpole
(7.V.) the youngest son of the great Sir Robert. Horace. Walpole
died unmarried on the and of March 1797, when the earldom
became extinct, but the barony of Walpole o( Walpole passed to
his cousin, Hoiatio (1733-1809), who had already succeeded his
father, Horatio Walpole, isl Baron Walpole of Wollerton in that
barony. In 1806 he was created carl of Orford, and this title still
remains in the possession of his descendants, Robert Horace
Walpole (b. 1854) becoming the sih carl in 1894. When Horace
Walpole died hii splendid residence at Houghlon and the Norfolk
estates did not pass with the title, but wtre inherited by George
James Cholmondeley, 4th carl and afterwards 1st marquess of
Cholmondeley.
Sir R. Walpole's life has been written by Archdeacon William
Coxc (1798 and 1800. 3 vols.). A. C. Ewald (1878) and John Viscount
Moriey (1689). See also Wat^, a Study in Politics, by lulward
by his ion, Horace Wal|
lofthe •
and the other lives of the chief political
(W. pT C.)
OEFORD, a small town, once of greater importance, in the
MQth-easiern parliamentary divisioa of Suffolk, England,
91 flx £. by N., of Ipt«rich. Ftp. (1901) g&r- It lies by th«
right bank of the river Aide, where that river flows aouth-west-
ward on the inner side of the great beach which has blocked iu
direct outflow to the sea, and swells out seaward in the blunt
promontory of Orford Ness. The church of St Bartholomew ia
of much interest. It retains a ruined Norman chancel of rich
and unusual design, while ihe body of the church i» Decorated.
Of Orford castle the keep remains, standing high on a mounds it
is partly of Caen stone and partly of flint work, and is of Noiman
date.
ORGAN, in music, the name (from Or. VyaWt Lat. organiiatf
instrument) given to the well-known wind-instrumeaL The notes
of the organ are produced by ^^, which are blown by air under
pressure, technically called witid.
Pipes differ from one another in two pnncipal ways — (i) in
pitch, (3) in qnalily of tone, (i) Consider first a aeriea-of pipes
producing notes of similar quality, but differing m pitch. Such
a series is called a stop* Each atop of the organ is in effect a
musical instrument in itself. {2) The pipes of different atopa
differ, musically speaking, in their quality of tone, as well as
sometimes in their pitch. Physically, they differ in shape and
general artangemeat. The sounding of the pipes is deterxnined
by the use of keys, aome of which are played by the hands, some
by the feet. A complete stop possesses a pipe for every key off
some one row of manuals or pedals. If one stop alone u caused
to sotmd, the effect is that of perf<Minance on a single instnimcnt.
There are such things as incomplete stops, which do not extend
over a whole row of keys; and also there are stops which have
more than one pipe to each key* Every stop is provided with
mechanism by means of which the wind can be cut off f nun iU
pipes, BO that they cannot sound even when the keys ace pressed.
This mechanism is made to terminaU ia a iban^, which is
commonly spoken of as the stop. When the handle is pushed in,
the stop does not sound; when the handle is puUed out, the stop
sounds if the keys are pressed. An organ may contain from one
to four manuais or keyboards and one set of pedals. There are
exceptional instruments having five manuals, and also aome
having two sets of pedals. The usual compass of the ««f"t'i»»n
approximates to five octaves, from C to c"" inclusive. The
compass of the pedal is two and a half octaves, from C to f .
This represents the pitch in which the notes of the pedal are
written; but the pedal generally possesses stops sounding one
octave k>wer than the written note, and in some cases stops
sounding two octaves below the written note. Each manual or
pedal has as a rule one soundboard, on which all iu pipes are
placed. Underneath the soundboard is the wimUhest, by which
the wind is conveyed from the bellows, throu^ the soundboard
to the pipes. The windchest contains the mechanism of valves by
which the keys control the admission of wind to the soundboard.
The soundboard contains the grooves which receive the wind
from the valves, and the
slides by which the
handles of the stops con-
trol •the transmission of
the wind through the
soundboard to the pipes
of the different stops.
The grooves of the
soundboard are spaces
left between wooden bars
glued on to the table of
the soundboard. There
is usually one groove for
every key. The grooves
of the boss notes, which
have to supply wind for
large pipes, arc broader
than those of the treble.
The bass bars are also thicker than those of the treble, that
they may the better support the greet weight which resU oo
the bass portion of the soundboard. The tabic forms the top of
the grooves. The grooves are generally dosed below wit^
Fig. I.— a portion of the Table with
the open grooves seen from above
ORGAN
aS7
kAtlier, except the openSng left In eacli, wtdch b doaed by tBe
key-valve or paiUt.
The sliders are connected with the draw-stops or stop-handles,
which are covered in with stout npper boards, on which the pipes
^jr^^T,^^
Sii^-
'^H
Fio. 2. — A section of a groove, with
the uble, wiodchest and pallet.
Fig. 3.— a aection at right
angles to fig. a.
•Ill
> « I •
Fig. 4.—A portion of the uble
as it appears from above, with the
places for the sliders of the ttoos;
the amall cardes show the holes lor
stand. The stop-handles are pulled out, and holes are then
bored straight down through the upper boards, sliders and table
to admit the wind from the grooves to the pipes. When the sliders
aie shifted by pushing in the handles, the holes no kMBfer corre-
spond, and the pipes are silenced.
Pipes are divided first into fiue-pipes and reed-pipes. Flue-
pipes are blown by a wind mouthpiece characteristic of the organ,
while in reed-pipes the wind
acts on a metal tongue vibrat-
ing on a reed, and the motion
of the tongue determines the
speech of the pipe.
Pipes are made either of
wood or of metal. Wood
flue-pipes are generally of the
form of a rectangular parallel-
epiped, metal flue-pipes of a
cylindrical shape. Reed-pipes
are conical or pyramidal, and
widen towards the top. Some
flue-pipes are made with
stopped ends; these as a rule
sound a note about an octave lower than the corresponding open
pipes o( the same length. Such are the stopped diapason,
bourdon, and stopped flute.
The general elementary theory of the resonance of a pipe is
tolerably simple. The effective length of the pipe is determined
by measuring from the upper lip to the open end in open pipes,
■adlivai the upper Up to the stopper and back again in stopped
pipes. To this is added
an allowance for the
effect of each opening,
since the condition of
perfect freedom from
constraint does not
subsist at the opening
itself. The corrected
length is traversed
twice (backwards and
forwards) by sound,
in the time of one
vibration of the re-
sultant note. This
describes in a rough
and general manner
the way in which any
disturbance gives rise
to the note of the
pipe; but the theory
of the mouth-pieces is
a much more diflicult
matter, into which we
cannot here enter.
In reed-pipes which are simply conical the resonance of the
body is nearly the same as that of an open pipe of the same
le&ftb. Where the form is irregular no simple ruk can be given.
f
T. J.
,
FiCk S— o, An open diapason; b. a
stopped diapason; c, an oboe; and d, a
trampet— « and d being forms of reed-
pipe*.
FiC. 6. — Mouthpieces in some-
what greater detaiL
But the fssonaace of the body of the pipe b generally the same
as the note produced. The tongue of a reed-pipe alternately
opens and doses the aperture of the reed. In this way it admiu
pulses of wud to the body of
the pipe; these, if they recur at
the proper intervals, maintain
its vibration, which takes place
when the note produced corre>
sponds to the resonance of thcf
pipe. The reed itself has its
vibrating length determined by a
wire which presses against it.
The free end of this wire is
touched with the tuning tool
until a satisfactory note is pro-
duced.
The pitch of the different
stops is commonly denoted by
the conventional approximate
length of the pipe sounded by
C, the lowest key of the manuaL
Even in incomplete stops which have no bass, the length of the
pipe which C would have if the stop were extended down serves
to indicate the pitch.
The conventional length of the C-pipe for stops having the
normal pitch of the keys is 8 ft.; a pipe having twice this length
sounds the octave below, a pipe having half that length the octave
above, and soon. Thus stops which sound the octave below the
normal pilch of the keys are spoken of as 16-foot stops. Even
where the pipes are slopped so that the actual length is onIy8ft.»
they are spoken of as having " i6-ft. tone." Similarly 3 s-ft. stops
sound two octaves below the normal pitch of the keys. But if
these notes are produced by stopped pipes, whose actual length
isonly 16 ft., they arc spoken of as having "33-fi.tone." Sixteen-
foot and 32-ft. stops are spccixdly characteristic of the pedal,
where the names abo signify the length of the open pipe which
would sound the note actually produced by the lowest C. Of
stops higher than the normal pitch of the keys, the octave is.
denoted by 4 ft. if made with open pipes, 4-ft. tone if stopped;
the twelfth is commonly spoken of as a}, the fifteenth or double
octave as a ft. Higher-sounding stop* are occasionally used,
but these generally form part of "mixtures," and the foot-
lengths of the separate ranks are not usually given.
The true or accurate lengths of the pipes vary within con-
siderable limits. The base of the scales (dimensions) varies
according to the standard of pitch, and the voicing and the
complicated natural laws of pipes produce other deviations
from simple relations, so that the conventional dimensions
can only be regarded as a simple means of classifying the
stops according to their pitch-relations. For this purpose
they are essential; they are continually appealed to in
discussion and description; and they are almost invariably
marked on the stop-handles in all countries, so that a moderate
knowledge of foreign nomenclatures, combined with the habit
of seizing the meaning of the figures such as 16, 8, 4i on the slop-
handles, will frequently suffice as a key to the complexities of a
foreign organ.
Each of the manuals, or rows of keys, of an organ constitutes
a separate organ, which is more or less complete in itself. The
names of the different manuals or organs arc grrol organ, swell
organ, choir organ and sole orgion. The fifth manual, where it
occurs, is the echo organ. The above is the nstial order in point
of development and frequency of occurrence, although the solo
is sometimes preferred to the choir oisan. The great organ is in
a certain sense the principal department of the organ. It may be
regarded as formed by a completely developed series of those
fundamental stops which constitute the solid basis of the tone
of the instrument. If an instrument be constructed with only
a single manual this necessarily assumes, in general, the character*
istics of a great organ. The great organ is called " grande orgoe *'
in French, and first manual or " haupt-werk " in German.
It is proposed to describe the principal orgao-stope under the
2S8
ORGAN
head* o( the imduaU to whkli they belong. Tbe cnttmcntioa
will not b« exhaustive, but will iaclude all the usual types.
The great organ begins generally with stops of i6 ft. in Isige
instruments. In some cases a ^2-foot sounding stop is introduced,
^-^ but this cannot be said u> be a proper characteristic of the
tJJJi great organ. The foundation tone is of 8 ft.; the slops
*'•"' of higher pitch Rrve to add brilliancy: those of i6 ft.,
which sound the octave below the normal pitch, serve to add gravity
and weight bo the tone. Stxtcen-foot stops are commonly spoken «
as " doubles," their conventional length being twice that of stops of
nornaal pitch.
The i6-ft. stops are the i6 double open diapason, and the |6
bourdon or double stopped diapasno. to which, in very targe instru-
ments, there may be added a 16 double trumpet. The double open
diaiiason on the great organ consists usually of metal pipes, having
moderate " scale, or transverse dimensions. These are of the same
general character as the pipes of the ordinarv open diapason, though
they are nade somewhat less powerful. In tne better instruments of
the second class as to size this stop alone would probably be regarded
as representing suitably and sufficiently the cbss of doubles on the
great organ. It gives great body to the general tone, and appears
decidedly prefeiaole to the bourdon, which frequently takes its place.
The 16 bourdon, when used on the great organ, is made of rather
SRutI icale and light tone. It gives great body to a large great organ
and affords interesting combinatioas with other stops, such as the
4*fL flute. It is used cither alone in smaller organs of the second
class, or in addition to a double open in larger instruments.
The 16 double trumpet is a trumpet (laree reed stop) sounding the
octave below the normal pitch. It is used generally in instruments
of the largest sise, but is somewhat more common m Germany. It
is useful in giving a massive character to the tone of the full great
organ, which is apt to become disagreeable on account of the great
development of stops of a piercing character. If, however, the
double trumpet is rough in tone, it is apt to communicate to the
vhoie a corresponding impression.
We now proceed to the 8-ft. stops (the reeds come at the end
according to ordinary usage). An ordinary great organ may contain
-^ g stopped diapason, 8 open diapason (one or more), 8
*"**' gamba and 8 hohlflOte. The 8 stopped diapason on the
jy* great organ b usually of moderate scale, and some coo-
•^* siderable fulness of tone. Few stops admit of more
.variety and individuality in their quality of tone than the stopped
diapason ; but too frequently the great organ stopped diapason fails
to attract attention on its merits, being legarded simply as an in-
oansiderable portion of the foundation tone.
If there is any one stop which in itself represents the organ as a
whole it is the open diapason. The pipes of this stop are the typical
meul pipes which have always been characteristic of the ap^arancc
of the organ. A single open diapason stop is capable of being used
as an organ of sufficient power for many purposes, though of course
without variety. The pipes of this stop are called " pnncipal " in
German, this appellation apparently corresponding to the fact that
they are the true and original oij^n-pipes. The English appellation
of ** diapason " has been uken to mean that these are the normal
pipes which run through the whole compass. This, however, does not
appear to be the actual derivation of the term; originaUy it b
technically applied to the organ-builder's rule, which gives the
dimensions ot pipei; and it appears that the application to the stop
followed on this meaning.
The scales, character and voicing of the open diapason vary with
Cashion, and are different in different countries. We may distinguish
three principal types. The old English diapasons of the days before
the introduction of pedal organs into England were characterized by
4 rich sweet tone, and were not very powerful. They were generally
voiced on a light wind, having a pressure equivalent to that of a
column of water of from a to a| in. The scale was in some cases
very targe, as in Green's two open diapasons in the old oigan at St
George's, Windsor; in these the wind was light, and the tone very
soft. In other cases the scale was smaller and the voicing boldifr, as
in Father Smith's original diapasons in St Paul's CathedraL But on
the whole the old English diapasons presented a bvely quality of
tone. English travellers of those days, accustomed to these diapasons,
usually found foreign organs harsh, noisy and uninteresting. And
there are many still in England who, while recognising the necessity
of a firmer diapason tone in view of the introduction of the heavy
pedal bass, and the corre^mnding strengthening of the upper de-
partments of the organ tone, lament the disappearance 01 the old
d1apav)n tone. However, It is possible with carc to obtain diapasons
presenting the sweet charscteristics of the Old English tone, com-
bined with soflBcicnt fulness and power to form a sound general
foundation.^ And there can be no doubt that thb should be one of
the chief points to be kept in view in organ dc<>igii.
The German diapason was of an entirely different character from
the English. The heavy bass of the pedals has been an e»entbl
characteristic of the German organ for at least two or three centuries,
or. as it is said, for four. The dcvekiproent of tlue piercing stops of
high pitch was equally general. Thus foundation work of com-
paratively great power was rpquirrd to maintain the balance, of
tone; the ordinary German diapason was very k>wd. and we may
aloioa say ccvw. in iu tone whea compaxod with the old I ,
diafason. The Gcrmsn stop was voiced as a rule on from il to 4 in.
of wind, ^ot quite twice the prr>»ure used in England.
The French 4iapasoa b a modem variety. It may be described
as pfcseatiag raiber the characterittks of a knid famba than of a
diapason. In other words the tone tend» towards a certain quality
which may be de s Li i btti as " nasal " or metallic, or as approaching
to that of a string instrument of rather coarse character. Some
mpdefnEngtish builders appear to aim at the same model, and noc
without success.
The tone of a diapason must be strong enough to assert itself It
is the foundation of the whole organ tone. It is the voicer's business
to satisfy thb condition in conjunction uith the requirement that
the tone shall be full and of agreeable quality.
. The 8 spitzfldte may be regarded as a variety of onen diapason.
The pipes taper slightly towards the top. and the quality b
slightly stringy. This stop was much used at one time in pbce of a
second open dbpason. Bat it appears better that, where two open
diapasons are de^iinibie, they should both be of full dbpason quafaty.
though possibly of different strengths and dimensions. The ad-
mixture of stnngy qualities of tone with the dbpasoos b always to
be deprecated.
The 8 gamba was originally an tmhation of the viob da gamba, a
sort of viuloncelto. When made of a light quality of tone it b a
pleasing slop; but iu use in the great organ instead of a second opeo
diapason is greatly to be deprecated for the reasons just stated.
The 8 hohlfloic b an open flute, usually of wood, and of small
scale. If made to a moderate scale and fully voiced it po ss e ss e s a
full pleasant tone, which is a useful support to the foundation tone
of the great ornn. The 8 darabella diflcrs from the hohUiAcc in
being usually 01 rather large scale, and havhng the open pipes only
in the treble. In old organs a sepsrate bass was generally
provided; now it b more usual to supply the stop with a stopped
The 4-ft. stops of the groat organ comprise the a principal and the
4 flute. The 4 principal is the octave of the open diapason, generally
of somewhat reduced scale and light but bright quality of gy^
tone. The use of the word *' principal '* m connexion ^ZmL
with thb stop b purely English, and b said to be ccsi- ?Pt
nccted with the use made oTit as the standard of tuning
for the whole organ. The Germans and French both designate this
stop as " octave."
Of the 4 flute there arc several varieti es ' open, stopped, wood,
metal and harmonic. The harmonic flute has open metal pipes of
double the conventional length, whkh speak their oaave. Thb b
determined partly by the voiong. partly by making a small hob
about the middle of the length, which determines the motion as that
of the two separate lengths between which the hole lies. Harmonic
flutes have a sweet but fiill and powerful tone. Other flutes are
generally rather tight, except the waldfldie, winch b« powerful stop
of a somewhat hooting quality.
The great ocgan flute is frequently used to give brilliancy to light
combinations. Thus it may be used with the stcmpcd dbpason
alone, or with the 16 bourdon alone, or with any of these and either
or both of the opeo diapasons.
The ordinary use of the 4'^ t, stops is to add a degree of loudness to
the dbpasons. Thb b accompanied with a certain measure of keen-
ness, which may become disagreeabb if the 4-ft. tone b dis|w
portionatdy strong. The ordinary practice is to use the 4-ft. tooe
very freely.
The 2} twelfth stop sounds fiddle f on the C key. It b c
of dbpason pipes, rather small and gently voiced. Its
use b said to be to thicken the tone, whfch it certainly '
does. But how far the pani^Ur effect produced n L
desirable b another question. It is genefaliy necessary ry?-
that thb stop should be accompanied oy the fifteenth or ■•■'*■
other octave sounding stop of higher pitch.
The 2 fifteenth, or supero^uve, of the great otgan oonsbts of
dbpason pipes sounding notes two ocUves above the qonnal pitch
of the keys. The a piccolo is a fluty stop of less power, having the
sane pitch. The J-ft. lone is commonly uacd as giving a degree of
loudness to the great organ bryond that obuinabfe with the 4-ft.
tone.
The modem great organ fifteenth is generally a very powerful slop,
and requires great caution in its use in organs of moderate size, or lO
limited spaces. The old English hieh pitched stop had little power,
and their brilliancy was capahle ot pleasing without offence. The
modern great organ up to fifteenth can only be heard with coBifort
in very large spaces. Under such suitable drcumsunces the
fifteenth b capable of giving to the srhole tone a ringing or sQvery
character, which lends itsell specblly to contrast with the tone 01
reeds. Thb peculiar keen tone requiras for its full developflient tlic
mixtures. ,
Mixture, sesquialtera. funiiture. cymbal, scharf . cornet, are varioiia
names applied to a description of stop which possesses several raolca
or several pipes to each note. The pipes of each note sound a choni
which is generally composed of concordant neeee of the hannoak
series who« fundamental b the proper note of the key. Modens
mixture^ generally consist of fifths and octaves. Their composition
b not the same throughout the whob range of the keyboard. A
ORGAN
359
i Miitviv may conilrt of elm fMtoiriflf <dW nnbei* iigntfy
kuamki nekautA along the icale>^
C— r (tenor) i<— 19— w
c# to top »— la— 15.
For a tooiewhat larger lull mixture this may be modified as
foUow»—
C-^ Cmicldlc) IS— 1^>— aa
f't to top I— 4J— I a— 1 5.
A ihafp mijEUire attiuUe for a large, initmmcnt may be aa f olbw»—
Fhitltaks.
?»-/'» 8-i2-i5-i^-3a
C"' to top I— 5*- l^-•l3— 15.
The last two eompositiona are given by Hopkins !n fe* great
treatise on the organ.
The early mixtures generally Included the tierce (tTth, or two
octavca and a third). The German practice vas to unite this with
a twelfth, carrying the combination 13-17 throughout the keyboard
Mnder the name oieesquiattera. The combination is not now usually
provided. The old English sesquialttra was ordinarily dmply a form
of mixture, as was the furniture. The mounted comet consisted
ttsaally of five rank*--
I— «— xa— 15— 17,
It extended from ouddlesupwatda. The pipes laere raised on a smaH
soundboard of their own. The stop was used for giving out a melody.
It is now obsolete.
The question of the employment and composition of mixtures la
of the greatest importance with respect to the good effect of tlie full
oigan proper, tjt. without reeds. V^^th aefoneooe to the whole
10 <9r kec
keen-toned stops it may be laid down that their free
employment in the sreat oigan dcM dot produee a good effect unless
the organ is^tuated in a very large space. If thia ia the case, oroperW
proportioned mixtures are capable of giving to the tone of the f uU
diapason work A character which is briHiant without bang over-
powering. The contrast between thb class of tone and that aSOfdcd
by the reeds b one of the most charming and legitimalecMeU within
by tne reeos is one 01 tne mos
the range of the inatrument.
We now pass to the ffeeda. The i6-ft. trumpet has been already
athided to» and there remain 8 trumpet and 4 clarion or octave
trumpet. These are both stops of great power. The best
trumpets possess *aIso richness and imoothneas of ton*.
Stops of this el^ can be used with the diapasorts only,
producing what may be described aa a ridi-tamed Mare of
moderate strength. The more usual employment of the rsedi ia la
connexion with the entiregrcat organ, the whole forming the ordinary
fortisstmo of the instrument.
The second department of the En^Hish drgan is the swell organ.
The whole of tb* sweU pipes are enclMcd In a box. f aeed on one or
j^^ BMre sides with a set of balanced shutters. When these
•^'7^ are ckised the tone is almost completely muffled. When
"■■^ the shutters are opened, by means of a pedal usually, the
sound burats out. In order that the use of the swell may be effective,
it is necessary that the shutters should close tightly, and that there
should be a soflkient volume of tone to produce an effect when they
are opened The swell is of entirely English origin; it has been
introduced in Germany to a very small extent, but more widelyin
France. It is usually called " rccltatif^" on the Continent. The
chief characteristic of the swell is the nch and potrerful votome of
reed-tone of a peculiar character which it contains. But othef Mops
areaUoof iamortance. Weobnsiderthem in order. The t6 bourdon,
small scale, u very commonly used in swells. It assist* in giving
body to the tone. It occupies, however, a brge space wilhtn the
•well box; and where the choice between it and a i6-ft. reed has to
be made there can be no doubt that the reed should be preferred, as it
contributes eo much more to the development of the characteristic
swell tone. The 16 contra fagotto is the usual name of this stop.
It imparts great rkhnem to the tone of the other swell reeds.
The 8-ft. diapason work b principally valuable for the soft effects
obtained from it. The diapasons are voiced tcs& loudly than for the
nrent oman; and with the riiutters closed they sound very soft.
The dulciana is the softest stop generally available; and either this
nr some similar stop b introduced into the swell for the purpose of
Obtaining cffecu of the most extreme softness. Space within the
swell box has generally to be economized- The complete bass of the
open dbpason or dulcbna requires an 8-ft. swell box, whereas even
a 16-lt. reed can be bent round so as to go within a smaller box if
The open dbpason and the dukrbna are therefore often
cut short at tenor f, and completed, if desired, with stopped pipes.
The 4 principal and the 4 flute stops are similar to the cor«sponding
•t^s in the great organ, but are somewhat lighter in tone.
The a fifteenth and mixtures are much more pleasing in the swell
than in the grear organ. The shutters ttmc them down, so that they
cannot easily become offensive. Added to the revds. they give a
pecutbr brilliancy to the full swell. But perhaps their most pleasing
use b when all the diapason work of the swell is used ak)ne, and as a
contrast to the reeds.
The usaal reeds an aa flbflowa. besldea die doubtes already
mentioned: 8 oboe, 8 cornopean. 8 trumpet and 4'cbrion (odtave
trumpet). The oboe (hautboy) b a conventional imitatioo of
the orchcrtral instrument. It b a stop of delicate tone* and perhaps
is at iu best in solo passages, softly aooompanied on another manual
The co r n opean has a powerful horn-like tone; It b the stop which,
more than any other, gives to the English swell its peculbr
character. The trumpet is used in addition to the cornopean in brge
instnimenta. The clarion serves to add brightness and point to the
whde. The vox humana b also frequently placed on the swelL
The third dcfMrtment b the choir organ. The S-ft.
woiit may contain 8 stopped dbpason, 8 open dbpason,
8 gamba, 8 keraulophon and 8 hohlflOte.
Aa a rule no open dbpason is provided for choir organs, unieas they
are larger than usnal; out a small open b most useful as a msnna
of obtatntng a better balance than usual against the other manuatst
The stopped dbpason b generally made to contrast in some way with
that on the great organ. The hoMfl«tev or its representative. f»
Mnerally a timtcr sto«> than what would be put on the great organ.
Thegamba b oetter pbced in theehoir organ than in the great or the
sweIC Such stops as the gamba and the keraulophon are fieqacntly
pbted in the swell with the idea of adding to the ivediness of the
tone. But this ts fallacious. Their tone is not strong enough to
asaert itself thnxigh the shutters, and their pccvlbr duracter la
therefore lost. On the choir organ, on the other hand, the sort of
strength required b' just about what they possess, and they show to
advantage. The keraulophon b a stop invented by Cray and
Davison, and has been widely adopted for many yeara. It has a hole
made in each pipe near the top, and gives a peculiar tone very well
described by its name (hom-fiute). Though not very like the gaittbsu
lu tone b so far of the same type of quality that the two stops wouU
hardly be used together. It b generally the case that rimikir stops of
exceptional characters do not combine well, whereas stops of opposed
qualities do combine welL Thus a eamba and a kerauiophoa would
not combine wdl. whereas either of them forms an excellent com-
bination with a stopped dbpason or n hohUMe.
The ^ principal is sometimes very useful. A light combination on
the dioir. with exeeas of 4-ft. tone, may often be advantageously
cohtrasted with the more full and solid tone of the great dbpasona»
or with other attahmble effecta. The 4 flute b ooasUntly used.
The a piccolo b frequently found on the choir Ofgan, but b not
particuBriy useful.
In organs which have no lolo manual there b unially n clarionet
(cremona, cromome or krummhom, in oki organs soraenmeacomo dl
bassetto) on the choir, and often an orehestral oboe (real imiution of
the instrument). These are reed'etops. The dulcbna and another
soft stop, the salidonal, salcional or salicet (of similar strength, bnl
slightly more pungent quality), are often placed on the choir. They
are, however, hardly strong enough to he of much use th«e, and in
the swell they are viseful wr effects of extreme aoftneask In very
large instruimmta a fifteenth and a mixture are sometimea pbced on
the choir, which In thb case has a complete aeriea of dbpason work.
If the fifteenth and the mbtures are light enough the result b a sort
of imitation of the tone of the old EngKsh organ. It also forma a
useful echo to the great organ, «'.«. a passage pbyed on the great may
be repeated on the similar but fainter tone of the choir with the effect
of an echa In Instruments of the brgest siae the choir is sometimea
provided with a very small bourdon of i6*ft. tone, which helps to
give- to the tone the character of that of a small full organ without
reeds.
The solo organ b compnntively modern, at all events in ita
present UMial form. A fourth manual was not unknown in old
Uerman organs; but the contents of all four resembled
each other in a general aort of way, and there was nothing
nke the English swell or the modem sola The sok>
appears to lave arisen with CavailM-Coll in Pmnce, aad Hill in
Engbnd, as a vehicle for the powerful r esd estops on heavy wind
introduced by these builders. Thus the French term for the solo b
"cbvier dcs bombanlee"; and in the eariier English solos the
*' tuba mirabilb '* was usually prominent. A solo organ may suitably
contain any of the following stops: 8 tromba (a powerful rcod on
heavy wind). 8 harmonic flute (powerful tone and heavy wind), 8
daifonet and 8 orchestral oboe (real hnitationsof the instruments) and
8 vox humana (conventional imitation of the human voice). The bst
three stops are ricda^ They may be with advantage enclosed in n
swell box, having a separate pedal. Id wry brge instrumenu n
complete series oiboth dbpason and reed stops is occasionally placed
on the sok>. Hot there does not seem to be much advantage m ihb
arrangement.
We now come to the pedaL Thb forms the general bass to the
bole organ. Thirty-two foot stop* only occur in the largest
instruments; they are as follows: 3a open dia pason
(wood or meul). sa-ft. tone bourdon aad 3a contra
trombone, posaune. boenbarde. mckbut (reed^. The
S!-ft. open dbpason. whether wood or meul. is usuaUv
rge scale, and prodnces true muwal notes throughout. Ita Buncal
effect in the tower part of iU range b. however, questionable, so far aa
thb depends on the posability of reooicnizing the pitch of the notes.
It adds great richness to the general eff«!ct. particularly in larva
The 3a4t. tone bourdon b not usually n sNOcessf ul stopk
a6o
ORGAN
It nxtAy prodiice» its tro* note la (he lower part of it« nnce. The
xi'lu reed on the pedal hu long been a charaetenetic of toe lacvest
rnstrumentt. With the old type oC reed it was rarely pleasant to
hear. The roanufactun: has been gnuidy improved, and these large
reeda are now made to produce a fairly miooth effect. Deep reed
notes, when rich and good, undoubtedly form one of the pnncipal
ejements in giving the imprescion of power produced by large organs.
From this point ot view ihey are of great importance. Nevertheless
the effect of laige pedal reeds is generally more satisfactory to the
performer than to the Ibiener.
The i6-ft. pitch may be regarded as the normal pitch of the pedal ;
the principal stops are as follows: i6 open d i a p ason (wood or awlal),
x6-ft. tone bourdon, 16 violone (imitation of double bass) and 16
trombone or poaauqe (roed). The 16-ft. open diapason on the ccdal
assumes different forms accordina to circumstances. As a rule the
character is sufiicitndy indicated oy the stop being of wood or raetaL
The wooden open ia generally of very large scale, and produces a
ponderous tone of great power and fulness, which b only suitable
for the accompaniment oTthc full oigan, or of very powerful manual
combinations. Such a stop is, aa a rule, unsuitM>le in organs of
moderate siae, unless supplemented by lighter 16s for ordinary
purposes. The metal open is of considerably smaller scale (in fact aU
metal pipes are effectively of much smaller scale than wooden pipes
of similar diameter). The metal gives a clear tone, lighter than that
of large wooden pipes, and plcasanter for ordinary purposes. The
metal open combines advantageously with a bouroon. In the
largest otgans both wood and metal open 16s may be suitably
Kavtdcd. Whcfe metal pipes are made a feature in the organ-case,
th the double open diapason in the great organ and the meul 16
of the pedal may be propcrlv made of good meul (polished tin or
•pottea metal), and workea in to the desini of the organ<aae.^
The same applies to the ^-f t. metal opens of the largest instruments.
This saves space in the interior, and gives the large pipes room to
•peak, which is apt to be wanting when they are placed inside.
The 16-ft. tone bourdon on the pedal may be made of any scale
according to circumstances. If it is the chief bass of the organ it b
made very large and with great volume of tone. Such stops are un-
•oitablc for soft purposes, and a soft 16, usually a violone, is required
in addition. If the loud departownt of the 16 tone is otherwise
provided for the bourdon may be made of moderate strength. It
may also be made very soft, like a manual bourdon. These three
different strengths ought always to be provided for in an instrument
of a complete character. The violone b also made of all three
strengths. In a few cases it furnishes the principal bass; frequently
It furnishes the moderate element; and it is often applied to obtain
a very soft 16-ft. tone. The 16-ft. reed b very comrnon. The
observations made as to the effect of j3-f t. reeds are applicable also
in thU case.
The &-ft. department of the pedal is only less important than the
16. because it is posuble to replace it to a certain extent by ooupUng
or attaching the manuals to the pedab. The usual 8-ft. pedal*
stops are as follows: 8 principal bass (metal *or wood)* 8 bass flute
(stopped). 8 violoncello (imiution of the instrument) and 8 trumpet:
Tbesemarks made above as to the scale of open 16s apply with little
change to the pedal principal. Only, since the manuals are generally
coupled, it b perhaps best to orovidc the large scale wood^stop, which
presenuthejpowcrlul class 01 tone in which the manual diapasons are
deficient. The bass flute b almost a necessity in combiiiation with
the light t6-ft. tone. A composition ought to be provided by which
the pedal can be reduced to these two elements by a sinde move-
ment. The violonoello is sometimes used instead of the bass flute
for the last-named purpose, for which, hoa-ever, it is not so suitable.
It is a favourite stop for some solo purposes, but b not of much
general utility. The 8-ft. trumpet serves to give clearness and point
to the tone of the 16-ft reed.
In the short preface to Menddaaohn'a Orecm Sonaku it is stated
that everywhere, even in pbnissimo, it is intended that the 16-ft.
tone of the pedal should be acoompanicd by 8-ft. tone. For th«
purpose of realicine this as a general direction the soft 16-ft. and 8-ft.
■tops are required: brae instruments are, however, occasionally
found which possess rwtliing of the kind.
The followina stops of higher pitch are occasionally found on the
Mdal: 5i twenth bass, 4 fifteenth baas, mixture and 4 clarion.
These serve to make the pedal tone practically independent of
coupling to the mannal. which b a matter of great importance,
especially in the performance of certain composittoos of Bach and
other writers, who appear to have been indepeitdent of couplers.
In some insmiments two sets of pedab are provided, which may
be described as great and choir pedals. The great pedal is in the
usual porition : the choir podal b in front ol the other, and
sloping. It is ^ placed that the feet iMt on it naturally
when stretched out in front of the performer. There is a
choir pedal of this kind in the organ in the minster at Ulm. built by
Walckcr of Ladwigsburg. It b a very large instrument, having 100
^ Anything down to one-third tin and two-tlnvds lead b called tin.
But " pure tin '* should have over 90% of tin- Abwilotely pure
rin could not be worked. Spotted metal b said to have from one-
thhx) to two-thirds tin. Under one-third tin no spots are said to Kxae.
and the mixtufe has the general characters oi bad.
iiyatopa. It hat MeomporftSMM^whidi indeed Mcbviattie
known in Germany: and without some anangement tachaa this a
soft pedal would hardly be obtainable. There are a few other inatrv-
ments whkh have choir pedals, but they have not been introduced
into England.
In organs which have a siagle manual the characteristics of the
great and choir organs are usually united. In organs which have
two manuab the lower usually represents the united great
and choir, the upper b the swell. In organs which havw Atwmm^
three nanuab the k>wer is usually the cboirt but aomo* '"^•f
times combines choir and solo, the middle b the great, ■■■■■'*
and the top is the swell In organs which have four maauab the
order b solo, swell, great, choir, the solo being at the top and the
choir at the bottom.
Compositions are mechanical contrivances for moving the atop-
Handles in groups at a time. The ordinary form consists of r*»««V
whkh project from the front just above the pedal keys. '
The arrangements are various. We may refer to the "•■*■■'
arrangement in the origan at Windsor, given later on. *'*"'
A species of composition was introduced oy Willis some years ago^
and has been adopted in many large English inatnimentfc which acta
by means of a senes of brass disks placed just under the front of the
keys of each maiiual, within reach of the thumb. These act by
means of pneumatic levers. , A slight pressure on one of the disks seu
the machine attached to tt in action, and the required change in the
stops b made without any exertion on the part of the performer.
The connexion between the kc;ys and their pallets b made by
various mechanisms, spnc of which are >ftry andent. In r
fl«^ tracherwerk (fig. 7) -,,,^,
the Old Kiuarea w(m« •**—•-'
~H4
Fic. 7^— A, square, B,
C, metal square.
. having pins stuck into thcb
icse are Uicktrs
squares were
of wood. They ■•^
reaemble in function t he ''**
squares used for taking bell-wires
round a corner. The trackers are
slight strips of wood, having
screwed wires whipped on to theii
ends, which hold by leather buttons.
The trackers play, the part of the
bell-wires. Where pressure has to
be transmitted iiuitead of a pull,
thin but broad slips of wood are used. . _
ends to keep them in their plaoes. These •n'dicktrs (fig. 6). B^uk'
fcUs (fig. 9) are narrow wooden levers turning on pins which pass
through their centres.
Tht Jan [rem* (fig. 10) b
a set of backfalls having
one set of ends close
together, usually correa-
ponding to the keys; the
other ends are spread
widely apart. The roMsr
froord (fig. 11) is a more
general mode of shifting
the movements sideways.
The roller is a slip of
wood, or a bit of metal
^
S-
Fi<3. 9.~BackfalU.
Fic. 8.— A and B as in fig. 7; C, sticker.
tubc'whkrh turns on two pins inserted into its ends. It has two
arms projecting at right angles to its length. One of these receives
the pull at one point, the other gives it off at another. In case a
pull has to be transmitted ^___ __^_^
to more than one quarter. ^^
a roller will soroedmes ^—
have more than two arms.
The name of antpUrs
(fig. 12) is given to the
mechanical stop by which
the keys of one manual are made to take down those of another,
or those of the pedal to take down those of the manuals. Soma
old forms of the mechanism could not be put on while any of the
keys were dcprr»cd: others had a
tendency to throw the fingers off the
keys. These forms have been entirely
superseded. That now used consists
of a scries of backfalls centred on a
movable support. The one set of ends
U connected with the moving keys;
the other set of ends is pierced by the
wires of the trackers or stickers from
the keys to be moved. In the one
position of the support these ends play
IresJy over the wires; in the other
they are brought up against the buttons
of the trackers or against the stickers
to be moved. The usual couplers are
— «ach of the manuab to the pedal,
swell to great, swell to great octave.
swell to great sub-octave, swell to
choir, cnoir to great sub-octave, and solo to great. The mOoctm
and sub-octr.ve couplers are soroeti mes placed on t he swell itself. The
objoctioo to thb is, that if they are used when the swell b coupled to
Fig. iow — ^Fan Frame.
ORGAN
261
Fig. II.— Roller Board.
t^ fictt Qiv*n, ai h v«ry ooaunooly the case, theociavM an rnched
through two couplers. And, as couplers are not generally screwed
ap quite tight, the octaves are often not sufficiently put down to
•ound in tune. The choir to great aubnictave coupter was used
chiefly as a tubautu&e for a
double on the pvac organ.
It is common m organs of
the transition period, but
is not a good arrangement.
The pnetmaik Um iftg.
lj> consisu of a smaU
power bellows attached to
each key. so that the de«
prtssion of the key admits
high-pnssure wind 10 the
power belkiwK. The power
be(Io»-s then performs the
work of openmg the valves, &c. In Urge organs the work to be
done would he beyond the reach of the most powerful finger with-
CHIC thu, device. Similar devices are aometimes applied to the
compositions and other mechanical arrangements.
Pneumatic transmission, with many other mechanical devices, was
invented by Willis. It consists of a divided pneumatic action. The
pneumatk wind, taatead of being at once admitted Co the power
bellows, ia made to traverse a length of tubing, at the farther end of
whkh it itaches the work to be done. This principle admits of
application to divided organs, the pneumatic transmission passing
under the fk)or, as in the organ at St Paul's Cathedral.
Ventils are valvea which control the wind-supply of the diffcrenc
froupa of atopa^ They wert much recommended ait one tine aa a
substitute for .compositions. The
S*-^ practical difference is that com*
positions shift the stop-handles, so
^ . — 8 » that one can always see what thent
. ' H is on the organ; vcntils leave the
— =» atop handles unmoved, so that the
Fig. 13. — Coupler. G^/^'' '* liable to be deceived.
Other Inconveniences might be
mentioned, tvut It Is enough to aiy that practkd opinion appears
decidedly to condemn the uae^ ventila.
The original ftdcl boards of Germany were flat and of very large
cale. The eariy practice in England was to make them very small,
aa well as of short compass. Of late the compass C— /',
thirty notes, has been universally adopted with aealaa
varying from 2^ to 2| io. from centre to centre of the
natuials: 3} in. ia the scale now recommended. A large
number of organs have been provided with concave
radiating pedal U»rds. The objections to this arrange-
ment are mainly two: They present different scales at different
distances from the front; and, except, just in front, they become so
narrow that the smallest
foot can hardly put down
the pedals »ngly. This
renders difficult the old
Bach style of playing, the
; of which consists
X
scale.
Fig. 13,— Pneumatic
Lever.
in putting the feet over
each other freely, so as to
use the alternate method
aa much as possible; and
this requires that the back
of the pedal board shall be
as available as the front
The diversities of the
arrangements of different
ornns present a great
difficulty. Thebestpbyera
take a certain time to
master the arrangements
of a strange inatrumcnt.
With a view to the Intro-
duction of voiformhy a
conference on the aubject
waa arranged by the Col-
lege of Organists in London.
and a series of resolutions and a series of recommendatfons were
eblishcd which deserve attention (1881), though they have now
ea withdrawn. We may mention that the parallel concave form
was recomawnded for the pedal board, and 2} m. for the seal& The
paaitk>na of the stops of the various organs were to be as followa.—
Left, Rrni,
SwcH. SoTo.
PadaL Great.
Couplers. Choir.
Tike order of compositions, &c. from piano to forte waa to be in all
cases from l^t to right. The groups of compositions were to be in
the ortJer from left to right — pedal, swdl, couplers, great.
Two other points of detail may be alluded to. One ia the poaitton
of the pedal board with reference to the keys. The height from the
Ofmt Omjftu* 'S ;^
f on grram^nxmrnA
mkldle of the pedala to the great o^iui keys, it b agreedv ahouldbe
3a in. But as to the forward position there is a difference. The
resolutions saM that ** a plumb-line dropped from the front of the
great oi^an -sharp keys faHa » \n. nearer the phyar than tha front of
the centre short key of the pedal board." The dd arrangement gave
usually i| in. for thu disuncc. Bat it is thought that the change
has not gone far enough, and 4 in. has been found preferable. There
is scarcely any single arrangement which ia so important for the
comfort of the player as having sufficient space in this direction (fig.
14). The second matter is the provision of some other means of
acting on the awcti than by the swell pedal. The uae of the awctl
pedal if inconsistent with the pcoper use of both feet oa the pedal
keys; and there is no
doubt that incorrect habits ;
in this respect are com-
monly the reaalt of the
Enelidi use of the swell
pedal. In fact, plavers
sometimes keep one loot
on the swell pedal aU the
time, 80 that proper pedal
playing is impossible.
Arrangementa have been
devised by mcansof which
a mo^raUe back to the scat
can be made the means of
acting on the swell. The 1""^
first ** recommendation " l^_
of the College of Organista
illustrated the require-
ment; it was, that "the
consideration of organ- *-'"■
builders be directed to the
widely-expressed desire for
some means of operating
on the swell in addition to
the ordinary swell pedaU"
G. Cooper had a movable
back to the scat of the
organ at St Sepuh:hre's» Fio. i4.~^Re1ative Poaitioa o( Mamial
London. The swell waa aod Pedal.,
opened by leaning back,
so that it could only be used when the swdl was coupled to the
^reat. The writer has had on organ for more than twenty yeare
10 which the movable back ' is ' provided with a atrap paasimr
over one shoulder and buckling ia froou It opens the awtO
when the player leans forward, ft is most valuable, particulariy in
such things as accompanying the service. The emphasis required ia
obtained when wanted without taking the feet from their other
duties. Young peofAe pkfcit up easily; oMcr people have diffirulty.
Aa an example of an orgpo of a complete but aoc eaonnously lam
character, we give the details of the organ at St Geoige'a Chapd,
Windsor, which was rebuilt by Messrs Gray and Davklsoa, aocanaqg
to Sir Walter Parratt's designs, in the year 1883.
I fiOmft^OnprnmU
i
Four ovinuals. C to a'", ^
notes. Pedal. C to/'. 30 notes.
C^raoi Orion (3iHn. wiD<^.
Double open diapason . .16
Large open diapason ... 8
Open diapason . . . . B
Stopped diapaaoB ... 8
CiatabeUa ...... 8
Principal ...... 4
Harmonic flute ^ ■ - • 4
Twelfth . , i . . . tf
Fifteenth . . • | . . a
Sesquialten* . • » . m caoka
Harmonic piecolo • . . a
Posaune 8
Clarion 4
5vie0 Ort/m (3-ln. wind).
Llebikh bourdon .... 16
Open diapason .... 8
Stopped diapasoa . . , 8
Dulciana .'8
Vox coelestis^ 8
Principal 4
Ocuveduldaaa .... 4
Fifteenth 2
Mixture* .... m ranks
Contra fagotto . . . .16
Cornopean 8
Oboe »
Vox humana 8
Clarion 4
Ckeis Onam Ca}-ia
Dulctana . . . ,
Keraulophon . . ,
Stopped diapason g
Viol d'orehestre s >
Fhite
wiad).
Como di bassctto 0«cd)
&ilearfns(6-la.wiad).
•
8
S
4
a
Z
16
16
16
a
16
Orchestral oboa . . .
Tromba
Pedal Organ C4-in. wind).
Open dapaaon (wood)
Vmloiie (metal) . . .
Bourdon (wood) . . .
Wood flute
Trombone (wood tubes) .
CoupUrs,
Solo to great. Swell to pedaL
Swell to great Great to pedal.
Solo to pedal. Choir to pedaL
Pneumatic action to great
oisao and iu coupleia.
The arrangement of the stopa
and compositions is aa follows >—
yS: ^^ ^'^^ ' ^''*''
Sow, CoapkriL swdl.
Choir. Treraulanc. Great.
PedaL (Knob below swell keys.)
^ These are the old OBixturea.
sti
ORGAN
/TTT-T
mr 9
Omttppadkliib
One (well pedal controU two lideM of the eweH box. The other
concralt the box in which the orchestral oboe b placed. The vox
humana is in a box which is always shut, inside the swell box.
History of the Uodtm Oriau,
The history of the ancient oifan is dealt with in a separate
section balow. The first keyboAd'is said to have been intro-
duced into the organ in the cathedral at Magdeburg about the
close of the nth century. There were sixteen keys; and a
drawing cxisu in a work of the 17th century* which purports
to represent them. They are said to have been an ell long and
3 in. broad. The drawing represents a complete octave with
naturals and short keys (semitones), arranged in the same
relative positions as in the modern keyboard. In early organs
with keyboards the keys are said to have required blows of the
fist to put them down. In these cases probably sounding the
notes of the plain song was all that could be accomplished.
As to the precise time and conditions under which the key-
board assumed its present form we know nothing. It is commonly
said (hat the change to narrow keys took place in the course of the
x^th century, and the semitones were introduced about the
same time.
Many examples of organ keyboards still exist, both in England
and on the Continent, which have black naturals and white
ahort keys (semitones). The organ in the church at HeiUgenblut
in Tirol had in 1870 two manuals, one having black naturaU
and white semitones, the other white naturals and black semi-
tones. In this organ the stops were acted on by iron levers
which moved right and left. It had a beautiful tone; it pos-
sessed a reservoir bellows of great capacity, and was altogether a
remarkable instrument. Harpsichords with black keyboards
also exist.
• The mode of blowing practised about the time <rf the intro-
duction of the first keyboard appears to have been that which
jl^jn^j^j^ ultimately developed into the method still generally
used in (}ennany. There were a great many separate
bellows, each Itkcra magnified kitchen-bellows, but provided
with a valve, so that* the wind could not return into the bellows.
One man had charge of two of these. Each foot was attached to
one bellows, and the blower held on by a bar above. It was
possible, by raising each of* the two bellows in turn and then
resting hb weight upon it, to produce a constant supply of wind
with the pressure due to his weight. A great many such bellows
Were provided, and it seems \.\aX each pair required one man;
so that great numbers of blowers were employed. A slight
modification is enough to change this method into the German
one. Instead of fsstening the feet to the bellows snd pulling
them up, the btower treads on a lever which raises the bellows.
The bellows being loaded then supplies the wind of itself. The
bellows thus used have diagonal hinges, and various expedients
are employed to make them furnish steady wind. But the
English system of horixontal reservoirs and feeders appears far
superior.
The invention of the pedal may be set down to th« tstb century.
About that lime the organ assumed on the Continent of Europe
P^u^^ the general form which it has retained till lately,
more espedally la Germany. This may be described
generally as having a compass of about four octaves in the
manuals and of two octaves in the pedal, with occasionally extra
notes at the top in both, and frequently " short octaves *' at the
bottom, (jennaa short octaves are as follows. The manusl and
pedal appear to terminate on E instead o( C. Then the E fcey
iouods C» F«F. FS»D, G»G, Git-E. and the rest as'usual.
Therp were often three, sometimes four, manuals in large organs.
•.Praetoriust TVoiriMi Instnmtnlofwm,
The character of all these was In genera! much the same, but they
were more softly voiced in succession, the soricsi manual being
sometimes spoken of as an echo organ. There are one or two
examples of the echo as a fourth or fifth manual in England at the
present time, in organs which have been designed more or leas
under German inspiration. The old echo was long ago super-
seded by the swell in England.
A few ancient cases survive in a more or less altered condition.
Of these the following are worthy of mention, as
bearing on the question of date.
Sion (Switseriand). Gothic A sma.. mstrument . . 1390
Amiens. Originally Gothic Large, with i6-ft. pipes . . 1429
Ferplgnan. Gothic Large, with 33-ft. pipes .... 1490
Lflbeck. One of the finest Gothic organs m Eutx>pe. 32s. 1504
(or. according to Hopkins, 1518).
In all these the cases are sufficiently preserved to make it alxnoa^
certain that pipes of the same lengths were originally employed.
The actual pipes are generally modern. Shortly after lUs date
we find Renaissance cases. At La Fert6 Bernard (dep^ Sarthc)
part of the substructure is Gothic, and is known to be of date
1 501; the organ above b Renaissance, and is known to be of
date X536. At St Maurice, Angers, an organ was built in 151 x,
with Renabsance case, two lowers of 3s-ft. pipes, 48 stops
and a separate pedal. An account of the instruanent in a pro(^
verbal of 1533 furnbhes good evidence. In the i6th century,
therefore, the organ had attained great completeness, and the
independent pedal was general on the Continent.
We cannot follow the hbtory of German organs through the
intervening centuries; but we propose to give the items of one
of the principal organs of the Silbermanns, the great
builders of the x8th century— namely, that standing
in the Royal Catholic Church, Dresden. Without
being an enormously large instrument it b complete in iU way,
and gives a very good idea of the German organ The account
b taken from UopkinSw The date b 1754^
CrecA.
Principal . .
. 16
Octave , .
a
Bourdon . .
. 16 tone
Tenb . . .
i|
Principal . .
. 8
Mixtur . .
iv ranks
Viola da Gamba
, 8
Cymbd . .
III
RohHiate . .
. Stone
Cornet
v
Ocuve . .
. 4
Fagott . .
16
SptuflOtc . .
Quinta . . .
: U
SnT : ; .
8
4
Elko.
Quintaton . .
Principal . .
Gedackt . .
. 16 tone
Octave . . ,
a
. 8
Tertb . .
i|
. Stone
Flageolet .
X
Unda Marb .
. Stone
Mixtur .
XV nob
Octave . . .
. 4
Echo . . . .
v
Rohrflflte . .
. 4 tone
Vox humana .
8tooe
Nassat . . .
. 2\
Choir.
Gedackt . .
Principal . .
. Stone
. 4
Quinu V . .
Sifltote . . .
X
Rohrltote . .
. 4tone
Mixtur . . .
xti ranks
NasMt . . .
Ocuve . . .
. a
Seaouiahera , .
Chaiumeaux ,
11
Stone
Pedal.
Untenau . .
. 32 tope
Mixtur . . .
IV ranks
Principal . .
, 16
PattaaD(trofnboiie) x6
Octave-bass
. 8
Trompelte . .
8
Octave. . .
' 4
Clarin . . . .
4
Accessories.
Echo to great.
1 Tremulant <>rbo»
Great to pedal.
1
Tremulant great.
Manual*— C to d'*' in alt.
Compau,
. fPfc
Piedal—Ci to tenor Ck
The chief difference between Englbh organs and those of the
Continent was that until the 19th century the pedal was absolutely
unknown in England. The heavy bass given by the _
pedal being absent, a lighter style of voidng was JJjJlJ
adopted, and the manuab were usually continued
down below the 8-ft. C so as to obtain additional bass by
*The writer heard this instrument as a boy. and has a very
pkaasnt recollection of the general effect.
ORGAN
aej
pliyiiig octiirei wkh the hands* Thus theold oigui (date 1697)
ol FAtber Smilh in St Pftul't Cathedral bad raanuate dauending
to the i6-ft. C (Ci), with two open diapaaoaa thioughoui.
Green's old oisan at St George's, Windsor, had mamtala descend*
ing to the ts*fl. F, also two open ditpasens throughout, no
Ft. But the more usual practice was to make the manual
descend to the 10} G, leaving out the Gtf. At the Revolution
most of the organs In England had been destroyed. Shortly
a/terwards Bernard Smith, a German, commonly called Fathor
Smith, and Thomas and Reni Harris, Frenchmen, were largely
empl<^ed in building organs, which were wanted cversrwhere.
Father Smith perhaps had the greatest rcpoUtionof any builder
of the old time, and his work baa lasted wonderfully. There is a
list in Rifflbauk of forty-five organs built for churches by him.
The list of Ren£ Harris is scarcely less extensive.
The most important step in the development of the old English
organ was the invention of the swell. This was first introduced
into an oigan built by two Jordans, father and aon, for St
Magnus's church near London Bridge, in ryia.
fiumey writes (ijjx).^—
" 1 1 is very cstrsoidiiBry that the swell, iriiich has been Introduced
Into the English orean more than fifty yean, and which is 10 capable
of cxpreflfion and oT pleasing effects tnat it auiv be wcU said to be the
greatest and most important improvement that was ever made in
any keyed Insiniment, should be utterly unknown in Italy; and.
now i am on this subject, I must observe chat most of the oijaas I
have met with 00 the Continent seem to be inferior to ours by Father
Smith, Byfield or Snetxler. in everything but size ! As the churches
there are very often immense, so are the organs: the tone is indeed
somewhat softened and refined by space and distance; but. when
heard near, it ia intolerably coarse and noisy: and, though the
number of stopa in these large instruments b very grnt. they afford
but little variety, being for the most part duplicates in unisons and
ocuves to each other, such as the grest and small isths. flutes and
iStha; hence in our organs, not only the touch and tone, but the
imitative stops, are greatly superior to chose of any other organs I
have met with."
(As to these opinions, compare what Is said on great organ
open diapasons above.)
In the course of the i8th century most of the old echoes were
Altered into swells, and the swell came into almost universal
use in England. The development of the swell a inseparably
associated with the peculiar quality of English swell reeds.
These must have originated during the development of the
swell. We hear of a " good reed voicer " named Hancock, who
worked with Cranz, changing echoes into swells. However
it originated, the English reed is beautiful when properly made.
The ori^nal swells were usually short In compass downwards,
frequently extending only to fiddle g. It is only lately that the
value of the bass of the swell has been properly appreciated.
Short-compass swells may be said to have now disappeared.
The organ in St Stephen's, Coleman Street, wss probably nearly
A^wtya in its original condition at the date when it "was
«M described by Hopkins. It was built by Avery in 1775.
BftUBt At an events the following arrangements might very
•*■* well have been the original ones. The pedal clavier
without pipes is no doubt a subsequent addition, and is omitted.
Crtat.
Principal.
Twelfth.
Fifteenth.
Stopped diapason.
PrindpaL
Flute.
Choir.
Sesquialteta — ^111 ranks.
Mixture— II ranks.
Trumpet.
Clarion.
Comet to middles— V rsnksw
Fifteenth.
Gremona to tenure
Opent .
StopiKd diapason.
Principal.
Great and choir— Gi to «"
noGi§.
S^dl.
Compost,
Comet^m ranks.
Trumpet.
Hautboy.
SwcU— fiddle (to «'".
This gives an excellent idea of the old EngUsh organ. There
ncs several different accounts of the Introduction of pednh
into Bnglaiid." It toofk place certainly befove tlie cad of the
tSth century, but only \a a few instances; and for long after
the usual arrangement was simply to provide a pedal
clavier, usually from Ft or d to tenor c or d, which took
down the notes of the great organ. Unison diapason
pipes (ta-ft.) were occasionally used. In one or two (
as in the transition states of the old organ at St George's, Windsor,
a S4-f t. open diapason was employed aa well as the uoisoft
stop. But a more usual arrangement, of a most objectionable
character, was to combine the Gi— < pedal-board with a single
ocuve of so-called pedal-pipes, extending from the x6-ft. to
the 8-fL C; so that, instead of a uniform progression inascending
the scale, there was always a break or repetition in paasing C.
About the middle of the rpth century it began to be genendly
admitted that the German arrangement of the pedal was the
better, and the practice gradually became general of providing
a complete pedal-board of aj ocUves (C-^), with at lesst one
stop of 16-ft. tone throughout, even on the smallest organs
that pretended to be of any real use. The study of the classical
works of Bach and Mendelssohn went hand in hand with thia
change; for that study was impossible without the change,
and yet the desire for the study was one of the prindpal
motives for it. In the meantime Bishop, an English builder,
had invented composition pedals, which so greatly facilitate
dealing with groups of stops. About the same time (iSso) the
mechanics of the organ were advanced by the general introduction
of the pneumatic lever into large instruments; the whole
mechanism of the organ wasrevoluiionixed by Willis's improve-
ments; and the oigan-builders of England, having obtained
from the Continent the fundamental ideas necessary for com-
pleteness, advanced to a point at which they appear to have
been decidedly ahead.
In the early part of the last quarter of the 19th century,
the future of the English organ appeared to be one of great
promise. Much confidence was fdt in the brilliant
combinations of Willis's mechanism. The employment ^ZT*
of electricity had reached a certain stage, and the |„j,„
necessary fundamental mechanism, under the name of
the electro-pneumatic lever, was to be obtained in a practical
form. Several new devices were in the air, by means of which the
control of the various valves waa accomplished by the action
of wind, trmveraing channels, %ith complete abolition of trackers,
and even of stop slides; and Willis's classical mechanisms.
Including those for acting on stop slides pneumatically without
direct mechanical connexion between sUde and handle, were
almost tmiversally adopted In large organs. The delicate
device of pneumatic lever on pneumatic lever, by which alone the
small electromagnetic impulses available could be made to do
heavy work, had obtained recognition. If there was an occasional
failure, it was thought to be no more than might be expected
with work of a novel and delicate character. And it was con«
fidenlly expected that these devices would, in time, with the
improvemcnU associated with practical use, come to be reliable^
This expectation baa not been realised. The objections to the
modern pneumatic, and still more to the electropneumatic
machinery, are of two kind*— noise and inefficiency.
Moiu in tkt Koy AcHon.-^Vft uke as the sUndard of comparison
the okl tracker organ, without pneumatics. There was always a
certain amount of noise. Now, even in the beat Instruments of
Willis himself during his lifedme, and still more in the best instru-
ments of the present day, the noise of the key action is iudged to
be as bad as in the old tracker organ. The pneumatics have to be
driven by a powerful wind; the consequence is they get home with
a knock.
Noise in th$ Stop AcUon. — If in a targe instrument with pneumatic
drawstop action one of the compositions which affects several stops
is put m action, the movement of the stops is followed by a blow
like a hammer, which » caused by the pneumatics getting home
under the powerful force employed. This is much worse than any-
thing there was in the old organ.
Inefficiency in the Key Achon ; Dday and CypJUnag.— This chiefly
shows itself ui delay, both at the dspressini and at the recovery cw
the la;y. Some of the causes are the siae of the pneumatic bellows,
which takes time to fill aiMl time to empty : and. very often, defective
cegulatioa of the valves^ The mguiation of the valves is a* ait
264
ORGAN
in itaetf. asd tt fia qEmu th« owe that the peffonnanoe tn tfkb fespect
can be greatly improved by jcoina over the reguUiion. The test is
the possibility of execudng shaJces and repetitions. It is quite
common to find mechanism by the first organ-buUden oi the day
on which shakes or repetitions cannot be executed.
Pneumatic transroiasion is also apedaUy liable to catiae dday.
In divided organs the swell is usually on the far side from the keys,
and the pneumatic transmission tubis pass it under the floor. 1 he
swell touch is then considerably worse than the great. In all cases
there must be aome delay on account of the time the pulae ukes to
travene the transmission tube with the velocity of sound. And if a
pneumatic bellows has to be filled at the far end the delay will be
more. Some of the delay experienced in large buildings may be due
to the time taken In supplying the energy necessary for aettingup
and maintaining the vibrations of the air in the building. This
shouM, however, have been the same with the old tracker action;
and. the opinion of old players is unanimous that they never ex-
perienced anything of the land. The shake and repetition are the
only real tests so far as the action is concerned.
Ineffideocy in the key action also ukes the form of " cyphering,"
tA a note sucks down. With the old tracker organ this could geoer*
ally be cured without much difficulty by working on the action*
and with the separate pneumatic lever something could be done.
But the modem types of elaborated action are entirely enclosed in
wind-diest and sound-board. It was always foreseen that these
types would be dangerous, unlcaa they could be made quite perfect,
and they have not been made perfect. When a note sticks, there is no
way of curing it except to get at the inside of the wind-chest, or to
remove all the pipes belonging to the note. A case happened
recently whoe, during a pertormanoe on an organ by a first-rate
modem builder, two cypherings took place. To cure the first all
the |Mpcs belonging to the note were removed. In the second the
last three pages of a Bach fugue were played with a note cyphering
all the time; and such cases are of frequent occurrence.
Inefficiency in the Stop Action. — In this case the power provided
it insufident to move the atop slide. As there is no direct connexion
between slide and handle, nothing can be done but to get inadc the
organ and move the slide by hand. A case has recently occurred
where an organ by a first-rate builder, in constant use, and perfectly
caircd for, got one of the sKdes stuck while in use. The organ was
locked, so nothins coukl be done. The same happened to another
slide a couple of days bter. It is also an everyday experience that
the pneumatic compositions arc insufficient to move the stops;
sometimes they move the stops about halfway, when a sort of wail
is heard.
One practical result is— ^here an organ is not too large to be dealt
with by the old macfaanical methods, there la much to be said for
adhering to them.
It seems worth while to mention two suggestions by which these
imperfections in large organs might be reduced to a xmnimum.
For blowing, rootoca for stop action, &c, the writer would suggest
the employment of the Arnutrang hydraulic auumulat^r system^ at a
pressure of say 600 tb on the square inch. The pumping of the system
would be done by external power (electricity, gas, oil or steam),
quite away from the building contaimng the oi^n. The blowing
would be done by the hydraulic system at a point near the organ.
The small hydraulic motors attached to the stop slides, awell, &c..
might have almost infinite power and be perfectly noiseless. The
key-work should be pneumatic and should use WiUis's floating lever.
The swdl pedal should be hydraulic, with the floating lever, as also
tltc action of the back of the seat if eroploved for opening the swell.
The effect of the floating lever is that the movement of the work
corresponds exactly with tne movement of the part connected with
key or pedal. The connexion with the key would have a regulation
so that the lever would begin to move a little later than the key,
the regulation being adjuatcd by trial ao as to give shakes and
repetitions.
The principle of the floating Icvcr is the same as that of the slcaro
atecring gear in ships. The control of the power is attachc?d to the
floating centre. It is always such that the movement of the woric
brings back the floating centre into iu standard position, and it acts
like a fixed centre with added power.
As to the general arrangement of the instrument, !t is desired to
make two protests. Firstly, the organ chamber is a monstrosity.
Shutting up the orgarrin a confined space Is simply throwing money
away. An organ of a quarter the size would do the work better
if not shut up in an organ chamber. Secondly, it has become
custonary to separate the different parts of an organ, putting the
pipes of the pedal, great and swell perhaps in different places at a
distance from one another, and the soft choir organ, which should be
dose to the singers, perhaps, as in one actual case, in a remote
position where it cannot be heard at all and is useless for accompani-
ment. The parts of an organ so dispersed will not jri\'c a tone which
blends into a whole. The practice is undesirable. The divided organ
with pneumatic or elearic transmission is to be avoided for aU reasons.
Gknesal RzHAXks ON Organ Treatment
The organ probably presents more difficulties then any other
iMtxttmciit in the way of a aound elemsDUxy nasiaiy* A
penon of ordinary capadty may work «t it for yoan bdora
bdng able to play pamges of modcnte difficuky with con-
fidence and correctness. The special difficulty appears to be
chiefly mental, and arises from the number of things that have
to be thought of simultaneously. It does not lie in the oeecution
— at least not chiefly; for to play a hymn-tune oortectly, the
baas being taken with the pedals, the tenor with the left hand,
and the two upper parU with the right, is a matter in wliidi
there is no execution required; but it is of great difficulty to
an inexperienced player. Oth«r distTibutioas of parta— such as
bass with pedals, treble with right hand on a solo stop (e.g.
darinet), two inner parts with a soft open diapason, or aome-
thing of the kind—are of much greater difficulty in the first
instance. Another distribution is bass with pedals, mdody with
reed or solo combination in the tenor with left hand (an octnve
bdow its true pitch), inner parts with right hand on a soft open
diapason, or something that halanco. This is of far greater
difficulty, as It requires rearrangement of parts to avoid those
faults of inversion the avoidance of which is known as double
counterpoint. All this can be practised with common hymn-
tunes; but the performer who can do these things with ease
is in some respects an advanced player.
There is a natural gift, which may be called the polyphonic
ear-brain. It is possessed by (roughly) about one in fifty of
musical students, by students* of the organ in much the largest
proportion, and probably by a much smaller proportion of the
unsifted population. For the polyphonic ear-brain these diffi-
culties have no existence, or take little trouble to surmount. It
consists of the power of hearing the notes of a combination simuU
taneously, each bdng heard as an ordinary pers<m bears a single
note. When a competition is played or sung in parts, each
part is heard as a separate tune; and the effect is realiz^ in a
manner quite diflcrent from the single melody with accom-
paniment, which is all that an ordinary penon usually hears.
This is in many but not all cases assodated with the rare
power of remembering permanently the aaual pitch of notea
heard.
The observations made in the 9th edition of this Encydopkedia
on " Balance of tone " do not now call for the stress there laid
on them, as there Is an improvement in this respect. But it is
still desirable to insist on the importance of balance in the
performance of organ trios such as the organ sonatas of Bach.
In these compositions there are generally three notes aoundingf
which may be regarded as bdonging to three different voiceSi
of nearly equal strength but different mean pitch, and, if possible,
different quality; of these one is appropriated by each hand
and one by the pedaL They are written in three lines, and are
intended to be played on two manuals and the pedaL
The fugues of Bach are the classical organ music -^or excetlence.
As to these nothing has come down to us as to the composer's
intentions, except that he generally played the fugues on the
full organ with doubles. It docs not seem dear that thia was
the case with the prdudes; and, any way, the modem organ,
with iu facilities for managing the stops, appears to couaten-
ance a different treatment. The effect of doubles when a subject
or tune is given out in solo 'on a manual is very bad. Xhedoubles
may be drawn with advantage when the parts are moving in
massive chords. The usual practice is perhaps to employ various
manual effects of a light character until the pedal enters) and
then to produce full organ in its various modifications, but
always to aim at variety of tone. If a prdude begins with heavy
chords and pedal, then produce full organ at once. If it then
passes to lighter matter, reduce to some extent. Some begin
a fugue on the stopped diapason of the great organ, add more
as the parts enter, and continue working up throughouL But
perhaps it is the better practice to throw in loud oigan during
the pedal parts, and soften between times.
One of the greatest requisites in or^n-playing Is dignily of
treatment. This is continually competing with deamcss. The
chief mode of keeping the different parts distinct, where that
is necessary, is by using reeds of a pronounced character. These
1 rsedaaomctimea verge on the comic, and anything more than
ORGAN
265
Hm BOtt fpwfaig Md careful employment of them is undestnible.*
Expression is not possible unless the stops are enclosed in a
swell box — a most deurable arrangement. In all cases hurry
is to be avoided. A calm steadinesa, a minute finiah of all the
phrasing, forms most of the difference between first- and second-
rate players.
With reference to the general treatment of modem music we
quote the preface to Mendelssohn's Orgon Sonatas: *' In these
sonatas very much depends on the correct choice of the stops;
but, since every organ with which I am acquainted requires
in this respect special treatment, the stops of given names not
producing the same effect in different instruments, I have only
indicated certain limits, withoitt specifying the names of the
stops. By fortUsimc I mean the full organ; by pianUnmo
UstuUy one soft 8-foot stop alone; by fork, full organ without
some of the most powerful stops; by piano, several soft 8- foot
stops together; and so on. In the pedal I wish everywhere,
cnren in pianissimo, 8-foot and x6-foot (tone) together, except
where the contrary is expressly indicated, as in the sixth sonata
[thb refen to a passage where an 8-foot pedal is used without
16). It is therefore left to the player to combine the stops suit-
ably for the different pieces, but particularly to sec that, in the
simultaneous use of two manuals, the one keyboard is distin-
guabed from the other by its iiuality, without forming a glaring
contrast.'*
Importance is attached to the aboge directions as to single
stops. The habit of mixing up two or more stops unnecessarily
resulu in the loss of the characteristic qualities of tone which
reach fheir highest vahie b single stops.
A habit b prevalent of using couplets in excess. One bean
the swell coupled to the great during an entire service. The
charscteristics of the two nwnnah, which, separated, lend them-
selves to SQch charming cohtrasts, are loet in the mixture, just
as the characteristics of single stops are lost when employed
in groups. It is common to see an Knglifh or^^nlst keep the
right foot on the swell pedal and hop about with the left on
the pedals. This cannot be called pedal-^biying. Both feet
should be used, except where the swell pedal is actually required.
It is a common habit to hold a note down when it should be
repeated. It should be struck again when indicated. The
repetition b a relief to the ear.
The older organists commonly filled up thdr chords, striking
pretty nearly every concordant note within reach. The effect of
thb was in many cases to destroy effects of parts, or effects of re-
straint leading to contresu intended by the composer. There
b a well-known case of a climax about a line before the end of
Bach's " Passacaglia." Here there b a pause on a chord of four
notes; one low in the bass (pedal); two forming a major third
In the middle; and one high in the treble. Some players fill in
•very concordant note within the reach of both hands. Others
consider the effect of Bach's four notes superior. The writer
thinks that the average listener prefers the fuU chord, and the
polyphonic hearer the thin arrangement of parts. Of course
the parU are lost if thick chords are used. Restraint in the
use of the pedal b also sometimes intended to load up to a con-
trast which b lost if the pedal is introduced too soon.
Contrast and variety are fawcntial elements in organ effects.
A suiuble phrase repeated on solo stops of different charaaeis;
a see-saw in a series of rhythmical chords between two mimiah
of different characters— contrasts generally— are charming when
suitably employed. Phrasing we cazmot describe here. It is
just as important in the organ as in any sok> instrument, or in
lliere has been a tendency to attempt too much in the imha^
tion of orchestral instruments. While such stops as good flutes
and good imitations of wind instnunenta have their value, the
imitation of stringed instruments and of the orchestia in general
* As tome difficulty has been felt as to what is here meant, an
iastance b given. Tne writer has heard a first-rate player emphasize
the entrance of a chorale In the pedal (Mendelnohn'i 3rd aonaia in
A) by coupling the choir darinct to the pedaL The effect was coarse
Md diMgreeable, and would have been ridiculous if it had not bocA
so ttg^« It wae dear, but not dignified.
b undesirable. The organ's own proper tones are unequalled,
audit is a pity to make It a mere caricature of the orchestra.
The writer has had the opportunity of inspecting two of the
installatjoos known by the name of R. Hope- Jones, both under
the care of an able enthusiast in the matter, Mr ColUnson, of
Edinburgh. The Hope-Jones system consuls of two parts:
a mechanum, and a system of pipe-work. These must be con-
sidered separately. The mechanism b entirdy electric. One
example consbted of an application of thb mechanism to a fine
organ by WiUb. The conditions wero as favourable as possible,
with temperature regulation and constant use. Yet even in
thb case the contacu failed occasionally. The difficulty about
fepetitkm appeared to have been entirely got over, the perform-
ance being satisfactory when the contact was in good order.
These contacts appear to be the weak part of the system. All the
mechanbm, couplers and all, b worked by means of these coo*
tacts. With the care which b taken no difficulty b found in
getting the arrangement to work b the case of the Willb instru-
ment. The system b very complicated, witK double toudi
couplers throughout, by means of which a sob can be effected
on one manual by varying the pressure. The study of the
double touch appears very cUfficult. Stop handles are done away
with. They are rcplacei by rockers, the faces of which are about
the siae of small railway tickets. The appearance b as if the
surface where the stop handles would be was plastered over with
these rockers. They t urn on a horizontal axb through the middle,
and a touch of the finger at top or bottom opens or closes the
stop. The other instrument was Hope- Jones thoughout, pipes
and mechanism. The curator was the same as in the case of the
Willb instrument. But, the hall being littb used, there was no
tempcratuxe regulation, and very little uae. The sUte of the
mechanism was bferior, the contacts failing fredy. It could not
be regarded as an admissible mechanism from the writer's point
of view. As to the pipe-work, the effect was remarkable; but
it could not be regarded as genuine organ work, as the player
admitted. Our requirement in the matter of action b a perfectly
unfailing connexion between key and pipe. And m thb respect
we adhere to a preference for the old tracker action, where
possible. Anything that leaves a possibility of failure b the
connexbn vre rei^ird as inadmissible.
The writer dearaa to acknowledge hb obligatiaas to Sir Walter
Parratt for much assistaace in the prepamtion of this article.
(R. H. M. B.)
Bishry of the Andatt Organ,
The earliest authentic records of the organ itadf do not extend
beyond the second century B.C., but the evolution of the instm-
ment from the Syrinx or Pan-pipe goes back to a remote period.
The hydraulic and pneumatic organs of the ancients were
practically the same instruneot, differing only b the method
adopted for the compression of the wind supply; b the former
this was effected by the weight of water, and in the latter by
the more primitive expedient of working the beUows by hand or
foot. What b known, therefore, of the evolution of the orgsa
before hydraulic power was applied to it b common to both
hydraulic and pneumatic organs. The oigan of the andents was
a simple contrivance, consisting, b order of evolution, of three
ftssfnrial parts: (i) a sequence of pipes graduated b length
and made of raed, wood or branae; (s) a contrivance for com-
pressmg the wbd and for supplying it to the pipes b order to
make them speak, the ends of such pipes as were required to be
silent being at first stopped by the fingers; and (3) a sysum for
enabling the performer to store the wbd and to control the
distribution of the supply separatdy to the several pipes at will.
The pipes of the syrinx were the prototypes of No. i; the
bellows and the bag-pipe~which was but the appUcation of the
former to the reed— foreshadowed No. 3. The third part of the
organ was composed of contrivances and common objects used
by carpenters, such as boxes having slicBng lids running b
grooves, levers, &c
It teems probable that the syrinx was reoogmasd by the ancieots
as the basts of the organ. Hero of Alexandria, in hb description of
the hydraulic organ, calls it a syrinx. Philo of Alexandria {c
aoo a.c.}. mentioobg the bveatioo of the hydnulis(tts) by Cteslblua,
The fa
ORGAN
•un, "tiM kind of lyrinx pbycd by hawl wlrich we cdl kydmnlis.'*
The fact that the lyrinx was an asactnblasc of independent ttopped
pipes, which in their CMiginal condition could not be mechanically
Mown, since the movabw lip of the player used to direct the air
stKam afainst the sharp edge of the open end of the pipe «aa a
aecessat^. b no bar to the sog^estcd derivation. Wind projected
into a |Mpe can produce no musical sound unless the wind be first
compressed and the even flow of the stream be interrupted and
converted into a series of pulses. In order to produce these pabes
in an orsan'pipe. it is n ec e ss a ry to make use of some such oontnvaooe
aa a feed, flute or whistle mouthpiece (9.* )
In the earliest organs there is no dotibt that the pipes consisted
of lengths of the large reed known as «AXa#Mf used for the syrinx,
but converted into open flue^pes. Instead of cutting off the reed
immediately under the knot, aa for syrinx pipes, a little extra len^h
was left and shaped to a point to form a loot or iiKWthjNece, which
was placed over the aperture in the wtnd<hest. so that it caused the
stream of air to split in two as it was driven through the hole into the
pipebytheactionofthe bellows. A narrow fissure was nuide through
the knot near the front of the pipe, and abowe it a horisontal slit was
cut in the reed, the two edges beins bev«Ued inwards. When the
wind was pumped into the chest it found an outlet through one of
the holes in the Ikl. and the current, being divided by the foot of the
pipe, became compressed and was loroea through tne fissure in the
knot. It thcB asoendod the pipe in an even stream, as yet silent,
until thrown into commotion by another obstacle, the upper sharp
edge or Up of the notch, which produced the regular flutterings or
pulses requisite for the emission of a note. The very drnplidty of
this process disposes of any difficulty in acceptingthie synnx as an
bnportant factor in the evolution of the organ. The conversion of
a syrinx pipe is, in fact, a sim(^ and more natural eapeiiiefit than
the more elaborate construction of a wooden flue-pipe.
In order to convert the syrinx into a mechanically played instru-
ment, the addition of the actuating prindple of the b^^pipe was
oeoesaary. It is probable that in the eariiest attempts the leather
bag was actually retained and that the eupply of wind was still
furnished bjr the mouth through an insuttlation pipe. Such an
instrument is described and illustrated by Father Athanasius
Kircher,* but his drawing should be accepted with reserve, as it was
probably only an effort of the imagination to illustrate the text
In the instrument, which be calls the AiagrokeUta or MashrokttlM
of the Chaldecs, the ba^ is deambed as being inside the wind-chest,
the insufflation pipe being carried through a hole in the side of the
box. Little wooden sliders manipulated by the fingers formed a
primitive means of cootrolUng the escape of the wind through any
given pipe.
We have two pottery figum of musicians pbying on primitive
organs in the next stage of development, namely with bellows,
and a description in the Talmud. The quotation as given by
Blasius Ugolinus states that the instniment known as the Magre^kA
d'Anukiafl " consisted, aa theSchilte Haggiborim teaches, of several
rows of pipes and was blown by bellows. It had, besides, hotes and
small sliders answering to each pipe, which were set in motbn by
the pressure of the organist; the vent-holes being open, a wonderful
variety of sounds was produced." The spurious letter ctf St Jerome
to Dardanus might also be coftsulted in thb connexioii. At Tj
in Asm Minor pottery and coins dating from e. aoo B.C. were ex*
cavatcd by W. Burclchardt Barker,' and among^ them b the frag-
ment of a figure of a muskbn playing upon an instrument fastennJ
to his breast, and having seven pipes set in a rectangubr wind-chest.
in the eentre of which appear to be two bellows of unequal sixetb
Unfortunately both drawing and description are somewhat vague:
nevertheless, there b no room for doubt that thb was an organ,
perhaps without sliders or keys, the pipes being stopped at the open
end. nearest the pbyer's mouth, by the fingers, supponnr that tmre
was only ooo bellows. Another piece of pottery from Tarsus, dis-
covered in iSsjy during excavations carried out at Kusick-Kcrfah by
M. M. Maxvillier and V. Laaglob,* and preserved in the Louvre,
shows the back of an organ having fifteen pi^es. Two models of
organs of more recent date recall the construction of that found by
Mr Barker. One found in Chinese Turkestan on the site of aadeot
Khotan * (fig. 1 ) represenu a musician holding the instniment to
hb breast: both hands seem to be pressing what might be bellows;
and there are seven pipes below the bellows. The oUier instrument
(fig. 3) b of Roman origin, and forms part of the decoration on a
m«)aliion on a yellow pottery vase, which was excavated at Orange
(Dauphin^. France), and b now preserved in the collection of M.
bmilien Dumas de Sommi^res. The subjea represented in the
* See Muswgia, bk. iL ch. iv. ( 3* Pf 3-
* or Erxichin. Treatise XXXIII. of Babyl. Talmud. See Thtstmus
Antmt^atum Saerarum (Vemce. 1744-1709). xxxii. II and 3i
* See Lans amd Ptnmles (London. 1853), p. 360. fig. 69.
*Sat W. Froehncr, Aiommmemts cntiqu«s du mutit dt Frame
(Paris, 1S73). pi. 33; also Arekiwes da missions uitnlifiqMS, iv.
*See AneinU Klutam, detaOed rt^ort ef arekaeologiail exploralions
^ Ckiuts* Turktstam, carried ewd by H.lt. ImHarn CoBetnmaa, by
Maic Aurel Stein (Oxford. 1907), plate xlili.
ncdallioB b on MipUtbeaCscb Mid kk the <
with belk>ws b plainly visible (fig 3).
Thb brings us to a point m the history of the organ when the
existence of the hydraulic organ can no toiler be iniored. Some
writers consider that the inventioa of the hydnuna la the and
century B c by Ctcaibius* of Alesaadctt oonatitvtea the i pvc atk i
of the organ, and that the pneumatic organ followed as an inprowa*
roent or v-anety Such an anertion would seem to be untez»ble
in the face of what has been said above It b most improbable that
a man busy with the theory and pnctsoe of hydiauUcs »«oM r n w B i
a highly complex muswal
instrument in which
essential parts lying out-
side his realm, such as
the flttC'pipes, the
balaaoed fceyboasd. the
arrangements irithin the
wind-chest for the dis-
tribution of the wind,
are all in a highly de-
veloped state; it would
be a case for which no
parallel exists in the
history of musical instru-
ments, all of which hare
evolved sfewly and surely
through the ages. On Fran ICuc Ai d Stela ,
the otljer hand, given a i^uJSSJSWfSj:
pneumatic organ in ■"'■""' ■imimi n^
whkrh the primiriv« uo- Fio. i. Fio. a.— Roman
weighted beUows worked Pneumatic Oigu.
unsatisfactorily, an
engineer would be promjl^ to see an opportunity for the advaa-
ta«ous application of his art
There are two detailed and duly accredited descriptions of the
hydraulb extant, both of whu:h presuppose the existence of a poeo-
matic orasn. One b in Creek by Hero of Alexandria,' said to be a
pupil of Ctesibius." and the other in Latin by Vitruvius {pt Arth.
lib. X. cap. ii.)- In both accounts reference is made to drawings
now lost. Mr Woodcroft states that in eftch MS. the diasTams are
said to have been copied faithfully, and that on consultingtour MSS.
and three early printed edhioos*he found that the mechanical
parts in all agree essentially, and that it b only the case of the
oigan and the arrangement 01 the pipes which vary according to the
fancy of the artist.
The principle of the bythaulis, which remaiaed a comfdete mrstar
until recently, b now well understood. Representations of Ronaa
hydraulic Ofvans abound, but they were not always identified as
such." As the front of the organ (the performer sat or stood at the
back) was invariably represented, there had been no indkation of
the manner in which tbe pipes were made to soand. A doc was
furnished by a little baked day model of an hydraulus, and parts of
the periormer. excavated in iSS^ on the ruins of (juthafe and now
preKTved in the Musie Lcvtetne. attached to the cathedral 6( S.
Louis of Carthage. This little clay model, measuring 7^ m. by
ai in. (figs. 3 and 4)» modelled by Posseasoria, a potter woHdng at
the beginning of the and century a.o., whose name anpean on the
front, bdow the ends of the sliders, b so aocuratdy dmgned that
it tallies in every point with the description of the instrument by
Hero and Vitruvius. The number and relative sixes of the three
* TertuUian (£)« animc, 14) names Archimedes, which b probably
an error. See in thb coaaexion Hermann Degeriiw, who devocea
considerable space to the question, Di« Orgd, ikfs Esfindtrng nmd ikM
CtsckickU (Muenster, 190^).
* See Tke PneumaHcs of Hero ef Alexandria^ translated from the
original Greek by Bennett Woodcroft (London, 1851), with dUErama.
■ Edward Buhle in Du m»$ikaiisck«n Inatrmmtnto m dm Jftasa-
turen des finkeu UiUdaUtrs, pt. i. (Leipsig, 1903), p. 55. Note I
corrects this as an error, assig^ning Hero s aaivity to the beginning
of our era, in which case the description by Vitruvius would be the
earlier in spite of the (act that the hydraulus. as he describes it.
contains an improvement on that of Hero, i^, registers, and two
pumps instead of one, and that he omits to «q)lain the purpose for
which water b used. Buhle gives as hb authority Dieb, " Das
phys. System des Strabon. ' p. 391, in BaiUur UonatshericM* (Feb.
* For an exhaustive and careful compibtion of these editiooa.
and of the literature of tbe hydraulus ■enorally, see Dr Charles
Mat^ean's article, *' The Principle of the Hydrauuc Oiian.*' /nkm.
Mus. Ces. Sbd. vi. 3. pp. 183-337, also John W. Warman. Bitfitf-
tirapky of Ik* Orgam, who, however, takes the e rroneous view that the
piedievai editions of Vitruvius and Hero may be taken as evideaoa
that the instrument itself was in use until about the middle or ead
of tbe 17th century See Proc. Mns. Assoc. {\<ioy-vab^, p. 40.
^ The present writer was apparently the first in England to draw
attention to this identity by introducing the drswuig from the
Utrecht Psalter and the modd of tbe Carthage Organ, Ac See
Music (London. Sept. 1898), p. 4}8.
ORGAN
a67
iowt of pipM> t»uced by the nmaiiw of the OTpuite. give the
lequiiite cempftM tor the production oi the •« Greek acalee in uie
•t that diKic' A working reproductwn bawd on the proportions
oC the resiaiae of the oncanist, but at half nale for the nke of
pertabttity (the nai 01911 muet have aMamured |o iu in height by
4 1 ft. in width),
waa^ MiooeMfuHy
carried out by the
Rev.F W Calpin
in 190^1901 by
the helpoiphoto-
graphr and of the
text of Viiruviua.
The principle of
the hydraiUitt ia
simple. Aa in-
verted funnel, or
bell of octal.
Fig. 3.^Pottcry Model
of the Hydmula»— Car-
thage. C A.D. 150.
FIC.4.
Carthagft-g. A.0. 150^
__,jdiBg on short
Coat and immersed
in water within
the altar*Uke re-
ceptacle forming
the base or pedc-
atal. com muni-
catca by means of
a pipe, with the
wind-chest, placed
above it. when
the air b pumped
into the funnel by
the alternate action of two pumps, one on each akle of the organ,
constructed bucket within bucket and fitted with valves, the water
retreating before the lompicss ed air. rises io the receptacle and
by ha weight hokU the air in a state ol oomprcssion m the
funnel, whence it travels through the pipe into the wind-chcst.
The test of the prooeaa ia common also to the pneumatic organ.
As there are two pumps worked alternately, these conditions
remain unchanged, until by pressure on a key workins a
slider under the apertures leading to the pipes, the comoresaed air
b afforded an odt through the latter, thus producing the desired
oBa«w, notfc* It will be seen, therefore, that water
acts on the air as a compressor exactly in the
same manner as load weights are used on the
wind reservoir of modem pneumatic organs.
The discovery of the Carthage model was of
the greatest unportance to the history of the
keyboard {qj9.), for it proved beyond a doubt
the use at the beginning of our era of balanced
keys (seen in front of the organist) on the
principle described by Vitruviua., What
appears to be a second keyboard with smaller
keys on the side of the hydraulus labelled
Possesaoris (fig. 4) U simply the ends of the
sliders, whidi are pushed out or drawn w by
the actkm of the key*. . .
The principle of the hydraulus made it
possible to constrwrt large organs of powerful
tone more suitable for use in the arena than
the small pneumatic instruments, but the
hydraulic organ never emirdy aupplamod the
pneumatic, which waa probably not so im-
perfect at the bcginniiq; of our era aa has fa^en
thought, since it outlived the former and seems
to have differed from it only in the matter of
pressure. The hydraulus, on the other hand,
must have had many drawbacks, that of causing
damp in the instrument being of a scnoua
nature; it was also unwiddy and difficult to
carry about.
Of the pneumatic organ in portable and portative fonn,
traces have been found daring the palmy daya of the Roman
empire, and the art of orf;an-building, of which the organ in fig. 5
fe an example, never aeems to have quite died out during the
decline of chasic Rome and the dawn of Western dviUaatkMU
This fSIuslmtion fs derived from a 4tb-or stb-oentnry slab in the
church of St Paul extra mures at Rome. It is evident that the
hydzaulic organ waa widely known and used in the East during
the early centuries of our era, but it never won a footing in the
s ^ Awmymi seHpli& de nranoi. ed Bctlennann. p. 35-
•See " Notes on a Roman Hydraulus." Rekqmry (1904): ako
the writer's - Researches into the Origin of the Organs of the
Andcota " in ItHem. Mus, Ges., Sbd. ii. a. pp. 167-aoa (Leipc*g.
looij. and Prat, Mus Assoc (1903-1904K PP- 54*5^ ....
• For a raofv complete explanatfam of the actTon of the hydraulus,
with diagrams, see Victor Lof«t, Rsom mrekia. (Paris, 1890)}
W. OmiveU. ttUlory of Mmne (Undoo. 1874). PP- jas-^Gi.
fftam tiM Ckatck ol
St Fteal «*r« "•r»J.
tUnm. 4A w Stk cent.
Fio. 5.
West, altboqgh a few lolitaiy apedmens found their way into the
palaces of kings and princes. On account of its association with
the theatre, gladiatorial combats and pagan amusements of
corrupt Rome, it was placed under a ban by the Church. The
ignorance and misinformation dispbyed on the subject by writers
and miniaturists of the early and late middle ages leave no room
for doubt that the instrument itself was unknown to them except
from hearsay
Venice seems to have been famed for its organ -builders during
the 9th century, for Louis le D^bonnaire (778-840) sent there,
it is recorded, for a certain monk, Gcorgius Bcnevanto,* to con-
strua aa hydraulic organ for his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle.
No progress in the art of organ-buikling is recorded until the
use of organs In the chunrhcs had long been established. The
reception of the value of theorgan in (Hiristian worship proved an
incentive which led to the rapid development of the instrument.
In France and Germany the Romans must have used organs
and have introduced them to the conquered tribes as they did
in Spain, but the art of making them was soon k>st after Roman
influence and dviliaatioD were withdrawn. Pippin, when he
wished to introduce the Roman ritual into the churches of
France, fdt the need of an organ and applied to the Byzantine
emperor, Constantine Copconymus, to send him one, which
arrived by special embassy in 757 and was placed in the church
of St Comcillc at Compiigne; the arrival of this oigan was
obviously considered a great event; it is mentioned by all the
chroniders of his reign. Charlemagne received a similar present
from the emperor of the East in 812, of which a description has
been preserved.* The bellows were of hide, the pipes of bronxe;
its lone was aa bud as thunder and as sweet as that of lyre and
psaltery. This organ must have had regbtcia like those of the
hydraukis of Vitruvius and the portative from Pompeii. In 8a6
we hear that his son Louis le D^bonnaire obtained a pncnmatic
organ for the church at Aix-la^ChapeUe, not to be confounded with
the hydraulus installed in his palace.
The statement that the organ was introduced into the Roman
Church by Pope Vitalian at the end of the 7th century, which
has been generally accepted, is rejected by Buhle* on the ground
of insufficient proof. Tliere b abimdant evidence to show that
the organ had taken its place in the churches in the loth century,
not only in England but in Germany, where the constiuctkm by
monks had become bo general that we find no fewer than three
treatises on organ-buiMing' written by monks, followed by three
more in the nth century.*
Considerable activity was displayed in England in the loth
century in organ-building on a large scale for churches and
monasteries, such as the monster organ for Bishop Alphege at
Winchester, which had 400 bronze pipes, 36 bellows and 9
manuals of 20 keys, each governing xo pipes.* There is also the
elaborate organ presented by St Dunstan to his monastery at
Malmesbury.*
«"Vita Hludovid Imperatoris.** Mom. Germ. u. pp. 609.^;
see also. Buhle, op. eik p. 58. note 4. where fuller icfcrenoca are
given.
• Cesta Kareii JHomuhi SsnfoiEmm. lib. H. cap. x. n. 7^1.
• Op. til. p. 61. note a. wbcic the evidence is carefully sifted.
« (I) by Notker of St Gallen (see Hattcmcr. DeiikmiUr, Bd. Hi.
ppw 966 seq.; Hugo Riemann. Sltidteu a. Gesek. 4«r NetemukriJI^
ppw 307 scq.; Martin Gcrbcrt. i. pp. lOO seq^ (a) By Bcrneliniua
(see (Herbert, i. pp. 318 and 32s). The third is an anonymous 9th-
century tract, the earliest of all. De wiemsmro Jlstutarum, eWing only
the proportbns of organ pipes. MS. Lat. 12949 fol- 43*. Paris Bibl.
Nat. reproduced by Buhle. «^ at. pw 104 (Laun only).
• (i)DeJlsiMtis ortuueis. introduced in a MS. copy of Mart. Caa
by a Bernese monk, aee A. Schubiger, Musikal. SpUitepem, pp. ti
SCO. Reproduced also by Buhte. op, oL Beilage iv. pp. 111-116.
coOated whh a German translatMO. (i> Theophilua. De iistru
ariibms, edited and tianslated into Eogtiah by Robert Heodm
(London. 1847): rrpreduoed by Buhle. ^ ct«. BeiUge iii. on. 10$
seq. Latin and Orman collated, who gives the tnle as 5(M^«/a
arfiKM. (3) Trcciatus it wumsmra Astsdamm, by Bishop Eberhard
of Frriang. Martin Gerben. op. ciL ii. pp. 270-281
• See Wdstani. monacht Vrntani. De VUa S, Smihmm: Coosae-
nakcr. " Esaai sur Iss instnimcau de maskiue du moyen-Ige, in
A»n. ArchioLt iii. pp. 281-282.
» William ol Malmesbury. CesL Pomiif., lib. v.
268
ORGANISTRUM
Earl EIwui gave money " Mginta lUras ** to the monastery at
Ramsay for copper pipes for a great poeimiatic organ to be played
on high days and holidays.'
The great activity recorded m the 12th and 13th centuries in
Germany is probably due to the influence and teaching ci
Byzantine masters
during the 9th cen«
tury. Pope John
Vm. (87»-88o) ap.
plied to Bishop Anno
of Frcising to send
him an organ and an
organist.' Organs
were installed in
Cologne (loth cen<
tury), in Halberstadt,
in Erfurt, in Augs-
burg, Wdtenburg
(nth century); in
Utrecht, Constance,
Petershatisen (islh
century); Peters-
berg, Cologne Cathedral, 13th century." The rest of the
literary and archaeological material — treatises, montmients,
miniatures — available during the later middle ages yields
very scant authenticated information as to the progressive
steps which lie between the 13th-
century organ as described by
Theophnus and the large church
organs of the days of Praetorius *
(1618).
The keyboard is the principal feature
concerning which miniatures offer any
evidence. Here and there a 13th-
century miniature gives a hint of
balanced keys 00 snuill ponative
organs which already abound during
that and the next century The
^^.^ ..„„„^^„^- Bernese monk fai his treatise on the
m^ I/.. ^ - i/c« Tn^,.(». organ, to which reference was made
Fnu the Ubk of St EUcnc Hardioc at Diioa. 1 *tk c«A
Fig. 6.
AviLfaLao4lK
FlO. 7.
in the note above, clearly dexribcs
balanced keys, detressa lamina,
pressed down, not pulled out, as were
those mentioned by Theophilua; hb description conforau strictly
with that of Hero, which suggests that he was borrowing from
classical authorities rather than describing an actual instrument
with which be was well acquainted, an cxpolient to which
many medieval writera had recourse. In the X4th<eatnry minia-
tures, balanced keys are general for the larger portable organs.
The adoption of narrower keys in the larger organs may no
doubt be traced to the influence of the portarives, ia which they in
> Vita S. Oswaldi: see Mabillon AcU S. scL v. p. 756.
• See Balttce. MtsctU. v. p. a9a
* Buhle (»p. ciL) gives a hst with quotations from authorities;
see pp. 66 and 67.
« §M Mkhad Pimtorias Syntapm Muakmm (WotfeabOttd. x6i8).
kmofC
wfaicfa t
is no diniature on recced in wfaicli the fist actioa on the keys is
indicated, the p eiformer during the xoth, lith and lath ulmiis
being depicted m the act of drawing out the stop-like sKders m for
instance, in the i2tb-oentary manuscript Bible 01 ScEticsMHafdiag
at Dijon ' (fig. 6), m here the organist is playiiv the notes D and F. the
sliders being lettered from C to C From the 13th centorv the keys
are shown pressed down by means of one finKr or of f
thumb (fiff. 7). In the beautiful Spainiah MSl aai
compiled lor Alpbonso XII. (c 1237),
known as the Canltgas de Sania Jforio.
a portative is shown having balanced
keys, one of which is being lightly pmed
by the thumb, the instrument retting 00
the palm — while the left hand manum-
Utes the beUows.
The keys themselves varied in shape*
being either like a T; a wide rectangle,
with or without the comers rounded off,
or a narrow rectangle. The earliest in-
stance of chromatic keyboard is that of
the organ at Halbenstadt* built in 1361
and restored in 1495. An inscription on
the keyboard states that it formed part
of the original organ, which had the
semitonal arrangement of keys.*
It must not. however, be inferred from
these isolated cases that balanced keys
were ecneral from the 13th century, nor
that tne chromatic keys were
the i^th. The St Cccilui in the altar-
piece m Ghent by the brothers Hubert
BfiL Mmt. AiL MS. i
foL 6. X4tk ccatojy.
and Jan van Eyck (i5ih cent.) ia repre- <''^* 9*
sentcd as playing upon an organ with a modem-lookin| keyboard.
A picture by Fn Angclico (15th cent.) in the Natiooal Gallery
shows a portative with aocidentala. It will probably be found
that the earliest development of the organ took place m Germany
and in the Netherlands. (K. S.)
OROANISTOUM, the medieval Latin name for the earliest
known form of the hurdy-gurdy (9.V.). The organistnun was
large enough to rest on the knees of two performers sitting side
by side, one of whom turned the crank setting the whed in
motion, while the other, the artist, manipulated the keys. The
word organistnun is derived from artanum and instrumaUmm;
the former term was applied to the primitive harmonies, con-
sisling of octaves accompanied by fourths or fifths, first practised
by Hucbald in the lotb century. This cxpUnatioo enables
us to fix with tolerable certainty the date of the invention ol
the organistrum, at the end of the loth or beginning of the nth
century, and also to understand the construction of the instru-
ment. A stringed instrument of the period — such as a guitar-
fiddle, a rolta or oval vielle — being used as model, the proportions
were increased for the convenience of holding the instrument and
of dividing the performance between two persons. Inside the
body was the wheel, having a tire of leather well rosined, and
working easily through an aperture in the sound-board. The
three strings resting on the wheel and supported besides on a
bridge of the same height all sounded at once as the wheel
revolved, and in the earliest examples the wooden tangents
taking the pbce of fingers on the frets of the neck acted upon
ail three strings at once, thus producing the harmony known
as organum.
The oreanistrum appears on a bas-relief from the abbey of St
Georges oc Boschcrvillc (i i th cent.), now preserved in the museum
of Rouen, where it is played by a royal lady, her maid turning the
crank. It has the place df honour in the centre of the band of
musicians rspresentmg the twenty-four ciders of the ApocalypK
in the tympanum of the Gate of CTlory of the cathedral of^ Santiago
da Compostella (12th cent ). There is also a fine example in a
miniature of a psalter of English workmanship (12th cent.), formiflg
part of the Hunterian collection in Glasgow University; this was
shown at the Exhibition of Illuminated MSS. at the Burlington
Fine Arts Club in 1908. (K. S.)
* See also for other organs with sKders being drawn out, A. I
Eine SachsiscktkMnntueha MaUrsehuU am dit Wende des XJII.
Jakrk., pi. xxvi. Na ^ 7. part of Stmdkn $h der KtrndgtsckiekUi
the same is reproduced in Gori's TTiesavnts diptyckonm, Bd. m.
Tab. 16. where it is falsely ascribed to the 0th century.
* Praetorius mentions the Halberstadt and Eriurt organs as having
been built 600 years before his time (1618). and sdll bearing on them
the date inscribed. See o^ aL p. 93.
' See A. J. Hipkias. i^ulory V<ih« i*MM!fofk (London. 1896).
ORGANON— ORIENTATION
2bq
•^(Qr, SfTftLfm, Inilnixiitnt, from Vr^^ ^rorit),
the nune givn to Aristotte's logical trettiMs. Tliey are to
ctllfld becanae logic la itMtf neitber a apecolathre idence nor a
piactlcal art in tlio ordhmty aenae, bat aa aid or iastniincitt
to «a adentific thon^it. Fnada Bacoo, regarding the Aria-
totelian logic aa be undintood it aa of no avails gave to his own
traatke the Biime Nmm Organum in tbe belief that he had
diMowcred a new indncthe logic which would lead aecesaarily
to the acqdaitioa of new scientific knowled^ Cob^mtc also
Whewdl's Kamm Ortamim RmoMum and Lambert'a Neties
(VfoMMh In medieval muiic the teim was applied in a aimilar
aenae to early attempts at impreviaad oouaterpohit i.«. a part
tang as aa accompaniment above or below the mdody or phdn-
aong; it coaaisted of Stha and stha (or 4tba) added to the
OBOT (thnmgb French from lat. er^ Gr. BfTfM, in derive^
tlon connected probably with ifjai^, work; cf. Lat. •Ptrwe, to
aacrifioe), a term originally denoting the aeciet rites or cero-
moniea connected with the wonhip of certain deitiea, espedally
those of Dionysus-Bacchua. The Dionyriac oigka, which were
restricted to women, wen eelebmted in the winter among the
Thradaa hiUa or. in apota remote from city life. The woann
met, dad in fawn-skinSf with hair diahevelled, swinging tbe
thyisus and beating the cymbal; they danced and worited
themselvea up to a state of mad esEdtement. The holieat ritea
took place at night by tbe light of torchca. A ball, the repre>
aenutive of the god, waa torn in pieces by them as Dionyaua^
Zagreua had been torn; his be&owing reproduced the csiea of
the suffering god. The women tore the bull with their teeth,
and tbe eattog of the raw fleah waa a neeeasary part of the ritual.
Some further rites, which varied in different diatricta, repmented
the reaorrection of the god hi the qaing. On Mount Pamaasus
the women carried back Dionynis-Liaaites, the child cradled
in the wfauowing fan. The most famous featival of tbe kind
was the rpteniplf cdebmied every second whiter on Paraassua
by the women of Attica and Pboda. The cdeboranU were called
Maenads or Bacchae. The ecstatic entbualaam of the Tbradan
women, KXib towt or Mi|iaX>^Mf, was espedally distinguished.
The wild dances, songs, drinking and other '*orgiaatic " cere*
monies which were characteristic of theae rites have given rise
to the use of the word "orgy " for any drunken, wild revd or
festivity (see Dioityius and Mystw).
ORIA, a town of Apulia, Italy, hi tbe province of Lccce, 15 m.
E. of Taranto and 19 m. S.W. of Brindisi by nil, 540 ft. above
aea-IevcL Pop. (1901), 8838. It occupies the site of the andent
Uria, the chief town of the Sallcntini, which stood in a command-
ing podtion in the centre of the peninsula of the andent Calabria
(9.».), almost midway between Brundudum and Tarentum on
theViaAppia. Strabo mentions that he saw there the old palace
of the Messapian kings (vi. 3. 6, p. a8a). The town cootams a
small museum and a fine casde of Frederick IL, erected m 1997.
The Dona family of Genoa and Rome is said to derive its name
from a certain Tommaao d'Oria, who led the rebellion against
Frederick's wn Manfred. Much damage was done by a cydone
in 1878.
ORIBI, or Outsn, tbe local name of a small South African
antelope {Onbia tcoparia)^ atanding about 24 in. at the shoulder,
and chancteriied by the presence of a bare glandular spot
bdow the ear, the upright horns of the bucks, which are ringed
for a short distance above the face, and the tufted bushy tail, of
which the terminal two-thirds are black. The name is extended
to indude the other members of the saaie genus, such aa the
Abysdnian, O. mwtama\ tbe Gambian, O. mgncandala; the
British Eaat African, O. haggarii; and the Moambique, O.
pdeni.
ORIBU JOHN FOSTER, BiOtoit (174^1838), Irish politidan,
was the son of Anthony Foster of Louth, an Irish judge. He
was returned to the Irish parliament In I76r, and made his
mark in financial and oommerdal questions, being appomted
chancellor of the Irish exchequer hi 1784. ISs law giving
bounties on the esporution of com and imposing heavy taies
on Its faaportatioa is noted by Lccky as re^)oadble for making
Irdand an arable instead of a pastareceuntry. In T785he became
Speaker. He opposed tbe Union, and ulthnatdy refused to
surrender the Speaker's mace, which was kept by his family.
He was returned to the united parliament, and in 2804 became
chancellor of the ItiA exchequer under Pitt. In rSzi he was
created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Grid of Ferrard
in the county of Loath, and died on the 23rd of August 1828.
His wife (d. 1824) had in 1790 been created an Irish peeresa,
aa Baroness Oriel, and in 2797 Viscountess Ferrard; and thdr
ron, Thomas Henty(d. 1843), who married Viscountess Massereene
(In her own right) and took the name of Sbeflingfon, faiherit«I
all these titles; the later Viscounts Massereene bdng their
descendants.
ORIBL, hi arehitecture, a prelecting bay whidow on an upper
storey, whidi is carried by corfads or mouldings. It is usually
polygonal or semicircular hi plan, but at Oxford in some of the
colleges there are examples which are rectangular and rise
through two or three storeys. In Germany it forms a favourite
feature, and h sometimes placed at the angle of a buSding,
carried up through two or three fkwrs and covered with a lofty
roof. The orld la also said to have been provided as a recess
for an altar in an omtocy or email chapd. In the isth century
oriels came into general use, and are frequently found over
entrance gateways.
The origin of tbe word is unknown. The suggested derivation
from Lat. ^ureoliim, with the supposed meaning of a gflded
chamber or room, is not, according to tbe Hftw Engiisk Dittwnafy,
home out by any historical evidence, and eariy French forms
—such aa Mirieii/— do not point to an origin m a word beginning
with au. Du Cange (GfojionaM, 9.9. OHMum) quotes Matthew
of Paris (irsi, ViUu AblnHm 5. Albam)*. adj'Mtalrium noHliS"
Hmtim in inlmtu, ^aed purlieus td OrtdiMi appelUhir; and also
a French use of 1338, where a licence to build an md ia granted
to one Jehan Bourgoa. The earliest meaning seems to be a
gallery, portico or corridor, and the application of the term to
a particular form of window apparently arose from such a window
bcfaig in an ** oriel." In Cornwall "orrd ** is still used of a
balcoqy or porch at the head of an oatdde staircase leading to
an upper story in a fisherman's cottage. The name of Orid
Cbllege, at Oxford, comes from a tenement known as Seneschal
Hall or La Ork>le, and granted to the college hi 1327. There
is no trace of the reason why the tenement waa w called, but it
would seem that it rderred to one of the earlier applicationa of
the word, to a gallery or porch, rather than to a window.
ORlBNTAfUMI, the term in architecture given to the podtioii
of a buildbg generally with reference to the points of the com-
pasa, and more especially (as the word implies) to that of the
East. It would seem that tome of the Egyptian templea were
orientated hi the direction of the sun or of some sdected star, the
exact poation of which on some particuUr day would be an
indication to the priest of the exact time of the ycar-^a matter
of great importance in aa agricultural country, when the calendar
waa not known. The orientation of Greek temples has enabled
astronomers to calculate the dates of the foundation of early
temples, allowance beUig made for the gradual changes which hi
the course of centuries had taken place in the prec^on of the
equinox. The prindpal front of the Greek ten^e always faced
east; and the laya of the rising sun, paaaing through the great
doorway of the nana, lighted up the statue at the further end, thia
being the only occasion on which the people who came to witness
the event were able to gase oa the sculptuied figure of the ddty.
In early Christian ardiitectuxe, in the five first basilicas built by
Oonstantine, the apse of the church waa at the west end, and the
priest, standing behhid the ahar, faced the east; this orientatkm
being probably derived from that of the church of the Holy
Sepulchre at Jeruaalem and the church at Bethlehem. Three-
fourths of the eariy churches in Rome followed this orientation,
but in many it was reversed at a later date. In Sta. Sophia,
Constantinople, and all the Byzantine churches, the apse was
slways at the east end. and the same custom obtains hi the eariy
churches hi Syria and the Coptic churches hi Egypt.
In Spahi, Germany and England generally the
270
OWENTE— ORIGEN
oricnUtion is genenlly observed, but ia Ftaace utA Italy
there are many variations. In Scotland it was the custom to
fix a pole in the ground over night, and in the morning
at sunrise to note the direction Uken by the shadow of
the pole, which was followed when setting out the axis of the
choir; if such a custom had been followed in an eariy church,
when setting out another of later date there should be some
difference in the orientation of the two, on accoimt of the varia-
tion of the obliquity of the ecliptic in the interval, and this in
aome cases accounts for the change of the axial line which is
found in some churches, either when the east end has been
rebuilt, as was constantly the case throughout Europe, or when
a nave has been added to an earlier structure. In describing
churches it is usual to use the terms east, west, north and south,
on the assumption that the altar is at the east end, although this
may not be the real bearing of the edifice.
Indirectly also the term is sometimes used in the planning of
houses and the relation of the windows of the various rooms to
the sunshine and the weather^in other words, to the points of
the compass: thus an eastward aspect should be provided tor
the morning- and dining-rooms, a south-western aspect for the
drawing-room, a westward for the libsary, and north by west for
the kitchen, larder. &c (R. P. S.)
ORIBNTB, OR La Region Ouentalz, a large undefined
territory of Ecuador, comprising all that part of the republic
lying east of the Andes. Pop. (1887 estimate), 80,000. The
territory was formed in 1884 from the oJder territories of Napo,
Canelos and Zamora, but its boundaries with the neighbouring
republics of Colombia and Peru are disputed. The territory is
covered with great forests, inhabited by wild Indians, and its
climate is hot and exceptionally humid. There are some mission
settlements and trading stations in the Andean foothills and on
some of the river courses, one of which is Archidona, on a small
tributary of the Napo, which is the nominal capital.
ORIGEN (e. 185-c. 354), the most distinguished and most
influential of all the theologians of the andent church, with the
possible exception of Augustine. He is the father of the church's
science; he b the founder of a theology which was brought to
perfection in the 4th and sth centuries, and which still retained
the stamp of his genius when in the 6th century it disowned its
author. It was Origen who created the dogmatic of the church
and laid the foundations of the scientific criticism of the Old and
New TesUmenU. He could not have been what he was unless
two generations before him had laboured at the problem of
finding an intclleclua! expression and a philosophic basia for
Christianity Qustin, Tatian, Athenagoras, Pantacnus, Clement).
But their attempts, in comparison with his, are like a schoolboy's
essays beside the finished work of a master. Like all great
epoch-making perMnalitics, he was favoured by the circum-
stances of his life, notwithstanding the relentless persecution
to which he was exposed. He lived in a time when the ChristJaji
communities enjoyed almost uninterrupted peace and held an
acknowledged position in the worid. By proclaiming the
reconciliation of science with the Christian faith, of the highest
culture with the Gospel, Origen did more than any other man to
win the Old World to the Christian religion. But he entered into
no diplomatic compromises; it was his deepest and most
solemn conviction that the sacred oradesof Christendom embraced
all the ideals of antiquity. His character was as transparent as
bis life was blameless; there are few church fathers whose
biography leaves so pure an impression on the reader. The
atmosphere around him was a dangerous one for a philosopher
and theologian to breathe, but he kept his spiritual health on-
impaired, and even his sense of truth suffered leas iniury than
was the case with mott of his contemporaries. To us, indeed,
his conception of the universe, like that of Philo. seems a strange
medley, and one may be at a loss to conceive how he could bring
together such heterogeneous elements; but there b no reason to
doubt that the harmony of all the essential parts of his system
was obvious enough to himself. It is true that in addressing the
Christian people he lued different language from that wbtdi he
employed to the aiUured; but there was no dissimulation in
that— on the contnry, it was A nquiremenl of Mi qrttett.
Orthodox theology has never, in any of the eoofcssioM, veatuitd
beyond the circle which the mind of Origan first aMssuicd out.
It has suspected and amended iu author, it has expunged hin
heresies; but whether it has put anything better or noce tcaable
in their place may be gravely questioned.
Origen was born, perhaps at Alexandria, of Christian patents
in the year 185 or 186. As a boy he showed evidence of icaarfc*
able tslents, and his fsther Leonidas gave him an excefient
education. At a very eariy age, about the year soo, he listened to
the lectures of Pantacnttssnd Clement in the catechetical scbooL
This school, of which the origin (though assigned to Atbenagorss)
is unknown, was the first and for a long time the only institution
where Christians were instructed simnitaneously in tlie Greek
sciences and the doctrines of the holy Scriptures. Alexandria
had been, since the days of tlie Ptolemies, a centre for the inter-
change of ideas between East and West— between Egypt. Syria,
Greece end Italy; and, as it had furnished Judaism with an
Hellenic philosophy, so it also brought about the alliance of
Christianity with Greek phUosophy. Asia Minor and the West
developed the strict eccleslsstlcal forms by means of which the
church doted her lines sgainst heathenism, and especially
against heresy; in Akxa&dria Christian ideas were hardlcd in
a free and speculative iashiop and worked out with the hdp of
Greek philosophy. Till near the end of the snd century the line
between heresy and orthodoxy was leas rigidly drawn there than
at Ephesus, Lyons, Rome or Carthage. In tbe year 202 a
persecution arose, in which the father of Origen became a
martyr, and the family lost their livelihood. Oi^en, who hsd
disUnguished himself by his intrepid seal, was supported for a
time by a lady of rank, but began about the same time
to earn his bread by teaching; and in 103 he was placed,
with the sanction of tbe bishop Demetrius, at the head of the
catechetical achooL Even then his attainments in the whole
drde of the sciences were extraordinary. But the spirit of
invcstigstion impelled him to devote himself to the highest
studies, philosophy and the exegesis of the sacred Scriptures.
With indomitable perseverance he applied himself to these
subjects; although himself a teacher, he regularly attended the
lectures of Ammonius Saccas, and made a thorough study of the
books of Plato and Numenius, of tbe Stoicsand the Pytbaforean&,
At the same time he endeavoured to acquire a knowledge of
Hebrew, in order to be able to read tbe Old TesUment in the
original. His manner of life was ascetic; the sayings of the
Sermon on the Mount and the practical maxims of the Stoics
were his gxiiding stars. Four oboli a day, earned by copying
manuscripts, sufficed for his bodily sustenance. A rash resolve
led him to mutilate hinvKlf that be might escape from the lusts
of the flesh, and work unhindered in the instruction of the
female sex. This step he afterwards regretted. As the attend-
ance at his classes continually increascd^pagans thronging
to him as well as Quistians— he handed over the beginners to
his friend Herades, and took charge of the more advanced pupils
himsdf . Meanwhile the literary activity of Origen was increasing
year by year. He commenced his great work 00 the textual
criUdsQB of the Scriptures; and at the instigation of his fdcnd
Ambrositts, who provided him with the necessary amanuenses,
he published his commentaries on the Old Testament and
his dogmatic investigations. In this manner he laboured at
Alexandria for tweoty-dght years (till 231-133). This period,
however, was broken by many journeys, undertaken partly for
ademific and partly for ecdestastical objects. We know that
he wss in Rome in the time of Zephyrinus, sgaia in Arabia,
whcro a Roman oAdal wanted to hear his lectures, and in
Antioch, in response to a most flattering inviudon from JuKa
Mammsca (mother of Alexander Scvcnis, afterwaids emperar).
who wished to become acquahited with his philosophy. In the
year ti6 — the time when the imperial executioners were ravaging
Alexandria— we find Origen in Palestine. There the bishops of
Jerusalem and Cacsarea received him in the most friendly manner,
and got him to deliver public lectures in the chuichea. In the
East, especially in Asia Minor, it was still no unusual thing for
ORIGEN
271
Ikymcn,'wlth penalnioii of thebWiop, toiuldxcn4li« pwpbin xHt
church* Id AJeiandria, however, this cusloin had bten givtn
vp, ftDd Demetriut tcok occumw to «Rprc« his disapproval and
recall Origeo to AlattAdiia. Probably the biiliop' was Jealous of
the high repaUtion of the teacher; and a coobcM arose between
them which led, fifteen yean Uter, to an open niptuit. On his
way to Greece (apparently in the year t^o) Origen was ofdained
a pRsbyur in Palestine by his friends the bishops. TUs was
nndoobtedly an infringement of the righu of the Alexandrian
bishop; at the same time it was simply a piece of apiteon the part
of the latter that had kept Origen so long without atay ecdcsi*
astical conse<tation. Demetrius convened a synod, at which it
was resolved to banish Origen fram Aleioandria. Even this did
not satisfy his displeasure.' A second sytood, composed entirely
of bishops, determined that Origen must be deposed from the
presbyterial status. This dedrido was commtanieated to the
foreign churches, and seems to have been justifild by refcning
to the self-muttlation of Origen and addudnif objectionable
doctrines which he was said to have promulgated. The details
of the incident are, however, unfortunately very obscure. No
formal exeommtmication of Origen appears to luVe been decneed;
it was considered suflkient to Iwve him degraded to the position
of a hymah. The sentence was approved by most of the
churches, in particular by that of Rome. At a hicr period
Origen sought to vindicate his teaching in a letter to the Roman
bislxyp Fabian, but, it would seem, without success. £ven
Heracles, his former friend and sharer of his views, took part
against him; and by this means he procured his own election
shortly aftcrwarxto as successor to Demetrius.
In these circumstances Origen thought it best voluntarily to
retirefrom Alexandria (731^939). He betook himself to Palestine,
where his condemnation had not been acknowledged by the
churches any more than it had been in Phoenfda, Arabia and
Acbaea. He settled in Caesarea, and very shortly he had
a flourishing school there, whose reputation 'rivalled that of
Alexandria. His literary work, too, was p r o sec ut ed with
unabated vigour. Enlhusastic pupils sat at his feet (see the.
FaiKgyrie of Gregory Thaumaturgus), and the methodical
instruction which he imparted in all branches of knowledge was
famous ail over the Bast. Here again his activity as a teacher
was interrupted by frequent journeys. Thus he was for two
jrears together at Caesarea in Cappadoda, where he was over-
taken by the Maximinfan persecution; hen be worked at his
recension of the Bible. We find him again fn Nicomeifia, in
Athens, and twice in Arabia. He was called there to crnnbat Xht
unitarian christology of Bcrylhis, bishop of Bostra, and to clear
up certain eschatological questions. As he had formerly had
dealings with the house of Alexander Sevcrus, so now he entered
into a correspondence with the emperor Philip the Arabian and
his wife Severa. But through all situations of his Hfe he pre-
senred his equanimity, his Iceen Interest in sdence, and his
indefatigable zeal for the instruction of others. In the year 750
the Dedan persecution broke out, Origen wis arrested, imprisoned
and maltreated. But he survived these troubles— it is arnalidous
invention that he recanted during the persecution— and lived a
few years longer in active intercourse with his friends. He died,
probably in the year 254 (consequently under Valerian), at Tyre,
where his grave was still shown in the middle ages.
WriUngs.—Ong^n is probably the most prolific author of the
ancient church. " Which of us," asks Jerome, " can read all
that he has written ?" The number of his works was estimated
at 6000, but that is certainly an exaggeration. Owing to the
increasing unpopularity of Origen in the church, a comparatively
small portion of these works have come down to us in the original.
We have more fn the Latin translation of Rufinus; but thb
translation in by no means trustworthy, since Rufinus, assuming
that Origcn's writings had been tampered with by the heretics,
considered himself at liberty to omit or amend heterodox state*
ments. Origen*s real opinion, however, may frequently be
fathered from the Philoralia—z, sort of anthology from his
works prepared by Basil the Great and Gregory Naxiantenus.
The fragments in Photius and in the Api^oty of Pamphilus serve
for Gomparisoa. The wrMngiiof OrfgtB coositt of letters; and of
works in textual criticism, exegesis, apologetics, dogmatic and
practioil theology.
I. Euiebnis (to whom we owe our foil, knowledge of his life)
collected more than a hundred of Origan's lettefs, anmnged
them in books, and depoitiod them in the library at Caesarea
{H, E. vi. j6). In the church libtary at Jerusalem (founded by
the bishop Alexander) there were aho nametogs letten of this
father (Euscb. H, £..vi. so). But unfortunately they have all
been lost except two— one to Julioa Africanus (about the history
of Susanna) and one to Grogoiy Thaumatwgus. There are»
beildes, a couple of fragmcfiis.
9, Origcn's textual studies on the Old Testament were under-
taken partly hi order to improve the manuscript tradition,
and partly for apologetic reasons, to clear up the rdatkn between
the LXX and the original Hebrew text. The lesuks of more
than twenty years' labour wore set forth in his Hexapla and
Telrapia, In which he placed the Hebrew text side by side with
the various Greek verskms, examined their mutual rdations
in detail, and tried to find the basis for a more reliable text
of the LXX. The Htxapta was probably never fully written
out, but exceipts were, made fiom it by vBrious schdhm at
Caesarea in the 4th centuiy; and thus large sections of it have
been itved.i Origen wortcod also at the text of the New Testa-
ment, although he produood no recension of his own.
3. The excgctical labours of Origen extend over the whole
of the OM and New TesUmcnts. They are divided into SckdiM
(9tiimAotnt short annotations, mostly grammatical), Hmnilia
(edifying expositions grounded on exegesis), and Commtntanis
(r6;ioi). In the Greek original only a very small portion haa
been preserved; in Latin translations, however, a good deal
The most important parts arc the homilies on Jeremiah, the
books of Moses, Joshua and Luke, and the commenfarics on
Matthew, John and Romans. With grannnattcal predsioo,
anriquarian learning and critical discernment Origen combines
the allegorical method of interpretation— the logical coroUavy
of his conception of the inspiration of the Scriptures. He
distinguishes a threefold sense of scripture, a grammatioo-
historical, a moral and a pneumatic^— the last bdng the proper
and highest sense. He thus set up a formal theory of allegorical
exegesis, which is not quite extinct in the churches even yet,
but in his own system was of fundamental importance. On thia
method the sacred writings are regarded as an inexhaustible
mine of phtk>sophkal and dogmatic wisdom; in reality the
exegcte reads his own ideas into any passage he chooses. The
commentaries are of course intolerably diffuse and tedious^
a great deal of them Is now quite unreadable; yet, on the other
hand, one has not unfrequenily occasion to admire the sound
linguistic perception and the critical talent of the author.'
4. The principal apologetic work of Origen is his book xorA
Kk\nn (dght books), written at Caesarea in the time of Philip
the Arabian. It has been completdy preserved in the original.
This work is invaluable as a source for the history and situation
of the church in the and century; for it contains iiearly the whole
of the famous work of Cckus (Myot i>afi^) against ChriMianity.
What makes Oigen's answer so instructive is that it diows how
close an affinity existed between Celsus and himself in thdr
fundamental philosophical and theological presuppositions. The
real state of the case is certainly unsuspected by Origen himsdf;
but many of his opponent's arguments he is unable to meet
except by a speculative reconstruction of the church doctrine
in question. Origen*s apologetic is most effective when he
appeals to the spirit and power of Christianity as an evidence
of its truth. In details his argument Is not free from sophistical
subterfuges and superficial reasoning.'
Field, Oriscnis Hexaplonm 9MC supasuni (a vols.. Oxon.,
ctisa. Cesekicke der heU. Sckripm d. N.T. i
1867-1874).
•See Rctisa. Ceirkicktt der knl. Schriften d. N.T. (5th «d.). | 51 1.
■ Kdm. Ceisvs (1873): Aub^, Ithl. des pfrxHiU. di Viffise, vol H.
(f«7S)
p. 58: ...
atatnstCrli _^
Zn/MNf (187^). No. aa (1879). No. 9: Orit '- Gr/r. cd. Sd«->n (1876).
272
ORIGEN
5. Of the dogmatic vritiots we poasesa only one in its integrity,
and tfa&t only in the translation of Rufinus,* Ilcpi h^i/xCv (On
the Fundamental Doctrines). This work, which was ooropotsed
before 328, is the first attempt at a dogmatic at once scientific
and accommodated to the needs of the church. The material
is drawn from Scripture, but in such a way that the propositions
of the regala fidei are respected. This material is then formed
into a system by all the resources of the intellect and of specula-
tion. Origen thus solved, after his own fashion, a problem
which his predecessor Clement bad not even ventured to grapple
with. The first three books treat of God, the world, the fall
of spirits, anthropology and ethics. "Each of these three
books really embraces, although not in a strictly comprehensive
way, the whole scheme of the Christian view of the world, from
different points of view, and with different contents." The
fourth book explains the divinity of the Scriptures^ and deduces
rules for their interpretation. It ought properly to stand as
first book at the beginning. The ten books of Siromala (in which
Origen compared the teaching of the Christians with that of the
philosophers, and corroborated all the Christian dogmas from
Plato, Aristotle, Numenlus and Comutus) have all perished,
with the exception of small fragments; so luve the tractates
on the resurrection and on freewill*
6. Of practical theological works we have still the UfiorparruAt
tit lULfnhpuat and the £(irra7/ia rtfl fix$f* ^^ ^ knowledge
of Origen's Christian estimate of life and his relation to the
faith of the church these two treatises are of great importance.
The first was written during the persecution of Maximinus
Thrax, and was dedicated to his friends Ambroslus and
Protoctetus. The other also dates from the Caesarean period;
it mentions many inurcsling details, and concludes with a fine
exposition of the Lord's Prayer.
7. In his own lifetime Origen had to complain of falsifications
of his works and forgeries under his name. Many pieces still in
existence are wrongly ascribed to him ; yet it is doubtful whether a
single one of them was composed on purpose to deceive. The most
noteworthy are the Dicloiuesol a certain Adamantius "dc recta
in Dcum fide," which seem to have been erroneously attributed to
Origen so early as the 4th century, one reason being the fact that
Origen himself also bore that name. (Eusebius, H.E, vi. 14.)
Oullifu qJ OriienU Vitw 9/ lk« Universe and of Life. — ^Tbc
system of Origen was formulated in opposition to the Greek
philosophers on the one hand, and the Christian Gnostics on the
other.* But the science of faith, as expounded by him, bears
unmistakably the stamp both of Neo-Platonism and of Gnosticism.
As a theologian, in fact, Origen is not merely an orthodox
traditionalist and bdieving exegetc, but a speculative philosopher
of Neo>Platonic tendencies. He is, moreover, a judicious critic.
The union of these four elements gives character to his theology,
and in a certain degree to all subsequent theology. It is this
combination which has determined the peculiar and varying
relations in which theology and the faith of the church have
stood lo each other since the lime of Origen. That relation
depends on the predominance of one or other of the four factors
embraced in his theobgy.
As an orthodox traditionalist Origen holds that Christianity
is a praaical and religious saving principle, that it has unfolded
itself in an historical serines of revealing facts, that the church
has accuraUly embodied the substance of her faith in the regula
fideit tnd that simple faith is sufficient for the renewal and salva-
tion of man. As a phik>sophical idealist, however, he transmutes
the whole contents of the faith of the church into ideas which
bear the mark of Neo^PUtoaism, and were accordingly recognized
by the Uter Neo-Platonisu as Uelleaic.« In Origen, however,
J There are, however, extensive fragments of the oridnal la
existence.
J See Redepcnnfnjf. Oritfnis de principiis, first wcp. ed. (Leipzifc
18^6): Schnitser. Ong. Hber die CrMndkkren des Ciaubens, an attempt
at rcconstniction (1835).
* The opposition to the unitarians within the church must also be
kept in mind.
* Porphyry says of Oriaen, «arA rAf npl wyai^irwy «d nS 9<Io9
Ue«i 'IKXWlWi' (Euieb. ILE. vt. 19),
the mystic aad eotatie dcaMbt is held is abeyance. The
ethioo<religious ideal is the sorrowles condition, the stau oC
superiority to all evils, the state of order and of rest. la this
condition man enters into likeness to God and blessedness;
and it is reached through contemplative iaolatioa and self-
knowledge, which is divine wisdom. " The soul is trained sa
it were to behold itself in a mirror, it shows the divine spirit,
if it should be found worthy of such fellowship, as in a minor*
and thus discovers the traces of a secret path to participation
in the divine nature." As a means to the realisation of this ideal,
Origen introduces the whole ethics of Stoicism. But the link
that connects him with churchly realism, as well as with the Keo-
PUtonic mysticism, is the conviction that complete and certain
knowledge rests wholly on divine revelation, t.c. on oiades.
Consequent^ his theology is cosmologicalspeculaiion and ethical
reflection based on the sacred Scriptures. The Scriptvics,
however, are treated by Origen on the basis of a matured theory
jjI inspiration in such a way that all their facu appear as the
vehicks of ideas, and have their highest value only in this aspect.
That is to say, his gnosis neutralises all that is empirical and
historical, if not always as to its actuality, at least absolutely
in respect of its value. The most convincing proof of this is that
Origen (i) Ukes the idea of the immuubility of God as the
reguUting idea of his system, and (2} deprives the historical
" Word made flesh " of all significance for the true Gnostic.
To him Christ appears simply as the Logos who is with the Father
from eternity, and works from all eternity, to whom alone the
instructed Christian directs his thoughts, requiring nothing more
than a perfect — i.e. divine— teacher. In such propositions
historical Christianity is stripped off as a mere husk. The objects
of religious knowledge are beyond the plane of history, or rather—
in a thoroughly Gnostic and Nco-PUtonic spirit— they are
regarded as belonging to a supra-mundane history. On this
view contact with the faith of the church could only be maintained
by distinguishing an exoteric and an esoteric fcrm of Christianity.
This distinction was already current in the catechetical school
of Alexandria, but Origen gave it its boldest expression, and
justified it on the ground of the incapacity of the Christian
masses to grasp the deeper sense of Scripture, or unravel the
difliculties of exegesis. On the other hand, in dealing with the
problem of bringing his heterodox system into conformity with
the regula fidei he evinced a high degree of technical skiU. An
external conformity was possible, inasmuch as speculation,
proceeding from the higher to the lower, could keep by the stages
of the regula fidei, which had been' developed into a history of
salvation. The system itself aims in principle at being thoroughly
monistic; but, since matter, although created by God out of
nothing, was regarded merely as the sphere in which souls are
punished and purified, the system is pervaded by a stron^y
duolistic element. The immutability of God requires the
eternity of the Logos and of the world. At this point Origen
succeeded in avoiding the heretical Gnostic idea of God by
assigning to the Godhead the attributes of goodness and righteous-
ness. "Hie pre^xistence of souls is another inference from the
immutability of God, although Origen also deduced it from the
nature of the soul, which as a spiritual potency must be etcmaL
Indeed this is the fundamcnui idea of Origen—" the original
and indestructible unity of God and all spiritual essences."
From this follows the necessity for the created spirit, after
apostasy, error and sin, to return always to its origin in God.
The actual sinfulness of all men Origen was able to explain by
the theological hypothesis of pre-existence and the premundane
fall of each individual soul. He holds that freedom is the
inalienable prerogative of the finite spirit; and this is the second
point that distinguishes his theology from the heretical Gnosticism.
The system unfolds itself like a drama, of which the successive
stages are as follows: the transcendental fall, the creation of
the material world, inaugurating the history of punishment
and redemption, the clothing of fallen souls in flesh, the domini«t
of sin, evil and the demons on earth, the appearing of the Logos»
His union with a pure human soul. His esoteric preaching of
salvation, and His death in the flesh, then the imparting of the
ORIGINAL PACKAOB
97Z
gpoitf And toe wHiinitft MitoiBtlDn cf wl thiinfc Tat doctriBS
pi the teitoimtMii a|»peai«d neotnuy bccmtne the ipirik, io
Ipiie oi iu inbennt freedeas, cannot lose iu true netiite» end
beauiM titt &mI purpoen of God ceuttt be foiled. Thecnd,
however, i» only releiive, for s|iiriu are continnaily iaUing, and
God rcmaiaa through eternity the creator el the werU. Ifoieovtr
the end ia not conceived as a IransfisinaliDn of the eporid, but
aa a liberatfon of the apirit from its unnatmal union with the
aenciiaL Here .the Gnostic and phOoso^ical character of the
tytum is particularly manifest. The old Christian eachatokigy
ia set aside; no one has dealt such deadly blows to Chiliasm
and Christian apocalyptidsm aa Origen. it need hardly besaid
that he Bpirilualiicd the church doctrine of the tesurreotieik of
the flesh. But, while in aU these doctrines he appears in the
character of a Platonic philosopher, traces of rational criticism
are not wanting. Where his fuodameoul conccptfon admiu
of it» he tries to solve historical praUema hy historical
methods. Even in the christology, where he is treating of the
historical Christ* he entertains critical conaidentiotts; hence
it is not altogether without feason that m after timoa he was
suspected of " Ebiooitic " views of the Person of Christ. Not
unfrcqueotly he lepreseots the unity of the Father and the Son
as a unity of agreement and harsBony and " identity of wiU."
Although the theology of Origen euterted a considecable in-
fluence as a whole in the two following centuries, it certainly
foat nothing by the drcumsiaDce that several important pco>
positions were capable of being torn from their original setting
and placed in new connexions. It is in fact one of the peculiarities
Of this theology, which professed to be at once churchly and
philosophical, that most of its formuUe could be interpreted
and appreciated in uiramqu* pvUm, By axhitraiy divisions
and rearrangements the doctrinal statemenU of this ** science
of fait^ " could be made to Krve the most diveiae dogmatic
tendencies. This is seen especially in thodoctrine of the Logos.
On the basis of hia idea of Cod Origen was obliged to insist in
the strongest manner on the penonaJHy, the eternity (eternal
generation) and the essential divinity of the Logos.* On the
other hand» when he turned to consider the origin oi the Logos
he did not hesitate to speak of Him as a a-iffstat and to include
Him amongst the rest of Cod's spiritual^ crwturcs. A crl^pa,
which is at the same lime A*Mei«ie» r^ 0*^, was no oontradiaion
to him. simply becauae be held the immutability, the pure know-
ledge and the blessedness which constituted the divine nature
to be commuQicable attributes. In later times both the orthodox
and the Arians appealed to his teaching, both with a ccrUta
pUiBihility; but the inference of Arius, that an imparted
divinity must be divinity in the second degree, Origen did not
draw. With respect to other doctrines also, such as those of the
Holy Spirit and the incarnation of Christ. &c., Origen prepared
the way (or the Uter dogmas. The technical terms round which
such bitter controversies raged in the 4th and slh ccnturica are
often 'found in Origen lying peacefully side by side. But this
is just where his epoch-makiag importance lies, that all the later
parties in the church learned from him. And this is true not
only of the dogmatic parties; solitary monks and ambitious
priests, hard-beaded critical exegetes,* allegorists. mystics, aU
found something congenial in his writings. The only man who
tried to shake off the theological influence of Origen was Marccllus
of Ancyia. who did not succeed io producing any lasting effect
OB theofoQT.
The attacks on Origen, which had begun in his lifetime,
did not cease for centuries, and only subsided during the time
ol the fierce Arian controversy. It was not so much the relation
between pistis and gnosis--faith and knowledge — as defined by
Origen that gave offence, but rather isolated propositions, such
aa bis doctrines of the pre-existence of souls, of the soul and body
of Christ, of the resumction of the flesh, of the final restoration.
■ ** Communis substantiae eit film cum patre; kw^potm enim
earn illo coqiore ex quo
■ E.g. Dionyiius of Alexandria: compsi^e has judicious verdict on
Che Apocalypse.
aBdofChepterslityofwarida. EvcninthejnlceiftiiiyOngen^k
view of the Trinity and of the Person of Christ was caUed in
question, and that fram-varfous points of view. It was not till
the 5tb century^ however, that objcttions of thia kind became
frequent. In the 4th ceiUury Pamphilua. EuaeMtis of Caesarea,
Athanasiiw, t hr Cappadodans. Didymua, andRufinus wcreon die
aide of Origen against the attackaof Methodius and many others
But, when the seal of Epiphanina was kindled against him,
whoi Jerome, alarmed about hia own reputation, and in defiance
of his past attitude, turned against his once honoured teacher,
and Theophihisk patriarch of Alexandria, found it prudent, for
political rcaSMia, and out of consideration for the uneducated
monka. to condemn Origett-~then bis authority received a
shock from which it never reco\<cred. Thero were, doubtless,
in the 5th century church historiaoa and thaofogiana who still
spoke of him with reverence, but such men became fewer and
fewer. In the West Vincent of Lerins held up Origen aa n
warning example iC^mmtmit, aa), ahowing how even the moat
learned and meet eminent of church teachcn might beoome a
misleading light. In the East the eacgetical school of Aniioch
had an aversion to Origen; the Alexandriana bad utterly
repudiated him. Nevertheless hm writings were much read,
eapedally in Palestine. The menopfaysite monks appealed to his
authority, but oauM not prevent Justinian and the fifth oecumcni-
cal council at Constantinople (sis) from aaathematiung hU
teaching. It is true that many scholars («.f. Hefele, ConcUitn-
i^stA. ii. p. 858 sq.) deny that Origen was condemned by this
council; but MfiUer rightly hokis that the ooodemaation is
proved {ReoUfKyUop. /. proUtk Thiol, u. Kifcke, xi. 113).
Sources anp LiraaATuaB.— Next to the works of Origen (mo
Rodepcnning, " De« Hieionyraus wicdcFaufgefuAdenea Verzeichnis
dcrSchrirtendesOrigens,"inZri/./.^ A»/. Tlieot. (1851). pp. 668^.)
the most Important sources are: Gregory Thaumat., Pttnegyricitt
i» Ong.i Eusebius. H,E. vL; Epiphanius, Hnf* 64; the works of
Methodius, the Cappadociana. Jerome (see I>* sir. «tf. Sf, 61) and
Ru&nus; Vincent. Lcrin. CommoHtL 23; Palladius, Hisi. Laus. 147;
Justinian. Ep, ad Mennam (Manti. tx. p. 487 seq.) ; Photius, Biblioth,
II?, &c. Tnere is no complete criticB] edition Of Origen'a works.
The beat edition is chit of Car. and C. Vine. Delanie (4 vds. foi.)
(Paris. I733~1759)« reprinted by Loramatxsch (25 vols. 8vo) (Bcrila.
18^1-1848) and by M^g nc. PattoL curs, compt. ser. Cr., vola xi.-xvii.
Several new pieces have been edited by Callandi and A. Mat
Amongst the older works on Origen those of Huetius (printH In
Delarue, voL iv.) are the best; but Tillemont. Fabridua, Welch
(Histarit d. Ktiherrkm, viu pp. d6a-7fio> and Schrtekh alao deaerve
to be mentioned. In rsccnt times the doctrine of Origen baa been
cxpouaf*.d In the great worka on church history by Baur. Domcr,
Bohringer. Ncander, M6ller {Gesckickit itr Kotmologie in dtr
grieekiscken Kifche) and Kahnis (2>t« Leht$ mm h. Ctist, vol. i.);
compare with thcae the works oa the history of phikiaophy by Ritter*
Erdmann, Ueberwe| and Zeller. Of mono^Taphs, the beat and
most complete ia Kedepenning, Origenei, etnt DcrsteUunz uines
L$b€HS una seiner Lekre (2 vols.. 1841. 1846). Coraoare Thomasiua,
Orit. (1837) : KrQger. " Uber daa Vcihflltnts dea Ong. xu Ammoniua
in the Ztukr.f. hut TteaL (1843). L p. 46 aaq.; Fiacbcr,
Camnumi, de Orig. tkettogia 4t cotmotcgia (1846); Raraeia^ Ori^
U^re ton der AufersUkunt des Pkiscka (1851): Knittel. *'Orig.
Lohre von der Mcnschwcrdunff," iu the Tketd. Ouartalsckr. (iS/aJ;
Schuftt, *' Chrislologie dea Ong.," in the Jokrb. f. proleik TheoL
(1875): Mehlhom. ** Die Lehra von der menachKchen Freihelt nach
Orig.,*' in 2aa(w*r./. Kinkatgeuh. vol. ii. (1878); Frcppd, OrigHo.
vol. 1.. 3nd cd. (Paru. 1875)- A full list of the Utcr btbltography will
be found in Harnack's Dogmengesckkkte and Ckronologie, (A. Ha.)
ORIGINAL PACKAOB^ a kgal term in America, meaning
in general usage, the package in which gooda, intended for
intersute commerce, are aaually tranq>orted wholesale. The
term is used chiefly ia determining the boundary between
Federal and state jurisdiction in the regulation of commerce,
and derives special significance by reason of the conflkt between
the powers of Congress to regulate commerce and the police
legislation of the several slatea with respea to commodities
considered injurious to pubUc health and morals, such ss in-
toxicating liquors, cigarettes and oleomargarine. By the Federal
constKutaon Congress is vested with the power " to rcgubte
commerce with foreign nations and among the several states,
and with the Indian tribea," and each sUto la forbidden, without
the consent of Congress, to " lay any imposts or duties on imports
or ezporU, except what may be absolutely neoessaiy for executing
87+
ORIGINAL PACKAGE
its inpectioD laws," end Che basis of the Uw on the sabject of
*'originsI pscksfe '* was laid when, in 1827, Chief Justice Marshall
interpreted these clauses in his decision of the case of Brawn v.
Maryland^^ which tested the oonstitutioaality of an act of iht
legislature of Maryland requiring a licence from importers of
foreign goods by bale or paci(|ige and from persons selling the
sane by wholesale, bale, package, hogshead, barrel or tieroe.
After pronouncing such a licence to be in effect a tax, the chief
Justice observed that so long as the thing imported remained
'* the property of the importer, in his warehouse, in the original
form or package in which it was imported," a tax upon h was
too pUlnly a duty on Imports to escape the prohibition of the
Constitution, that imported commodities did not become subject
to the taxing power of the state until they bad " become incor*
porated and mixed with the mass of property in the country,"
that the right to sell a thing imported was incident to the right
10 import it, and consequently that a state tax upon the sale
was repugnant to the power of Congress to regulate foreign
commerce; and he added that the court supposed the sam-t
principles appUed equally to interstate commerce. Later
decisions agree that the right to Import commodities or to ship
them from one sute to another carries with it the right to sell
them and have established the boundary line between Federal
and state control of both foreign imports and interslatirship*
inents at a sale In the original package* or at the breaking of the
original package before sale for other purposes than inspection.'
A state or a municipality may, however, tax while in their
original packages any commodities which have been shipped in
from another state provided there be no discrimination against
iudi commodities; this permission being granted on the theory
that a general non-discriminating tax is not a regulation of
commerce and therefore not repugnant to the power of Congress
to regulate interstate commerce.* The first cases involving a
serious conflict between the power of Congress to regulate inter-
state (Commerce and the police powers of the several states were
the Ucence Cases adjudicated by the Supreme Court of the
United States in January 1847.* They were to test the con-
stitutionality of a law of Massachusetts requiring a Ucence for the
sale of wines or spirituous liquors in a less quantity than 28
gallons, of a law of Rhode Island requiring a licence for the sale
of such liquors in a less quantity than 10 gallons, and a law
of New Hampshire requiring a licence for the sale of wines or
8pirituous«(iquon in any quantity whatever, and in this case a
barrel of gin had been bought in Boston Mass., carried to Dover,
UM^ and there sold in the same barrel. Although the justices
based their opinions on different principles, the court pronounced
the laws oonstftutional. The justices did not even agree that
the power of Congress to regulate an interstate shipment in-
cluded the power to auihorixe a sale after shipment, which is the
basis of the original package doctrine as applied to interstate
commerce, and Chief Justice Taney with two other justices
who were of this opinion held that a state might nevertheless
in the exercise of its polios powers regulate such sales so long as
Congress did not pass an act for that purpose. In this confused
and uncertain state the matter rested until the adjudication of
Leisy v. Hardin* in 1889. In this case beer had been shipped
from Illinois into Iowa and then sold in the original kegs and cases
by an agent of the Illinob firm when Iowa had a law absohilcly
prohibiting the sale of intoxicating liquors within its limits
except for pharraaceutical, medicinal, chemical or sacramental
purposes. None of the justices now denied that the power of
Congress to regulate afi interstate shipment included the power
to authorise a sale after shipment, and akhoogh there was dis-
agreement with reference to the right of a sute to regulate the
sale in the absence of an act of Congress for that purpose, the
* 12 Wheaton 419^
> Wanng v. Mobile. 8 WaU. Ita
* May V. New Orleans, 178 US. 498 and la ft McAnister (C.C.Md).
SI Fed. 282.
« Woooniff w. Psffham, 8 WalUwe lai. and Hinaoo 9. Lott, 8
Wallace 148.
* 5 Howard S04.
* 13s tJS. 10a
majority of the court were of the epinloa that: " Wbenaver a
particular power of the general govcmroeiit Is one which must
necessarily be exercised by it, and Congress remains sUcnt,
this is not only not a cencessioa that the poweis reserved by the
states may be exerted as if the specific powtf had not been
elsewhere reposed, hut, on the contrary, the^only legitimate
conclusion is that the general government intended that power
should not be affirmatively exercised, and that the action of
the sutes cannot be permitted to effect that which would be
incompatible with such intention. Hence, inasmuch as inter-
state commerce, consisting in the tnuisportation, purchase,
sale and exchange of commodities, is national in its character
and must be governed by a uniform system, so bog as Congress
docs not pass any law to regulate it, or allowing the states so to do,
it thereby indicates its will that such commerce shaU be free and
untrammelled." The opinkM of Chief Justice Taney in Pieru
V. Ntm Hampshire was therefore in part overruled and the Iowa
law In so far as it appHed to the sale in the original packages of
liquors shipped in from another state was pronounced uncoo-
stitutional. As a consequence of this decision, Congress, in 1890*
passed the Wilson Act providing that all fermented, distiOed, or
other intoxicating liquors or liquids transported Into any state
or Territory for use, consumption^ sale or storage therein should,
even ihough in the original packages, be subject to the police
laws of the sute or Territory to thesame extent as those produced
within the slate or Territory. Even with this act, however, a
state is not permitted to interfere with an intersUte shipment
of liquor direct to the consumer.'
What constitutes an original package was the priac^tal
question in Austin v. Tenntsst* which was decided in November
iQoo. The general assembly of Tennessee had in this case made
it a misdemeanour for any party to sell or to bring into the state
for selling or giving away any cigarettes. The defendant had
purchased at Durham, North Carolina, a quantity of cigarettes.
They were packed in pasteboard boxes containing ten cigarettes
each. The boxes were then placed in an open basket and in this
manner the cigarettes were delivered at the defendant's place
of business in Tennessee where he sold a package without
breaking it. The court decided against the defendant because it
held that the manner of transportation was evidently for the
purpose of evading the state law and that the boxes were not
original packages within the meaning of the Federallaw, and in
this connexion it observed that ** The whole theory of the exemp-
tion of the original package from the operation of the state laws la
based upon the idea that the property is imported in the ordinary
form in which, from time to time immemorial, foreign goods have
been brought into the country. These have gone at once into the
hands of the wholesale dealers, who have been in the habit of
breaking the package and distributing their contents among the
several retail dealers throughout the state. It was with reference
toihts method of doing business that the doctrine of theexemptioa
of the original package grew up. " In the case of Schattenherger ▼.
Pennsylvania,* however, the court decided that the sute of
Pennsylvania could not prohibit the sale of oleomargarine by retail
when it had been shipped from Rhode Island in packages con-
Uining only 10 lb each, and the original package doarine has
been sharply criticized because of the difficulty in determining
what constitutes an original package as well as because of the
conflict between the doctrine and the police powers of the several
states. It has been urged that the doctrine be absndoned and
that commodities shipped into one sUte from another "he
treated just like other goods aheady there are treated."
See J. D. Uhle, " The Law Covemtne an Original Package,** ia
The American Law Register, vol. xxix. (Philadelphia, 1890): Shackd-
ford Mill«>r. " The Latest Phase of the Original Package Doctrine,*
and M. M. Townley, " What i» the Original Package Doctrine?"
both to The Amahtan Lam Rtmae, voL xxxv. (St Louwb IQOI):
also F. H. Cooke. The Commerce Clause of Ike Federal Constitulian
(New York, 1908).
* S(« Vance v. W. A. Vandercook Company, 170 U.S. 438.
: »79 US. 343.
• 171 U.S. I.
ORIHUELA— ORINOCO
a7S
oaimnflUU a imto and tpkoppal ieeof CMtcra Spain, in the
province of AUcante; 13 m. N£. of Murcia and about 15 m.
from tlie Mediterranean Sea, on llie MurdarElche lailway.
Pop. (1900) 28,530w Oribuela i» litiiaAed in a beautiful and
cxceedincly fertile kturta^ or tract of higMy cultivated land,
at the foot of a limestone bridge, and.on both aidea of the river
Segura, whidi divides the dty into ttro parU , Rofg and San
AugttstOi and ia spanned by two bridges. There aie remains
of a Moorish fort on the hill coounanding the .town; and the
north gateway— the Puetu del Colcgio— Is a fine lofty arch,
sunnountnl by an emblematic atatue and the dty arms. The
most prominent buildings are the episcopal palace (17J3)* wHh
a frontage of 600 ft.; the town house (i843)« containing im-
portant archives; and the cathedral, a small Gothic structure
built on the site of a fonner mosque in the 14th century, and
enlarged and tastelessly restored in 1820. The vnlvenity of
Orihneh^ founded in 1568 by the archbishop of Valenda, was
dosed in 1835, part of the revenue being applied to the support
of a college aflUhUed to the univcmity of Valenda. Bcaidea
numerous primary schools there are a theological seminary
and a normal schooL The trade in fruit, cereals, oil and wine
is considerable. There are also tanneries, dye-works and nnnu-
factures of silk, linen and woollen fabrics, leather and starch.
Orihucla was captured by the Moon in 713, and retaken by
James L of Aragon, for his father>in-law Alphonso of Castile,
in 1 365. It was sacked during the disturbances at the beginning
of the reign of Charles V. (i 520), and again in the War of Succea-
sion (1706). Local annab spedaliy mention the plague of 1648,
the flood of 1651 and the earthquake of 1839.
ORILUA, a town and port of entry of Simcoe county, Ontario,
Canada, situated 84 m. N. of Toronto, on Lake Couchirhing
and on the Grand Trunk railway. Pop. (1901) 4907* It is a
favourite summer resort, and has steamboat communication
with other porU on Lakes Simcoe and Couchiching. It contains
an asylum maintained by the provindal government; also saw
and grist milb and iron foundries.
ORIirOOO, a river in the north of South America, falling
north-east into the Atlantk between 60* 30' and 62* 30^ W. It
is approximately 1500 m. long, but it Is several hundred miles
fenger.if measured by its Guaviare branch. Lying south and
east of the main stream is a vast, densdy forested region called
Venezuelan Guiana, divenified by ranges of k>w mountains,
irregular broken ridges and granitic masses, which define the
counca of many unexplored tributaries of the Orinoco.
In 1498, Columbus, when exploring the Gulf of P&ria, which
lecdves a large part of the outflow of the Orinoco, noted the
fmbncss of its waters, but made no examination of thdr origin.
The caravels of Ojeda which, in 1499, followed almost the same
track as that of Columbus, probably passed in sight of one or
more of the mouths of .the Orinoco. The first to explore any
portion of the mighty river was the reckless and daring adven-
turer Ordaz. In his expedition (1531-153') ^^ entered its
princ7pal outlet, the Boca de Navios, and, at the cost of many
lives, asceiided to the junction of the MeU with the parent
stream. From Ordaz up to recent times the Orinoco has been
the scene of many voyages of discovery, induding those in quest
of El Dorado, and some sdentific surveys have been made,
C9pedally among its upper waters, by Jos£ Solano and Diax de
la Fuente of the Spanish boundary line commisskm of Yturriaga
and Solano 0757-1763), Humboldt (1800) and Mtcfadena y
Rojas (1855-Z857). Tie last ascended to the Mawaca, a point
about X70 m. above the northern entrance to the Casiquiare
canal, and then a few miles up the Mawaca. A little knowledge
about iU sources above these points was given by the savages
to de la Fuente in 1759 and to Mendoza in 1764, and we .are also
indebted to Humboldt for some vague data.
' At the date of the discovery, the Orinoco, Gke the Amazon,
bore different names, according to those of the tribes occupying
its margins. The canquistodor Ordaz found that, at its mouth.
It was called the Uriaparia, this bdng the name of the cad^ite
of the tribe there. The Caribs. holding a certain section of the
river, named it the Ibirinooo, corrupted by the Spaniards Into
Orinoco. It was knb#n to other tribes as the Baifaguin and
to others aa the Maraguaca. The Cabres called it the Paragua,
because it flooded such a vast area of country.
The orindpal affluent of the Orinoco from the Guiana district
to the Vemuari. the head-wateri of which are aho unknown. It
to an Important stream, mhkh, running south-west, joios the Orinoco
about op m. above its Guaviare branch. Two other bige tribuuries
of the Orinoco flow north from the infierior of this mystnioua Gutona
region, the Caura and the CaronL The former has recently beeil
exploied by AndrA, who found it greatly obetmeled by fafto and
rapids; the latter to abont 800 m. long, 400 of which an more or leas
navigable.
South of the Cuavuue^ as far as the dHfortSmm aguontm, between
it and the Rio Negro braodi of the Amazon, the countiy to dry and
only pantolly ewept by nraiiture-laden winds, so that few streams of
moment era found in iu southern drainage area; but north of it.
aa far aa 6* 30' N., the north-ea«t trade winds, which have escaped
condensatiott in the hot lower valley of the Orinoco, beat againet the
cold eastern slopes of the lofty Colombian Andes, and ceaselessly
pour down such vast volumes of water that the almost countless
streams which flow across the plains of CokunbU and western
Venezueb are taxed beyond their capadty to carry it to the Orinoco,
and for several months of the year tbey flood tens of thoosands of
square miles of the districts they traverse. Among these the Apure,
Arauca. Mcta and Guaviare hold the first rank.
The Apure is formed by two cfeot rivers, the Uribante and Sarare.
The former, which rises in the Serra de Merida, which overlooks the
Lake of Maracaibo, has 16 torge affluents; the totter has its sources
near the Colorobian dty of Pamplona, and they are only separated
from the basin of the nver Magdalena by the '* Oriental ** Andean
ranne. From the Uribante-Sarare junction to the Orinoco the length
of the Apure to 645 m., of which Codazzi makes the doubtful claim
that 5i6u| are navigable, for there are some troublesome rapids 114 m,
above its mouth, where the Apure to 3 m. wide. The numerous
affluents which enter it from the north water the beautiful eastern
and southern slopes of the Merida, Carahoso and Caracas mount^a
rangea. A few of them are navigabto for a short disunce; among
these the most important to the many«annod Portuguesa, 00 the
main route south from the Caribbean coast to the Banos. A few
torge streams enter the lower Apure from the sooth, but they are
frequently entangled in bteral canala, due to the slight devmtion of
the plains above aea-ievd, the watcra of the Apure, espcdally
during flood tiine. having opened a great number of euMcs b^ore
reaching the Orinoco.
The^ Ortontal " Andes of Colombto rive birth to another great
affluent of the Orinoco, the Arauca, which soon reaches the |4ain
and paraUeto the Apora on the south. Peres says that the Sarare
branch of the Apuie has formed « gigantic dam across its own
course by prodigious quantities of trees, brash, vines and roots,
and thus, impountfing its own waters, has cut a new channd to
the southward across the lowtonds and jdned the Arauca. from
which the Sarare may be reached in small craft and ascended to
the vidnity of Pamplooa. The Arauca to navigabto for huge boau
and barges up to the Andea, and by sail to iU middto course, la
floods, unable to carry the additional water contributed by the
Sarare, it overflows its banks, and by several caMos gives its surplus
to the Capanaparo, which, about 18 m. farther south, jdns the
Orinooob
The Meta to known as such from the union of two Andean streams,
the Negro and Humadea, which rise near Bogoti. At their junction,
700 ft. above sea-level, it to 1000 ft. wide and 7 ft deep in the dry
season, but in flood the Mera rises 30 ft. It to navigable up to the
old " Apostadcro," about 1 30 m. above its mouth, bot tounches may
ascend it, in the wet aeaaoo, about 500 m.. to the junction of the Nemo
with the Humadea. In the dry season, however, it to obstructed oy
reefs, sandbanks, shallows, snags, trees and floating timber from the
" Apostadcro " up. so that even canoes find its ascent diflScuk. white
savage hordes along its banks add to the'dangere to be encountered.
Tm Gimviare to the next great western tributary of the Orinooa
Ei^eoio Alvarado, a Spaoidi rommisriaoer for the boundary
dehmitation of Colombto with Brazil In lyj^ Informed the viceroy
at BogotA that the riven Arivari and Guayabero rise between
Ndva and Popayan, and unite to take the composite name of
Guavtore. In those times tMy caDed it Guaibari. or Gtta|yuai«.
The Guaviare to about 900 m. long, ot which 300 are called navigable,
although not free from obstructiona. Iu upper portion haa many
rapids and falls. The banks are forested throughout, and the river
to infested by numerons allSgators. so ferock>tts that they attack
canoea. Two-thirds of the way op. it receives its Aiiari tribotaiy
from the north-west, which to navigabto for toige boats.^ Near Sta
mouth the Guaviare to joined by iu great south-western affluent, the
Ynirida. Above iu rapid of Martopiri, 180 m. up. this stream runs
swiftly through a rough country, but tor a kmg disunce is a wocea-
sion of hke* and shallow, overflowed araaa. Iu head-waten do not
Dct wm n the Guaviare and the MeU the Orinoco to obatracted by
the famous Maipures caunsct. where, in several channels, it breaks
through a granite spur of the Gutona hightonds for a length of about
276
ORIOLE— ORION
4 m.. with B total fall of abovt 40 ft.( andthe*. after immang two
minor reefs, roaches the Atures lapids, where it plunges through a
succession of gorges for a distance of about 6 m.. winding among
confused masses of granite boulders, and faOing about 30 ft. At
the mouth of the Meta it is about I m. wide* but as it flows north-
wacxls it increases its width until, at the point where it receives iu
Apuw aflSuent, it is over a m. wide in the dry season aod about
7 m. in floods. It rises 31 ft. at Cariben, but at the Angostura, or
narrows, where the river is but 800 ft« wide, the difference between
high and low river is /{o ft*, and was even 60 in 1893.
The Orinoco 6nds its way to the ocean through a delta of about
TOO sq. m. area, so little above sea level that much of it is periodically
flooded. The river a navigable for large steamers up to the raudal
or rapid of Cariben, 700 m. from the sea, and to within 6 ro. of the
moutn of the Meta. Maintaining its eastern oourK from the Apure,
the main stream finds its way along the southern side of the oeha,
where it is called the Corosimi river, and enters the sea at the Boca
Ccsnde: but in front of the Tortola island, at the beginning of the
Corosimi and too m. from the sea. it throws northwards to the
Gulf of tViria another great arm which, about 100 m. long, and
knovim as the Rio Vagre. bounds the western side of the delta. En
fouU to the gulf the Vagre sends across the delta, east and north, two
cafloi or canals of considerable volume, called the Macareo and
Cuscuioo. The delta b also cut into many irregular divisions by
other canals which derive their flow from iu great boundary rivers,
the Corosimi and Vagre, and its numerous islands and vast swamps
are covered with a dense vegetation. The Boca Grande outlet
is the deepest, and is the main navigable entrance to the Orinoco at
all seasons, the muddy bar usually maintaining a depth of 16 ft.
The Spanish conquisUtdw and his descendants have not been
a blessing to the basin of the Orinoco: All they con boast of is
the destruction of its population and products, so that the number
of inhabitants of one of the richest vaUeys In the world is less
to-day than it was four centuries ago. The entire river trade
centres upon Cludad Bolivar, on the right bank of the Orinoco,
373 m. above its mouth. The only other river port of any
importance is San Fernando, on the Axnire. It is a stopping-
point for the incipient stoamer traflSc of the valley, which Is
principally confined to the Apure and lower Orinoco. It
occupies, however, but a few smaU steam craft. There is steam
connexion between Qudad Bolivar and the island of Trinidad.
Cattle are carried by vessels from the valley to the neighbouring
for^gn colonies, and a few local steamers do a coasting trade
between the river and the Caribbean ports of Venesuda. A
transit trade with Colombia, via the Meta river, has been carried
on by two small steamers, but subject to interruptions from
political causes. (G. E. C.)
• ORIOLB (O. Fr. Oriel, LaL aitrtolus)^ the name once applied
to a bird, from its golden coburing--the Ofiolut galbtAa of
Unnaeus---but now commonly used in a much wider sense.
The golden oriole, which is the type of the Passerine family
Oriolidae, is a far from tmcommon spring-visitor to the British
Islands, but has very rarely bred there. On the continent ot
Europe it is a well-known if not an abundant bird, and Its range
in summer extends so far to the east as Irkutsk, while in winter
it is found in Natal and Damanland. In Indiia it is replaced
by a ckisely allied form, O. kundoo^ the mango-bird, chiefly
distinguishable by the male po8sessin|( a black streak behind
as well as in front of the eye; and both in AsU and Africa are
several other species more or less resembling 0. galbula, but some
depart considerably from that type, assuming a black head, or
even a glowing crimson, instead of the ordinaiy yellow colotiring,
while others again remain constant to the dingy tjrpe of plumage
which characterizes the female of the mora normal form. Among
these last are the aberrant spedes of the group UimeUs or
Mimeia, belonging to the Australian Region, respecting which
A. R. Wallace pointed out, fint fai the Zootogical Society's
ProcuHnis (1863, pn. 36-28), and afterwards in his Jfofay
Arekipdagp (iL pp. 150-153), the very curious signs of " mimi-
cry " (see Honkt-satex). It is a singular drcamitance that
this group Mimda fint re ce iv ed its name from P. P. King
{Survey, (re, ef Australia^ IL 4x7) a&<la' the bdief thai the birds
composing it belonged to the famOy Mdiphagidae, which had
assumed the appearanca of oriolea, whereas Wallace's tnvestiga^
tions tend to show that the imitation (unconscious, of course)
is on the part of the latter. The external similarity of the
Uimeta and the Tropidtrkynckus of the island of Bouxu, one
of the Moluccas, is perfectly wvodecfol* and tea agi&i and d^lia
deceived some of the best omithologiais, ihougfa the birds an
structurally far apart. Another genus which has been referred
to the Otiriidatt and may here be mentioned, ia Spkteotktret,
peculiar to the Australian Region, and distlngitishaUe from the
more normal orioles by a bare space round tlie ey& Oiioies
are shy and restless birds, frequenting gardens and woods, and
living on uisecu and fruit. The nest is pocket-shaped, of bark,
grass and fibres, and the egp are white or salmoo^cobused
with dark spots. The ** American orioles " (see Ictebi»> belong
to a different ftsserine family, the leltrUac (A. N.)
ORION (or Oamon), in Groek mythology, m of Hyiieim
(EpoB]rmus of Hyria in Doeotia), or of Foseidon, a mighty hnnter
of great beauty and gigantic stxength, perhaps corresponding
to the " wild huntsman " of Teutonic msrthology. He is also
sometimes represented as sprung from the earth. He was the
favourite of Eos, the dawn-goddess, who loved him and carried
him off to Delos; but the gods were angry, and would not be
appeased till Artemis slew him with her arrows {Odyssey^ v. 1 at).
According to other accounta which attribute Orion's death
to Artemis, the goddess herself loved him and was deceived
by the angry Apollo into shooting him by mistake^ or be paid
the penalty of offering violence to her, or of rhsUenging her
to a contest of quoit^hrowing (ApoUodonis L 4; Uyginus,
p0et, astron, it 34; Horace, Odes, ill. 4> 7t)< In another kgemt
he was blinded by Oenopion of Chiea for having violated bis
daughter Merope; but having made his way to the place where
the sun rose, he reooveted his sight (Hy^us, /oc. cit. ; i^uthenius^
Erotica^ 20). He afterwards retired to Crete^ where he lived
the life of a hunter with Artemis; but having threatened to
exterminate all living creatures on the island, he was killed by
the bite of a scorpion sent by the earth-goddess (Ovid. FasU,
▼• 537)- In the lower world his shade is seta by Odysseus
driving the wild beasts before him as he had done on earth
{Odyssey, xi 57s). After his death he was changed into the
constellation which Is called by his name. It took the form
of a warrior, wearing a girdle of three stais and a Uoa'M skin,
and carrying a dub and a swonL When it rose early it was
a sign of summer; when Ute, of winter and stormy weather;
when it rose about midnight it henlded the season of vintage.
See KQentxle, Vber die SUmsmgrn der Griteken <ito7)* n>d his
article in Roscher'k Lexikon: he shows that in the oldest leceod
Orion the constellation and Orion the hero are quite distinct, without
deciding which was the earlier conception. The attempt sometimes
made to attribute an astronomical origin to the myths connected
with his name is unsuccessful, accept in the case of Orion's pursoit
oC PleuHie and her daughters (see Plsiapbs) and his death from the
bite of the sooipion ; sec also C. O. MOller, Klein* Deutsche ScMri/Un,
ii. (1848): O. Gruppe, Crieckische MylheletUf ii. pp. 94S. 952;
Prellcr-Kobert, Crieekiscke MytkoUme (1894). pp. 448-454; Grimm,
Teutonic Mylkahgy (Eng. trans., 1883), ii. p. 726, iiL p. 946.
In Astronomy.—Tht constellation Orion is mentioned by
Homer (//. xvili. 486, xxIL 29; Od. v. 274), and also in the
Old Testament (Amos v. 8, Job Ix. 9). The Hebrew name
for Oiion also means " fool," In reference perhaps to a mytho>
logical stoiy of a " foolhardy, heaven-daring rebel who was
chained to the sky for his impiety " (Driver). For the Assyrian
names see Constellation. Ptolemy catalogued 38 stars,
Tycho Brahe 42 and Hevelius 62. Orion is one of the most
conspicuous constellations. It consists of three stars of the ist
magnitude, four of the 2nd, and many of inferior magnitude,
a Orumis, or Betelgeuae, is a bright, yellowish-red star of varying
magnitude (0*5 to 1*4, generally 0*9). fi Orients or Rcgel is a
zst magnitude star, y Orionis or BoUatrix, and k Orients are
stars of the 2nd magnitude. These four stars, in the order
Ot fit Ti <C| form an approximate rectangle. Three coUlnear
surs ^, < and 8 Orionis constitute the " belt of Orion "; of
these f, the central sUr, is of the ist magnitude, 8 of the 2nd,
while i Orients Is a fine double star, its components having
magnitudes 2 and 6; there b also a faint companion of magnitude
la c Orionis, very close to f Orionis, is a very fine multiple star,
described by Sir William Herschcl as two sets of treble stars;
more stats have been revealed by larger telescopes^ B Orionis is
ORION AND ORUSU-ORISTANO
277
ft Bultlple sur, sitfxated In the fanotis nebula of Orion, one
of the n^o^, beautiful in the heavens. (See Ncbuu.)
ORION and ORUS, the names of several Creek grammarians,
liequeotly confused. The following arc the most important,
(i) Orion of Thebes m Egypt (5th century a.d.), the teacher
of PMdus the neo-Platonist and of Eudocia, the wtfe of the
younger Thoodosius. He taught at Alexandria, Caesarea in
Cappadoda and Bysantium. He was the author of a partly
extant etymological Lexicon (ed. F. W. Sturt, 1820K largely
nsedby theeomptlersof the Etymologkum MagMumt the Etymot^
gicum Gudianium and other similar works, a collection of
maxims in thfee books, addressed to Eudocia, abo ascribed
to him by Suidas, still exists in a Warsaw MS. (1) Orus of
Miletus, who, according to Ritschl, flounshed not later than the
and century a^., and was a contemporary of Herodian and a
htUe junior to Phrynichus (according to Reitzenstein he was
a contemporary of Orion). His chief works were treaties on
orthf^nphy; on Atticisms, written in opposition to Phrynichus,
on the names of nations.
See F. Ritschl, Or Onf H Onane CamnunlaHo CtBvi): R. ReitBen-
itein. CtsdtuhU der jtneekuchen Etymotogtka (1897K and ankle
*' Orion " in Smith's ihettonary €/ Cruk end Roman Btog^apky-
ORISKANT. a village of Oneida county. New York, U.S.A.,
about 7 m, N W. of Utioa. Pop. about 800. Oriskany is served
by the New York Central & Hudson River railway. There are
malleable iron works and a manufactory of paper makers' felts
here. In a ravine, about 2 m. west of Or^kany, was fought
on the 6th of August 1777 the battle of Oriskany, an imporunt
minor engagement of the American War of Independencse.
On the 4th of August Gen. Nicholas Herkimer, who had been
oolonel of the Tyrone county (New York) militia in 1775, and
had been made a brigadier*generai of the state militia in 1776,
had gathered about 800 militiamen at Fort Dayton (on the site
of the present Herkimer, New York) for the relief of Fort Schuyler
(see Roue, N.Y.) then besieged by British and Indians under
Colonel Barry St Legcr and Joseph Brant. On the 6th General
Herkimer's force, on its march to Fort Schuyler, was ambushed
l»y a force of British under Sir John Johnson and Indians under
Joseph Brant in the ravine above mentioned. The rear portion
of Herkimer's troops escaped from the trap, but were pursued
hy the Indians, and many of them were overtaken and killed.
Between the remainder and the British and Indhma there was
4 deqwxate hand-to-hand conflict, interrupted by a violent
thunderstorm, with no quarter shown by either side. On
hearing the firing near Fort Schuyler (incident to a sortie by
Lieutw-Cotonei Maxinus Willett) the British withdrew, after
about 200 Americans had been kiUed and aa many more taken
prisoners, the k>ss of the British in kBled being about the some.
General Herkimer (who had advised advancing slowly, awaiting
ngnal shota announcing the sortie, and had been called " Tory "
and " coward *' in consequence), though his leg had been broken
by a shot at the beginning of the actkm, continued to direct
the fighting on the American side, but died on the x6th of August
as a result of the clumsy amputation of his leg. The battle,
thoui^ indecisive, had an important influence in preventing
St Leger from effecting a junction with General Burgoyne.
The battlefield is marked by a monument erected in 2884.
See Ordtiiy Book of Sir John Johnson dwini Ike Oriskmn Campotgn
(Albany. 188a), with notes by W. U Sione and J. W. De Pcyslex;
Publkatims of the Oneida Historical Society, vol. L (Utica, N.Y.,
1877) ; «nd Phoebe S. Cowen. The Uakiwurs and SchuyUrs (Albany.
1903).
ORiatA, a tract of India, in Bengal, consisting of a British
division and twenty-four tributary states. The historical capital
ia Cuttack; and Furi, with its temple of Jagannath, is worid-
iamoua. Orissa differs from the rest of Bengal m being under
a temporary settlement of hind revenue. A new settlement
for a term of thirty years was oondudod in 1900, estimated
to raise the total land revenue by more than one half; the
greater part of this increase being levied gradually during the
fint deven years of the term. To obviate destructive inun-
dations and f amhMa, the Orisaa system of canals has been con-
•tracted, witb a capiifcal outlay of asa^y two mitlioaa sterling.
(See Mabahaoi). The provfhoe h traversed by the East Coast
railwiy, which was opened throughout from Calcutta to Madras
In igoi.
The Division of Obissa consists of the five districts of Cuttack,
Pun, Balasore, Sambolpur and the forfeited sute «f AnguL
Total area 13,770 sq. m., pop. (igoi) 5,003,121, showing an
increase of 7% in the decade. According to the census of 190X
the total number of persons in all India speaking Oriya was more
than g\ millions, showing that the linguistic area (extending
into Madras and the Central Provinces) is much larger than the
political province.
The whole of Orissa is holy ground. On the southern bank
of the Bailarani shrine rises after shrine in honotir of Siva, the
All-Destroyer. On leaving the stream the pilgrim enters Jajpur,
Irterally the dty of sacrifice, the headquarters of the region of
pilgrimage sacred to the wife of the All-Destroyer, there is
not a fisol division in Orissa without its commtinity of cenobites,
scarcely a village without consecrated hinds, and not a single
ancient family that has not devoted its best acres to the gods.
Every town is filled with temples, and every hamlet.htt its shrine.'
The national reverence of the Hindus for holy places has been
for ages concentrated on Puri, sacred to Vishnu tmder his title
of Jagannath, the Lord of the Worid. Besides its copious water-
supply in time of high flood, Orissa has an average rainfall
of 624 in. per annum. Nevertheless, the uncontrolled state
of the water-supply has subjected the country from time im*
memorial to droughts no less than to inundation. Thus the
terrible famine of 2865*1866, which swept away one-fourth of the
entire popuktion, was followed in 1866 by a flood which destroyed
crops to the value of jC3,ooo,ooo. Since then much has been done
by go v er nm ent to husband the abundant water-supply.
The early history of the kingdom ol Orissa (Odra-dcsa), as
recorded in the ardiives of the temple of Jagannath, is largely
mythical. A blank in the records from about 50 B.C. to a.d. 3x9
corresponds to a period of Yavana occupation and Buddhist
influence, during^ whidi the numerous rock monasteries of Orissa
were excavated. The founder of the Kesari or Lion dynasty,
which ruled from A.O. 474 to 1x32, is said to iiave restored the
worship of Jagannath, and under this line the great Sivaite temple
at Bhuvaneswar was constructed. In X132 a new line (the
Gajapati dynasty) succeeded, and Vishnu took the place of Siva
in the royal worship. This dynasty was extinguished hi 253 2-
i534> au^ in 1578, after half a century of war, Orissa became
a province of the Mogul empire. It nominally passed to the
British hi 1765, by the Diwani grant of Bengal, Bhar and
Orisaa; but at that time it was occupied by the Mahratta
raja of Nagpur, from whom it was finally conquered in 1803.
. The TkiBUTAKY States OP OiisSA, known also as the Tributary
Mahals, or the Garhjats, occupy the hills between the British
districts and the Central Provinces. The most important are
Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Dhenkanal, Baud and Nayagarh.
In 1905 five Oriya-4q)eaking states (Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonpur,
Patna and Kalahandi) were added from the Central Provinces
and two (Gangpur and Bonai) from the Cbota Nagpur states.
This made the total area 28,046 sq. m. and the pop. '(1901)
3»i 73.395-
Up to the year x888 some doubt existed as to the actual
position of the Tributary states of Orissa; but in that year the
secretary of state accepted the view that they did not form part
of British India, and naodified powers were handed over to the
Orisaa chiefs under the control of a superintendent.
See Sir W. W. Hunter, Orissa (1872).
ORISTANO. a town and archiepiscopal see of Sarcfinia, situated
23 ft. above sea-level, about 3 m. from the eastern shore of a
gulf on the W. coast, to which it gives its name, and 59 m. N.
byW.ofCagliaribyraiL Fop. (1901) 7107. The town preserves
some scanty remains of the walls (dating from the end of the 13th
century), by which it was surrounded, and two gates, the PorU
Manna, surmounted by a lofty square tower, known also as the
Torre S. Cristoforo, and the Porta Marina. The houses are
Urgely constructed of sun-dried bricks, and are low, so that the
area of the town la oonaiderabte in ptoportloii to iu population.
378
ORIYA--ORKNEY, EARL OF
The catMrai was roooasUucted In Z733 >n the baroque styb,
and scanty traces of the origioal building of the i2lh century
exist (see D. Scano in V Arte, iqoi, p. 359, 1903, p. 15): and also
in Sloria dtW arU in SartUgna dd XI. <d XI V. secot^, CagUah-
Sassari, 1907). Some statuettes and sculptured slabs partly
belonging to its pulpit, perhaps the work of Andrea Pisano,
have been found, upon the reverse side of two of the slabs are
still older reliefs of the 8th or 9th century; so that the slabs
perhaps originally came from Tharros. In the sacristy is some
fine silverwork. The church of S. Francesco also dates from
the end of the i3tb century, but has t>een altered A fine statue
by Nino, son of Andrea, is preserved here Two m. south of
Oristano is the village of S. Ciusta*, with a beautiful Romanesque
church of the Pisan period dedicated to this saint (D. Scano,
BolleUino dell' arte^ Feb. 1907, p 8), containing several antique
columns. It wasonce an independent episcopal see. The lagoons
on the coast are full of fish, but are a cause of malaria. The
environs are fertile, and a quantity of garden produce is grown,
while good wine (vernaccia) is also made, and also ordinary
pottery in considerable quantities, supplying most of the island
The bridge crossing the river Tirso, a little to the north of the
town, over 300 ft. long, with five arches, took the place, in 1870,
of an old one which is said to have been of Roman origin. A
m. south of the mouth of this river is the landing-place for
shipping. The large orange groves of Mills lie 13 m. N of
Oristano at the base of Monte Ferru, where they are sheltered
from the wind. The finest belong to the Marchese BoyI, whose
plantation contains some 500,000 orange and lemon trees. The
inhabitants of Milis manufacture reed baskets and mats, which
they sell throughout Sardinia.
Oristano occupies the site of the Roman Othoca, the point at
which the inland road and the coast road from Carales to Turn's
Libisonis bifurcated, but otherwise an unimporUnt place,
overshadowed by Tharros. The medieval town is said to hava
been founded in 1070. It was the seat from the nth century
onwards of the giitdici (judges) of Arborca, one of the four
divisions of the island. Almost the last of these judges was
Eleonora (1347-X403); after her death Oristano became the seat
of a marquisate, which was suppressed in 1478. The frontier
castles of Monr<^e and Sanluri, some 20 and 30 m. respectively
to the S.S.E^, wero the scene of much fighting between the
Aragonese government and the giudici and marquises of Arborea
in the 14th and 15th centuries. (T As.)
ORITA (properly Ofiyd), the Aryan language of Odra or
Orissa in India. It is the vernacular not only of that province
but also of the adjoining districts and native states of Madras
and of the Central Provinces. In 1901 it was spokta by 9,687,429
people. It is closely related to Bei^ali and Assamese, and with
them and with Bihari it forms the Eastern Croup of the Indo-
Aryan vernaculars. See Bengau.
ORIZABA (Aztec, CiilaliepcU, " star mountain ")* » extinct
or dormant volcano, on the boundary between the Mexican states
of Puebla and Vera Cruz and very nearly on the X9th parallel.
It rises from the south-eastern margin of the great Mexican
plateau to an elevation of 18,314 ft., according to Scovell and
Bunsen's measurements in 1891-1892, or 18,250 and 18,209 ft.
according to other authorities, and 18,701 (5700 metres) by the
Comisi6n Geogr&fica Exploradora. It is the highest peak in
Mexico and the second highest in North America. Its upper
timber line is about 13,500 ft. above sea-levd, and Hans Gadow
found patches of apparently permanent snow at an elevation of
14,400 ft. on its S.E. side in X90}. The first ascent of Orizaba
was nuide by Reynolds and Maynatd in 1848, since when other
successful attempu have been made and many failures have been
recorded. Its last eruptive period was 1 545- 1 566, and the volcano
is now considered to be extinct, although Humboldt records that
smoke was seen issuing from its summit as late as the Ng*""'"g
of the 19th century
ORIZABA (Indian name Akuaialk-cpon, pleasant waters),
a dty of Mexico in the state of Vera Cruz, 82 ro. by rail W.S.W
of the port of Vera Cruz. Pop (1900) 32,894, including a large
percentage of Indians and half-breeds. The Mexican railway
affords frequent communication with the City of Mexico an4
Vera Cruz, and a short line (4I m.) connects with Ingenio. an
ladusLriai village. Orizaba stands m a fertile, wdl-watflred,
and richly wooded valley of the Sierra Madre Oncntal, 4025
ft. above sca-Ievel, and about 18 m. S. of the si)ow-cfawnr>it
volcano that bears iu name It has a mild, humid and heak hf ul
dinutc. The public edifices include the parish church of San
Miguel, a chamber of commerce*, a handsome theatre* and some
hospitals. The dty is the centre of a nch agricultural regioii
which produces sugar, rum, tobacco and Indian oom la
colonial times, when tobacco was one of the crown monopolies,
Orizaba was one of the districts offidally Licensed to produce it.
It is also a manufacturing centre of importance, having good
water power from the Rio Blanco and produdng ootios and
woollen fabrics. Its cotton factories arc among the largest
m the republic. Paper is also made at Cocolapan in the canton
of Orizaba. The forests in this vidnity are noted for orchids
and ferns. An Indian town called AkuaialuapoM, subject 10
Aztec rule, stood here when Cortes arrived on the coasL The
Spanish town that succeeded it did not receive its charter until
1774, though it was one of the stopping-places between Veia
>Cruz and the capitaL - In 1862 it was the headquarters of the
French.
ORKHOH mSCRIPnOMS, ancient Turkish inscriptions of the
8th century a.o , discovered near the river Orkhon to the south
of Lake Baikal in 1 889. They are writ ten in an alphabet derived
from an Aramaic source and recount the history of the northern
bmnch of the Turks or Tu-klue of Chinese historians. See
Turks.
ORKNEY, EARL OF, a Scottish title held at different periods
by various families, induding its present possessors the Fits*
maurices. The Orkney Islandi (q.v.) wero ruled by jaris or earis
under the supremacy of the kings of Norway from very early timet
to about 1360, many of these jaris bdng also earls of Caithness
under the supremacy of the Scottish kings. Periiaps the most
prominent of them were a certain Paul (d. 1099) who assisted the
Norwegian king, Harald IIL Haardraada, when he invaded
England in xo66, and ha grandson Paul the SOent, who buih,
at least in part, the cathedral of St Magnus at Kirkwall. They
were related to the royal families of Scotland and Norway.
In its more noodem sense the earldom dates from about 13801
and the first lamily to hold it was that of Sinclair, Sir Henry
Sindair (d. e, 1400) of Roslin, near Edinburgh, being recognized
as earl by the king of Norway Sir Henry was the son of Sir
William Sindair, who was killed by the Saracens whilst aoooro-
panying Sir James Dougbo, the bearer of the Braced heart, to
Palestine in 1330, and on the maternal side was the grandson of
Maltse, who called himsdf eari of Stratheam, CaithneM and
Orkney. He ruled the isUnds almost like a king, and employed
in his service the Venetian travellers Nicolo and Antonio Zeoo.
His son Henry (d. 1418) was admiral of Scotland and was takes
prisoner by the English in 1406, together with Prince James,
afterwards King James L, his grandson William, the jrd esd
(c i4C4~x48o), was chancellor of Scotland and took some part
in public affairs. In 1455 William was created earl of Caithnos,
and in 1470 he resigned his earldom of Orkney to James III of
Scotland, who had just acquired the sovereignty of these islands
through his marriage with Margaret, daughter of Chriatiaa L,
king of Denmark and Norway In 1567 Queen Mary's lover,
James Hepburn, earl of BothweO, was created duke of Orkn^^
and in 1581 her half-brother Robert Stewart (d. 1592), an illegiti-
mate son of James V , was made earl of Orkney Robcit, who
was abbot of Holyrood, joined the party of the reformen and was
afterwards one of the prindpal enemies of the Ttftat Morton.
His son Patrick acted in a very arbitrary manner in the Orka^s,
where he set the royal authority at defiance; in 1609 he was
seized and imprisoned, and, after his bastard son Robert had
suffered death for heading a rebellion, he himself was executed in
February 1614, when his honours and estates were forfeited
In 1696 Lord George Hamilton was created earl of Orknqr
(see bdow) He married Elizabeth Villiers (see below), and he
was succeeded by his daughter Anne (d* 175/6), the wi • ei
ORKNEY, CXDONTESS OF—ORKNEY ISLANDS
zn
WSDiMn O'Brien, 4ib wA of Inchiquin. Anne*s datigbter Mary
(«. X7ax-i79z) and her granddaughter Mary (1755-1831) were
both countesaes of Orkney In their own right; the younger
Mary married Thomas Fitamaurice (i74>-^793). aon of J<^n
Petty, earl of Shelbume, and was succeeded in the title by
lier grandson, Thomas John Hamilton Fitzmaurice (1803-1877),
whoa e desce ndants still ho ld the earldom.
OftniBT, BUZABBTB HAMILTON, Covinrsss or {e. 1657^
I733)f mistress of the Engfa'sh King William III., daughter of
Colonel Sir Edward VUIiers of Richmond, was bom about 1657.
Her mother^ Frances Howard, daughter of the and earl of Suffolk,
was g o verne ss to theprincesaes Mary and Anne, and secored place
and influence for her diildren in Mary's household. Edward
Vniier^ after^rards created ist earl of Jersey (1656-17x1),
becune master of the horse, while his sisten Anne and Eliaaibelh
were among the maids of honour who accompanied Mary to the
Hague on her marriage. Elisabeth ViUiers became William's
acknowledged mistress in x68o. After his accession to the
Engliah crown he settled on her a hirge share of the confis-
Gited Irish estates of James II. This grant was revoked by
parUament, however, In 1699. Mary's distrust of Marlborough
was fomented by Edward VHIiers, and the bitter hostiUty
between Elisabeth Villiets and the duchess of Marlborough
perhaps helped to secure the duke's disgrace with William.
Shortly after Mary's death, William, actuated, it is said, by his
wife's expressed Irishes, broke with Elizabeth Villiers, who was
married to her cousin. Lord George Hanulton, fifth son of the
3rd duke of Hamflton, in November 1695. The husband was
gratified early in the next year with the titles of earl of Oikney,
viscount of Kirkwall and Baron Dechmont. The countess of
Orkney served her husband's interests with great skill, and the
marriage proved a happy onei She died in London on the X9th
of April X733'
ORKMBY. OBOROB HAMILTOIT. Earl of (t666-x737).
British soldier, was the fifth son of William, duke of Hamilton,
and was trained ior the* military career by his uncle. Lord
Dumbarton, In the ist Foot. In 1689 he became lieut.-
cotonel and a few months later brevet colonel He served at the
battles of the Boyne and of Aughrim, and, at the head of the
Royal Fttsilieis, at Steinkirk. As colonel of his old regiment, the
ist Foot, he took psirt in the battle ofLanden or Neerwinden, and
in the siege of Namur, serving also at Athlone and Limerick in
the Irish war. At Nanuir Hamilton received a severe wound,
and in recognition of his services was made a brigadier. In
1695 he married Elisabeth Villicra (see above), who was " the
wisest woman "Swift "ever knew." The following year he was
made earl of Orkney in the Scottish peerage. As a major-
general he took the field with Marfborough in Flanders, and
on January xst, 1703-1704 he became lieutenant-general. At
Blenheim it was Orkney's command which carried the village,
and in June 1705 he led a flying column which marched fiom the
Mo&eOe to the rescue of Liege. At RamiUies be headed the
pursuit of (he defeated French, at Oudenarde he played a dis-
tinguished part and in 1708 he captured the forts of St Amand
and St Martin at Touraay. At the desperately fought battle of
Malplaquet Lord Orkney's battabons led the assault on the
French entrenchments, and suffered very severe losses. He
remained with the army In Flanders till the end of the ^nx, as
" general of the foot," and at the peace he was made colonel-
commandant of the xst Foot as a reward for his services. He
occupied various civil and military posts of importance, culminat-
ing with the appointment of " field marshal of all His Majesty'k
forces " in 1736. This appointment is the first instance of Geld
marshal's rank (as now understood) in the British Service. A
year later he died in London.
ORKNBY ISLANDS, a group of Islands, forming a county,
off the north coast of Scotland. The islands arc soparated from
the mainland by the Pentland Firth, which is 6} m. wide between
Brough Ness in the island of South Rooaldshay and Duncansbay
Head in Calthncss-shire. The group Is commonly estimated
to consist of 67 Islands, of which 30 arc inhabited (though in the
case of four of ihcm the population comprises only the light-
house attendants), but the number may be mcreased to as many
as 90 by including rocky islets more usually counted with the
islands of which they probably once formed part. I'he Orkneys
lie between 58* 41' and y^ 34' N.. and a*" aa' and 3° ^' W.,
measure 50 m. from N.E. to S.W. and 39 m. from £. to W.,
and cover 340.47O acres or 375*5 sq. m. Excepting on the west
coasts of the larger islands, which present rugged cliff scenery
remarkable both for beauty and for colouring, the group li^
somewhat low and is of bloak aspect, owing to the absence of
trees. The highest hills are found in Hoy. The only other islands
containing heights of any importanoe are Pomona, with Ward
HiU (8S0 ft.), and Widelbrd (740 ft.) and Rousay, Neariy aU of
the nlands possess lakes, and Loch Harray and Loth Stennesa
in Pomona attain noteworthy proportions. The rivers are
merely streams draining the high hind. Excepting on the west
fronts of Pomona, Hoy and Rousay, the coast-line of the islands
b deeply indented, and the islands themselves are divided from
each other by straits generally called sounds or Jirtks, though off
the north-east of Hoy the designation Bring Deeps Is used,
south of Pomona is Scapa Fiov and to the south-west of Edaj
is found the Fotf of Wamess. The very names of the ishuids
indicate their nature, for the terminal o or tfy is the Norse ey,
meaning " island," which is scarcely disguised even in the words
Pomona and Hoy. The islets are usually styled holms and the
isolated rocks slurries. The tidal currents, or cares, or rvosl
(as some of them are called locally, from the Icebndic) off many
of the isles run with enormous velocity, and whirlpools are of
frequent occurrence, and strong enough at times to prove a
source of danger to small craft. The cham of the Orkneys
does not lie In their ordinary phy^cal features, so much as in
beautiful atmospheric effects, extraordinary examples of light
and shade, and rich coloration of cliff and sea.
CecHofj, — An the islands o( this grou|> are built up entirely of Old
Red Sandstone. As in the nciKhbouring mainland of Caithness,
these rocks rest upon the mctamorphic rocks of the eastern schists,
as may be seen on Pomona, where a narrow stri^ is exposed betwtco
Stroraocss and Inganess, and again in the small island of Graemsay ;
they are represented by grey gneiss and granite. The upper divisioa
of the Old Red Sandstone is lound only in Hoy, where tt forms the
Okl Man and neighbouring cliffs on the N.W. coast. The Old Man
presents a characteristic sectbn. for It exhibits a thick pile of masrivc,
curnrnt-bedded fed sandstones, resting, near the foot of the pinnackt
upon a thin bed of amygdakridal porphyrite, which in its turn lies
unconformable upon steeply inclined flagstones This bed of volcanic
rock may be (otlowed northward hi the cliffs, and it may be noticed
that it thickens considerably in that direction. The Lower Old
Red Sandstone Is represented by well-bedded flagstones over most
of the islands; in the south of Pbmona these are faulted against an
overlying series of massive red sandstones, but a graduu passafs
from the flagstones to the sandstones may be followed from westray
S.£. into Eday. A strong synclinal fold traverses Eday and Shaoia-
say, the axis being N. and b. Near Haoo's Ness in Shafunsay there
is a small exposure of amygdak>idal diabase which is of coonsc older
than that in Hoy. Many indkations of ioe action are found in these
islands; striated surfaces are to be seen on the cliffs in Eday and
Westray. in Ku-kwall Bay and on Stennie Hill in Eday; bouMer
clay, with marine shells, and with maiiy boulders of rocks foreign
to the islands (chalk, oolitic limestone, Hint, ftc.), which must have
been brought up from the region ef Moray Firth, rests upon the oM
strata in many places. Loal moraines are found in some of the
valleys in Pomona and Hoy.
OtmaU and Indmstries.—Thc dtmate is remarkably temperate
and equable for so nonheriy a latitude. The average temperature
for the year is 46* F., for winter m* F. and for summer 54* 3* F.
The winter months are January. February and March, the last being
the coldest. Spring never begins rill April, and it is the middle el
iune before the heat grows genial. September is frequently the
nest month, and at the end of October or beginning 01 November
occurs the pecrie (or little) summer, the counterpart of the St
Martin's summer «^ more southerly dimes. The average annual
rainfall varies from 13-4 in. to 37 ih. Fogs occur during summer and
early autumn, and furious gales may be expected four or five times
in the year, when the crash of the Atlantic waves is audible for
20 m. To tourists one of the faactnstions of the blands is thdr
" nightless summers." On the longest day the sun rises at 3 o'clock
A.M. and sets at 9.25 r.U., and darkness is unknown, it being posstUe
to raid at midnight. Wimer, however, is long and deprcsmng. On
fhc shortest day the sun rises at 9.10 a.m. and sets at 3.17 r.n.
The soil jfcnemlly is a sandy loam or a strong but friable clay, and
l^rsc Quantities of seaweed as well as lime and mari
very fertile. I^rgc quantities
are available for nanuic Until the
of tbe f9th century
zSo
ORKNEY ISLANDS
the iMthoda o( agricultare were of a primitive character, but tinoe
then they have been entirely transformed, and Orcadian farming
u now not below the average standard of the Scottish lowlands.
The crofters' houses have been rebuilt of stone and lime, and are
superior to those in most parts of the Highlands. The holdings run
fairly small, the average being between 30 and 40 acres. Practically
the only grain crops that are cultivated are oau (which greatly
predominate) and barley, while the favoured root crops are turnips
(much the most extensively grown) and potatoes. Not half of the
area has been brought under cultivation, and the acreage under wood
is insignificant. The raising ol live stock it rigorously pursued.
Shorthorns and polled Angus are thet^mmonest breeds oT cattle;
the sheep are mostly Cheviots and a Cheviot-Leicester cross, but the
native sheep are still reared in considerable numbers in H<yv and
South Ronaldshay, pigs are also ke^ on aeveral of the islands,
and the horses— as a rule hardy, active and sokall. though larger
than the famous Shetland ponies— are very numerous, but mainly
employed in connexion with agricultural work. The woollen trade
once promised to reach considerable dimennons, but towards the
end 01 the x6th century was superseded by the linen (for which flax
came to be largely grown) ; and wh«n this in turn collapsed before
the products of the mills of Dundee, Dunfermline and Glasgow,
straw-plaiting was taken up, though only to be killed in due time
by the competition of the south. The kelp industry, formerly of at
lea&t minor importance, has ceased. Sandstone is quarried on several
islands, and aistillcrics are found in Pomona (near Kirkwall and
Stromness). But apart from agriculture the principal industry b
fishing. For sevenu centuries the Dutch practically monopolized
the herring fishery, but when their supremacy was destroyed by the
sak duty, the Orcadians failed to seize the opportunity thus pre>
aentcd, and Gcofve Barry (d. 1805) savs that in nb day the fuherbs
were almost totally neglected. The inclustry, however, has now been
organized, and over 2000 persons a re employed in the various branches
of It. The great catches arc herring, cod and ling, but lobsters and
crabs arc also exported in large quantifies. There b a regular com*
munkaition by steamer between Stroainess and Kirkwall, and Thurso,
Wick. Aberdeen and Leith, and also between Kirkwall and Lerwick
and other points of the Shctlands.
Population and Administration. — In 1891 tbe population
numbered 30,453, and in 190Z it was 28,699, o^ ^7 persons to
the sq. ni. In 1901 there were 70 persons who spoke Gaelic
and English, but none who spoke Gaelic only. Orkney unites
with Shetland to send one member to parliament, and Kirkwall,
the county town and the only royal burgh, U one of the Wick
dbtrict groups of parliamentary burghs, lliere b a combination
poorhouse at Kirkwall, where there are a)so two hospitals.
Orkney forms a sheriffdom with Shetland and Caithness, and a
resident sheriff-substitute sits at KirkwalL The county is under
the school-board jurisdiction, but at Kirkwall and Stromness
there are public schoob giving secondary education.
Tk€ Inhabited Islands. — Prenusing that they are more or less
ecattered. and that several lie on the same plane, the followbg list
gives the majority of the inhabited Ulands from^ south to north,
uie number within brackets indicating the population. Sulc Skerry
(3) and the Pentland Skerries (8) lie at the eastern entrance of the
Portland Firth; Swona (2^), i\ m. from the mainland, belongs to
Caithness and is situated in the parish of Canubay; South Ronald-
shay (19QI) is the best cultivated and most fertile of the southern
isles of the group. On Hoxa Head, to the west of the large village
of St Maraarct's Hope, b a broch, or round tower, and the island
contains, besides, examples of Picts' houses and standing stones.
Hoy {qjg.i 1216) b the southernmost of the larger islands. Fiona
(373), east of Hoy, was the home for a long time of the Scandinavbn
Commler of the Citdex FloUicensis, which furnished Thormodr
Tonaeus (^i63i6;>i7t9), the Icelandic anti<}uary, with many of the
facts for his History of Norway, more partKuIaurly with reference to
the Morse occupation of Orkney. Pharay (39) also lies E, of Hoy
Hurray (677) b famous for the brock from which the bland takes Its
name (Boraarey. None, " island of the hroch "). The tower stands
on the north-western shore, is 15 ft. high, has walls from 15 to 20 (c
thick, built of layers of flat stones without cement or mortar, and
an interi<M- <tiameter of 40 ft. It is entered from the east by a
passage, on each side of which there is a small chamber construacd
within the thickness of the wall. Similar chambers occur on the
west, north and south sides, accessible only from the interior
Adjoining the southern chamber b the Inside stair conducting to
the top of the brock ; of t hb stair some twenty steps remain. Between
Hoy and Pomona are Hunda (8), Cava (17), and Gracmsay (195).
which has excellent soil and b mostly under cultivation. The i&le
is surrounded by shoals, and high-level and k>w-levcl lighthouses
have been erected, the one at the north-west and the other at the
nprth-«Lst corner. The cliffs of Copinshay (10) are a favourite haunt
01 sea-birds, which are captured by the cragsmen for their feathers
and egpL Half a mile to the N.E. b the great rock which, from a
ircsemblancc to a horse rearing its head from the sea. is called
the Horse of Copinshay. Pomona (9.9.; 16,235) b the prindjKil
island, and as such b known also as Mainland. Stopimhiy (M
was the birthplace of William Irving, father of Washin^:um Ir^og'
It possesses several examples of Pietish and Scandinavian an-
tiquities, mich as the ** Odin stone " and the brock of Bu frowstone.
Balfour Castle, a maonon in the Scottish Baronial ttvte buiU in 1&4B,
b situated near the south-western extremity of the island. The
island takes iu name from Hjalpand, a Norse viking. G^Ursay (vj)
was the readence of Sweyn Asleifaon, the rover, celebrated la die
Orkntyinta Saga for his exploits as a trencherman and hb feats ia
battle. Stronsay (1150) b a busjr station cf the herring fisherv.
and b also lari^y under cultivation. At Lamb Head, us south-
easterly point, ts a broch and Pictbh pier, and about 2 ro. farther
north, on Odin Bay. is a round pit in the rocks called the Vat of
Kirbuster. The well of Kiklinguie was onee lenrtcd to as a apecik
for tepraay. Papa Stronsay (16) oommemoiatcs in tu name, as
others of both the Orkneys and Shctlands do, the labours of the
Celtic papat, or missionaries, who preached the Christian gospel before
the arrival of the Northmen. The adjacent Vara or Wire has a
popolatum of 60. E^ilsha^r (up) b the island on which St Magnus
was murdered by his cousin Haooo in ttlS. It derives its name-
Church (eo/eita) Island— from the little church of St Mafnus,
now in ruins, connsting of a chancd 15 ft. long, and nave 30 ft. long.
The building has a round tower at the west end of the nave. The
tower resembles similar coastructfens found beside Iridi churches
of the 7th and 8th centuries and bw walb 3 ft. thick. It b doubtful
whether it must be ascribed to the Celtic evangelists or to a much
later period— not earlier than the 12th century. On Rousay (627)
the cairn of Blotchnie Fiotd (811 ft.), the highest point of the bland,
commands a beautiful sunre^^ of the noithem i«les of the archtpdago.
At the southern base of the hill stands the fine mansion of Trumbland
Housa Eday (596) contains several specimens of weems, mounds
and standin|; stones. It affords good pasturage and has sandstone
quarries, (^rrick vilUge, unoe a burgh of barony, with salt pans
and other manufactures, was named after the earl of Carrick, brother
of Patrick Stewart, 2nd earl of Orkney (d. 1614^). It was off thb
island that John Gow, the pirate, was taken in 172S- Sanday
(1727), with an area of 19 sq. m., b one of the largest of the northern
isles, and yields excellent crops of potatoes and grain. It has safe
harbours, in the north at Otterswidc and in the south at Kettktoft.
The antiqnities indode a bfock in Ebncss. Phafiy (47) lies W. of
Edey. Wcstray (1956), one of the seats of the cod nsocfY, has a
good harbour at Picr-o'>walL Noltland Castle, in the viaoity, b
interesting as having been proposed as the refuge of Queen MSiy
after her flight from Loch Leven. It dates from the isth oentmy
or even earlier, and was at one time the property of Sir Gilbett
Balfour, the Master of Queen Mary's Household. The building, now
in ruins, was never completed. On one side of the inner court, to
which a finely ornamental doorway gives access, is a large hall with
a vaulted ceiling of stone. 30 ft. high. The diffs and overhanging
crags at Noup Head (2^0 it.), the most wcsteiiy point, are remark-
ably picturesque. An isolated portion, divided Irom the headland
by a narrow chasm, b known as the Stack of Noup. Gentleman's
Cave, 1 m. to the south, was so called from the circumstance that k
afforded shelter to five of the leading followen of Prince Ouules
Edward, who Uy here during the winter of 17^5-1746. Papa
Westray (205) and North Ronaldshay (442) are the most nrntherly
islands of the group. The latter is only reached from Sanday, from
which it is separated by a dangerous 6nh 2J m- wide. The mono*
mental stone with C^ham inscription, which was disco v ere d in the
broch of Burrian. must date from the days o{ the carty Chcisttaa
missionark».
History. — ^Thc Orkneys were the Orcades of rla^Mr^i wiiten,
and the word b probably derived from the Norse Ori^js. seal,
and ey. Island. The original inhabitants were Picts, evidence
of whose occupation still cxbts ia numerous weems or under-
ground houses, chambered mounds, barrows or burial mounds,
brochs or round towers, and stone circles and standing stones.
Such implements as have survived are of the rudest description,
and include querns or stone handmilU for grinding com, stone
worls and bone combs employed in primitive forms of woollen
manufacture, and specimens of simple potteiy ware. If, as
seems likely, the Balriadic Scots towards the beginning of the
6lh century established a footing in the blands, their success
was short-lived, and the Picts regained power and kept it until
dispossessed by the Norsemen in the 9th century In the waly
of the Scots incursionbls foUov^ed the Celtic missionaries about
565 They were companions of St Columba and their efl^orts 10
convert the folk to Christianity seem to have impressed the
popular imagination, for several blands bear the epithet " Papa *'
in commemoration of the preachers. Norse pirates liaving
made the blands the headquarters of their buccaneering expedi-
tions indifferently against their own Norway and the coasts and
islea of Scotland. Haioki Haarfagcr (" Fair Hair '0 subdued
ORLfiANAlS— ORLEAKlSfrS
281
the raven In 875 and both the Orkneys and ShetkndB to
Norway. They remained under the rule of Norie earls untH
1331, when the line of the jarls became extinct. In that year
the earldom of Caithness was granted to Magnus, second son of
the earl of Angus, whom the king of Norway apparently con-
firmed in the title. In 1468 the Orkneys and Sbttlands were
pledged by Christian I. of Daimark Cor the payment of the dowry
of his daughter Margaret, betrothed to James III. of Scotland,
and as the money was never paid, their coonexioii with the crown
ol Scotland has been perpetual. In 1471 James bestowed the
castle and binds of Ravcnscraigin Fife on William, earf of Orkney,
in exchange for all his rights to the earldom of Orkney, which,
by act of parliament passed on the soth of February of the same
3rcar, was annexed to the Scottish crown. In 1564 Lord Robert
Stewart, natural son of James V., who had visited Kirkwall
twenty>foar years before, was nnade sheriff of the Orkneys and
Shetlands, and received possession of the estates of the vdailers\
in 1581 he was created earl of Orkney by James IV., the charter
being ratified ten yeare later to his son Pat#ick, but in r6is the
earldom was again annexed to the cnown. The islands were the
rendenmts of Montrose's expedition in 1650 which culminated
in his imprisonment and death. During the Protectorate they
were visited by a detachment of CromweUls troops, who initiated
the inhabitants into various Industrial aru and new methods
of agriculture. In r707 the islands were granted to the earl of
Morton in mortgage, redeemable by the Crown on payment
of £jo,ooo, and subiect to an annual fctFduty of £500; but
in 1766 his estates were sold to Sir Lawrence Dundas, ancestor
of the earls of Zetland. In eariy times both the archbishop
of Hamburg and the archbishop of York disputed with the
Norwegians ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the Orknqys and
the right of consecrating bishops; but uliiroatcly the Norwegian
bishops, the first of whom was William the Old, consecrated
m 1 101, continued the canonical succession. The see remained
vacant from 1580 to 1606, arid from 1638 till the Restoration,
and, after the accession of William III., the episcopacy was finally
abolished (1697), although many of the clergy refused 10 conform.
The topography of the Orkneys* is wholly Norse, and the Norse
tongue, at last extinguished by the constant influx of settlers
from Scotland, Ungercd until the end of the i8th century. Readers
of Scott's PiratemW rcm«Jmbef the frank contempt which Magnus
Troil expressed for the Scots, and his opinions probably accurately
reflected the general Norse feeling on the subject. When the
fshnds were given as security for the princess's dowry, there
se«ms reason to believe that it was intended to redeem the pledge,
because it was then stipulated that the Norse system of govern-
ment and the law of St Olaf should continue to be observed in
Orkney and Shetland. Thus the udai succession and mode of
land tenure (or, that is, absolute freehold as distinguished from
feudal tenure) still obtain to some extent, and the remaining
udatlers hold their lands and pass them on without written title.
Among well-known Orcadians may be mentioned James Atkine
(r6i 3-1687), bishop first of Moray and afterwards of Galloway;
Murdoch McRcnzic (d. 1797). the hydrographcr; Malcolm Laing
( 1 76^-1 S 18), author of the Hiuory of Scotland from the Union
of the Crowns to the Union of the Kingdoms; Mary Brunton
(1778-1818), author of Self-Control, Discipline and other novels;
Samuel Laing (1780-1868), author of A Residence in tfonoay,
and translator of the ffeimshringla, the Icelandic chronicle of
the kings of Norway; Thomas Stewart Traill (1 781-1862), pro-
fessor of medical jurisprudence in Edinburgh University and
editor of the 8th edition of the Eneychpaedia Brilannica;
Samuel Laing (i8i»-t897), chairman of the London, Brighton
& South Coast railway, and introducer of the system of
" parliamentary ** trains with fares of one penny a mile; Dr
John Rae (1813-'. ^3), the Arclic explorer; and William
Balfour Baikie (i8»s*i864). the African traveller.
BiBLfOCKAnrv. — Tike Orkn^yinfa Saga^ «d. C Vtufutson, trans-
lated by Sir George Daacm ( i«»7- 1 894). and the edit ion of Dr Jovph
Andemn (1873): Jamca Wallace. Au^unt «$ the Islands of Orkney
(1700; new td.. 1884): George Low. Tour thrmtk the Islands of
Orkney and ShelJand in J 774 (1^79): G B...tv. fh story of Orkney
(ito5, I86f7); Daniel Gome. Summers and Wtnlers in Ike Orkneys
(i868>: D. Balfour. Odal Kigtas and Fendai Wrongs (i860); J.
FertuMon, The Brocks and Hude Stana Monuments of the Orkney
Islands (1877); J. B. Craven. Hutory of the Episcopal Church in
Orkney Vi9ii); J. R. Tudor, Orkney and Shetland (1883).
ORiBANAIS, one of the provinces into which France was
divided before the Revolution. It was the country around
Orleans, the pagus Aurelianensis; it lay on both banks of the
Loire, and for ecclesiastical purposes formed the diocese of
Orleans. It was in the possession of the Capet family before
the advent of Hugh Capet to the throne of France In 987, and in
1344 Philip VI. gave it with the title of duke to Philip (d. 1375),
one of his younger sons. In a geographical sense the region
around Orieans is sometimes known as Orl^nais, but this is
somewhat smaller than the former province.
See A. Thoma*. Les Bjats prorincianx de la France centrale (187^).
ORLBANI8T8, a French political party which arose out of
the Revolution, and ceased to have a separate existence shortly
after the establishment of the third republic in 1872. Ir took
its name from the Orleans branch of the house of Bourbon, the
descendants of the duke of Orleans, the younger brother of
Loutt XIV<, who were its chiefs. The political aim of the
Orleanists may bo said to have been to find a common measure
for the monarchical principle and the " rights of man " as set
forth by the revolutionary leaders in 1789. The articles on
Philippe, nicknamed £gaUt6 (ace OaucANS, L.P.J.,dukeof), and
hisson Loots Philippe, king of the French (1830-1848), will show
the process of events by which it came to pass that the Orleans
princes became the more or less successful advocates of this
attempted comproinise between old and new. It may be noted
here, however, that a certain altitude of opposition, and of
patronage of ** freedom," was traditional in this branch of the
bottle of Bourbon. Saint-Simon telb us that the regent Orleans
who died m 1793 was in the habit of avowing his admiration for
Eni^ish liberty-^at least in safe company and private con-
versation. £galit4, who had reasons to dislike King Louis 7<VI.
and his queen. Marie Antoinette, stepped naturally into the
position of spokesman of the liberal royalists of the early revolu-
tionary time, and it was a short step from that position to the
attitude of liberal candidates for the throne, as against the elder
branch oh the royal house which claimed to reign by divine
right. The elder branch as represented by Louis XVIII. was
prepared to grant {oetroyer), and did grant, a charter of liberties.
The count of Chambord, the last of the line (the Spanish Bourbons
who descended directly from Louis XIV. were considered to be
barred by the renunciation of Philip V. of Spain), was equally
ready to grant a constitution. But these princes claimed to
rule *' in chief of God " and to confer coiBlitutional rights on
their subjects of their own free will, and mere motion. This
feudal language and these mystic pretensions ofTcnded a people
so devoted to principles as the French, and so acute in drawing
deductions from premises, for they concluded, not unreasonably,
that rights granted as a favour were always subject to revocation
as a punishment. Therefore those of them who considered a
monarchical gevcmmcnt as more beneficial to France than a
republic, but who were not disposed to hold their freedom
subject to the pleasure of a king, were cither Bonapartista who
profesBcd to rule by the choice of the nation, or supporters of the
Orleans princes who were ready to reign by an '• original com-
pact'* and by the will of the people. The difference therefore
between the supporters of the elder line, or legitimists, and
the Orleanists waa profound, for it tvent down to the very
foundationa of government.
The first generation of Orleanists, the immediate supporters of
Philippe £^lit^, were swamped in the turmoil of the great
revolution. Vet it has been justly pointed out by Albert Sorel
in his U Europe et la reeolution fran^ise^ that they subsisted
under the Empire, and that they came naturally to the front
when the revival of libeiBlism overthrew the restored kgilimate
monarchy of Louis XVIII. and Charles X. During the Restora-
tion, i8is-r830, everything tended to identify the liberals with
the Orleanists. Legitimism was incompatible with constitutional
freedom. Bonapartism was in eclipse, and was moreover
esKBtially a Caesaxism which in the hands of the great Napoleon
?82
ORLEANS, DUKES OF— ORLEANS, DUKE OF
had been « despotism, calling itself democratic for do better
reaaon than because It Deduced all men to an equality of
submission to a master. Those rights of equality before the
law, and in social life, which had been far dearer to Frenchmen
of the revolutionary epoch than political freedom, were secured.
The next step was to obtam political freedom, and it was made
under the guidance of men who were Orleanisls because the
Orleans princes seemed to them to offer the best guarantee for
such a government as they desired— a government which did not
profess to stand above the people and to own it by virtue of a
divine and legitimate hereditary right, nor one which, like the
Bonapartisls, implied a master relying on an army, and the
general subjection of the nation. The liberals who were Orleanisls
had the advantage of being very ably led by men eminent in
letters and in practical affairs— Cuizot, Thiers* the BrogKcs,
the banker Lafhtte and maoy others. When the unsurpassed
folly of the legitimate rulers brought about the revolution of iSjo,
the Orleanisls stepped into its place, and they marked the pro-
found change which had been made in the character of the govern-
ment by calling the king. " King of the French " and not " King
of France and Navarre." He was chief of the people by compact
with the people, and not a territorial lord holding, in feudal
phrase, " in chief of God."
The events of the eighteen years of Orleanist rule cannot be
detailed here. They were on the whole profitable to France,
That they ended in another " general overturn "in 1848 was
due no doubt in part to errors of conduct in individual princes and
politicians, but mainly to the fact that the Orleanist conception
of what was meant by the word " people " led them to offend
the long-standing and deeply-rooted love of the French for
equality. It had been inevitable that the Orleanisls, in their
dislike of " divine right " on the one hand, and their fcax of
democratic Cacsarism on the other, should turn for examples
of a free government to England, and in Engbnd itself to the
Whigs, bolh the old Whigs of the Revolution Settlement of 1680,
and the new Whigs who extorted political franchises for the
middle cbsscs by the Reform Bill. They saw there a monarchy
based on a parliamentary title, governing constitutionally and
supported by the mHldlc classes, and they endeavoured to
esublish the like in France under (he name of a Juste-milieu,
a via media between absolutism by divine right, and a democracy
which they were convinced would lead 10 Cacsarism. The French
equivalent for the English middle-class constituencies was to be
a pays iigal of about a quarter of s million of voters by whom
all the rest of the country was to be " virtually represented."
The doctrine was expounded and was acted upon by Gui^ot with
uncompromising rigour. The Orleanist monarchy became so
thoroughly middlc^lass that the nation outside of the pays Ugal
ended by thinking that it was being governed by a privileged
class less offensive, but also a great deal less briUi«nt» than the
aristocracy of the old monarchy.
The revolution of 1848 swept the Orleanist party from power
for ever. The Orleanists indeed continued throughout the
Second Republic and the Empire (1848-1870) to enjoy a marked
social and literary prestige, on the strength of the wealth and
capacity of some of their members, their influence in the French
Acarlcmy and the ability of their organs in the press — particu*
larly the Revut dts deux mondes^ the Journoi das ddbals^ and the
papers direaed by E. Herv^. During the Empire the discreet
opposition of the Orleanists. exercised for the roost part with
infinite dexterity and tact, by reticences, omissions, and historical
studies in which the Empire was attacked under foreign or
ancient names, was a perpetual thorn io the side of Napoleon III.
Yet they possessed little hold on the country and outside of a
cultivated liberal circle in Paris. Their weakness was demon-
strated when the second empire was swept away by the German
War of 1870-7 1 • The country in its disgust at the Bonapanists
and its fear of the Republicans, chose a great many royalists to
represent it in the Assembly which met in Bordeaux 00 the 12th
of February 1872. In this body the Orleanists again exercised
a kmd of leadership by virtue of individual capacity, but they
were counterbalanced by the I^^imisU. The most eficaivc
proof of power they gave wis to render potsiUe the eipuisioQ
from power of Thiers on the Mtb of May 1873, as punishment lor
his dexterous Imposition of the Republic on the unwilling
majority of the Assembly. Their real occupatioD was to en*
dcavour to bring about a fusion between themaehres and the
Legitimists which should unite the two royalist parties for the
confusion of the Bonapartisls and RepubUcana^ The belief
that a fusion would strengthen the royalisu was natvual and
was not new. As far back as 1850 Guisoi had proposed, or had
thought of proposing, one, but it was on the condition that the
comte dr CHambord would resign his divine pretentions. When
a fusion was arranged in 1873 it was on quiu another footing.
After much exchange of notes and many agiuied oonferences in
committee rooms and drawing-rooms, the comte de Paris, the
rcpresenutive of the Orleanists, sought an interview with the
comte de Cbambord at Frohsdorff, and obtained it by t*^^S ^
written engagement that he came not only to pay his respects to
the head of his house, but also to *' accept his principle." It has
been somewhat artlessly pleaded by the Orleanists that this
engagement was given with menul reaervations. But there were
no mental reservations on the part of the lomte de Charobord,
and the country showed its belief that the liberal royalists had
been fused by absorption in the divine right royalists. It
returned republicans at by-elections till it transformed the
Assembly. The Orleanist princes had still a part to pby, more
particularly after the death of the comte de Chambocd in 1883
left them heads of the house of France, but the Orleanist party
ceased to exist as an independent political organixation.
AuTH0RiTies.~T1ie Orleanbts are neocMarily more or less desk
with in all histories of France since 1789. and in mod political
memoirs, but their principles can be learnt and their fortunes
fntlowcH from the fottowins: A. Sorcl, V Europe et ta rhoiulton
fraw,atse (Paris. 1885-1904); F. Guizoc. Histoire paftemeniaire de
la France (Parin. 1819-^848) and Mimmres pcuf servir A tkuUnrt
de mon Umpi (Paris. 1858-1867): P. de la duct, Huiotre du second
empire (Pjirin, 1894-1904); and G. Hanotaux, Hiiioire de la France
contemporaine (Pans. 1903. &c.). (D. H.)
ORLEANS. DUKES OP. The title of duke of Orleans was
first created by King Philip W. in favour of his son Philip,
who died without legitimate issue in 1375. The second duke
of Orleans, created in 1392, was Louis, a younger son of Charles
v., whose heir was his son, the poel Charlcsof Orleans. Charles's
son Louis, the succeeding duke, became king of France as Louis
Xn. in 1498, when the duchy of Orleans was imitcd with the
royal domain. In 1626 Louis XUI. created his brother, jean
Baptiste Gaston, duke of Orleans, and having become extinct
on the death of this prince in 1660 the title was revived in the
following year by Louis XIV. in favour of his brother Philip.
Descendants of this duke have retained the title until the present
day, one of them becoming king of France as Louis Hiilippe
in 183a Two distinguished families are descended from the
first house of Orleans: the coimts of Angoultoie, who were
descended from John, a son of Duke Louis I., and who furnished
France with a king in the person of Francis L; and the counts
and dukes of LonguevUIe, whose founder was John, count of
Dunois, the bastard of Orleans, a natural son of Uie same duke.
In addition to the dukes of Orleans the most important members
of this family are: Anne Marie Louise, duchess of Montpensier;
Francis, prince of Joinville; Louis Philippe Albert, count of
Paris; and the traveller Prince Henry of Orleans. See the
genealogical table to the article Bouason.
See below for separate articles on the chief personi^es.
ORLfiAMS, CHARLES, Duxc or (r39t'X46s). comsionly
called Charles d'Orldaos. French poet, was the eldest son of
Louis, duke of Orleans (brother of Charles VI. of France), and
of Valentina Visoonti, daughter of Giau Galcaxxo, duke of
Milan. He was boin on the 26th of May 1391. Although
many minor details are preserved of his youth, nothing except htt
reception in 1403, from his uncle the king, of a pension of 12,000
livres d*or is worth noticfng, until his marriage three years
later (June 99, 1406) with Isabella, his cousin, widow of
Richard II. of England. The bride was two years older than
her husband, and is thought to have married him unwilUo^y.
ORLEANS. DUKE OF— ORLEANS, ^RINCB OF
283
but ihe brought Mm « great do«ry«-4t Is taid, 500,000 frencs.
She died threo yetn later, leaving Charief at the age of eSghteeo
a widower and father of a daughter. He was already duke of
Orteani, for Loub had been assaannated by the Burgundians
two yean before (1407). He soon saw himself the most im-
portant penon in France, except the dukes of Burgundy and
Brittany, the king being a cipher. This position his natural
temperament by no means qualified him to fill. His mother
desired vengeance for her husband, and Charles did his best
to carry out her wishes by filling France with intestine war.
Of this, however, he was only nomhially one of the leaders, the
real guidance of his party resting with Bernard VII., the great
count of Armagnac, whose daughter, Bonne, he married, or at
least formally espotued, in 1410. Fi^ yttn of confused negotia-
tions, plots and fightings passed before the English invasion
And the battle of Agincourt, where Giarka was jdnt commandef-
in<hief . According to one account he was dangerausly wounded
and narrowly escaped with his life. He was certainly taken
prisoner and auried to England, which country was his residence
thenceforward for a full <|uarter of a century. Windsor, Poote-
fract, AmpthiO, Wingfield (Suffolk) and the Tower are named
among other places as the seenes of bis captivity, which, how^
ever, was anything but a rigorous one. He was maintained
in the state due not merely to one of the greatest nobles of
France but to one who ranked high in the order of succestion
to the crewn. He hunted and hawked and enjoyed society
amply, though the very dignities whkh secured him these
privileges made his ransom great, and his release diflkult to
arranges Above all, he had leisure to devote himself to literary
work. But lor this he would hardly be more than a name.
This work consists wholly of short poems in the peculiar
artifidal metres which had become fashionable in France about
half a century of more before his birth, and which continued
to be fashibnable till nearly a century after his death. Besides
these a number of English poems have been attributed to him,
but without certainty. They have not much poetical merit,
but they eihiblt something of the smoothness of versification
not uncommon in those who write, with care, a language not
their own. The ingenuity of a single English crftic has striven
to attribute to hfm a curious book in prose, called Le DtM des
kirawts de France «l d* Anffettrte, but Paul Meyer, In his edition
of the book ui question, has completely dfsponed of this theory.
For all practical purposes, therefore, Charies's work consists
of some hundreds of short French poems, a few in various
metres, but the majority either ballades or rondels. The chrono-
logy of these poems is not always clear, still less the identity
of the persons to whom they are addtttsed, and ft Is certain
that some, periiaps the greater part of them, belong to the later
years of the poet's lifei But many are expressly stated in the
manuscripts to have been ** compeeed in prison,** othere are
obviouily so composed, and, on the whole, there il in them a
remarkable unity of literary flavour. Charies d'OriCins is not
distinguished by any eatraordinary strength of passion or origin-
ality of character; but he is only the more valuable as the last
and net the least accomplished representative of the poetry
of the middle of the middle ages, In which the form was almost
everything, and thcpersooaiity of the poet, save in rare instances,
Bothing. Yet he b not entirely without iifftrtn^. He Is a
eapital eiample of the cultivated and lefhwi— it may almost
be called the lettered^^Uvalry of the last chivalrous age,
opert to the utmost degree in carrying out the traditional
detaHa of « graceful oonvemion fn love and literature. But
he Is more than this; in a certain easy grace and truth of ex-
pression, as welt as hi a peculiar mijEiure of melancholy, whfch
il not inoompatlblo with the enjoyment of the pleasures, even
the trifling pleaMres, of Kfe, with listlcssnem that is fully able
to occupy itself about those trifles, he stands qidte alone. He
has the urtianky of the i8th century without its vicious and
prosaic frivolity, the poetry of the middle ages without their
tendency 10 tediovsneis. His best-known iendels--those on
Spring, on the Harbingere of Summer, and othere -rank second
to BOtUng of their kind.
Poetry, however, could hardly l>e an entire conaolatfon, aiyl
Charles was perpetually scheming for liberty. But the English
government had too many reasons for keeping him, and it was
not till his hereditary foe PhOip the Good of Burgundy interested
himself in him that the government of Henry VI., which had
by that time lost most of iu hold on France, released him in
return for an immediate payment of 80,000 saluts d^or^ and an
engagement on his part to pay 140,000 crowns at a future time.
The agreement was oonduded on the and of July, 1440. He waa
actually released on the 3rd of November following, and almost
immediately cemented his friendship with Duke PhOip by marry-
ing his liiece, Mary of Cleves, who brought him a considerable
dowry to assist the payment of his ransom. He had, however, some
dtfliculty in making up the balance, as well as the large sum
required for his brother, Jean d'AngoulCme, who also was an
English prisoner. The Ust twenty-five yean of his life (for,
curiously enough, it divides itself into three almost exactly
equal periods, each of that length) were spent partly in negotiat-
ing, with a h'ttle fighting intermixed, for the purpose of gaining
the ItaKan county of Asti, on which he had claims through
his mother, partly In travelling about, but chiefly at his principal
seat of Bkns. Here he kept a miniature court which, from the
h'tereiy point of view at least, was not devoid of biiUiancv.
At this most of the best-known Fkench men-of -letters at the
timfr— Villon, Olivier de la Marche, Chastehiin, Jean Meschinot
and others—were residents or visitors or correspondents. His
son, afterwards Louis XJI., was not bom till 1462, three yearr
before Charles^ own death. He had become, notwithstanding
his high position, something of a nullity in politics, and tradition
ascribes his death to vexation at the harshness with which
Louis XI. rejected Ids attempt to mediate on behalf of the duke
of Brittany. At any rate he died, on the 4th of January, 1465, at
Amboise. Many of his later poems are small occasional pieces
addressed to his courtiers and companions, and in not a few
cases answers to them by those to whom they were addressed
exist.
The best edition of Charies d*Orifan»*« poems, with a brief but
sufficient account of hit life, is that of C. d'FKricault in the NoupeOe
collection JanmH (Paris. 1S74). For the EngliBh poems see the
edition by Watsim Taylor for the Roabeithe Club (1827). (G. Sa.)
0RIXMI8, mtsm Aim raiup urnis crarlbs hbnrt^
DtnuBO? (181^1843), bom at Palermo on the 3rd of September
1 8 10, was the son of Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, afterwards
king of France, and Marie Am6b'e, princess of the Two Sicilies.
Under the Restoration he bore the title of duke 61 Chartres, and
studied classics in Paris at the College Henri IV. At the out-
break of the Revolution, which in 1830 set his father on the
throne, he was colonel of a regiment of Hussan. He then
assumed the title of duke of Orieans, and was sent by the king to
Lyons to put down the formidable riots which had broken out
there (1831), and then to the siege of Antwerp (1833). He was
apfy>inted fieotenant-general, and made several campaigns in
Algeria ( 183 5, 1839, 1 840). On his return to France he orga nised
the battalions of light infantry known as the chaueurs d'Ortions,
He died as the result of a carriage accident at Neuflly, near Paris,
on the 13th of July 1842.
The duke of Orleans had married (May 30, 1837) He»ne
Louise Elisabeth of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and had by her two
sons, the count of Paris and the duke of Chartres. On the 34th
of February 1848, after the abdication of Louis PhiUppe, the
duchess of Orieans went to the Chamber of Deputies assembled
in the Palais Bourbon in the hope of having her eldest son
proclaimed and of obtaimng the regency; but the threatening
attiiade of the populace forced her to ilee. She took refuge in
England, and died at Rkbmond on the 18th of May 1858.
(kf. ?.•)
ORUANB, MBIRI, PwSKE or (i867-r9oi), ddcst son of
Robert, duke of Chart tes, was bora at Ham, near Richmond,
Surrey, on the i6tb of October 1867. In 1889, at the instance
of bis father, who paid the expenses of the tour, he undertook,
in company with MM. Bonvafot and Dedecken. a journey through
Siberia 10 Slam. la the course of thdr taveto they crossed the
284
ORLEANS, DUCHJESS OF..-ORLEANS, DUKE OF
mountaio nqge of Tibet, And llie fruits of Uwir observations,
submitted to the Geographical Society of Paris (and later in-
corporated in Dc Pans au Tonkin d trovers k Tibet tHConmu,
published in 1892), brought them conjointly the sold modal
of that society. In 1892 the prince made a short journey of
exploration in East Africa, and shortly afterwards visited
Madagascar, proceeding thence to Tongking. From this point
be set out for Assam, and was successful in discovering the
sources of the rivei Irrawaddy, a brilliant geographical achieve-
ment which secured the medal of the Geographical Society of
Paris and the cross of the Legion of Honour. Iq 1897 he revisited
Abyssinia, and political differences arising from this trip led to a
duel with the comte de Turin, in which both combataoits were
wounded. While on a trip to Assam in 1901 he died at Saigon
on the 9th of August. Prince Henri was a somewhat violent
Anglophobc, and his diatribes against Great Britain contrasted
rather curiously with the cordial reception which his position as
a traveller obtained for him in London, where he was ^vca the
gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society.
ORLEANS. HENRIETTA. Ducuess op (1644-1670), third
daughter of the English king, Charles 1., and his queen, Henrietta
Maria, was born during the Civil War at Exeter on the 16th of
June 1644. A few days after her birth her mother left England,
and provision for her maintenance having been made by Charles
she lived at Exeter under the care of Lady Dalkeith (afterwards
countess of Morton) until the surrender of the city to the parlia-
mentarians, when she was taken to Oatlands in Surrey. Then
in July 1646 Lady Dalkeith carried the princess in disguise to
France, and she rejoined her mother in Paris, where her girlhood
was spent and where she was educated as a Roman Catholic.
Henrietta was present at the coronation of Louis XIV., and was
mentioned as a possible bride for the king, but she was betrothed,
not to Louis, but to his only brother Philip. After the restoration
of her brother Charles II., she returned to England with her
mother, but a few months later she was again in Paris, where
she was married to Philip, now duke of Orleans, on the 30th of
March i66x. The duchess was very popular at the court of
Louis XIV., and was on good terms with the grand monarch
himself; she shared in the knowledge of state secrets, but was
soon estranged from her husband, and at the best her conduct
was very imprudent. In 1670, at the instigation of. Louis, she
visited England and obtained the signature of Charles IL's
ministers to the treaty of Dover; her success in this matter
greatly delighted Louis, but it did not improve her relations with
Philip, who had long refused bis consent to his wife's visit to
England. Shortly after returning to France. Henrietta died at
St Cloud on the 30th of June 1670. She was buried at St Denis,
her funeral oration being pronounced by her friend Bossuet,
and it was asserted that she had been poisoned by order of her
husband. She left two daughters, Marie Louise, wife of Charles
II. of Spain, and Anne Marie, wife of Victor Amadeus IL of Savoy.
According to legitimist principles, the descendants of Henrietta,
through her daughter Marie of Savoy, are entitled to wea^ the
British crown.
ORLEANS, JEAN BAPTISTE GASTON, DuK£ or (1608-1660).
third son of the French king Henry IV., and his wife Marie de
Medici, was born at Fontainebleau on the aslh of April 1608.
Known at first as the duke of Anjou, he was created duke of
Orleans in 1626, and was nominally in command of the army
which besieged La Rochclle in 1628, having already entered
upon that course of political intrigue which was destined to
occupy the remainder of his life. On two occasions he was
obliged to leave France for conspiring against the government of
bis mother and of Cardinal Richelieu; and after waging an
unsuccessful war in Languedoc, he took refuge in Flandcnu
Reconciled with his brother Louis XIIL, he plotted against
Richelieu Jn 1635, fled from the country, and tfien sUtmltled
to the king and the cardinal. Soon afterwards the same process
was repeated. Orleans stirred up CinqTMara to attempt RicJie*
lieu's murder, and then deserted his unfortunate accomplice^
In 1643, on the death of Louis XIII., Gaston became Jioutenani*
general of the kingdom, and fought against ^in on the nortbera
(roniiecs of France; but during tke wan of iht Froode ke f
with great facility from one party to the other. Then exiled by
Maaarin to Blois in 1652 he remained there until bis death
on the and of February 166a Gaston's first wife «aa Marie
(d. 1627), daughter and heiress of Henri de Bourbon, duedc Moot-
pensier (d. 1608), and his second wife was Marguerite (d. 1673),
sister of Charles III., duke of Lorraine^ By MarSe he left a
daughter, Anne Marie, ducheaso de Montpeosier (9.*.); and by
Marguerite he left three daughters, Marguerite Louise (1645-
11 ii), wife of Cosirao HI., grand duke of Tuscany; Elisabeth
(i646-»696), wife of Louis Joseph, duke of Guise; and Fraa^oisc
Madeleine (1648*1664), wife of Charles Emmanuel IL, duke of
Savoy. <M. P.»)
ORLEANS, LOUIS, Duke op (1372-1407). younger son of the
French king, Charles V., was born on the 13th of March 137a.
Having been made count of Valois and of Bcauniont««ur-Oise,
and then duke of Touraine, he received the duchy of Orleans
from his brother Chailes VI. in 1392, three years after his
marriage with Valentina <d. 1408). daughter of Gian Galeauo
Visconti, duke of Milan, This lady brought the county of A.4ti
to her husband; but more important was her claim upon Milan,
which she uaosraitted to her descendants, and which furnished
Louis XIL and Francis I. with a pretext for interference in
northern Italy. When Charles VI. becaaK insane in 1392,
Odcans placed himself in opposition to his uncle Philip U..
duke of Burgundy, who was conducting the government; and
this quarrel was not only the dominating faaor in the affairs of
France, but extended beyond the borders of that country.
Continued after Philip's death in 1404 with his son and successor,
John the Fearless, it culminated in the murder of Orieans by
one of John's partisans on the 33rd of November 1407. The
duke, who was an accomplished and genfcsous prince, was
suspected of immoral rdfltfons with several kdieaof the royal
house, among them Isabella of Bavaria,- the queeoof Chariea VL
He had eight children by Valentina Viscooti» iadndtng Us
successor, Charles of Orleans, Che poet, and one of his natural
sons wns the famous basurd of Orleans, John, count of Danois.
See E. Jarry. La Vit politique de Lnns d'Orittoms (Paris» 1M9).
ORLEANS, LOUIS. Duke or (1703-^753)^ only son of Duke
Philip IL, the regent Orieant, waa bom at V^«aillea on the
4th of August 1705. A pious, charitable and cultured ponce,
he look very Utile part to the politics of the tlme^ akhougb he
was conspicuous for his hostility to CanJiiml Dubois in 17S3.
In 1730 Cardinal Fleury secured his fUsmiasal fraaoa the poeitioa
of colonel-general of the tnfaairy, a post which- he had bdd for
nine years; and retiring into piivate life, he spent his time
mainly in translating the Psalms and the epistles of St FaoL
Having succeeded his father as duke of Ocleaas in 1723, be died
in the abbey of St Genevi^e at Paris on the 4tii of Fcbnaiy
1752. His wife Augusta (d. 1726), dau^tcr of Louis WiUiam,
margrave of Baden, bore him an only son, Louis Philippe, who
succeeded his father as duke of Orleans.
ORLEANS, LOUIS PHIUPPB, Duke op (lyxs^nHh «» of
Ix)uis. duke of Orleans, was bom at Vosailles on the »ib of
May 1725, and was known as the duke of Cfaartrts nntil his
father's death in 1752. Serving with the French armies he
distinguished^ himself in the campaigns of 1742, 1743 and 1744,
and at the battle of Fontenoy in 1745, retiring to Bagnolet ia
i757i end occupying his time with theatrical performances and
the society of men of ielten. He died at St Assise on the 18th
of November 1785. The duke marrSed Louise Henriette dr
Bourbon-Cooti, who bore him a son Philip (figalitO* duke of
Orleans, and a daughter, wlw married the .last duke of Bowboo.
Hb second wife, Madame de Montemon, whom he married
sectetiy in 1773. was a dever woman and an authotus of aomc
refute. He had two natural sons, known as the abbot of St
Far and the abbot of St Albin.
See L*A tiUmm d^mn pHiue, a coHcctiofi of let tei% from the duke 10
hisaecond wife, edited by J. Hermand (1910).
ORLEANS. LOUIS PHiUPPI JOSEPH. DmcE OP (1747-1793).
called Pmum Egalite. son of Lottis Philippe, duke of Orieaas,
and of Louise Henriette of Bourbon-Conti, Was bom at St Clood
OfRLEANS, DUEES OF
285
on Uie 13th of April 1747* SUning borne Uiq title of dake of
Montpeosier uQtil bis grajuifatlier'ft death in 1952, be became
duke of Chartres, and in 1769 married Louise Marte Adelaide
de Bourbon-Pcntbidvreb daughter and hesfets of tbe duke of
Feothidvre» grand admiral of France, and tbe richest heiKsa of
tbe tine. Her voaltb made it certain that be would be tbe richest
nan in France^ and he determined to play a part equal to that of
his great-grandfather, tbe regent, whom he resembled in chamcter
and debaucbccy. As duke of Charties he opposed the pbins of
Maupeou in 1771, and waa pnmiptly exiled to his country
esute of Villers-Cotterets (Aon^. When Louis XVL came
to the throne in 1774 Cbarttes still found himseli looked on coldly
at court; Marie Antoinette hated htm, and envied him for bis
wealth, wit and freedom. from etiquette, and he was not slow
to letucn her hatred with scorns In 1778 he served in the
squadron of D'OrvilUers, and was present in tbe naval battle
of Usbani on the e7th of July 177a He hoped to toe further
service, but the queen waa opposed to this, and he was removed
from tbe navy» and given the honorary post of colonel-geneml
of hus6ar& He then abandoned himself to pleasure; be often
visited London, and became an intimate friend of tbe prmoe
of Wales (afterwards George IV.); he brought to Paris the
" anglo-mania," as it was called, and made jockQrs as fashionable
as they were in England. He also made himself very popular
in Paris by his large gifts to tbe poor in time of. famine, and
by throwing open the gardens of the Palais Royal to the people.
Before the meeting of the notables in 1787 he had succeeded bis
father as duke of Orleans, and showed his liberal ideas, which
^re largely learnt in England, so boldly that he was believed
to be aiming at becoming constitutional king of France. In
November he again showed his liberalism in tbe tit (U justice,
which Bricnne bad made the king hold, and waa again eidled to
VUIeiS'Cotterets. The appiDachiag convocation of the states-
general made his friends very active on his behalf; he circxdated
in every bailliagp the pamphlets which F. J. Sieyis had dnwn
up at his request, and waa elected in three — by the noblesse
of Paris, Villers-Cotterets and Cr^py-en-Valots. In the estate
of the nobility be headed the liberal minority under the guidance
of Adrien Duport, and led the minority of forty-seven noblemen
who seceded from their own estate (June 1789) and joined the
Tiers £tat. The part he played during tbe -summer of 1789 is
one of the most debated points in the history of tbe Revolution.
The court accused hint of being at the bottom of every popular
movement, axui saw the " gold of Orleans " as the cause of the
ReveiUon riot and the takhng of the Bastille, as tbe republicans
later saw the " gold of Pitt " in every germ of opposition to
themselves. There can be no doubt that he hated the queen,
and bitterly resented his long disgrace at court, and also that he
sincerely wished for a thorough reform of the government and
tbe establishment of some such constitution as that of England;
and 00 doubt such friends as Adrien Duport and Cboderlos
de Lados, for their own reasons, wished to see himkingof France.
Hie best testimony for the behaviour of Orleans during this
summer is the testinony of an English buAy, Mrs Grace Dalryraple
Elliott, who shared his heart with the oomtcsse de Buffon, and
from which It is absolutely certain that at the time of the riot
of the xath of July he was on a £shing excursion, and was
rudely treated by the king on the next day when going to ofifcr
bira bis services. He indeed bf«ame so disgusted with the
false position of a pretender to the crown, into which he was
being forced, that be wished to go to America, but, as the
contesse de Buffon would not go with htm, he decided to remain
in Paris. He was again accused, unjustly, of having caused
the mardi of the women to Versaillea on tbe 5th of October.
La Fayette, jealous of his popularity, persuaded the king to
•end the duke to England on a mission, and thus get him out
of France, and he accordingly renamed m England from October
1789 to July 179OL On tbe 7th of July he took his seat in the
Assembly, and on the snd of October both he and Mirabeau were
declared by the Assembly entirely free of any complicity in the
events of October. He now tried to keep himself as much out
of tbe political wprld as possible, but in vain, for tbe court would
suspect Um, and his friends would talk about his bchig king.
The best proof of his not being ambitious of such a doubtful
piece of pieferment is that he made no attempt to get himself
made king, regent or lieutenant-general of the kingdom at the
time of the flij^ to Varennesin June 1791. He, on the contrary,
again tried to make his peace with the court in January 179a,
but he was so insulted that he was not encouraged to sacrifice
himself for the sake of the king and queen, who persisted in
remembering all oU enmities in their time of trouble. In the
summer of 1792 he waa present for a short time with the army
of the north, with his two sons, the duke of Chartres and tbe
duke of Montpcnsier, but had returned to Paris before the loth
of August. After that day he underwent great personal risk
in saving fugitives; in particular, he saved tbe life of tbe count
of ChampceneU, the governor of the Tuileries, who was Ms
personal enemy, at the request of Mrs Elliott. It wasimpossible
for him to recede, and, after accepting Che title of Ctt03ren £galit^,
conferred on him by the commune of Paris, he was elected
twentieth and last dqiuty for Paris to the Convention. In that
body be sat as quietly as he had done in the Natkmal Assembly,
bitt on tbe occasion of the king's trial be had to speak, an(l then
only to give his vote for the death of Louis. His com'plianoe
did not save htm from suspkion, which was especially aroused by
the friendship of bis eldest son,, tbe duke of Chartits, with
DumourifiS, and when the news of the deaertkm of Chartres
with Dumouriez became known at Paris all the Bourbons left
an France, including £galitl;, were ordered to be arrested on the
5th of April. He remained in prison till the month of October,
when the Reign of Terror began. He was naturally tbe vay
sort of victim wanted, and he was decreed "of accusation"
on the 3rd of October. He was tried on the 6th df Novemtier
and waa guillotined op the same day, with a smile upon his lips
and without any appearance of fear. No man ever was moro
blamed than Orieans during the Revdutfon, but the faults
of ambition and intrigue were hb friends', not his own; it was
his friends who wished him to be on the throne. Personally
be possessed the fharmtng mannem of a pdishcd grand seigneur:
debauched and cynical, but never rude or cruel, f uU of gentle
consideratk>n for all about him but selfish in his pursuit of
pleasure, he has bad to bear a heavy load of bbme, but it Is
ridicuk>as to describe the idle and courteous veluptuaxy as being
a dark and dcsignhg scoundrel, capable of murder if it weuU
MTve his ambitkm. The executioa of Philippe £galat6 made
the friend of Dumouries, who was living in exile, duke of Orleans.
AuTHoaiTms.— Baaefaet, Bisimn de PkUiMe ^t^UUx Jmunai
of Mrs Grace Dalrymple Elliott (1850); A. Nettement, fkiU^f-
EgaliU (Paris, 1843}; Laurentie, Hislotre des dua d'OrUans (Paris,
1832): C. Peignot, Pricis histonqtw. de ta maison d'OrUans (Paris,
i8to): L. C. R(ousaelet), Corretpondana de Louis-Philippe Joseph
d'OrUatu avec Louis XYI (Paris, 1800); Rivard. PertnU du due
d'OrUans el de Madame de Genlis; Tournois, Histoire du Louie
Philippe Joseph due d'OrUans (Paris, X842).
ORLEANS. LOmS PHIUPPB ROBBBT. DiTXB Ot (i869<*
), eldest son of the comte de Paris, was bom at York Hotise^
Twickenham, on the 6tb of Fdsruary 2869. The law of exile
against the French princes having been abrogated in 187 1, he
returned with his parents to France. He was first educated by a
private tutor, and then followed the courses of the municipal
college at Eu. In x88a he entered the ColKge Stanislas, Paris,
and took a first prize in a comperitive Latin translation. On the
death of the comte de Cbambord, the comte de.Paris became head
of the Bourbons; and in 1886 he and his son were exiled from
France. Queen Victoria appointed tbe duke of Orleans a super-
numeraiy cadet at tbe Royal MIHtary College, Sandhuist
After passing his examinations he received a commission in the
4th battalion of the fioth Rifles, then quartered in India. In
January 1888 the duke went out to India, accompanied by
Colonel de Parseval as military governor and adviser. At
Bombay he was received by the duke of Connaught and Lord
Rcay, and at Calcutu he became the guest of the viceroy, tbe
marquess of Dufferin, who organized for the duke and h» cousin,
Prince Heniy of Orleans, a grand tiger-shootmg expedition in
Nepaul. The duke now reported himself to the commandnHn*
286
ORLEANS, DUKES OF— ORLEANS
thief j^temtuds Earl Roberts^d joined hisregiment at Chakrua.
After leeing service, the duke ceased his conncikm with the
Indian army in February 1&89, and returned to £ng|and. On
attaining his majority, he entered Paris (February 7, 1890),
and proceeding to the mairie^ expreased hia desire, as a French-
man, to perform hia military service. This act caused great
excitement, and he was arrested in conformity with the law of
1886, which forbade the toil of France to thfe direct heirs of the
families which had reigned there. He was tried, and sentenced
to two years' imprisonment; but he was liberated by President
Camot after a few months' nominal incarceration (June 4),
and conducted to the Swiss frontier. This escapade won for him
the title of " Le Premier Conscrit de France." After the comte
de Paris's funeral (September is, 1894) the duke received his
adherents in London, and then removed to Brussels^ as being
searer France. On the sth of November 1896 the duke
married the archduchcaa Maria Dorothea Amalia of Austria, the
ceremony taking place at Vienna. It was alleged that some of
his foUoweia were implicated in the conspiracies against the
French Republic in 1899. A letter which the duke wrote in 1900,
approving the artist whose caricatures were grossly insulting to
Queen Victoria, excited great indignation both in England and
in many French circles, and estranged him from many with
whom he had formerly beea upon frkndly terms; but after
Queen Victoria's death it was allowed to become known that
thb affair had been forgotten and forgiven by the British
royal family. The duke of Oricans made several long ex-
ploring journeys, being particularly interested in polar dis-
coveries. In 1905 he published Une croisiire au Spiitberg, and,
later, another account of his travels, under the title A trovers
ia BiinquUe,
ORLBAMI, PHIUP L, Dun or (1640-1701), son of the French
\ king Louis XIII., was bom at St Gcmiain-en-Laye on the aist of
September 1640. In i66e he was created duke of Orleans, and
married Henrietta, sister of Charles II. of England; but the
marriage wais not a happy one, and the death of the duchess in
1670 was attributed to poison. Subsequently he married
Charlolie Elizabeth, daughter of Giarles Louis, dector palatine
of tiw Rhine. Having foo^t with distinction in Flanders in
1667, Monsieur, as (Cleans was generally called, returned to
military life in 1672, and in 1677 gained a great victory at Casscl
and took St Omer. Louis XIV., it was said, was jealous of bis
brother's success; at all events Orleans never commanded an
army again. He died at St Cloud on the 8tb of 'June 170X,
leaving a son, Philip, the regent Orleans, and two daughters:
\Ann f Marie (1669-1 7a8) » wife of Victor Amadeus 11., duke
6\ l>avoy; snd Elizabeth Chariotte (1676-1744), wife of Leo-
pold, duke of Lorraine. His eldest daughter, Marie Louise
(f 669-1689), wife of Charles IL of Spain, died before her
father. (M. P.*)
ORLEANI, PHILIP II., Dnns or (1674-1733). rtgmi of France,
•on of Philip I., duke of Orleans, and his second wife, the
princess palatine, was bom on the snd of August 1674, and had
his first experience of arms at the siege of Mons in 1691. His
marriage with Mile de Blois, the legitimised daughter of Louis
XIV., won him the favour of the king. He fought with distinc-
tion at Steinkerk, Neerwinden and Namur (1693-1695). During
the next few years, being without empkorment, he studied
natural science. He was next given a command in luly (1706)
and in Spain (1707-1708) where he gained some important
aucoesscs. but he cherished lofty ambitions and was suspected of
wishing to Uke the place of Philip V. on the throne of Spain.
Louis XIV. was angry at these pretensions, and for a fong time
held him in disfavour. In his will, however, he appoint^ him
president of the ooundl of regency of the young King Louis XV.
( 1 7 1 5)« After the death of the king, the duke of Orleans went to
the parlemeot, had the will annulled, and himself invested with
absolute power. At fint he made a good use of this, counselling
economy, decreasing taxation, disbanding asiooo soldiers and
restoring liberty to the persecuted Jansenists. But the inquisi-
torial measures which he had begun against the financiers led to
diititfbuMCt* He was, moreOTv; weak onongb to. countenance
the risky operatfona of the banker John Law (1717). ^thatt
bankruptcy led to such a disastrous crisis In the pvblk and
private affairs of France.
There existed a party of malcontents who wished to transfer
the regency from Oricans to Philip V., king of Spain. A con-
spiracy was formed, under the inspiration of Cardinal Albenml,
first minister of Spain, and directed by the prince of Cellamare,
Spanish ambassador in France, with the complicity of the duke
and duchess of Maine; but in 1718 St was discovered and
defeated. Dubois, formeriy tutor to the duke of Orleans, and
now his all-powerful minuter, caused war to be declared against
Spain, with the support of the emperor, and of England and
Holland ((Quadruple Alliance). After some successes of the
French marshal, the duke of Berwick, In Spain, and of the
imperial troops in Sicily, Philip V. mMtAt peace with the regent
(1720).
On the majority of the king, which was dedared on the i sth
of February 1723, the duke of Orleans resigned the supreme
power; but he beosme first minister to the king, and remained
in office till his death on the ajrd of December 1723. The
regent had great qualities, both brilliant and solid, whidi were
unfortunately ^Milt by an excessive taste for pkasana^ His
dissdute manncia found only too many imitators, and the
regency was one of the moat corrupt periods in French history.
See J. B. H. R. (!apefigue. Btstoire de PkUippe i'OrUans. rfgent de
France (3 vols., Paris. 1838); A. Baudrillart. Pkaipbe V. el ta cow
de Franee, vol. it (Paris. 1890): and L. Wieacner, Le ritent, Fahbi
Dubois el Us Ang^u (3 voU.. Paris, 1891-1899). (M. P.")
ORLEANS, a city of north central France, chief town of the
department of Loiret, on the righr bank of the Loire, 77 m.
S.S.W. of Paris by nil. Pop. (1906), town, S7.544; commune,
68,614. At Les Aubrais, a mile to the north, is one of the chief
railway junctions in the country. Besides the Paris and Orleans
railway, which thene divides Into two main linea— a western to
Nantes and Bordeaux via Tours, and a southern to Bourgea and
Toulouse via Vicrzon — branches leave Les Aubrais eastwards
for Pithiviers, Chilons-sur-Mame and Gien, north-west for
ChAteaudun and Rouen. The whole town of Orleans is clustered
together on the right bank of the river and surrounded by fine
boulevards, beyond which it sends out suburbs along the various
roads. It ia conneaed with the suburb of St Bifarceau on the
left bank by a handsome stone bridge of nine arches, erected in the
i8th century. Farther up is the railway bridge. The river is
canalized on the right, and serves as a continuation of the
Orleans Canal, which unites the Loire with the Seine by the
canal of the Loing.
Owing to its position on the northernmost point of the Loire
Oricans has long been the centre of communicatkm between the
Loire bosm and Paris. The chief interest of the place lies ia
its public buildfaigs and the historical events of which it has been
the scene. Proceeding from the railway station to the bridge
over the. Loire, the visitor crosses Orleans from north to south
and passes through the PUce du Martroi, the heart of the city.
In the middle of the square stands an equestrian sUtue of Joan of
Arc. in bronae, resting on a granite pedestal surrounded by
bas-reliefs representing the leading episodes in her life. In 1855
it took the pbce of an older statue executed in the beginning of
the century, which was then transferred to the left bank of the
Loire at the end of the bridge, a few paces from the spot where a
simpte cross marks the siu of the Fort des TourtlUs captured by
Joan of Arc in 14x9. From the Place du MartrM, the Rue Jeanne
d' Arc leada to the cathedral of Ste Croix. This church, higatk in
1 387. was burned by the Huguenou in 1567 before its completkn.
Henry IV., in 1601, laidahe first stone of the new structure, the
building of which continued until 1829. It consists of a vestibule,
a nave with double aisles, a corresponding choir, a tranaept and
an apse. Its length m 473 ft., ita width at the tranaept 330 ft.
and the height of the central vaults 112 ft. The west front has
two flat-topped tow^ers, each of three storeys, of which the fint
is square, the aecond octagonal and the third cylindrical The
whole front is (jothic, but was designed and oonstmcted in the
i8ib centuQT and cxhibiu all the defecu of the period, tlwi4h iu
ORLEANS
^87
proportions are {mpresstve. A omtri] tptit (t^th emiury) 5s8 fL
high, on the other hand, recalls the pure Gothic style of the
t3th century. In the interior the choir chapels and the apee,
dating from the original erection of the building, and the fine
modern tomb of Mgr. F. A. P. Dupanloup, bishop from i4l9 to
1878, are worthy of note. In the episcopal palace and the higher
seminary are several remarkable pictures and pieces of wood-
carving; and the latter building has a crypt of the 9th century,
belonging to the church of St Avit demolished in 1418. The
church of St Aignan consists of a transept and choir of the second
half of the isth century; it contains in a gilded and carved
urooden shrine the remains of its patron saSnt, who occupied the'
sec of Orleans at the time of Attlla> invasion. The crypt dates
from the 9th to the begimring of the tith century. The once
beautiful Kulpture of the exterior has been altogether ruined;
the interior has been restored, but not in keeping with the
original style. A third church, St Euverte, dedicated to one of
the oldest bishops of Orieans (d. 391), is an earlv Gothic building
dating from the 13th, completely restored in the isth century.
St Pierre-le>PueIlier dates in its oldest portions from the loth
or even the 9th century. To the west of the Rue Royale stand
the church of St Paul, whose facade and isolated tower both
bear line features of Renaissance work, and Notre-Damc de
Recouvrance, rebuilt l>etween 15x7 and 15 19 in the Renaissance
style and dedicated to the memory of the deliverance of the city.
The h6tel de ville, built under Francis I. and Henry II. and
restored in the X9th century, was formerly the residence of the
governors of Orleans, and was occupied by the kings and queens
Of France from Francis II. to Henry IV. The front of the
bunding, with Its diiTerent coloured bricks, its balconies sup-
ported by caryatides attributed to Jean Goujon, its gable-ends
and its windows, recalls the Flemish style. There are several
niches with statues. Beneath, between the double flight of steps
leading up to the entrance, stands a bronxc reproduction of the
statue of Joan of Arc, a masterpiece of the princess Mary of
Orleans, preserved in the VerMilles museum. The richly-
decorated apartments of the first storey contain paint ings, interest-
ing chimneys, and a bronze statuette (also by the princess Mary)
representing Joan of Arc mounted on a caparisoned horse and
clothed in t he garb of the knights of the |(th century. The great
hall in which it is placed also possesses a chimney decorated with
three bas-reliefs of Domremy, Orieans and Reims, all associated
with hef life. The historical museum at Orleans is one of the
most interesting of provincial collections, the numismatic,
medieval and Renaissance departments, and the collection of
ancient vases being of great value. The city also possesses a
separate picture gallery, a sculpture galleiy and a natural
history museum, which are established in the former h6tel de
ville, a Renaissance building of the latter half of the' 1 5th century.
The public library comprises among its manuscripts a number
dating from the 7th century, and obtained in most cases from
St Benolt on the Loire. The general hospital is incorporated with
the H6tel Dieu, and forms one of the finest institutions of the
kind in France. The saUe tUs files ^ formerly the corn-market,
stands within a vast cloister formed by 15th-century arcades,
once belonging to the old cemetery. The salle dcs Theses (141 >)
of the university is the meeting-place of the Archaeological
Society of the city. Among the old private houses numerous at
Orleans, that of Agnes Sorel (15th and x6th century), which
contains a kirge collection of objects and works of art relating to
Joan of Arc, that of Francis I., of the first half of the 16th century,
that occupied by Joan of Arc during the siege of 1439, and that
known as the house of Diane de Poitiers (t6th century), which
contains the historical museum, are of special interest. The
Mtdiela VieUU'lnUnianct, built In the tsth and i6(h centuries,
served as residence of the iuiendants of Orleans In later times.
The " White Tower " is the last representative of the towers
rendered famous by the siege. A statue to the jurisconsult,
R. J. Pothier (1699-17 7 2), one of the most illustrious of the
natives of Orleans, stands In front of the hAtel de ville. The
anniversary of the raising of the siege in 1429 by Joan of Arc is
celebrated every year with great pomp. After the English had
reUeedt the popoiar tntboriaaift Snpemdied « pracetdoa, which
marched with singing of hymns from the cathedral to St Paul,
and the ceremony is still repeated on the 8th of May by the clergy
and the civil and militaiy functionaries. Orleans b the seat of
a bishopric, a prefect, a court of appeal, and a court of assises
and headquarters of the V. army corps. There are tribunals of
first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitration, a
chamber of commerce and a branch of tho Bank of France;
and training colleges for both sexes, a lyc^ for boys, a technical
School and an ecclesiastical seminaiy.
The more important industries of the town are the manufacture
of tobacco (by the state), blankets, hairpins, vinegar, nwchinery,
agricultural implements, hosiery, tools and Ironware, and the
preparation of preserved vegetables. Wine, wool, grain and
live stock are the commercial staples of the city, round which
there are important nucseiies.
The site of Orieans must have been occupied very eariy in
history by a trading post for commerce between northern and
central and southern GauL At the time of the Roman conquest
the town was known as Gemabmmf and was the starting-point of
the great revolt against Julius Caesar in 52 B.C. In the 5th
century it had taken the name Aurdianum from either Marcus
AurcUus or AureUan. It was vainly besieged in 451 by AttiUi
who was awed by the intercession of its bishop, Sc Aignan, and
finally driven off by the patrician Aetlus. Odoacer and his
Saxons also failed to take it in 471, but in 498 it fell into the hands
of Clovis, who 'm $11 held here the first ecclesiastical council
assembled In France. The dignity which it then obtained, of
being the capital of a separate kingdom, was lost by its union with
that of Parb in 6r3. In the zoth century the town was given in
fief to the counts of Paris^ who in 987 ousted the Carolingian
line from the thioae of France. In 999 a great fire devastated the
town. Orieans remained during all the medieval period one of
the first cities of the French monarchy; several of the kings
dwelt within its walls, or were consecrated in iu cathedral;
it had a royal mint, was the seat of councils, and obtained for
its schools the name of university (1309), and for its soldiery an
equal standing with those of Paris. Philip, fifth son of Philip VI.,
was the first of the dukes of Orleans. After the assassination of
hbsuccessor Louis by Jeaa San>>Peur,dukeof Burgundy (i407)»
the people of Orieans sided resolutely with the Annagnacs, and
in this way brought upon themselves the attacks of the Bur-
gundians and the English. Joan of Arc, having entered the
beleaguered city on the aoth of April 1429, effected the raising
of the siege by means of an attack on the 7th of May on the
Fort des Tourclles, in the course of which she was wounded.
Early in the i6lh century the town became a centre of Pro-
testantism. After the Amboise conspiracy (1560) the stales-
general were convoked at Orleans, where Francis II. died.
In 1562 it became the headquarters of Louis I. of Bourbon,
prince of Cond^, the Protestant comnMndcr-in-chicf. In 1563
Francis, duke of Guise, laid siege to it, and had captured the
tHe-dU'ponl on the left bank of the Loire when he was assassin-
ated. Orieans was surrendered to the king, who had its fori Ifica-
lions rased. It was held by the Huguenots from 1567 to 1568.
The St Bartholomew massacre there in 157a lasted a whole week.
It was given as a lieu de sHrrt* to the League under Henry III.,
but surrendered to Henry IV. in person in 1594. During the
Revolution the city suffered from the sanguinary excesses oC
Bertrand Bardre and Collot d'Hcrbois. It was occupied by the
Prussiarts in 1815 and in 1870, the latter campaign being dis-
cussed t>elow.
See E. Bimbenet, Hisloln de Is tiSe fOrUans (Orieans, 1884*
1888).
The Oilcans Campaign 07 1870
Orieans was the central point of the second portion of the
Franco-German War (q.t.), the city and the line of the Loire
being at first the rendezvous of the new armies improvised by
the government of National Defence and afterwards the start tng-
point of the most important attempt made to relieve Paris.
The campaign has thus two well-marked phases, the first ending
with the first capture of Orleans on the loth of October, aad
288
ORLEANS
the second with the aeconii and final capture on the night of the
4th of December.
Shortly i^ter the fall of the empire the government of National
Defence, having decided that it mutt remain in Paris in spite of the
impending siege, despatched a delegation to Tours to direct the
government and the war in the provinces. This was originally
composed (10-15 September) of two aged lawyers, Cremieux and
Gtai»-Bi2oin, and a naval omcer, Vice-Admiral Fouricbon. who had
charge of both the war and the marine ministries. A retired general,
de la Motto-Rouge, was placed in command of the " territorial
division of Tours. He found, scattered over the south and west
of France, a number of regular units, mostly provisional regiments,
squadrons and batteries, assembled from the depdts, and alfexcced-
ingly ill supplied and equipped; but of such forces as he could
muster he constituted the istn corps. There were also ever-growing
forces of mobiles, but these were wnollv untrained and undisciplined,,
scarcely organized in battalions and for the most part armed with
old'pattern weapons.
In these circumstances — the relative unimportance of the pro*
vincial war, the senility of the dircctonk the want of numbers,
equipment and training in the troops available outside the walls of
Paris — ^the rftle of the delegation was at first restricted to the estab-
lishment of a cordon of weak posts just out of reach of the German
cavalry, with the object of protecting'the formatbn of new corps and
divisions in the interior. At the time of the investment of Pans part
of the provincial forces were actually called in to reinforce the
Srrison. Only Rcyau's weak cavalry division was sent out from
iris into the open country.
On their side the Germans had not enou^ forces left, after in*
vetting the capital with the III. and IV. Annies and Mets with the
1. and 1 1., to undertake a long forward stride to the Loire or the Cher.
The only covering force provided on the south side of their Paris
lines was the I. Bavarian corps, which had also to act as the reserve
of the II I. Army, and the cavalry divisions (6th, 4th, 3nd), whose chief
work was the collection of supplies for the besiegers.
Shortly after this, near the end of September, francs-tireurs and
small parties of National Guards became very active in Beauce,
Pcrche and Gfttinais, and the German 4th cavalry division between
£campes and Toury was reinforced by some Bavarian battalions
in consequence. But no important assemblies of French troops
were noted, and indeed Orleans was twice evacuated on the mere
rumour of the German advance. Moltke and every other (>erman
soldier gave no credence to rumours of the formation of a l^th corps
behind the Loire — Trochu himself disbelieved in its existence —
and the cavalrv divisions, with their infantry supports, went about
their ordinary business of gatherinf^ supplies.
In reality, however, the Delegation, unready as were its troops,
was on the point of taking the offensive. In deference to popular
clamour, a show of force in Beauce was decided upon. Tnts was
carried out by a force of all arms under Reyau on the 5th of October.
It succeeded only t6o well. Prince Albert of Prussia^ commander of
the 4th cavalry division, which engaged Revau at Toury. was so
much impressed that he gave back 3o m. ano sent alarming reports
to army headquarters, which thereupon lost its incrediHity and
announced in army orders that the French " Army of the Loire " was
advancing from Orleans. Von dcr Tann, the commander of the I.
Bavarian corps, was ordered to take up a defensive position at
Montlh^ry and to send out a detachment to cover Prince Albert's
retreat. The ?2nd infantry division was added to his command,
and the and and 6th cavalry divisions warned to protect his flanks.
Thus the Germans were led to pay attention to the existence of the
15th corps when that corps was not only itself incomplete but also
unsupptorted by the I6th, 17th and .other still merely potential
formations.
The preparattorui of the Germans were superfluows. for the demon*
stration ended in nothing. Reyau drew away leisurely towards
Fontalnebleau forest, and only a part of the 15th corps was sent up
from Bourgcs to Orleans. Further, the fears of a sortie from Paris,
which had occupied the German headquarten for some time, having
for a moment ceased. Moltke on the 7th ordered von der Tann,
with the I. Bavarian coVps, 22nd division, and the three cavalry
divisions, to advance. Next day these orders expanded. Orieans
and, if possible, Toura itself were to be captured.
The punishment for the military promenade in Beauce was
at hand. The main body of the 15th corps, which had not been
required to take part in it, was kept back at Bourges
23i^^ and Vicrzon, and only the miscellaneous troops
OritmmB. actually in Beauce were available to meet the blow
they had provoked. On the xoth von dcr Tann at-
tacked Reyau, who had returned from Fontaineblcau towards
Orieans, at Artenay Had it not been that von der Tann believed
that the 15th corps was in front of him, and therefore attacked
deliberately and carefully, Reyau's resisUnce would have been
even more brief than it was. The French were enormously
•utoumbered, and, after a brave resistance, were driven towards
Orleans in great disorder. Beiiig still ivlthout any real pOcnsive
intentions, the Delegation and La Motte-Rouge decided, the
same night, to evacuate Orleans. On the nth, therefore, voa
der Tann's advance had to deal with no more than a strong
rearguard on the outskirts of Orleans. But he was no longer
on the plain of Beauce; villas, hedges and vineyards, as ««U
as the outskirts of the great forest of Orleans, gave axccUent
cover to the French infantry, all of which showed steadiness
and some battalions true heroism, and the attack developed
so slowly that the final positions of the defenders were net
forced till dose upon nightfall. The Germans lost at least 1000
men, and the harvest of prisoners proved to be no mote than
1500. So far from pressing on to Tours, the Gemuua were
well content with the occupation of Orleaaa.
The defeated enemy disappeared into Sdogne, whither the aoait*
ants could not follow. Rumours of all sorts began to assail the
German comntandcr, who could not collect reliable news by means
of the agencies under his own control because of the fluctuating but
dense cordon of mobiles and francs-tireurs all around him. Moltke
and Blumenthal wished him to strike out southward towards the
arsenab of Bouiges. the depAts of vehicles at Chftteaurous and the
improvised government ofhces at Tours. But he represented that
he could not maintain himself nine or ten marches away from his
nearest supports, and he was therefore allowed to stay at Orleans.
The 22nd division and the 4th cavalry division, however, were
withdrawn from him, and under these conditions von der Tana
became uneasy as to his prospects of retaining even Oiieaoa. His
uneasiness was emphasixcd by reports of the appearance of heavy
masses of French troops on the lx>ire above and below Orieans-^
reports that were true as regards the side of Blob, and more or less
false as regards the Gien country. Thb news was obtained by tJie
III. Army headquarters on the 19th of October, and next day voo
der Tann was ordered " not to abandon Orleans unless threatened
by a greatly superior force." Such a threat soon ixcame pronounced.
A new directing influence was at work at Tours in the person of
Lbon Gambetta, who arrived there by baUoon from Paris and took
control of the Delegation on the 1 ith. With de Freycinet (who was
appointed deputy minister of war) as hb roost valued assisunt,
Gambetta at once became not merely the head of the government
in the provinces, but the actual director of the war, in virtue of the
fact that be was the very incarnation of the spirit of resistance to
the invader. De la Motte- Rouge was replaced at the head of the
I5ih corps by General d'Aurelle de Palaaines, under whom at the
same time the embryo i6th corps was placed. The new commander
with practically dictatorial powers occupied himself first of alt with
the organization and training of his motley troops. The Delegation
indeed planned an advance from Gien on Fonuinebleao, but thb
was given up on d'Aurelle's representations, and the ijth corps
drew back to a strong position at Salbris in front of -^^ ^
Bouires. There by dint of personal ascendancy, relent- 1/^22!
less drilling and a few severe courts-mvtial, d'Aurelle *«•'■*
produced an enormous improvement in the quality of hb troopa.
Gambetta reinforced the troops at Salbris to the figure of 60,000^
for the camp there was not merely a rendezvous but a school, the
atmosphere of which profoundly affected even troops that only
spent three or four da>>s within its bounds. Meantime the i6tli
corps was formed at Blois and Venddme, covered by a screen of
francs-tireurs and National Guards. On October 23 a large foroe
was sent over to the i6th corps from Salbrb. This step was the£rst
in a new plan of campaign.
A few days before it was taken, there had occurred an incident
which led Moltka to a fresh misunderstanding of the situatkNi
towards the Loire. As mentioned above, the 22nd infan- ,^^^
try and 4ih cavalry divisions had been withdrawn from JJJ"
von dcr Tann's command and ordered back to Paris, """•
and on their way thither they were told to clear the country round
Ch&teaudun ana Chartres. General von Witticb, therefore, with the
22nd division and some cavalry, appeared before Ch&teaudun on the
1 8th of October. The little town was strongly held and repulsed the
first attack. Wittich then prepared a second assault so carefully that
sunset was at hand when it was made. It would seem indeed
that at this period, when the Germans were hopii^ for a speedy
return to their fatherland, the spirit of the offensive in all ranks
had temporarily died awav. The assailants carried the edee of tbe
town, only to nnd themselves involved in a painful stniggle In tbe
streets, fiouse-to-bouae fighting went on long after dark, but at
last the inhabitants gave way, and the Germans punished the town
for its unconvenrional resUtanc« by subjecting it to what was
practically a sack.* After this von Witticn passed on to Charters,
which, making his preparations more carefully, he was able to occupy
after a few shells had been fired. These events, and the p re sence of a
French force at Dreux, as a matter of fact signified nothing, for the
lyh and 16th corps were still on the Loire and at Salbris. but they
* In 1879 the government added the cross of the Legion of Honour
to the town arms of Ch&teauduo,
ORLEANS
bewildered the German heodquarten and oonjured up a phantom
" Army of the West/' jiut as the promenade in fieauce had fashioned
"the Artny of the Loire" out of the small force under ^eyau.
Once more, indeed, as so often in the war, the Germans tried to solve
the French problem by German data, and in their devotion to the
net, idea of " full steam ahead," c»uld not conceive of military
activity being spasmodic or unaimed. But thU time the Versailles
strategists were wrong only in their ^uess aa to the dizection of the
bhyw. A blow was certainly impendmg.
By DOW the deliverance oi Paris had become the defined objective
ol the " new formations " and of the provincial I^cgation. Many
plans were discussed, both at Paris and at Tours, for a combined
effort, but each strategist had to convince the rest of the soundness
o( his own views, and the interchange of information and plans
between Trochu and Gambetta was necessarily precarious. In the
end, however, a few dear principles were accepted— Paris must be
relieved, not merely revictuallcoi and the troope must be set in
motion with that object at the earliest possible moment. For
3O0/)0O French regulars were closely invested in Mctx by Prince
Frederick Charles with the I. and If. Armies, if they patted into
captivity, the veterans of Vionville and St Privat could be brought
over to the Loire, and already there were strange rumours of intrigues
b etwe e n Bazaine, BisinarcK and the empress Eugenic. But de
FreydneC and d'Aurelle had different views as to the method of
recapturing Orleans, which was agreed upon as the first thing to be
done, and a compromise had to be made, by which 25,000 men
were to advance by Gten and Ch&teauneuf and the main mass
(75,000) from Blols by Beaugency. the haaards of this double
oiovement being mininuMd by the weakness of the forces under
von der Tann (the highest estimate of these that reached Tours
was 60,000 and their real number only a6.oooj. The preliminary
movements were to be completed by the a9th of October, when one
strong division of the isth corps was to be set at Gien and the
remamdcf of the 15th and i6th corps between Blots and Vend6me.
Thia was duly carried out, and the Germans were confirmed in
their tuapictons of a concentrstion to the west of Paris by the despatch
of dommy troop^rains to Le Mans. But bad weather, the news of
the diaaatrouB ca|»tulaUon ol Baaine and the opcwng of a series of
fistik paMt acgouatiooi delayed the denouement, the Gica column
was hastily recalled, and the French armies stood fast all along the
line in their original grouping, 75.000 men (15th and 16th corpslat
Blois-VcodAme. io/xx> men m Cologne and 35,000 at Gien. The
Germans round Orleans were some 25,000 strong. Between
Montlhiry and Chartres were 21 ,000 more ; but these were paralysed
by the fictitious " Western Army ** of the French, and von ^\'ittich
even thouaht of obtaining assistance from von der Tann. The
activity of the irregulars, and the defiant attitude of the civil
population eveiywhere. presaged a blow to be delivered by the
once despised new formations," but the dircct'ion of this blow
was misconceived by the German headquarters, by the staff of the
III. Army and by von der Tann alike, till the eve of its delivery.
The halt of the French army allowed this uneasiness to grow, and.
in default of a target. MoUIte was unable to assign a denn'
to the U. Army, now on its way from Metz. One of its corps.
therefore, was sent to the lines Wore Paris to release the 17th
and 22nd infantry divisions from siege duties, and these, with the
I. Bavarian corps and the 2nd, 4th and 6th cavalry divisions, were
constituted into a special detachment of the III. Army, under
Friedrich Fran2, grand duke of Mecklenburg-Schwcrin. The duke
was ordered to cover the stejee of Paris and to break up the " new
formations," but he was directed, not towards Orkans or even
Tours, but towards Lc Mans, concentrating with that object between
Ch^tcaudun and Chartres.
D'Aurelle. if cautious and stow, at least employed spare time
well. The 16th corps was dixipllned to the standard attained by
the 15th and Chanzy was placed at the head of it. General Ficreck.
commandinff at Le Mans, was ordered to attract the enemy's notice
to the west Dy demonstrations, the defence of localities by irregulan
was thoroughly organised, and in the first days of November, on
de Frevcinet's demand, the general advance was resumed. There
was a oiffervnce of opinion between d'Aurelle and Chanzy as to the
objective, the latter wishing to make the main effort by the left,
so as to cut off the Bavarians from Paris, the former, to make it by
the right with a view to recapturing Orleans, and. as on the German
side at Gfavclottc. a compromise was made whereby the army was
deployed in equal force all along the line.
The d6but was singulariy encouraging. Part of the German 2nd
cavalry division, witA its infantry supports, was severdy handled
eqo
ORLEANS
by the FVendi advinced gnid near the fmnktT^ St Lsment do*
nois ( November S ). The half •^^artc<ine•s of the Cormans. c videncvd
by the number of prisoners taken unwoundcd. ffa>atly encouraged the
** new formations." who cheerfully Mibmitted to a cold biirouac in
anticipation of victory Next morning the advance was fetumed,
d'AuPclle with the 15th corps on the right wing, Chanzy with the
l6th on the left and Reyau's cavalry to the front. The march was
made straight across country, in battle order, each brigade in line
of battalion columns covered by a dense skirmish line. The French
Snerals were determined that no accident should occur to ahake
e moral of the youi^ troops they oommandcd.
At Oricans. meanwhile, von der Tann. in ever^gpowifig Mispense,
had. rightly or wrongly, decided to stand his ffround. He had been
instructed by the headquartem staff not to fall back except under
heavy pressure. He had his own reputatbn. dmimcd by the
failure dT 1866. to retrieve, and national honour and loyalty seemed
to him to require, in the words of his own ttaff officer, tnat ** eic
actual conflict had taken place with the ' greatly superior ' enemy,
no hostile force should enter the city placed under the protection of
the Bavarians." But he could not albw himself to be envek>pcd
in Orieans itself, and therefore, callini^ upon the farKliscant 111.
Army reserves for support, be took up his position with 23.S00 men
around Coulmiers, leaving 3500 men to hold Orleans. The line of
defence was from^ St Permvy on the CbAteaudun road through
Couimkrs to La Rcnaidiire. and thence along the Mauve strcamc
and here he was attacked in force on the 9th of November. The
French approached from the south-west, and when their right had
uken contact, the remainder gradually swung rouAd and attacked
the Bavarian centre and right. The result was foregone, sivcn the
disparity of force, but the erratic moxncments 01 Reyau's
cavalry on the extreme left of d'AurellCf line exposed
Chanzy to a partial repulse and saved the Bavarian n^ht.
When at last the French stormed Coulmiers, and von dcr Tann
had begun to retire, it was already nightfall, and the exhausted
remnant of the I. Bavarian cor(>s was able to draw off unpursued.
The Orleans garrison followed suit, and the French army, gathering
in its two outlying columns from Sologne and Gien. reoccupied the
dty. So ended the first bbw of the Republc's armies. Coulmiers
would indeed haxT been a crushing victory had Revau's cavalry
performed its part in the scheme and above all had d'Aurdle. adopt-
tag unreservedly either his own plan or Chanty's, massed hb troops
here, economized them there, in accordance with (he jpUn. instead
of arraying them in equal strength at all points. But d'Aurelle
wished above all to avoid what is now called a '^ regrettable incident "
•whence his advance acroaa country en IxUa Ule a nd to thin out his
line at any point might have been disastrous. And incomplete as
it was, the victoiy had a moral significance which can scarcely be
o v erra te d. The '^new formations had won the first battle, and it
was confidently hoped by all patriou that the spell of defeat was
broken.
But d'Aurelfe and the government viewed their succesa from the
•tandpoinc of their own side, and while von der Tann. glad to
escape from the trap, fell back ouickly to Angerville, d'Aurellc's only
fear was an offensive return. Not even when von der Tann's defen-
sive intentions were ct»iablished did d'Aurelle resume the advance.
The columns from Gien and the Sologne peacefully reoccupied
Orleans, while the victors of Coulmiers went into cold and muddy
bivouacs north of the chy. for d'Aurelle feared that their dispersion
in comfortable quarters would weaken the newly forged links of
discipline. The French general knew that he had only put his hand
to the plough, and he tnouchc that before ploughing tn earnest he
must examine and overhaul his implement. In tnis opinion he was
supr)orted not only by soldiers wno. like Chanzy, distrusted the
staying power of the men, but even by the government, whkrh knew
that tne limit of the capital's renstance was still distant, and felt
the present vital necessity of protecting Bouri^es, Ch&teauroux and
Tours from Prince Frederick Charles, who with the II. Army was
now approaching from the east. The plan of General Borel. thechief
of staff, for a lateral displacement of the whole army towards Chartres
and Dreux, which would have left the prince without an animate
target and concentrated the largest possible force on the weakest
point of Moltkc's (Msition. but would have exposed the arwnals
of the south, was rejected, and d'Aurelle organized a large fortified
camp of instructran to the north of the captured city, to wiiicb came,
beside the isih and 16th corps, the new 17th and 18th.
To return to the Germans. An army at the halt, screened by
active irregulara. is invisible, and the German commanders were
again at a loss. It has been mentioned that a day or two
before the battle of Coulmiers Molikc had created an
Army Detachment under the grand duke of Mecklenburg
for operations south of Paris. His obiects In so doing
must now be briefly summarized. On November (ho ist
he had written to the II. Army to the effect that " the south of
France would hardly make great efforts for F^ris," and that the
three dispoable obiips of the army were to range over the count 1^
as far as Chak>n-sur-SaOne. Nevers and Bourges. By the 7th bis
views had so far changed tnat he sanctioned (he formation of the
*• Detachment " with a view to breaking up the Army of the Loire
by a march into the vrst towards Le Man*, the rii?ht wing of the 1 1.
Army at the same tinM harrying on to Fonutnebleau to cover the
aonth aide nf* tne Pptis invisRiiieiit* itv IdiK, nowver. fei^ co^
vlfieed than Mokkeof the position of the Army of the Loire. Mspended
(he westward depk>ymeni of the Detachment, with the rcMilt that
on the lOlh the reireaiine Bavarians were reinforcod by two fresh
divisions. But the same day all touch with the French was lost~
perhaps ddiberatdv. In accordance with the maxim that defeated
troops should avoid contact with the victor. The curtain descended,
and next day a few vague m ovem e nts of smalt bodies misled the
5 rand duke into seeking his target toward* Chartres and Drrux,
irectly away from d'Aurelle's red position. Once more the kii«
intervened and brought him back to the Orleans-Paris rt>ad (Nov.
13-14). but Moltke hurried forwani the IX. conis (II. Army)
from Fonuinebleau to Etampes so as to release ibe gnnd duxe
from covering diitiea while aatisfying the king's snshes for direct
protection towards Orieans.
Molifce's views at the problem had not fundamenullv dtanged
since the day when he ordered the II. Army to spread oiic over
southern France. He now told the grand duke to beat the Army
of the Loire or Army of the West near Dreux or Chartrt*s. and. that
done, to sweep through a brood bdt of country on the Puie Alencon-
Vemeuil towards Rouen, the outer win^of the II. Army meanwfiile,
after recapturing Orfeans and destroying Boutges, to descend the
Loire and Cher valleys towards Tours (14 Nov).- On the tsth a
fresh batch of information and surmises caused the leader of the
Detachment, who had not yet received onieri to do so, to leave the
Paris-Orleans road to take care of itsrif and to swing out north-
westward at once. The Detachment reached Chartres, Rambottillct
and Auneau that night, and headquarten, having meanwhile been
mystified by the news of a quite meaningless fight between German
cavalry and some mobiles at Dreux. did not venture 10 reimpose
the veto. The adventures of the Detachment need not be traced
in detail. It moved first north towards the line Mantes-Dretix, and
delivered a blow in the air. Then, hoping to find a target ._
towards Nogent le Rotrou, it swun^ round so as to face
aoutb-weat. Everywhere it met with the shaipest resist-
ance from small paities. nowhere it found a large body JJ^JJL^
of all arms to attack. Matters were made wotk oy suit **^"n^
blunders in the duke's headquarters, and on the 19th, after a day of
indescribable confusion, be had to halt to sort out his divisions.
Moltke gave him the rest day he asbed for the more readily as he
was beguming to suspect that the king was right, that there were
considerable forces stdl at Orleans, and that tite Detachment might
be wanted there after alt
Thu alteratkm in his views had been brcHight about by the reports
from the II. Army during its advance from Champagne to the
G&tinais. At the time of the first order indicatii^Chakm, .^„^^^
Nevers and Bourfn as its objectives this army had just ZfHSS.
opened otit into Knc from its circular position round 5*—*
Metz, and it therefore naturally faced south. Moving ^'^^y*
forward, it reached the tine Troyes-NeufchAtcnu about the time
Coulmiers was fought£and was ordered to send in its right (IX. oorps)
to Fontainebleau. The II. corps had already been taken to
strengthen the besiegers, thereby releasing the two Prussian divisions
fiyth and 32nd) that joined von der Tann on the foth. The IL
Army next changed front, in accordance with Moltke's dhnectkMU.
so as to face S.E. towards Orleans and Gien. and on the 16th the
IX. corps and ist cavaliy division were at MftrMlle and on the
OrlcanvParis road, the IiI. at Sens and the X. at Toanerre. The
Iff. and X. from this time onward marehed, camped and slept in
the midst of a populatbn so hostile that von Voim-Rhets kept hb
Charics I
main roads t
iVoiets-F
I, ana Pri
in the nudst of the fighting troops, and Prince Frederick
himself, with an escort, visited the villages lying off the
ids to gauge for hinnetf the temper of (he innabitants.
From prisoners it was gleaned that the French 18th corps, supposed
by the Germans to be forming in the Dijon-Lyons region, had
arrived on the Loire, and a deserter said that there were 40.000 men
encamped at Chevilly. just north of Orleans. Moltke's faith in his
own reading of the situation was at last shaken; whether the Army
of the Loire had joined the Army of the West or was still on the
Loire, he dkl not yet know, but it was almost certain that from
wherever they came, considerable French forces were around Odenoa.
He warned tlie rnnce to check the southward swing of the X. cor|ia
" because it cannot yet be foreseen whether the whole army will not
have to be empkyyed towards Ch&ieaudun and Orleans," and turned
to the Detachment for further Informatron, cautioning the grand
duke at the same time to keep touch with the II. Army. But,
Ignoring the hint, the grand dnke, thinking that he had at last
brought the elusive " Army of the West " to bay in the broken
ground round Nogent4e-Rotrou. opened out. in accordance with
nerman strategic principles, for a double envek>pment of (he enemy.
He struck another btew m the air. The " Army of (he West " had
never really existed as an army, and its best'Ofganized units had
been sent back to join the new 21st corps at Le Mans ere (he Detach-
ment came into action at all, while the oWer mobiles continued ibe
*• small war " in front of the Germans, f nd sniped their sentries and
trapped tfieir patrols as before. Almost simuhaneously with the
news of this disappointment, the prince, who had meanwhile used
hU cavalry vigorously, sent word to Versailles on the Mth that the
French 15th. 16th, 17th and l8th corps (in all over 150,000 aie«)
were round Ortenas. At this moment the I II, coeps was elom t» the
Faratt of Orleofit. tha IX. eprpiaiwy4»th« liglifcfnr at Apflwvilla,
and the X. equally distant to th« south-east, aa well as separated ia
three self^onuined columns a day s majrch apart. It seemed as if
another Vionville was at hand, but this ume Alvensleben and
VoigtS'Rhets did not attack an obscure objective co^ mu coAu,
They stood fast« by the prince's order, to cloae up for battle and to
wait oo events in front o£ the Detachment.
The Germans had now discovered their target, and their stzategical
■ystem. uncomplicated by oast nightmares, should have worked
MkootlUy to a decisive tesuit. But there was nearly as much con*
fusion between the various high officers as before. Prince Frederick
Charles, ta possession of the facts and almost in contact with the
caemy, wrote to the grand duke to say that the II. Army was
•bout to attack the enemy, and to suggest that the Detachment,
which he knew to be headmg for Lc Mans, should make a " diver-
sion " in his favour towuds Tours, reserving to himself and his own
army, as on the 2od of July 1866 before Kdaiggr&tx, the perils and
the honours of the battle. The grand duke meanwhile, whose temper
was now roused, was making a last atfempt to bring the phantom
" Army of the West " to action. Rejecting Blumenthal's somewhat
timidly worded advice to go slowly, the grand duke mread out hia
forces for the last time for an enveloping advance on Le Mans.
He had not gone far when, on the a^rd. he received a peremptory
order from ihc king, through the III. Army headquarters^ to bring
^.^ ,. bark his forces to Bcauce and to be on the middle Loire
22«!1# »^ *•*«•' *»y l**« *^*»-. *" ^»n he pkssdcd for a day to
3 bj!jf ^^'^"^ "P» ^^ '''"S replied that the march must p> on,
r~^ for much depended on it. Moltke. in fact, had seiaed
ontmua, ^^^ '^^^ ^^^^ firmly at the critical moment, and given
directions to the armycommanders.that the II. Army and
the Detacbroeat were to make a combined and concerted attack
as soon as possible after the 26th. By that date the last brigades
of the 11. Army would have conae up. and the Detachment was to
time its own match accordingly. Yet even at this step Blumenthal,
the cmginal author of the Western cxpcditk>n. in transmitting the
king's order to the grand duke, assigned not Orleans but Bcaugency,
«>me miles down the river, as tlie objective of the Detachment.
D'Aurelle meanwiiilc had resolutely maintained hb policy of
inaction, confirmed in thar course by the miserable and ill<«quipped
conditwa of the troops that came from the east and the
west to double the numbers of the relatively well-discip-
lined army of Coulmicrs. In the jgrand duke's move to
the west, d'Aurelle saw only a trap to lure him into the plains and
to offer him up as a victim to the approaching 1 1. Army, the foree
of which be at first greatly exaggerated. All this time GarabetU
and de Freycinet were receiving roessagc* from Paris that spoke of
desperate sorties being planned, and assigned December 15th as
the last day of resistance. On the 19th of November de Freycinet
wrote to d Aurelle urging him to form a plan of active operations
without delay, and even suggesting one (whkh was, in fact, vicious),
but in reply the general merely promised to study the civilian s
) letter from Gambetta, which followed this, had
DO better effect. D'Aurelle had. in fact, become a pessimist, and
the Delegation, instead of removing him, merely suggested fresh
plans.
On the 34th, however, the French at last took the offensive,
in the direction of Fontaineblcau Forest, to co-operate with the
great sortie from Paris which was aow definitely arranged. But
owing to d'Aurclle's objections, the first orders were modified so
far tnat on attaining tne points ordered, Chilleurs (15th corps)
Boiscommun-BeUegarde (aoth). the troops were to await the order
toadvance. Shortly afterwards the 1 8th corps from Gieawasordered
to advance on the line Montargis-Ladon. The rest of d'Aurelle*s
huge army was scarcely affected by these movements. Meanwhile
Prince Frederick Charles, to dear up the situation, had pushed out
strong reconnaissances of all arms from the front of the II. Army,
and these naturally devekmcd strons forces of the defenders. The
advanced troops of the X. corps had severe engagements with
fractMMis of the 20th corps at Ladon and Mairidres, and those of the
lit. corps were sharply repulsed at Neuvitk and drew the fire of
several battalions and batteries at Artenay. The French offensive
dowly devek>ped on the 35th and a6tb. for the Germans were not
ready to advance, and in additkwi neatly puzalcd. The erratic
oiovementsof the grand duke towards Le Mans before he was recalled
to the Loire had seriously disquieted both the Delegation and
d'Aurelle, and the 17th corps, under a young aad energetic leader.
de Sonis. was moved restlessly hither and thither in the country
south and west of ChAteaudun. A fight at Brou (10 m. W. oif
Bonneval) provoked the grand duke into another false move. This
time the Detachment, then near Drou6 (la m. W. of Chftteaudun)
and Authon (3> m. W. of Bonneval), swung round north-cast in
defiance of the order to go to Beaugency. and had to be brought
back by (he drastic method of placing it under the orders of
Prince Frederick Charles. General von Stosrh of the headquarters
staff was at the same time sent to act as Moltke's reprewntative
with the duke's headquarters, and Lieut.-Cokmel von Waklereee to
Prince Frederick Charles's to report thence direct to the king, who
was dissatisfied with the diluted informatkm with which the varkms
•Uff offices furnished him. Still, the upshot was that Prince
Fiadcricfc Charles was aaUiMUd with affaira oa the Loink and all
ORLBANS 291
aaperior control waa volaaUrily nincndcred. The prince had very
dear ideas, at the outset, of the task before him. If the French
advanced towards Fontainebleau or elsewhere, he expected
to be able to repeat Napoleon's stratirgy of 1814, fighting
containing actions with the IX. and X. corps and deliver- ^. ^^ ^
ing blow after bk>w at different points on d'Aurclk's line rf*I*J •
of marph with the HI. If the French, as seemed more !!:z.!!!!Li
likely, stood fast, he thought his task more formidable. ™"™"*
and therefore, abandoning the idea of a strategic envelopment, he
ordered the Detachment inwards with the intention of directly
attacking the Orleans position from the north-west.
As regards the-method of the offensive, there is herein no material
advance on the prince's first scheme; the detachment is simply
added to the for^s making the attack, and the diversion on Tours is
abandoned. But the prince was at any rate a loador who enjoyed
the renonsibilities of director of operations — he even said that he
would nnd the shuttle-play of the III. corps alluded to above " an
interesting novelty in his experience of Army command "—while at
the same time the unfortunate d'Aurelle was askji^ the Delegation
to give orders direct to his generals.
It waa now November 27th. The Veraailles headquarters were in
a atate of intense nervous exaltation waiting for the sortie of 70.000
men that was daily expected to be launched at the investing line,
and the king's parting words to von Walderscc indicate suttcienily
the gravity of the decision that was now entrusted to the most
resolute troop-kadcr in the service: " We are on the eve of a
decisive moment. I know well that my troops are better than the
French, but that does not deceive me into supposing that wc have
not a crisis before US. . . . If Prince Frederick Chark% is beaten, wc
must give up theinvestment of Paris. . . ."The II. Army was waiting
events on a dangerously extended front from Toury on the Paris-
Orleaos road (which the prince still thought it his duty to cover) to
Bcauno*la-Rolande. The Detachment, which never yet had concen-
trated save to deliver bk>ws in the air, was approaching ChAtcaudun
and Bonneval when von Stosch arrived and gave it the encouiaae-
ment. the reforms in the staff work and the rest-day it needed. The
French, who themselves had suffered from over-extension, had by
aow condensed on the extreme right. In these general conditions
the battle of Beaune-U-Rolande took place— an engagement almost
as honourabk; to Voiats-Rheta and the X. corps as Vionville to
/Uveaslebca and the III. The French attack began early on tha
mominc of the a8th, under oommaad of General Crouxat. It was
directed 00 Bcauae*la-Rokinde from three stdes,.and only the want
of combination between the various units of the French - .
and the arrival In the afternoon of part of the III. corps PJ""""^
saved the X. from annihilation. As it was, the Gcmians
engaged were utterly exhausted, aad the X. corps had but
thtcc rounds of ammunitioa per maa left. But the maipnifioeat resist-
ance of the men of Vionville proloi^cd the fight until night had fallen
and Crouxat. thinkii^ the battle lost, ordered his troopa to evacuate
the battlefield. As at Coulmicrs, and with even more deplorabte
results, the French commander saw only the confusion in his own
lines, and feared to haaard the issue 01 the campaign on the mere
supposition that the enemy was even more exhausted. There was
another resemblance, too, between Coulmicrs and Beaunc-la«
Rolande, ia that the French forces on the outer flank towards
Artenay stood idle without attempting to influence the decision.
Prince Frederick Charles himself took only a cursory survey ol
the battlefield, and failed to realiaa that the whole of the enemy's
right wing had been engaged, in spite of what Walderaee. who l»d
been in Beaune, told hun of events there. So far. therefore, from
couidering the battle as a great vkrtory to be foibwed up by an
energetic pumrit, he still feared a move round his left flank from
Gien and Mootargia towards Fonuinebleau. The II. Army orden
issued on the night of the battle actually had in view a farther ex«
tenson ea^hMrdT Bcautte-l»>Rolande was a French defeat without
being a German victory, and for the fact that it was a defeat, not a
mere check, there was no cause but Crouaat's impressions of the
suta of the aoth corps, which, composed as it was of the newest
levies in hb arnsy. was the most susceptible of unreasoning bravery
and unreaaontttg depression.
In view ol this. d'Aurelle aad de Freycinet decided that the
offensive was to be continued not towards Bcaune-Nemours, but
from the front of the steadier 15th and 16th corps towards Pithiviera,
and with that object, on the 39th~a day of inaction for the Germans
•^the tSth and 20th corps began to close on the centre. There waa
sharp fighting on the joth at various points akMig the north-eastern
and eastern fringes of the Forest of Orleans, in which for the roost
part the French were succcssfuL On the 39th the II. Army was
inactive in spite of almost frantic appeals from Versailles to go
forward (the great sortie from I^ris hao bc«un).aiid the Detachment,
in accordance with the prince's orders and not with the views held
by von Stosch, headed eastward to prolong the right of the II.
Army, haltme on the a9th in the area Org^rrs-Toury. The prince's
mesage to the grand duke contained the significant phrase. " my
plans to drive the enemy out of Orleans "—he no longer thought
of a strategical envelopment of the Army of the Loire tn Orleans.
Disillusioned during the jOth as to the supposed danger on the side
of Mootargia. he doaed fracn both wings towards the cewire. but
■laUdefeasively andwdicharof the edge of tha diaywiia forest.
292
ORLEY
Oa thii day d'Auretle and ttie French genenlt
• ~ • ' -• advance.
I to receive
de Freyctnet's orders for the next advance. The 18th and 30ih
corps were to attack Bcaunc-la-Rolande, the i5th and l6(h Piiht-
vierg, while the 17th, aided by the a ut (rom le Mans, was to look
after the security o( Orleans against a possible southward advance
of the Detachment. A wise modificatton was arranged between
d'Aurelle and Chanzy. whereby the first day's operations should
be directed lo driving away the Detachment with tne 17th and i6ih
corpe, preparatory to the ntove on Pithiviers. On the 1st of
De^mber, then, no events of importance took place on the front
of the II. Array, the centre of gravity having shifted to
' Orgdres-Toury and the direction of events to the grand
M» te!r **"^ ■"** Stosch. Fortunately for the Cemians the
"" ^"^ cavalry eeneral von Schmidt, who had been called upon
to return to the If. Army with his division, managed to impress
Stosch, in a farewell interview, with the imminence of the danger,
and a still more urgent argument was the action of ViIl4*pion-
Terminiers, in which Chaniy with one infantry and one cavalry
division atuckcd part of the I. Bavarian corps and drove it to
Org^res with a loss of 1000 men. Von Stosch. therefore, so far from
literally obeying the waiting policy indicated m the ordera from
Prince Frederick Charles, cautiously led the grand duke to prepare
for a battle, and the grand duke, seeing the chance of which be had
been cheated so often, and secure in his royal rank and in the support
of Moltke, Stosch and Blumcnthal. took control again. Lastly,
von Stosch called back the aand division, whkh had been taken
from the Detachment to form the reserve of the II. Army.
The result of the decision thus made at the Deuchment head-
quarters was of the highest importance. The French main body
jUMkA/ moving north-westward in the general direction of Toury
"■^•' encountered first the I. Bavarian corps, then the I7lli
division, and finally the 23nd division, and the loadersnip
of the German generals, who took every advantage of
the disconnected and spasmodic movements of the enemv, secured
a complete success (battle of Loigny-Poupry, and Dec.}. Mean-
while, and long before victory haddeclared itself, Prince Frederick
Charles, still keeping the III. and X. corps on the side of Botscommun
and Bdlegarde. had sent the IX. corps westward to support the
Detachment, and halted von Schmidt's returning cavalry division
on the Paris road. But from this point there began an interchange
of telegrams which almost nulltMd the strategical effect of tiie
battle. The grand duke and von Stosch, desirous above all <^
enveloping^-that is, driving into Orlean»--the target that after so
many disappointments they had found and struck, wished to expand
westwards so as to prevent the escape of the French towards
CbAteaudun. and with that object asked the II. Army ** to attack
Artenay and to take over the protection of the great road." Both
von Stosch and von Waldcrsee had reported to the II. Army the
importance of the French troops west of the main road, and nrince
Frederick Charles, as above mentioned, had already mo^ed the IX.
corps and 6th cavalry di^sion towards the Detachment. But
when after the battle the grand duke's request to the II. Army
arrived at the prince's headquarters, the reply was a curt general
order for a direct oonoentric attack cm OrUans by all forces under
his oonniand.
This was Moltke's doing. Before Waldersee's telegrams from the
front arrived at Versailles, he had sent to the prince a peremptory
order " to attack Orleans and thus to bring about the decision. '
This order was baaed on Moltke's view that the main body of the
French had, after Beaune-la-Rolande, gathered on the west side of
the great road, and although the king, m spite of the repulse of the
great sortie from Paris, was still uneasy as to the possibility of a
French offensive on Fontatnebleau, he allowed thie chief of his
staff to have his way. The order, consequently, went forth.
Long before it could be translated into action, the battle of Loigny-
Poupry had completely changed the situatioa. Yet it was obeyed,
and no attempt was nuule by the prince either to obtain its cancel-
latk>n or to override it by the exercise of the beloved " initiative.**
At the prince's headquartera it was construed as a reflection upon
the lethaigy of that army after Beaune-la-Rolande, and-— «lthougb it
was the incompleteness of his own reports of that action that had
misled Moltke as to the magnitude of the effort that had been
expended to win it~<he pnnce, bitieriy resentful, fell into that
dangerous condition of mind which induces a punctilious execution
of oifders to the letter, at whatever cost and without regard to
circumstances^ Hence the order to the Detachment, which alloiwcd
the French field army to escape, and substituted for a decisive
victory the barren " second capture of Orleans."
The plan for this second capture was nmple: III. corps to fight
its way from Pithivien to Chilleurs4iux*Bois and thence down the
PiihiviersOrleans road through the forest. IX. corps to
advance on Artenay and thence down the main road.
Tkt
Ilk
ikaoSmLm I^^chment to fight its way southward over the plains.
Farm^L ^- coTps in rear of the centre as reserve. Only a small
force was left on the side of Montargis. and the III. and
X. corps, which were nuny miles away to the oouth and south-^st,
had to get into position at once (evening of t he and )by night marches
if necessary. In short, a single grand line of battle, 40 m. k>ng,
ned only by one corps in rear of the cemre. was to sweep over
y.ata "
tuppoftei
of pnogrBsaiand on the evening of the second day to eonvcrge on
Orleans.* The advance opened on the morning of the 3rd of
December, llie Ftench left or main group included the 1 vh. I6th
and 17th corps, the right of the 15th corps being in advance o#
the forest edge near Santcau. The right group, now under BourbaUi
conusted of the tSth and aoth corps, and faced north-cast towards
Bcaune-la-Rolande and Montargis, the left flank being at Chambon.
Fortunately for the 111. corps, whkh numbered barely 13,000 rifles
in all, the thinnest part of the opposing cordon was in centre, and
the adventurous nurch of this corps ca^rk^d it far into the forest to
Loury. Only at Chilleun was any serious resisunce met with;
clscwhefe the French sheered off to their left, leaving the Ptthivictv
Orleans road dear. In the night of the 3fdnAth isolated fractioaw
of the enemy came accidenulfy in contact with von AKrnsleben*s
outposts, but a sudden night encounter in woods was too much
for the half-trained French, and a panic ensued, in which five guns
were abandoned. But, as Alvensleben himself saul, when be
marched into the forest from Chilleure he " went with open eyes
into a den '* from which it was more than probable he would never
emerge— Chilleure was, in fact, rcoccupiea behind him by part of
the 15th corps. By the fortune of war the 111. corps actually dki
emerge safely, but only thanks to the inactivit); of the French right
group under Boorbaki," and to the almost entire absence of direct
opposition, not to Prince Frederick Charles's dispositions.
On the main road, meantime, the IX. corps had captured a series
of villages, and at nightfall of the short December day reached
the N.W. comer of the Forest, llie Detachment, slowly pushing
before it part of the army it had defeated at Loign^, and protecting
itself on the outer flank by a flank guard (I. Bavarians) against the
rest, had ckised in towards Chevilly. Prince Frederick Charles,
angered by the slow, fninful and indcddve day's work, ordered the
advance to be continued and the French positions about Chevilly
stormed in the dark, but fortumtely was dhsuaded by von Stosch.
who rode over to his headquarters. But the prince never (esoept
perhaps for a brief moment during the battle of Loigny-Poopry)
believed that there was any seriousoDstade in the way of the Detach-
ment except its own feare, and repeatedly impresaed upon Stosch
the fact that Orleans was the watchword and the objective for
every one.
In pursuance of the iiHfti^ the prince issued ordera for the 4tk
to the following effect: IIL corps to advance on Orleans and to
" bring artillery into action against the city." at the same time
carefully guarding his left flank: IX. and 6ih cavalry divisioa to go
forward along the general line of the main road; Detachment to
make an enveloping attack on Gidy in concert with the attack of the
IX. corps. In the forest Alvensleben, knowing that he could not
capture Orleans single-handed, guarded his left with a whole divisioo
and with the other advanced on the city, stonned the vilbgc of
Vaumainbert, which was stubbornly defended by a small French force,
and close upon nightfall peKonctorily threw a few shells into Orieans.
The flank-guard divisbn had meanwhile been gravely imperilled
by the advance of Crouxat's aoth corps, but once sgain the 1 1 1, corps
was miraculously saved, for Bourbaki, receiving word from d'Aurelle
that the left grolip could not hold its position in advance of the
Loire, and that the line of retreat of the right group was by Cien,
ordered the fight to be broken off.
In the centre the IX. corps, after fighting hard all day, progressed
no farther than Ceroottes. The prince and the grand duke had a
short interview, but, being personal enemies, theia inter-
courre was confined to the prince's issuing hu ordera
without inquiringdosely into the positions oiihe Detach-
ment and its opponents. Thus while the main body of
the French left group, under the determined Chanty, slipped away
to the left, to continue the stninle for three months longer, the
Detachment was compelled to conform to the movements of the IX.
corps. But ft was handled resolutely, and in the afternoon Ha
right swung in to Ormes. The and cavalry division, finding a target
and open ground, charged the demoralized defendere with great
effect, a panic benn and spread, and by nightfall, when the pnnce.
who was with the IX. corps, had actually given up hope of capturiry
Orleans that day and had issued ordera to suspend the fiiB^t. his
rival and subordinate was marching into Orleans with bands playing
and coloura flying. There was no pursuit, and the severed wings
of the French army thenceforward carried on the campaign as tww
separate armies uiider Chancy and Bourbaki respectively.
See F. Noenig, Vclkskrifg an der Loire, and L. A. Hale. Tie
PeopU's War, IxiBtdes eeneral and special histories' and w emoira
referred to in FaANCO^iSRMAN Wax. (C. F. A.)
ORLET« BBRHARD VAN (x4Qx-is43). Flemish painter, the
son and pupil i»f the painier Valeotyn van Orley, was bom at
* The same night Moltke received copies of the prince's ordera
and also news of the victory Of Loigny-Fbupry, but for aome reason
that is still unknown he let events take their course.
>With all his faults, Bourbaki was hardly responsible for this
failure. Cambetta had (or some days been giving ordera to the
iSth aad aoth corps direct, but precisely at the moment he baadod
back the control of the group to d'Aurelle, this being arranged ewer
... -' — vhik the UL CMps was advaaoing.
ORLDV--ORM
«93
Bmsscis ftnd complettd bh art education In Rome fn the school
ol RaphuL He returned to Brusseb, where he%eld an appoint-
nent as eourt painter to Margaret of Austria nntil 1527, in
which year he lost this position and left the city. He only
retunfMi to it upon being reinstated by Mary of Hungaiy fn
153^, and died there in •1549. WhOst in his earlier woric he
conthraed the tradition of the Van Eyeks and their followers,
be inaugurated a new era in Flemtsh art by introducing into
his native country the Italian nuuiner of the later Renaissance,
the style of which he had acquired during his sojourn in Rome.
His ait marks the passing from the Gothic to the Renaissance'
period; he is the chief figure in the period of decline which
preceded the advent of Rubens. Meliciilously carefUl execution,
brilliant colouring, and an almost Ifmbrian sense of design are
the chief characteristics of bis work.
• Van Orley, together whh Michael Cootie, superintended the
execution of van Aelst's tapestries for the Vatican, after
RaphacKs designs, and is himself responsible for some remark-
able tapestry designs, such as the panels at Hampton Court.
His also are the designs for some of the staiilcd glass windows
in the cathedral of Ste Gudule, in Brussels, at the museum of
which dty are a number of hJs principal works, notably the
triptych representing "The Patience of Job" (1521). Among
his finest paintings are a " Trinity '* at LQbeck cathedral, a
" Pleti " at Brussels, a Madonna at Munich and another at
LiveilMol.
TheNationalGallenrownsa" Magdalen, raading," another verrioo
of the same subject being at the Dublin National Gallery. Lord
Northbrook pocaesacs a portrait of Charics V. by the master.
ORLOV, the name of a noble Russian family that produced
several dislingiiished statesmen, diplomatists and soldiers.
Gregory {CrigcrU) Grjcoricvicb Orlov, Count (1734-'
1 7S3), Russian statesman, was the son of Gregory Orlov, governor
of Great Novgorod. He was educated in the corps of cadets
at St Petersburg, began bis military career in the Seven Years'
War, and was wounded at Zorndorf. While serving in the capi-
tal as an artillery officer he caught the fancy of Catherine II.,
and was the leader of the conspiracy which resulted in the
dethronement and death of Peter III. (1762). After the event,
Catherine raised him to the rank of count and made him adjutant-
general, director-general of engineers and gcneral-in-chicf. At
one time the empress thought of marrying her favourite, but
the plan was frustrated by Niklta Panin. Orlov's influence
became paramount after the discovery of the Khitrovo plot
to murder the whole Orlov family. Gregory Orlov was no states-
man, but he had a quick wit, a fairly accurate appreciation of
current events, and was a useful and sympathetic counsellor
during the earlier portion of Catherine's reign. He entered
with enthusiasm, both from patriotic and from economical
motives, into the question of the improvement of the condition
of the serfs and their partial emancipation. He was also their
most prominent advocate in the great commission of 1767,
though he aimed primarily at pleasing the empress, who affected
great Uberality in her earlier years. He was one of the earliest
propagandists of the Slavophil idea of the emancipation of the
Christians from the Turkish yoke. In 1771 he was sent as first
Russian plem'potcntiary to the peace-congress of Focshani;
but he failed in his mission, owing partly to the obstinacy of the
Turks, and partly (according to Panin) to his own outrageous
insolence. On returning without permission to St Petersburg,
he found himself superseded in the emprcs&'s favour by Vasil'-
chilcov. When Potcmkio, in i77»» superseded Vasil'chikov,
Orlov became of no account at court and went abroad for some
years. He returned to Russia a few months previously to his
death, which took place at Moscow in 1780. For some time
before his death he was out of his mind. Late in life be married
his niece, Madame Zinoveva, but left no children.
See A. P. Barsukov, Narralnes from Russian History in the iSik
Cinhtry (Rus.) (St Petereburg, 1885).
Alexis GRiooRrevrcif Orlov, Count (i 737-1808), brother of
the above, was by far the ablest member of the Orlov countly
family, and was also remarkable for his athletic strength and
dexterity. la the revolution of 176a he played an even more
important part than hfs broCher Gregory. It was he who
conveyed Peter III. to the ch&teau of Ropsha and murdered
him there with his own hands. In 1770 he was appohtted com-;
mander^in-chlef of the fleet sent against the Turks, whose far
superior navy he annihilated at Cheshme (July 5th 1770), a
victory whtdi led to the conquest of the Greek archipelago.
For this exploit he received, in 1774, the honorific epithet
Chesmensky, and the privilege of quartering the imperial arms
in his shield. The same year he went into retirement and
settled at Moscow. He devoted himself to horse-breeding, and
produced the finest race of horses then known by crossing Arab
and Frisian, and Arab and English studs. In the war with
Napoleon during 1806-07 Orlov commanded the militia of the
fifth district, which was placed on a war footing almost entirely
at his own expense. He left an estate worth five millions of
roubles and 30,000 serfs.
See artkle. " The Associates of Catherine IT.,'* No. J. in RussUya
Sttrim. (Rus.) (St Petcnbuig, 1873).
Trkoook {Ftdvr) GticoRiEvrcn Orlov, Coitnt (1741-T796),
Russian general, first distinguished himself in the Seven Years'
War. He participated with his elder brothers, Gregory and
Alexis, in the caup d*etat of 1762, after which he was appointed
chief procurator of the senate. During the first Turkish War
of Catherine II. he served under Admiral SpCridov, and was
one of the fint to break through the Turkish Une of battle at
Cheshme. Subsequently, at Hydra, he put to flight eighteen
Turkish vessels. These exploits were, by the order of Catherine,
commemorated by a triumphal column, crowned with naval
trophies, erected at Tsarskoe Selo. In 1775 he retired from the
public service. Orlov was never married, but had five natural
children, whom Catherine ennobled and legitimatized.
Alexts Fcoorovicr Orlov, Prince (1787-1862), Russian
statesman, the son of a natural son of Count Theodore Grigorie-
vich Orlov, took part in all the Napoleonic wars from 1805 to
the capture of Paris. For his services as commander of the
cavalry regiment of the Life Guards on the occasion of the
rebellion of 1825 he was created a count, and in the Turkish
War of 1828-29 rose to the rank of lieutenant-general. It is
from this time that the brilliant diplomatic career of Oriov
begins. He was the Russian plenipotentiary at the peace of
Adrianople, and in 1833 was appointed Russian amba^dor at
Constantinople, holding at the same time the post of commander-
in-chief of the Black Sea fleet. He was, indeed, one of the most
trusty agents of Nicholas I., whom in 1837 he accompanied on
his foreign tour. In 1854 he was sent to Vienna to bring Austria
over to the side of Russia, but without success. In 1856 he
wai one of the plenipotentiaries who concluded the peace oi
Paris. The same year he was raised to the dignity of prince,
and was appointed president of the imperial council of state
and of the council of ministers. In 1857, during the absence
of the emperor, he presided over the commission formed to
consider the question of the emancipation of the serfs, to which
he was altogether hostile.
His only son. Prince NncoiAi Alcksteevtch Orlov (r827-
1885), was a distinguished Rusdan diplomatist and author. He
first adopted a military career, and was seriously wounded in
the Crimean War. Subsequently he entered the diplonistic
service, and represented Russia successively at Brussels (1860-
1870), Paris (1870-1882) and Berlin (1882-1885). As a publicist
he stood in the forefront of reform. His articles on corporal
punishment, which appeared in Russkaya Slarina in 1 88 1 , brought
about its abolition. He also advocated tolerance towards the
dissenters. His historical work. Sketch oj Thru Weeks* Campaign
in 1806 (St Petersburg, 1856) is still of value. (R. N. B.)
ORM. or OMcm, the author of an English book, called by
himself Ormtdum ("because Orm made it*'), consuting of
metrical homilies on the gospels read at mass. The unique MS.,
now in the Bodleian Library, is certainly Orm*s autograph,
and contains abundant corrections by his own hand. On palaeo-
graphical grounds it is referred to about a.d. izoo, and this
d.ite is supported by the linguistic evidence. The dialect is
midlaod, with suae northern features. It la marked in an
894
ORMAZD— ORMEROD
unparalleled degree by Oat abundance of Scandinavian words,
whOc the French clement in iu vocabulary is cxlmordinariJy
small. The precise determination oi the locality is not free from
difficulty, as it is now cecognised that the criteria formerly
relied on for distinguishing between the eastern and the western
varieties of the mUland dialect are not valid, at least for this
early period. The Ormu!um certainly contains a surprisingly
large number of words that axe otherwise nearly peculiar to
western texts; but the inference that might be drawn from this
fact appears to be untenable in face of the remarkable lexic^
affinities between this work and Havdoky which is certainly of
north-cast midland origin. On the whole, the language of the
Ormulum seems to point to north Lincolnshire as the author's
native distria.
The work is dedicated to a certain Walter, at whose request
it was composed, and whom Orm addresses as his brother in
a threefold sense— " according to the flesh," as his fellow-
Christian, and as being a member of the same religious f ratemily,
that of the Augustinian Canons. The present writer has sug-
gested {Athenaeum, tgth May 1906) that Orm and Walter may
have been inmates of the Augustinian priory of Elshom, near the
Humber, which was established about the middle of the lalh
century by Walter de Amundeville. In his foundation charter
(Dugdale's yonaslican, ed. Caley and Bandind, vi. 560) Walter
endows the priory with kinds, and also grants to it the services
of certain villeins, among whom are hisjiteward {praepositus)
William, son of Leofwine, and his wife and family. As this
William is said to have had an uncle named Orm, and probably
owed his Norman name to a godfather belonging to the Arounde>
viUe family, it seems not unlikely that the author of the Ormulum
and his brother Walter were his sons, named respectively after
their father's uncle and his lord, and that they entered the
religious house of which they had been made subjects.
The name Orm is Scandinavian (Old Norse Ormr^ literally
" serpent," corresponding to the Old Eng. vyrm, " worm "),
and was not uncommon in the Danish parts of England. It
occurs once in the book. The Gallidxed form Ormin is found
only in one passage, where the author gives it as the name by
which he was christened. If this sUtement be meant literally
(i.«. if the writer was not merely treating the two names as
equivalent), it shows that he must, like his brother, have had a
Norman godfather. The ending -in was frequently appended
to names in Old French, e.g. in Johannin for Johan, John. The
title Ormulum for the book which Orm made was probably an
imitation of Speculum, a common medieval name for books of
devotion or religious edification.
The Ormulum is written in lines alternately of eight and seven
syllables, witho'it either rhyme or alliteration. The rhythm
may be seen from the opening couplet:
Nu. bfX)t)crr Walltcr. brofierr min
Afftcrr \fc flxshcss kinde.
The extant portion of the work, not including the dedication
and introduction, consists of about 20,000 lines. But the table
of contents refers to 242 homilies, of which only 31 are preserved;
and as the dedication implies that the book had been completed,
and that it included homilies on the gospels for nearly all the
year, it would seem that the huge fragment which we possess
is not much more than one-eighth of this extraordinary monu-
ment of pious industry.
The Ormulum is entirely destitute of poetic merit, though
the author's visible enjoyment of his task renders it not un-
interesting reading. To the history of biblical interpretation
and of theological ideas it probably contributes little or nothing
that is not well-known from other sources. For the philologist,
however, the work is of immense value, partly as a unique
specimen of the north-midland dialect of the period, and partly
because the author had invented an original system of phonetic
spelling, which throws great light on the contemporary pronuncia-
tion of English. In closed syllables the shortness of a vowel is
indicated by the doubling of the following consonant. In open
syllables this method would ha/e been misleading, as it would
have suggested a phonetic doubling of the consonant. In such
cases Om had reooune to tJhe devie« oC pUeing the mark «•
over the vowel.* Frequently, but apparently nod acconUog to
any discoverable rule, he distinguishes long vowels by one, two
or three accents over the letter. Like some earlier wriieis^
he retained the Old English form of the loiter g (5) where it
expressed a spirant sound (not, however, disiinguiahing between
the guttural and the palatal spirant), and vsed the continental
g for the guttund stop and the sound dxk. He was, however,
original in distinguishing the two latter sounds by using slightly
different forms of the letter. This fact was unfortunately not
perceived by the editors, so that the printed text confounds the
two symbols throughouL The discovery was made by Professor
A. S. Napier in xSqql It must be confessed that Orm often
forgeu his own rules of spelling, and although hundreds of
oversights are corrected by interlineation, many inconsistencies
stfll remain. Nevertbekas, the orthography of the Ormulum
is the most valuable existing source of information on the
development of sounds in Middle English.
The Ormulum was edited for the first time by R. M. White in 1S54.
A revised edition, by R. llolt. was published in 1878. Many im-
portant corrections of the text were given by E. Kulbing in the first
volume of En^ische Siwdien. With nrference to the three fortns of
the letter g, ace A. S. Napier, N^s m fftc Orthogrmphyvftk* Ormuimm,
printed with A HiOory oj Ike HUy Rood Trto (Early Emiish Text
Society. 1894)- (H. Ox.)
ORMAZD, or Obmuzd (0. Persian Auramnia or Akuramaxda),
the supreme deity of Zoroastrianism. He is represented as the
god aiid creator of good, light, intclUgenoe, in perpetual opposi-
tion to Ahriman the lord of evil, darkness and ignorance. The
dualism of the earlier Zoroastrians, which may be compared «ith
the Christian doctrine of God and Satan, gradually tended in
later times towards monotheism. At all times It was believed
that Ormazd would idUmately vanquish Ahriman. See further
ZOKOASTCR.
ORMB, ROBERT (X72S-1801), English historian of India,
was bom at Anjengo on the Malabar coast on the 95th of
December 1728, the son of a surgeon in the Company's service.
Educated at Harrow, he was appointed to a writership in Bengal
in 1743. He returned to England In 1753 In the same ship with
CUve, with whom he formed a close friendship. From 1754 lo
1758 he was a member of council at Madras, in which capacity
he largely influenced the sending of Give to Calcutta to avenge
the catastrophe of the Black Hole. His great w^ork— i4 History
of Ike unitary Transactions of the British Nation in Tndosian
from 7745— was published in three volumes in 1763 and 1778
(Madras reprint, 1861-1862). This was followed by a volume
of Historical Fragments (1781), dealing with an earlier period.
In 1769 he was appointed historiographer to the East India
Company. He died at Ealing on the 13th of January iSoi.
His valuable collections of MSS. are in the India Qflice library.
The characteristics of his work, of which the influence is admirably
shown in Thackeray's The Neuxomes, are thus described by
Macaulay: "Orme, inferior to no English historian in style
and power of painting, is minute even to tediousness. In one
volume he allots, on an average, a closely printed quarto page
to the events of every forty-eight hours. The consequence is
that his narrative, though one of the most authentic and one of
the most finely written in our language, has never been very
popular, and is now scarcely ever read.** Not a few of the most
picturesque passages in Macaulay's own Essay on Clive are
borrowed from Orme. (J, S. Co.)
ORMEROD, ELEANOR A. (x82^T90i), English entomologist,
was the daughter of George Ormerod, F.R.S., author of The
History of Cheshire, and was bom at Sedbury Park, Gloucester-
shire, on the nth of May 1828. From her earliest childhood
insects were her delight, and the opportunity afforded for
entomo l ogtcal study by the large estate upon whtdi she grew
up and the interest she took in agriculture generally soon made
her a local authority upon this subject. When, in x868, the
Royal Horticultural Society began forming a collection of
insect pests of the farm for practical purposes, Miss Ormerod
1 largely contributed to it, and was awarded the Flora medal of the
society, ..In. 1877 she issued a. pamphlet. Notes for Obseruati^*
ORMOC— ORMONDE; EARL AND MARQUESS OF 295
Mi i^fmH0iu Imtds, wUch vkm diitribated uMNig pendito
interested in this line of inquiiy, who icadily sent ia tiie results
of tbdt researcbcs, and was tlius the beginning of the wtll-known
AnmuU Serits 0/ lUpwU en imjmious insteU und Parm^ Fuls,
In x88i Miss Onnerod pnbUsbed a spedal report iq>oa the
** tumip-fly," and m iSSs was appointed amsuUing entomologift
to the Royal Agricultural Society, a. post she held until 1S93.
For several yoirs she was lecturer on sdentific entomology at
the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. > Her laae was not
confined to England: she received silver and gold medals fvom
the university of Moscow for her models of insects faijuiioas to
pUnts, and her treatise on Tht InjuriouM Itutds tf S»iitk Afrka
showed how wide ilrfs her range. In 1$^ she received the huge
silvcf medal from the Sodit^ Nationale d' AodimaUtion de
France. Among others of her woilu are the Cebdm Jsumait,
Mauupl of If^urimu Intuls^ and H/uidbook ef Inttets it^tiri9ii$
to Orchard cmd Busk FmiU, Ahaost the kttt honour which
fen to her was the honorary degree of LL.D. of Edhiburgh
University^^ unique distioctioa, for she was ihe first woman
upon whom the university had oooflerTed this degree.^ The
dean of the legal faculty In making -the pftMnution aptly
summoned up Miss Ormerod's services as follows: ** The pre>
eminent portion which Miss Onnerod holdf m the world of
science is the reward of patient study and unwearying observation.
Her investigations have been chiefly ilirected towards the
discovery of methods for the prevention of the ravages of those
bisects which are injurious to orchard, field and forest. Her
labours have been crowned with such success that she is entitled
to be hailed the protectress of agriculture aitd the fndts of the
earth— a beneficent Demeter of the 19th century." She died
At St Albans oa the f 9th of July tgor.
ORMOC, a town of the province of Leyte, Island of Leyte,
Philippine Islands, on the W. coast about 3$ m. S.W. of Tacl^baft.
Pop. (1903), after the annexation of Albuenii 90,761. There
are thirty-throe barrios or villages In the town, and the hirgest
el them had a population in igoj of 5410. The language is
Visayan. Ormoc is in a great hemp^Modttdng region and is
open to coast trade.
ORMOLU (Fr. or NMti/u, gold ground or pounded), an alloy
of copper and alnc, sometimes with at^ addition of tin. The name
Is also used to describe gilded brass or copper. The tint of
ormolu approximates closely to that of gold; it is heightened
by a wash of gold kcquer, by immenion in dilute sulphuric
acid, or by burnishing. The prindpal use of ormolu Is for the
mountings of furniture. With it the great French ebinisles
of the tSth century obtained results which, in the most finished
examples, are almost as fine as Jeweleis' work. The mounts
were usually cast and then chiselled with extraordinary sUH
and delicacy.
ORIIOIIO, a village and winter resort of Volusia county,
Florida, U.S.A., about 68 m. by rail S. of St Augustine. It Is
situated on the Halifax river, an arm of the Athuitie Ocean
extending for a.t m. akmg the E. coast of Florida. Pop. (f 900)
595; (t9os) 689; (1910) 780. It b served by the Florida
East Coast Railway. The Halifax river region it famous for
its excellent oranges and grape-fruit. The hard and compact
Ormond-Daytona bearH, about looft. wide at low tide and about
20 m. long, offers exceptional facilities for driving, motoring and
bicycling; on it are held the annual tournaments of the Florida
East Coast Automobile Association. The old King's Roii'i. buift
by the English between 1763 and 1783, from St Maiy^s. Xfcorgia.
some 400 m. to the sooth, has been improved for automobiles
between Ormond and Jackson viRe. About » m. west of Ormond
are the ruins of an old sugar nti!l, probably dating from the
last quarter of the 18th century and not, as is frequently said,
from the Spanish occupation fn the i6th century. About 5 m.
south of Ormond and also on the Halifax river is another popular
winter resort. Daytona (pop. 1000. 1690; 1905. >i99; 1910,
3182), founded in 1870 as Tomoka by Mathias Day of Mansfield.
Ohio, in whose honour it was renamed Daytona in 1871. Its
Itrcets and jlrives are shaded by live oaks, pahnettos, hidiories
and
ORMORDB, BARL AND MARHUESIOP. titles stiU held
by the famous Irish family of Butler (f.r.), the name bebig
taken from a dlMrict now part of Co. Tipperary. In 13x8
James Butler (fi, 1305*1337)1 a son of Edmund Butler, was
created earl of Ormonde, one reason for his elevation being
the fact that his wife Eleanor, a daughter of Humfrey Bohun,
eari of Hereford, was a granddau^ter of King Edward L
His son James, the and carl (1331-1382), waa four times govennor
of Ireland; the bitter's grandson JameB» the 4th earl (d. 1452),
held the same position several times, and won repute not only
9M a soldier, but as a scholar. Hu son James, the slh eari (1420-
e, 1461), was created an English peer as earl of Wiltshire in 1449.
A truculent partisan of the house of Lancaster, he was lord
high treasurer of England in 1455 ^nd again hi 1459, and was
taken prisoner after the battle of Towton in 1461. He and his
two brothers were than atuhited, and he died without issue,
the exaa date of his death being unknown. The atuinder was
repealed in the Irish parliament in 1476, when his brother
Sir John Butler (e. t4^>-i478), who had been pardoned by
Edward IV. a few years previously, became 6th earl of Ormonde.
John, who was a fine linguist, served Edward IV. as ambassador
to many European princes, and this king b said to have described
him u *' the goodliest knight he ever beheld and the finest
gentleman in Christendom.'* His brother Thomas, the 7th
earl («. t4a4-isr5), a eourtier and an English banm un^er
Richard III. and Henry VII., was ambassador to France and
to Burgundy; he left no sons, and on his death hk August 151$
his earldom reverted to the crown.
Margaret, a daughter of this eari, manfed Sir William Bolcyn
of Blickling, and their son Sir Thomas Boleyn (1477-1539) was
ovated eari of Onenonde and of Wiltshire in 1539. He went on
several important errands for Henry VIII., during one of which
he arranged the preb'mlnaries for the Field of the Cloth of GoM;
he was lord privy seal from 1530 to 1536, and served the king
in many other ways. He was the father of Henryls queen, Anne
Bolejm, but both this lady, and her only brother, George Boleyn,
Viscount Rochford, had been put to death before their father
<ded in Mareh 1539.
Meanwhile hi i$ts the title of eari of Ormonde had been
assumed by Sir Piets Butler (e. 1467-1539), a counn of the 7th
eari, and a man of great influence In IrdAnd. He was lord
deputy, and Utter lord treasurer of Ireland, and hi 1528 he
surrendered his daim td the earldom of Ormonde and was
created earl of Ossory. Then in 1538 hewasmadeeariofOraionde,
this being a new creation; however, he counts as the 8th eari
of the Butler family. In 1550 his second son Richard (d. 1571)
was created Viscount Mountgarret, a title still hdd by the
Butlers. The Bth eari's son, James, the 9th eari (r. 1490-1546),
ford high treasurer of Ireland, was created Viscount Tliurles In
1536. In 1544 an act of parliament confirmed him in the
possession of his earidbm, which, for practical purposes, was
declared to be the creation of 1328, and not the new creation of
1538.
Thomas, the loth eari (i53»-i6i4), a son of the 9th earl, was
lord high treasurer of Ireland and a very prominent personage
during the latter part of the t6th century. He was a Protestant
and threw his great infhience on the ride of the English queen
and her ministers in their efforts to crush the Irish rebels, but
he was perhaps more anxious to prosecute a fierce feud with his
hereditary foe, the earl of Desmond, this struggle between the
two factions desolating Monster for many years. His successor
was his nephew Walter (156^1633), who was imprisoned fnwn
1617 to 1625 for refusing to surrender the Ormonde estates to his
cousin Elizabeth, the wife of Sir K. Preston and the only daughter
of the loth earl. He was deprived of the palatine rights in the
county of Tipperary, which had bebnged to his ancestors for 406
years, but he reco v ered many of the family estates after his
release from prison in 1625.
Walter's grandson, James, the i»th eari, was created marquess
of Ormonde in r642 and duke of Ormonde in 1661 (see below);
his son was Thomas Butler, eari of Ossory (q.v.), and his grandson
irn» James Butler, and duke of Ormonde (see below).
z<)6
ORMONDE, • 1ST DUKJE OF
When Charles Bqtler» eari of Arrta (i67i~x'758), tht bfDthcr
and successor of the 2nd duke, died in December 1758, the
dukedom and marquessale became exlincl, but ihe earldom was
claimed by a kinsman, John Butler (d. 1766). John's cousin,
Walter (1703-1785), inherited this claim, and Walter's son John
(1740*1795) obtained a confirmation of it from the Irish< Houac
of Lords in 1791. He is reckoned as the 17th earL His son
Walter, the i8tb earl (1770-1820), was created marquess of
Ormonde in 1816, a title which became extinct on his death, but
was revived in favour of his brother James (1774*1838) in 1825.
James was the grandfather of James Edward William Theobald
Butler (b. 1844), who became the 3rd marquess in 1854. The
marquess sits in the House of Lords as Baroo Ormonde of
Llanlhony, a creation of 1821.
See J. H. Round on " The Earldoms of Ormonde " In Joseph
Foster^ CMecUuua Gtneuhgica (1881-1883}.
ORMONDE, JAMES BUTLER, 1ST Duxs OF (16x0-1688),
Irish statesman and soldier, eldest son of Thomas Butler,
Viscount Thurles, and of Elizabeth, daughter of Sir John Poynts,
and grandson of Waller, nth earl of Ormonde (see above), was
born in London on the 19th of October t6io. On the death of
his father by drowning in 1619, the boy was made a royal ward
by James L, removed from his Roman Catholic tutor, and placed
in the household of Abbot, archbishop of Canterbury, with whom
he stayed until 1625, residing afterwards in Ireland with his
grandfather. In 1629, by his marriage with his cousin, the Lady
Elizabeth Preston, daughter and heiress of Richard, earl of
Desmond, he put an end to the long-standing quarrel between
the families and united their estates. In 1632 on the death of
his grandfather he succeeded him lo the earldom.
He was already noted in Ireland, as had been many of his race,
for bis fine presence and great bodily vigour. His acUve career
began in 1633 with the arrival of Strafford, by whom he was
treated, In spite of his independence of character, with great
favour. Writing to the king, Strafford described him as
" young, but take it from me, a very staid head," and Ormonde
was throughout his Irish government his chief friend and support.
In 1640 during Strafford's absence he was made commander-in-
chief of the forces, and in August he was appointed lieutenant-
general. On the outbreak of the rebellion in 1641 he rendered
admirable service in the expedition to Naas, and in the march
into the Pale in 1642, though much hampered by the lords
Justices, who were jealous of his power and recalled him after he
had succeeded in relieving Drogheda. He was publicly thanked
by the English parliament and pnesented with a jewel of the
value of £62^ On the isth of April 1642 he gained the battle
of Kilrush against Lord Mountgarret. On the 30th of August
be was created a marquess, and on the i6th of September was
appointed lieutenant-general with a commission direct from the
king. On the i8th of March 16^3 he won the battle of Kew
Ross against Thomas Pccston, afterwards Viscount Taia. In
September, the cavil war in England having meanwhile broken
out, Ormonde, in view of the successes of the rebels and the ur^
certain loyalty of the Scots in Ulster, concluded with the latter,
in opposition to the lords justices, on the 15th of September,
the " cessation " by which the greater part of Ireland was given
up into the haxids of the Catholic Confederation, leaving only
small districts on the east coast and round Cork, together with
certain fortresses in the north and west then actually in their
possession, to the English conunanders. He subsequently, by
the king's orders, despatched a body of troops into England
(shortly afterwards routed by Fairfax at Nantwich) and was
app()inted in January 1644 lord lieutenant, with special instrucr
tions to do all in his power to keep the Scotch army occupied.
In the midst of all the plots and struggles of Scots, Old Irish,
Catholic Irish of English race, and Protestants, and in spite of the
intrigues of the -pope's nuncio as well as of attempts by the
parliament's commi5sioners to ruin his power, Ormonde showed
the greatest firmness and ability. * He assisted Antrim in his
unsuccessful expedition into Scotland. On the 28th of March
1646 he concluded a treaty with the Irish which granted re-
tigk»us concessions and removed various grievances. Mean*
while the difficulties of Us positioft had bsea greatly iKrtaasd
by GUuBorgan's treaty with the Roman Catholics on the tsth of
August 164$, and it became dear that he could not long hope to
hold Dublin against the Irish rebels. He thereupon applied to
the English parliament, signed a treaty on the X9thtor June 1647,
gave Dublin into their hands upon tenns which protected the
interesu of both ProtcstanU and Roman Catholics so far as they
had not actually entered into rebellion, and sailed for £i^;iand at
the begiaaing of AugusL He attended Charles during August
and October at Hampton Court, but subsequently, in llarch
1648, in order to avoid arrest by the parliament, he joined the
queen and prince of Wales at Paris. In September o£ tha same
year, the pope's nuncio having been expelled^ and affairs other-
wise looking favourable, he returned to IftUad to endeavour to
unite all parties for the king. On the X7th of Jaauaty 1649 he
concluded a peace with the oebels on the basis of the free cscrdae
of their religion, on the execution of the king prodaimed Charles
XL and was created a knight of the Garter in September. He
uphdd the royal cause with great vigour though with slight
success, and 00 the conquest of the island by Cromwell he
returned to France in December 1650^
Ormonde now, though in great straits for want of money,
resided in constant attendance upon Charles and the queen-
mother in Paris, and accompanied the former to Aix and Cologne
when expelled from France by Masaria's treaty with CtomwcM
in 1655. In 1658 he went disguised, and at great risk, upon a
secret mission into England to gain trustworthy inteHigcnoe as
to the chances of a rising. He attended the Ung at Fuent-
errabia in 1659 and had an interview with Maaarin; and was
activdy engaged in the secret tiaasactions immediatdy pre-
ceding the Restoration. On the necum of the king he was at
once appointed a commiistoner for the txeasiuy and the vmry,
made lord steward of the household, a pdvy councillor, lotd
lieutenant of SomerMl (an office which he resigned in 1672),
high steward of Westminster, Kingston and Bristol, chancellor
of Dublin University, Baron Butler of Llanlhony and cad of
Brecknock in the peerage of England; and on the 30th of March
1 66 1 he was created duke of Ormonde in the Irish peerage and
k>rd high steward of England. At the same time he reopvcred
his enormous estates in Ireland, and large grants in recom-
pense of the fortune he had spent in the royal service were made
to him by the king, while in the following year the Irish pariia-
ment presented him with ^lo^oDa His losses, however, according
to Carte, exceeded his gains by £868,000. On the 4tb of Novem-
ber t66i he once more recdved the lord lieutcnantship of Ireland,
and was busily engaged in the work of settling that country.
The most important and most difficult problem was the land
question, and the Act of Explanation was passed through the
Irish parliament by Ormonde on the 23rd of December 166^
His heart was in his government, and he vehemently oyp o ae d
the bill prohibiting the imporution of Irish cattle which struck
so fatal a bbw at Irish trade; and retaliated by prohibiting
the import into Irekmd of Scottish commodities, and obtaiaed
leave to trade with foreign countries. He encouraged Irish
manufaaures and learning to the utmost, and it was to his
efforts that the Irish College of Physidansowesils incorporation.
Ormonde's personality Iiad always been a striking one, and
in the new reign his virtues and patriotism became still more
con^icuous. He represented almost alone the older and nobler
generation. He stood akx>f while the counsels of the king vicre
guided by dishonour; and proud of the loyalty of his race which
had remained unspotted through five centuries, he bore «ith
silent self-respect calumny, envy and the loss of royal favour,
dccUring, " However ill I may stand at court 1 am resolved to
lye well in the chronicle."
He soon became the mark for attack from all that was worst
in the court. Buckingham especially did his utmost to under-
mine his influence. Ormonde's almost irzesponsible govern-
ment of Ireland during troublous times was no doubt open to
criticism. He had billeted soldiers on civilians, and had executed
martial law. The impeachment, however, threatened by
Buckingham in 1667 and 1668 fell through. Nevertheless by
ORMONDE, ^ND DUKE> OF
«97
i66g conaunt fanponnnity Isad had Its usial «ffect upon Chartet,
and on the 14th of March Onnonde was removed from the govon-
ment of Irehuid and from the oommlttee for Irish affain. He
made no complaint, insisted that his sons and others over whom
he had influence slioold retain their posts, and oontiniied to fuliil
with dignified persistence the duties of his other offices, while
the greatness of his character and services was recognized by his
election as chanceUor of Oxfoid University on the 4th of August.
In 1670 an extraordinary attempt was made to assassinate
the dnke by a ruffian and adventurer named Thomas Blood,
already notorious for an unsucoessful plot to surprise Dublin
Castle in 1663, and later for stealing the royal crown from the
Tower. Ormonde was alUekcd by this pcRMMi and his ac-
complices while driving up Si* James's Street on the nigfht of
the 6th of DecembeTt dragged out of his coach, and taken on
horseback along Piccadilly with the intentioa of hanging hhn
at Tyburn. Ormonde, however, succeeded in oveicoming the
horseman to whom he was bound, and his servants coming up,
he escaped. The outrage, it was suspected^ had been histigated
by the duke of Bockingham, who was openly accused (4 the
crime by Lord Osaoiy, Ormonde's son, hi the king's pRsence,
and threatened by him with instant death if any violence should
happen to his father; ahd some colour was given to these 4us-
pldons by the Improper action of the Ufig in pardoning Blood,
and in admitting him to his presence and treating him with
favour after- his apprehension while endeavouring to steal the
crown jewels. -
In t07t Ormonde suconsfully opposed Richard IVilbot's
attempt to upset the Act of Settlement. In 1675 he a^ain
visited Ireland, returned to London in 1675 to give advice to
Charles on affairs in parliament, and in 1677 w&s again restored
to favour and reappointed to the lord lieutenancy. On his
arrival in Ireland he occupied himself Ih placing the revenue
and the army upon a proper footing. Upon the outbreak of
the popish terror in England, he at onee took the most vigorous
and comprehensive steps, thou^ with as little harshness as
poasible) towards tendering the Roman Catholics, who were
In the proportion of 15 to i, powerless; and the mlldness'and
modemtion of his measures served as the ground of an attack
upon klm in Enghnd led by Shaftesbury, from which he was
defended with great spirit by his son Lord Ossory. In itSt
Charles summoned Ormonde to court. The same year he irrote
" A Letter ... in answer to the eari of AAgleaey, his Observa-
tions upon the earl of Castlehaven's Memoires concerning the
Rebellion of Irebind," ^nd gave to Charles a general support.
On the 9th of November 1683 an English dukedom was conferted
upon him, and in June t6&| he letumed to Ireland; but he
was reeaDed in October in consequence of fresh intrigues. Before,
however, he could give up h%i government to Rochester, Charles
II. died; and Ormonde's last act as lord lieutenant was to
proclaim James II. in Dublin. Subsequently he lived in retire-
ment at Combury in Oxfordshire, lent to him by Lord Clarendon,
but emerged from ft in 1687 to offer a firm and successful' oppesi-
lion at the board of the Charteriiouse to James'k attempt to
aasttme the dispensing power, and force upbn the institution
a Roman Catholic candidate without taking tlie oaths according
ttf the sututes and the%ct of parlhiment. He also refosed the
king hb support in the question of the Indulgence; notwith*
sundfaig whidi James, to his credit, refuacd to take away Ms
offices, and continued to hold him in respect and favourto the last.
Ormonde died on the stst of July i08S, not having, as he
rejoiced to know, ** ooffived his intellectQals **; and wHh him
disappeared the greatest and grandest figure of the times. His
splendid qualities were espressed with some'' felicity ki verses
«^tten on wdcoming his retnm to Ireland and printed In
i68f:
** A Maa of Plato's gmnd nobility,
An iiUired gmatnem, innau boncaty;
A Man not form'd of acddenta. and whom
Misfortune might oppress, not overcome . . •
Who w«:ighs hunself not by opinioit
But conscfcncse of a wAM actum."
Be «•• Vutied io Westmlasier Abbey on ibe sst' of August.
Ho had, besides two daughters, three sons who grew to
maturity. The eldest of these, Thomas, cari of Ossory (1634-
1680) predeceased him, his eldest son succeeding as and duke of
Ormonde. The other two, Richard, created eari of Arran, and
John, created eari of Cowran, both dying without male issue,
and the male descent of the ist duke becoming extinct in the
penon of Charles, 3rd duke of Ormonde, the earldom subse-
quently reverted to the descendanu of Walter, nth earl of
Ormonde.
AutHoaXTlES.— L«f« of fhe DuJte of Ormonde, by Thomas Carte;
the same authoi's CoUection of OrigtHoi Letters, found amonr tht
Dukt of Omunde't Papers ( 1 739). and the Cane MSS. Ui the Bodldan
Library at Oxford; JJfo tf Ormonde, by Sir Robert Southwell,
pnntod m the History of the Irish Parliament, by Lord Mountroorres
(179a), vol. i.; Correspondenu between Arch^shop Williams and the
Marquess of Ormonde, ed. by B. H. Beedham (reprinted from Archae-
ologta Cambreusis, 1869); ObservaHont on the Attklte of Peat*
betwenm James, Earl ^Ormonde, and Ae Irish Rebels, by Johft
Milton; ffisL MSS. dmm. Reps. ii.4v. and vi.-x.. cap. Rep. viii..
appendix p. 499, and Rep. xiv. App.: pt. vii., USS. of Marquis of
Ormonde, together with new series; Hotes and Queries, vi. scrl v.,
Pp- 343* 4>1it Gardhier's Hist, of the ChU Waf\ Calendar of Staia
Papers (Pomestic) and Irish,i6jj-t66»,wixh introductions ; Biopapkim
Brttanmta (Kippa); ScoUish Risk Soe. Pubtieations: Utters and
Papers of 1650, ed. by S. R. Gardiner, vol. xvS. (1894).
ORMOMDB, JAVB BUTIBR, smd Dvkm or (1665-1745),
Irish statesman and aohlier, son of Thomas, earl of Ossory^ and
grandson of the ist duke, -was b6ni in 'Dublin on the aQth of
April X665, and was educated in Fiance and afterwards at
Christ Churdi, Oxford. On the ^th of his father in 1680 he
beeame earl of Osaory by courtesy. He obtained command of a
cavalry regiment in Ireland in 1684, and having reodvcd as
appottttment at court on the aocesaioikof James IL, he served
against the dokeof Monmouth. Having suoceediedhisgrandfathef
as duke of Omonde in 1&68, he jobed WitSam of Oiunge, hjp
wbomhewasmadeoolonelof atcgimentofhofse-guards, wlrichhe
commanded at the battle of the Boync In z^x he served on
the oontfneot' under William, and after the accession of Anns
he was placed in command of the land foroes oo-operatins
with Sir George Rooke hi Spam. Havfa^ been made a privy
councUkir, Ormonde suoeeeded Rochester as viceroy of Ireland
in 1703, a post which he hdd till 1707. On the dIamiaBal of tha
duke of Mariborough in 17x1, Ormonde was appofaited captain<«
general ti his place, and allowed himself to be made tbe tool ol
the Tory ministry, whose policy wss to cany on the war in the
Netheilaads while giving scatt eiders to Ormonde to take
no active pan m supporting their allies under Prince Eugene.
Ormonde's poaition as captain-general made him a personage
of much importance In the crisis brought about by the death of
Queen Anne. Though he had supported the revolutkm of s688,
he wss traditionally a Tory, and Lord Bolhigbioke was his
political leader. . During the h»t years of Queen Anne he almost
certainly had Jatisbite leanings, and conesponded with the
duke Of Berwick, fie joined Bolmgbroke and Oxford, however,
in signing the proclamation of King Ocoige I., by whom he waa
nevertheless deprived of tbe caplatai-fienetalship. In June t7ts
he was impeached, and fled to fiance, wkoe he lor seme time
rerfded with Bolingbivke, and in 1716 his immense estates
were confiscated to tho crown by act of parliament, though by m
subsequent act his brother, Charles Butler, eari of Arran, was
enabled to le puieha se them. After taking part In tbe Jaciofaite
invaskm In t7t5» Ormonde settled in Spoitt, where he waa in
favourat court and enjo^ a pcniion from the down. Towards
the end of irib Mie he resided much at Avignon, where he was
seen in 1733 by Lady Mary Wortley Montigu. Ormonde
died on the i6th of November. 1745, and was buried in West-
minster Abbey.
WHh little of Ms giaBdfather*f abQity, and hiferfor to him
in elevation of character, Ormonde was neverthelesa one of
the great figures of his time. Handsome, dignified, maffaanimous
and open-handed, and free from the meanness, trcadiery and
venality of many of his leadhig contemporaries, ho enjoyed
a popularity whkh, with greater stability of purpose, might
have enabW him to cxerdaeooounanding inihience over eveata.
t98
ORMSKIRK— ORNE
See Thomas Carte» Bist. «/ !&• Life of James, Duke of Ormonde
\6 voU-, Oxford. 1851), which contiiins much information respccUng
the life of the second duke; Earl Stanhope, Hist of England, com-
trising the Reitn of Queen Anne unta the Peace of Ulreekt (London,
1870) : F. W. Wyon. Hist, of Great Britain durtnt the Rngn «f Qmee»
Anne U vols.. London. 1876): William. Coxe. Memoirs oj Marl-
boreugk (3 vols., new edition. London, 1847}.
ORMSKIRK. a market town and urban district In the Onnskirk
parliament Aiy division of lAncashirc, England, zi m. N.E. ol
Liverpool by the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway Fop.
(xgoi), 6857. The church of St Peter and St Paul is a spacious
building in various styles of architecture^ but principally Per-
pendicular. It possesses the rare feature of two western towezs.
the one square and embattled, the other octagonal and bearing
a short spire. There are various Norman fragments, including
a fine early window in the chanceL To the south-east of the
church, and divided from it by a aczeen, is the Dei1>y chapel,
the exclusive property of the earls of Derby, whose vault is
contained within. A free grammar school was founded about
1614. Rope and twine making, iron-founding and brewing
are carried 00, and the town has kmg been famous for ita ginger-
bread.
The name and church existed m tne time of Ridiard I., when
the priory of JBtirscough was founded. A few fragments of this
lem^ about a m. N. of Onnakirk. The prior and amvent
obtained from Edward I. a royal charter for a market at the
aiaaor of Onnskirk. On the diasolutkMi of the mpnaateries
tiw manor was granted to the earl of Derby.
OBNAMKHT (LaL oman, to adorn), in decorative art, that
element which adds an embelUahment of beauty in detalL Oro**
ment is in its nature aoocssory, and implies a thing to be orna-
mented, which la its active cause and by rights suggest* its
design (9.V.). It docs not exist apart, from its application. Nor
b it properly added to a thing already in existence (that is but
a makeshift for design), but is rather such modification of the
thing Ml ike makini as may be detettnincd by the consideration
of beauty. For example, the cooatruction and proportions
of a chair are determined by use (by the necessity of combining
the maximtmi of strength with the minimum of weight, and of
fitting it to the proportkms of the human body, &c.); and any
modification of the plan, such as the turning of leg*, the shaping
of arms and back, carving, inlay, mouldings, lee.— any recon-
sideration even of the merely utih'tarian plan from the point of
view of art— has strictly to do with Ornament, which thus,
far from being an afterthought, belongs to the very inotptioft of
the thing. Ornament is good only in so far as it b an indispens-
able part of something, helping iU eff ea without hurt to iu we.
It is begotten of use by the consideration of beauty. The test
of omaaent ia iujUneu, It must occupy a ipace, fulfil a purpose,
be adapted to tlR material in which and the prooeia fay which
it is executed. Thia impUca IraafMenl. The treatment befitting
a wall spaee does not equally befit a floor space of the aame
dimeasmoiL What ia mitable to hand-painting ia not equaUy
suiuble to atendlUng; nor what is proper to moaaic proper
to carpet-weaving. Neither the pufposea of deoocarion nor
the condiriona of prodnction aHow great aoope for natunliam
in ornament. lu ionna are derived from aaturst more or less;
but repose is beat secured by some removednesa from nature—
neoesaiuted also by the due treatment of material after iu
kind and according to ita fashioning In the caae of recuning
ornament it is inept to multiply natural flowers, &c, which
at every repetition lose something of thcii^ natural attiactlon.
The artist in omamwif does not imitate natural fctmt. Such
aa he may employ be transfigures. He doca not necemaiily
set out with any idea of natural form <thl» comes to him 1^
the way) ; his first thought is to solve a given problem in design,
and he solves it perhapa moat surely by aseans of abatiact
ornament — witnen the work of the Greeks and of the Arabs.
The extremity of tssf^tom naUiwliim, reached towarda the
beginning of the Victorian csa, was the opportunity «l English
reformers, prominent amongst whom was Owen Jones, whose
fault was in insisting upon a form of ornament too abstraa
to suit English ideas. WiUiam Mocris and oUwn led ^ «^
badt to nature, but to natue trained in the way of onamest
The Styka of ornament, so-called, mark the evolutma of desigB,
being the direct ouioome of Gred^ IUm*n» Byaantint, Gothie
or other conditio ns , ia daya when fashion moved slowly. Poat*
Renaissance ornament goea by the name of the rdgniag king;
but the character of the historic periods wasaot sought by artisu;
it caoM of their working hi the way natural to them and doing
their best. *' Style," aa distinguished from " the Styles," cornea
of an artift'a inteUigeot and sympathetic treatment of his
material, and of Ua personal sincerity and atrength. Inter*
national traffic haa gone far to do away with national chamcter-
istica in omaaaent, which beoomea yearly more and more ahlce
all the world over. The subsidiary nature of onuunent and ita
subjection to conditioas lead to ita frequent repetition, which
resulu in paUerM, repeated forma falbng inevitably into lines,
always self-aaserting, and liable to annoy in pfoportion aa they
were not foreseen by the designer He cannot, therefore, safely
disregard them. Indeed, his fim busiacaa is to buUd pattern
upon lines, if not intrinsically beautiful, ai least helpful to the
scheme of decoration. He may disguise U«m, but capable
designen are senerally quite frank about the ooostraction
of their pattern, and not afraid of pronounced lines. Of come,
adapution being al l emeptial to patum, an artist must be
verted ia the technique of any manufacture for which he designs.
His art is in being equal to the occaston. <L.F D.)
ORNB, a department of the north-west of France, about half
of which formerly belonged to the province of Normandy and
the rest to tke dochy of AJen^on and to Perch*. Pop (1906)
5t5f99S* Area, >37t sq. m. It is bounded N. by Calvados, N.E.
by Eure, E. and S.E. by Eure^t-Loir, S by Sartbe and Mayenne
and W. by Manche. Geologically there are two dittinct regions:
to the west of theOme and the railway from Aijgentan to Aleacon
lie primitive rocks connected wiib those of Briuaoy, to the
east begin the Jurassic and Cretaceous formations of Normandy.
The Utter district is agriculturally the richest part of tbed^part-
ment, ia the former the poverty of the soil has led the inhabit-
ants to seek their subsistence from industrial pursuiu. Between
the northern portions, draining to the Channd, and the southern
portk)n, belonging to the basm of the Loire, stretch the hills of
Perche and Normandy, whicb generally have a height of from floo
to 1000 f L The highest point in the department, situated la
the forest of £couves north of Alencon, reaches ij68 ft. The
department givea birth to tbree Seine tributaries— the £ufe» its
affiuent the Iton, and the Risle, which passes by Isig^. The
Touques, paaing by Vimoutiers, the Dives and the Orne fall
into the English Channel, the last passing S^ and Argentan,
and receiving the Noireau with its tributary the V^, which runs
pastFlers. To wards the Loire flows the Huisoe, a feeder of the
Sarthe passing by Mortagne, the Sarthe. which passes by Aloscoo,
and the Mayenne, some of whose affluenu rise to the north
of the dividing range and make their way through it by the
most picturesque defiles. The department, indeed, with ita
beautiful forcsta contsining oaks several centuries old, its
meadows, streams* deep gorges and stupendous rocks, is one of
the most piauieaque of all France. In the matter of dimau
Orne bekmgs to the Seine region. The mean temperature Is
50* P.; the aummer heat is never extreme^ the west winds are
the most frequent; the rainfall, distributed over about a
hundred daya in the year, amounts to 36 in. or about 5 in. more
than the average for France.
Horse-breetfing is the most flourishing business in the rural
districU; there are three breeda— those of PeKhe, Le Merlerault
and Brittaior. The great government stud of Lc Pio-au-Harss
(esubiished in 17 14), with ita school of horse-breeding, b situated
between Le Merlerault and Argentan. Several honoaraining
establishmenu exist in the depsrtment. A large number of lean
cattle are bought in the neighbouring departtncnu to be
fattened; the farms in the vidnity of Vimotttier*, on the bordeta
of Calvados, produce the famous Camembert cheese, and others
excellent butter. The bee industry b very flouriaJiing. Oats,
wheat, barley and tMickwheat are the chief certals, besida
whifb fodder ia great quantity and variety, potatoes aad jome
iPsnutTi
ORNITHOLOGY
»99
lioDp «re srowB. Tte vaileiy^rpndactloiiitdttetotlitgnftt
Bttunl divtiiky of ib« wUs. Snwli fannsawthe rule, aii4 tlie
fields in theie cues ue •mfounded by liedget lelieved by pdUavd
trees. Aloogtliensdsorinciieendonf«safepUntsdn<UMf<imi
peir snd apple tiees, the Uttw ykfcUiig dder, ptit ol whfch is
msmifsctured into bandy* Beech, «ah, biich end pine are th^
chief timber trees in the estemive fbresu of the department.
Ome has iron nUoes and frweione qoattles; a hind of saohy
quaits known as Alencon dknond is found. Its moit criebnted
mineral waters are thoee of the hot ipiings of Regnolei, which
oontain salt, snlphar and aissnlc, and are employed for tonic and
reslontive purpoecs in cases of fuieml debility. In the forest
of Belilme is the chalybcau spring of La Hesse, wMch waswed
by the Romans.
Cotton and ttnen weaving, principally canled on at Fleia <f .«)
and La Fen6-]ilac& <pop. 43J5)> fonns the staple industry of
Orne. Aiencon and Vlmoutleis are engaged in the produetien
of linen and canvas. Vimouiiers has blaecherics, which, together
with dye-works, are fomd in the tettile centres. Only a few
workaicK are now employed at Alen«on in the making of the
lace which takes lu name fkom the town. Foundries and wire-
woriM aire etist in the department, add articles hi copper, Mnc
and lead are manufactured. Piiis, needlesr wire and hardware
are pfodttced at Laigle (pop. 44^6), and TInchebtay h also a
centre for haidware manufacture. There are also glasa>works,
paper-mfilB, tanneries (the waten of tho Ome being reputed
to give a spedal <ittaUiy to the leather) and glove-works. Coal,
nw cotton, metals and machinery are imported into the* depart-
ment, which exporta lu woven and metal maBufaaure» live
Slock and farm prodace.
The department is served by the Western rsflikty. There are
four arrond i ss emen ts, with Alencon, the capitd» Afgentan,
Dorof rent and Moftagne as theif cMef towns, 36 <antons and si t
communes. The department forms th6 diocere of 8fcs (province
of Ronen) and part of the acadtode (educational division) of
Caen, and the region of the IV. army corps; its court of appe&l
is at Caen. The chief places are Alencon, Argentan, Moitagne,
flen and S£es., Carrouges hss remains of a chAteau of the
tsth and s^th centuries; Charabos has a donjon of the 1 3th
century; and there is a fine Renaissance chftteau at O. A
church in Laigle has a fine tower of the isth century. There are
a great number of megaUthic monuments in the department.
ORlfintOUNIT,'. property the methodical study and conse-
quent knowledge of' birds with all that relates to them; hut the
difficulty of assigning a Hnilt to the c om me n cement of sudh study
and knowledge gives the word a very vague meaning, hnd
practically procures its application to much that does not enter
the domain of science. Thb dastk appKcatioii rsndeii it Im-
possible in the following sketch of the history of ornithology to
drew any sharp distinction between works that are emphatically
ornithological and those to which that title can oifly be attached
by courtesy; for, since birds have always attracted far greater
attention than any other group of animals with which hi nuinber
or in importance they can be compared, there has grown up
concemfng them a literature of corresponding magnitude and of
the widest nnge, extending frera the recondite and khorious
liivcstigstk>tts of the mofphelsgist and anatomlK to the casual
observations of the sportsman or the schoolboy.
Though birds nmke a not unimportaait appeamaoe in the
earliest written records of the human race, the painter's brash
has preserved their counterfeit presentment for a stiQ longer
period* A frsfmeatary fesaoo taken frem a tomb at Mcdum
was desposited some years ago, though in a decajring oenditioQ,
In the Museum of E^llan Antiqidties, Cairo. Tl^ Egyptian
picture was said to date from the lime of the (bird or fourth
dynasty, some thrre thousand yean before the Christian era.
In it were depictied with a marvellous fideUty, and thorough
appreciation of form and colouring (despite a certain conventional
' Omitkohna, from the Crrek ^i^. crude form of ipmt, a bird,
aid -X«^U, allied to XA>vf , commonly Englished a discoune. The
earliest known use of the word Oinithclogy aeema to be in the third
edlik>n of Bbunc's Gtossograpkia (1670). where it u naUfid as being
"theUtleofalateBook.'^
treatment), the figurasof aii gsesa. Pour of these i _
be unhesitatingly referred to two species (Amstr tUUfmu and
A, nficoUU) well known at the present day. In hUcr ages the
rqassentationB of birds of one sort or another hk Egyptian
palatings and sculptures beoosae countless, and the teu»-rtf irsi
of Assyrian ssoooments, thcugh mostly belonging of couiw to a
subsequent period, are not without them. No figures of birds,
hofwever, seem yet to have been found on the indsed stones,
bones or isurics of the prehistoric races of Europe.
Bistory cj Omitkdlogy to £nd of tSlk Century,
Aristotle waa the first serious author on ornithology with
whose writings wr are acquainted, but even he had, n he tells
uik predoccssorsj and, looking to that portion of his
works on animals which has come down tp us, one £3^
finds that, though more than 170 soru of birds are
mcntioBed»' yet what is said of them amounts on the whole to
vtry little, sod this consisU more of desultory observations in
iUustretion of his general remarks (which are to a considerable
extent physmlogjcal or bearing on the subject of reproduction)
than of an attempt at a connected account of birda. One of his
Gommenutors*. C* J. Sundevall— oqually profident in classical
as in ornithological knowledge— -waSi in 1863, compelled to
leave more than a score of the birds of which Aristotle wrote
imadcfttified. Next in order of date^ though at a long interval,
comes Pliny the Elder, in whose Historia Noiwalit Book X.
is devoted to birds. Neither Aristotle nor Pliny attempted to
classify the birds known to them beyond a veiy rough and for
the most psrt obvious grouping. Aristotle seems to recognise
eight principal greupa: (s) CoMptOHycka, approximatelbr
equivalent to the Acdpilns of Linnaeus; (a) Seoleuphag^,
containing most of what would now be called Occmcr, CKepUog
indeed the (3) Acmtkopkai9t composed of the goldfinch, siskin
and a few othess; (4) Sinipotiaga, the woodpeckers; (s)
Poridtroide, or pigeoBS; (6) ScU^oia, (7) SSeganopodc, and
(8) Haras, neariy the same respectively as the Linnsran CtsUm,
Amstfu and GqIUhm. V\aaiyt relying whoUy on chaiactem
uken from the feet, limits himself to three gssvps— without
amigning nanam to them—lhose which have *' hooked tallons,
as Hawkes; or round long dawes, as Henncs; or else they be
broad, flat, and whole-footed* as.Gcese and sU the sort in asaaaer
of watc^loule "—to use the words of Philesaon Holland, who,
in iter, published a quaint and, though condensed, yet f aii^
faithful English tfaadatiott of Pliay'a worii.
About a cantuiy hiter came AeUan, who died about aa 140,
and compiled in Greek (though he waa anitaiUap by birth) a
number of misosllaaeeua ofaservatioas on the peculiarities of
aidasab. Hisworitisakitdofoomarenplaoe book kept without
adeatifk discrimlaatiOB. A coosideraUe nuviber of bisds are
mentioned, and smnrthing said of almost each of them; but
thai soBWLhiog is too often nonsunse according to modcxn ideas.
The twcaty^u hooks Z^^iNfNs/ikBof Albeitus Magnus (Groot),
printed m 147^^ •» founded saainly on Aristotle. The twenty-
third of these books is Do Afikm^ and thsein a great number
of birds' names make their earliest appearance, few of which are
without interest from a philologiat's if not sa ornithohigist's
point of view, but there is much diificulty In recognising the
specim to which many of thcffl belong. In 1485 waa printed the
first dated copy of the volume known as the OrUu tamUoHf,
to the popularity of which many editions testify.' Though
said by its author, Johann Wonnecke von Caub (Latinised as
Johannes de Cuba), to have been composed from a study of the
*This b Sttndeva1t*8 estimate; Dn Aobertand Wimmer ht their
excellent edition of the 'IrtopUi wtpl f^wr (Leipxig, 1868) limit the
number to 126.
* Absufd as much that we find both In Albertus Magnus and the
Ortus seems to modem eyes. If w* go a step lower ia the scale and
consult the " Bestiaries " or treatises on aiumals which were common
from the lath to the 14th century we shall meet with many
moee absurdities. See for instance that by Philippe de Thatm
(f*hilippas Taonenss), dedicated to Adelaide or Afice. queen of
Henry I. of England, and probably written soon aftvr iiti, as
printed by the late Mr Thomas Wright, in Ms Fotithr IVesffSKi #■
^rieacf vrOlsii 4uri»i the Middle Afee CLoodon, 1841).
302
ORNTTHOLOOY
fHlSTORY
In 1767 thera was iisued at Paris a book eniUlttl UHitloiM
naturelU iclaircU datu une de ses parties primipokSt Pomif
thologie. This was ibc work of SalernCi pubUshed after his death,
and is often spoken of as being a men translatioa of Ray's
SynopsiSf but a vast amount ol fresh mattfir, aad mostly of
good quality, is added.
The success of Edwards's very respectable work seems to
have provoked competitioo, and in 1765^ at the iosUgatioa of
Buffon, the younger d'Aubenton began the publication known
as the Planches enlumiuia d'kistaire naturtlk, which appearing
in forty-two parts was not completed till 1780, when the phitea'
it contained reached the number of looS-^ oolouredi as its
title intimates, and nearly all representing birds. Thistnonnous
work was subsidized by the French govemmeoCi and, though
the figures are utterly devoid of artistic merit» they display the
species they are intended to depict with sufficient approach to
fidelity to ensure recognition in most cases without f eif of error,
which in the absence of any text is no smallpraiie.*
But BuITon was not content with merely causing to be pul>*
lishcd this unparalleled set of plates. He seems to have regarded
tlic work just named as a necessary precursor to his own labours
in ormlhology. His HUloirt luUurcik, giniraU €t partkuUirS,
was begun in 1749* and in 1770 he brought out, with the assist-
ancc of Gu£nau dc MontbeUlard,' the first volume of his great
Hisioire naiurelle da oiscaux, BuSon was the first man who
formed any theory that may be called reasonable of the geo-
graphical distribution of animals. He proclaimed the variability
of species in opposition to the views of Linnaeus aa to their
fixity, and moreover supposed that this variability arose in part
by degradation/ Taking his labours as a whole, there cannot
be a doubt that he enormously enlarged the purview of
naturalists, and, even if limited to birds, that, on the completion
of his work upon them in i7$3. ornithology stood in a vciy
dilTcrcnt position from that which it had before occupied.
Great as were the services of Buffon to ornithology in one
direction, those of a wholiiy different kind rendered by John
Latham must not be overlooked. In 17S1 be began
a work the practical utility of which was immediately
recognized. This was his General Synopsis of Birds, and, though
iormed generally on the model of Linnaeus, greatly, diverged
in some respects therefrom. The classification was modified,
chiefly on the old lines of Willughby sad Ray, and certainly
for the better; but no scientific nomenclature was adopted,
which, as the author subsequently found, was a change for the
worse. His scope was coHixtensive with that of Briason, but
Latham did not possess the inborn faculty of picking out the
character wherein one species differs from another. His op^
portunilics of becoming acquainted with birds were hardly
inferior to Brisson's, for during I Jt ham's long lifetime there
poured in upon him countless new discoveries from all parts
of the world, but especially from the newly-explored Jiores
of Australia and the islands of the Pacific Ocean. The British
Museum had been formed, and he had access to everything
(t contained in addition to the abundant materials afforded
him by the private museum of Sir Asbton Levor.^ Latham
entered, so far as the limits of his work would allow, into the
* They were drawn and eagrawd by |ylartin<t, who himself began
in 1787 a Hisioire det oiseaux with small coloured plates which have
some merit, but the text is worthless.
" Bctuxrcn 1767 and 1776 there appeared at Florence a Storia
Katufoie difjH Uceeliif in five folio vofumes. containing a number of
SU<lmwn and ill-coloored ^urcc from the eoltcction of Giovanni
Cerini, an ardent collector who died in 1751. and ihcrefore rousi be
acquitted of any share in the work, which, thoush aomctime* attri-
buted to him. is that of certain learned men who did not happen to be
ornithologists (cf Savi. QrniKdogia Toicana, i. Introduzione, p. v ).
* He retired on the complftion ol the sixth volume, and thereupon
Buffon n>v«ocioTed Bexon with himself
'See Si George Mtvart't address to the Seaion of DMogy* Rep'
Brit Aiioctatton (Sheffield Meeting. l87Q), p. 356.
* In 1793 Shaw began the Mmirum Levfrtanvm in tllustnirion of
this coUeclion. which was finally dispersed by sate, and what is known
to remain of it found iib way to Vienna. Of the speamcns in the
British Museum de s cribed by Latham it ts to be feattd that scarcely
any exist. They were probably very imperfealy prepared.
history of the birds he described, and this wfth evident rest
whsrd>y he differed from his French predecessor; but the
number of cases in which he erred as to the determination of
h» species must be very great, and not unfrcquently the same
■pedes is described more than onee. His Synopsis was finished
in 1785; two supplements were added in 1787 and 1802,* and
in 1790 be prftduced an abstract of the work under the title
of Index Ormtkthgicast wherdn he assigned names on the
Linaaean method to all the species doKribed. Not to recur
again to his labours, it may be said here that between 1821 and
1828 he published at WinchcMer, In eleven volumes, an enlarged
cdition of his original work, entitling h A General His cry tf
Birds; bitt his defects as a compiler, which had been manifest
before. Bather increased with age, and the consequences were
not happy.'
About the time that Buffon was bringing to an end his studies
of birds, Maudoyt undertook to write the OmUkologie of the
Encydopedie mUkodique-'^ comparatively easy task, con-
sidering the recent works of his felIow<ountrymen on that
subject, and finished hi 1784. Here it requires no further com-
ment, especially as a new cdition was called for in 1790, the
ornithological portion of which was begun by Bonnaterre, who,
however, had only finished three htmdrod and twenty pages
of it when he lost his life hi the F^nch Revolution; and the
work thus arrested was continued by Vieillot under the slightly
changed title of Tableasi eneyeiopidiqua et 9nitkodiqt$e des trots
fipfu de la Naktre-^ihc Ornifhotogie forming volumes four to
seven, and not completed till xSaj. In the former edition
Mauduyt had taken the subjecU alphabetically; but here
they are disposed according to an arrangement, with some
few nodificatiom^ furnished by d'Aubenton, which is extremely
shallow and unworthy of conskteration.
Several other works bearieg upon ornithology in general, bat
of less ioiponance than roost of those just named, b^ong to this
period. Among others may be mentioned the Genera of Birds by
Thomas Pennant, first printed at Edinburgh in 1773, but best
known by the edition which appeared in l^ndon m 1781; the
Elementa Omitholopca and Museum Omitktiogieum of SchSffcr,
published at Ratisbon in 1774 and 1784 respectively; Peter Brov-a's
Nino lUustralions oj Zoology in London in 1776*, Hermann's Tahdos
Affinitatum Animalium at Strasburg in 1783, followed posthumously
in i8(U by his Observationes Zoohgicae; Jzcqu\n*» Beylraego smr
Gtsckickle der Vo€t4 at Vienna hi 1784. and in 1790 at the same
place the kuger work of Spalowsky with nearly the same title;
Sparrman'a Museum Carlsontanum at Stockholm from 1786 to 1789;
and in 1791 Hayes's Portraits of rare and curious Birds from the
metugery of Child the banker at Osterhry near London. The same
draughtsman (who had in 1775 produced a History of BriSish Birds)
in 1822 -began another aeries of Figures of rare and curious Birds.*
The practice of Brisson. Buffon, Latham and others of ocglecttng
to name after the Linnacan fashion the species they described g^vc
great encouragement to compilation, and led to what Itas proved
to be of some inconvenience to modem ornithologista. In 1773
P. L. S. MuUcr brought out at Nuremberg a Carman tronslatioa oc
the Syslema Naturae, comoleting it in 1776 by a SuPttemeni con-
taining a list of animals thus described, which had miheito been
technically anonymous, wtth diagnoses and lumea on the Linnacan
model. In 1783 Boddaert printed at Utrecht a Table des planches
euluminies^* in which he attempted to refer every species of bird
figured in that extensive scries to its proper Linnacan genus* and
to assign it a scientific name if it did not already possess one. In
like manner in 1786, Scopoli — already the author of a little book
published at Lcipxig in 1769 under the title of Annus I. llitlorieo'
naturalis, in which are described many birds, mostly from htt
' A German transbtion by Bcchstein subscouently appeared.
"* He also prepared for publication a second cdition of his Judex
Omtikologieus. but this was never printed, and the manuscript
cane into A. Newton's posaession.
" The Naturalists Mtscattanv or Vivarium Nainmte, in English
and Latin, of Shaw and Nodder, the former being the author, the
latter the draughtsman and engraver, was begun in 1789 and carried
on till Shaw's death, forming twenty-four volumes. It contains
figures of more than 280 birds, but very pooriy executed. In 18 r4
a sequel, The Zoological Miscellany, was begun by Leach, Noddcr
continuing to do the plates. This was completed in 18 1 7. and forms
three volumes with 149 plates, 27 of which represent birds.
* Of this work only fifty copies were printed, and it is one of the
itircst known to the ornitholo«isi. Only two copies are belie^-vd to
exist In England, one in the British Museum, the other in prinua
hands. It was reprinted In 1874 by Mr Tegctmcler.
msTOity)
ORNITHOLOGY
303
<iwn colleetion or the Imperial vivtrhim at Vteo M ' w a a at the
Jaint to print at Pavia in hu miscelUfMOus Dttutas Fhra$ d Fannat
Hsubnau a Specimen Zoohgicum* contatniog diagaoaea, dulv
named, of the bird* discovered and detcrUied by Sonnent ia his
samatrmi ^oy<*9i' **** '"^' oritutoiu and Vvyatfi d h NowelU
^aovrw. ^„j„^^ ieveially published at Piaria ia 177a and 1776^
But the most striking example o( compilation vas that exhibited
by J F. Cmelin, who in 1788 commenced what he called the Thir-
Omttia. teenth Edition of the celebrated Syskma Naturae, which
** obained so wide a ciroularion that, in the comparative
rarity of the original, the additiona of this editor have been very
frequently Quoted, even by expert naturalists, aa though they wers
the work of the author himself. Gmelin availed himself of every
CiUication he could, but he perba^ found his richest booty in the
hours of Latham, ,ncatly condensing his English descriptions into
Latin diaanosea, anU bestowing on them binomial navies. Hence
it is that Cmelin appears aa the authority for so much of the nomtn-
clature now in use. He took many hbertica with the details of
Lionaeua'a work, but left the clasaification, at least of the birds, as
it was— a few new genera excepted.*
During all thia time fittle had been done in studying the internal
structure of birds; * but the foundations of the science of embry-
okigy had been laid by the invcatjgationa into the development of
the chick by the great Harvey. Bet ween 1666 and 1660 Ptemult
edited at Paris eight accounts of the disMction by du Vemey of
aa many specws of birds, which, translated into English, were pub*
lishcd by the Royal Society in 170a, under the title of The NoiurtU
Ilutori of AmmaU. After the death of the two anatomists just
named, another aeries of simitar dexriptHMis of eight other specica
was found among (heir papers, and the whde were published tn the
Mf moires of the French Academy of S c ieocea in 1733 and 1734.
Dut in 1681 Gerard Blasius had brought out at Amsterdam aa
Anatomy AniMaiium, oontainittg the results of all the dissections of
nnimafs that he couM find; and the accond part of thia book,
treating of VolatUia, makes a respectable show of more than one
hundred and twenty closely*printcd quano pages, though nearly
two-thirda ia devoted to a treatise D« (hoet Puiht containing among
other things a reprint of Harvey's mcanrhcs. and the sciemific
rank of the whole book may be inferred from bats being still classed
with birds. In 1730 Vakntini published, at FnnkfortHm-thc-Mam.
hia Ampkithcttlrum ZocUmuum, in which again moat of the existing
accounts of the anatomy of birds were reprinted Bui these and
many other contributions,' made until neariy the ck)se of the
1 8th century, though highly meritorious, were unconnected aa a
whole, and it is plain that no oonoeption of what it was in the power
of Comparative Anatomy to set forth bad oocuned to the moat
diligent dissectors.
It was reserved for Georges Cuvlcr, who In 1798 published
At Paris his Tableau iUmentaire de Pltistoire naturelle da ani-
maux, to lay the foundation of a ihoroiigbly and
hitherto unknown mode of appredalJng the value
of the various groups of the animal kingdom. Yet his first
attempt was a mere sketch.* Though he made a perceptible
advance on the classification of Linnaeus, at that time pre-
dominant, it is now eaay to see in how many wa>*9 — want of
sufTicicnt material being no doubt one of the chief— Cuvfer
failed to produce a really natural arrangement. His principles,
however, are those which must stiJl guide laxonomers, not-
withstanding that they have in so great a degree overthrown
the entire scheme which he propounded. Confining our atten-
tion here to ornithology, Cuvier's arrangement of the class
Avcs u now seen to be not very much better than any which
it superKdcd. But this view is gained by following the methods
which Cuvier taughL In the work just mentioned few details
are given; but even the more elaborate classification of birds
contained in his Le(ons d*analomU comparie 0/ 1805 is based
wholly on external characters, such aa had been used by nearly
all his predecessors; and the Xipit Amimcl of 1817, when be
■ This was reprinted in !88> by the Willughby Society.
> Daodin's unfinished Tratti iUmemlm&e ef tompki i' omil ke l o g it
appealed at Paris in 1800. and therefoce ia the last of thcat geeeial
works published in the i8th century
* A succinct notice of the ddcr works on omithotomy is given by
professor Sclenka in the introduction to that portmo of Dr Bronn s
KUuHn mnd Ordnungem de* TkUrrekki relating to birds (pp. 1-0)
published in 1869: and Professor Carus's Ceukickte der Zoolotfe,
published in 1872. may also be usefully consulted for further in-
formation on this and other heads.
' The traatises of the two Barthollnis and Borrichius published
at Copenhagen deserve mention if only to record the activity of
Daniafi anatomists in those days.
* It bad no effect on Lao6pMc, who in the following year added
a TahUau mtihodique comaining a classification of otrds to his
Diu^nn fuuHfttut {Mim de rinsHtm, iii. ppw 454-46I. 503-319)- i
was la hit fuUm vigour, afforded not the least evidence that
he had ever dissected a couple even of birds* with the object
of determining their relative position In his system, which then,
as before, depended wholly on the coofiguralion of bills, wings
and feet. But, though apparently without such a knowledge
of the anatomy of birds as would enable him to apply it to th^
formatk)n of that natural system which he was fully aware had
yet to be sought, he seems to have been an excellent judge of
the characters afforded by the bill and limba, and the use he
made of them, coupled with the extraordinary reputation he
acquired on other grounds, procured for his system the adhesion
for many years of the majority of ornithologists.'
Hitherto mentbn has chkfly been made of works on general
ornithology, but it will be understood that these were largely aided
by the enterprise of travellen, and as there were many of them who
Eublishcd their narratives in separate forms their contributions
ave to be considered. Of those travellers then the first to be here
especially named b MarsigU. the fifth volume of whose Danubius
Pannonitp-Mysieus Is devoted to the birds he met with in the valley
of the Danube, and appeared at the Hague in 1725, followed by a
French translation in 1 744-* Most of the many pupils whom Linnaeus
sent to foreign countries submitted their aiscovcrics to htm. but
fCalm, Hassclqvist and C)st)eck published scpamtcly their respective
traveb in North America, the Levant and China.^ The incessant
S' lumeys of Pallas and his colleagues— Falk. Ceorgi, S. G. Cmelin,
uldeosUldt, Lcpechin and others— in the exploration of the
recently extended Russian empire supplied not only much material
to the CommenUxni and Acta of the Academy of St Petersburg, but
more that u to t)e found in their narratives— all of it being of the
highest interest to students of Palaearctic or Ncarttic ornithology.
Nearly the whole of their results, it may here be said, were summed
up in the important Zoogra/>hia Rosso-Astatua of the first-named
naturalist, which saw the light in 181 1— the year of its author's
death — ^but. owing to circumstances over which he had no control,
was not generally accessible till twenty years later. Of still wider
interest are the accounts of Cook's three famous voyages, thoucb
unhappily much of the information gained by the naturalists who
accompanied him on one or more of them seems to be irrctricvabTy
lost: the orinnal observations of the elder Forstcr were not printed
till 1844, and the valuable collection of aoolo^'cal drawings made
hv the younger Forster still remains unpubhshed in the British
Museunv The several accounts by John White, Collins, Phillips,
Hunter and others of the colonization of New South Wales at the
end of the last century ought not to be overlooked by any Australian
omitholcyist. The only information at this period on thf ornitho-
logy of South America is contained in the two works on Chile by
Molina, published at Bologna In 1776 and 1782. The travels of
Le VaiUant in South Africa having been completed It 1785. his great
Oiseastx d'Afrifue began to appear in Paris 10 1797; but it is hard
to speak properly of this work, for several of the species descritied ia
it are ceruinly not. and never were in his time, inhabitants of that
country, though he sometimes sives a long account of the drcum*
stances under which he observed them.**
From travellers who employ themselves In collecting the animals
of any distant country the soologists who stay at home and study
those of their own district, be it great or small, are really not so
much divided as at first might appear. Both may wen be named
** Faunists." and of the kilter tnere were not a few who having
turned their attention more or less to ornithology should here be
> little regard did he pay to the osteology of birds that,
ding to de Blalnville (fovr. de Pkysimie^ xcii. p. 187. note),
keleton of a fowl to which was attached the head of a hornbiO
*So little regard did he
according to * '"•*'•* '"
theskeletonc
was for a long time exhibited in the Museum of Comparative Ana*
tomy at ftiris I Yet, in order to determine the difference of stmrtuie
in their organs of voice. Cuvier, as be says in his Lefom (iv. 464X
dissected more than one hundred and fifty species of birds. Un-
fortunately for him. as will appear in the sequel, it seems not to
have occurred to him to use any of the lesutta be obtained as the
basis of a classification.
* It ia unnecessary to enamerate the various editions of the R^fm^
Animal. Of the English translations, that edited by Griffiths and
Pidgeott is the most complete. The omitholopcaf portion of it
contained in these volumes received nany additions from Joha
Edward Gray, and appeared in 1829.
* Though much fatter in date, the Tier per Pneganam Sda9dnio9
of Plller and Mittertsocher, published at Buda in 1^3. may perhaps
be here most conveniently mentioned.
* The results of Forskil's travels in the Levant, published after
his death by Niebuhr, require mention, but the ornithology they
contain is but scant.
** Ft has been charitably suggested that, Ms collection and notes
having suffered shipwreck, he was induced to supply the latter from
his memory and tlie former by the nearest approach to his lost
specimens that 'he could obtain. This explanation, poor as it iib
faib, boi^evef . in regard to some spedesL
3<>4
ORNITHOLOGY
mentioned, and fine aiiMn^ them Rzftczynikl. who In 1721 bronght
out at Sandomirsk the Hutoria naluralu cwiosa retni Potoniat, to
which an Aucluartum was posthumously published at Danzig in
1742. This also may be perhaps the most proper place to notice
the Hutofia anum Jiuntaruie 01 GrossinKcr, published at Poacn in
1793. In 1734 J L Fnsch began the long icrics of works on the
binls of Gennany with which the literature of ornithology is en*
ricbcd. by his VoriUdlung der V(>gd TeutscUands, which was only
completed In 1763, and. its coloured pjates proving very attractive,
was again issued at Berlin in 1817. The little fly-dicet of Zorn^—
for it IS scarcely more— on the birds of the Hecrynian Forest made
its appearance at Pappcnheim in 1745. In 1756 Kramer published
at Vienna a modest Benchus of the plants and animals of Lower
Austria, and I. D. Petersen produced at Altona in 1766 a Verteichniss
baltktscker Vdgeh, while in 1791 J. B. Ftschets Vernuk eitur
Naturgesckukte wm Ltvland appeared at Kdninberg. next year
Brsekb brought out at Mitau his Beytrat tur Naturgescbuhte der
Vdgel Kurlands, and in 1704 Sicmsscn's uandbuch of the birds of
Mecklenburg was published at Rostock. But these works, locally
useful as they may have been, did not occupy the whole attention
of German ornilhologists, for In 1791 Bcchstem reached the second
volume of his Cemnnnutsige NaturgcuktchU Deutscklauds, treating
of the birds of that countrv, which ended with the fourth in 1795.
Of this an abridged ed.tion by the name of Ornilhologisches Tasc/ieU'
buck appeared in 1802 and 1803. with a supplement in 1812: while
between 1805 and 1809 a fuller edition of the original was issued.
Moreover in 1795 J. A. Naumann humbly began at Cdthen a treatise
on the birds of the principality of Anhali, which on its completion
in 1804 was found to have swollen into an ornithology of northern
Germany and the neighbouring countries. Eight supplements were
successively published between 1805 and 1817. and in 1821 a new
edition was reauircd This Naturgeschuhte der VOgrl DeuUckiands,
being almost wnolly rewritten by nis son J F Naumann, is by far
the best thing of the kind as yet produced in any country. The
fulness and accuracy of the text, combined with the neat beauty
of its coloured plates, have gone far to promote the study of ornitho-
logy in Germany, and while essentully a |X)pular work, since it is
niued to the comprehension of all rcaoers. it is throughout written
with a simple dignity that commends ii to the serious and scientific
Its twelfth and last volume was published in 184^ — by no means
too long a period for so arduous and honest a performance, and a
supplement was begun in 1847, but, the editor — or author as he
may be fairly called— dying in i8s7, this continuation was finished
in i860 by the joint efforts of J H. Blasius and Dr Raldamus. In
1800 Borlchausen with others commenced at Darmstadt a Teulsche
OrHithologie in folio which appeared at intervals till 1812. and remains
unfinished, though a reissue of the portion published took place
between 1837 and 1841
Other European countries, though not quite so prolific as Gennany,
bore some ornithological fruit at this period; but in all southern
Europe only four faunistic products can be named: the Saggio di
itoria naturale Breiciana of Ptlaii, published at Brescia in 1769;
the Omitotogta deW Europa mendtfinaU of Bernini, published at
Parma between 1772 and 1776: the Uccellt di Sardegna of Cetti,
published at Sassan in 1776. and the Romana omithotogia of Gilius.
published at Rome in 1781— the last being in great part devoted to
pigeons and poultry. More appeared in the North, for in 1 770
Amsterdam sent forth the beginning of Nozeman's Ifederlandscke
Vogelen^ a fairly illustrated work in folio, but only completed by
Houttuyn in 1829, and in Scandinavia most of all was done. In
1746 the great Linnaeus had produced a Fauna Svecita, of which a
Kcond edition appeared in I76t, and a third, revised by Rctzius, in
1800. In 1764 BrOnnich published at Copenhagen his OrnUhologia
Itorealia, « compendious sketch of the birds of all the count ncs
then subject to the Danish crown. At the same place appeared in
1767 Lecm's work, De Lapponibus Finmarekiat, to which Cunncrus
contributed some good notes on the ornithology of northern Norway,
and at Copenhagen and Leipzig was published io 1780 the Valuta
Croenlandica of Oiho FabriciusL
Of strictly American origin can here be cited only W Bartram's
Travds lkr»ttgk Norlk and Soutk Carolina and B. S. Barton's Fragments
fi tk$ Naturai Uiilcry oj Pennsylvania} both printed at Philadelphia.
one in 1791. the other in 1799; but J. R. Forster published a
Catalonu of At Animals ef Nortk Amertea in London in 1771. and
the following year described in the PktUsopkieal Transactions a
few birds from Hudson Bay.* A greater undertaking was Pen-
■Aot'swirctic Zoology, published in 1785, with a supplemem io 1787.
The scope of this work was originally intended to be limited to
North America, but cireumstances induced him to Include all the
species of Northern Europe and Northern Asia, and though not
free from errors it is a praiseworthy perfonnaoce. A second cdilioa
appeared in 1792.
The omithotogy of Britain naturally demands greater atteation.
» His eariier work under the title of Petinotkeotegie can hardly be
deemed scientific.
^ • This extremely rare book has been reprinted by the Willughby
Society.
. * Both of these treatiacs have alsebeco rtpriatad by tbe WiUttghby
Society.
(HISTORY
The coriiett list of British bifdt we possMt is that ^v»n by Merrett
in his Pinax remm naturatitnn Bntanntearum, pnntcd in London
in i667.« In 1677 Plot published his Natural Htslory of Oxfardsktre,
which reached a second edition in 1705. and in 1686 that <A Slaford-
skirt. A similar work on Laneaskire, Ckeshtrt atid Ike Peak was acnt
out in 1700 by Leigh, and one on Cornwall by Borlase in 1758 — ^all
these four being printed at Oxford. In 1766 appeared Pennant's
Brtlisk Zoology, a well-illustrated folio, of which a second edition in
octavo was published in 1768. and considemble addhions (forming
the nominally third edition) in 1^70. white in 1777 there were t«o
issues, one in ocuvo, the other in quarto, eacn called the fourth
edition. In 1812, long after the author's death, another edition was
Erintcd, of whkh his 6on«in-law Hanmer was the reputed editor, but
e received much asastance from Latham, and through carelessness
many of the additions herein made have often been ascribed to
Pennant. In 1769 Berkenhout gave to the world his Outlines tf
Ikt Natnral History of Great Britain and Irdamd, which reappeaiea
under the title of Synopsis of the same in 1795. Tunstall's Ontitko-
logia BrUamnica. which appeared in 1771. is httle more than a list of
names.* Hayes s Natural History of Britisk Birds, a folio with forty
plates, appealed between 1771 and 1775. but was of no scientifu:
vahie. In 1781 Nash's Worcesterskire included a few orntthologiral
notkes; and Wakott in 1789 published an illustrated Synopsis
of Britisk Birds, coloured copies of which art rare. Simultaneously
William Lewin hcg^ his seven quarto volumes on the Birds 0/
Great Britain^ a reissue in eight volumes following between 1795
and 1801. In 1791 J Heyaham added to Hiitchins's Cumberland a\vA
of birds of that county, whilst in the same year began Thomas
Lord's valueless Bnttrt Nem System 0/ Omttkalogy, the text of which
was written or corrected by Dr Duproe, and in 1794 Dosovao began
a History of Brttisk Btrds which was only finished In ^^.^ ..^
i8i9-~the eariier portk>n being rdssued about the same **•••'**
time. Bolton*8 Harmonta ntralis, an account of British song-birds,
first appeared between 1794 and 1796, but aubseqnent editions
appeared up to 1846.
All the foregoing publications yield in importance to two that
remain to be mentioned, a notice of which will fitly conclude this
part of our subject. In 1767 Pennant, several 01 whose works
have already been named, entered into correspondence with Gilbert
White, receiving from him much infonnatk>n, almost wholly drawn
from his own observation, for the succeeding editions of the Brttitk
Zoology. In 1769 White beflnn exchanging letters of a similar
character with Barrington. The epistolary intereourse with the
former continued until 1780 and with the latter until 1787. In
1789 White's share of the oorpespondenoc, toecther with some
miscellaneous matter, was published as The Natural Hutory tf
Selborne — from the name of the village in which he lived. Obacrva-
tiotts on birds form the principal though by no. means the whole
theme of this book, which may be safely said to have done more to
promote a love of ornithology in England than any other work
that has been written, nay more than all the other works (caccpt
one next to be mentioned) put together. It has passed through a
far greater number of editions than any other work 00 natural
history io the whole world, and has become emphatically an English
classic — the graceful simplicity of its styte^ the elevating tone 3( its
spirit, and the sympathetic chords it strikes recommending it to
every lover of Nature, while the severely scientific reader can
scarcely find an error in anjr statement it contains* whether of
matter of fact or ofunion. It is almost certain that more than half
the zoologists of the British Islands for many years past have been
infected with their love of the study of Gilbert White; and it can
hardly be supposed that his influence will cease.
The other work to the importance of which on ornithology ia
England allusion has been made is Bewick's History of Britisk Birds.
The first volume of this, containing the land-birds, appeared in
» 797 •—the text being, It is understood, by Beilby— the second,
containing the water-birds, in 1804. The woodcuts illustiating this
work are generally of snrpasstni^ excellence, and it takes rank in
the category of artistic pubUcauons. Fully admitting the extra-
ordinary execution of tne engravings, every ornithologist may
perceive that as portraits of the birds they are of very unequal merit.
Some of the figures were drawn from stuffed specimens, and accord-
iogly perpetuate all the imperlcrtions of the original; others
represent spedca with the appearance of which the artist was not
• In this year there were two Issues of this book; one. nominally
a second edition, only differs from the first In having a new title-
psge. No real second cditkm ever appeared, but in antkipation
of It Sir Thomas Browne prepared fai or about 167 1 (?) hn ** Account
of Birds found in NorfolV.* of whkh the draft, now in the British
Museum, was printed in his collected works by Wilkia in 1835.
If a fair copy was ever made its resting-place is unknown.
• It has been republished by the Willughby Society.
• There were two issues— vtrttially two editions— of this with the
same date on the tItle-paKe. though one of them is said not to have
been published till the Tofiowing year. Among several other tndieia
this may be recognized by the woodcut of the *• sea engle " at page 1 1 ♦
bearing at Its base the inscription "WycUfTe. 1791,'* and by the
additlmal misprint os page 145 of Sbkaeaeidus for Sekdtmidmt.
HISIORy)
ORNITHOLOGY
305
familiar, and thew are either wanting In caip r tMkwi orare caricatarM:>
but those that were drawn from h've birds, or represent tpeciea
which he knew in life, are worthy of all preia& It is well known
that the earlier editions of this work, especially if they be upon
Utge paper, command extnvi«ant prices; but in reality the
copies on smaller paper are now the rsrer, for the stock of them has
been consumed m nurseries and schoolrooms where they have
bera torn up or worn out with incesant use. Moreover, whatever
the lovers of the fine arts may say, it is nearly certain that the
" Bewick Collector " is mistaken in attaching so high a value to
these okl edittons, for owing to the want of skill in printing^in-
different ink being especially assigned as one cause — many of the
earlier issues fail to show the most delicate touches of the engrsver,
which the increased care bestowed upon the edition of f 847 (published
under the supervision of John Hancock) has revealed — though it
must be admitted that certain blocks have suffered from wear of
the press so as to be incapable of any more producing the effect
intended. Of the text it may be sakl that It u respectable, but no
The existence of these two works explains the widely-spread taste
for ornithology in England, which is to foreigners so pucding, and
the zeal — not always according to knowledge, but occasionally
reaching to serious study— with which that taste is pursued.
Ornithology in the xgth Century.
On reviewing the progress oi ornithology since tHe end of
the xSth century, the first thing that will strike us is the fact
that general works, though still undertaken, have become
proportionally fewer, while special works, whether relating
to the ornithic portion of the fauna of any particular country,
or limited to certain groups of birds— works to which the name
of " Monograph " has become wholly restricted — have become
far more numerous. Another change has come over the condi-
tion of ornithology, as of kindred sciences, induced by the
multiplication of learned societies which issue publications as
w^lT as of periodicals of greater or less sdentiiic pretension.
A number of these must necessarily be left unnoticed here.
Still it seems advisable to furnish some connected account of
the progress made in the ornithological knowledge of the British
Islands and those parts of the European continent which He
nearest to them or are most commonly sought by travellers,
the Dominion of Canada and the United States qi America,
South Africa, India, together with Australia and New 2^aland.
The more important monographs will usually be found dted
in the separate articles on birds contained in this work, though
some, by reason of changed views of classification, have fpi
practical purposes to be regarded now as general works.
It will perhaps be most convenient to begin by mentioning teme
of these last, and in particular a number of them which appeared at
m^y^rn^ Parfs vcty caHy in thc I9thcentur3r, First in orderot them
l^Jf is the Htsloire naturetU d'une partie d'oiseaux notaeanx el
tares de PA mfriaue el dcs Indes, a folio volume • published
in 1 801 by Le Vaillant. This is devoted to the verv distinct and not
nearly-allied groups of hornbills and of birds which for want of
a better name we must call " Chatterers," and is illustrated, like
those works of which a notice immediately follows, by coloured
plates, done in what was then considered to be the highest style of
art and by the best draughtsmen procurabk^ The first volume of a
Histoire natttrelU des perroquels, a companion work by the same
author, appeared in the same year, and is truly a monograph, since
the parrots constitute a family of birds so naturally severed from
all others that there has rarely been anything else confounded with
them. The second volume came out in 1805, and a thinj was
issued in 1837-1838 loag after the death of its predecessor's author.
by Bouriot st-Hflaire. Between 1803 and 1806 Le Vaillant also
published in just the same style two volumes with the title of Histoire
ncUwetle des oixaux de Paradis et des rolliers, suine de etile de$
toucans et des barbus, an assemblage of forms, which, miscellaneous
as it is, was surpassed in incongruity by a fourth work on the same
scale, the Histoire naiureile des promerops el des luSpiers, des
couroucous et des touracos. for herein are found jays, waxwings.
the cock-of-the-rock {Ruttcdla), and what not besides. The plates
in this last are by Banraband, for many years regarded as the per-
fection of ornithological artists, and indml the figures, when tliey
happen to have been drawn from the life, are not bad; but his skill
was quite unable to vivify the preserved sr>ccimens contained^ in
museums, and when he had only these as subjects he simply copied
the distortions of the " bird-stuff er." The following year, 1808,
being akied by Temminck of Amsterdam, of whose son we shall
presently hear more, Le Vaillant brought out the sixth volume of
> This Is especially observable in the figures of the birds of prey.
> There is also an issue of this, as of the same author's other works,
on large quarto paper.
XX 6
his Oiseonx d'AfH^ne, already mentioned. F^ur more volumea of thi*
work were promised; but the means of executing them were denied
to him, and, though he lived until 1824. his publications ceased.
A similar series of works was proiectcd and begun about the
same time as that of Le Vaillant by Audebert and Vicillot, though
the former, who was by prctf esswn a painter and illustrated .
the work, was already dead more than a year before the TfJ****
appearance of the two volumes, bearing date i803, and TZ\...
entitled Oiseaux dorts ou d re/Uts mitaUioues, the effect *■""•
of the plates in whkh he sought to heighten by the lavi^ use of
Jilding. The first volume con!tains the " Colibris, Oiseaux-mouchcs,
acamara et Promerops,** the second the " Grimpereaux " and
• ' Oiseaux de Paradis " — associations which set all the laws of ^tem-
atic method at defiance. His colleague, Vieillot, brought out m 1805
a Histoire naturetie dts tins beaux ehanteurs de la Zoiu Tgrride with
figures by Langlou of tropical finches, grosbeaks, buntinn and
other hanl-billea birds; and in 1807 two volumes of a Histoire
natureUe des oiseaux de I'Amirique septentrionale. without, however,
paying much attention to the limits commonly assigned by geo-
graphers to that part of the world. In 1805 Anaelme Desmarest
published a HisUnre naturtUe des tanioras, des manakins t%^^^„ .f
et des todiers, which, thourii bebnging to the same^^^^^
category as all the former, dtffera from them in its more scientific
treatment of the subjects to which it n^ers; and, in x8o8, K. J.
Temminck, whose father's aki to Le Vaillant has already - . .
been noticed, brought out at Paris a Histoire natureUe '••■■■«»
des pigeons illustrated by Madame Knip, who had drawn the plates
for Desmarest's volume.*
Since we have begun by conndering these large illustrated works
in whfch the text is made subservient to the coloured plates, it may
be convenient to continue our notice of such othen of similar
character as it may be esmedicnt to mention here, though thereby
we shall be led somewhat far afield. Most of them are but luxuries,
and there is some degree of truth in the remark of Andreas Wagner
in his Report on the Progress of Zoology for 184J, drawn up for the
Ray Society^ (p. 60), that they '* are not adapted for the extension
and promotion of science, but must inevitably, on account of their
unnecessary costliness, constantly tend to reduce the number of
naturalists who are able to avail themselves of them, and they thus
enrich ornithology only to its ultimate injury." Eariicst in date
as it is ^catest in bulk stani^s Audubon's Birds of . . .
America in four volumes, cootaming four hundred and •
thirty-five plates, of which the first part appeared in London in 1827
and the last in 1838. It does not seem to have been the author's
original intentwn to publish any letterpress to thb enormous work,
but to let the plates tell their own story, though finally, with the
assistance, as is now known, of William Macgillivray, a text, on the
whole more than respectable, was produced in five large
octavos under the title of Ornithological Biography, of
which more will be said in the se<]uel. Audubon has been
greatly extolled as an ornithological artist; but he was far too much
addicted to representing his subiects in violent action and in postures
that outrage nature, while his cirawing is very frequently ddfcctive.*
In 1866 D. G. Elliot began, and in 1869 finished, a sequel -
to Audubon's great work in two volumes, on the same ^ "
scale— r*« New and Hitherto unjigured Species of the Birds of North
America, containing life-size figures of all those which had been
added to its fauna smce the completion of the former.
In 1^0 John Edward Gray commenced the lUustraHons of
Indian Zoology, a series of plates of vertebratcd animals, ^^ .
but mostly of birds, from drawings, it is believed hy]r~^^^^^
native arusts in the collection of General HanSwicke, "•-•"^
whose name is therefore associated with the work. Saentinc
names are assigned to the species figured; but no text .
was ever supplied. In 1832 Edward Lear, afterwards _^;'
well known as a humorist, brought out his lUustrations of the Famuy
of PsUtacidae, a volume which deserves especial noifce from the
extreme fidelity to nature and the great artistic skill with which
the figures were executed.
This same year (1832) saw the banning of the marvellous Mnes
of Htustratcd ornithological works by which the name of Jf^ui
Gould is likely to be always remembered. A Century of
Birds from the Himalaya Mountains was folkiwed by The
> Temminck subsequently reproduced, witb many addittons, the
tact of this volume in his HisUnre natureUe da pigeons et des gaUinO'
des, published at Amsterdam in I8i3>i8l5, in 3 vols. 8vo. Between
1838 and 1848 M. Ftorent-Provost brought out at Paris a funhcr set
of illustrations of pigeons by Mme KniOb
* On the completion of these two works, for they must be regarded
asdistiiKt. an octavo edition in seven volumes under the title ol
The Birds ef America was published in 1840-1814. In this the large
plates were reduced by means of the eamera lucida, the text was
revised, and the whole systematically arranged. Other reprints
have since been issued, but they are vastly inferior both in execution
and value. A sequel to the octavo Birds of America, corresponding
with it in form, was brought out in 1 833-1^55 by Cassin as lUustra^
tions of the Birds of CaHfomia, Texas, Oreg^, Brtlish and Russian
AmeneO' 2a
3o6
ORNITHOLOGY
Birds of Emopt in five volumes, puUiflhed between 1832 and 1837,
while in the interim (183d) appeared A Monotraph of At Bjm-
pkasHdae, of which a second edition was some yean later called for,
flMM»BIM*«, %M WIIK.11 » BdiUnU CUtUUIt W«B BUIIIS /CBl* MIW V<HIOU lUI.
then the lames avium, 6t which dnly two parts were publi^ed
(1837-1858), and A Monograph of the Troffmidae (1838). which also
reached a second edition. Sailing in 1838 for New South Wales,
on his return in 1840 he at once commenced the g^test of all his
works. The Birds of Australiat which was finished w 1848 in seven
volumes, to which several supplementary parts, forming another
volume, were subsequently added. In 1840 he began A Monografk
of the TrochiUdae'or Humming-birds extending to five volumes, the
last of which appeared in i86x, and was followed by a supplement
by Mr Salvin. A Monotrath of the Odontophorinae or Partridges
^America (1850); The Birds of Asia, in seven volumes, the last
completed by Mr Sharpe (i 850-1 883): The Birds o[ Great Britain,
in five volumes (i 863-1 873) ; and The Birds of New Cuinea, begun in
1875, and, after the authot's death in 1881, undertaken by Mr
Sharpe, make up the wonderful tale consisting of more than forty
folio volumes, and containing more than three thousand coloured
plates. The earlier of these works were illustrated by Mrs Gould,
and the figures in them are fairly good; but those in the later,
except when (as he occasionally did) tie secured the services of Mr
Wolf, are not so much to be commended. There is, it is true, a
smoothness and finish about them not often seen elsewhere; but.
as though to avoid the exaggerations of Audubon, Gould usually
adopted the tamest of attitudes in which to represent his subjects,
whereby expression as well as vivacity is wantingL Moreover, both
in drawing and in colouring there is frequently much that is untrue
to nature, so that it has not uncommonly happened for them to fail
in the chief object of all zoological plates, that of affording sure
means of rccx^nizing specimens on comparison. In estimating the
letterpress, which was avowedly held to be of secondary importance
to the plates, we must bear in mind that, to ensure the success of
his works, it had to be written to suit a vcryr peculiarly composed
body^ of subscribers. Nevertheless a scientific character was so
adroitly assumed that scientific men — some of them even ornitholo:
gists— nave thence been »lcd to believe the text had a scientific
value, and that of a high class. However, it must also be remembered
that, throughout the whole of his career, Gould consulted the con-
venience oiworking ornithologists by almost invariably refraining
from including in his folio works the technical description of any new
species without first publishing it in some journal of comparatively
easy access.
An ambitious attempt to produce in England a general series of
coloured plates on a large scale was Louis Fraser's Zoohgia Typica,
the first part of which bears date 1 841-1842, Others
appeared at irregular intervals until 1849^ when the work^
which seems never to have received the support it deserved, was
discontinued. The seventy plates (forty-six of which represent
birds) composing, with some explanatory letterpress^ the volume,
are by C. CTousens and H. N. Turner — the latter ^as his publications
prove) a soologist of much promise, who in 1851 died, a victim to
his own zeal for investigation, of a wound received in dissecting.
The chief object of the author, who had been naturalist to the Niger.
Expedition, and curator to the Museum of the Zoological Society
of London, was to figure the animals contained in its gardens or
described in its Prouedings, whkh until the year 1848 were not
illustrated.
The publicatbn of the Zooloiical Sketches of Joseph Wolf« from
animals in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London, was
WidL begun about 1855. with a brief text by D. W. Mitchell, at
"^•^ that time the Society's secretary, in dlustration of them.
After his death in 1859, the explanatory Ictterjircss was rewritten
by P. L. Sclater, his successor in that office, and a volume was
completed in 1861. Upon this a second series was commenced,
and brought to an end in 1668. Thou^ a comparatively small
number of species of birds are figured in this magnificent work
(seventeen only in the first series, and twenty-two in the second).
it must be mentioned here, for their likenesses are so admirably
executed as to place it in regard to ornithological portraiture at the
head dl all others. There is not a single plate that is unworthy of
the greatest of all animal painten.
Proceeding to illustrated works generally of less pietcntMus size,
but of greater omitholoirical utility than the books last mentioned,
which are fitter for the drawing-room than the study, we next have
to consider some in which the text is not wholly subordinated to the
plates, though the latter still form a conspicuoaa feature of the
publication. First of these in point of time as well as in importance
IS the Noueeau recueil des planches cotorOts d^oiseaaix of Temminck
rmmtaOmtk ^ Laugicr. intended aa a sequel to the Flamches «»■
Trmirrrrr- /,„„,„|^ f^ D'Aubcnton before noticed, and like that
7*V^ work issued both in folio and qoarto sixb The first
^^■"" portion of this was published at Pari* in 1820. and of itfc
one hundrra and two inrossmo, which appeared with great irr^
gularity {Ibis, 1868, p. no), the last was isnied in 1839, containing
Che titleii of the five volames that the whole forms, together with a
*' Tableau ni£thodk]ue " whkh but indifferently serves the purpose
of an index. There are six hundred plates, but the exact number
of species figured (which has been computed at six hundred and
sixty-one) is not so easily ascertained. Gcneially the subject of
PUSTORY
each plate has letterpress to conespoad, but in soaae cases this m
wanting, while on the other hand deacriptions of species not figured
are occasionally introduced, and usaally observations on the dis-
tribution and construction of each genus or group are added. The
platc& whkh show no improvement in execution on those of Martinet^
are after drawings by Huet and Pr£tre, the former being perhaps
the less bad draughtsman of the two, for he seems to have had an
idea of what a bud when alive looks like, though he was not able
to give his figures any vitality, while the latter simply delineated
the stiff and dishevelled specimens from museum shelves Still
the colouring is pretty well done, and experience has proved that
generally speaking there is not much difficulty in lecogaizing the
species represented. The letterpress is commonly limited to technical
details, and is not always accurate: but it is ol its kind useful, for
in general knowledge 01 the outskie of birds Temminck probably
surpassed any of his contemponuicSb The " Tableau m^thodk)ue
offere a convenient concordance of the okl Plauehes enlumiuies and
its successor, and is arranged after the system set forth by Temminck
in the first volume of the second edition of his Manuel tComithologiet
oi which something must presently be saJd.
The Calerie des oiseaux, a rival work, with plates by Oudart.
seems to have been begun immediately after the former. The
original project was ap(>arently, to give a figure and ftmtnt
description of every species of bird; but that was soon
found to be impossible; and, when six parts had been issued, with
text by some unnamed author, the scheme was brought within
practicable limits, and the writing of the letterpress was Mb«^
entrusted to Vidllot, who, proceeding on a systematk
plan, performed his task very creditably, completing the work,
which forms two quarto volumes, in 1825. the original text and
fifty-seven plates being relegated to the end of the second volume
as a supplement. His portion is illustrated by two hundred and
ninety-nine coloured plates that, wretched as they are, have been
continually reproduced in various text-books — a fact posaiUy due
to their subjects haying been judiciously selected. It is a tradition
that, this work not bang favourably regarded by the authorities
of the Paris Museum, its draughtsman and author were refused
ck>ser access to the specimens required, and had to draw and describe
them through the glass as they stood on the shelves of the cases.
In 1825 Jardine and Selby bcjgan a series of Illustrations of
Omithetogy, the several parts of which appeared at long and irrqgular
intervals, so that it was not until 1839 that thiipe volumes
containing one hundred and fifty plates were completed. '
Then they set about a Second Series, which, forming a
single volume with fifty-three plates, was finished in 1843. These
authors, being zealous amateur artists, were their own draughtsmen
to the extent even of lithographing the figures. In 1828 James
Wilson (author of the artkle Ornithology in the 7th and nnhM.
8th editions of the prefent work) bejEan, under the title v*^'""**
of Jllustrations of Zoology, the publication of a series of his own
drawings (which he did not, however, himself engrave) with corre-
sponding letterpress. Of the thirty-six plates illustrating this
volume, a small folio, twenty are devoted to Ornithology, and
contain figures, which, it must be allowed, are not very successful,
of several species rare at the time.
Though the three works last mentioned fairly come under the
same catwory as the Planches enluminies and the Planches colonies,
no one 01 them can be properiy deemed their rightful |> ^
heir* The claim to that succession was made in 1845 *'~**^
by Des Murs for his Iconographie omithologique. which, containing
seventy-two plates by Pr6vot and Oudart^ (the latter of whom had
marveUously improved in his drawings since he worked with Vicillot).
was completed m 184^ Simultancoudy with this Du Bus began a
work on a plan precisely similar, the ^quisses ornithO' n^a^.
logifues, illustrated by Severeyns, which, however, ■•■^
stopped short in 1849 with its thirty-seventh plate, while the letter-
press unfortunately does not go beyond that belongins to the
twentieth. In 1860 the succession was again taken up by the Exoltc
Ornithology of Messra Sclater and Salvin, containing one
hundred plates, representing one hundred and four
species, all from Central or South America, which are
neatly executed by J. Smit. The accompanying letter-
press is in some places copious, and useful lists of the species of
various genera are occasionally subjoined, adding to the definite
value of tne work^ which, forming one volume, was completed in 1 869.
Rowley's Omtthologual Miscdlany in three quarto volumes,
profusely illustrated, appeared between 1875 and 1878. The
contents are as varied as the authorship, and. most of the a^vfcyw
leading English ornithologists having contributed to the '"^'
work, some of the papcn are extremely good, while in the plates,
whkh are ii^ Kculcmans's best manner, many rare species of birds
are figured, some of them for the first time.
More recent monographs have been more exact, and some of them
equally sumptuoua Amongst these may be mentioned F. E.
Blaauw's Monograph of the Cranes (1897, folio); St G. Mivart's
Monograph of the Lortes (1898, folio): the Hon. W. Rothschild's
Monograph of the Genus Casuarius (1899, quarto) ; R. B Sharpe' s
I On the title-page credit is eiven to the latter alone, but only
two-thirds of the plates (from pi 25 to the end) bear his name.
HISTORY)
ORNITHOLOGY
307
Umtoffoph ^ Ae Pandiseidm (1898, folio); H. Scebobm'a Mono-
-\ of Ike Thrushes (1900, imp. quarto); J. C. MiUais' BriUsk
' ■' I Ducks (190a. folio); and the Hon. W. Rothschild's
Extmd Birds ^1907, auarto).
Most or the works iatdy named, being very costly, ai« not easily
acxessible. The few next to be nientionedi bebg ol smaller size
(ocuvo), may be within reach of more persons, and, therefore, can
be passed over in a briefer fashion without detriment. In many
ways, however, they are nearly as important. Swainson's Zoohgtcal
gg^ . lUustratums in three volumes, containing one hundred
smam§o^ and etghtv^two plates, whereof seventy represent birds,
stppeared between 1610 and ifiax. and in 1829 a second seriet of
the saipe was begun by him, which, extending to another three
volume*, contained fortyeight more plates of biids out of one
hundred and thirty-six, and was completed in 183^ All the figures
were drawn by the author, who as an ornithological artist had no
rival in his time Every plate la not bcvond critKism, but his worst
drawings show more knowledge of bird*lifo than do the best of his
English or French contemporaries. A work of somewhat similar
character, but one in which the letterpress is of greater value, is the
Cenhtrie wdofgJMue of Lesson, a single volume that,
''**'*'' though bearing the date 1830 on its title-page, is believed
to haVe been begun in 1839,* and was ceitainiy not finished until
18^1. It received the benefit of Isidore Gcoffroy St-Hilaire's
assistance. Notwithstanding its name it only contains eighty
plates, but of them forty-two, all by Pritre and in his usual stiff
style, represent birds. Concurrently with this volume appeared
Lesson's TraiU d^omitkdcpe, which is dated 1831, and. may perhaps
be here most conveniently mentioned. Its professedly systematic'
form strictly relegates it to another group of works, but the presence
of an ** Atlas " (also in octavo) of one hundred and nineteen plates
to some extent justifies its notice in this place. Between 1831 and
1834 the same author brought out, in continuation of his Centurie,
his JUustrations de toolog^ with sixty plates, twenty of whkh
represent birds. In x8t3 Kittlits began to publish some Kup-
fertofeln air Naturfesckichie der Vdfd, in which nnany new
"■""*• species are figured: but the work came to an end with
its thirty-sixth plate in the folbwing year. In 184$ Reichenbach
amkAm commenced with his Praktische Nalurnesekiekle der Vigd
JtJ*"" the extraordinary series of illustrated publications which,
••"* under titles far too numerous here to repeat, ended in or
about 1855, and are commonly known collectively as his VoU'
stdndigste Naiuriitckkkle der V6gd.* Herein are contained more
than nine hundred coloured and more than one hundred uncolournd
plates, which are crowded with the figures of birds, a lar]ge proportion
of them redw^ copies from other works, and especuUly those of
Gould.
It now behoves us to turn to ^neral and parti<ulariy systequtk:
woricB in which plates, if they exist at all, form but an accessory to
the text. These need not detain us for long, since, however well
some of them may have been executed, regard being had to their
epoch, and whatever repute some of them may have achieved, they
are, so far as genera} information and especially classification is
concerned, wholly obsolete, and most of them almost usekiss except
as matters of antiquarian interest. It will be enough merely to
name Dum^ril's ZoMOgie atuUytique (1806) and Gravenhorst's Ver-
^ekhende Vberskkt des linnetscken und einit/fr neuem toohttuken
Sysleme (1807): nor need we linger over Shaw's General
Zootogy, a pretentious compilation continued by Stephens.
The last seven of its fourteen volumes include the Class
Aves, and the first part of them appeared in 1809, but, the original
author dj^ing in 1 815. when only two volumes of birds were publidied,
the remainder was brought to an end in 1826 by his successor, who
afterwards became well known as an entomologist The engravings
which these volumes contain are mostly bad copies, often of b^
figures, though many are piracies from Bewick, and the whole is
a most unsatisfactory performance. Of a very different kind is the
next we have to notice, the Prodromus syslematis nammalium et
-^^^ avium of IHiger, publidied at Berlin in 1811, which must
'"^^ ^ in its day have been a valuable little manual, and on
many points it may now be consulted to advantage — the characters
of the genera being admirably given, and good explanatory lists of
the technical terms of ornithology fumidied. The classification
was quite new, and made a step distinctly in advance of anything
J- -j^ that had before appeared.* In 1816 Vieillot pubttshed
rwwsb ^ j^j Paris an A nalyse d'une nputeUe ornilkologie Himentaire,
containing a method of classification which he had tried in vain to
get printed before, both in Turin and in London.* Some of the
^ In 1828 he had brought cut. under the title of Mamul d'ami-
ikolope, two handy duodecimos whk:h are very good of their kind.
> Technically ^)eaking they are in quarto, but their siae is so
•mall that they may be well spoken of here. In 1879 Dr A. B.
Meyer brought out an Index to them
' llliger may be considered the founder of the schocrf of nomen-
claturai purists. He would not tolerate any of the " " "
generic terms adopted by other writers, though
use for many years.
* The method was communicated to the Turin Academy, on loth
January 1814. and was ordered to be printed {Mim, Ac. Sc. rnrim.
ideas in this are said to Ittive been taken from llliger; but the two
systems seem -to be wholly distinct. Vieillot's was af towards moie
fully expounded in the series of articles which he contributed between
x8i6 and 1819 to the second edition of the Nouvmu dictunmaire
^ktsUrire naiureUe containing much valuable informatkm. The
vicwjB of ndther of these systematisers pleased Temmlnck, who in
1817 replied rather sharply to Vieillot in some Observations
sur la classification mitkodioue des oiseaux, a pamphlet j^
publislied at Amsterdam, and prefixed to the second edition '"'ks.
of his Manuel d'ornitktdcgie, which appeared in 1820, an Analyse du
sys^me gtnfral d'ontithoiogie. This proved a great success, and
his arrangement, though by no means simple,* was not only adopted
by many onu'thobgists of almost every country, but still has some
adherents. The following year Ranzatu of Bokigna, in his Elementi
di zonlogia-^ very resportable compilation — came to _^
treat of birds, and Uien followed to some extent the plan *■■««■*
of De Blainville and Merrem (concerning which much more has to
be said by and by), placing the Struthious birds in an Order by
themselves. In 1827 Wagler brought out the first part _ ^.
of a Systema ainum, in this form never completed. w^-ww.
conustinj; of forty-nine detached monographs of as many genera,
the species of which are most elaborately described. The arrange-
ment he subseauently adopted for them and for other gronps is
to be found in hb Nat&rlickes System der Ampkibien (pp. 77-128),
published in 1830, and is too fanciful to require any further attention.
The several attempts at system-making oy Kaup, from
his AUgemeine Zoologie in 1829 to his Uber Ctassifieatum ^"V"
der Vdgjd \n 1849, were equally arbitrary and abortive: bat has
Skixtirte Entwicketungs-Cesckickte in 1829 must be here named, as
it .is so often quoted on account of the number of new genera which
the peculiar views he had embraced compelled him to invent.
These views he shared more or less with Vigpra and Swainson, and
to them attention will be immediately especially invited, while
conskleration of the scheme gradually devek>ped from 1831 onward
by Charles Lucien Bonaparte, and still not without its _^
influence, is deferred until we come to treat of the rise ^JJJT
and progress of what we may term the reformed school A«t«.
of ornithology. Yet injustke woukl be done to one of the ablest
of those now to be called the oid mastere of the science If mention
were not here made of the Conspectus generum U9ium, begun in
1850 by the naturalist last named, with the hdp of Schlegel. and
unfortunately interrupted by its author's death sue yean later.*
The systematic publications of George Robert Grav, so
long in charge of the omitholc^cal collection 01 the
British Museum, began -with A Ltst of Ike Genera of Birds
published in 184a This, having been ckMely. though by no means
in a hostile spint. criticised by Strickland lAun. Nat. History, vl
p. 4x0; vii. pp. 26 and 159), was followed by a second edition in
1841 , in whkh nearly all thecoircctions of the reviewer were adopted,
and in 1844 began the publkration of Tke Genera of Birds, beautifully
illustrated—first by Mitchell and afterwards by Mr Wolf-^whico
will always keep Gray's name in remembrance. The enormous
labour required for this work seems scarcely to have been appreciated,
though it remains to this da^ one of the roost useful b<x>ks in an
ornithologist's library. Yet it must be confessed that its author
was hanfly an ornithologist, but for the accident of his calling.
He was a thoroughly conscientious clerk, devoted to his du^ and
unsparing of trouble. However, to have conceived the nea of
executing a work on so grand a scale as this — it forms three foUo
volume^ and conrains one hundred and eighty-five cokxired and
one hundred and forty-eight uncolonred piatcsj with references
tkIL
to upwards of two thousand four hundred generic 1
itself a mark of genius, and it was brought to a successful conclusion
in 1849. Costly as it necessarily was, it has been of great service
to working ornithologists. In 1855 Gray brought out. as one of the
Museum publications. A Catalogue of tke Genera and SiAgenera of
Birds, a handy little volume, naturally founded on the brger works.
Its chief drawback is that it does not give any more reference to the
authority for a generic term than the name of its inventor and the
year of its application, though pf course more pirase informatioii
would have at least doubled the sixe of the book. The same d»
ficiency became still more apparent when, between 1669 and 1871.
he published his Hand-List of Genera and Species of Birds in three
1813-1814. p. xxviii.): but. through. the derangements of that
stormy period, the order was never carried out Qiem. A read, Sc.
Tortno. xxtii. p. xcvii.). The minute-book of the Linnean Society of
London ^ows that his Prolusio was read at meetings of that Soaety
between the tsth of November 1814 and the 21 st of February 1815.
Why it was not at once accepted is not told, but the entry respecting
it, whkrh must be of much later date, in the " Register of Papere
is " Published already." It is due to Vieillot to mentkw these
facts, as he has been accused of publishing his method in haste to
anticipate some of Cuvier's views, but he might well complain of
the dtnay in London. Some reparation has been made to his memory
by the reprinting of his Analyse by the Wiilughby Society.
* He rccMniaed sixteen Orders of Birds, while VieiHot had been
content with five, and llliger with seven.
* To this very indispensable work a good index was supplied in
X865 by Dr Finsch.
3o8
ORNITHOLOGY
(mSTORY
octavo vdomea (or putt, as they are caHed). Giebel's Thesaurus
OmhaL »niUulonaet also in three volumes, publidbed between
1872 ana 1877,. is a slight advance, but both works have
been completely supeneded by the Briiish Museum Catalogue 0/
Birds, the twenty*seventh and final volume of which was published
in 1895, and by the compact and invaluable British Museum Hamdr-
List^ tne four volumes 01 which were com|deted by Dr R. B. Sharpe
in 1903.
It may be convenient here to deal with the theory of the
Quinary System, which was promulgated with great zeal by its
upholders during the end of the first and early part of
the second quarter of the xgth century, and for some
^****"' years seemed likely to carry all before it» The success
it gained was doubtless due in some degree to the difBculty
whkh most men had in comprehending it, for it was enwrapped
in alluring mystery, but more to the confidence with which it
was announced as being the long-looked-for key to the wonders
of creation, since its promoters did not hesitate to term it the
discovery of " the Natural System," though they condescended,
by way of explanation to less exalted intellecu than their own,
to allow it the more moderate appellation of the Circular or
Quinary System.
A comparison of the rdation of created bein^ to a number of
intersecting circles is as old as the days of Nierembcr?, who in
1635 wrote {HisUnia naturae, lib. iii. cap. 3) — ^' Nullus hiatus est,
nulla fractio, nulla dispersto formanim, invioem connexa sunt velut
annulus annulo ": but it w almost dear that he was thinking only
of a chain. In 1806 Fischer de Waldheim. in his Tableaux syn-
optiques de aoognosie (p. 161), quoting Nieremberg, extended nis
figure of «>eech, and, while justly deprecaring the notion that the
scries of forms belonging to any particalar group of creatures —
the Mammalia was ttat whence he took his instance— could be
placed in a straight line, irnagined the various genera to be arrayed
tn a series of contiguous circles around Man as a centre. Though
there is nothing to show that Fischer intended, by what u here
said, to do anything else than Ulustrate more fully the marvellous
inteiconnexion of different animals, or that he attached any reaJiBtic
meaning to his metaphor, his words were eagerly caught up by the
i^ prophet of the new faith- This was William Sharpe
maaeaj* Macleay, a man of education and real genius, who in
T819 and 1821 brought out a work under the title of Horae Entoma-
foiicae, which was soon after hailed by Vigors as containing a new
^^^ revelation, and applied by him to ornithology in some
Ytgore. «. Observations on the Natural Affinities that connect the
Orders and Families of Birds," read before the Linnean Society of
London in 1833, and afterwards published in its Transactions (xiv.
PP- 39S-S17)- '^ (^^ following year Vigors returned to the subject
in some papers published in tne recantly established Zoological
Jourual, and found an energetic condisdple and coadjutor in
Swainson, who, for more than a dozen years — to the
*??"■ end, to fact, of his career as an ornithological writer —
^^ was instant in season and out of season in pressing on all
his readers the views he had, through Vigors, adopted from Maclcay,
though not without some modification of detail if not of principle.
What these views were it would be manifcstlyimpropcr for a sceptic
to state except in the terms of a believer. Their enunciation must
therefore be given in Swainson's own woids, though it must be
admitted that space cannot be found here for the diagrams, which
It was alleged were necessary for the right undersunding of the
theory. This theory, as originally propounded by Macleay, was said
by Swainson in 1835 (Geogr. and aassific. of Animals, p. 202) to
have consisted of the following propositions:' —
" t. That the series of natural animals is continuous, forming,
as it were, a circle: so that, upon commencing at any one given
point, and thence tracing all the modifications of structure, we
•hall be imperceptibly led. after passins through numerous forms,
again to the point from which we started.
" 2. That no groups are natural which do not exhibit, or show
an evident tendency to exhibit, such a circular series.
" 3. That the pnmary divisions of every large ^roup are ten, five
of which are composed of comparatively large circles, and five of
smaller: these latter being termed osculant, and being intermediate
between the former, which they serve to connect.
" 4. That there is a tendency in such groups as are placed at the
oppositepoints of a circle of affinity ' to meet each othe^'
'* 5. That «fir of the five laigcr groups into whkrh every natural
circle is divided ' bears a resemblance to all the rest, or, more strictly
speaking, consists of types which re pres e nt those of each of the four
other groups, together with a type peculiar to itself.' "
« We prefer giving them here In Swainson*s versioa. because be
seems to have set them forth more dearly and condsdy than Madeay
ever did. and, moreover, Swainson's application of them to
ornithology— a branch of science that lajr outskle of Macleay's
proper studies— appears to be more suitable to the present
every group are thre*
As subsequently modified by Swainson (torn. eiL pp. 324, 225).
the foreffoing propositions take the following form: —
" I. That eveiy natural series of bongs in its progress from
a given point, either actually returns, or evinces a tendency to
return, sfiain to that point, therd>y forming a ciide.
" II. The primary drcular divisions 01 eve
actually, or five apparently.
"III. The contents of such a dicular group are symbolically (or
analogically) represented tqr the contents of all other cticles in the
animal kingdom.
" IV. That these primai^ divisions of every group are charurter-
ised by definite peculianties of form, structure and ecooomy.
which, under diversified modifications, are uniform throuf^iout the
animal kingdom, and are therefore to be regarded as the primary
types of nature.
V. That the different ranka or degrees of drcidar groups e»>
hibitcd in the animal kingdom are NUfS in nundicr, each beti^
involved within the other.
Though, as above stated, the thoory here promulgated owed its
temporaiy success chiefly to the extraordinaiy assurance and perti*
nacity with which it was urged upon a pubUc generally incapable
of understanding what It meant, that it recdved some support from
men of science must be admitted. A *' drcular system" was
advocated by the eminent botanist Fries, and the views of Madeay
met with the partial approbation of the celebrated entorodogisc
Kirby. while at least as much may be said of the.imaii^naeive Qken*
whose mysticism far surpassed that of the Quinarians. But.it
is obvious to every one who nowadays indulges in the prditlcsa
pastime of studying their writings that, as a whole, they failed in
grasping the essential difference between homology (or " affinity."
as they generally termed it) and analogy — though this difference
had been fully understood and set forth hy Aiistode himself— and,
moreover, that in seeking lot analogies on which .to base their
foregone conclusions they were often put to hard shifts. Another
singular fact is that they often seemed to be totally unaware of the
tendency if not the meaning of some <^ their own expressions: thus
Madeay could write, and doubtless in perfect good faith {Trans.
Linn, Society, xvi. p. 9, note), " NatunJisu havie nothing to do
with mysticism, ana but little with a priori reasoning." Yet his
followers, if not be himsdf, were ever making use of language in
the highest degree metaphorical, and were always explaimng facts
in accordance with preconcdved opinions. Fleming, -. .
already the author of a harmless and extremdy orthodox '^''■^^
Philosophy of Zoology, pointed out in 1829 in the QuaHerly Baiew
(xli. pp. 303-U7) some of the fallades of Madeay's mctliod, and in
oked f * *
deny, though to the modern naturalist its invective power oontraats
ludicrously with the strength of its ratiocination. But, confining
ourselves to what is here our spcdal business, it is to be rcsmarked
that perhaps the heaviest blow dealt at these strange doctrines was
that delivered by Rennie, who, in an edition of Montagu's Omitko'
logical Dictionary (pp. xxxiil-lv.^, published in 1831 and again
issued in 1833, attacked the (Jhuinary System, and especially its
application to ornithdogy by Vigors and Swainson, In a way that
might perhaps have demolished it, had not the author mingled with
his unooubtcdly sound reason much- that u foreign to any question
with which a naturalist, as such, ought to deal — though that herein
he was only following the example oi one of his opponents, who bad
constantly treated the subject in like manner, is to be allowed.
This did not hinder Swainson, who had succeeded in getting tl»e
ornithological portion of the first zooloeical work ev^ published at
the expense of the British government ^namely, the Fauna Boreali'
Americana) executed in accordance with his own opinions, from
maintaining them more strongly than ever in several « the volumes
treating ol^ Natural History which he contributed to the Cabinet
Cyclopaedia — among others that from whkh we have just given some
extracts — ^and in what may be deemed the culmination in England of
the Quinary System, the volume of the " Naturalist's Library " on
The Natural Arrangement and History of Flycatchers, published in
1838, of which unhappy performance mention has already been
made in this present work (vol. x. p. s^> note). This seems to
have been his last attempt; for. two years later, his Bibliography
of Zoology shows little trace of his favourite theory, though nothing
he had uttered in its support was retracted. Appearing almost
simultaneously with this work, an article by Strickland (Jsag. Nok
flistory, scr. 2, iv. pp. 219-226) entitled Observations upon
the Amnities and Analogies of Organixed Beings adwlnutcrtd
to the theory a shock from which ii never recovoed,
though attempts were now and then made by its adherents to revive
it; and. even ten years or more kter, Kaup, one of the few foreign
ornithologists who had embraced Quinary principles, was by mi»>
taken kindness allowed to publish Monogrsphs of the Bird*>of-Prcy
(Jardine's Contributions to Ornithology, 1849, pp. 68-75. 96-13 1:
1850. pp. 51-80; 1851. pp. II9-140: 1852. pp. 103-122: and
Trans. Zool. Society, iv. pp. 20i-26o), in which its absurdity reached
the climax.
The mischief caused by this theory of a Quinary System was
voy great, but was chicBy confined to Britain, for (as haa been
HISTORY]
ORNITHOLOGY
309
already ttated) the extrtordinary vfeura of it* adhtrents found little
favour on the continent of Europe. The purtlv artificial character
ol the System of Linnaeus and his suoceaeora had been perceived,
and men were at a loss to find a substitttte for it. The new doctrine,
loudly proclaiming the dtaoowry of a " Natunl " System, led away
many from 'the steady practice which should have followed the
teacfiing of Cuvier (though he in ornithology had not been able to
act up to the principles he had lain down) and from the extended
study of Comparstive Anatomy. Moreover* it veiled the honest
attcmpu that were makiiq; both in France and Germany to find
real grounds (or esubtishing an improved state of thini^ and con-
sequently the bbours of De Blainville. Etienne, Geoffrov Si-Hilaire
and L'Herminier, of Merrem, Johannes Mttller and NitsBch«~to
say nothing of other»~-were .almost wholly unknown on this side
of the Channel, and even the value of the investigations of British
omithotomists of high mmt, such as Macartney and Macgillivray,
was almost completely overlooked. True it is that there were not
wanting other men in these islands whose common sense refused to
accept the metaphorical doctrine and the mystical jargon of the
Quinanans, but so strenuously and persistently had the Utter
asserted their infallibility, and so vigorously had they assailed any
who ventured to doubt it, that most peaceable ornithologists found
it best to bend to the furious blast, and in some sort to acquiesce at
least in the phraseology of the self-styled interpreters of Creative
Will. But, while thus lamenting this unfortunate perveruon into
a mistaken channel of ornithological energv, we must not aver>
blame those who caused it. Maclcay indeed never pretended to a
high position in this branch of science, his tastes lying m the direction
of Entomology; but few of their countrymen knew more of birds
than did Swamson and Vigors; and, while the latter, as editor for
many years of the Zodogical Journal, and the firet secretary of the
Zoological Society, has especial claims to the regard of all zoologists.
BO the former's indefatigable pursuit of Natural History, and
conscientious labour in its behalt^-amoog other ways by means of
hb graceful pencil— deserve to be remembered as a set-off against
the injury he unwittingly caused.
It is now incumbent upon us to take a rapid survty of the
orxiithological works which come more or less under the designa-
tion of " Faunae "-^ but these are so numexous that it
will be necessary to limit thissurvey, as before indicated,
to those countries alone which form the homes of English
people, or are commonly visited by them In ordinary travel.
Beginning with New Zealand, it is Iianlly needful to go further back
than Sir ¥/r L. Buller's beautiful Birds of New Zealand (4tOt iS7a-
1873). withcok>ttred plates by Keulemans, since the pubit-.
cation of which the same author has issued a Mannaloflke
N»w
1873). withcok>ttred plates by Keulemans, since the c
cation of which the same author has issued a Mannal ,
Birds of New Zealand (8vo, 1883). founded on the former ,
but justice requires that mention be made of the laboun of G. R.Gfay,
first in the Appendix to DiefTcnbach's Travels in New Zealand (1843)
and then in the ornithological portion of the Zoology of the Voyans
2f H.M^, **Btebus*' and " Terror" begun in 1864, but left un-
nished from the following year until completed by Mr. Sharpe in
1876. A considerable number of valuable papers on the ornithology
of the country by Sir W. L. Buller, Drs Hector and Von Haast, F. W.
Hutton. Mr Potts and others are to be found in the Tr^naaetions and
Froeeedings of ike New Zealand InsHlnU, Sir W. L. Buller's SupfU-
wuMt to the Birds of New Zealand (190S-1906) completes the great
work of this author.
Passing to Australia, we have the first ^ood description of some
of its biids in the several old voyages and m Latham's works before
_,,.t.mnM. mentioned. Shaw's Zoology 0/ New Holland (ato, 1794)
^'""^ added those of a few more, as did J. W. Uwin^ Natural
Bislory of the Birds of New South Wales (410, 1832), which reached
a third edition in 1838. .Gould's great Birds of Australia has been
mlready named, and he subsequently reproduced with some additions
the text of that work under the title of Handbook to the Birds of
Australia (a vols. 8vo, 1865). In 1866 Mr Digglcs commenced a
similar pubtication, TJie Ornithology of Australia, but the coloured
plates, tloiiKh fairly drawn, are not comparable to those of his pre-
decessor. This is still incomplete, though the parts that have
appeared have been collected to form two volumes and issued with
title-pages. Some notices of Australian birds by Mr Ramsay and
othcnt are to be found in the Proceedings of the Linmuan Socuty of
UewSoutk Woks and of the J?<»yo/ Satiety of Tasmania.
Coming to British Indian possessions, and beginning with Ceylon,
we have Kelaart's Prodromus faunae Zeylanieae (8vo, 1853), and
ywb& **»* admirable Birds of Ceylon by Captain Lcgge (410.
*^ 1878-1880). with cok>urcd plates by Mr Kculemans of
all the peculiar spcdcs. It is hardly possible to name any book
that has been more conscientiously executed than this. BIyth s
Memmah and Birds of Burma (8vo. 1873)' conUms much
▼aluabfe information. Jerdon's Bt rds of Indus (8vo. 1662-1864;
» A very useful list of more general scope is given as the Appendix
to an addrns by Mr Sclater to the British Association 10 1875
{Report, pt. il pp 114-133)- „ ,
' This IS a posthumous publication, nominany forrotng an extra
number of the Journal 0/ the Asiatic Society; but, since it was
acpaiately issued, it b entitled to notice here.
repnnted 1877) » a com p re h ea ai v work on the oniithok)gy of the
peninsula. A very fairiy executed compilation on the subjea by
an anonymous writer is to be found in a late edition of
the CpeUpaedia of India, published at Madras, and W. T.
Blaniord s Birdt of BnUsk India (1898) remains the standard woflc.
SCrav feaikers, an ornithological journal for India and itt do-
penoendes, contains many interesting and some valuable papers.
fa regard to South Africa, besides the well-known work of Le
Vailiant already mentkiaad. there it the second volume of Sir
Andrew Smith's lUustratians of ike Zoelon of South
Africa (4to, 1838*1842). which is devoted to birds. This
is an important but cannot be called a satisfactory work,
lu one hundred and fourteen plates by Ford truthfully represent
one hundred and twenty-two of the mottnted spedmena oMained
by the author in his explorationa into the interior. Layard's bandy
Birds of South Africa (8vo^ 1867), though by no means free from
faults, has much to recommend it. A so<alled new edition of it by
R. B. Sharpe appeared in 1875-1884, but was executed on a plan
so wholly different that it must be regarded as a distinct work.
C. J. Andcrsson's Notes on the Birds of Danmra Land (8vo, 187a).
edited by I. H. Gumey, was useful in its day, but has been super-
seded by the more comprehensive and extremely accurate volumes,
the Birds of Africa, by G. E. Shelley (1900-1907). and the German
work on the same subject by Aatoo Rdchenow (1900-1905).
Of spedal works relating to the British West ladies. C Watetton's
well4mown H^andcriiifr has passed through several editions since
iu first appearance in 1835, and must be mentioned here. nr^f
though, strictly speaking, much of the country he trav eree a .-^—
• y. To DrCabanisitre are indebted ^^
resuha of Richard Schombuigh's researches
volume (pp. 663-765) of the laucr's Hetsen im
(8vo. 1848), and then in L^oUud's OiMoax de /*<{« ds
la Trinidad (8vo, 1866). Of the Antilles there is only to be named
P. H. Gosse's eacellent Birds of Jamaka (lamo, 1647). together with
its lUmstratioHM (jua, foL, 1849) beautifully executed by him. A
nominal list, with references, of the birds cl the island is contained
in the Haudbeoh qf Jamaica.
(An admirable "List of Faunal Publications relaiing to North
American Ornithology" up to 1878 has beea givea by Elliott
uiougD, scncuy speamng, r
was not British territory.
for the ormthological resi
given in the third volum
List of Faunal Publkatwns relaiing to Noi
Dgy" ttp to 187a has beea givea by Eli«
lixto his Birds of Ae Coiorada Valley ,^^.
_ . 967-784). Special mention ahouki be made of the
foUowing works most of which have appeared since
that time: S. F. Baird, T. M. Brewer and Robert Ridgway,
History of North Americast Birds: The Land Birds (3 vols.,
Boston. 1875). The Water Birds (a vols.. Boston. 1884): Elliott
Coue% Check Lut of North American Birds (Boston. i88a). Key
to North American Birds (Boston, 1887), Birds of the Northwest,
US. Geological Survey. Misc. pubs.. No. 3 (1874) and Btrds of the
Colorado Valley, ibid. No. xi (1878): Robert Ridgway. Manual of
North American Birds (Philadelphia, 1887): Frank M. Chapman.
Gsisr Key to North American Birds (New York, 1903) ; Handbook of
Birds of Eastern North America (ibid. 1895) and The Warblers of
North America (ibki, 1907), with notable cotoured Uhistrations by
L. A. Fuertcsand Bruce Honfall; Dr. A. K. Fariier. Hawks aad Owls
of the United Stales is thair RelaHan to Agriculture, VS. Department
of Agriculture, BulL No. 3 (Washington. 1893). a very importaaf
work; D. G. Elliot, Gatltnacaous Game Birds rf Nortk Ameriu
(New York. 1897) and WiU Fowl of tke United States and Britisl
1897) and WiU Fowl of tke United States and BriliA
(1898), and Robert Ridgway's learned and invaluable
Birds of Nortk emd Middle America, pubBshed by the Smithsonian
Institntion, Bull. No. 50 (Washington, 1901 sqbO.
temporary writers in a more p ....
Heifaert it Job and A. R. Dm
^ _ ^ ^ _^ , _ Among con«
tenmorary writers in a more popolarstyle are Jolm1domnighsT9>v.) ;
" ^ ' ' • • -> -^ lore who have done much remarkable
Herbert K. Job and A. K. Dugmore who nave done muca remarkable
^pork in bird photography; Dallas Lore Sharp, Bradford Torrey,
E. H. Parkhuret, Mra Floieoce Merriam Bailey, Olive Thome
Miller (Mrs Harriet Mann Miller) and Mra Mabel Osgood WrMit.
Alexander Wilson's Anurican OmUkology, originally published oe-
ween 1808 and 1814, has gone through many editions including those
Issued in Great Britaioi by Jameson (4 vols. 16 mo, 1831), and
iardiae (3 vols. 8vo, 1833). The former of these has the entire text,
lut no pbtes; the latter reproduces the plates, but the text b in
places much condensed, and excellent notes are added. A contin-
uation of Wilson's work was issued by Bonaparte between 1825 and
1 833. and most of the later editions include the work of both authors.
The works of Audubon, and the FaiffiaBoreo/«-i4nrmcatia of Richard-
son and Swainson have already been noticed, but they need naming
here, as also do Nuttall's Manual of tke Omitkology ef ike United
States and of Canada (a vols.,- Boston, 183^-1 834: and «d., 1840):
and the Birds of Long Island (8 vo. New York, 184^) by J -P. Giraud,
remarkable for its excellent account of the habits of shore-birds.
The Bulletin of tke Nuttall Omitkotogical Club was published from
1876 to 1884. when K was superseded by The Auk. A bi-monthly,
Bird-Lore, established in 1899, is edited by Frank M. Chapman.
A lecent valuable work is that of Mary B. Becbe and C. W. Bcebe.
Our Search for a Wilderness (New York, 1910) which deals with the
birds of Vcnexucla and British Guiana, while Centra! America U
fully treated in the comprehensive and beautiful Bielogui Centrali-
A mericana of F. du Cane Godman and O. Salvin (1898-1905). XI
Returning to the Old World. Vr-c haw first Iceland, the
fullest— toOeod the only full— account of the birds of which is
3IO
ORNITHOLOGY
{HISTORY
\rmtMofie (8v .
the isbnd has since been vinted by sevenf good ornitholoKisCi
f. ^ Proctor, KrQpcr and Wolley among them. A list o( Us
^~f^ birds, with some notes, bibliographical and biological, has
^ '^ been given as an Appendix to Baring-Gould's lethnd,
its Scenes and Sagas (8vo. 1 863) ; and Shepherd's North-west Peninstda
oj iedand (8vo, 1867) recounts a somewhat profitless exoedition
made thither expressly for ornithological objects. For the birds of
the Faeroes there is H. C. Mailer's FaerOemes fugUfauna (8vo. 1862).
of which a German translation has appeared.^ The ornithology of
Norway has been treated in a great many papers by Herr Collett.
some m which may be said to have been separately published as
Narfu Fugle (8vo. 1868; with a supplementi 1871). and The
OmUkoUgy of Northern Norway (8vo, i873)--this last in English.
For Scandinavia generally Herr Collin's Skandinaviens Fugle (8vo,
1873) is a greatly bettered edition of the very moderate Danmarks
FugU of Kjaerb6Uing; but the ornithological portion of Nitsson's
Skandinamsk Fauna, Fogtama (3rd ed.. a vols.. 8vo. 18^) is of
great merit ; while the text of Sundevall's Svenska Foglama (obi. fol.,
1856-1873), unfortunately unfinished at his death, and Herr Holm-
gren's Skondimaoiens Fogiar (a vols. 8vo, 1866-1875) deserve naming.
Works on the birds of (jermany are far too numerous to be rc>
counted. That of the two Naumanns supds at the head of alU
fl ^..^ and perhaps at the head of the " Faunal " works pi all
'*^"^* countries. It has been added to by C R. Hennicke—
Naumann's Birds of Middle Europe (1907). For want of space it
must here suffice simply to name tome ol the ornithologists who
have elaborated, to an extent elsev^eie unknown, the science as
regards their own country: Altum. Baldamus. Bechstein. Blasius
(father and two sons). Bolle, Boiggreve. whose Vogd-Fauna won
NorddeutscUand (8vo, 186^) conUtns what is practically a biblio-
graphical index to the subject. Biehm (father and sons), Von Droste,
Gfttke, Gloger, Hints, Alexander and Eugcn von Homcyer. J&ckel,
Koch, Ktaig-Warthausen, KrOper, Kutter, Landbcck. Lapdots,
Leisler, Von Maltxan, Bernard Meyer, Von dcr MQhle. Neumann,
Tobias,- Johann Wolf and Zander.^ Were we to extend the list
beyond the boundaries of the German empire, and include the
ornithologists, of Austria, Bohemia and the other states subiect
to the same mooarch, the number would be nearly doubled ; but
that would oveipass our proposed limits, though Herr von Pelaeln
must be named.* Passing onward to Switxerland, we must content
ourselves by referring to the list of works, forming a Bibliograpkia
omithologica Hdveliea, drawn up by Dr StAlker for Dr Fatio's
j^. Buttetin de ta Soeiiti Omithologique Suisse (ii. pp. 90> 1 19).
^^* At to Italy, we can but name here the Fawia d' Italia, of
which the second part, Vccelli (8vo. 187a), by Count Salvadori,
contains an excellent biblio^phy of Italian works on the subject,
^nd the posthumously published Omitelogia italiana of Savi (3 vols.
^ 8^0,1873-1877).* Coming to the Iberian peninsula.we must
"t* in default of separate works depart from our rule of not
'^ mentioning contributions to journals, for of the former
there are only CclUmeTUbY'sOmithol^i^Ike Straits of Gibraltar (8vo,
mentioning contributions to journals, for of the former
nly CcianeTUbY'sOmithol^i^Ike Straits of Gibraltar (8vo.
187s) and Mr A. C. Smith's Sfmng four in Portugal* to be named,
and these onl^
Brehm has pul
ly partially cover the ground. However, Dr A. E.
. iblished a bst of Spanish birds [AUgem, deuiscke natur-
kist, Zeitung, iii. o. 431), and The Ibis contains several excellent
papers by Lord Liiiordand by H. Saunders, the liitter of whom there
records (1871 , p. 55) the few works on ornitholoffy by Spanish authors,
and in the BuUOtn de la SecitU Zoolon^ue de France (i. p. 315:
ii. pp. 1 1 , 89, 185) has given a list of the Spanish birds known to him.
Returning northwaras, we have of tne birds of the whole of
France nothing of real importance more recent than the volume
Oiseaux in Vietllot's Faune frauQaise (8vo, I8a2>-i82^) ;
but there is a great number of load publications of which
Mr Saunders has furnished {Zoologist, 1878. pp. 95-99) « caubgue.
^ Journal fur Omithologie U869), pp. 107, 341, 381. One may
almost say an English translation also, for Major Fcilden's con-
tribution to the Zoologist for 187a on the same subject gives the
most essential part of Herr MQller's information.
'This is, of course, no complete list of (merman ornithologists.
Some of the most eminent of tncm have written scarcely a line on
the birds of their own country, as Cabanis (editor since 1853 of the
Journal fir Ornitkolo^), Finsch. Hartlaub, Prince Max of Wied.
A. B. Meyer, Nathusius, Nehrkom, Reicbenbach, Reichcnow and
Schalow among others.^
* A useful omitholoffical bibliography of the Austrian-Hungarian
dominions was printea in the Verk^nMungen of the Zoological and
Botanical Society of Vienna for 1878. by victor Rittcr von Tachusi
au Schmidhofen. A similar bibliography of Russian ornithology
by Alexander Brandt was printed at St Petersburc in 1877 or 1878.
'A useful compendium of Greek and Turkish omitbology by
Drs KrUper and Hartlaub is contained in Mommsen's Grieckiscke
Jakrxeiten for 187^ (Heft III.). For other countries in the Levant
there are Canon Tristram's Fausta and Flora of Palestine (410, 1884)
Jakrxeiten for 187^ (Heft III.). For other countries in the Levant
there are Canon Tristram's Fausta and Flora of Palestine (410, 1884)
and Capuin Shelkry's Handbook to the Birds ojEtypi (8vo, 187a).
*In the final chapter of this work the author gives a list of
Portuguese birds, including besides those observed by him those
fecordcd by Professor Barboza du Bocage in the Cauta medica de
Lisboa (1861). pp. i7-ai.
I only to have appeared in journals, but
aidy. The
Some of these t
have ceruinly been issued separately. Those of most interest to
English ornithologists naturally refer to Briunny. Normandy and
Picardy. and are by Baillon. benoist, Blandtn, Bureau, Caaivet,
Chesnon, Deglaad. Demarle, De Norguet, Gcntil. Hardy, Lemcneil,
Lcraonnicicr, Leauvage. Maignon, Marcotte, Nourry and TaU^,
while perhaps the Omtlkologie partsienne of M. RenA Paquet, under
the pseudonym of N^rfe Qudpat, should also be named. Of the rest
the most important are the OmUkologu provenfole of Roux (a vols,
ato. I8a5-i8a9): Rtsso's Htstoire nalurelle . , . des ennrons de
Nice (5 vols. 8vo. I8a6-t8a7); the Omitkologie du Daupkini U
Bouteille and Labatie (a vols. 8vo. 18^3-1844); the Faune m^rt
dtonate of Crespon (a vols. 8vo, 1844); the Omitkologie de U Scwsr
of Bailly (a vitls. 8vo, i8«3-i854).and Les Rukesses ornitkelogiques
du mufi de la France (4to, 1859-1861) of MM. Jaubert aad
Barthdiemy-Lapommeraye. For Belgium the Faune mm^^^^
btige of Baron be Selys-Longchamps (8vo. 1843), old as ■ - -
it », remains the classical work, though the Planckes colonies
des oiseaux de la Belgique of M. Dubois (8vo. 18^1-1860) is so mucJi
later in date. In regard to Holland we have Schlegel's
De Vogels van Nederland (3 vols. 8vo, 1854-1858; and ed., ■■"^■»
a vols., 1878), besides his De Dieren pan Nederland: Vogjds (8vo,
1861).
Before considering the ornithological works relating solely to the
British Islands, it may be well to cast a glance on a few of those
that refer to Europe in general, the more ao since most >^^ ^
of them are of Continental origin. First we have the i~Vf\
already-mentioned Manuel d' omitkologie of Temminck, ^ "^
which originally appeared as a single volume in 181^;* but that waa
speedily superseded by the second edition of 1820, in two volumes.
Two supplementary parts were issued in 1835 >n<l 1^40 rc^xctively,
and the work for many yeara deservedly maintained the highest
position as the authority on European ornithology — indeed in
England -it may almost without exaggeration be sain to have been
nearly the only foreign orntthcrfogKal work known: but, as could
only be expected, grave defects are now to be discovered in it.
Some of them were already manifest when one of its author's col>
leagues. Schlcgel (who had been employed to write the text for
Susemihl's plates, originally intended to illustrate Temminck**
work), brought out his Dilingual Revue critique des oiseamx d^ Europe
(85m, 1844). a very remarkable volume, mnce it correlated and
consolidated the labours <^ French and German, to say nothing oif
Russian, ornithologists. Of Gould's Birds of Europe (5voia. loL,
1833-1837) nothing need be added to what has been already saidL
The year 18^9 saw the publication of D^land's Omitkologie ear*'
Pjtcnne (a vols. 8vo). a work fully intended to take the i^ce of
Temminck's; but of which Bonaparte, in a caustic but by no means
ill-deserved Revue critique (la mo, 1850), said that the author had
performed a miracle since he had worlced without a collection of
specimens and without a library. A second edition, revised by M.
Gerbe (a vols. 8vo, 1867), strove to remedy, and to some extent did
remedy, the grosser errore of the first, but enough still remain to
make tew statements in the work trustworthy unless corrobonted
by other evidence. Meanwhile in England Dr Bree had in i8«8
begun the publication 6f Tke Birds of Europe not observed n urn
Bntisk Isles (4 vols. 8vo), which was completed in 1863. and in
1875 reached a second and improved edition (5 vols.), in iSfia
M. Dubois brought out a similar work on the " Espices non observ^es
en Belgique," bein^ supplementary to that of his above tunned.
In 1870 Anton Fritsch completed his Naturgeuktukte der Vigd
Europas (8vo, with atlas in folio): and in 1871 Messre Sharpe and
Dresser began the publication of their Birds of Europe, which waa
completed Dy the latter in 1879 (8 vols. 4to), and is um^uestionaUy
the most complete work of its kind, both for fulness of informatioo
and beauty ol illustration — the coloured plates beina nearly all by
Keulemans. This work has «nce been completed by H. E. Dressers
Supplement to Ike Birds of Europe (1896). H. Noble's List of Emro^
pean Birds (1898) is a useful comfnlation, and Dresser's manifioest
Eggs of the Birds of Europe is another great contributioa oy that
author to European omitholo^.
Coming now to works on Bnttsh birds only, the first of the present
century tliat requires remark is Montagu's Omitkologicttl Di d i e mney
(a vols. 8vo, i8oa: suppkrmcnt 1813). the merits of n^m^
which have been so long and so fully acknowledged both TT^
abroad and at home tnat no furtner comment is here ^^
wanted. In 1811 Rennie brought otit a modified edttioa of it
(reissued in 1833), and Newman another in 1866 (reissued in 1883)1
but those who wish to know the author's views had better consult
the original. Next in order come the very inferior Brttisk Ornithology
of Graves (3 vols. 8vo. i8ii-i8ai), and a work with the same title
by Hunt (3 vols. 8vo, i8is-i8aa), published at Norwich, but never
finished. Then we ha\«e Selby's luustrations ef Britisk OmUkology,
two folio volumes of coloured i^tes engraved by himsctf, between
i8ai and iS^, with letterpress also In two volumes (8vo. 1835-1833).
a second edition of the first volume being also issued (18^). for uie
author, having yielded to the pressure of the " Quinariaa doctrines
then in vogue, thought it necessary to adjust his classification
accowKngly, and it must be adnutted that for information the
* Copies are said to exist bearing the date 1814.
TAXONOMY)
•econd edition is best In 1828 Fkmln; bfought out hit Hiahrjt
«/ BrUish Antmals (8vo). ui which the birds are treated at consider-
able length (pp. 41-146), though not with great succen. In 1835
Mr Jenyna (afterwards BlomcneM) produced as excellent Uanual
€f BrUish Verttbratt Animaht a volume (8vo) executed with great
scientific skill, the birds again receiving due attention (pp. 49-a86).
and the descriptions of the various species being as accurate as they
are terse. In the same year began the Coloured lUustralions of
Brtiisk Birds and their Eu$ of H. L. Meyer (4to), which t^s com-
pleted in 1843, whereof a second edition (7 vols. 8vo. 1849-1850)
was brought out, and subsequently (i85»-i8s7) a reissue of the
latter. In 1836 appeared Eyton's History of the rarer British Birds,
intended as a sequel to Bewick's well-known volumes, to which no
important additions had been made since the issue of 1821. The
year 1837 saw the beymningof two remarkable works by Macvitlivniy
and Yarrell respectively, and each entitled A History of Bntisk
Birds. (X Yarrell's work in three volumes, a second edition waa
published in 1845, a third in 1856. and a fourth, begun in 1871, and
almost wholly rewritten. Of the compilations based upon this work,
without whkh they coukl not have been composed, there is no need
to speak. One of the few appearing since, with the same scope, that
art not borrowed is Jardine's Birds of Great Britain and Ireland
(4 vols. 8vo, 1838-1843), forming part of his Naturalist's Library;
and Gould's Birds of Great Britain has been already mentwned.
The local works on Engliah birds are too numerous to be mentkmed;
almost every county has had its omithok>gy recorded. Of morft
recent general works there should be mentioned A. G. Butler's
British Birds with their Nests and Eu' (6 vols.. 1896), the various
editions of Howard Saunders's Manual of British Birds, and Lord
Lilford's beautifully Ulustfated Coloured Figures of the Birds of the
British Islands (1885-1897).
Taxonomy,
The good effects of " Faunal " works such as those named in
the foregoing rapid survey none can doubt, but important as
they are, they do not of themselves constitute ornithology as
a science; and an inquiry, no less wide and far more recondite,
still remains. By whatever term we choose to call it— ClassiSca-
tion* Amingeraent, Systematizing or Taxonomy — that inquiry
which has for its object the discovery of the natural groups into
which birds fall, and the mutual relations of those groups, has
always been one of the deepest interest. It is now for us to trace
the rise of the present more advanced school of omitholog^ts,
whose labours yet give signs of far greater promise.
It would probably be unsafe to place its origin further back
than a few scattered hints contained in the " Pterographische
Fragmente " of Christian Ludwig Nitzsch, published
in the Magazin f&r den neuesten Zustand der Natur-
kunde (edited by Voigt) for May 1806 (xi. pp. 393-4i7)» *nd even
these might be left to pass unnoticed, were it not that we recog-
nixe in them the germ of the great work which the same admirable
soologist subsequently accomplished. In these "Jragments/*
apparently his earliest productions, we find him engaged on the
fdbject with which his name will always be especiafly identified,
the structure and arrangement of feathers. In the following year
another set of hints— of a kind so different that probably no one
then living would have thought it possible that they should ever
be brought in correlation wit h those of Nitzsch — are contained in a
memoir on Fishes contributed to the tenth volume of the Annales
^ du Musium d'kistoire natureUa of Paris by £tienne
u£inh (^^(^y St-Hilaire in i8o7.> Here we have it stated
as a general truth (p. 100) that young birds have the
■temum formed of five separate pieces— <nie b the middle, bong
its keel, and two '* annexes " on each side to which the ribs are
articubted— all, however, finally uniting to form the sin^
" breast'bone." Further on (pp. 101, io») we find observations
as to the number of ribs which are attached to each of the
" annexes " — there being sometimes more of them articulated to
the anterior than to the posterior, and in certain forma no ribs
belonging to one, all being applied to the other. Moreover, the
author goes on to remi^rk that in adult birds trace of the origin
of the sternum from five centres of ossification is always more or
leu indicated by sutures, and that, though these sutures had been
generally regarded as ridges for the attachment of the sternal
muscles, they indeed mark the extreme points of the five primary
bony pieces of the sternum.
' In the PhUosothie anatomise (i. pp. 69-iei. and esfwrially
19" 19s* 136), whko appeared in 1818. Geoffroy St-Hilatie cxptaiacd
toe views he had adopted at greater length*
ORNITHOLOGY
3"
In 1810 appeared at Beidelberg the first volume of F.
Tiedemann'a carefully-wrought Anatmie und Naturgesckichte
der Fdfef— which shows a remarkable advance upon
the work which Cuvier did in i8os, and in some respect!
is superior to his later production of 18x7. It is, how-
ever, only noticed here on account of the numerous references
made to it by succeeding writers, for ndtW in this nor in the
author's second volume (not published until 1814) did he pro-
pound any systematic arrangement of the Class. More germane
to our present subject are the Ostecgraphische BeitrUge tur
Naturgesckichte der Vdgd of C. L. Nitzsch, printed at Leipzig in
x8i X — a miscellaneous set of detached essays on some 1^,^^
peculiarities of the skeleton or portions of the skeleton *'*•*••
of certain birds— one of the most remarkable of which is that on
the component parU of the foot (pp. XOX-X05) pointing out the
abenation from the ordinary structure exhibited by the Goat-
sucker iCapriimdgus) and the Swift (Cy^s«/tM)— an aberration
which, if rightly understood, would have conveyed a warning
to those otnithological systematists who put their trust in birds'
toes for characteiB on which to erect a classification, that there
was in Uiem more of importance, hidden in the integument,
than had hitherto been suspected; but the warning was of
little avail, if any, till many years had elapsed. However,
Nitzsch had not as yet seen Ids way to proposing any methodical
arrangement of the various groups of birds, and it was not until
some eighteen months later that a scheme of dassificatkn in
the main anatomical was attempted.
This scheme was the woric ol Blasiua Merren, idio, in a
communication to the Aauiemy of Sdenoes ol Bnlln on the
xoth December x8xa, which was published in Its
Aikandlungen for the following year (pp. 937-159),
set forth a Teniameti systemaHs naiuralis dM'nm, no less modestly
entitled than modestly executed. The attempt of Merrem must
be regarded aa the virtual starting-point of the latest efforts
in Systematic Ornithology, and in that view its proposals deserve
to be suted at length. Without pledging oonelvcs to the
acceptance of all its details— «ome of which, as is only natural,
cannot be sustained with our present knowledge— it b certainly
not too much to say that Merrem's merits are almost incompar-
ably superior to those of any of his piedeccsaots. Premising then
that the chief characters asaigned by this systematist to his several
groups are drawn from almost all parts o( the structure of birds,
and are supplemented by some others of their more prominent
peculiarities, we present the following abstract of his scheme:—*
L AVBS CAUNATAB.
1. Avcsaereae
A. Rapaces.r-«* Accipitres— Vaf/ar, Falco, Sagittarius,
B. Hymenopodea-^s. Chdidones: «. C noctumae—
Cajprimulgus; fi. C diumae—
Htrundo,
Ik Osciocs: a. 0. conirostres —
Loxia, FriugiBa, Emberita, Tan-
gam; 0. O. tenuirostres~
Aiasida, MotaeiUa, Muscicapa,
Todus, Lanius,' AmPelis, Tur-
dus, Paradisea, Bu6kata, Stur'
nns, Orialus, Cracuia, Coraeias.
Corous, Pipra}, Parus, Sitia,
Certhiat qvmedasn.
C Mellisugae^— rrscAsfai, Certhiae ct Vfmpae plurimae.
D. Dendrocolaptae. — Picus, Yunx.
E. Brevilingues. — a. Upupa ; b. Ispidae.
F. Levirostrea.— u. Ramfh^ms, Scythrops?; h. PsMaeus.
G. Coccyges.— Caciifof, Trogon, Buceo, Croiopkagi,
2. Aves terrestrea
A. Columba.
B. Gallinae.
3. Aves aquaticae.
A. Odontorhyochis a, BosGade»— i4Mx; 6. Jfcrgas;
c. Phoentcopterus,
* The names of the genera are, he tells us. for the most part those
of Linnaeus, as being the best>known. though not the best. To some
of the Linnacan genera he dare not. however, assign a place, for
instance. Bueeros, ffaemalopuSt Merops, Oareola (Brisson's genus,
by the by) aad i>a/
3"
ORNITHOLOGY
[TAXONOMY
II.
B. Ptatyriiynchl— PcUeaiMi, PAmCm, Tletmx
C. ApUnodyUs.
D. Urinatnces: a. Cepphi— 44fea, Colymbi pedibuB
palmatis; 6. Produeps, Colymbt pediboe lobatis.
E. StenorhynchL— jPftfceMom, Dwmedea, Lana, Sterna,
Rkyuchops,
4. Aves jpalustrea.
A. Rusticolae: a. Phalaride»— JtoffM. Fidica, Parra;
b. Limosugae — Numennu, ScUopax, rftMfO, Ckar-
adnus,' Reeurnrttn.
B. Grellae: a. Erodii — Ardta* uqgue intennedio terrato,
Cancroma; b. PeUrgi— CtcofiM, MycUna, Tantali
quidam, Scopus, Pletaiea; c. CcrAai—Ardeae
crisuue. Cms, Pscphta.
C. Otis.
AVB9 RATITAB.— 5lrr«lik»0.
The most novel feature, and one the importance of which
most ornitbologisU of the present day are fully prepared to
admit, is the separation of the daas Aies into two great divisions,
which from one of the most obvious distinctions they present
were called by its author Carinatae*^ and RatUae,* according as
the sternum possesses a keel {crista in the phraseology of many
anatomists) or not. But Menem, who subsequently communi-
cated to the Academy of Berlin a more detailed memoir on
the "' flat-tffeasted " birds,' was careful not here to rest his
divisions on the presence or absence of their stomal character
alone. He concisely cites (p. 338) no fewer than d^t other
characters of more or less value as peculiar to the Carinate
Division, the first of which is that the feathers have their barbs
furnished with hooks, in consequence of which the barbs, includ-
ing those of the wing-quills, ding closely together; while among
the rest may be mentioned the position of the furcula and
coracoids,^ which keep the wing-bones apart; the limitation of
the number of the lumbar vertebra to fifteen^ and of the
caxpals to fwp; as well as the divergent direction of the Hia^
bones— the corresponding characters peculiar to the Ratite
Division being the disconnected condition of the barbs of the
feathers, through the absence of any hooks whereby they might
cohere; the non-existence of the furcula, and the coalescence
of the coraooids with the scapulae (or, as he expressed it, the
extension of the scapulae to supply the place of the coracoids,
which he thought were wanting); the lumbar vertebrae being
tmeniy and the carpals tkret in number; and the parallelism
of the iliac bones.
As for Merrem's partitioning of the inferior groups there is
less to be said in its praise as a whole, though credit roust be
given to his anatomical knowledge for leading him to the percep-
tion of several affinities, as well as differences, that had never
before been suggested by superficial systematists. But it must
be confessed that (chiefly, no doubt, from paucity of accessible
material) he overlooked many points, both of alliance and the
opposite, which since his time have gradually come to be
admitted.
Notice has next to be taken of a Memoir on the Employment
of Sternal Characters in establishing Natural Families among
Birds, which was read by De Blainville before the
yH^ Academy of Sciences of Paris in 1815,* but not pub-
Ushed in full for more than five years later {Journal
de physique , » . et da arts, xcii. 185-215), though an
abstract forming part of a Prodrome d'une nouveUe distribution
dm rigne animal appeared earlier {op, cit. Ixxxiii. 352, 253.
358, 359; and Birlir. soe, pkUomatk. de Paris, 18x6, p. no).
This is a very disappointing performance, since the author
observes that, notwithstanding his new classification of birds
is based on a study of the form of the sternal apparatus, yet.
because that lies wholly within the body, he is compelled to have
recourse to such outward characters as are afforded by the
* From carina, a keel.
* From raUs, a Taft or flat-bottomed barge.
* " Beachreibung des Gerippes cinet Cacuars nebst einiRCn hciliu-
fifen Bemerkufigen ttber die flachbrllstiKen Ydgel." Abkandt. der
Berlin. Akademtie', Pkys. Klasse (1817). pp. 179-198. Ubb. i.-iii.
* Mcrrem. as did many others in his time, calls the coracmd*
"claviculae ": but it is now well understood that in birds the real
cla^ienlae form the furcula or " merry-thousht.*'
* Not 1813. as has aometimes been auted*
proportion of the limbs and the disposition of the toe s even as
had been the practice of most ornithologists before himl It
is evident that the features of the sternum of which 0e Blainville
chiefly relied were those drawn from its posterior margin, which
no very extensive experience of specimens is needed to show are
of comparatively slight value; for the number of '* idtancrwes "
— notciies as they have sometimes been called in Enj^Uab—whcn
they exist, goes but a very short way as a guide, and is so variable
in some very natural groups as to be even in that short way
occasionally misleading.* There is no appearance of his having
at all taken into consideration the far more trustworthy charactera
furnished by the anterior part of the sternum, as wdl as by the
coracoids and the furcula. Still De Blainville made some advance
in a right direction, as for instance by elevating the parrou'
and the pigeons as " Ordres" equal in rank to that of the birds
of prey and some others. According to the testimony of
L'Herminier (for whom see later) he divided the " Passereavj **
into two sections, the "faux " and the " vrais "; but, while the
latter were very correctly defined, the former were most arfaitrmrily
separated from the " Grimpeurs." He also split his Grallaiares
and Natatores (practically identical with the Cratlae and Anseres
of Linnaeus) eadi into four sections; but he failed to see — as
on his own principles he ought to have seen — that each of these
sections was at least equivalent to almost any one of his other
" Ordres." He had, however, the courage to act up to his own
professions in collocating the rollers {Coracias) with the bee-
eaters {M crops), and had the sagacity to surmise that Uenura
was not a Gallinaceous bird. The greatest benefit conferred by
this memoir is probably that it stimulated the efforts, presently
to be mentioned, of one of his pupils, and that it brought more
distinctly into sight that other factor, originally discovered by
Merrem, of which it now clearly became the duty of systematixen
to take cognizance.
Following the chronological order we are here adopting, we
next have to recur to the labours of Nit9ch, who, in 1830, ia
a treatise on the nasal glands of birds— a subject that »m»_^m.
had already attracted the attention of Jacobson
{NoM9. Bull, soc. philomath, de. PariSf ill. 367-369) — ^first put
forth in Meckel's Deutschcs Archiv fUr die Physiologie (vL 351*
369) a statement of his general views on ornithological classifica-
tion which were based on a comparative examination of those
bodies in various forms. It seems unnecessary here to occupy
space by giving an abstract of his plan,* which hardly includes
any but European species, because it was subsequently elaborated
with no inconsiderable modifications in a way that must presently
be mentioned at greater length. But the scheme, crude as it was,
possesses some interest. It is not only a key to much of his
later work— to nearly all indeed that was published in his life-
time—but in it arc founded several definite groups (for example,
Passcrinae and Picariae) that subsequent experience has shown
to be more or less natural; and it further serves as additional
evidence of the breadth of his views, and his trust in the teaching
of anatomy.
That Nitzsch took this extended view is abundantly proved
by the valuable series of omithotomical observations which he
must have been for some time accumulating, and almost immedi-
ately aften^ards began to contribute to the younger Naumann's
excellent Naturgtsckichtc der Vdgcl Deutscklands, already noticed
above. Besides a concise general treatise on the organixation of
birds to be found in the Introduction to this work (i. 23-53), a
brief description from Nitzsch's pen of the peculiarities of the
internal structure of nearly every genus is incorporated with the
author's prefatory remarks, as each passed under consideration,
• Cf. Pkilos. Transactions (1869). p. 337, note.
' This view of them had been long before taken by Willoghby.
but abandoned by all later authors.
* This plan, having been repeated by SchOpss in 1839 {o^. ciL jSl
p- 73). became known to Sir K. Owen in 1835. who then drew to it
the attention of Kirby {Settntk Bndgewaler Treatise, ii. pp. ^44, ^5),
and in the next year referred to it in his own article " Aves ia
Todd's Cyclopaedia of Anatomy (i. p. 366). 10 that Enslishmen need
no excuse for not being aware of one ol Nit»ch's labours, though
his laore advanced work of 1839, pcetently to t>e mentioned, was not
referred to by Sir R. Owen.
TAXONOMY)
ORNITHOLOGY
31.3
md these descript&ws being almost without eaceptioa ao <lnwn
up as to be comparative are accordingly of great utility to
the student of classification, though they have been so greatly
neglected. Upon these descriptions he was still engaged till
death, in 1837, put an end to his labours, when .his place as
Naumann's assistant (or the remainder of the work was taken by
Rudolph Wagner; but, from bme to time, a few more, which
he had already completed, made their posthumous appearance
in it, and, in subsequent years, some seleaions from his unpub-
lished papers were through the care of Giebel presented to the
public. Throughout the whole of this series the same marvellous
industry and scrupulous accuracy are manifested, and attentive
study of if will show how many times Nitzsch anticipated the
condusiona of modem taxonomers. Yet over and over again
hb determination of the affinities of several groups ev«n of
European birds was disregarded; and his labours, being con-
tained in a bulky and costly work, were hardly known at all
outside of his own country, and within it by no means appreciated
so much as they deserved *— for even Naumann himself, who
gave them publication, and was doubtless in some degree
influenced by them, utterly failed to perceive the importance
of the characters offered by the song-muscles of certain groups,
though their peculiarities were all duly described and recorded
by his coadjutor, as some indeed had been long before by Cuvicr
in his famous dissertation* on the organs of voice in birds
{Lemons d'anaUmU contparie, iv. 450-491). Nitzsch's name was
subsequently dismissed by Cuvier without a word of praise, and
in terms which would have been applicable to many another and
inferior author, while Temminck, terming Naumann's work an
" oimage de luxe "—it being in truth one of the cheapest for its
4»ntents ever published — effectually shut it out from the realms
of science. In Britain it seems to have been positively unknown
until quoted some years after its completion by a catalogue-
compiler on account of some peculiarities of nomenclature
which it presented.
Now we must return to France, where, in 1827, L'Herminier,
« Creole ol Guadaloupe and a pupil of De BlainviUe's, contributed
to the AeUs of the Ltnnaean Sodety of Paris for
mJHri. ^^^ y^^^ ^^^- 3"^) ^^ " R^cherches sor I'appareil
sternal des Oiaeauz," which the precept and example
of his master had prompted him to undertake, and Cuvier
had found for him the means of executing. A second and
considerably enlarged edition of this very remarkable treatise
was published as a separate work in the following year. We
have already seen that De Blainville, though fully persuaded
of the great value of sternal features as a method oL classification,
had bMn compelled to fall back upon the old pedal characters
ao often employed before; but now the scholar had learnt to
excel his teacher, and not only to form an at least provisional
arrangement of the various members of the Class, based on
sternal chaiacteis, but to describe these characters at some
length,.and so give a reason for the faith that was in him. There
ia no evidence, so far as we can see, of his having been aware
of Merrem's views; but like that anatomist he without hcsiution
divided the daas into two great " coupes" to which he gave,
however, no other names than " Oiseaus nortmutx " and " Oiscaux
anamaux" — exactly corresponding with his predecessor's
CorMM^M and J2ai«to«— and, moreover, he had a great advantage
in founding these groups, since he had discovered, apparently
from his own investigations, that the mode of ossification in each
was distinct; for hitherto the statement of there being five
ceatics of ossification in every bird's sternum seems to have
been accepted aa a general truth, without contradiction, whereas
in the ostrich and Uw rhea, at any rate, L'Herminier found that
there were but two such primitive points,* and from analogy
' Their value was. however, undentood by Glower, wtio in 1834.
as will presently be seen, cqiwswd his regret, at not being able 10
use them.
■ Cuvier's fizvt ooaervations on the subject seem to have appeared
sn the Matfltin encydopUiqiu for 1795 (ii. pp. 330. 358).
' This fact in the ostrich appears to have been known already to
Geoffrey St-Hilaire from bis own observataon in Egypt, but does noc
aeem to have been published by him.
he judged that the same WouU be the case with the csmo-
waiy and the emeu, which, with the two forma mentioned
above, made up the whole of the " Oisamx anomamx " whose
exiatenoe waa then generally acknowledged.* These are the forms
which composed the family previously tenned Cursores by De
Blainville; but L'Herminier was able to distingnish no fewer
than thirty-feur familiea of **(Hseaux tmrnoMX," and the
judgment with which their separation and definition were effected
must be deemed on the whole to be most creditable to him. It
is to be remarked, however, that the wealth of the Paris Museuo^
which he enjoyed to the f uU, placed him in a situation incompar-
ably more favourable for arriving at results than that which
was occupied by tlUtttm, to whom many of the most remarkable
forms were wholly unkjoown, while L'Herminier had at his
disposal examples of needy every type then known to exisL
But the bitter used this privilege wisely and weU--not, after
the manner of De Blainville and others subsequent to hi^^
reding solely or even chiefly on the charaaer afforded by the
posterior portion of the sternum, but taking also hnio oo&sidera«>
tion those of the anterior, as well as of the in some cases still
more important characters presented by the pre-stemal bones»
such as the f urcula, coracoids and scapulae. L'Herminier thus
separated the families of " Normal Birds ": —
I. "Acdpitres" — Aeeipitres,
Linn.
a. " Scrpentaires "— GypcgerO'
nus, lUiger.
3. " Chouettes " — Strix, Linn.
4. "Touracos" — Opaetus,
Vieillot.
5. " Perroquets '* — PsiUaeus,
I^inn.
6. " Cohbris " — Trockitus, Linn.
7. " Martinets " — Cypselus, IIU-
ger.
8. " Engoulevents " — Capri-
18. " Paswreaux " — Passeres,
Linn.
19. " Pigeons " — Co/umfo, Linn,
aa " Gallinac^s "— <;<i//tiui«e0.
21. "Tinamous" — Tinamus,
Latham.
22. " Foulqucs ou Poulcs d'cau '*
— Futica, Linn.
23; " Grues "'-<!rus, Pallas.
24. •• Hfcodions "— IftfforfM, llli-
g<r.
25. No name given, out said to
iodttde " les ibw ct b«
spatulcs." -
26. "Grilles ou £chassien"
CratlM.
27. ** Mouettcs " — Lerus, Linn.
28w •• P^feU"— PrMaOano.Unn.
29. "Pelicans" — PeUcanus.LitUi.
30. " Canards " — Anas, Linn.
"Gr*bes" — Podietpt,
Latham.
PloQgooBs" — Ciflymhua,
3«
3a. '
" Pingouins " — ^^^ilra.Lathani.
"Manchots"— Aplenodytes,
Fonter.
mtUgus, Linn.
9, " Coucous "-^Cueulus, Linn.
10. "Couroucous" — rroxoii,Linn.
1 1. " Rolliers "-^tJgidus, Bris-
' son.
12. " Guftpiers " — Merops, Linn.
13. "Martins-Pecheun"— i4lceiif0,
Linn.
14. " Calaos "^Bueeros, Uan.
15. " Toucans " -- Bampkaatos,
Linn.
16. " Pics "—Picus, Linn.
17. "Epopeides" — Epopndes,
VieUlot.
The preceding list Is given to show the very maited agreement
of L'Herminicr's results compared with those obtained fifty
years later by another investigator, who approached the subject
from an entirely different, though still osteologica], basis. Many
of the excellencies of L'Herminier's method could not be pointed
out without too great a sacrifice of space, because of the details
into which it would be necessary to enter; but the trenchant
way in which he showed that the " Passereaux ''~a group
of which Cuvier had said, "Son caract^ aemble d'abord
pureraent nCgatif," and had then faOed to define the fimits—
differed so completely from every other assemblage, while
maintaining among its own innimieraUe memben an almost
perfect essential hooMgeneity, is very striking, and shows how
admirably he oould grasp hto subject. Not leas conspicuous
are his merits in disposing of the groups of what are ordinarily
known as water-birds, his indicating the affinity of the rails
(No. 22) to the cranes (No. 23), and the severing of the latter
from the herons (No. 24). Wa nnion of the snipes, sandpipers
and plovers into one group (No. 26) and the alliance, espedally
dwelt upon, of that group with the gulls. (No. 27) are steps
which, though indicated by Merrem, are here for the first time
deariy laid down; and the separatioii of the gulls from the
petrels (No. 28)->step in adva&ce already taken, ft is true,
by Illigo^-is here pUoed on indefeasible ground. With all this,
perhaps on account of all this, L'Hemdnier's efforts, did not
* Considerable doubts were at that tune entertained ia Paris as
to the eidsteoce of the Apieryx,
3H
ORNITHOLOGY
rTAXONOMY
find favour ^th hk tnentMc tapaton, and for the time thingi
remained as iliough his investigations had never been catried on.
Two yeais later Nitzsch, who was indefatigable in his endeavour
to discover the natural families of birds and had been pursuing
a series of researches into their vascular system^
published the result, at Halle in Saxony, in his Obsena-
tumes de avmm arUria cartiid* cofmmrm, in which
is induded a classification drawn up in accordance with the
variation of structure which that important vessel presented
m the several groups that he had opportunities of examining.
By this time he had visited several of the principal museums
on the Continent, among others Leyden (where Temminck
resided) and Paris (where he had frequent intercoune with
Cuvier),. thus becoming acquainted with a considerable number
of exotic fonns that had hitherto been inaccessible to him. Con-
sequently his labouis had attained to a certain degree of complete-
ness in this direction, and it may therefore be expedient here
to name the different groups which he thus thought himself
entitled to consider established. They are as follows: —
I. AvBs Carinatab (L'H. " Oiseaux nomaux "].
A. Aves Carinatae aereae.
i, Aecifitnnae (L'H. i, a partim. 3I: 1. Pau€An»€ [L'R tS]; 3.
Macrochires [L'H. 6. ?]; 4. Cuculiiuu (L'H. S, 9, 10 (qu. il.
■3 01: S- Picinae (L'H. 15. 16]; 6. PsiUacimu (L'H. 5I; 7.
Lipoglossae [L'H. 13, 14, 17I; S.AmpkiboUu [L'H. 4).
.B. Avcs (jarinatae terrestrea.
I. Colnmbinae [L*H. 19I; 3. CaUimueae [L'H. so].
C. Avea Carinauc aquaticae.
Crallae.
I. AUcUfrides i^Dickchphus-^Otis) (L'H. a partim, 36 nartiinl:
a. Gruinat (L'H. 33]; %. Fulicariae (L'H. aa]; 4. Heroduu
(L'H. 34 partim); 5. Pdarti [VH. 34 partim, 3i>l; 6. OdmUo-
tUssi i^PhoenuopUnu) (L'H. s6 partun]; 7. Ltmicolae [L'H.
36 paene omnes].
Pslmatae.
«. Lougipennes (L'H. 37I; 9. NastUae (L'H. 381; la Untmrostres
[LU 30I; 11. SUtauQpodis (L'H. 39]: I3. Pyfopodts (L'H.
31. 32. 33. 34I-
II. AvBS Ratitab (L'H. " Oiseaux anomaux "].
To enable the reader to compare the several groups of Nitxsch
with the families of LUenninier, the numbers applied by the
latter to his families are suflixed in square brackets to the
names of the former; and, disregarding the order of sequence,
which is here immaterial, the essential correspondence of the
two systems is worthy of all attention, for it obviously means
that these two investigators, starting from different points,
must have been on the right track, when they so often coincided
as to the limiu of what they considered to be, and what we
are now almost justified in calling, natural groups.^ But it
must be observed that the classification of Nitxsch, just given,
rests much more on characters furnished by the general structure
than on those furnished by the carotid artery only. Among
all the spedes (i38, he tells us, in number) of which he examined
specimens, he found only/Mtr variations in the structure of that
vessel, namely :~
I. That in which, both a right carotid artery and a left are
present. This is the most usual fashion among the various groups
of birds, including all the " aerial " forms excepting Pasurinae,
Uacrcckirts and Pkinae,
a. That in which there is but a single carotid artery, sprin^g
from both right and left trunk, but the branches soon coalescing,
to take a midway course, and again dividing near the head. This
form Nitach was only able to find m the bittern (Ardea tUUaris).
^ Whether Nitxach was cofiiixant of L'Hermiaier's viewa b in no
way apparent. The latter'a name aeem* not to be even mentioned by
him. but Nitxach was in Paris in the summer of 1837. and it is almost
impossible that he diould not have heard of L'Herminier's labours,
unless the relations between the followera of Cnvicr to whom Nitxach
attached himself, and those of De Blainville. whose pupil L'Hermi-
pier was, were such aa to forbid any commutucatioo between, the
rival schools. Yet we have L'Herminier's evidence that Cuvier gave
him every asdstance. Nitxach's silence, both on this occasion and
afterwards, is very curious; but be cannot be accused of plagiarisro.
for the scheme given above is only an amplification of that fore-
shadowed by him (as already mentioned) in 1820— a scheme which
seems to have been eoually unknown to L'Hennmier, perhaps
through linguistic difficulty.
3. That in which the right carotid artery atone is 1
of iriuch, according to our author's experience, the flamingo
(Pkotnicoptenu) was the sole example.
4. That in which the left carotid artery alone exists, as found
in all other birds examined by Nitxsch, and therefore as regards
species and individuals much the most common— since into
this category oome the countless thousands of the passerine
birds-~ft group which outnumbers all the rest put together.
Considering the enonnous stride in advance made by L'Hermimer.
it is very diaappotnring for the historian to have to record that the
next inquirer into the osteology of birds achieved a ^gft^^i^
disastrous failure io his attempt to throw light 00 their
arranecment by means of a comparison 01 their sternum. This
was Berthold, who devoted a long chapter of his Btitrift mr Ana-
tonUe, published at GOttingcn 4n 1831, to a consideration of the
subject. So far as his introductory chapter went — the dcvebpaaent
of the sternum — he was, for his tune, right enough and somewhat
instructive. It was only when, after a close examination of the
sternal apparatus of one hundred and thirty species, which be
carefully described, that he arrived (pp. 177-183) at the coochnaoo —
astonishing to us who know of L'Herminier's previous results-^hat
the sternum of birds cannot be used as a help to their clasaificatioa
on account of the egregious anomalies that would folbw the pro>
ceeding— «ich anomalies, for insUnce. as the separation of Cyfidma
from Himndo and its alliance with TVacAt/iu, and the grouping <A
Hirundo and FringiUa together.
At the very beginning of the year 1833 Cuvier laid before the
Academy of Sciences of Paris a memoir on the progress of ossifi*
cation in the sternum of birds, of which memmr an ^^^
abstract will be found in the Antuttes det scktues ^^
naiureiUs (xxv^ pp. 360-373). Herein he traced in 'OMAstr-
detail, illustrating his statements by the preparations
he exhibited, the progress of ossification in the sternum of the
fowl and of the duck, pointing out how it differed in each, and
giving his interpretation of the differences. It had hitherto beca
generally believed that the mode of ossification in the fowl wm
that which obtained in all birds— the ostrich and its allies
(as L'Herminier, we have 'seen, had already shown) excepted.
But it was now made to appear that the struthious birds in this
respect resembled, not only the duck, but a great many other
groups — waders, birds-of-prey, pigeons, passerines and perhaps all
birds not gallinaceous— so that, according to Cuvier's view, the five
points of ossification observed in the GaUinaet instead of exhibiting
the normal process, exhibited one quite exceptional, and that in
all other birds, so far as he had hem enabled to investigate the
matter, ossification of the sternum begab at two points only,
situated near the anterior upper margin of the side of the stenium,
and gradually crept towards the keel, into which it piescntly
extended; and, thouj^ he allowed the appearance of detached
portions of calcareous matter at the base of the still rarlilaginnns
keel in ducks at a certain age, he seemed to consider thb aa
individual peculiarity. This fact was fisstened upon by Geoffroy
in his reply, which was a week later presented to the Academy,
but was not published In full until the following year, when
it appeared In the Annates du Musium {ttr. 3, ii. pp. x-aa).
Geoffroy here maintained that the five centres of ossification
existed in the duck just as in the fowl, and that the real difference
of the process lay in the period at which they made their appear-
ance, a circumstance which, though virtually proved by the
preparations Cuvier had used, had been by him overlooked or
misinterpreted. The fowl possesses all five ossifications at bixth,
and for a long while the middle piece forming the keel is by fisr
the largest. They all grow slowly, and it is not until the aniBoal
is about six months <dd that they are united into one firm bone.
The duck, on the other hand, when newly hatched, and for neaify
a month after, has the sternum wholly cartilaginous. Then, It is
true, two lateral pohits of ossification appear at the margin,
but subsequently the remaining three are developed, and when
once formed they grow with much greater rapidity than in the
fowl, so that by the time the young duck is quite independent of
its parents, and can shift for itself, the whole sternum fs cote-
pictely bony. Nor, argued Geoffroy, was it true to say, as
Cuvier had said, that the like occurred in the pigeons and true
passerines. In their case the stemun) begins to ottify from three
very distinct points— one of which is the centre of oasificatioB el
TAXONOMY]
the kttd. As reguds the stnithioiit biidi, tbey could not be
likened to the duck, for in tbcm at no tge was there any indka^
tion ol a single median centre oC oeiification^ aa Geofirorhad
satisfied himself by his own observations made in Egypt nuy
years before. Ctivier seems to have acquiesced in the correctiotta
of Us views nuMie b^ GeoSroy, and attempted no rejoinder; but
the attentive and impartial student of the discussion will see that
a good deal waa really wanting to make the tatter's reply dlectivey
though, as eventa have shown, the former was hasty in the ooo-
cfaisions at which he arrived, having trusted too much to the
fint appearance of centres of ossification, for, had his observi^
lions in regard to other birds been carried on with the same
attention to detail as In regard to the fowl, he would certainly
have reached tome very different results.
In ift34 C- W. L. Gk«er brought out at Bmlau the first (and
unfartuaately the ooly) nut of a VoUstandigfis Handbuck der NatMr-
KsckkkU ier Vdf^d Bnropa*s, treating of the laod-binls.
la the Introduction to this book (p. xxxviii., note) he
ORNITHOLOGY
315
work. Notwithstanding this, to Closer seems to belong the credit
of being the firyt author to a^^ himself in a book intended for
piaeticu ornithologists of the new light that had already been shed
00 Systematic Ornithology; and accordingly we have the second
Older of his arrangement^ the Aves Pasunnae, divkied into two
suborders: singing passennes {mdodusae), and passerines without
an apparatus of song-muscles (aMMno/otf)— -the latter iiiduding what
some later writers called Picariae, For the rest his dassihcation
demands 00 particular remark; but that in a work of thb land he
had the coursge to recognise, for instance, such a fact as the essential
difference between swallows and swifts lifts him considerably above
the crowd of other ornithological writers of his ttmew
An improvement on the old method of classification by purely
external charscters was introduced to the Academy of Sciences <4
, . .^ Stockholm byC. J. Sundevall in 1835, and was published
*■■*•''•* the following vear in iu Handtiniar (pp. 43'ilo). This
was the foundation 01 a more extensive work 01 which, from
the influence it still exerts, it will be necessary to treat later at
some length, and there will be no need now to enter much into
details respecting the earlier performance. It is sufficient here to
ramark that the author, even then a man of great erudition, must
have been aware of the turn which taxonomy was taking; but, not
being able to divest himself of the older notion that external
characters were superior to those furnished by the study of
internal structure, and that Comparative Anatomy, instead of being
a part of soology. was something distinct from it, he seems to have
endeavoured to lonn a scheme wbich^ while not running wholly
counter to the teachings of G>mpanUve Anatomists, should yet
rest ostensibly on external characters. With this view he studied
the latter most laboriously, and in some measure certainly not
without success, for he brought into prominence several points that
had hitherto escaped the notice of nis predecessors. He also ad-
mitted among hw characteristics a physiological consideration
(apparently derived from Oken >) dividing the class Aves into two
sections AJIriets and Praec^us, according as the youi% were fed by
thdr parents or, from the first, fed themselves. But at this time be
was encumbered with the hasy doctrine of anak)gies, which, if it
did not act to his detriment, was assuredly of no service to him.
He prefixed an " Idea Systematia" to his " Expositio"; and the
former, which appears to represent his real opinion, differs in arrange*
ment very considerably from the latter. Like Ologer, Sunde^^
in his klcal system separated the true passerines from all other birds,
calling them Vdueru; but he took a steo further, for he aaugnea
to them the highest rank, wherein nearly every recent authority
agrees with him ; out of them, however, he chose the thrusheb and
warblers to stand first as his ideal " Centrum "— a selectioa which,
though in the opinion of the present writer errooeo u s, is still btfgely
loUowed.
The poinU at issui^ between Cuvier and £tienae Geoffroy
St-^Haire before mentioned naturally attracted the attention
L'fhi^ ^ L'Herminier, who in 1836 presented to the French
MMbr^ Academy the results of his researches into the mode
of growth of that bone which in the adult bird he had
atmdy studied to such good purpose. Unf oitunatdy
the full account t of his diliigent investigations waa
never published. We can best judge of his laboun from an
nhstrsct reprinted bi the Compits trntdm (jSL ^ip, zs-so) and
reprinted hi the AnnaUa du teknets nahtnOa (ser. s, toL t1. pp.
Z07-115), and from the report upon them by Isidore Geoffroy
*ile says from Ofcen's N^hirtitstkUkk fir ScAatra, pui
iSsi. but the division Is to be found in that author's earlier Ldirbmek
dtr Z^cUfju Qi. p. 37i}« which appeared in 1816.
StrKOaire, to whom with otitffs they were refecied. This report
is contained in the Ccmpiu rendus for the following year (iv/ pp.
565-574)1 and is vciy critical in its character. -
L'Herminier arrived at the eondnsion that, so far from there
Only two or three different modes by which the process of
Ktion in the •teraum la carried out, the number 01 different
modes is very ooasidemble — almost each natural group of birds
having its own. The prindoal theory which he hence conceived
himself justified la ]taopoundmgwas that instead of fite being (as
had been sttted) the maximum number of oeotrm of ossification in
the sternum, there 9x9 no fewer than mim entering into the oom*
porition of the perfect sternum of birds in general^ though in every
spedes some of these nine are wanting, whatever be the condition
01 (levelopment at the time of examination. These nine theoreti<»l
centres or " ineoes " L'Herminier deemed to be disposed in Awe*
transverse aeries (fongJci), namely the anterior or ^' prasternal,"
the nuddle or " meaorternal " and the posterior or " metasternal "
— each series consistii^ of fftrM portions, one median piece and two
side-pieces. At the same time be seems, according to the abstract
of his memoir, to have made the somewhat contradictory aasertion
that sometimes there aie more than three pieces in each series, and
in certain groups of birds as many as six * It would occupy more
space than can nere be allowed to give even the briefest abstract of
the numerous observations wluch follow the statement of hb theory
and on which it professedly resta They extend to more than a
score of natural groups of birds, and nearly each of them preAnts
some peculiar characters. Thus of the first series of pieces he saya
that when all exist they may be developed simuluneously, or I
the two side-pieces m
median may precede
the two side-pieces may precede the median, or again that the
median may precede the side-pieces— according to the group < '
birds, but that the second mode is much the commonest, tne aan
variatMns are observable in the second or nuddle series, but its
ride-pieces are said to exist in all groups of birds without exception.
As to the third or posterior series, when it is coniirfete the three
consrituent i^ccca are developed almost simuluneously; but its
median piece is said often to originate in two, iriiich soon unite,
especially when the skle-pieoes am wanting. By way of examples
of L'Herminier's obtervatiobs, what he says of the two groups that
had been the subiect of Cuvier's and the elder Geoffroy's contest
may be raentionea« In the GaUino* the five well-known pieces or
centres of ossificatkm are said to consist of the two side-pieces of
the second or middle series, and the three of the posterior. On two
occasions, however, there was found in addition, what may be
uken for a representation of the first series, a little ** noyau *' ritoated
between the coiacoide— forming the ooly instance of all.three series
being present in the same bird. As regards the ducks, L'Herminier
agreed with Cuvier that there are commonly only two centres of
ossification— the ride-pieces of the middle series; Intt as these grow
to meet one another a disrinct median ** noyau,** also of the same
series, sometimes appears, which soon forms a connexion with eadi
of them. In the ostnch and its allies no trace of this medHaa centre
of ossification ever occun^ but with these exceptions its existence
is invariable in all other birds. Here the matter must be left; but
it is undoubtedly a subject which demands further investigation
and naturalty any future iavestigator of It should consult the
abstract of L'Herminier's memoir and the c
younger Geoffroy.
t criticisms upon it of the
Hitherto our attention has been given wholly to Germany and
France, for the chief ornithologists of Britain were occupying
themselves at this time in a very useless way^-not m^^a^
but that there were several distinguished men who were ^?^
paying due heed at this time to the internal structure
of birds, and some excellent descriptive memoirs on spedal focms
had appeared from their pens, to say nothing of more than one
general treatise on ornithic anatomy.* Yet no one in Britain
*We shaS perhaps be justified in assuming that this apparent
inconsiBtency, and othen vdiich present themselves, would be
otpllcable ifthe whole memoir with the aeoesaary iUustratioas had
been published*
•Sir Richard Owen's celebrated article "Aves,** in Todd's
Cydopaodia of Anoiomy and PkysioloQ 0- pp. S65-358), appeared ia
1836. and, as giving a general view 01 the structure of bin'
no praise here; but its object
or UuQW light especially on systematic
«rds. needs
not to esmblish a cJaaslfKarion,
latic arraofement. So far from
that being the case, iu disriaguished author was coatcnt to adopt,
as he tells us, the arrangement proposed by Kiiby iathe5fsciil4
Bridfewattr TnaiiM (iL pp. 445-474}, being that, it is true, of an
estinwbie aoologist, but of one who had no special knowledge of
orahbokty. Indeed it is, aa the latter saye, that of Linnaeus,
improvedlnr Cuvier, with an ad di tional saodifiBation of lUiger'a—
all these three authon having totally ignored any but external
characters. Yet it was regarded " as being the one vmlch fadlitatea
the expression of the leading aiiatomical diff eie nc e s iriiich obtain
in the dam of birds, and which therefore may be ooMidered as the
moat aaturaL"
3i6
ORNITHOLOGY
crAXON(»«y
seems to have attempted to found any scientific arrangement of
birds on other than external characters until, in 1837, William
MacgilUvray issued the first volume of his Hiitary of British
Birds, wherein, though professing (p. 19) *' not to add a new
system to the many already in partial use, or that have passed
away like their authors," he propounded (pp. r6-r8) a scheme for
classifying the birds of Europe at least founded on a '' considera-
tion of the digestive organs, which merit special attention, on
account, not so much of their great importance in the economy
of birds, as the nervous, vascular and other systems are not
behind them in this respect; but because, exhibiting great
diversity of form and structure, in accordance with the nature
of the food, they are more obviously qualified to afford a basis
for the classification of the numerous species of birds " (p. 52).
Fuller knowledge has shown that MacgiUivray was ill-advised in
laying stress on the systematic value of adaptive characters, but
his contributions to anatomy were valtuble, and later investi-
gators, in particuhir H. Gadow and P. Chalmers Mitchell, have
^wn that useful systematic information can be obtained from
the study of the alimentary canal. MacgiUivray himself it was,
apparently, who first detected the essential difference of the
organs of voice presented by some of the New- World Passerines
(subsequently known as C/amoA^ref), and the earliest intimation
of this seems to be g^ven in his anatomical description of the
Arkansas Flycatcher, Tyrannus verticalis, which was published
in 1838 {Ornilkol. Biography, iv. p. 435), though it must be
admitted that he did not — because he then could not — ^perceive
the bearing of their difference, which was reserved to be shown by
the investigation of a still greater anatomist, and of one who had
fuller facilities for research, and thereby almost revolutionixed,
as will presently be mentioned, the views of systematists as to
this order of birds. There is only space here to say that the
second volume of MacgiUivray 's work was published in 1839,
and the third in 1840; but it was not until 1852 that the author,
in broken health, found an opportunity of issuing the fourth and
filth. His scheme of classification, being as before stated partial,
need not be given in detaiL Its great merit is thit it proved
the necessity of combining another and hitherto much-neglected
factor in any natural arrangement, though vitiated as so many
other schemes have been by being based wholly on one class of
characters.
But a bolder attempt at classification was that ibade in 1838
by Blyth in the New Series (Charlesworth's) of the Magazine of
n-^^ Natural History (ii. pp. 256-268, 3X4-3i9> 3SX-361.
^^ 420-426, 589^1; iii. pp. 76-^4). It was limited,
however, to what be called Insassora, being the group upon
which that name had been conferred by Vigors {Trans. Linn.
Society, xiv. p. 405) in 2823, with the addition, however, of his
Raptores, and it will be unnecessary to enter into particulars
concerning it, though it is as equally remarkable for the insight
shown by the author into the structore of birds as for the philo-
sophical breadth of his view, which comprehends almost every
kind of character that had been at that time brou^t forward.
It is plain that Blyth saw, and perhaps he was the ficst to see it,
that geographical distribution was not'um'mportant in suggesting
the affinities and differences of natural groups (pp. 258, 359) ;
and, undeterred by the precepts and practice of the hitherto
dominant English school of Ornithologists, he declared that
" anatomy, when aided by every character which the manner of
propagation, the progressive changes, and other physiological
data supply, is the only sure bass of classification." He was
quite aware of the taxonomic value of the vocal organs of some
groups of birds, presently to be especially mentioned, and he had
himself ascertained the presence and absence of caeca in a not
inconsiderable number of groups, drawing thence very justifiable
inferences. He knew at least the earlier investigations of
L'Herminier, and, though the work of Nitzsch, even if he bad
ever heard of it, must (through 'ignorance of the language in
which it was written) have been to him a sealed book, he had
followed out and extended the hinU already given by Temminck
as to the differences which various groups of birds diqilay in their
moult. With all tiiis it is not surprising to find, though the fact baa
been generally overlooked, that BIyth's proposed arrangement
in many points anticipated conclusions that were subsequently
reached, and were then regardedas fresh discoveries. It is proper
to add that at this time the greater part of his work was atgrrhiL
carried on in conjunction with A. Bartlett,the superin*
tendent of the London Zoological Society's Gardens, and tbat»
without his assistance, Blyth'sopportunities, slender as they were
compared with those which others have enjoyed, must have been
still smaller. Considering the extent of their materials, which was
limited to the bodies of such animals as they could obtain from
dealers and the several menageries that then existed in or near
London, the progress made in what has since proved to be the
right direction Is very wonderful. It is obvious that both these
investigators had the genius for recognizing and inteipreting the
value of characters; but their labours do not seem to have met
with much encouragement ; and a general arrangement of the das9
laid by Blyth before the Zoological Society at this time > does not
appear in its publicatioos. The scheme could hardly fail to be
a crude performance — a fact which nobody would know better
than its author; but it must have presented much that was
objectionable to the opinions then generally prevalent. Its line
to some extent may be partly made out — very clearly, for the
matter of that, so far as its details have been published in the
series of papers to which reference has been given — and some
traces of its features are probably preserved in his Caialogiu of
the specimens of birds in the mnseum of the Asiatic Society
of Bengal, which, after several years of severe labour, made its
appearance at Calcutta in 1849; but, from the time of his
arrival in India, the onerous duties imposed upon Blyth, together
with the want of suffident books of reference, seem to have
hindered him from seriously continuing his former reseaichc%
which, interrupted as they were, and bom out of due time, had
no appreciable effect on the views of systematisers generally.
Next must be noticed a series of short treatises commankated
by Johann Friedrich Brandy between the years 1836 and 1839, to
the Academy of Sciences of St Petersburg, and published
in its Mimotres. In the year last mentioned the greater """"^
cart of these was separately issued under the title of BeHrdge tmr
Kerhttniss der NaturgeschitMe der Vogel. Herein the author first
assigned anatomical reasons (or rearranging the order Amseres of
Linnaetis and Ifatatores of llliger, who, so Iom before as 1 811, had
proposed a new distribution of it into six famines, the definitions of
which, as was his wont, he had drawn from external cluuacten only.
Brandt now retained very neariy the same arrangement as hia
predecessor; but, notwithstanding that he could trust to the
firmer foundation of internal framework, he took at least two rtftro-
Kide stem. Firrt he failed to see the great structural difference
tween the penguins (which llliger had paced as a group. Impenmes^
of equal rank to his other families) and the auks, divers and grebes,
Pyfo^odei— combining all of them to form a " Typus " (to use his
term) Urinatores; and secondly he admitted among the Natatorts.
though as a distinct "Typus" Podaidae, the eenera Podea and
Fulica, whkh are now known to belong to the RaUidao—^te latter
indeed (see Coot) being but very slightly removed from the moor-
. tga{ .. - ^-
other systematists were long in admitting.. On the whole Brandt's
kbours were of no small service in asserting the principle that 000-
sideration must be paid to osteology; for his position was audi as
to gain more attention to his views than some of his less favourablf
placed brethren had succeeded in doing.
In the same year (1839) another slight advance was made in the
classification of the true Passerines. Kcyserting and Blaaius briefly
pointed out in the Arekpffir NaiurtrsduckU (v. pp. 332- „
334) that, whik all the other birds provided with paiect. *^
song-muscles had the " planta " or bind part of the J
" tarsus " covered with two long and undivided homy '
plates, the Urks (q.v.) had this part divided by many t
sutures, so as to be scutellated behind as well as in frtrnt; jnat as
is the case in many of the passerines which have not the auyin^
apparatus, and also in the hoopoe (g.v.). The importance 01 ths
singular but superficial departure from the normal structure has
been so needlessly exagserated as a character that at the pcescnt
time its value is apt to be unduly depreciated. In so large and so
homogeneous a group as that of the true Pasaerinea, a oooaunt
' An abstract is contained in the Minute-book of the Scientific
Meetings of the Zoological Society, 26th June and loth July 1838.
The class was to contain fifteen orders, but only three were dealt
with in any dctalL
TAXONOMYl
diancter of thb kind i* not to be detpiMid m a pncticai noda of
•eparating the birds which possess it; aind, more toan this, it would
appear tl)^t the discovery thus announced was the immediate means
01 leading to a senes of lavestisationt of a much more important
and lasting natufe— tbote of Johaiuet MOlkr to be pnaently
ORNITHOLOGY
3>7
Agaio we moit recnr to that indefatigable and most original
iDvestigator Nitsch, who» having never utetmitted his stody of
the particular subject of his fiist contribotion to
science, loag sgo noticed, in 1833 brought out at
Halle, where he was professor of Zoology, an essay with the title
Fter^ograpkiae Avium P»s prifif. It seems tlut this was
issued as much with the object of inviting aanstance from othem
in view of future laboun, since the matenals at Us disposal were
compaiativdy scanty, as with that of making known the results
to which his reiear^es had alrmdy led him. Indeed^ he only
communicated copies of this essay to a few friends, andexamplni
of it are comparatively scarce. Moreover, he stated subaequeotly
tliat lie thereby hoped to excite other naturalisU to share with him
the invesUgations he was making on a subject which had hitherto
escaped notice or had been wholly neglected, since he considered
that he had proved the disposition of the feathered tncts in the
plumaice of birds to be the means of funushing disracters for the
disfriminafion of the various natuiml groups as significant and
important as they were lirw and unexpected. There was no need
for us here to quote this essay in iu chronological place, since it
dealt only with the generalities of the subject, and did not enter
npon any systematic details. These the author reserved for a
second treatise which he was destined never to complete. He
kept on diligently cnHfrting materials, and as he did so was con*
stnined to modify some of the statcsnents he had published.
He consequently fell into a state of doubt, and before be could
make up his mind on some questions which he deemed important
he was overtaken by death.* Then his papers were handed over
^. _ to his friend and successor Professor Burmeister, now
^,i^,r *^ ^^ many years past of Buenos Aires, who, with
much skill, elaboBsted frdm them the excellent work
known asNitssch's Pterjrfofro^AM, which was published at Halle
in 1840, and translated into English for the Ray Sadety in 1867.
There can be no doubt that Professor Burmcisier disc^irged hm
edftorial duty with the most conscientious scrupulosity-, but,
from what has been just said, it is oeitain that there were im*
portant points on which NitBch was as yet undecided— some of.
them perhaps of which no trace appeared in his manuscsipts,
and tlwref ore as in every case of works posthumously published,
unless (as rarely happens) they have received their author's
" impnmahir" they cannot be implicitly trusted as the expression
of bis final views. It would consequently be unsafe to ascribe
positively sU that appears in this vohime to the result of NItzsch's
mature ooosidexation. Moreover, as Professor Burmcistet
states in his preface, Nitzsch by no means regarded the natural
ssqufncs of groups as the highest problem of the systematist.
bat rather their correct limitation. Again, the anmng^meot
followed in the Fimrylot^apkie was of course based on pterykH
geaphiGsI considerations, and we have iU author's own word for
it that he was persuaded that the limiution of natural groups
could only be attained by the most assiduous research into the
species of whidi they are composed from every point of view,
^w combination of these three facts will of itself explaiif some
defects, or even retrogressions, observable in Nitach's later
'systematic work when compaized with that which he had
formerly done. On the other hand, some manifest improvements
are introduced, and the abundance of details into which he
enters in his Pteryhgrapkie render it far more mstructhre and
valuable than the older performance^ As an abstract of that
has already been given, it may be sufficient here to point out the
diief changes made in his newer arrangement. To begin with,
> Though not relating exactly to our present theme, it would be
unproper to dismiss Nitasch's name witaout reference to his extra-
oruinary labours in investigating the iasect and other external
parasites of bixds, a subject which as repids British species was
subsequently elaborated by Dennv in his Monogratkia Anoplurorum
Britamntae (1842) and in bis list of the special em ol Bxitlah Attoplara
la the collection of. the British Museum.
the three-gieat sections of aerial, tcnestrial, and aqiistic birds
are abolished. The " AeapUret " are divkied into two groups,
Diurnal and Nocturnal ; but the firtt of these divisions is separated
into three sections: (1) the Vultures of the New World, (2)
those of the OM World, and (3) the genus F4ko of Lmnaeus.
The ** Passmmu,** that is to say, the true PasstreSt are split into
eight families, not wholly with judgment,* but of their taxonomy
moro is to be said presently. Then a new order ** Picanae " is
mstituted for the receptkm of the UacrockweSt Ctuulmae,
Pteinae PsHiaems^ snd Ampkibolae of his old arrangement, to
which are added three* others-^Cb^mK/fHMe, Todidae and
LipOifossae^ihe last consisting of the genera Buceros^ Upupa and
Aludo. The s s so c is ti on of AUxdo with the other two is no doubt a
misplanement^ but the alhance of Bucvos to Upupa, already sug-
gested by GouM and BIyth in r838* {Hag. Nat, HisUfryt ser. 1,
it pp. 422 and 589), though apparently unnatural, has been corro*
borated by many later systematisers, and taken as a whole the
establishinent of the Picanae was certainly a oommendabie
proceeding. For the rest there is only one considerable change,
and that forms the greatest blot on the whole scheme. Instead of
recognizing, as befnre, asubclass in the Ratitae of Merrem, Nitxsch
now reduced them to the rank of an order under the name
** PUOfsUmOk," pladng them between the " CaUinauae " and
" GraUae," thou^ admitting that in their pterylosis they differ
from sll other bnrds, in ways that be is at great pains to describe,
in each of the four genera examined by him—Strutho, Rkea,
Dromaeus AndCantarius.* It is significant that notwithstanding
this he did not figure the pterylosis of any one of them, and the
thought suggesU itself that, though his editor assures us he had
convmced himself that the group must be here shoved in
{eingesckobcn is the word used), the intrusion is rather due to the
necessity which Nitxsch, in common with most men of his time
(the Quinarians excepted), felt for deptoying the whole series of
birds into line, m which case the proceeding may be defensible on
the score of convemence. The extraordinary merits of this book,
and the admirable fidelity to lus pnnaples which Professor
Burmeister showed in the difficult task of editing it. were un-
fortunatdy overiooked for many years, and perhaps are not
suffiaently recognised now. Even in Germany, Um author's
own country, there were few to notice seriously what is certainly
one of the most remarkable works ever published on the sdenoet
much less topunnie the investigatioos that had been so laboriously
begun.* Andreas Wagner, in his report on the progress of
* A short essay by Nitxsch on the geneial structure of the FosaerineSt
written, it is said, m 1836, was published in 1862 {Ze%tsckr. Ges„
Natumnssensckaft, xlx. pp. 389-408). It is probably to this essay
that Professor Burmeister rders in the PteryUfgra^m (p. 102, note;
Eng. trans., p. J2, note) as formaaK the buis 01 the atttds
" Pasaerinae '* which he contributed to Eiach and Gruber's EmcyUa*
Pidie (sect, iil bd. xiiL pp. 139-144). and published before the
Pter^frapkie.
• By the numben prefixed it would lack as if there should be /oar
new memben of this order; but tluit seems to be due ladier to a
slip of the pen or to a printer's error.
*This assooation is one of the most remarkable In the whole
senes of BIyth's remarkable papers on classification in the volume
ctted above. He states that Gould suspected the alKance of these
two forms '* from external structure and habits alone " ;
one might suppose that he had obtauied an intimation to that
effect on one of hts Continental journeys. BIyth " arrived at the
same conclusion, however, by a different tram of investigation.'*
and this is beyond doubt.
> He does not mention ^^Isryac^atthat timeso littk known on the
Conriaent.
• Some eaeuae is to be msde for this neglect. Nitxsch had of
coune odiausted all the forms of birds oonunooly to be obtained,
and specimens of the less common f onus were too valuaUe from the
curator's or collector's point of view to be subjected to a treatment
that might end b their destruction. Yet it is said, on good authority,
that Nitssch had the patience so to manipulate the skins of many
tare species that be was able to aacertaio the characters of thctr
pterylosis by the inspection of their ioride only, without in any way
danujEing them for the ordinary purpose of a museum. Nor u th»
surprising when we consider tlie marvcUous skill of Conrioenul and
especully German taxidermists, many of whom have elevated their
profession to a height of art inconceivable to most EoaUshmen,
who are only acquainted with the miserable mockecy 01 Nature
which is the most sublime result of all but a few " binl>«Ctiffcre.'*
3i8
ORNITHOLOGY
rrAxofiOMY
omitholQgy, a& misht be expected from sncfa a man as he was,
placed the Pleryl§grapkie at the summit of those publications
the appearance of which he had to record for the years 1839 and
1840, sUting that for" Systemaiik" it was of the greatest uiport-
ance.* On the other hand Oken {Isu, 1843, pp. 39i^394)> though
giving a summary of Nitiach's resulu and classification, was more
spacing of his praise, and prefaced his remarks by asserting that
he could not refrain from laughter when he looked at the plates
in Nttssch's work, since they reminded him of the plucked fowls
hanging in a poulterer's shop, and goes on to say that, as the
author always had the luck to engage in researches of which
nobody thought, so had he the luck to print them where
nobody sought them. In Sweden Sundevall, without accepting
Nitasch's views, accorded them a far more appieciative greeting
in hts annual reports for 1840-1842 (i. pp. 152-160); but, of
course, in £ngland and France' nothing was known of them
beyond the scantiest notice^ generally taken at second hand, u
two or three publications. Thanks to Mr Sdater, the Ray
Sodety was induced to publish, in 1867, an excellent translation
by Mr Dallas of Nitzsch's PUryhgrapky, and thereby, however
tardily, justice was at length rendered by British omithologjsts to
one of thdr gneatest foreign brethren.* Nitasch's work on
feathers has b^n carried farther by msny later observers, and
its value is now cenerally accepted (see Featsek).
The treatise of Keaaler on the ostBolcsv oC birds' feet, pnbli
in the JSuIUtin of the Moscow Society of Naturalists for 1841,
„ ^^ claims a few words, though its scope is rather to show
**"*''* differences than aflBnities; but treatment of that kind is
undoubtedly useful at times in indicating that alliannrs eeneially
admitted are unnatural; and this is the case here, for, following
CUviex's method, the author's resea r c h es prove the artificial chararter
of some of its associations. While furnishing — almost uooon*
sdoiuly, however— additional evidence for orerthrawing that
classification, there is, nevertheless, no atsempc made to ooostnict
a better one; and the elaborate tables of dimensions, both absolute
and proportional, suggestive as is the whote tendency of the author's
observations, seem not to lead to any very practical result, thou^
the systematist's need to look beneath the intep;umcnt, even in
parts that are to compaiatively little hidden as birds' feet, ia once
more aaade beyond all question i^yparent.
It has already been mentioned that Macgillivzay contributed
to Audubon's OmUhoUpcal Biofrapky a series of dcscxiptionB of
f g^^ some parts of the anatomy of American birds, from
- fflhw subjects supplied to him by that enthusiastic naturalist,
a «< ^ whose seal and presdenoe, it may be called, in this
•■**"■ respect merits ail praise. Thus he (prompted very
likely by MaqpUivray) wrote: "I believe the time to
be approaching when much <rf the resulu obtained from
the inspectioh of the exteriot alone will be laid aside; when
museums filled with stuffed skins will be considered insii^dent
to afford a knowledge of birds; and when the student will go
forth, not only to observe the habits and haunts of anlmab, but
to preserve specimens of them to be carefully dissected" {Orniik.
Biography, iv., Introductioa, p. xxiv). As has been stated, the
first of this series of anatomical descriptions appeared in the fourth
volume of his work, published fn 1838, but they were continued
until its completion with the fifth volume in the following year,
and the wkoie was incorporated into what may be terxned its
second edition. The Buds </ America, which appeared between
1840 and 1844. Among the many spedes whose anatomy Mac-
gflUvray thus partly described from autopsy were at least half a
dozen^ of those now referred to the family Tyranmdae (see Kjng-
> Aftkmfgt NatmrgttekkkU, vO. s. pp. 6o,«i.
*In 1836 Tacquemin communicated to the French Academy
{Compta rmdMs, iL pp. 374, 375 and 47s) some observatioas on
the order m which feathera are dtfpoaed on the body of birds; but,
however general may have been the soope of his investigatioos, the
portioa of them publtshed refers only to the crow, and there is no
mention made of Nitach's former work.
* The Ray Sodety had the good fortune to obtain the ten original
copper-plates, all but one drawn by the author hirosdf, wherewith
the work was illustrated. It is only to be rmetted that the Sodety
did not also adopt the quarto siae in which it appeared, for by
issuing thdr Enghth version in folio they needlessly put an impcdl-
ment in the way of its common and conveiiient use.
* These are, acooiding to modem oomenclattire, rynsiimw eivvH-
fmuis and (as before mentioned) T vertiealis, Myiarekus entnt»s,
Sayemu ftucms, Contopm sinmi and Emptdtmaat oMdiem.
Bin>), but then induded, with many others, according to the
rrrational, vague and rudimentary notions of dassification of
the lime, in what was termed the family " Muscuaptnae.** In all
these spedes he found the vocal organs to differ essentially in
structure from those of other birds of the Old World, which w«
now call Passenne, or, to be still more precise, Oscuuan. Bat by
him these last were most arbitrarily severed, dissoaated frooi
theur allies, and wrongly combined with other forms by no means
nearly rdated to them (BriL Btrds, t. pp. I7> x8) which he also
examined, and he practically, though not literally,' asserted the
truth, when he said that the general structure, but especially
the muscular appendages, of the lower larynx was '* similariy
formed m all other birds of this family" described in Audubon^s
work. Macgillivray did not, however, assign to tha nwrnlial
difference any ^stematic value. Indeed he was so much pre-
possessed in favour of a classification based on the structure of the
digestive organs that he could not bring himself to consider
y^cMi musdes to be of much taxonomic use, and it was reserved
tiKjohannes MOller to pomt out that the contrary was j^j,^^^
the facL This the great German comparative anato- jiy^.
mist did in two oommumcations to the Academy oC
Sdencesof Berlm, one on the sfith June 1845 and the other on the
14th May 1846, which, having been first briefly published in the
Academy's Monatsbettckt, were afterwards printed in full, and
illustrated by numerous figures, in its Abkandlmsigen, thou^ m
this latter and comi^te lonn they did not appear in public until
1847. This very remarkable treatise forms the groundwork of
almost all hUer or recent researches in the comparative anatomy
and consequent arrsngonent of the Fassera, and, though it is
certain^ not free from imperfectioos, many <^ them, it must be
said, arise from want of mstmial, notwithstanding that its
author had command of a much more abundant supply than was
at the diqxMal of Nitxsch. Carrying on the wxtk from the
anatomical point at which he had left it, correcting his errors, and
utilising to the fullest extent the observations of Keyaerliog and
Blastus, to which reference has already been made, Mfiller,
though hampered by mistaken notions of which he seems to have
been unable to rid himself, propounded a scheme for the dassifica-
tion of this group, the geiiLral truth of which has been admitted
by all his successors, based, aathe title of his treatise expressed,
on the hitherto unknown different types of the vocal organs in the
Passerines. He freely recognised the prior discoveries of, as h<
thought, Audubon, though really, as has smce been ascertained,
of Macgillivray; but Mfiller was sble to percdve their systematic
value, which Macgillivray did not, and taught others to know it.
At the same time MiiUer showed himself, his power of discrimina-
tion notwithstanding, to fall behmd Nitasch in one very crudal
point, for he refused to the tatter's Ptconae the rank that had
been claimed for them, and imaginrd that the groups associated
under that name formed but a third " tribe" — Ptearii—^ a
great order Insessorts, the others bdng (x) (he Oscttut or Ptly'
»yod(— the singing birds by emphssis, whose inferior larynx
was endowed with the full number of five pairs of song>m«sdes,
and (3) the Troekeopkones, composed of some South-Americao
families. Looking on Mailer's labours as we now can, we see
that such enon aa he committed are chiefly due to his want of
special knowledge of ornithology, combined with the absence
in several instances of suffident matrrials for investigation.
Nothing whatever is to be said sgainst the composition of his
first and second *' tribes" ; but the third is an assemblage still
more heterogeneous than that which Nitasch broo|^t together
under a name so like that of Mttller~for the fact most never be
allowed to go out of sight that the extent of the Picarii of the
latter is not at all that of the Pkariae of the former* For
* Not literally, because a few other forms such as the genem Pah«-
pHIa and PHtoinys, now known to have no relation to the rwvam-
• ■ ■ * * * ' ... ^ ^^ iie%
doe, were induded, thou^ these forms, it would seem,
been dissected by htm. On the other hand, he declares that the
American redstart, J/suoespa, or, aa it now stands, Stfsfhsfa
ntftoUa. when young, has its vocal organs like the rest— «n caccrs-
ordinary statement which is worthy the attention of the many able
American ornithologists.
* ft b not needless to point out thb fine distinction, for mote than
one modem author would seem to have overlooked it.
TAXONOMY)
ORNITHOLOGY
imtance, MflUer placet In hit tUrd "tdbe" tbe gravp wfaidi he
called Ampelidaet meaning thtnby the peculiar fonna of $outh
America that are now considered to be more properly named
CaHngidae, and herein he waa clearly right, while Nitach, who
(aisled by their auppoaed affinity to the genus A»^«lii— peculiar
to the Northern Hemisphere, and a purely Passerine f onn) had kept
them among hisPassmnae, was asdearly wrong. But again Mliller
made his third " tribe " FicarU also to contain the Tyramtudat, of
which mention has just been made, though it b so obvious aa now
to be generally admitted that th^ have no very intimate retation-
ship to the other families with which they are there aoodated.
There is no need here to criticise more minutely this projected
arrangement, and it must be said that, notwithstanding his
reseaKhes, he seems to have had some misgivings that, after all,
the separation of the Insessores into those " tribes " might not be
juatifiaUcL At any rate he wavered in his estimate of their
taxonomic value, for he gave an alternative pnposal, arranging
all the genera in a single aeries, a proceeding in those days thovight
not on^ defensible and possible, but desirable or even requisite,
though now utterly abandoned. Just aa Nitxsch had laboured
under the disadvantage of never having any example of the
abnormal Passeres of the New World to dtect, and, therefore, was
wholly ignorant of their abnormality, so MOller never succeeded
in getting hold of an example of the genus Pitta for the same
purpose, and yet, acting on the due furnished by Kcyaeriing and
Blasius, he did not hesitate to predict that it would be found to
fill one ol the gaps he had to leave, and this to some extent it has
been since proved to do.
It must not be supposed that the vocal muscles were first
discovered by MfiUer; on the contrary, they had been described
long before, and by many writers on the anatomy of
""^"^ birds. To say nothing of foreigners, or the authors
of general works on the subject, an excellent account of them
had been given to the Linnean Sodety by W..YeiTeIl in 1839,
and published with elaborate figures in its Transacticns (xvi.
305-521. pU. 17, 18), an abstract of which was subsequently
given in the article '* Raven" in his History of BriUsk Birdtt
and Macgillivray also described and figured tHem with the greatest
accuracy ten years later in his work with the same title (ii.
21-37, pis. x.-xiL), while Blyth and Nitxsch had (as already
mentioned) seen some of their value in daasification. But
Miiller has the merit of dearly outstriding his picdecessorm,
and with his accustomed perspicuity made the way even plainer
for his successors to see than he himself waa able to see it. What
remains to add is that the extraordinary celebrity of ita author
actually procured for the fint portion of his researches notice
in En^and {Ann, Nat, History, xviL 499), though it must be
fonffwfd not then to any practical purpose; but more than
thirty years after there appeared an English transUtion of his
treatise by F. Jeffrey Bdl, with an appendix by Garrod contain-
ing a summary of the latter's own continuation of the same line
of research.*
It is now necessary to revert to thejrear 1843, in whv:h Dr Comay
of Rochefort communicated to the rccnch Academy of Sdenoes a
-_ memoir on a new claatification of bitds, of which, however,
"■"*'• nothing but a notice has been prewrved (Complu rondus,
xiv. p. 164). Two year* later this was followed by a ■ecood coatri'
button from him on the same subject, and of this only an eictract
appeared in the otficial organ of the Academy («tf tnpn, xvi ppw
94,' 95), though an abbtract was ioMtted in one ■cwntinc journal
Wlnslilut, xiS. p. ai), and its firat portion in another (Jomnal dot
Dieouoertos, i. p. 250). The Renu Zoatopgm lor 1847 (pp. 3to-36?)
Contained the whole, and enabled naturarMts to oouider the ments
of the author's project, which was to found a new daasificatioo of
birds on the form of the anterior polatal bonea, which he decjared
to be subjected more evidently than any other to certain find laws.
These hws. aa formulated by hhn. are that (i ) there w aooincideape
of form of the anterior pabtal and of the cranium in birdi of the
nme order; (2) there is a Ukencss between the anterior palatal
birds of the »roe order; (3) there are relations of hheneaa
1 The title of the English trandation b J»komios MuUtr on Crrism
Vanatums in tho Vocai OrtftMS tff tko Passores Ikai kmokukerto
ucapod noHu. It was published at Oxford in 1878. By tome
unaccounttble acrident. the date of the oriainal canmumcation to
the Academy of Berlin is wrongly printed. It has been nghtly
g^vcn above.
3»9
in groups of birds which are
'. added, exist in regard to all
bet w tan the anterior mlatal I
near to one another. These laws, he 1 ,
parts that offer characters fit for the methodical arrangement of
birds, but it is in regard to the antenor palatal bone that they
offer the most evidence. In the evolution of these
laws Dr Comay bad most laudably studied, as his obwrvations
prove, a vast number of different types, and the upshot of his whole
laboun, though not very clearly lUtcd, was such as to wholly sub-
been aware of some pterylological differences eabibtted by hinls-
whether those of Nituch or tboae of Jacouemtn is not stated. True
it u the latter were never published in full, but it is quite conceiv*
able that Dr Comay may have known their drift. Be that as it
may. he declarea that charactcre drawn from the sternum or the
pelvis— hitherto deemed to be, next to tbe bones of the head, the
most imporunt portions of the tnrd's framework— are scarcely
worth more, from a classifies tory point of view, than charsctere
drawn from the bill or the legs; while pterykjlogical coasidenitiona.
together with many othen to which some systematists had attached
more or less importance, can only assist, and apparently must never
be taken to control, the foroe 01 evidence furnished by this bone of
all bones— the anterior palataL
That Dr Comay waa on the brink of maldng a discovery of con-
aideiahle merit will by and by appear, but, with every disposition
to Rgatd his investiffstions iavourablv, it cannot be said that be
aooomplisbed it Whatever proofs f>r Comay may have had to
satisfy himself of his being on the right track, these proofs were not
adHiinrd in snflkift number nor amnged with suffiaeot skill to
persuade jn somewhat stiff-necked generation of the troth of his
views— for it was a jjeneration whew leaden, in Frsnce st any
rst^ looked with suspidon upon any one who professed to go beyond
the bounds which the genius of Cuvier had been unable to overjiassb
and regarded the notion of upsettingany of tbe positiona«iaiiitained
by him as verging almost upon proUmty. Moreover, Dr Comay's
scheme waa not given to the world with any of those adjuncu that
not meedy please the eye but are in numy cases necessary, for,
thoo^ on a soh|ect which required for its proper comprehension a
series of plates, it made even its final appearance unadorned by a
single explanatory figure, and in a iouroal, respectable and well*
known indeed, but one not of the highest adentinc rank.
The sasse year which saw tbe promulgation of the crude scheme
iust described, as well •» the publication of the final researches of
MflUer. witnessed also another attempt at the classifies- cmh^idm.
tion of birds, much more limited indeed in scope, but, so ^
far aa it went, regarded by most ormthologisu of the time as almost
final in its operation. Under the vague title of " Omithologisdie
Notiaett " Prnfesspr Cafaaifis of Berlin contributed to the Arckmjw
NatnrftMckidm (xiiL t, pp. t86-4s6, 308-452) an essay in two parts,
wheivui. following the researehcs ot Matter' on the avrinx. in the
eottfse of which a oomlation had been shown to exist between the
whole or divided condition of the ptontn or hind part of the ** Ursus,"
first nodoed, aa haa been said, bv Kcyserling and Blasius, and the
of the perfect sons-apparstus, the younger
aareement which seemed almost invariable in this
respect, and he abo pointed out that the ptasUa of the different
groups of birds in which it is divided is divided in different modes,
the aeode of di vi sion bdng generally characteristic of the groua
Such a coincidence of the internal and external features 01 birds
was naturally deemed a discovery of the greatest value by those
ornithologists who thought most highly of the latter, and it waa
unquestionably of no little practical utility. Further examinatioa
also revealed the fact' that in certain groups the number of
** primaries," or quill-feathen growing from the monns or distal
segment of the wing, formed another cnaracteristic easy of observa-
tion. In the Oscinos or Potymyoii of Mailer the number was dther
nine or ten— and if the hitter the outermost of them was generally
I. In two of the other groups of «riiich Professor Cabanis
treate d gro ups which had been hitherto more or leas
d with the Osdnos—^ht number of primaries was in-
varisbly ten, and the outermost of them was compaiattvely large.
of a fact of extra-
, . ivcstintii
taken aho^her, ornithology was declared by Sundevall,
doubtedly a man iriio had a nght to speak with amhority. to have
made greater piu i tits s than lud been achieved since the days of
Cuvier. The final disposition of the " Sab-dass Insessores "— «Il the
lUy tn
nded
This observation was also hailed as the discovery of 1
ordinary importance; and, from the results of these
* On the other hand, MQller makes several references to the labours
of Professor Cabanis. The investigations of both authoremust have
been proceeding simultaneously, and it matters little whidi actually
appeued first.
* This seems to have been made known by Professor Cabanis the
preceding year to the CeuUukaft 6or Naturforuhendor Freuudo
Id. MOUer. SHmwufrmim dor Passertnon, p. 65). Of course the
variation to which the number of nrimaries was subiect had not
escaped the observation of Nitxsch, but he had scarcely used it as a
dassificatory character.
3^0
ORNITHOLOGY
(TAXONOMY
perching binlB. that is to lay, which are neither l^rds of pnf nor
pigeon*— proposed by Profenor Cabams, was into (oor ** Onkn,"
••follows: —
I. OutmeSt equal to MQller's ^ronp of the sane name;
7. damateres^ betng a majority of that division of the Piearia*
of Nitsach, so called by Andreas Wagner, in 1841/ which have
their feet ncnnally constructed;
^Stnson9, a group now separated from the CTawfltefsy of
Wagner, and containing those forma which have their feet abnor-
mally constructed; and
4. Scatuprer, being the Cnmpnrs of Cuvier, the Zygodaayli of
weyaal other systematists.
The first of these four " Orden " had bees aheady ladefcaslbly
established as one perfectly natural, but respecting iu details more
must presently be said. The remaining three are now seen to be
obviously ardfidal associations, and the second of them, Clamatotts,
in particular, containing a very heterogeneoos iSMinblage of forms:
but it must be borne in mind that the Internal structure of some 01
them was at that time still more imperfectly known than now.
This will perhaps be the most convenient place to mention another
tdnd of daasification of birds, wfaidi, based on a principle wholly
,.__ different from those that have just been ezplaiaco,
™*y requires a few irerds, though it has not been productive.
P""* nor is likely, from all that iwpears, to be productive of
any great effect. So lonff ago as 1831, Prince C L. Bonaparte, in
his Sagiio di una distribmiOM fuMica deffi AnimaU VtrUbnUt
published at Rome, and in 1637 oommonicated to the Linwan
Society of London, *' A new Systematic Arrangement of Vcrtebcated
Animab." which was subsequently printed in that Society's 7>mw-
actwns (xviii. pp. 347-304), though before it appeared there was
issued at Bologna, under the title of 5yao^9w Vt rti b ntmim SysUmo"
Hs, a Latin translation of it. Herein he divided the class Aves into
two eubdasaea, to which he applied the names of Insessom and
Cnttattfts (hitherto used by tMir inventors Vigors and Illiger in a
different sense), in the latter work relying chidy for tliis division
on charaaera which had not before been used by any systematist.
namely that in the former group monogamy gieoerally prevailed
and the helpless nestlings were fed by theu- jiarents, while the btter
group were mostly jpolygamous, and the chicks at birth were active
and capable of feeding themselves. This method, which in process
of time was dignified liy the title of a Physiological Amagement,
was insisted upon wito more or less pertinacity bv the author
throughout a long series of publications, some of them separate
books, some of them contributed to the memoirs issued by many
scientific bodies of various European countries, oeaaiog only at his
death, which in July 1857 found him occupied upon a C«n»ptUu»
Centrmm Avtnm, that in consequence remains unfinished, in the
e of this series, however, he saw fit to alter the name of his two
isses, since those which he at fint adopted were onea to a
vaiiety of mea ning s, and in a communication to the French Academy
of Sctences in 1853 {Comples rtndt^ xxxviL pp. 641-647) the
denomination Insusons was changed to ilArwcs* and GraUatan$ to
Praecous-^ittte terms now, preferred by him being taken from
~ "■ led. The
Sundevall's treatise of 1835 already mentioned. The views of
Bonaparte were, it appears,, also shared by aa ornithological amateur
„___ of some distinction, John Hogg, who propounded a scheme
'"'^ which, as he subsequently stated {Zodopsi, 1850, p. 2797),
was founded strictly in accordance with them; but it would seem
that, allowing his convictions to be warped by other cooaiderations.
he abandoned the original " physiological " basis of his system, so
that tUs, when published in 1846 {Edtnb. N. PkOosopk. Journal,
zli. pp. SO'7i), was found to be estab l ished on a single chancier
of die feet only; though he was careful to point out, immediateiy
after formulating the definition of his subdasses CcmintikpitiM
nnd IncoiuineH^dfs, that the former " make, m general, compact
and well-built nests, wherein they bnng op their very weak, blind,
and mostly naked young, whlcn they feed with care, by bringing
food to tbcffl for many days, until they are fledged and sufficiently
strong to leave their aest« ' observing also that they " are prina*
pally monogamous " (pp. 55, ^) ; while of the latter he says that
they *' make either a poor and rude nest« in whidi thejrjay their
eggs.
gs, or else none, depositing them on the bare ground. Tne young
are generally bom with their full sight, oovernf witlf down* strong,
and capaUe of raaning or swimming immediateJy after they leave
the egg-shell." He adds that the parents, which ** are mostly
polygamous," attend their young and direct them where to find
their food (p. 63). The numerous erran in these assertions hardly
need pointing out. The herons, for instance, are much more
" Ctmsincitpi^ " than are the larks or the kingfishers, and. so far
from the majority of " lueetutnaipuUs " being polygamous, there
is scarcely any evidence of polygamy obtainimt as a habit among
birds in a state of nature except in certain 01 the Caltiiuu and a
very few others. Furthermore, the young of the goatsuckers are
* Arckm fir NaturiochukU, vii. 7, pp 93. 9a. The divinon
-.nns to have been instituted by this author a couple of yean eariier
in the second edition of his HatMuck dtr Nchtrgtseh u htt <a work
not seen by the present writer), but not then to have rooaved a scien-
tific name. It inrludM all Piraruu which had not ** tygodactylous "
feet, that is to say. lues placed in pairs, two before ana two behind.
at hatching nr more devuoped tlttift ttt tlioae of ths herons or tiM
oormonats; and, in a general way, nearty every one of the ssf
serted peculiarities of the two subclasses breaks down under careful
examination. Yet the idea of a '* physiological '* a rr a nge me n t 00
the same kind of principle found another f (Slower, or, as be thooght*
Inventor, in Edward Newman, who m 1850 communioated - ,
to the Zoological Society of Loodoo ajolaa published ia ''^^^^
its Procsct^ffvf for that year (pp. 46-^81, and reprinted also in his
own journal TlU Zoolotut ^pp. a78o-278a), based on exactly the same
considerations, dividing buds into two groups, ** Hesthooenous "—
a word so vidous in formation as to be incapable of amendmeot, but
intended to sbnify those that were hatched with a dothinf of
down— and '* Gsonnogenous," or those that were hatched naked.
These three systems are essentially Identical : but. plausible as they
may be at the first aspect, they have been found to be pcsctically
oseleBB, though aucb of tfanr c^anctcn as their uphoUcm have
advanced wiu truth deserve attendon. Physiology may one day
very likely assnt the ^rsTrmarisr; but it must be real physiology
ana n^t a sham.
In 1856 Paul Gervais, who had already oootributed to the Zoelegig
of M. dt€nne]san'mExpU*tMamdaiuks^amMtmUraUtd*rAm4rifM
te5«d some important memoire describing the anatomy of ^-^ „
the hoartrin and certam other birds of doiibtf ul or anomal- '""^
ous position, published some remarks on the characters which omdd be
drawn from the sternum of birds {Ann, Sc. Not. Zootogu, ■er.4, vL pp^
5^15). Thecoosiderstions are not very stfikmg from a geaenl point of
view; bat the author adds to the weight of evidence which some of
his predeoesson had brought to bear 00 certain matten, particulariy
in aiding to abolish the arufida! groups " D^odactyls." *'Syndactyls,
and *' SSnradactyls," on which so much reliance had been placed by
many of his countrymen; and it is with him • great ment that he
was the first ^>Qareotly to recognise publidy tfaiuc chaiacten drawn
from the postenor part of the sternum, and particularly from the
" ickancntru** commonly called in English " notches '* or " emar*
ginations,'* are of comparatively little importance, since their
number b apt to vary in fdnna that are most doaely allied, and
even in speaes that are usually associsted ia the same genus or
unquestionably bdonjK to the same family,* while these *' notches **
sometimes become sunple foramina, as m certain pigeons, or on
the other hand fffranuna may exceptionally change to *' notches,"
and not unfrequentiy disappear wholly. Among his chief systematic
deicfminations we may mentioo that he lefcn the tinamoos to the
rails, because amarently of their deep " notches.** but
uka a view of that rroup more correct according to model
than did most of nis contemporariea. The bustards he wouU
place with the '* Ltmiooles," as also Dromat and Ckimrit, the
sheacb-biU (g«.). Pkarthon, the tiop&o-bird (ff.v.), he would place
with the " Laxidda *' and not with the " Pel«canidds." which it only
resembles in its feet having all the toes connected by a web. Finally
divers, auks and penguins, according to him, fohn the last term in
the sencs, and it seems fit to htm that they should be regarded aa
forming a separate order. It u a cunous fact that even at a date
so late as this, and by an mvestigator so well informed, doubt should
still have existed whether Apleryx (sec Kiwi) shouM be referred to
the group 'containing the cassowary and the ostrich. On the whole
the reaaarfcs of this est eemed author do not go much beyond such ae
might occur to any one who had made a study of a good series of
snedmms; but many of them are published for the brst time, and
the author is careful to insist on the necessity of not resting solely
on sternal characten, but aasooatiog with them those drawn from
other paru of the body.
Three yean later m the same loumal (xi. it-X45, pla. 2-4)
M. Blancbard published some RKherckes sw les canctkrts omU»-
logujues des cueamx apptupUes iL ta dasstfSaitum nalurdU
de ces antmaux, strongly urging the superiority of such
characten ower thoae dimwn from the bill or feet, which,
he remarks, though they may have sometimes given corvsctnotioaSi
have mostly led to misrakra, and, if observations of kabiu and food
have sometimes afforded happy results, they have often been de-
ceptive, so that, should more be wanteid than to draw up a mere
inventory of creation or tnce the distinctive outline-of eacft mecies.
SDologY without anatomy would remain a barren study. At the
same tune he sutes that authon who have occupied themselves with
the sternum alone have often produced uncertam results, especially
when they have neglected its anterior for its posterior part, for in
truth everv boneof theskdcfon oqght to be studied in all its details.
Yet thts distmguished aoologist selects the steraum aa furnishing
the key to Ms primary groupa or " Orden " <A the class, adopting.
e» Menem had done long before, the same two divisions CarhuiUu
and JSolOoe, naming, however, the former Troptdostemii and the
Utter Bomahstemh,* Some nnkiad fate has hitherto hindered
* Thus he cites the cases of Uadules pupiax and Scehpax rmsH-
ca£s among the '* Limicoles," sind Lunu caiareeUs among the
*' l.arid6^*^ aa differing from their neaieit allies by the possession
of only one "notch "on cMhersKle of the keel. Several additional
iosunoes are cited in PftOos. TVwuacliofW (1869), p. 337. note.
* These terms were exphuned in his great won /.'OrgemioiMs du
rhgm ammalt etseaux, begun in 1855. to mean exactly the same as
those applied by Mdjem to his two primary divisions.
TAXONOMY)
ORNITHOLOGY
321
him from roaldng known to the world the rc«t of his reaearchet in
regard to the other bones of the skeleton tiU he reached the head,
and in the memoir cited he treats of the sternum of only a portion
of his first " Order." This is the more to be regretted by all omitbo-
logists. since he intended to conclude with what to them would
have been a very great boon — the showing in what way extern^
characters coincided with those presented by osteology, ft was also
within the scope of his plan to have continued on a more extended
ncale the researches on ossification begun by L'Henninier, and thus
M. Blanchard's investigations, if completed, would obviously have
taken extraordinarily high rank among .the highest contributions
to omithok)gy. As it is, so much of them as we have are of con*
aiderable imporUnce; for, in this unfortunately unfinished memoir,
he describes m some deuil the several differences which the sternum
in a great many different groups of his Troptdostetnii presents, and
to some extent makes a methodical disposition of them accordingly.
Thus he separates the birds of prey into three great groups— (i)
the ordinary Diurnal forms, including the FakoniJae and Vubtiridae
of the systematist of his time, but distinguishing the American
Vultures from those of the Old World; (2) Cypogeranus, the
Bccretary-bird {q.v.)\ and (3) the owls (s.v,). Next be places the
parrots (9.V.), and then the vast assemblage of " Paaaereaux " —
which he declares to be all of one type, even genfera like Pitra
(manakin^ q.t.) and P»//a— -and concludes with the somewhat
heterogeneous conglomeration of forms, beginning with Cypstlm
(swift, q.9.), that so manv systematists have been accustomed to
call Picartat, though to them as a group he assigns no name. A
continuation of the treatise was promised in a succeeding part of
the Annates t but a quarter of a century has passed without its
appearance.^
Important as are the characters afforded by the sternum, that
hone even with the whole sternal apparatus should obviously not be
Brtam. considered alone. To aid ornithologists in their studies
^^^ in this respect, T. C. Eyton, who for many years had been
forming a collection of birds' skeletons, began the publication of a
series of plates representing them. The first part of this work,
Osteoh^ia Avium, appeared early in 1859, and a volume was com-
pleted in 1867. A Supplement was issued in i860, and a Second
Supplement, in three parts, between 1873 and 1875. The whole
work conuins a great number of figures of birds^ skeletons and
detached bones; but they are not so drawn as to be of much practical
use, and the accompanying letterpress is too brief to be satisfactory.
That the eggs laid by birds should offer to some extent charactere
ol utUity to systematists is only to be expected, when it is con«
aidered that those from the same nest Kencrally bear an extraordinary
family likeness to one another, ana also that in certain groups
the essential peculiarities of the egg-shell are constantly and dis-
tinctively characteristic. Thus no one who has ever examined the
egg of a duck or of a tinamou would ever be in danger of not referring
another tinamou's egg or another duck's, that he might see, to its
proper family, and so on with many others. But at the same time
many of the shortcomings of oology in this respect must be set down
to the defective information and observation of its votaries, among
whom some have been very lax, not to sav incautious, in not ascer-
taining on due evidence the parentage of their specimens, and the
author next to be named is oj)en to this charge. After several
minor notices that appeared in journals at various times, Des Murs
-j^ ^ in i860 brought out at Paris his ambitious TraiUfiHiral
vw mmrw, ^'^^^ omUMopque au paint devu* deia classification,
which contains (pp. 529-53^1 * " Systema Oologicum " as the final
result of his labours. In this scheme birds are arranged according
to what the author conndered to be their natural method and
■equcnce; but the result exhibits some unions as ill-assorted as
can well be met with in the whole range of tentative arrangements
of the cbas, together with some very unjustifiable divorces. Its
basis is the classification of Cuvier, the modifications of which by
Des Miin will seldom commend themselves to systematists i^ose
<minioa is generally deemed worth having. Few, if any, of the faults
of that classification are removed, and the ImpnovemcnU suggested,
if not established by hissucoeswrs. those especially of other countries
than France, are ignored, or, as IS the
$ case with some of those of
L^Herminier. are only cited to be set aside. Oologists have no reason
to be thankful to Des Mura, notwithsUnding his seal in behalf of
their study. It is perfectly true that in several or even in many
instances he acknowledges and deplores the poverty of his inf orma*
tioo, but this does not excuse him for making assertions (and such
«Bertians are not unfrequent) based on evidence that is either
wholly untrustworthy or needs further inquiry before it can be
accepted {Ibis, i860, pp. 331-335). This being the case, it would
aeem useless to take up furtMr space by analysing the several
proposed modificationa of Cuvier's arrangement. The great merit
of the work is that the author shows the neoesnty of taking ookigy
into account when investipting the classification of birds; but it
also proves that in so doing the paramount consideration lies in
the tnorouj^ afting of evidence as to the parentage of the eggs which
* M. Blancbard's animadversions on the employment of external
characters, and on trusting to observations on the habits of birds,
called forth a rejoinder from A. R. Wallace {IHs, 1864, pp. 36-41).
who Buccesafully showed that they are not altogether to be despised.
are to serve as the building stones of the fabric to be erected. The
attempt of Des Murs was praiseworthy, but in effect it has utterly
failed, notwithstanding the encomiums passed upon it by friendly
critics {Rn. ieZaUogk, i860, pp. 176-183, 313'335> 370-373).*
Until about this time systematists, almost without exceptioni
may be said to have been wandering with no definite putposc^
At least their purpose was indefinite compared with
that which they now have before them. No doubt J2J*fl
they all agreed in saying that they were prosecuting Bvoiuaoa,
a search for what they called the true system ef nature;
but that was nearly the end of their agreement, for in what
that true system consisted the opinions of scarcely any two
would coincide, unless to own that it was some shadowy Idea
beyond the present power of mortals to reach or even compre-
hend. The Quinarians, who boldly asserted that they had
fathomed the mystery of creation, had been shown to be no
wiser than other men, if indeed they had not utterly befooled
themselves; for their theory at best cotild ^ve no other explana;
tion of things than that they were because they were. The
conception of such a process as has now come to be called by
the name of evolution was certainly not novel; but except to
two men the way in which that process was or could be possible
had not been revealed.* Here ^ere is no need to enter into
details of the history of evolution; but there was possibly no
branch of zoology in which so many of the best informed and
consequently the most advanced of its workers sooner accepted
the principles of evolution than ornithology, and of course the
effca upon its study was very marked. New spirit was given
to it. Ornithologists now felt they had something before them
that was really worth investigating. Questions of affinity, and
the details of geographical distribution, were endowed with a
real interest, in comparison with which any interest that had
hitherto been taken was a trifling pastime. Classification
assumed a wholly different aspect. It had up to this time been
little more than the shuffling of cards, the ingenious arrange-
ment of counters in a pretty pattern. Henceforward it was
to be the serious study of the workings of nature in producing
the beings we see around us from beings more or less unlike them,
that had existed in bygone ages and had been the parents of
a varied and varying offspring— our fellow-creatures of to-day.
Classification for the first time was something more than the
expression of a fancy, not that it had not also its imaginative
side. Men's minds began to figure to themselves the original
type of some well-marked genus or family of birds. They could
even discern dimly some generalized stock whence had descended
whole groups that now differed strangely in habits and appear-
ance — their discernment aided, may be, by some isolated form
which yet retained undeniable traces of a primitive structure.
More dimly stUl visions of what the fint bird may have been
like could be reasonably entertained; and, passing even to
a higher antiquity, the reptilian parent whence all birds have
sprung was brought within reach of man's consciousness. But,
relieved as it may be by reflections of this kind — dreams some
may perhaps still call them— the study of ornithology has un-
questionably become harder and more serious; and a correspond-
ing change in the style of investigation, followed in the works
that remain to be considered, will be immediately perceptible.
That this was the case is undeniably shown by some remarks
of Canon Tristram, who, in treating of the Alandidat and
Saxicolinae of Algeria (whence he had recently brought -^^^^^
a large collection of specimens of his own making), .
stated {Ibis, 1859, pp. 42^433) that he could " not help feeling
convinced of the truth of the views set forth by Messrs Darwin
and Wallace," adding that it was " hardly possible, I should
think, to illustrate this theory better than by the larks and
chats of North Africa." It is unnecessary to continue the
> In this historical dntch of the progress of ornithology it has not
been thought aecesiary to mention other oological works, since they
have not a Uxooomic bearing, and the chief of them have been
already named (see Biant). . , ^
> Neither Lamarck nor Robert Chambers (the now acknowledged
author of VesHtes of Creation), though thorough evolutionists,
rationally indicated any means whereby, to use the old phrase.
" the transmuution of speeiea " coukl be cficcted.
332
ORNITHOLOGY
quoution; the few words just dted are enough to assure to
Uieic author the credit of being (so far as is known) the first
ornithological spedahst who had the courage publicly to reoognixe
Mad receive the new and at that time unpopular philosophy.
f^g^gf^ But greater work was at hand. In June i860 W. K.
Parker broke, as most will allow, entirely fresh ground
by communicating to the Zoological Society a memoir "On
the Osteology of Bolamiups" subsequently published in that
Society's TratuaUkns (iv. 269-351). Of this contribution to
sdencei as of all the rest which have since proceeded from him,
may be said in the words ho himself has applied {utsupraf
p. 371) to the work of another labourer in a not distant field:
" This is a model paper for unbiassed observation, and freedom
from that pleasant mode of tupposing instead of asctrtaining
what is the true nature of an anatomical element."' Indeed,
the study of this memoir, limited though it be in scope, could not
fail to convince any one that it proceeded from the mind of one
who taught with the authority derived directly from original
knowted^, and not from association with the scribesr— a con-
viction that has become strengthened as, in a series of successive
memoirs, the stores of more than twenty years* silent observa-
tion and unremitting research were unfolded, and, more than that,
the hidden forces of the science of morphology were gradually
brought to bear upon almost each subject that came under
discussion. These different memoirs, being technically mono-
graphs, have strictly no right to be mentioned in this place;
but there is scarcely one of them, if one indeed there be, that
does not deal with the generalities of the study; and the in-
fluence they have had upon contemporary investigation is so
strong that it is impossible to refrain from noticing them here,
though want of ^>ace forbids us from rnlarging on their contents.
For some time past rumours of a discovery of the highest
interest had been agiuting th« minds of zoologists, for in 1861
WaamtA ^^^^^ Wagner had sent to the Academy of Sciences
^^ of Munich {SUsungsbericMU, pp. 14^154; ^ttn.
Nat. Histary, series 3, ix. 261-267) an account of what he con-
ceived to be a feathered reptile (assigning to it the name
Gripkoiaunu)f the remains of which had been found In the
lithographic beds of Solenhofen; but he himself, through failing
health, had been unable to see the fossil. In 1862 the slabs
containing the remains were acquired by the British Museum,
Q,,^^ and towards the end of that year Sir R. Owen com-
municated a detailed description of them to the PhUo-
sopkUal Transactions (1863, pp. 33-47)1 proving their bird-like
nature, and referring them to the genus Arckaeopttryx of Hermann
von Meyer, hitherto known only by the impression of a single
feather from the same geological beds. Wagner foresaw the use
that would be made of this discovery by the adherents of the
new philosophy, and, in the usual language of its opponents
at the time, strove toward off the "misinterpretations" that
they would put upon it. His protest, it is needless to say,
was unavailing, and all who respect his memory must regret
that the sunset of life failed to give him that insight into the
future which is poetically ascribed to it. To Darwin and those
who believed with him scarcely any discovery could have been
more welcome; but that is beside our present business. It
was quickly seen— even by those who held Arckatopteryx to
be a leptile-Hhat it wais a form intermediate between existing
birds and existing reptiles; while those who were convinced
l>y Sir R. Owen's researches of its ornithic affinity saw that it
must bdong to a type of birds wholly unknown bdtore,attd one
that in any future for the arrangement of the class must have
a special rank reserved for it.'
It behoves na next to mention the "OotliDes of a Systematic
Review of the Clao of Birdi," communicated by W. Ulljcborg
* It is fair to lUte that aome of Professor Pkiter'a cooclusioni
ictpecting Baiaenktpt were oontatcd by the late Pr ofcsior J. T.
Ronhardt (Omti. JL 1>. Yid, Sdsk, Foth^ndlm^, 1861. pp. 135-
154; Ihis, 1863, pp. 158-175), and as it wens to the ocaient writer
Bot ineffectually. Pkofesnr Parker replied to hit cxitac (Au, 1862.
PP.S97-399).
*Thu wa« done Bhortly aftcnraida by P r o f eMor Haeckel, who
proposed the name SaitnuQ4 (or the group containing it.
rrAxoMONV
to the Zootogical Society In t866k and published in its Pnceedingg
(or that year (pp. s-aoi. since it was immediately a(tctr reprinted
by the Smkhaonian IntitutkMi, and with that autfaortza- ^ ^
tioB has exercised a great influence on the opinions of ST
■fc Otherwise the scheme would ^^
hardly need notice here. This paper is indeed little more than an
English tnnslatioo of one published by the author in the annual
vofume (Anskr^) of the Scientific Society of UpMsila (or i860, and
belonging to the pre-Darwinian epoch should pethaps have been
more properly treated before, but that at the time o( its orwinal
appearance it failed to attract attention. The chief merit of the
scheme perhaps is that, contrary to nearly every precedent, it
Ixgina with the lower and rises to the higher groupe of birds, which
is of oonne the natural mode of proceeding, ana one therefore to
be commended. Otherwise the " principles on which it is founded
are not dear to the ordinary aootogist. One of them is said to be
** irritability," and. though this is explained to mean, not " muscuUr
strength alone, but vivacity and activity generally,"* It does not
seem to form a character that can be easily appreciated cither as
to quantitv or quality; in fact, most persons would deem it quite
immeasorable, and, as such, removed irom practical oonsideratioB.
Moreover, Professor Lilljcborg's scheme, being actually an adaptation
of that of Sundevall. of which we shall have to speak at some length
almost immediately, may possibly be left for the present with these
remarks.
In the spring of the year 1867 Professor T.- H. Huxley, to
the delight of an appreciative audience, delivered at the Royal
College of Surgeons of England a course of lectures
on birds, and a few weeks after presented an abstract
of his researches to the Zoological Society, in whose Proceedings
for the same year it will be found printed (pp. 415-473) as a
paper "On the Classification of Birds, and on the taxonoroic
value of the modifications of certain of the cranial bones observ-
able in that Class." Starting from the basis '* that the phrase
'birds are greatly modified reptiles' would hardly be an exagger*
ated expression of the closeness " of the resemblanoe between
the two classes, which be had previously brigaded under the
name of Sauropsida (as he had brigaded the Pisces and Ampkibia
aa Ichtkyopsida), he drew in bold outline both their likenesses
and their differences, and then proceeded to inquire how the
Aves could be most appropriately subdivided into orders, sub-
orders and families. In this course of lectures he had already
dwelt at some length on the insufiidency of the characters on
which such groups as had hitherto been thought to be established
were founded; but for the consideration of this part of hb
subject there was no room in the present paper, and the reasons
why he arrived at the condusion that new means of philosophi-
cally and successfully separating the class must be sought are
herein left to be inferred. The upshot, however, admits of no
uncertainty: the class Aves ta hdd to be composed of tkrot
"Orders" —
I. Sauiitsab, Hickel;
II. Ratitae, Merrem; and
HI. Caunatae, Merrem.
The Saumrae have the metacarpals well developed and not ancy-
losed. and the caudal vertebrae are numerous and lame, so that
the caudal region of the spine is longer than the body. The f ureula
u complete and strong, the feet very passerine in appearance. The
skull and sternum were at the time unknown, and indeed the whole
order, without doubt entirely extinct, rested exdusively on the
celebrated fossil, then unique. ArchMoptery*.
The Ratitae comprehend the slruthjous birds, which differ from
all others now extant in the combination of several peculiarities,
some of which have been mentioned in the preceding pages. The
sternum has no keel, and ossifies from lateral and paired centres
only: the axes of the scapula and concoid have the same general
direction; cettain of the cranial bones have characters wry onKks
these possessed by the next onter-'the vomer, for example, betn^
broad pos t etioriy and generally intervening b et we en the basip
sph en oidal rostrum And the palatals and pterygoids: the barbs of
toe feathers are disconnected: there b no syrinx or inferior larynx;
and the dtaphiagm b better deveb>ped than in other birds.*
* On this ground it is suted that the Passera should be placed
highest in the class. But those who know the habitsand demeanour
ocmany of the Limicatae would no doubt rightly claim for them
much more " vivadty and activity " than u possessed by most
Pojwrcs.
* Thu pecuUarity had led some aookigists to consider the stmtbiona
birds more nearly allied to the Uammalia than any otlwfa.
TAXOMWy)
ORNITHOLOGY
3*3
to the formatioa off the
Tlw Carinalat an divided,
palate, ioto four " Subocden*'* end naowd (L) Dromafoptotho*.
m.) Sekia^itaUM, (Ui.) DttmonaUuu, and (iv.) A*titk9p¥Uka§>
Tbe DromaeoiKothM resemble the Ratita$, and etpedaDy tne mam
DfMMMU, in tlidr palatal etracturep and are com po i c d of the
TlaamDut (§«.}.• The Sek mumtkaM tndiide a neat aany of the
lonna belonging to the Ijnnaean Orden CoOmoSt Grmot and
Atuins. In them the vomer, however variable, always tapcn to a
point anteriorly, while behind it indodet the hedyhenoldai rostrum
betweeu the palatali; but neither these nor tlie pcefygoids are
borne by its posterior divcnent ends. The maanUo^DaMtala ace
naually ekwgated and lameUari uniting with the palatals» and.
bendiUg backward along their inner edge, leave a deft (whence the
name given to the " Suborder ") between the vomer and tfaemielves.
In the PsMMgaafAM, the vomer is either abortive or so small as to
diMppsar firom the skdetoa. When it esists it is afamys slender,
•nd tapen to a point anterioriy. The raaxiUoiialatals are bouM
together (whence the name off the " Suborder "J across the middle
line, either directly or by the ossification of the nasal septum. The
po s terior ends of the pahitals and anterior of the pterygoids articolate
directly with the rostnim. The i4<giitogwflttfl>, the fourth and last
«f the " Subofders," is characteriaed by a form of QJate in some
resp ec ts intermediate between the two precediqg. The vomer is
broad, abruptly truncated in front, and deeply cleft behind, so as
to c m b re c e the rostrum off the sphenoid: the palatals have pre-
diieed postertxate naa l aagles; the anxfllo-palatals am slender at
their ongin, and eactend obliquely inwards and forwards oyer the
paUtals, ending beneath the vomer in expanded extremities, not
united either with one another or with the vomer, nor does the
latter unite with the nasal septum, though that is frequently
The above abstract shows the general drift of this very re-
markable contribution to ornithology, and it has to be added
that for by far the greater number of his minor groups Huxley
relied tolely on the form of the palatal structure, Uie importance
iA which Dr Comay had before urged, though to so little puipose.
That the palatal structure must be taken into consideration
by taionomers as affording hints of some utility there can no
longer be a doubt; but perhaps the characters drawn thence
owed more of their worth to the extraordinary perspicuity with
which they were presented by Huxley than to their own b-
trinsic value, and if the same power had been employed ta eluci-
date in the same way other parts of the skeleton— say the bones
of the sternal apparatus or even of the pelvic girdle— either
tet might have been made to appear quite as instructive and
perhaps more so. Adventitious ^ue would therefore seem to
have been acquired by the bones of the palate through the fact
that so great a master off the art of exposition selected them
as fitting examples upon which to exercise his skill' At the
same time it must be stated thb .selection was not premeditated
by Huxley, but forced itself upon him aa his investigations
proceeded.* In reply to tome critical temarks (/Mr, 1868,
pp. 85-^)1 chiefly aimed at showing the Inexpediency of relying
solely on^ne set of characters, espedally when those afforded
bf the pahital bones were not, even within the limits of families,
wholly diagnostic, the author (/6ir, 1868, pp. JST^a^') announced
a sli^t modification of his original scheme, by btrodudng
three more groups into it, and oonduded by indicating how its
bearings upon the great question of "genetic cl a s s ifica tion"
mi^t be represented to far aa the different groups of Ccrinalae
9Xt concerned: —
* These names are compounded respectively of Dfomaeua^ the
generic name applied to the emeu, rx<r«. « •pfit or deft,. Htm, a
Bond or tying, afYiiN. a finch, and, in each case, yvMn, a jaw.
* The notion 01 the superiority off the palatal bones to all others
for purposes of classification has pleased many petions, fffom the
fact that these bones are not unfrequeotly retained in the dried
skins of birds sent home by ooUectots m foreign countries* and are
therefore available for study, while such bones as the stenuim and
peKrb are rarely preserved. The common practice eff ofdtoary
coUectocs, until at least very recently, has been tersely described as
bdng to " shoot a bird, take off iu skin, and throw away iu char^
acteis."
* Periiape this may be Dartlally explained by the fact that the
Museum of the College of Surgeons, in which these investigations
were chiefly carried 00. like most other museums of the time, con-
Uincd a much larger series of the heads of birds than 01 their entire
skeletons, or of any other portwn of the skeleton. Consequently
the materials aEvailablc for the comparison of different forms con-
sisted in great part of heads only.
Huxley regarded the above scheme as nearly representing
the affinities of the various Carinate groups— the great difficulty
being to determine the relations to the rest of the Couygo-
morphae, PsitlaeomarphM and Aegiikognatha<, which he indicated
" only in the most doubtful and hypothetic fashion." Almost
umultantously with this he expounded more particularly
before the Zoological Society, in whose Proceedings (x868, pp.
394-319) lus results were soon after published, the groups of
which be believed the AUctoromorphae to be composed and the
relations to them of tome outlying forms usually regarded as
Gallinaceous, the Twnkidae and Pterocltdae, as well as the
singular hoactxin, for all three of which he had to Institute
new groups— the last forming the tole representative of his
Eelerom^rpkae, More than thjs, be entered upon their geo-
graphical distribution, the facts of which important subject
are here, almost for the first time, since the attempt of Blyth
already mentioned,^ brought to bear practically on dassification.
Here we must mention the intimate connexion between
classification and geographical distiibutlon as revealed by the
palaeontologicalresearchesof AlphonseMilne-Edwards, ^^..
whose magnificent Oiseaux FossiUs de h Prance jjj^
began to appear in 1867, and was completed in 1871 —
the more to, since the exigencies of his undertaking compelled
him to use materials that had been almost wholly neglected
by other investigators. A large proportion of the fossil remains,
the determination and description of which was his object, were
what are very commonly called the " long bones," that is to say,
those of the limbs. The recognition of these, minute and
fragmentary aa many wete, and the referring them to their
proper place, rendered necessary an attentive study of the com-
parative osteology and myolo^ of birds In general, that of the
" long bones," whose sole chacaclers were often a few muscular
ridges or depressions, being espedally obligatory. Hence it
f)ecame manifest that a very respecuble dassification can be
found in which characters dxawn from these bones play a rather
important parU Limited by circumstances aa is that foDowed
by Milne'Edwards, the detaOs of his arrangement do not tcquim
setting forth here. It is enough to point out that we have in
his work another proof of the multiplidty of the factors which
must be taken into considei&tion by the systematist, and another
proof of the fallacy of trusting to one set of characters alone.
But this is not the only way in which the author has rendered
service to the advanced student of ornithology. The unlooked-
for discovery in Fiance of remains which he has jeferred to.
forms now existing it is true, but existing only in countries far
removed from Europe, forms such as CoOtcalia^ Leptasomus,
PtUtaeus, Serptntariiu and Trogon, is perhaps even more sugges-
tive than the finding that France was once inhabited by forms
that are wholly extinct, of which in the older formations there
is abuadance. Uafortunatdy none of these, however, can be
compared for singularity with Arckaeopttryx or with some
American fossil forma next to be noticed, for their particular
* It is true that from the time of Buffon. thoush he eoorncd any
regular dassificatbn, geographical distribution had been oocasloaally
YM to have something to do with systematic arrangement: but the
way in which the two were related was never dearly put forth, though
people who could read between the lines might have gue«sed the
secret from Darwin's Joumot of Researches, as well as from hts
introduction to the Zootogy ofAe '* Be^g^e** Voyage.
324
ORNITHOLOGY
ITAXONOMY
bearing on our knowledge of ornithology will be most con-
veniently treated here.
In November 1870 O. C. Maxsh, by finding the imperfect
foosilixed tibia of a bird in the middle cretaceous shale of Kansas,
^^. began a series of wonderful discoveries of great im-
portance to ornithology. Subsequent visits to the
same part of North America, often perfonned under circum-
stances of discomfort and occasionally of danger, brought to
this intrepid and eneigetic explorer the reward he had so fully
earned. Brief notices of his spoils appeared from time to time
in various volumes of the American Journal of Scienca and Arts
(Silliman's), but it is unnecessary here to refer to more than
a few of them. In that Journal for May 1872 (ser. 3, ill. p. 360)
the remains of a large swimming bird (nearly 6 ft. in length,
as afterwards appeared) having some affinity, it was thought,
to the Colytnbidae were described under the name of Baperomis
regalis, and a few months later (iv. p. 344) a second fossil bird
from the same locality was indicated as Ichthyornis dispar —
from the fish-like, biconcave form of its vertebrae. Further
examination of the enormous collections gathered by the author,
and preserved in the Museum of Yale University at New Haven,
Connecticut, showed him that this last bird, and another
to which he gave the name of Apatomis, had possessed well-
developed teeth implanted in sockets in both jaws, and induced
him to establish (v. pp. i6z, 162) for their reception a ** sub-
class** Odoniornithcs and an order Ickthyomitkes. Two years
more and the originally found Hcspcrornis was discovered also
to have teeth, but these were inserted in a groove. It was
accordin^y regarded as the type of a distinct order Odontolcae
(x. pp. 403-408), to which were assigned as other characters
vertebrae of a saddle-shape and not biconcave, a keelless ster-
num, and wings consisting only of the humerus. In x88o
Marsh brought out Odontornithes, a monograph of the extinct
toothed birds of North America. Herein remains, attributed
to no fewer than a score of species, which were referred to eight
different genera, are fully described and sufficiently illustrated,
and, instead of the ordinal name Ickthyomitkes previously used,
that of Odonlotormac was proposed. In the author's concluding
summary he remarks on the fact that, while the Odontolcae, as
exhibited b Hcsperornis, had teeth inserted in a continuous
groove— a low and generalized character as shown by reptiles,
they had, however, the strongly differentiated saddle-shaped
vertebrae such as aU modem birds possess. On the other hand
the Odontotormae, as exemplified in Ichthyornis, having the
primitive biconcave vertebrae, yet possessed the highly
specialized feature of teeth in distinct sockets. Hesperornis
too, with its keelless sternum, had aborted wings but strong
legs and feet adapted for swimming, while Ichthyornis had a
keeled sternum and powerful wings, but diminutive legs and
feet. These and other characters separate the two forms so
widely as quite to justify the establishment of as many orders
for their reception. Marsh states that he had fully satisfied
himself that Archaeopteryx belonged to the Odontomithes, which
he thought it advisable for the presient to regard as a subclass,
separated into three crdcxs—OdoriloUae, Odontotormae and
Saururae—zH well marked, but evidently not of equal rank,
the last being deariy much more widely distinguished from
the first two than they are from one another. But that these
three oldest-known forms of birds should differ so greatly from
each other unmistakably points to a gifeat antiquity for the class.
The former efforts at classification made by Sundevall have
already several times been mentioned, and a return to their con-
sideration was promised. In 1871 and 1873 he brought
^■^"^ out at Stockholm a Metkodi naluralis avium dir-
ponendarum tentamen, two portions of which (those relating to
the diurnal birds-of-prey and the CicMomorphae, or forma reUted
to the thrushes) he found himself under the necessity of revising
and modifying in the course of 1B74, in as many communications
to the Swedish Academy of Sciences {K. V.-Ak. F^kandlingar,
1874, No. 2, pp. 21-30; No. 3, pp. 27-30). This Tentamen,
containing his complete method of classifying birds in general,
naturally received much attention, the more so perhaps, since,
with its appendices, it was nearly the last labour of its respected
author, whose industrious life came to an end in the course of
the following year. From what has before been said of his works
it nuy be gathered that, while professedly basing his systematic
arrangemeat of the groups of birds on their external features,
he had hitherto striven to make his schemes harmonize if possible
with the dictates of internal structure as evinced by the science
of anatomy, though he uniformly and persistently protested
against the inside being better than the outside. In thus acting
he proved himself a true follower of his great countryman
Linnaeus; but, without disparagement of iHs efforts in this
respect, it must be said that when internal and external char-
acters appeared to be in conflict he gave, perhaps with unconscioiia
bias, a preference to the hitter, for he belonged to a school of
zoologists whose natural instinct was to believe that such a
conflict always ousted. Hence his efforts, praiseworthy as
they were from several points of view, and particularly so in
regard to some details, failed to satisfy the philosophic taxonomcr
when generalizations and deeper principles were concerned, and
in his practice in respect of certain technicalities of classification
he was, in the eyes of the orthodox, a transgreaaor. Thus
instead of contenting himself with terms that had met with
pretty general approval, such as dass, subclass, order, sub-
order, family, subfamily, and so on, he introduced into his final
scheme other designations, " agmen," " cohors," " phalanx," and
the like, which to the ordinary student of ornithology convey an
indefinite meaning, if any meaning at all. He also carried to a
very extreme limit his views of nomendature, which were
certainly not in accordance with those held by most zoologists,
though this is a matter so trifling as to need no details in illustra-
tion. His Tentamen was transited into English by F. Nicholson
in 1889, and had a considerable influence on later writers,
espedally in the arrangement of the smaller groups. In the
main it was an artifidal system. Birds were divided into
Gymnopaedes and Dasypaedcs, according as the young were
hatched naked or clothed. The Gymnopaedes are divided into
two " orders "—Oxcifiej and Vducres — the former intended
to be identical with the group of the same name established
by older authors, and, in accordance with the observations of
Keyseriing and Blasius already mentioned, divided into two
"series" — Lamini^nlares, having the hinder part of the
" tarsus " covered with two homy plates, and Scutdliptantares,
in which the same part is scutdlated. These LamitUplantara
are composed of six cohorts as follows: —
Cohors r. CicMomorphae,
CohofB 2. CoKtrostres.
Cohori3. Coliomorpkae*
Cohofi 4. Cntkiomorpkae.'~$ families: tree-creepen, nut-hatches.
Cohors 5* Cinnyrimorphae. — ^5 families: sun-birds, hongy-suckeni
Cohors o. Chdidonomorphae. — 1 family: swallows.
The SettteUiplaniarrs indude a much smaller number of formi.
and. with the caiception of the first " cohort " and a few groups oi
the^fourth and fifth, all are peculiar to America.
Cohort I. Holaspidtae.
Cohors 2. Endas^eae.
Cohore 3. Exaspideae.
Cohors 4. P^^cnaspideao.
Cohort 5. Taxaspideae.
We then arrive at the tecond order Volucres, which Is divided
into two " series." Of these the first ia made to contain, under the
name Zygedaetyti,
Cohort I. PsitiatL
Cohorts. Picu
Cohort 3. Coccyges.
Cohort 4. Coemmorpkae,
Cohort 5. Ampti^ulares,
Cohort 6. Longihngnes or IieBisMiae»
Cohors 7. Syn^actyUie.
Cohort 8. Peristeroideae.
The Dasypaedes of Sundevall are separated into six '* orders **s
but these will occupy us but a short whHe. The fine of them,
Accipitrest oomprehefldtng all the birds-of-prcy. were separaied into
4 " cohorts ** in his original work, but these were reduced in bis
appendix to two — N^Ktharpaga or owls with 4 families divided into
2 series, and Hemeronarpages containing all the rest, and comprisint
10 families (the last of which is the aertema. Duholophwe) divided
into 2 groups as Rapaces and Saprophagi — the latter indudiitt
the vultures. Next stands the order Callinae with 4 '* cohorts *^
TAXONOMY]
(i ) Tetnumomtrpkoi, comprianff a f amQIes. the mnA-znum tPUrodes)
And the grouse proper, among iniich the Central American Ort^phasis
6nds itself: (a) Fkasian9mir^iae, with 4 famUies. phcasaau pea-
cocks, turkeys, guinea fowls, partridges, quails, and hemipodes
iTumix)\ (3} Macrmyeka, the megtfpodes, with a CamUies: (4) the
>uo(UcimpenmUa€^ the curassows and guans, also with a families;
(5) the StnUkiomformu, compoaed of the tinamous; and (6) the
SubiraUalores with a families, one consisting of the curious South
American genera Tkmocenu and Attatis and the other of the shcath-
bill ICkumu). The fifth order (the third of the Datypatdes) isformed
by tlie CraUatorts^ dtvuled iato a " series "— (i) Amnarts, consisting
of a " cohorts," H«rodH with i family, the henMis, ud Pdarn
with 4 families, spoonbillsi ibises, storks, and the umbre {Scopiu),
with Balaeniups; (2) Humilinam, also consisting of a " cohorts,'
Limicolae with a families, sand^ipen and snipes, stilts and avocets,
and Cursores with 8 families, indudiiw plovers, bustaxxls, aranci»
I." The *
ORNITHOLOGY
3^5
rails, and atf the other "waden^" The sixth order, Natatorts,
consists of aU the birds that habitually swim and a few that do not,
containing 6* "cohoru": Xmi|i>miwx and Pyeo^odts with 3
families each; TotipainuUat with 1 family; Twnnarts with 3
families; tmpennes with i family, penguins; and LoftuUirostrts
with a families, flamingoes and ducks. The seventh order, Ptoun$,
ia divkkd into a " oohoru "—Km* with a families, ostiich e e and
emeus; and SubmMUs, consisting of the genus ApUryx. The
eif^th Older is formed by the Saumnu,
Later systems of classification owe much to anatomy, and
the pbneers in the modem advances in this respect were A. H.
Garrod and W. A. Forbes, two brilliant and short-
lived young men who occupied successively the post
of prosector to the Zoologiod Society of London, and
who made a rich use of the material provided by 'the collection
of that society. Garrod was the more skilled and ingeaiouy
anatomist, Forbes had a greater acquaintance with the ornith*'
ology of museums and collectors. Garrod founded his system
(1874) on muscular anatomy, making the two major divisions
of Aves (his Homalogonotae and AnomalogotuUaet depend in the
first instance on the presence or absence of a peculiar muscular
slip in the leg, known as the ambitns, although indeed he expressly
sUted that this was not on account of the intrinsic importance
of the muscle in question, but because of its invariable association
with other peculiarities. The system of Forbes was reconstructed
after his death from notebook jottings, and neither Garrod
nor Forbes have left any permanent mark on the classification
of birds, although the material they furnished and the lines
they indicated have proved valuable in later bands. In 1880
Dr P. L. Sclater published in the Ibu a classification which was
mainly a revision of the system of Huxley, modified by the
investigations of Garrod and Forbes and by his Awn large
acquaintance with museum specimens.
In the artlde "Ornithology" in the ninth edition of this
encyclopaedia, A. Newton accepted the three subclasses of
Huxley, 5a«nfrae, RaHlae and Cannitae, and made a series of
cautious but critical observations on the minor diviuons of
the Carinatcs. In 1883 A. Reichcnow in Die VBgd der todo-
giscken Cdrten published a classification of birds with a phylo-
genetic tree. In this he departed considerably from the fanes
that had been made familiar by English workers, and made
great use of natural chancteristics. The next attempt of import-
ance appeared in the American SUmdard Natural History^ pub-
lished in Boston in 1885. The volume on birds was written by
Pr L. Stejneger and was founded on Ellbt Cbues's Key to North
American Birds, Apart from iu intrinsic merits as a learned
and valuable addition to classification, this work is interesting
m the history of ornithology because of the wholesale changes
of nomenclature it introduced as the result of much diligence
and seal in the appUcation of the strict rule of priority to the
names of birds.
In x888 there was published the huge monograph by Max
Fdzbringer entitled Untersuckungem but MorpMogie und
Sysiematikder VdgeL In addition to an enormous body of new
iiiformation chiefly on the shoulder girdle, the alar muscles and
the nerve plexuses of birds, this work contained a critical and
descriptive summary of practically the whole pre-existing
literature on the structure of birds, and it is hardly necessary for
the student of ornithology to refer to earlier literature at first
hand. Fflrbringer supposes that birds must have begun with
toothed forms of small or moderate size, with long tails and four
lixard-like feet and bodies clothed with a primitive kind of down.
To these succeeded forms where the down had developed into
body feathers for warmth, not flight, whilst the fore-limbs
had become orguis of prehension, the hind-limbs of progression.
In such bipedal creatures the legs and pelvis became transformed
to a condition similar to that of Dinosaurian reptiles. Many of
them were climbing animals, and from these true birds with the
powo- of flight were developed. In the course of this evolution
there were many cases of arrest or degradation, and one of the
most novel of the ideas of Farbringer, and one now accepted
by not a few anatomists, was that the ratites or ostrich-like
birds were not a natural group but a set of stages of arrested
development or of partial degradation. It is impossible to
reproduce here Fiirbringer's eUborate details and phyloganetic
trees with their various horizontal sections, but the following
tables give the main outlines: —
Older.
AacHoajiiTHEs . . .
STRUTHtOtNITHSS . .
KlIEORNlTHES . . . .
HirPALECTRYORMITHSS .
Classts AVES
I. Sttbclassb Saurukab
Suborder. Gens.
Aithaeopterygiformes .... Archaeopteryges .
II. Subclaasis Orkithurab
^truthionilormes Stnithk>nes . .
Rheilormes Rheae . . . .
Casuariiformes Casuarii . . .
Intermediate suborder: —
Aepyomithiformcs. .
Intermediate suborder:—
Palamedeiformes . .
Anaerifonnes ....
Family.
ArchaeopterygidacL
Strutfaionidae.
Rheidae.
( Dromaeidae +Casuariidae + Dro-
momithidae).
Acpyomithes ..... Aepyoraithklae.
PlLARGtiunTBBS.
Podicipitifanncs
CironiiforwsB
Palamedae ....
Gastomithes . . .
Anseccs or Lamellirostn
Enaliomithcs . . .
Heqieromithes . .
Cblyinbo-Podicipitas .
Phoeoicoptcri . . .
Pelai|o>Hcrodii
Acciptties daenuroMrpafUt
Ptiart9kttrpa§u) . . .
Palamedeklae.
Gastomithklae
Anatidae.
Enaliomithidae.
Heaperomithklae.
; ColymbMae.
I Podicipidae.
Palaeobdidae.
Phoenicopteridae.
' Plataletdae or Hcmi^ottidea.
Ciconiklae or Pelargi.
Scopidac^
Aroeidac or HerodiL
Balaenidpitidae.
Gypogeranidae.
Cathartidae.
Gypo-FalconMae
" Phaetontklae
Phalacrocoraddae.
Pdecanidae.
Fragatklae.
326
ORODE8
Onler.
CHABAOMOUnTHIs(Acsialor.
nilhes) .,
Albctohormithbs (Chair
nithet) ......
SttboracT'.
Intermediate Hiborderi-
ProoclUriifonnet .
Intermediate niborder^
Aptenodytiformes
Intermediate subordcK*"
Ichthyomithifai
Chandritforroet
Intermediate suborder ^■
Gruiforroes . .
Family;
ProceUariae or Tubinares.
Procellariidae.
Aptmodytfli or Impeniict Aptenodytidae;
Ichtkyomithea
Cfaandrii . .
LanyLtmioolae
Fame
Otides
( Ichthyomithidae.
' ( Apatonuthida&
fCharadriidae.
■ 4 GiareolidacL
I Promadida e .
. ^Chionididae.
Laridae.
Alddae
Thtnocoridae.
r Eurypygae .
L Cruet
Intermediate •uborder r-
Ralliformes . .
CoRACORNiTHBS (Dendromi-
thes) . 5 ., .... .
Apterygifomies .
Crypturiformes .
Gallifdrmce
Intermediate suborder;
Columbiformcs
Intermediate suborder:'
Ptittaclformcs . .
Coocygiformes .
Fulicariae ,
I Hemipodii ,
Apteiygea
Crypturi
Oedicnemidae.
.Otididae
Eurypygidae.
Rhinochetidac.
Aptomithtdac.
Gniidae.
Plophiidae.
Canamidae.
Heliornithidae.
Rallidae.
Meaitidae.
; Hemipodiidae.
Apteiy^ae.
Dmomithidae.
Ciypturidae.
assL..-^ • • i^^st^
=--. .1
_ , I Gallfdae or Alectoropodca.
Pterecletca Pterodidae.
Columbae c Didklae.
) Columbidae.
Pwttad Pttti
loteraediate geiu^~
Galbulae
PicD-Passeriformes .
■it'
Pid . .
Pico-Passeces
Buoconklae.
Galbulidae.
Capitonidae.
Rhamphastidae;
Indicatoridac.
Picidae.
Pseudoscincs.
Paaseridacor Puaeret.
Cypsdidae.
Trochilidac.
Halcyooif<
Coracuformea
Whibt FOrbringer was engaged on his gigantic task, Dr Hans
Gadow was preparing the ornithological volome of Bronn's
Tkier-Rekk, The two authors were in constant communication,
and the dassiScations they adopted had much in common. It
is unnecessary hereto discuss tlie views of Gadow, as that
author himself has contributed the article Biro to this edition
of the Encyclopaedia Britamnka, and has there set forth his
revised scheme. (A. N.; P. C. M.)
0R0DB8 (also called Hyboobs, Pers. Hurauda), the name of
t^pro Parthian kings.
X. Obodes I., son of Phraates HI., whom he murdered in
57 B.C, assisted by his brother Mithnda t es HI. This Mtthra-
dates was made king of Media, but soon afterwards was expelled
by Orodes and fled into Syria. Thence he invaded the Parthian
kingdom, but having reigned for a short time (55) wBs bcKcged
by Surenas, general of Qrodcs» in Sdeuda, and after a prolonged.
Makrcxrhires . . .
Colli ' CoHidaeT
Intermediate gens:—
Trogones Trogonidae.
•^«- )X£!3i^^
B««»u. UKSSS^
Meropes Meroptdae.
Intermediate gens:—
Todi IteJ?"-
c««^ ■ . • . . •)S;:sSrKue
r Caprimulsidae
Capriroulgi ■/ Steatomitnidae.
y Podargidae.
Striges Strigidae.
resistance was captured and slain. Meanwhile Crassus had
begun his attempt to conquer the east, but he was defeated
and killed in 53 at Carrhae by Surenas, while Orodes himself
invaded Armenia and forced King Artavasdes, the son of Ti-
granes, to abandon the Romans. By the victory of Carrhae
the countries east of the Euphrates were secured to the Parthians.
In the next year they invaded Syria, but with little success, for
Surenas, whose achievements had made him too dangerous,
was killed by Orodes (Plut. Crass. 35), and Pnconis, the yonog
son of the king, was defeated by C. Cassius in 51. During the
dvil war the Parthlaat dded first with Pompey and then with
Brutus and Cassius, but took no action until 40 B-C.> when
Pacorus, assisted by the Roman deserter Labienus, conquered
a great part of Syria and Asia Minor, but was defeated and killed
by Ventidius in 38 (see Pacobus). The old king, Orodes, who
was deq>ly aflBicted by the death of his gallant son, appointed
OROGRAPHY—ORPHEUS
327
hit aon Phrtttei IV. tuccettor, but was toon mfterwuds killed
by him (37 B.C.; Die. Caas. 49* '3; Justin 42.4; Plut. Crassaa,
35). Plutarch relates that Orodes understood Greek very well;
after the death of Crassus the Bocckae of Euiipides were xepre-
aented at his court (Plut. Cross. 53).
9. Okodbs II., raised to the throne hf the magnates alter
the death of Phraates V. abont aj). 5, was killed after a short
reign "on account of his eztxeme cruelty" (Joseph. Ant,
zviii. 9, 4). (Eo. M.)
0R06RAPHT (Gr. iptm, mountain, ypi4tv, to write), that
part of physical geography which deals with the geological
formation, the surface features and description of mountains.
The terms " oreography/' " orology" and "oreology" are also
someti mes u sed.
ORONTES, the ancient name of the chief Syrian river, also
called Draco, Typhon and Axivs, the last a native form, from
whose revival, or continuous employment in native speech, has
proceeded the modem name *Asi ("rebel")* which is variously
interpreted by Arabs as referring to the stream's impetuosity,
to its unproductive channel, or to the fact that it flows away
from Mecca. The Orontes rises in the great springs of Labweh
on the east side of the Buka*a, or inter-Lebanon district, very
near the fountains of the southward«flowing LItani, and it runs
due north, parallel with the coast, falling sooo ft. through a
rocky gorge. Leaving this it expands into the Lake of Horns,
having been dammed back in antiquity. The valley now widens
out into the rich district of Hamah {Hamath-Epipkaneux),
below which lie the broad meadow-lands of Ghib, containing
the sites of ancient Apamea and Larissa. This central Orontes
valley ends at the rocky barrier of Jisr al-Hadid, where the river
is diverted to the west, and the plain of Antioch opens. Two
large tributaries from the N.,'the Afrin and Kara Su, here reach
It through the former Lake of Antioch, which Is now drained
through an artificial channel (Nahr al-Kowsit). Passing N.
of the modem Antakia (Antioch) the Orontes plunges S.W. into
a gorge (compared by the ancients to Tempe), and faUs 150 ft.
in to m. to the sea just south of the little port of Suedia (anc.
Stitucia PieHae)t after a total course of 170 m. Mainly un-
navigable and of little use for irrigation, the Orontes derives
its historical importance solely from the convenience of its
valley for traffic from N. to S. Roads from N. and N.E.. con-
verging at Antioch, follow the course of the stream up to
Roms, where they fork to Damascus and to Coele-Syria and
the S.; and along its valley Jiave passed the armies and
traffic bound to and from Egypt in all ages. (See Antiocr
and Horn.) (D. O. H.)
OROPUS* a Greek seaport, on the Euripus, in the district
Hnpaudf, opposite Eretria. It was a border dty between
Boeotia and Attica, and its possession was a continual cause
of dispute between the two countries; but at hst it came into
the final possession of Athens, and b always alluded to under
the Roman empire as an Attic town. The actual darbour,
which was called Delphinium, was at the mouth of the Asopus,
about a mile north of the city. A village still called Oropo
occupies the site of the ancient town. The famous oracle of
Amphiaraus was situated in the territory of Oropus, is stadia
from the dty. The site has been excavated by the Greek
Archaeological Sodety; it contained a temple, a sacred spring,
Into which coins were thrown by worshippers, altars and porti-
coes, and a small theatre, of which the proscenium Is wdl pre-
served. Wonhippers used to consult the orade of Amphiaraus
by sleeping on the skin of a slaughtered ram within the sacred
building.
OROSIUS, PAULU8 (fl. 415), historian and theologian, was
bora in Spain (possibly at Braga in Galida) towards the dose
of the 4th century. Having entered the Christian priesthood,
be naturally took an interest in the Prisdllianist controversy
then going on in his native country, and it may have been in
connexion with this that he went to consult Augustine at Hippo
in 413 or 414. After staying for some time in Africa as the dis-
dpk of Augustine, he was sent by him in 415 to Palestine with
a letter of introduction to Jerome, then at Bethlehem. The
ostensible purpose of his mission (apart, of course, from those
of pilgrimage and perhaps relic-hunting) was that he might
gain further instruction from Jerome on the points raised l^
the Prisdlliaoists and OrigenisU; but in reality, it would seem,
his business was to stir up and assist Jerome and others against
Pelagius, who, since the synod of Carthago in 411, had been
living in Palestine, and finding some acceptance there. The
result of his arrival was that John, bishop of Jerusalem, was
induced to summon at his capital in June 415 a synod at which
Orosius communicated the decisions of Carthage and read such
of Augustine's writings against Pelagius as had at that time
appeared. Success, however, waa scarcely to be hoped for
amongst Orientals who did not understand Latin, and whose
sense of reverence waa unshocked by the question of Pelagius,
el qtds est miki Aitgustmusf AU that Orosius succeeded in
obtaining was John's consent to send letters and deputies to
Innocent of Rome; and, after having waited long enough to
leam the unfavourable decision of the synod of Diospolis or
Lydda in December of the same year, he returned to north
Africa, where he is believed to have died. According to Gen-
nadius he carried with lum recently discovered relics of the
protomartyr Stephen from Palestine to Minorca, where they
were efficacious in converting the Jews.
The earliest work of Oroaut, CotuuUaUo sin a>mmonitorium ad
AugusHnum de errore Priscittianistamm ei Oritenistarum, explains
its object by its title; it was written soon after bis arrival in Africa*
and M usually printed in the works of Augustine ak>og with the
reply of the latter. Contra PrisciliumisUu H Origntislas Uberltd
Orosium. His next treatise. Liber apologet$cu$ de arbitrii iibertaU,
was written durine his stay in Palestine, and in connexion with
the controversy which enraged him there. It Is a keen but not
always fair criticism of the Pelagian position from that of Augustine.
The Historiae eidaersttm Fatanot was undertaken at the suggestioa
of Augustine, to whom it is dedkated. When Augustine proposed
this task he had already phinned and made some progress with hb
own De cieitate Dei; it is the same argument that is elaborated
by his disciple, namdy, the evidence from history that the drcuni*
stances of tne worid had not really become worse since the iotro*
duction of Christianity. The work, which b thus a pragmatical
chronicle of the calamities that have happened to mankind from the
fall down to the Gothic period, has little accuracy or kaming, and
even less of litemry charm to commend it; but it was the first
attempt to write the history of the worid as a hbtory of God guiding
humanity. Its purpose gave it value in the eyes of the orthodox,
and the Hormesta, Ormesta, or Ormiita as it was called, no one knows
why (from Or(o8ii] M[undi] Hist[oria] or from de mieeria mundi}
see MOmer, o. 180, for list of guesses), speedily attained a wide
pofuilarity. Neariy two hundred MSS. of it have survived. A free
abridged translation by King Alfred b still extant (Old English
text, with original in Latin, (^dited by H. Sweet, 1883). The editio
^ncets of the original appeared at Augsburg (1470; that of
Haverkamp (Leiden, 1738 and 1767) has now been supencded bv
C. 2angemebter, who has edited tne Hi^ and also the Lib, apei,
in vol. V. of the Corp. scr. ecd. i^ol. (Vienna. 188a}, as wdl as an
edit. min. (Leipcig. Teubner, 1889). The " sources ' made use of by
Orosius have been mvestigated by T. de Mdraer {De OrosHvitaeiusque
kin. libr. Mt. adpersus Paeanos, 1844): besides the Okl and New
Testaments, he appears to have consulted Caesar, Livy, Justin,
Tacitus. Suetonius, Floras and a cosmography, attaching also great
value to Jerome's translation of the Chronicle* of Eusebius.
ORPHAN, the term used of one who has lost both parents
by death, sometimes of one who has lost father or mother only.
In Law, an orphan b such a person who is under age. The Late
Lat. ^rpkannst <rom which the word, chiefly owing to its use in
the Vulgate, waa adopted into English, is a tiansliteretion of
6p^aii6i, in tlie same sense, the original meaning bdng " bereft
of," " destitute," classical Lat. orbms. The Old English word
for an orphan waa steApcildt stepchild. By the custom of the
city of London, the lord mayor and aldermen, in the Court of
Orphans, have the guardianship of the children still under age
of deceased freemen. Orphans' courts exist for the guardian-
ship of orphans and administratfon of their estates in Delaware,
Maryland, New Jersey and Pennsylvania in the United States.
In other states these are performed by oflkcrs of the
Probate Court, known as " surrogates," or by other titles.
ORPHEUS, in Greek legend, the chief representative of (he
art of song and playing on the lyre, and of great importance in
the religious history of Greece. The derivation of the name iS
uncertain, the most probable being that which connects it with
328
ORPHEUS
hpthi" dftrk/' 6p^MOtt flp^Mt)- In accordance with this, Orphetu
may have been ongjuiliy a god of darkness; or the liberator
from the power of darkness by his gift of song; or he may have
been so called because his rites were celebrated by night (cf.
Dionysus Nyctelius). It is possible, but very improbable, that
Orpheus was an historical personage; even in ancient times his
existence was denied. According to Maaas, he was a chthonian
deity, the counterpart of Dionysus, with whom he is closely
connected; J. £. Harrison, however, regards him as a religious
reformer fit>m Crete, who introduced the doctrine of ecslasis
without intoxication amongst the Thradaas and was slain by
the votaries of the frenzied ritual S. Reinach sees in him the foi
roaming " in the darkness," to the Thracians a personification of
the wine-god, torn in pieces by the.Bassarae (fox-maidens).
Alihough by some he was held to be a Greek, the tradition of his
Thracian origin was most generally accepted. His name does
not occur in Homer or Hestod, but he was known in the time
of Ibycus (e. 530 B.C.), and Pindar (sa»-'44« »c.) speaks of him
as " the father of songs." From the 6th century onwards he
was looked upon as one of the chief poets and musicians of
antiquity, the inventor or perfecter of the lyre, who by his music
and singing was able not only to charm the wild beasts, but even
to draw the trees and rocks from their places, and to arrest the
rivers in their course. As one of the pioneers of civilization,
he was supposed to have taught mankind the arts of medicine,
writing and agriculture. As closely connected with religious
life, he was an augur and seer; practised magical arts, especially
astrology; founded or rendered accessible many important
cults, such as those of Apollo and Dionysus; instituted mystic
rites, both public Imd private; prescribed initiatory and puri-
ficatory ritual. He was said to have visited Egypt, and to have
become acquainted there with the writings of Moses and with
the doctrine of a future life.
According to the best-known tradition, Orpheus was the son of
Oeagrus, king of Thrace, and the muse Calliop«. During his
residence in Thrace he joined the expedition of the Argonauts,
whose leader Jason bad been informed by Chiron that only by the
aid of Orpheus would they be able to pass by the Sirens un-
scathed. His numerous services during the journey are described
in the ArgonatUUa that goes under his name. But the most
famous story in which he figures is that of his wife Eurydice.
While fleeing from Aristaeus, she was bitten by a serpent and
died. Orpheus went down to the lower world and by bis music
softened the heart of Pluto and Persephone, who allowed Eurydice
to return with him to earth. But the condition was atuchcd
that be should walk in front of her and not look back until he had
reached the upper world. In his anxiety he broke bis promise,
and Eurydice vanished again from his sight. The story in this
form belongs to the time of Virgil, who fint introduces the name
of Aristaeus. Other ancient writers, however, speak of his visit
to the underworld; according to Plato, the infernal gods only
** presented an apparition" of Eurydice to him.
After the death of Eurydice, Orpheus rejected the advances
of the Thracian women, who, jealous of his faithfulness to the
memory of his lost wife, tore him to pieces during the frenzy of
the Bacchic orgies. His head and lyre floated " down the swift
Hebras to the Lesbian shore," where the inhabitanu buried
his head and a shrine was buflt in his honour near Antissa. The
lyre was carried to heaven by the Muses, and was placed amongst
the stars. The Muses also gathered up the fragmenU of his
body and buried them at Leibetbra below Olympus, where the
nightingales sang over his grave, while yet another legend
places his tomb at Dium, near Pydna in Macedonia. Other
accounts of his death are: that he killed himself from grief at
the failure of his journey to Hades; that he was struck with
lightning by Zeus for having revealed the mysteries of the gods
to men; or be was torn to pieces by the Maenads for having
abandoned the cult of Dionysus for that of Apollo.
According to Gruppe. the leijend of the death of Orpheus is a
lale imitatioa of the Adonis-Osiris myth. Osiris, like Orpheus, b
torn in pieces, and his head floats down every year from Egypt to
Byblus: the body of Attia, the Phrygian counterpart of Adonis,
like that of Orpheus, does not suiter decay. The story 'is repeated
of Dionysus; he is torn in pieces, and his bead b cacried dewn to
Lesbos. Without going so far as to assert that Orpheus n a hypo>
stasis of Dionysus, there is no doubt that a close coanenon exuied
between them from very eariy times. According to Frazer, these
traditions may be "distorted reminiscences** of the practice of
human sacrifice, especially of divine kings, the object of which was
to ensure fertility to the animal and vegetable worlds. Orpheus,
in the manner 01 his death, was considered to perionau the god
Dionysus, and was thus the representative of the god torn to pieces
every year, a ceremony enacted by the Bacchae in the earliest
times with a human victim, afterwards with a bull to represent the
bull-formed Kod. A distinct feature of this ritual was ^>w»sito
(eating the flesh of the vkrtim raw), whereby the communicants
imagined that they consumed and assimilated the god represented
by the victim, and thus became filled with the divine ecstasy.
A. W. Bather (Jown. HeU. Studies, xiv. p. 254) sees in the myth aa
allusion tq a ritual, the object of which is the expulsbn of death or
winter. It is possible that the floating of the head of Orpheus to
Lesbos has reference to the fact that the island was the first home of
lyric poetry, and may be symbolical of the route taken by the Aeolian
emigrants from Theasaly on their way to their new home in Asia
Minor.
The name of Orpheus is equaJly important in the religious
history of Greece. He was the mythic founder of a religious
school or sect, with a code of rules of life, a mystic eclectic theo>
logy, a system of purificatory and expiatory rites, and peculiar
mysteries. This school is first observable under the rule of
Peisistratus at Athens in the 6th century B.C. Its doctrines are
founded on two. elements: the Thraco-Phxygian religion of
Dionysus with its enthusiastic orgies, its mysteries and its
purifications, and tHe tendency to philosophic speculation on
the nature and mutual relations of the numerous gods, developed
at this time by intercourse with Egypt and the East, and by the
quickened intercourse between different tribes and different
religions in Greece itself. These causes produced similar restilu
in different parts of Greece. The close analogy between Pytha<>
goreanism and Orphism has been recognized from Hettxiotus
(ii. 8x) to the latest modern writers. Both inculcated a peculiar
kind of ascetic life; both had a mystical speculative theory
of religion, with purificato^ rites, abstinence from beans, tic.;
but Orphism was more especially religious, while Pythagoreanism,
at least originally, inclined more to be a political and philosophical
creed.
The rules of the Orphic life prescribed abstinence from beans,
flesh, ceruin kinds of fish, &c., the wearing of a special kind of
clothes, and numerous other practices and abstinences. The
ritual of worship was pecuh'ar, not admittbg bloody sacrifices^
The belief was taught in the homogeneity of all living things,
in the doctrine of original sin, in the transmigration of souls, in
the view that the soul is entombed in the body {awfta ^^/ta),
and that it ouiy gradually attain perfection during connexion
with a series of bodies. When completely purified, it will be
freed from this "drcle of generation" {mOi^ y&^o^tin), aod
will again become divine, as it was before its entrance into a
mortal body.
The chief ceremonies of the nightly ritual were sacrifice and
libation; prayer and purification; the represenution of sacred
legends {e.g. the m3rth of Zagreus, the chief object of worship,
who was identified with most of the numerous gods of the
Orphic pantheon); the rape of Persephone; and the descent
into Hades. These were ioUoduced as a " sacred cipUaation"
(icp6t Xbyos) of the rules and prescriptions. To these also bck>ng
the rite of u>/io^a7(a,and the communication of liturgical formulae
for the guidance of the soul of the dead man on hb way to the
underworld, which also served as credentials to the gods below.
Some of the so-called *' Orphic tablets," metrical inscriptions
engraved on small plates of gold, chiefly dating from the 4th and
3rd centuries B.C., have been discovered in tonhs in aottthem
Italy, Crete and Rome.
It does not appear, however, that a reguhriy organised or OBmeroos
Orphic sect ever existed, nor that Oiphism ever became popular:
it was too abstract, too full of symbolism. On the other hand, the
genuine Orphics, a fraternity of religious ascetics, found unscrupulous
imitators and impostors, who preyed upon the credulous and
ignorant. Such were the Orpheotdestae or Metragyrtae. wandering
priests who went round the country with an aas carrying the sacred
properties (Aristophanes, Frogs, 159) and a bundle of sacred books.
They promised an t$gy expmtion for crimes to both Uviag and
ORPHREY— ORRERY, EARL OF
329
dead ott pmaal of a fee, undertook to puoith the eneraiae of thdr
clients, and held out to them the prospect of perpetuai baaquetiiig
and drinking-bouts in Paradise.
A large number of writinn in the tone of the Orphic rel^ion
woe ascribed to Orpheus. They deslt with such subjecu as the
origin of the gods, the creation of the world, the ritual of purification
and initiation, and oracular rcsponaea. These poems were recited
at rhapsodic contests together with those of Homer and Hesiod,
and Orphic hymns were used in the Ekusinian mysteries.* The best-
known name in connexion with them is that of Onomacritus (q.9.),
who, in the time of the Peisistmtidae, made a collection (Including
forgeries of his own) of Orphic songs jind legends. In later times
Orphic theologv engaged the attention of orcek philosophers^
Eudemus the Peripatetic, Chiysippus the Stoic, and Procius the
^eoplatoaist, but It was an especially favourite study of the
grmmmarians of Alexandria, where it became so intemuaed with
Egyptian elements that On^ieus came to be looked upon as the
founder of mysticism. The ** rhapsodic theoKony " in particular
exerdaed great influence on Neoplatonism. The Orphic literature
(of which only fragments remain) was united in a corpus, called
tA 'O^^mkA. the chief poem In whidi was ^toO 'Ofi^kn ecsX^Yls. It
also included a collection of Orphic hymns, liturgic soogs, oractical
treatises, and poems on various subjects. The so-called Orpkt€
Poems, still extant, are of much later date, probably belonging to
the ath centurv a.d.; they consist of: (i) an ^rfmaiiitea. gionfy-
ing the deeds d Orpheus on the " Atfo, (2) a didactic poem on the
maeic powers of stones, called LUkica^ (3) eighty-«evcn hymns on
various divinities and personified forces of nature. Some of these
hymns are probably earlier (ist and 2nd centuries) The Orphic
poems also played an important part in the controversies between
Christian and pagan writers in the 3rd and 4th centuries after
Christ, pagan writers quoted them to show the real meaning of
the multitude of gods, while Christians retorted by reference to the
obscene and disgraceful fictions by which the former degraded thcir
fods.
BiBLiGGBAPHY.— C A. JLobeck's Aifaophamus (1S29) is still
indispensable. Of more modern writings on Orpheus and Orfrfiism
the following may be consulted. The articles by O. Gruppe m
Roecher's Lankan ier MyikoloiU and by P. Monceaux in Dareroberg
and Saglio's DiciUmnatr* des arttianttis; "Orphica" m Smith's
DiOwnmry^ Greek and Roman Anttqitities (3RI cd , itei). by L C.
Purser; J. E. Harrison« Proletomena to Ike Sittdy of Greek Rehgum
(2nd ed.. 1908, with a critical appendix by Gilbert Murray on the
Orphic ublets): E. Rohde, Psyche, ii. (1907), and article In Heidel-
berger JahrhQcker (1896); E. W. Maass, Orpkeus (1895); S. Rctnach,
*'La mort d'0rph6e" in CutUs, mytkee, H retigtons, u. (1906);
O. Gruppe, Crieckiscke Mytkotagie, li. (^906), pp. 1028-1041 , T
Gompers, Gre^ Tkinken, I (Eng. trans., 1901), pp. 84-90, 133* 147^
-, .^. . vT. ^ .. .»^^ Orpkiio' (ifiTnTA DietericV
Gruppe, Crieekiseke 2iytkotogie,
^ jmpers, Gre^ Tkinken, L (Eni
E. C^hard, Uber Orpkeus vnd
" '^ ' (1893), pp. 72-108, 136-102. 225-232; u. n.em, ui urpnet,
idis, Pkereeydis tkeoganiis (1888): O. Gruppe. DU rkap"
Tkeagonie (1890) : A. Dicterich, De kymnis Or^sicis (1891 ; ;
G. F. SchAmann, Crieclnscke AltertkOmer, il (ed. J. H. Upsius,
1902), p. 378; P. Stengel, Die grieckiscken KuUumlUrfimer (1896),
There is an edition of the Orphic Fragments and of the poems by
E. Abel (1885). The ArgonatOica has been edited separately by
J. W. Schneider (1803), the Litkiea by T. Tyrwhitt (1791), and
there is an English translatbn of the Hymns by T. Taylor (f^
printed. 1896).
On the representations of Orpheus in heathen and Christian art
(in which he is finally transformed into the Good Shcphetd with his
sheep), see A. Baumeister. Denkmdler dee Uassiscken AUerttms^
iL p. 1 1 20: P. Knapp. Uber OrpheusdarsUUudten (TQbingcn,
1895); F. X. Kraus, Realencykhf>ddie des ckrisUtchen Altertkums,
n. (1886); J. A. Martigny, Dictumnairi des antiquiUs ckretiennes
(1889); A. Heussner, Die alUkruUtcken OrpkeusdorsteUungen
(Leipng, 1893); and the articles in Roschcr's and Daremberg and
Saglio's Lexicons.
The story of Orpheus, as was to be expected of a legend told
both by Ovid and Boetius. retained its popularity throughout the
middle ages and was transformed into the likeness of a northern
fairy tale. In English medieval literature it appears in three some-
what diiferent versions: Sir Orpkea, a " lay of BritUny " printed
from the Harleian MS. in T. Ritson's Ancient EngUsk Melrual
Romances, vol. ii. (1802); Orpkeo and Henfodis from the Auchinleck
MS. In David Lalng's Selea Remains of tke Ancient Popular Poetry
ff Scotland (new cdT, 1885): and KyngOrfew from the Ashmolean
MS. in J.O. HaUiweU's IltHstraHons ei Fairy Mytkology (Shakespeare
Soc., 1842). The poems show traces of French influence.
a H. F.; X)
0RPHRB7* gold or other richly ornamented embroidery^
particularly an embroidered border on an ecclesiastical vestment
(see Vestments). The word is from 0. Fr. orfreis, mod. orfroi,
from mcd. Lat. auri/risium, aurijrigium, &c., for amripkrygium,
> For Orphtsm la relation to the Eteusiaian and other mysteries
Wt MySTBEV.
9tinimi gold, and pkrygium, T*hrygian; a name given to gold-
embfoidered tissues, also known as vesUs Pkrygiae, the Phrygians
being famous for their skill in embroidenng in gold.
ORPIHBIIT (aueipigmenlum), arsenic trisulphide, AsjSj,
or yellow realgar (q.9.), occurring in small quantities as a mineral
crystallising in the rhombic system and of a brilliant golden-
yellow colour in Bobem/a, Peru, &c. For industrial purposes
an artificial orptment is manufactured by subliming one part
of sulphur with two of arsenic trioxide. The sublimate varies
in colour from yellow to red, according to the intimacy of the
combinatwn of the ingredients; and by varying the relative
quantities used many intermediate tones may be obtained.
These artificial preparations are highly poisonous. Formerly,
under the name of " king's yellow," a preparation of orpiment
was in considerable use as a pigment, but now it has been largely
superseded by chrome^yellow. It was also at one time used
in djreing and calico-printing, and for the unhairing of skins,
&c.; but safer and equally efficient substitutes have been
found.
ORPIIfOTOIf* a town In the Dartford parliamentary division
of Kent, England, 13} m. S.E. of London, and 2| m. S. by E.
of Chislehurst, on the South-Eastem & Chatham railway.
Pop. (tgoi), 4259. The church (Eariy English) contains somfc
carved woodwork and andent brasses. An old mansion called
the Priory dates in part from 1393. The oak-pancUcd hall
and the principal rooms are of the isth century. In 1873
John Ruskin set up at Orpington a private publishing house
for his works, in the hands of bis friend George Allen Fruit
and hops are extensively grown in the neighbourhood. From its
pIeasant*situation in a hilly, wooded district near the headwaters
of the Cray stream, Orpington has become in modem times a
favourite residential kKality for those whose business lies in
London. A line of populous villages extends down the valley
between Orpington and Bexlcy^-St Mary Cray (pop. 1894),
St Paul's Cray (1207), Foots Cray (an urban district, 5817)^
and North Cray.
ORRERY,* CHARLES BOTLB, 4tH Eaxl or (1676-1 731),
the second son of Roger, 2nd eari, was bom at Chelsea in 1676.
He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, and soon distin-
guished himself by his learning and abilities. Like the first
eari, he was an author, soldier and statesman. He translated
Plutarch's life of Lysandcr, and published an edition of the epistles
of Phalaris, which engaged him in the famous controversy with
Bentley. He was three times member for the town of Hunting-
don; and on the death of his brother, Lionel, 3rd earl, in 1703,
he succeeded to the title. He entered the army, and in 1709
was raised to the rank of major-general, and sworn one of her
Majesty's privy council At the battle of the Wood he acted
with distinguished bravery. He was appointed queen's envoy
to the states of Brabant and Flanders; and having discharged
this trust with ability, he was created an English peer, as Baron
Boyle of Marston, in Somersetshire. He received several
additional honours in the reign of George I.; but having had
the misfortune to fall under the suspicion of the government
he was committed to the Tower, where he remained six months,
and was then admitted to baO. On a subsequent inquiry it
was found impossible toxriminate him, and he was discharged.
He died on the 28th of August 1 73 1 . Among the works of Roger,
eari of Orrery, will be found a comedy, entitled As you find U,
written by Charies Boyle. His son John (sec Cork, Eakls ot),
the sth earl of Orrery, succeeded to the earldom of Cork on the
failure of Ike elder branch of the Boyle family, as eari of Cork
and Orrery.
ORRERY, ROOBR BOYIB, tsr Eau. or (1621-1679), British
soldier, statesman and dramatist, 3rd surviving son of Richard
Boyle, ist earl of Cork, was bora on the 25th of April 162 1,
created baton of Broghill on the 98th of February 1627, and
educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and, according to Wood,
'The orrery, an as t ronomical instrument— consisting of aa
apparatus which illustrates the motions of the solar system by means
01 the revolution of balls moved by wbeeHrork— invented, or at least
ooastnictcd, by Gnham, was naincd after the eari.
330
ORRIS-ROOT— ORSBOLO
also at Oxford. He travelled in France and Italy, and coming
home took part in the expedition against the Scots. He returned
to Ireland on the outbreak of the rebellion in 1641 and fought
with his brothers at the battle of Liacarrol in September 1642.
On the resignation of the marquis of Ormonde, Lord Broghill
consented to serve under the parliamentary commissioners till
the execution of the king, when he retired altogether from public
allairs and took up his residence at Marston in 'Somersetshire.
Subsequently ho originated a scheme to bring about the Rostora^
tion, but when on his way abroad to concert measures with Charles
he was unexpectedly visited by Cromwell in London, who, after
informing him that his plans were well known to the council,
and warning him of the consequence of persisting in them,
offcidd him a command in Ireland against the xebcb, which,
as it entailed no obligations except faithful service, was accepted.
His assistance in Ireland proved invaluable. Appointed master
of the ordnance, he soon asacmbled a body of infantry and horse,
and drove the rebels into Kilkenny, where they surrendered.
On the loth of May 1650 he completely defeated at Macroom
a force of Irish advancing to the relief of Clonmdl, and joining
Cromwell assisted in taking the latter place. On Cromwell's
departure for Scotland he co-operated with Ireton, whom he
joined at the siege of Limerick, and defeated the force marching
to its relief under Lord Muskcrry, thus effecting the capture of
the town. By this time Broghill had become the fast friend and
follower of Cromwell, whose stem measures in Ireland and sup-
port of the English and Protestants were welcomed after the
policy of concession to the Irish iniu'ated by Charles L He was
returned to Cromwell's parliaments of i654And 1656 asmcmbor
for the county of Cork, and also in the latter assembly for
Edinburgh, for which he elected to sit. He served this year as
lord president of the council in Scotland, where he won much
popularity; and when he returned to England he was included
in the inner cabinet of Cromwell's council, and was nominated
in 1057 a monbcr of the new house of Lords. He was one of
those most in favour of Cromwell's assumption of the royal
title, and proposed a union between the Protector's daughter
Frances and Charles IL On Cromwell's death he gave his support
to Kichard; but as he saw no possibility of maintaining the
government he left for Ireland, where by resuming his command
in Munster he secured the island for Charles and anticipated
Monk's overtures by inviting him to land at Cork. He sat for
Arundel in the Convention and in the parliament of 1661, and
at the Restoration was taken into great favour. On the 5th of
September x66o he was created earl of Orrery. The same year
he was appointed a lord justice of Ireland and drew up the Act
of Settlement. He continued to exercise his office as lord-
president of Munster till 1668, when he resigned it on account of
disputes with the duke of Ormonde, the lord-lieutenant. On
the 35th of November he was impeached by the House of
Commons for " raising of money by his own authority upon his
majesty's subjects," but the prorogation of parb'amcnt by the
king interrupted the proceedings, which were not afterwards
renewed. He died on the 36lh of October 1679. He married
Lady Margaret Howard, 3rd daughter of Theophilus, and earl
of Suffolk, whose charms were celebrated by Suckling in his
poem " The Bride." By her he had besides five daughters,
two sons, of whom the eldest, Roger (1646-1681 or 1682),
succeeded as 2nd earl of Orrery.
In addition to Lord Orrery's achievements, as a statesman and
administrator, he gained some reputation as a writer and a dramatist.
He was the author of An Answer to a Scandalous Letter , . . A FuU
Discaoery of the Treachery of the Irish Rebels (1662), printed with the
letter ttsdt in his Slate Liters (1742}. another answer to the same
letter entitled Irish Caiows DisUayed . . . being also ascribed to
him; Parthenissa, a novel (1654); En^ish Adtentures by a Person
of Honour (1676), whence Otway drew his tragedy of the Orphan:
Treatise of the Art of War (1677), a work of considerable historical
value; poems, of little interest, ioclodiiMr verKS On His Uaje^y's
Happy Restoration (unprinted). On the Death of Abraham Couiey
(1677), The Dream (unprinted), Poems on most of the Festivals of the
Church (1681): plays in verse, of some literary but no dramatic
merit, of which Henry V. (1664). Muslapha (1665), Tryphon (acted
1668). The Blaeh Prince (1669). Herod the Great (published 1694). and
Aitemira (1702) were tragedies, and Gutman (1669) and Mir Anthony
A collected edition was published in 17^7, to which «m
ndAed^btcoatdydsyouJittdit, The General a uio httsibuted to
him.
AuTH0UTlX8.*-iSltalt LeUera of Ratn BoyUt ist Earl ef Orrery,
cd. with his life by Th. Monioc (1742); Add, USS. (Brit. Mua.)
35,287 Octter-booK when governor of Munster), and 32,095 aqq.
109-188 (letters): article in the Did. of Nat. Biog. and autboriries
there collected; Wood'a Athenae Oxontenses, iiit 1200 ; Biogmpfdn
Briianmca f Kippis); Orrery Papers, cd. by Lady Cork and Omry
(1903) (Preface); Contemporary HisL of Affairs in Ireland, ed. by
John T. Gilbert (1879-1880); CaL of State Pap., Irish and Domestic.
ORRIS-ROOT (apparently a corruption of " iris root **), the
rhizomes or underground stems of three species of Iris, I. ger'
manica, I.fiorenHna and /. pallida^ dosdy allied plants growing
in subtropical and temperate latitudes, but principally identified
with North Italy. The three pknts arc indiscriminately culti-
vated in the neighbourhood of Florence as an agricultural
product under the name of " gfaiaggiuolo." The rhizomes are
in August dug up and freed of the rootlets and brown oater
bark; they are then dried and packed in casks for sale. In
drying they acquire a delicate but disti;ict odour of violets.
As it comes into the market, orris-root is in the form of contorted
sticks and irregular knobby pieces up to 4 in. in length, of a
compact chalky appearance. It is principally powdered for use
in dentifrices and other scented dry preparations:
ORSBOLO, the name of a Venetian family, three mcmoers
of which filled the office of doge.
PiETKO OssEOLO I. (c. 928-99?) Bclcd as ambassador to the
emperor Otto I. before he was elected doge in August 976.
Just previous to this event part of Venice had becu burned
down and Pietro began the rebuilding of St Mark's church and
the ducal palace.' He is diiefly celebrated, however, for his
piety and his generosity, arid after holding office for two years
he left Venice secretly and retired to a monastery in Aquitaine,
where he passed his remaining days. He was canonized in 1731.
Pisno Orseolo U. (d. 100^), a son of the previous doge,
was himself elected to this office m 991. He was a great builder,
but his chief work was to crush the pirates of the Adriatic Sea
and to bring a long stretch of the Dalmatian coast under the
rule of Venice, thus relieving the commerce of the republic
from a great and pressing danger. The fleet which achieved
this result was led by the doge in person; it sailed on Ascension
Day, the 9th of May 1000, and its progress was attended with
uninterrupted success. In honour of this victory the Venetians
instituted the ceremony which afterwards grew into the sposa-
lizio del mar, or marriage of the sea, and which was celebrated
each year on Ascension Day, while the doge added to his title
that of duke of Dalmatia. In many other ways Pietro's services
to the state were considerable, and he may be said to be one of
the chief founders of the commercial greatness of Venice. The
doge was on very friendly terms with the emperor Otto III.
and also with the emperors at Constantinople, and in X003 he
sailed against the Saracens and compelled them to raise the
siege of Bari. In 1003 his son Giovaniu was associated with
him in the dogcship, and on Giovanni's death in 1007 another
son, Ottone, succeeded to this position.
Ottone Osseolo (d. 1032), whose godfather was the enperor
Otto HI., became sole doge on his father's death in 1009. He
married a sister of St Stephen, king of Hungary, and under
bis rule Venice was powerful and ixosperous. One of his
brothers, Orso, was patriarch of Grade, another, Vitalis, was
bishop of Torcdlo, but the growing wealth and influence of the
Orseolo family soon filled the Venetians with ahrra. About 1 024
Ottone and Orso were driven from Venice, but when Orso*s
rival, Pbppo, patriarch of Aquileia, seized Grado, the exiled
doge and his brother was recalled and Grado was recovered.
In 1026 Ottone was banished; he found a refuge in Constanti-
nople, where he remained until his death, althou^ in 1030 an
emb-usy invited him to return to Venice, where his brother
Orso acted as agent for fourteen months. Orao remained patri-
arch of Grado until his death in 104s. &nd another member of
the Orseolo family, Domenico, was doge for a single day in 103 1.
After the fall of the Orseoli the Venetians decreed that no doge
should name his successor, or associate any one with him ta tfat
ORSHA- ORTELIUS
33*
Ottooe't MB, Pletro, wts king of Hoogaty for lonw
time After the death of his unde, St Stephen, in 1038.
See KbhlechOtter, Vemedig wtkr dtm Hentg Pekr 11, OrttaU
rCdttineea, 1868); H. F. Brown, Venicf (iSqs); F. C. Hodgioa.
Tkg Early History of Vtnice (1901) ; and W. C. Hulitt, Tkt Venetian
ReptMic (1900).
ORSHA (Polish Orjsa), a town of Runia, in the government
of Mogilev, 74 m. by rail W.S.W. of Smolensk on the Moscow-
Warsaw raflway, and on the Dnieper. Pop. (1897), 13,161. It
is an important entrepot for grain, seeds and timber. It is a
very old town, mentioned in the annals under the name of Rsha
in 1067. In the Z3th century it was taken by the Lithikanians,
who fortified it. In 1 604 the Poles founded there a Jesuit college.
The Russians besieged Orsha more than once in the i6th and
17th centuries, and finally annexed it in 1772.
0R8Iin» the name of a Roman princely family of great anti-
quity, whose perpetual feuds with the Colonna are one of the
dominant features of the histoiy of medieval Rome. According
to tradition the popes Paul I. (757) and Eugcnius II. (824) were
of the Orsini family, but the probable founder of the house was
a certain Ursus (the Bear), about whom very little is known,
and the first authentic Orsini pope was Giadnto Orsini, son of
Petrus Bobo, who assumed the name of Celestin IIL (1191).
The latter endowed his nephews with church lands and founded
the fortunes of the family, which alone of the Guelf houses
was able to confront the Ghibelline Colonna. " Orsini for the
Church " was their war-cry in opposition to " Colonna for the
people." In the 13th centuiy the " Sons of the Bear " were
already powerful and rich, and under Innocent III. they waged
incessant war against other families, including that of Uiepope
himself (Conti) In 1241 Matteo Orsini was elected senator of
Rome, and sided with Pope Grcgoiy IX. against the Colonna
and the Emperor Frcdeiick H., saving Rome for the Guelfic
cause. In 1266 the family acquired Marino, and in 1277 Gio-
vanni Orsini was elected pope as Nicholas III. When Boniface
VIII. proclaimed a crusade against the Colonna in 1297, the
Orsini played a conspicuous part in the expedition and captured
Nepi, which the pope granted them as a fief. On the death of
Benedict XI. (1304) fierce dvil warfare broke out in Rome
and the Campagna for the election of his successor, and Cardinal
Napolcone Orsini appears as the leader of the French faction
at the conclave. The Campagna was laid waste by the feuds
of the Orsinis, the Colonnas and the Caetanis. At this time
the Orsini held the castle of S. Angelo, and a number of palaces
on the Monte Giordano, which formed a fortified and walled
quarter. In 1332, during the absence of the popes at Avignon,
the feuds between Orsini and Colonna, In which even Giovanni
Orsini, although cardinal legate, took part, reduced Rome to
a state of complete anarchy. We find the Orsini again at war
with the Colonna at the time of Rienzi. In 1435 Francesco
Orsini was appointed prefect of Rome, and created duke of
Gravina by Pope Eugcnius IV. In 1484 war between the Orsini
and the Colonna broke out once more, the former supporting
the pope (Sixtus IV.). Virginio Orsini led his facUon against
the rival house's strongholds, which were stormed, the Colonna
being thereby completely defeated. The Orsini fortunes waxed
and waned many times, and their property was often con-
fiscated-, but they always remained a powerful family and gave
many soldieia, statesmen and prelates to the diurch. The
title of prince of Solofra was conferred on them in 1620, and that
of prince of the Holy Roman Empire in 1629. In 1724 Vinceneo
Maria Orsini was elected pope (Benedict XIII.) and gave his
family the title of Roman princes.
AuTiioaiTiBSw— F. Sanaovino, 5torw«fi easa Orsina (Venfcse, 1365) :
F. Gregoroviuf, Ceschickte der Sladt Rom (Stuttgart, 1872); A. von
Reumont, Geschickte der Stadt Rom (Berlin. 1868); Almanaek de
Gotka.
ORSIlfl, FEUCB (1819-1858), Italian revolutionist, was bom
at Mddola in Romagna. He was destined for an ecclesiastical
career, but he soon abandoned that prospect, and became an
ardent liberal, joining the Giovane Italia, a society founded by
Giuseppe Maxxini. implicated together with his father In
revolutionary ploU, he was arrested in 1844 and condemned to
inpiiamunent for Ufe. The new pope, Piua IX., however, set
him free, and he led a company of young Romagnob in the flnt
war of Italian independence (1848), distinguishing faimsetf in
the engagements at Treviso and Vicenza. He was dected
member of the Roman Constituent Assembly in 1849, and after
the fall of the republic he conspired against the papal autocracy
once more in the interest of the Maasinian party. Mazdni sent
him on a secret mission to Hungary, but he was arrested in
1854 and imprisoned at Mantua, escaping a few months later. In
1857 he published an account of his prison experiences in Engliah
under the title of Austrian Dungeons in Italy, which led to a
rupture between him and Maaslnl. He then entered into negotia-
tions with Ausonlo Frandii, editor of the Jlagioni of Turin,
which be proposed to make the organ of the pure repubUcana.
But having become convinced that Napoleon III. was the chief
obstade to Italian independence and the principal cause of the
anti-liberal reaction throughout Europe, he went to Paris in
Z857 to conspire against him. On the evening of the i4tfa of
January 1858, while the emperor and empress were on their way
to the theatre, Orsini and his accomplices threw three bomtia
at the imperial carriage. The intended victims were unhurt,
but several other persons were killed or wounded. Orsini
himself was wounded, and at once arrested; on the it th of
February he wrote his famous letter to Napoleon, in which he
exhorted him to take up the cause of Italian freedom. He
addressed another letter to the youth of Italy, stigmatixhig
political assassination. He was condemned to death and
executed on the X3th of March 1858, meeting his fate with great
calmness and bravery. Of his accompliMS Fieri also was
executed, Rudio was condemned to death but obtained a com-
mutation of sentence, and Gomes was condemned to hard
labour for life. The importance of Orsini's attempt lies in the
fact that it terrified Napoleon, who came to belieVe that unless
he took up the Italian* cause other attempts would follow and
that sooner or later he would be assasrisated. Thb fear con*
tributed not a little to the emperor's subsequent Italian policy.
BiBLiOGRArar.— Af«iMi>« and Adeentures «f Fdieo Orsini wriUem
h hinuelf (Edinburgh. 1857, and ed.. edited by Auaonio Franchi.
Turin, 1858); Lrttere edile e inediU di P. O. (XliUn. .1861); Enrico
Moatazio, / contemporanei Xialiani'Feiice Orsini fTurin, 1 862);
La vbriU snr Orsini; tar un ancien froscrii (1879); Angdo Arfooit,
Tefin e lafuga di Feltce Orsini (Cagliari, 1893).
ORTA. LAKE OP, in K. Italy, W. of Lago Maggioie. It has
been so named since the i6th century, but was previously called
the Lago di San Ciulio, the patron of the region—Cttfio is a
merely poetical name. Its southern end is about 22 m. by rail
N.W. of Novara on the main Turin-Milan line, while its north
end is about 4 m. by rail S. of the Gravellona-Toce railway
station, half-way between Omavaaso and Omegna. It has an
area of about 6} sq. m., it is about 8 -m. in length. Its greatest
depth is 482 ft., and the surface is 951 ft. above sea-level, while
its width varies from \ to t} m. Its scenery is characteristically
Italian, while the large island of San Giulio* (just W. of the
village of Orta) has some very picturesque buildings, and takes
its name from the local saint, who lived in the 4th century.
The chief place Is Orta, built on a pcninsuU projecting from the
east shore of the lake, while Omegna is at its norUiem extremity.
It is supposed tnat the lake is the remnant of a much larger sheet
of water by which originally the waters of the Toce or Tosa
flowed south towards Novara. As the gladers retreated the
waters flowing from them sank, and were graduaOy diverted
into Lago Maggiore. This explains why no considerable stream
feeds the Lake of Orta, while at its north end the Nlgoglia toncnt
flows out of it, but in about i m. it falls into the Strona, which in
turn soon joins the Toce or Tosa, a short distance before this
river flows into Lago Maggiore. (W. A. B. C)
ORTSU0S (Ortzls, Woktels), ABRAHAM, next to Mercator
the greatest geographer of his age, was bom at Antwerp on
the X4th of April 1527, and died In the same dty on the 4th of
July 1598. He was of German origin, his family coming from
Augsburg. He travelled extensively in western Europe, esped-
ally In the Netheriands; south and west Germany {e.g. r56o.
IS7S, 1578); France (rssO'iS^i Btc); England and Irdand
332
ORTHEZ— ORTHOCLASE
(1577), and Italy (1578, and pcrhap* twice or thrice between
1550 and 1558)- Beginiung as a map-engraver (in 1547 be
enters the Antwerp gild of St Luke as aJ$cUer von Karien)^ his
early career is that of a business man, and most of his journeys
before 1560 are for commercial purposes (such as his yearly
visits to the Frankfort fair). In x s6o, however, when travelling
with Gerhard Kremer (Mercator) to Trier, Lorraine and Poitiers,
he seems to have been attracted, largely by Mercator's influence,
towards the career of a scientific geographer; in particular
he now devoted himself, at his friend's suggestion, to the com-
pilation of that atlas or Theatre of the World by which he became
famous. In x 564 he completed a mcppemonde, which afterwards
appeared in the Theatrum, He also published a map of Egypt
in X 56 5 a plan of Britenburg Castle on the coast of Holland, and
perhaps a map of Asia, before the appearance of his great work.
In 1570 (May ao) was issued, by GiUes Coppens dA Diest at
Antwerp, Ortelius' Theatrum Orbis TerrarutHt the " first modem
atlas " (of 55 maps). Three Latin editions of this (besides a
Flemish, a French and a German) appeared before the end
of 1572; twoity-five editions came out before Ortelius' death
in 1598; and several others ytere published subsequently, for
the vogue continued till about 16x2. Most of the maps were
admittedly reproductions (a list of 87 authors is given by Ortelius
himself), and many discrepancies of delineation or nomenclature
occur. Errors, of course, abound, both in general conceptions
and in detail; thus South America is very faulty in outline,
and in Scotland the Grampians lie between the Forth and the
Clyde; but, taken as a whole, this atlas with its accompanying
text was a monument of rare erudition and industry. Its
immediate precursor and prototype was a collection of thirty-
eight maps of European lands, and of Asia, Africa, Tartary and
Egypt, gathered together by the wealth and enterprise, and
through the agents, of Ortelius' friend and patron, Gilles Hooft-
man, lord of Cleydael and Aertselaer: most of these were printed
in Rome, eight or nine only in Belgium. In 1573 Ortelius pub-
lished seventeen supplementary maps under the title of AddUa-
mentttm Thcatri Orbis Terrarum. By this time he had formed
a fine collection of coins, medals and antiques, and this produced
(also in XS73, published by Philippe Galle of Antwerp) his
Deorum dearumque capita , . . ex Museo Ortdii (rqirinted in
Gronovius, Thes. Gr. Aut. vol. vii.). In X575 he was appointed
geographer to the king of Spain, Philip IL, on the recommenda-
tion of Anus Montanus, who vouched for his orthodoxy (bis
family, as early as 1 535, had fallen under suspicion of Protestant-
ism). In X 578 he laid the basis of a critical treatment of ancient
geography by his Synonymia geographica (issued by the Plantin
press at Antwerp and republished as Thesaurus geographicus
in 1596). In X584 he brought out his Nomendaior PtoUmaicuSy
his Parergon (a series of maps illustrating ancient history, sacred
and secular), and his Itinerarium per nonnuUas Calliae Belgicae
porta (published at the Plantin press, and reprinted in Hcgenitius,
//in. Frisio-UoU.)^ a record of a journey in Belgium and the
Rhineland made in x 57 $. Among his last works were an edition
of Caesar (C. L Caesaris omnia quae extantf Leiden, Raphelingen,
1 593)1 >ind the Aurei saeculi imagOf sive Germdnorum velerum
vita (Philippe Galle, Antwerp, x 596). He also aided Welser in his
edition of the Peutinger Table in X598. In X596 he received a
presentation from Antwerp city, similar to that afterwards
bestowed on Rubens; his death and burial (in St Michael's
Abbey church) in 1598 were marked by public mourning.
See Emmanuel van Mcterea, Bistoria Bdgica (Amsterdam.
1670): General Wauwermans, Histoire d* riccU carto^apHgue
Biograpkie mUiotuU (Belgian), vol. xvL (BrtMsda, X901); J. H.
HessciN Ahrahami Ortdii ePistutae (Cambridge, England, iSd?):
Max Rooscs, Ortdius et Plantin (1880); Chard, "Gto^losie
d'OrtcIius," in the BuOdin de la Soe. roy. de Giog. d'Ansers (iMo
and i88i). (C. R. B.)
ORTHEZ, a town of aouth-wcstem France, capital of an
arTx>ndissement in the department of Basses-Pyr^^i as m.
N.W. of Pau on the Southern railway to Bayonne. Pop. (X906)
town 4159; commune 6354. It is finely situated on the right
bank of the Gave de Pau which is crossed at this point by a
bridge of the 14th century, having four aichea and surmoimtcd
at its centre by a tower. Sievcral old houses, and a church of tlia
X2th, X4th and xsth centuries are of some interest, but the most
rMnarkable building is the Tour de Moncade, a pentagonal
tower of the X3th century, once the keep of a castle of the vis-
counts of B£am, and now used as a meteorological observatory.
A building of the x6th century is all that remains of the old
Calvinist umversity (see below). The h6tel de ville is a modem
building containing the library.
Orth^ has a tribunal of first instance and is the seat of a sub-
prefect. The ginning and weaving of cotton, especially of the
fabric called toile de Biarn^ flour-milling, the manufacture of
paper and of leather, and the preparation of hams known as
jamhons de Bayonne and of other dclicades are among its in-
dustries. There are quarries of stone and marble in the neigh-
bourhood, and the town has a thriving trade in leather, hama
and lime.
At the end of the x 2th century Orthez passed from the posses-
sion of the viscounts of Dax to that of the viscounts of B^am,
whose chief place of residence it became in the X3th centiny.
Froissart records the splendour of the court of Otthez under
Gaston Phoebus in the latter half of the X4th century. Jeanne
d'Albret founded a Calvinist imiversity in the town and Theodore
Beza taught there for some time. An envoy sent in 1569 by
Charles IX. to revive the Cathoh'c faith had to stand a siege in
Orthez which was eventually taken by assault by the Protestant
captain, Gabriel, count of Montgomery. In 1684 Nicholas
Foucault, intendant under Louis XIV., was more successful, as
the inhabitants, ostensibly at least, renounced Protestantism,
which is nevertheless stiU strong in the town. In x8x4 the
duke of Wellington defeated Marshal Soult on the hills to the
north of Orthez.
ORTHOCLASE, an important rock-forming mineral belonging
to the felspar group (see Felspas). It is a potash-fel^ar,
KAlSUOt, and crystallizes in the monodinic ^stcm. Large
and distinctly developed crystals are frequently found in the
drusy cavities of granites and pegmatites. Crystals differ
somewhat in habit, for example, they may be prismatic with an
orthorhombic aspect (fig. x), as in the variety adularia (from the
Adular Mountains in the St Gotthard region) ; or tabular (fig. 2),
being flattened parallel to the dino-pinacoid or plane of sym-
metry 6 (010), as in the variety sanidine((raWs, ff&ii8ot, a board);
or again the crystals may be elongated in the direction of the
edge between b and the basal plane c (001), which is a character-
istic habit of orthodase from the granite quarries at Baveno in
Italy. Twinning is frequent, and there are three well-defined
twin-laws: (i) Carlsbad twins (fig. 4). Here the two individuals
of the twin interpenetrate or are united paralld to the dino-
Fio. I.
F16. 2.
FtG.3.
pinacoid: one individual may be brought into the position of
the other by a rotation of x8o* about the vertical crystallographic
axis or prism-edge. Such twinned crystals are found at Carlsbad
in Bohemia and many other places. (2) Bateno twins (fig. 1).
These twins, in which n (021) is the twin-plane, are common at
Baveno. (3) Manebach twins (fig. 6). The twin-plane here is c
(oox); exaxnplcs of this xarer twin were first found at Manebach
in Thuringia.
An important character of orthodase is the deavage. There
is a direction of perfect deavage paralld to the basal plane c,
on which plane the lustre is consequently often pearly; and one
less highly devdoped paralld to the plane of symmetxy b.
ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH
333
tile angle between these two deavages b 90*» hence the name
Oitliodafe (from the Gr. hpBwt ngfat, and xXSy, to break),
given by A« Bteithaupt in 1833, who was the first to distinguish
orthoclaae from the other felspars. There are also imperfect
deavages parallel to the faces of the prism m (no).
The hanlness is 6, and the sp. gr. 3's6. Crystals are some-
times colourless and transparent with a glassy aspect, as in the
varieties adularia, sanidlne and the rfayacoUte of Monte Somma,
Vesuvius.
The optical characters are somewhat variable, the plane of the
optic axes bein|( perpendicular to the piano of symmetry in
F10.4-
Fkc. s
Twinned Ciystalt of Ortboclase.
Flo.«.
some crystals and parallel to it in otheis: further, when some
crystals are heated, the optic axes. gradually change from one
position to the other. In all cases, however, the acute neffstlve
bisectxiz of the optic axes lies in the plane of symmetry and is
Inclined to the edge blc at 3-7% or, in varieties rich in soda, at
xo-Ia^ The mean refractive index aa z-SMf and the double
refraction is weak (O'^>o6).
Analyses of orthoclase usually prove the presence of small
amounts of soda and lime in addition tp potash. These con-
stituents are, however, probably present as plagiodase (albite
and oligodase)inteigrDWn with the orthoclase. The two minerals
are interlaminated parallel to the ortho-pinaooid (100) or the
plnacoid (801), and they may readily be distinguished in the flesh-
red aventuxineofdspar, known as pothite, from Perth in Lanark
county, Ont^riOb Frequently, however, as in microperthite and
Cfyptoperthite, this is on a microscopic scale or to minute as to
be no longer recognizable. These directions (100) and (801) axe
planes of parting in orthoclaae, and along them alteration fre-
quently takes, place, giving rise to sckilUr effects. Moon-«tone
((.v.) shows a pearly opalescent reflection on these planes; and
brilliant colouied resections in the same directions are ezhibiud
by the labradorescent orthoclaae faom the augite-syenite of
Fredrikavftm and Laufvik in southern Norway, which is mifch
used as an ornamental stone. The same efiectisshown to a lesser
degree by murChiaonite, named in honour of Sir R. L Murchison,
from the Triassic conglomerate of Heavitree near Exeter.
Orthoclase forms an essential constituent of many acidic igneous
rocks (efanite, syenite, porphyry, tradiyte, phonolite, &c.) and of
crystallme schists and Rndsacs. In porphyries and in some {;nnites
<«.£. those of Shap^in Westmorland, Coinwall, Ac.) it occuis as em-
bedded crystals with well-de&oed outlines, but usually it pcesenta
no cnrstauioe form. In the trachyte of the Drachenicls and the
Laacner See in Rhenish Prussia there are large porphyritfc crystals
of glassy sanidine. The best crystals «re thoae found m the crystal-
lined cavities and veins of gianites, pegmatites and gneisses, for
example, at Baveoo and Elba in Italy,. AJabashka near Mutsinka
in the Urals, Hirschben in Silesia, Tanokami-yaina in the province
Omi, Japan, and the Moume Mountains in Ireland. As a mineral
of secondary origin orthoclase is sometimes found in cavities in
basaltic rocles, and its occurrence in metallifcnms mineral>veias
has been observed, it has been formed artificially in the bbdratocy
and is sometimes met with In furnace products.
The commonest alteration product of orthoclaae ts kaoTiir (g.v.) ;
the fftciuent dotidiness or opadty of crystals is often due to partial
alteration to kaolin.. Mica and epidote also result by the alteration
of orthoclase; (L. J. S)
ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH (frequently spoken of as " the
Greek Church," and described offidaUy as " The Holy Orthodox^
^The Orthodox Eastern Chuich has slwaya laid es|)ecial stress
apoo the unchangine tradition of the faith, and has dsimed ortho-
doxy as its especial characteristK. The "Feast of Orthodoxy"
3K9pumii -Hit 4^a8aCI«t), cdebrsted anmiaUy on the first Sunday
tha Gieek Lent, was founded in honour of the i rs t or stiaa of the
Catholic ApostoBc Eastern Church ^Oi th* historical repre^
tentative of the churches of the andent Bast. It counts
of (a) those churches whkh have accepted all the ortrtts sr
decrees of the first seven general councils, and have tk^attt
remained in full communion with one another, (6) such ^ObbIms
churches as have derived their origin from these by ^^'"^^
mlssidnary activity, or by abscission without loss of commmdon.
The Bsstem Church b both the souxce and background of the
Western. Christianity arose in the East, and Greek was the
language of the Scriptures and early services of the church,
but when Latin Christianity established itself in Enrope and
Africa, and when the old Roman empire fell in two, and the
eastern half became separate in government, Interests and ideas
from the western, the term Greek or Eastern Church acquired
gradually afixed meaning. It denoted the chuxdi which induded
the patriarchates of Antioch^ Alexandria, Jerusalem and
Constantinople, and their dependencies. The ecclesiastical
division of the early church, at least within the empire, wasbssed
upon the dvll. 0>xAtantiiie introduced a new partition of the
empire into dioceses, and the church adopted a similar division.
The bishop of the chief dty in each diocese naturslly rose to a
pre-eminence, and was commonly called txank-'^ title borrowed
from the dvil jurisdiction. In process of time the common title
paitiarck was restricted to the most eminent of these exarchs,^
and ooundbdedded who were worthy of the dignity. Thecoundl
of Nicaea recognised three patriarcha--the bishops of Rome,
Alexandria and Antiodi To these were afterwards added the
bishops of Constuitlnople and Jerusalem. When the empire
was <fivided, there was one patriarch in the West, the bishop of
Rome, while in the East there were at first two, then four
and latterly five. This geegraphical fact hsa had a great deal
to do in determining the character of the Bastem Church.
It is not a despotic monardiy governed from one centre and by
a monarch in whom plenitude of power resides. It is an oligardiy
of patriarchs. It b based, ol ootose, on the great body of bishops;
but episcopal rule, through the various grades- of metropolitan,
primate, CBarch, attains to sovereignty only in the five patriarchal
thrones. Each patriarch is, within his diocese, what the
GaUican theory makes the pope in the universal church. He is
supreme, and not amenable to any of his brt>ther patriarchs,
but is within the jurisdiction of an oecumenical qmod. This
makes the Eastern Church qmte distinct in government and
tnditions of polity from the Western. It has ever been the
policy of Rome to efface national distinctions, but under the
shadow of the Eastern Church national churches have grown
and flouuhed. Revolts against Rome have always implied
a repudiation of the ruling principles of the papal system;
but the schismatic churches of the East have always reproduced
theeCdesisstical polity of the church from which they seceded.
The Greek Church, like the Roman, soon spread far beyond
the imperial dioceses which at first fixed its botudaries, but it
was far less successful than the Roman in preserving y^^^^
its conquests for Christianity. This waa due in the hartam im
main to the differing quality ^ the forces by which '•"'•^ f
the area covered by the two chuxthes was respectivdy 2„2!
invaded. The northern barbsiians by whom the
Western tmpktt was overrun had long stood in awe of the power
and the dviliation of Rome, which they recognised as superior;
the oonqueron were thus predisposed to enter into the heritage
of the law and the religion of the conquered empixe and, whether
they were pagans or Arian heretics, became in the end Catholic
Christiana. IntheEastitwaaotherwise. The empire maintained
itself long, and died hard; but iU decline and fall meant not
only the overthrow of the emperors of the East, but largely
that of the dvilization and Christianity which they represenlea.
The Arabs, and after them the Turks, attacked the empire as
the armed missionaries of what they regarded as a superior
religion; Christianity survived in the vast territories they
Holy Images to the chuidics after the downfall of Iconoclasm (Feb-
ruary 19, 843) ; but it has gradually assumed a wider significance as
the celebration of vktory over all hcresiea. and is now one of the
most chaiacteristic fsstivala of the Eastern Church.
33+
ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH
cooqueivd only m a desi^aed and tolenited supantiUon, its
ecdeuastical oiganuation only as a oonveoient mechanfewa Cor
foveming a subject and tributary population. It is true that
the Eastetn Church made up ia some sort for her losses by
missiooary conquests elsewhere. Greek Christianity became the
religion of the Slavs as Latin Christianity became that of the
Germans; but the Orthodox Church never conquered her
conqtteforB, and the historian is too apt to enlarge on her past
glories and forget her present strength.
Marly Hiitory.— The early history of the Eastern Church
Is outlined in the article Chubcb History. Here it is proposed
only to give in somewhat more detail the causes of division which
led (i) to the formation of the schismatic churches of the East,,
and (z) to the open rupture with Latin Christianity.
The great dogmatic work of the Eastern Church was the
definition of that portion of the creed of Christendom which
concerns tkeoicgy propet—iht doctrines of the essential
nature of the Godhead, and the doctrine of the God*
head jo relation with manhood fax the incarnation,
while it fell to the Western Church to define atUkro-
pplogy, or the doctrine of man's nature and needs. The. contro-
venies which concern us are all related to the person of Christ,
the Theanthropos, for they alone are represented in the schismatic
^ churches of the East. These controversies will be best described
* by reference to the oecumenical councils of the aadent and
undivided church.
All the churches of the East, schismatic ss well as orthodox,
accept unreservedly the decrees of the fint two councils. The
schismatic churcho protest sgamst the additions made to the
creeds of Nicaea and Constantinople by succeeding councils.
The Nicaeo-Constantinopolitan creed dedared that Christ
was coruuhslanHal (6/ioo6«ios) with the Father, and that He
Mod became man {hopSputHtoas). Disputes arose when theo-
logians tried to explain the latter phrase. These differences
took two separate and extreme types, the one of which forcibly
separated the two natures so as to deny anything like a real
union, while the other insbted upon a mixture of the two, or
an absorption of the human in the divine. The former was
the creed of Chaldaca and the Istter the creed of Egypt ; Chaldaea
was the home of Nestorianism, Egypt the land of Monophysitism.
The Nestorians accept the dedsk>ns of the fint two councils,
and reject the decrees of all the rest as unwarrsntcd alterations
of the creed of Nicaea. The Monophysites accept the first
three councils, but reject the decree of Chalcedon and all that
come after it.
• The ooundl of Ephesus (aj>. 431), the third oecumenical,
had insisted upon applying the term Theotokos to the Virgin
Mary, and this was repeated in the s3rmbol of Chalcedon, which
says that Christ was bom of the Virgin Mary, the Theotokos,
** according to the manhood." The same symbol also declares
that Christ is " to be acknowledged in two natures . • . in-
divisibly and inseparably.'* Hence the Nestorians, who insisted
upon the duality of the natures to such a degree as to lose si^t
of the unity of the person, and who rejected the term Theotokos,
repudiated the decrees both of Ephesus and of Chalcedon, and
upon the promulgation of the decrees of Chalcedon formally
separated from the church. Nestorianism had sprung from an
exaggeration of the theology of the school of Antioch, and the
schbm weakened that patriarchate and its dependencies. It
took root in Chaldaea, and became very powerful. No small
part of the litersture and science of the Mahommedan Arabs
came from Nestorian teachers, and Nestorian Christianity spread
far and wide through Asia (^ NEStouirs and Nestosuns).
I The council of- Chalcedon (451), the fourth oecumenical,
declared that Christ is to be acknowkdged " in two natozesr*
■nconfusedly, unchangeably," and therefore dedded against
the opinions of all who either believed that the divinity is the
sole nature of Christ, or who, rejecting this, taught only one
composite nature of Christ (one nature and one person, instead
of two natures and one person). The advocates of the one
nature theory were called Monophysites (^.v.), and they gave
rise to numeroiia sects, and to at least three separate national
churchcft— the Jacobites of Syria, the Copts of Egypt and the
Abyssinian Church, which are treated under separate ^^^'fgf
The decisions of Chalcedon, which were the occasion of the
formation of all these sects outside, did not, put an end to Christo*
logical controversy inside the Orthodox Greek Church. The
most prominent question which emerged in attempting to deftike
further the person of Christ was whether the will belonged to
the nature or the person, or, as it came to be stated, whether
Christ had two wills or only one. The church in the sixth
oecumenical coundl at Constantinople (68q) declared that
Christ had two wills. The Monothelitcs {q.v.) refused to submit,
and the result was the formation of another schbmatic churdb^
the Maronite Church of the Lebianon range. The Maronites.
however, were reconciled to Rome in the X2th century, and
are reckoned as Roman Catholics of the Oriental Rite.
Later History.— The relation of the Byzantine Church to the
Roman may be described as one of growing estrangement from
the sth to the nth century, and a series of abortive __
attempts at reconciliation since the latter date. The ^]g*^
estrangement and final rupture may be traced to the jbMib
increasing chums of the Roman bbhops and to Western
innovations in practice and in the doctrine of the Holy Spirit,
accompanied by an alteration of cteed. In the early church
three bishops stood forth prominently, principally from the
political eminence of the cities in which they ruled— the bishops
of Rome, Alexandria and Antioch. The transfer of the seat
of empire from Rome to Constantinople gave the bishops of
Rome a possible rival hi the patriarch of Constantinople, but
the absence of an overawing court and of meddling statesmen
did more than reooup the loss to the head of the Roman Church,
The theobgical calmness of the West, amid the violent theo-
logical dbputes which troubled the Eastern patriarchates, and
the statesmanlike wisdom of Rome's greater bidiops, combined
to give a unique position to the pope, which coundb in vain
strove to shake, and which in timi of difficulty the Eastern
patriarchs were fain to acknowledge and make use of, however
they might protest against it and the conclusions deduced
from it. But thb pre-eminence, or rather the Roman idea of
what was Involved in it, was never acknowledged in the East;
to press it upon the Eastern patriarchs was to prepare the way
for separation, to insbt upon it in times of irritation was to cause
a schism. The theological genius of the East was different from
that of the West. The Eastern theology had its roots in Greek
philosophy, while a great deal of Western theology was baaed
on Roman law. The Greek fathers succeeded the Sophists,
the Latin theologians succeeded the Roman advocates (Stain's
Eastern Church, ch. I). Thb gave rise to misunderstandings, and
at bst led to two widely separate ways of regarding and defining
one important doctrine—the procession of the Holy Spirit from
the Father or from the Father and the Son. Political jeaJouaks
and interests intensified the disputes, and at last, after many
premonitory symptoms, the final break came in X054, when
Pope Leo DC smote Michael Cerularius and the whole of the
Eastern Church with an excommunication. There had been
mutual excommunications before, but they had not resulted
in permanent schisms Now, however, the separation was final,
and the ostensible cause of its finality was the introduction by
the Latins of two words PUiogue into the creed.' It b thb
addition which was and which still remains the permanent cause
of separation. Ffoulkes has pointed out in hb second volume
(ch. x-3) that there was a resumption of intercourse more than
once between Rome and Constantinople after 1054, and that
the overbearing character of the Norman crusaders, and finally
the honors of the sack of Constantinople in. the fourth crusade
« After the words "and in the Holy Ghost" of the Aoostles*
Creed the ConstantinopoUtan creed added " who prooeedeui from
the Father." The Roman Church, without the sanction of an
oecumenical council and without eonsulting the Easterns, added
" and the Son." The addition was fint made at Toledo ($89) m
opposition to Arianiam. The Easterns also resented the Konaa
enforcement of derica! celibacy, the limitation of the right of con-
finnation to the bishop and the use of unleavened bread ia the
ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH
335
i 2 CxM4>, were tHe real causetof the perauaent cstrnigement* It b
f:s imdeidabie, however, that the Piiioqut question has always come
1 3 Y^ up to bar the way in any subsequent attempts at inter-
:-:Lr *»fmoqm^ oommuaiott. The theological question involved Sa a
•■■** veiy amall one, but it brings out dearly the opposing
£7 *'*'v> characteristics of Eastern and Western theology,
t: and so has acquired an importance far beyond its own worth.
iia The question la really one about the rdations subsisting between
c^ the persons of the Trinity and their hypostttical properties.
- The Western Church afBrms that the Holy Spirit " proceeds
Z. from" the Father and bom the. Son. It believes that the
p.. Spirit of the Father must be the Spirit of the Son also. Such
i^ a theory seems alone able to satisfy the practical instincts of
I the West, which did not concern itself With the metaphysical
aspect of the TVinity, but with Godhead in its relation to re-
;« deemed humanity. "Hie Eastern Church affirms that the Holy
u Spirit proceeds from the Father only, and takes its stand on
John XV. 36. The Easlem theologian thinks that the Western
* double procession degrades the Deity and destroys the perfec-
tion of the Trinity. The double procession, in his eyes, means
two active principles (alrUu) in the Deity, and it means also that
there is a confusion between the hypostatics! properties; a
property possessed by the Father and distinctive of the First
Person b attributed also to the Second. This b the theological,
and there b conjoined with it an hbtorical and moral dbpute.
The Easterns allege that the addition of the words Piliogue was
made, not only without authority, and therefore unwarrantably,
but also for the purpose of forcing a rupture between East and
West in the intensts of the barbarian empire of the West.
Attempts at reconciliation were made from time to time
afterwards, but were always wrecked on the two points of papal
supremacy, when it meant the right to impose Western
usages upon the East, and of the addition to the creed.
First there was the negotiation between Pope Gregory
IX. (iJ37-x34z) and Germanus, patriarch of Con-
stantinople. The Roman conditions were practically recogni-
tion of papal jurisdiction, the use of unleavened bread and
permbsion to omit PUioque If all books written against the
Western doctrine were burnt. The patriarch refused the terms.
Then, later in the xjth century, came negotiations under Innocent
IV. and Gement IV., in which the popes proposed the same
conditions as Gregory IX., with additions. Hiese proposab
were rejected by the Easterns, who regarded them as attempts
to enforce new creeds on their church.
The negotiations at the council of Lyons (1274) ^^e* strictly
speaking, between the pope and the Byzantine emperor, and
were more political than ecdesSustlcal. Michael Palaeologus
ruled in Constantinople while Baldwin 11., the last of the Latin
emperors, was an exile in Europe. Palaeologus wbhed the pope
to acknowledge hb title to be emperor of the East, and in return
promised submission to the papal supremacy and the union
of the two churches on the pope's own terms. Thb enforced
union lasted only during the lifetime of the emperor. The only
other attempt at union which requires to be mentioned fa that
made at the council of Florence. It was really suggested by
the political weakness of the Byzantine empire and the dread
of the approach of the Turks. John Palaeologus the emperor,
Joseph the patriarch of Constantinople, and several Eastern
bishops came to Italy and appeared at the council of Florence —
the papal council, the rival of the council of Base!. As on
former occasions the representatives of the East were at first
deceived by false represenUtions; they were betrayed hito
recognition of papal supremacy, and tricked into signing what
could afterwards be represented as a submission to Western
doctrine. The natural consequences followed— a repudiation
of what had been done; and the Eastern bishops on their way
home took care to make emphatic their ritualbtic differences
from Rome. Soon after came the fall of Constantinople, and
with thb event an end to the political reasons for the sub-
mbsion of the Orthodox clergy. Rome's schemes for a union
which meant an unconditional submission on the part of the
Orthodox Church did not cease, however, but they were no
longer fittempted on a grand scale. Jesuit missioiiaries after
th'e Reformation stirred up schisms in some parts of the Eastern
Church, and in Austria, Poland and elsewhere brge numbers of
Orthodox Christians submitted, either willingly or under com-
pulsion to the see of Romef (see Roman Cathouc Church,
section Uniai Orkntal CkurcUs).
Doctrines ani Crttds.—Tht Eastern Church has no creeds in
the modem Western use of the word, no normative summaries
of what must be believed. It has preserved the older idea
that a creed b an adoring confession of the church engaged
in worship; and, when occasion called for more, the belief
of the diutcfa was expressed, more by way of public testimony
than in symbolical books. ^tOl the doctrines of the church
can be gathered from these confessions of faith. The Eastern
creeds may thus be roughly placed in two classes— the
oecumenical creeds of the early undivkied church, and later
testimonies defining the position of the Orthodox Church of the
East with regard to the belief of the Roman Catholic and of
Protestant Churches. These testimonies were called forth
mainly by the protest of Greek theologians against Jesuitism
on the one hand, and against the reforming tendencies of the
patriarch Cyril Lucarb on the other. The Orthodox Greek Church
adopts the doctrinal decisions of the seven oecumenical councib,
together with the canons of the Concilium Quinisextum or
second Trullan council (69 a); and they further hold that all
these definitions and canons are simply explanations and en-
forcements of the Nicaco-Constantinopolitan creed and the
decrees of the first council of Nicaca. The first four councils
settled the orthodox faith on the doctrines of the Trinity and of the
Incarnation; the fifth supplemented the dccbions of the first
four. The sixth declared against Monothelitbm; the seventh
sanctioned the worship (<ovXf(A, not dXqffi^ Xorpfta) of
images; the council held in the TniUus (a saloon in the palace
at Constantinople) supplemented by canons of discip\ine the
doctrinal decrees of the fifth and sixth coundb.
The Reformation of the r6th century was not without effect
on the Eastern Chureh. Some of the Reformers, notably
McUnchthon, expected to effect a reunion of Christen-
dom by means of the Easterns, cherbhmg the same /^HJualom
hopes as the modem Old Catholic divines and their tkdth*
English sympathisers, Melanchthon himself sent a Ortk^don
Greek translation of the Augsburg Confession to C*"***-
Joasaph, patriarch of Constantinople, and some years afterwards
Jacob Andreae and Martin Crusius began a correspondence with
Jcrembh, patriareh of Constantinople, in which they asked
an oQdal expression of hb opinions about Lutheran doctrine.
The result was that Jerembh answered in hb Censnra Orienlalis
Ecclesiae condemning the dbtinclive principles of Lutbemnbm.
The reformatory movement of Cyrillos Lucarb {.q.v.)^ patriarch
of Constantinople (1621), brought the Greek Chtirch face to face
with Reformation theology. Cyril conceived the plan of reform-
ing the Eastern Church by bringing its doctrines into harmony
with those of Calvinism, and by sending able young Greek
theologians to Switzerland, Holland and England to study
Protestant theology. Hb scheme of reform was opposed chiefly
by the intrigues of the Jesuits, who in the end brought about
hb death. The church anathematized hb doctrines; and in
its later testimonies repudiated hb confession on the one hand
and Jesuit ideas on the other. The most important of these testi-
monies iQre (i) the Orthodox confession or catechism of Peter
Mogilas, confirmed by the Eastern patriarchs and by the synod of
Jcnualem (1643), and (3) the decree of the synod of Jerusalem
ortheconfesskmof Do6itheus(i672). Besides these, the cate-
chbms of the Rusabn Church should be consulted, especially the
catechbm of Philaret, which since 1839 has been used in all the
churches and schoob in Russia. Founding on these doctrinal
sources the teaching of the Orthodox Eastern Church b >. —
*Thb summary has been taken, with corrections, from G. B.
WinCf. Compantite DersUUung, ie* LekrbegHfs dtr verukiedenen
Kinkeuparleien (Lctfuig. 1824. £"8- tr., Edin.. 1873). Small
capitals denote difTerence* from Roman Catholic, italics differences
from Protectant doctrine.
33(>
ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH
Christianity is a Divine revelation communicated to mankind
through Chnst; its saving truths are to be learned from the
. Bible and Iradilwn, the former having been written,
Compart' ^^^ ^ i^^fg^ maiutanud tuuorrupitd through the influ-
f?"^ ence of the Holy Spirit; the inlerpreUUioH of Ou BibU
^^^hdongs to the Church, vhkh is lautht by the Hoty Spirit,
but every believer may read the Scriptures.
According to the Christian revelation, God is a Trinity,
thatis, the iJivine Easenceexists in Three Penoaa, perfectly
equal in nature and dignity, the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost;
THE Holy Ghost proceeds fkom the Father only. Besides the
Triune God there is no other object of divine worship, but homagt
(dnpfeti9U«) may be paid to the Vtrtin Hary, and reference {iookia) to
the saints and to their pictures and relics.
XIan is bom with a corrupt bias which was not his at creatbii:
the 6nt man, when created, possessed uamortality. perfect
WISDOM, AND A WILL REGULATED BY REASON. Through the first stn
Adam and his posterity lost immortality, and his will received
A BIAS TOWARDS EVIL. In this natural state man, who even before
he actually sins is a sinner before God by original or inherited
sin, commits manifold actual transgressions; but he is not absolutely
without power of will towards lood, and is not always doing evil.
Christ, the Son of God, became man in two natures, which in*
temally and inseparably united make One Penon, and, according
to the eternal purpose of God, has obtained for man reconciliation
with God, and eternal life, inasmuch as He by His vicarious death
has made satisfaaion to God for the world's sins, and this satisfac-
tion was perfectly commensurate with THE sins of the WORLD.
Man b made partaker of reconciliation in spiritual regeneration,
which he attains to, being \cd and kept by the Holy Ghost. This
divine help is oifcrcd to all men without distinction, and may bo
rejected. In order to attain to salvation, man is justified, and when
so justified can do no more than the commands op God. He may
fall from a state of naoe through mortal sin.
» Regeneration is offered by the word of God and in the sacraments,
which under visible signs communicate Cod's invisible grace to Christians
when administered cum intentione. There arc seven mysteries or
sacraments. Baptism entirely destroys original sin. In the Eucharist
the true body and blood of Christ are substantially present, and the
elements we chanted into the substance ff ChriA, whose body and
Hood are corporeally partaken of by communicants. All Christiana
should receive the bread and the wine. The Eucharist is also an
expiatory sacrifice. The new birth when lost may be restored through
repentance, which is not merely (i) sincere sorrow, but also (2)
Konfession of each individual sin to the priest, and (3) the discharge
of penances imposed by the priest for the removal of the temporal
Punishment which may have been imposed by Cod and the Church.
Penance auompanied by the judicial absdutton of the priest makes a
true sacramenL
The Church of Christ is the fellowship of all those who accept
and profess all the articles of faith transmxttbd by the
Apostles and approved by General Synods. Without this
visible Church there is no saltation. It is under the abkling influence
of the Holy Ghost, and therefore cannot err in matters of faith.
Specially appointed persons are necessary in the service of the
Church, and they form a threefold order, distitut jure divine from
other Christians, of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. The four
Patriarchs, of equal dignity, have the highest rane among
THE bishops, and THE BtsROPS United in a General Council repre-
sent the Church and infallibly decide, under the guidance of the
Holy Ghost, all matters of faith and ecclesiastical lire. All ministers
of Christ must be regularly called and appointed to their office, and
are consecrated by the sacrament of orders. Bishops must be un-
married, and priests and deacons must not contract a second
HA RRi ACE. To all priests in common belongs, besides the preaching
of the word, the administration of the six sacraments— baptism.
CONFIRMATION, PENANCE. EUCHARIST, MATRIMONY. UNCTION OF
the sick. The bishops alone can administer the sacrament of orders.
Ecclesiastical ceremonies are part of the divine service; most of
them have apostolic origin; and those connected with the sacrament
must not be omitted by priests under pain of mortal sin.
Liturgy and Worship.— Tht ancient liturgies of the Eastern
Church were very numerous, end have been frequently classified.
J. M. Neale makes three divisions — the liturgy of Jerusalem
or of St Jaraes, that of Alexandria or of St Mark, and that of
Edcssa or of St Thaddacus; and Daniel substantially agrees
with him. The same passion for uniformity which suppressed
the Gallican and Mozarabic liturgies in the West led to the
almost exclusive use of the liturgy of St James in the East.
It is used in two forms, a shorter revised by Chr>'sostom, and a
longer called the liturgy of St Basil. This liturgy and the service
gcnerany are cither in Old Greek or io Old Slavonic, and
frequent disputes have arisen in particular districts about
the language to be employed. Both sacred languages differ
from the language of the people, but it cannot be said that in
the Eastern Church worship is conducted in an unknown toagve
— " the actual difference," says Neale, " may be about thu
between Chaucer's English and our own.*' There are doen
chief service books, and no such compendium as the Roman
breviary. Fasting b frequent and severe. Besides Wednesdays
and Fridays, there are four fasting seasons, Lent, Pentecost
to SS. Peter and Paul, August i-xs preceding the Feast oC
the Sleep of the Theotokos, and the six weeks before Christ-
mas. Indulgences are not recognised ; an intermediate and
purificatory state of the dead is* held but not systematized into
a doctrine of purgatory. The Virgin receives homage, but
the dogma of her Immaculate Conception is not admitted.
While ikons of the saints are found in the churches there is no
" graven image " apart from the crud&x. There is plenty of
singing but no instrumental music. Prayer is offered standing
towards the East; at Pentecost, kneeling. The celebration
of the Eucharist is an elaborate symbolical leprcsenution of
the Passion. The consecrated bread is broken into the wine,
and both elements are given together in a spoon.
The ritual generally is as magnificent as in the West, but of a
more archaic type. (For the liturgical dress see Vesimskts
and subsidiary articles.)
Monastic Life. — ^Monasticism is, as it has always been, an
important feature in the Eastern Church. An Orthodox
monastery is perhaps the most perfect extant relic of the 4th
century. The simple idea that possesses the monks is that
of fleeing the world; they have no distinctions of orders, and
though they follow the rule of St Basil object to being called
Basilians. A few monasteries (Mt Sinai and some on Lebanon)
follow the rule of St Anthony. K. Lake in Early Days of
Monasticism on Mount Atkos (1909) traces the development
through three well-defined stages in the 9th and xoth centuries —
(a) the hermit period, (b) the loo^ organization of bcnnits in
Lauras, (c) the stricter rule of the monastciy, with definite
buildings and fixed rules under an ^oifupot or abbot. The
monasteries now have taken over the name lauras. They ax«
under the jurisdiction of the metropolitan; a few of the most
important deal direct with the patriarch and arc called Stauroptgia.
The convent on Mt Sinai is absolutely independent. Apart
from hermits there are (x) im»ofiiaKoi, monks who pocsesi
nothing, live and eat together, and have definite tasks given
them by their superiors; (2) IbiopvOtuucoi, monks who live
apart from each ether, each receiving from the monastery fuel,
vegetables, cheese, wine and a little money. They only meet
for the Divine Office and on great feasts, and are the r^ suc-
cessors of the laura system. The most famous monasteries
are those on Motmt Athos; In 190s there were twenty lauras
with many dependent houses and 7522 monks there, mainly
Russian and Greek. The monks are, for the most part, ignorant
and unlettered, though in the dark days of Mahommcdan persecu-
tion it was in the monasteries that Greek learning and the Greek
nationality were largely preserved. Since priesU must be married
and bishops must no/, only monks are eligible for appointment
to bishoprics in the Eastern Church. See further, MoNASTiosif.
The Branches of the Church. — ^In addition to the andent
churches which have separated themselves from the Orthodox
faith, many have ceased to have an independent cxistencep
owing either to the conquests of Islam or to their absorption by
other churches. For example, the church of Mount Sinai may
be regarded as all that survives of the ancient church of northern
Arabia; the autocephaious Slavonic chtirchcs of Ipek and
Okhrida, which derived their ultimate origin from the missions of
Cyril and Methodius, were absorbed in the patriarchate of
Constantinople in 1766 and 1767 respectively; and the Churdi
of Georgia has been part of the Russian Church since i8ox-x8oa.
At the present day, then, the Orthodox Eastern Church consuls
of twelve mutually independent churches (or thirteen if we
reckon the Bulgarian Church), using their own language in divine
service (or some ancient form of it, as in Russia) and varying not
a little in points of detail, but standing in fuU communion with
one another, and united as equals in what has been described as
one great eccle&iaitical fcdcrtiiioo. However, iu using such
ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH
337
language it miut be remembered that we are not dealiiig with
bodies which were originally separated from one another and
have now entered into fellowship, but with bodies which have
groWn n&turally from * single origin and have not become
estnoged.
A. Thb Four' Ancient Patriarchatks
X. The PatriarchaU of Constantinople or New Rome. — ^The ancient
patriarchate of Constantinople included the imperial dioceses of
rontus, Asia, Thrace and Eastern Illyricum — i.e. speaking roughly,
the greater part of Asia Minor, European Turkey, and Greece, with
a small portion of Austria. The imperial diocese of Pontus was
governed by the exarch of Caesarea, who ruled over thirteen metro-
politans with more than loo suffragans. Asia was governed by the
esarch of Ephesus, who ruled over twelve metropolitans with more
tiian 350 suffragan bishops. In Asia Minor the church maintains
but a small remnant of her former greatness; in Europe it is other-
wise. The old outlines, however, are effaced wherever the Christian
races have emancipated themselves from the Turkish rule, and
the national churches of Greece, Servia and Rumania have re-
organixed themselves on a new basis. Where the Turkish rule still
prevails the church retains her old organization, but greatly im-
paired. Still, the Oecumenical Patriarch, as he has been called since
eariy in the 6th century, is the most exalted ecclesiastic of the
Eastern churches, and his influence reaches far ootside the lands of
the patriarchate. His jurisdiction extends over the dominions of
the Sultan in Turkey, together with Asia Minor and the Turkish
islands of the Aegeanj there are eishtv-two metropolitans under
him, and the " monastic republic " of Mount Athos. He has great
privileges and responsibilities as the recognized head of the ureek
community in Turkey, and enjoys also many personal honours
which have survived from the days of the Eastern emperors.
The patriarch under the old Ottoman system had nis <5wn court
at Phanar, and his own prison, with a large civil jurisdiction over,
and reaponsibilit/ for, the Greek community. In ecclesiastical
affairs he acts with two governing bodies — <a) a permanent Holy
Synod Ctfp4 Zbniot rift 'Euk^aLmt Ku»^aiTi»«»iriX«Mf), consbt-
ing of twelve metropolitans, six of whom are re-elected every
year from the whole number of metropolitans, a r ra n ged in three
classes aocording to a fiaed cycle; (b) the Permanent National
Mixed Council j(A««pdt 'BSNi^ M««r^ Ziw^eiXMr). a remarkable
assembly, which is at once the source of great power by introducing
a strong lay element into the admlnutration, and of a certain
amount of weakness by its liability to sodden changes of pooular
feeliog. It consists of four metropolitans, members of thie Holy
Synod, and ejght laymen. AU of these are chosen by an dectocal
body, consisting of all the members of the Holy Synod and the
National Mixed Council, and twenty-five representatives of the
{Mrishes of Constantinople. The election of the patriarch is also,
to a considerable extent, popular. An electoral assembly Is formed
for the purpose consbting ' of the twelve members oi the Holy
Synod, the eight lay members of the National Mixed Council, twenty-
eight representatives of as many dioceses (the remaining dioceses
havinff only the right to nominate a candidate by letter), ten rcpre-
aentativca of the parishes of Constantinople, ten represenutivcs of
all penmna who po s s ess political rank, ten r qi res e o tative» of the
Chruti&n trades of Constantinople, the two representatives of the
aecreuriat of the patriarchate, and such metropolitansj to the
number of ten but no more, as happen to be in Constantinople at
the time for some canonical reason (rupentmulS^Twi). On the death
or deposition of the patriarch, the Holy Synod and the National
Mixed Council at once meet and elect a temporary aubstitute for
the patriarch {Towompirit). Forty days afterwards the electoral
assembly meets, under his presidency, and proceeds to make a list
of twenty candklates (at the present day they must be metropolitans),
who may be proposed either by the members of the dectotal aa-
feemblv or by any of the metropoUuna of the patriarchate by letter.
This fist is sent to the sultan, who has by prescription the right to
atrike out five names. From the fifteen whk:h remain the electoral
asaembly diooses three. These names are then submitted to the
clerical mcmbera of the aasembly. uo, to the members of the Holy
Synod and the vmperJv^ob^^ti, who meet in church, and, after the
usual service, make the .final selection. The patriarch-elect is pre-
aented to the Porte, which thereupon grants the berat or diploma
of investiture and several customary presents; after whidi this new
ruler is enthroned. The patriarch has the aasistaoce and support
of a large household, a survival from Bvnntioc times. Amongst
them, actually or potentially, are thegrand steward (jtkyn ok^Mot),
who serves him as deacon m the liturgy ahd presents candidates
for orders; the grand visitor (pkyn ^aaiAXi^iai). who superintends
the monasteries; the sacnstan (mum^dik^); the chancellor
(f«^f«^AXa|)t who superintends eccl es ia st i ca l causes; the deputy-
visitor (i ro9 otmMilov), who visits the nunneries; the protonotary
(rpuraforiptes); the logothete (XoyMrm), a most Important lay
officer, who represents the patriarch at the Poste and elsewhere
outside; the censer-bearer, who seems to be also a kind of captain
of the guard (kowotpUioi or ««iwrp^tof} ; the referendary (Jk^^ptr-'
l^pcot) ; the secretary (»yo»ii^MoYpA»#r) ; the chief syndic (wpurtMSutM),
* The numbers have varied from time to tini&
XX 6*
who IS a Judge of lesser causes; the recorder (Upo^tifm)', and so
on, down to the cleaners of the lamps i^mttwM^), the attendant
of the lighu (nAMitffPxi^w), and the bearer of the images
iflm^vyApten ) and of the holv ointment (iMr^eUr^).
2. The Painankate of Alexandria^ consisting of Egypt and ita
dependencies, waa at one time the most powerful, as it* was the
most centralized, of all, and the patriarch still preserves his ancient
ritlcs of " pope " and " father of fathers, pastor of pastors, arch-
priest of archpciests, thirteenth apostle, and oecumenical judge."
But the secession of the greater part of his church to Monophysifism
(Coptic Church], and the Mahommedan conquest of Egypt, have
left him but the shadow of his former greatneaa; and at the present
time he has only the bishop of Libya under him, and rules over
some 30,000 people at the outside, most of whom are settlers fiom
elsewhere^
3. The PatriarchaU of AnHeck has undergone meet changes In
extent of jurisdiction, arising from the transfer of sees to Jerusalefflf
from the progress of the schumatic churches of the East and from
the com^ests of the Mahommedans. At the height of his power
the patriarch of Antloch ruled over la metropolitans and 350
suffrasan bishops. In the time of the first crusade 153 still survived;
now there are scarcely 30, 14 of which are metropolitan sees. The
patriarchy though he is " father of fathers and pastor of pastora,"
thus retains little of his ok) importance. His jurisdiction includes
Cilicia, Syria (except Palestine) and Mesopotamia. Cyprus haa
been independent off Antioch since the council of Ephesus.
4. The PatriarchaU of JenuaiemJ^ln the eariier period of the
church, ecclesiastical followed civil divisions so closely that Jeru«
salem, in spite of the sacred associations connected with it, waa
merely an ordinary bishopric dependent on the metropolitan of
Caesarea. Ambitious prelates had from time to time endeavoured
to advance the pretensions of their see, but it was not until the
council of Chalcedon, in 451, thai
withjurisdiction over Palestine.
council of Chalcedon, in 451, that Jerusalem was made a patriarchate
withjurisdiction over Palestine. From this time on to the
the Saracens the patriarchate of Jeruaalem was highly pn
It ruled over three metropolitans with eighty suffragans.' The
From this time on to the inroad of
prosperous.
^ -•--, -gans. The
modem patriarch has under his jurisdiction 5 archbishops and S
bishops. The chief importance of the patriarchate is derived from
the position of Jerusalem as a place of pilgrimage.
B. Thb Ninb National Chukchss
G. Finlay, In his History of Greece, has shown that there has been
always a very dose relation between the church and national life.
Christianity from the first connected itself with the social oiganisa-
tlon of the peo|^ and therefore in evcty province asausMd the
language and the usages of the locality. In thia way it was able to
command at once individual attachment and universal power.
This feeling died down to some extent when Coostantine made use
of the church to consolidate his empire. But it revived under the
persecution of the Arian emperors. The strunle against Axianisa
was not merely a struggle for orthodoxy. Athanasius waa really
at the head of a national Greek party resisting tlie domination of a
Latin-speaking court. From this tune onwarda Greek patriotism
and Greek orthodoxy have been almost convertible terms, and thia
led natuially to revolu against Greek supremacy in the days of
Justinian and other emperors. Dean Stanley was probably correct
when he described the heretical churches of the East as the ancient
national churches of Egypt,. Syria, and Armenia in revolt against
supposed innovations in the eariier faith imposed on them by oreek
supremacy. In the East, as in Scotland, the history of the church
is the key to the history of the nation, and in the freedom of the
church the Greek saw the freedom and supremacy of hia race. For
this very reason Orthodox Eastern Christiana of alien race felt
compelled to resist Greek domination by means of independent
ecclesiastical of)Eanixation, and the structure of the chinch aatber
favoured than interfered -with the coexistence of separate national
churches ^professing the same faith. Another drcumstaace favoured
the creatma of aepacate national churches. While the Greek empire
lasted the emperora had a right of investiture on the election of a
new patriarch, and this right was retained by the Turkish sultana
after the conouest of Constantinople. The Russian people, for
example, coukf not contemplate with calmness as the head of their
church a bishop appointed by the hereditasy enemy of tbdr country.
In thia way the jealouaies of race and the necessities of natioaa
have produced varioua national churches which are independent or
autocephalous and yet are one in doctrine.
I. The ancient Clare* of Cyprus (ace CvpatJS. Cnuaca op).
a. The Chmrek of Uemmt Sinaif consisting of little more than the
famous monastery of St Cathcrme, under an a-dibisbop who fro*
ouently resides in Egypt. It baa, however, a few branch booaes
(ntHxia) in Turkey aim Greece. The archbishop is chosen, from
a liat of candidates submitted by the monks of St Catherine, by the
itriarch of Jeruaalem and hia Synod; and the patsiareh c
3. Tke Heilenk Ghircfc.— The constitution of the Chnrch of
Modem Greece b the result of the peculiar position of the patriarch
of Constantinople. The war of liberarion waa sympathised in, not
merely by the tnhabitanta of Greece, but by all the Cnek-apeakiag
Christiana in the Eaat. But the patriarch waa in the haada of the
Turks; he had been appointed by the sultan, and be a
338
ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH
by the Tarkudi authorities to ban the movement for freedom.
Wheo the Greeks achieved independeoce they refined to be subiect
ecdeaiastically to a patriarch who was nominated by tlie sultan
(June 9, 1838); and, to add to their difficulties, there w«re in the
country twentytwo bishops who had been consecrated by the
patriarch, twvQ bishops who had been consecrated irregtilarty
during the war, and about twenty bishops vriio had been deprived
of their tees during the troubles— f.e. fifty-three bishops claimed to
be provided for. In these ctrcumsunces the govcrmnent and people
resolved that there should be ten diocesan bishops and forty ad-
ditional provisional sees. They also resolved that the church should
be governed after the fashion of the Russian Church by a synod ;
and they decreed that the king of Greece \vas to be head of the
church. All these ideas were carried out with some modifications,
and gradually. The patriarch of Constantinople in 1850 acknow-
ledged the independence of the church, which gradually grew to
be more independent of the state. By the Greek constitution of
l6th/38th November 1864 " the Orthodox Church of Greece remains
indissolubly united, as regards dogmas, to the great Church of
CooBUntinople, and to every other church proiessini^ the same
doctrines, and, like these churches, it preserves in their int^ty
the apostolical constitutions and those ol the councils of the Church,
together with the holy traditions; it is aJbremk^aSM, it exercises
its sovereign rights independently of every other church, and it is
governed by a synod of Sishops.
4. The Servian Church. — Alter the suppression of the Church of
Ipek in 1766 Servia became ecclesiastically subject to Constanti-
nople; but in 1830 the sulun permitted the Serbs to elect a patriarch
(as a matter of fact he is merely styled metropolitan), subject to
the confirmation of the patriarch of Consuntinople. Eiefat years
later the seat of ecclesiastical government was fixed at Belgrade;
and when Servia gained its independence iu church became auto-
oephalous.
^ The Rumanian Church,— Tbt fall of the church of Okhrida in
1767 had made Moldavia and Wallachia ecclesiastically subject to
Consuntinople. On the union of the two principalities under
Alexander Couza (December 1861) the Church was declared auto-
cephalous under a metropolitan at Bucharest; and the fact was
recognized by the patriarchs, as it was in the case of Servia, after the
treatyof BerUn had guaranteed their'indcpendence.
^ 6. The Church cf Montenegro has from eariy tiroes been inde-
pendent under its bishops, who from 1516 to 1851 were also the
temporal rulers, under the title of Vladikas, or prince-bishops.
7. The Orthodox Church in Austria-Hunfaryt which, however,
really consists of four independent sections : the Servians of Hungry
and Croatia, under the patriarch of Karlowits; the Rumanians
of Transylvania, under the archbishop of Hermannstadt: the
Ruiheaians of Bnkovina. under the metropoliun of Csemowitz;
and the Serbs of Bosnia-Hcrsogovina, where there are four sees, that
of Sarajevo holdingthe primacy.
8. The Russian Church dat
kdatesfrom993,idien Prince Vladimir and
his people accepted Christianity. The metropolitan; who was
subiect to the patriarch of Constantinople, resided at Kiev on the
Dnieper. During the Tatar invasion the metropolis was destroyed,
and VUdimir beoime the ecclesiastical capital. In 13^ the metro-
politans fixed their seat at Moscow. In 1583 Jeremiah, patriarch
of Coostaatinoide, raised Job, 46th metropditan, to the patriarchal
dignity: and the act was afterwards confirmed by a genera] council
of the East. In this way the Russian Church became autocephalous,
and its patriarch had immense power. In 1700 Peter tne Great
forbade the dection of a new patriarch, and in 172 1 he established
the Holy Governing Synod to supply the place of the fMitriarch.
This body iu>w governs the Russun Church, and consists of a
procurator representing the emperor, the metropoliuns ci Kiev,
Moscow and St PetersburE, the exarch of Georgia and five or six
other bishops appointed by the emperor. There are altogether
some 90 bishops and about 40 auxiliary bishops c^led vicars. There
are 481 monasteries for men and 249 convents of nuns. The Church
of Georgia, which has edsted from a very eariy period, and was
dependent first on the patriardi of Antioch and then on the
patriarch of Constttttinople, has since 1802 been incorporated in
the Russian Church. Its head, the archbishop of Tiflis, bears the
title of exarch of Georgia, and has under nim four suffragans.
A petitioh was presented to the emperor by the Georgians in IQ04
asking for the restoration of their church and their language, out
nothing came of it
9. The ^iJfarftaii Chureht unless indeed it be dassed with the
separated churches. It differs from the national churches already
mentioned in that it had its origin in a revdt of Turkish subjects
against the patriarchal authority. From the cariiest times the
Bulgarians had occupied an anomalous position on the borders of
Eastern and Western Christendom, but they had ultimately become
subject to Constantinople. The revival of Bulgarian tuuional feeling
near the middle of the X9th century led to a movement forreligiom
independence, the leaden of which were the archimandrite Ne(^hit
Bosveli and the bishop Ilarion Mikhailovsky. The Porte espoused
who desired to join it within the vilayet of the Danube (i#. tke
subseouently-formed prindpality of Bulgaria), and those of Adriaa-
ople. Salonica. Kossovo and Monastir (t.e. rart of Macedonia,
Eastern Rumelia and a tract farther south). The members of this
Church were to constitute a miUet or community, enioying equal
rights with the Greeks and Armenians; and its h»d, the Bulpmaa
exarch, was to reside at Constantinople. Naturally, this was rv-
sented by the patriarch Anthirous. who stigmatized the racial faasia
of the Bulgarian Church as the heresy of Phyl«^n>* A local tyrood
at Constantinople, in August 1873,, pronounced it sdiismatical;
Antioch, Alexandria and Greece followed suit ; Jerusalem pro-
nounced a modified condemnation; and the Servian and Rumanian
churches avoided any definite expression of opinion. Russia waa
more favourable. It never actually acknowledged the Bu^ariaa
CThurch, and Bulgarian prelates may not officiate publidy in Russian
churches: on the other hand, the Holy Synod of Moscow refused to
recognize the patriarch's condemnation, and Russian ecdestastks
have secretly supplied the Bulgarians with the holy oiL Abov« all,
when Prince Bons. the heir-apparent of the prindpality. was re-
ceived into the Bulgarian Church on 14th February 1896. the
emperor of Russia was his godfather. The position b further com-
plicated by the fact that many Bulgarians, both within and without
the kingdom of Bulgaria, still remain subject to the patriarch.
NevertMless, the Bui^rian CThurch has made great beadw^r botli
in Bulgaria itself and in Macedonia. The cudous thing is that the
Rusuan Church is in communion with both sides. The patriarch
of Constantinople dares not excommunicate Russia, but the chief of
its many grievances against that county u its patronage of the
Bulgarian exarchate. The Bulgarians 01 course say they are not
schismatics, but a national branch of the Church Catholic, using
thdr sacred right to manag^ their own affain in their own way.
They have never excommumcated the Patriarchists. On the whole
it seems likely that the patriarch will ultimately have to yield. tQ
spite of the strong Greek feding against the Bulgars.^
Present Position of Ike Orthodox CAnrdt.— Although the ilgns of
weakness which have characterized the past are stjU prcseni,
there are some indications of improvement. The cncydical on
unity of Pope Leo XIII. (zSqs) called forth a reply Irocn the
patriarch Anthimus V. of Constantinople and his S3fiiod, whkli
was eminently learned, dignified and charitable.* Tlic theo-
logical school of the patriarchate, at Halke, is not nndistinguiihrrt,
and the univer»ty of Athens has a good record. WUlst tbe
parochial clergy are still as unlearned as ever, there are not a
few amongst the higher dergy who are distinguished for thdr
learning be>'ond the limits of thdr own communion: for cz<
ample, the metropolitan Ph. Biyennios, who discovered and
edited the Didachi; the archbishop N. Kalogerss, who dta-
covered and edited the second part of the conuDcntary of
Euthymius Zigabenus <d. e. xiiS) on the New Testament; the
archimandrite D. Latas, author of a valuable work on Christian
archaeology (Athens, 1883); and the logothete S. Aristaicbi,
who edited a valuable collection of 83 newly disoofvcred
hotnilies of the patriarch Photius. This was published in xgoo
at the Phanar press, erected as a memorial to Theodore of Tarsus,
archbishop of Canterbury, by Gredt and English chttrduncB»
which was set up by the patriarch Constantine V. in 1899^ An
sutborized version of tbe Scriptures in ancient Gre^ is also one
of the works underuken by this institution. On the other hand,
the attempt made in 1901 by the Holy Synod at Athens, with
the coK>peration of Queen Olga of Greece (a Russian princess),
to circulate a modem Greek version of the Gospds was resented
asA symptom of a Pan-SUvtst coaq>iracy, and led to an ebuUitifOa
of popular feeling which could only be pacified by the witbdiawal
of the obnoxious version and the abdication of the metropolitan
of Athens. The patriarch Constantino V. wu deposed on tbe
lath of April 190X, and was succeeded on the aSth of May by
Joachim IIL (and V.), who had previously occupied the patri>
archal throne from 1878 to 1884, when he was deposed throng
the ill-will of the Porte and banished to Mount Athoa. His
re-election had therefore no little importance. His progressive
sympathies, illustrated by his proposals to reform the monasteries
and the calendar, to modify the four long fasts and to treat
for union (especially with the Old Catholics), were net very wcU
received, and in 1905 an attempt was Inade to depose him.
The sultan Abd-ul-Hamid, to whom the different parties appealed.
the cause of the Bulgarians, partly to pacify them, but still more
to strenrtben ics hold on all the Christiana of Turkey by fostering
leir differences. Ultimstdy, on 28th February 1870, the suttaa
*H. Brailsford in Macedonia (London, 1906) Iwings a crushing
indictment against the Patriarchlst party.
,. , _ . . 'For a different opinion see A. Fortescue, The Orthodox Eastern
issued a finnan constituting a new church, including all Bulgarians ' Church, 435 s(}q.
ORTHOGRAPHY— ORTHOPTERA
339
iBCtnred them <m charity and concord! The- patriarch's great
rival was Joachim of Ephesus. Undoubtedly the question of
the taost pressing importance with regard to the future of
Eastern Christendom is the relation between Russia and Cof|-
atantinople. The Oecumenical Patriarch iS| of course, offidaily
the superior; but the Russian Church is numerically by far the
greatest, and the tendency to regard Russia as the head, not only
of the 9av races, but of all orthodox nations, inevitably reacts
upon the ^urch in the form of what has been called pao-Ortho-
doxy. The Russian Church is the only one which is in a position
to display any missionary activity. It has been a powerful
factor in the development of several of the churches already
spoken of, especially those of Servia and Montenegro, which are
usually very much subject to Russian influences (Twaa^^poMr or
Tc^ffcb^Xoi). It has taken great interest in non-orthodox
churches, such as those of Assyria, Abyssinia and Egypt.
Above all, it has shown an increasing tendency to intervene
in the affairs of the three lesser patriarchates.
In America the Russian archbishop, who resides in New York,
has (on behalf of the Holy Synod) the oversight of some isa
churches and chapels in the Um'ted States, Alaska
j^**" and Cazuida. He is assisted by two bishops, one for
jijMritw. Alaska residing at Sitka, one for Orthodox Syrians
residing in Brooklyn. There are 75 priests and
46,000 registered parishioners. The English Unguage is in-
creasingly used in the services. The increase of Orthodox
communities has been very marked since 1888 owing to the
immigration of Austrian Slavonians. Those of Greek nationality
have churches in NewOrieans, Chicago, New York, Boston, Lowell
(Massachusetts) and other places. If, as seemed likely in xgio,
in addition to the Russian and Syrian bishops, Greek and Servian
ones were appointed, an independent synod could be formed, and
the bishops could elect their own metropolitan. The total
number of ** Orthodox " Christians in North America is estimated
at 300,000. Many of them were Austrian and Hungarian Uniats,
who, after emigrating, have shown a tendency to separate
from Rome and return to the Eastern Confession. One reason
for this tendency is the attempt of the Roman Church to deprive
the Uniats in America of tbeir married priests.
The Catholic reaction represented by the Oxford movement
in the Church of England early raised the question of a possible
union between the Anglican and Eastern Orthodox
■ 0/ Churches. Into the history of the efforts to promote
this end, which have never had any official sanction on
the one side or the other, it is impossible to enter
The obstacles would seem, indeed, to be insurmountable.
From the point of view of Orthodoxy the English Church la
schismatical, since it has seceded from the Roman patriarchate
of the West, and doubly heretical, since it retains the obnoxious
PUioqu€ clause in the creed while rejecting many of the doctrines
and practices held in common by Rome and the East; moreover,
the Orthodox Church had never admitted the validity of Anglican
orden, while not denying it. Union would clearly only be
possible in the improbable event oT the English Church surrender-
ing most of the characteristic gains of the Reformation in order
to ally herself with a body, the traditions of which are almost
wholly alien to her own. At the same time, especially as against
the universal claims of the papacy, the two churches have many
interests and principles in common, and efforts to find a motfiu
thenii have not been wanting on either side. The question of
union was, for instance, more than once discussed at the un-
official conferences connected with the Old Catholic movement
(see Old Cathoucs). These and other diacussioiis could have
no definite result, but they led to an increase of good feeUng
and of personal intercourse. Thtis, on the coronation of the
emperor Nicholas II. of Russia in 1895, Dr Creighton, bishop of
Peterborough, as representative of the English Church, was
treated with peculiar distinction, and the compliment of his visit
was returned by the presence of a high dignitary of the Russian
Church at the service at St Paul*s in London on the occasion of
Queen Victoria's " diamond " jubBee in 1897. In 1890 there
was further an interchange of courtesies between the archbishop
here.
of Canterbwy and ComtaBline V., patriarch of CdutaBtiiiople.
To paHnMe the " bsoihcdy feeling betwoen the n»mbcfa o£ the
two chtticbea," for wUch the patiiarch expiesaed a dc^ a
comnittee was fiomed nds the preMdmcy of the Anglkaa
bishop of Gibraltar.
On this questioB of icumon Me A. Fottcacue, Tk* Orthodox
EatUm Cktmk, 157 iqq., 499 iqq.
AUTnOSlTiEs— Frtr the onuins of the Eiit*m ChuTtli and the
esriy eoii[rovttm» fcc the Butlioriti« died in the artkic CtiUKcH
conif,fi>i'rstatd* Prx^iH Sfiriliu ^aa£li (Jciw, ijjij; E, S. f DuJkxskt
Hni.ra^ii Aef&Hmt &f tkt Aidifson t*f fUnfQUt to the CrwM lLr3ndpn,
ie'>7i; C. Ailam*. FUiv^Hr (EdtnbtiTifh, lU^y, W. Norden, Dai
Pup, Hum iMd Bp^Ht (Srrirn. i^mi a3k) P. UhAft^% HisioTj^ tk§
Cufiii i^i CAMi^iHf^m. 1 bic tciUowiiig are devoted apccutty (0 tiM
hi^t'irv anti t:ur\dltion of the Eastern ChunJi: M. te Qukd^ Oritm
Chraii^ittui fl\irit, 1740); J. S. Afcarnani. JBiWw/A«a OrvntatU
(R nir:, 1719-173^); A. P. Stinley^s Ensifm CkMrfk (1861}; J. M.
Uva\c. Tht H^y Eajtrrn CkHrrk {G#acM !nitoAmdion, 2 vok.j
PGintifthate */ Aic%u%4riik, a volt j ^tu\, jirubliihed DDfthufnL^UfJy
in \6u^ Ffitriankcu af 4a/uKi). Ftpf titiitF>% m* H. A. CUnin-r,
Ct-k.( Liiurgiiui EitL C^Bie. in epHtmrH rtdii£tti.t (4 vol*.. 1847-
l8S5F: [jmj Alhticjt, Pe Hhrii ct tebui Ect/fi, Granarttm aimtta-
iMn^i; F, E. Brifhiman, E^stettt UfM^tvs (Oxford. 1896}. Fo#
byrrmoliCftcy test Di»rtlel. ThttanFui Uymmdai^kuj (4 vM,\i Neal«'i
tniiuldtiooi^ of Ea^tlifn flywtnt: B ' " '"
Eastern C»«rc»iNew York ji 908).
■ \.. H:-
"'•- -f 'hf
See also J. Pargoire. Vi
I. StlberiMKi, VeHoi.
I d§s OrienU (1865;
fiw Byanitint it 527 h 847 (Paris,
•f «. inimm§fHfir Bestamd sOmlticktr
and ed., RcKembufK. 1904): W. F.
I. SnbenMgi, Verfassmnt u. tnmwSfHMr Besland samUicktr
des OrinUs (1865; and ed., RoensbufK. 1904): W. F.
Adeney, Tko Cretk and Eastern Ckurehes (Edinburgh. 1908) ; Adrian
FoncKue, Th§ Orthodox Eastern Church (London, 1907), with a full
btblioeraphy: F. G. Cole, Mother ej AU Churches (London, 1008);
and M. Tamarati, L'Eifise Georgienne, des origines jusgu'A nosjourt.
f>hy: F. G. Cole, Mother of AU Churches (London, 1008);
amarati, L'E^ise Georgienne, des origines jusgu'A nosjourt.
An intesescing . estimate of the Orthodox Church is given by
A. Hamack in What is Christianit^f For the festivals of the Greek
Church see Mary Hamikon, Creth Saints and their Festivals (1910).
ORTHQORAPfiT (from Gr. ifi^, correct, right or straight,
and yp64HPf to write), spelling which is correct according to
accepted use. The word is also applied, in architecture^ to the
geometrical elevation of a building or of any part of one in
which all the details are shown in correct reUtive proportion and
drawn to scale. When the representation is taken through a
building it is known as a section, and when portions of the
structure only are drawn to a large scale they are called details.
ORTHONYX. the scientific name given in 1820, by C. J.
Temminck, to a little bird, which, from the straightness of iu
daws—a character somewhat exaggerated by him— its Urge
feet and spiny taU, he judged to be generically distinct from
any other form. The typical species, O. spinicauda , is from south-
eastern Australia, where it is very local in its distribution,
and strictly terrestrial in its habits. It is rather larger than a
skybrk, coloured above not unlike a hedge>sparrow. The
wings are, however, haired with white, and the chin, throat
and breast are in thie male pufe white, but of a bright reddish-
orange in the female. The remiges are very short, rounded and
much incurved, showing a bird of weak flight. The rectrices are
very broad, the shafu stiff, and towards the tip divested of
barbs. 0. spaldistgi from (Queensland is of much greater sise
than the type, and with a jet-black plumage, the throat being
white in the male and orange-rufous in the female.
Orthonyz is a semi-terrestrial bird of weak flight, building a
domed nest on or near the ground. Insects and larvae are its
chief food, and the males are described as performing dancing
antics like those of the lyre-bird iq.t.). Orthonyx belongs to the
Osdnes division of the Passera and is placed in the family
Timeliida e. (A. N.)
ORTHOPTERA (Gr. iflUi, straight, and mpio, a wing), a
term used in zoological classification for a large and important
order of the class Hexapoda. The cockroaches, grasshoppers,
crickets and other insects that are included in this order were
first placed by C. Linn^ (X73S) among the Coleoptera (beetles),
and were later removed by him to the Hemiptera (bugs, ftc).
J. C. Fabricius (1775) was the first to recognize the unnaturalncss
of these arrangements, and founded for the reception of the group
an order Ulonata. In 1806 C. dc Gecr applied to these insects
the name Dermaptera (8fp/ia, a skin, and impto)\ and A. G.
340
ORTHOPTERA
Olivier subsequently used for the usemblage the name Orthop-
tera, which is now much better known thu the earlier terms.
W. Kirby (1815) founded an order Dermaptera for the earwigs,
which had formed part of de Geer's Dermaptera, accepting
Olivier's term Orthoptera for the rest of the assemblage, and as
modem research has shown that the earwigs undoubtedly deserve
original separation from the cockroaches, grasshoppers, crickets,
&c., this terminology will probably become established. W. £.
Erichson and other writers added to the Orthoptera a number of
families which Unn^ had included in his order Neuroptera.
These families are described and their afl&nities discussed in the
articles Neukoptera and Hixapooa (99.*.). In the present
article a short account of the characters of the Dermaptera and
Orthoptera is given, while for details the reader b referred to
^>ecial articles on the more interesting famih'es or groups.
The Dermaptera and the Orthoptera agree ih having well*
developed mandibles, so that the jaws are adapted for biting ;
in the incomplete fusion of the second maxillae (which form the
labium) so that the parts of a typical maxilla can be easily made
out (see the description and figxires of the cockroach's jaws
under Hxkapooa) ; in the presence of a large number of excretory
(Malpighian) tubes; in the firm texture of the forewings; in the
presence of appendages (cerci) on the tenth abdominal segment;
and in the absence of a metamorphosis, the young insect after
hatching closely resembling the parent.
Order DermapUra.
In addition to the chancten jdtt enumersted. the Dermaptera
are distinguished by the presence of small but distinct maxiUulae-
^fig. 2, see Hbxapoda. Aptira) in association with the tongue
(hypopharynx) ; by the forewings when present being modified into
short qnaarancular elytra without nervuration, the complex hind>
wings (fig. i) being folded beneath these both lonsitudinally and
transversely so that nearly the whole abdomen is left uncovered ;
and by thft entirely mesodermal nature of the genital ducts, whkrh,
accocding to the ob-
servations of F.
Meinert, open to the
exterior by a median
aperture, the terminal
(Mft of the duct being
single, cither by the
fusion of the primi«
tive paired ducts or
by the suppression of
one of them. In the
vast majority of
winged insects the
p.« - u«~^ terminal part of the
Fio. 2.— Hypo- geniul system (vagina
/•««fe Maxilfulae (m) of tori„,) j, uSpaiied
Frwa drpcatcr**
Fic. I.— Common
Earwig (Forficuta aurt-
cmiaria). Male. Magni«
fied.
common earwie .^j ectodefmal.
^^?S^*^"*^!S *"»"» the condition
ana). Miigntbed in tbt Dcrmapten i%
about twenty, ^on primiUw than
seven umes. {„ ^^ ^ther Pteiy-
gote order except the
Ephemeroptera (Mavflies) which are still more generalized, the
primitive mesodermal ducts (oviducts and vasa deferentia) opening
by paired apertures as in the Crustacea. In the vast majority of
the Dermaptera the cerci are— in the adult insect at least-~stout,
un jointed appendages forming a strong forceps (fig. i) which the
insect uses in arranging the hindwings beneath the elytra. In at
least one genus the unjointed pincers of the forceps are preceded, in
the youngest instar by jointed cerci. Very many members of the
order are entirely winekm
There are two families of Dermaptera. The Htmimendae include
the single genus nemimerus (o.v.), which contains only two species
of curious wingless insects with long, jointed ceiri, found among
the hair of certain West African rodents. The other family is that
of the ForfictJidc* or earwigs (q.9.), all of which have the cerci
modified as a forceps, while wings of thecharacteristic form described
above are present in many of the species.
Order OrtkopUra.
The bulk of de Geer's *' Dermaptera " form the order Orthoptera
of modem systematists, which includes some 10.000 described
species. The insects comprised in it are distinguished from the
earwigs by thdr elongate, rather narrow forewings. which usually
cover, or nearly cover, the abdrmen when at rest, and which are
firmer in texture than the hindwings. The hindwings have a firm
costal area, and a more delicate anal area which foMs fanwise.
so that they are completely c«»vei«d by the foicwfa^ when th»
insect resta Rarely (in certain cockroacbesi) the bindwiqg undergoes
transverse folding alsa V^ngless forma are fairly frequent in tha
order but their relationship to the allied winged species b evident.
The female of the common cockroach (fig. yi) shows an interescinf
vestigial condition of the wings, which are out pooriy devdoped in
the male (fig. 36). More important charKters of the Orthoptesm
than the nature of the wing»---cbaractcn in which they differ from
After MafUU.&rf. MB. 4. a. t. U.S. Dtpt. Afr.
Fig. 3. — Common Cockroach (BlaUa prientalis); a, female
b, male ; c, female (side view) ; J, young. Natural size.
the Dermaptera and agree with the vast majority of wiMed inaeiis
are the absence of disuoct maxiUulae and the presence of an unpaired
ectodermal tube as the terminal region of the genital system in both
sexes. The cerci are nearly always joined, and a typical inaectan
ovipositor with its three pair* of pro ces s es b present in connexion
with the vagina of the fernale. In many Orthopccm thb ovipositor
b very long and conspicuous (fig. 5). Intonnation as to the intcraal
structure of a typkral orthopteron — the cockroach— will be found
under Hexapoda.
Classification. — Six families of Orthoptera are here recognized,
but most special students of the order consider that these should
be rather regarded as super-families, and the number of families
greatly multiplied. Those who wish to follow out the classifica-
tion in detail should refer to some of the recent monographs men-
tioned below in the bibliography. There b general agreement
as to the division of the Orthoptera into three sub-orders or
tribes.
I. PJuumedea.—Thh division includes the single family of the
Pkasmidae whose members, generally known as " stkk-inaects **
3.9.) and " leaf-insects " (q.t.), are among the best-known exan^iles
"protective resembbnce to be found in the whole anunal
kingdom. The prothorax b short and the mesothoiax very long,
the three pairs ol legs closely similar, the wings often highly modified
Each egg b contained
■like capsule, pr^rided with a
or absent, and the cerci short and unjointed.
in a separate, curiously formed, seed-like capsule, provided with 1
lid which b raised to allow the escape of the newly-hatched insect.
II. Ootheearia, — In this tribe are included Orthoptera with a brfe
prothorax, whose eags are enclosed in a common purse or capmie
formed by the hardening of a maternal secretion. The Mantidae
or " praying insects " have the prothorax etonnte and Che fore-
legs powerful and raptorial, while the large, broad nead I
The eggs are enclosed
in a case attached to a
twi^ or stone and con-
taining nuiny chambers.
From thbcurioushabita-
tion the young mantkis
hang by threads till after
their first moult (sec After Howard. An. BA 4. a^ »• U.S. Dcttt- Ar-
Mahtis). TheBlatiidae Pic. 4.— Egg-purse of American Cock-
(fig. 3) or cockroaches roach (Pm/^Meta am<r»MM). Magnified.
Ui.9.) form the second «. Side view; *, end view; the ovtltaa
family of this division. ^ shows natural "»^ ,
They are readily dis-
tinguished by the somewhat rounded prothorax beneath which the
he«l b usually concealed, while the forelegs are naniodified.
Sixteen eggs are enclosed together in a compact capsule or '* pone
(fig- 4)-
III. SattatoHa. — ^The three families included in thb tribe are
distinguished by their elongate and powerful hindlegs (fig. 5) which
enable them to leap far and high. They are remarkable for the
postesaoo of complex cars (described in the artble Hexafooa) and
ORTHOSTATAE— ORTOLAN
341
■triduladi^ organs which produce chirping notes (see Cricket).
The families are the Acridiiaae and LocusUdae — including the insects
familiarly known as locusts and grasshoppers (a.v.) and the Cryltidae
or crickets {q.t.). The Acridiidae have the feelers and the ovipositor
rebtivdy short, and poeiess only three ursal segments; their
cars are situated on the first abdominal segment and the males
stridulate by scraping rows of pm on the inner aspect of the hind
thigh, over the sharp edges of the torewing nervures. The Locustidae
(seeGRASSHOPPBR.
Katydid) have the
feelers and often also
the ovipositor very
elongate; the foot is
founsegmented; the
ears are placed at the
base of the foreshin
and the stridulation is
due to the friction of a
transverse " file " be-
neath the base of the
left forewing over a
sharp ridge on the
upper aspect of the
right. In some of these
insects the wings are
so small as to be useless
for flight, being modi-
fied altogether for
stridulation. TheGryl-
Atm MmOm, ah AsB. 4, b. •■ U.S. Depc Agr. lidae (fig. 5) arc nearly
Fig. 5. — UonmCncktt (CryltusdomesHeiu); related to the Locust-
cJ*. male; 9 • female. Natural size. idae, having long
feelers and ovipositors,
and ameing with the latter family in the position of the cars. The
focewings are curiously arranged when at rest, the anal region of
the wine lying dorsal to the mscct and the rest of the wing being
turned downwards at the udcs (see Cricket).
Fossil History. — ^The Orthoptera are an exceedingly Interesting
order of insecU as regards their past history. In Palaeosoic rocks
of CartMniferous ^e the researches of S. H. Scudder have revealed
insects with the general aspect of cockroaches and phasmids, but
with the two pairs of wings similar to each other in texture and
form. In the Mesozoic rocks (Trias and Lias) there have been dis-
covered remains of insects intermediate between those ancient
forms and our nwdem cockroaches, the differentiation between
fforcwings and hindwings having b^n. The Orthopteroid type of
wings appears therefore to have arisen from a primitive Isoptcroid
condition.
Bibliography. — A description and enumeration of all known
Dcrmaptera has been lately published by A. de Dormans and
H. T^-r r r. -<. -^ ,j (Berlin, I ooo>. See aVw W. F. Kirbv,
Syn .'T3, pt. I, CLohdon. Brit. M .is., 1004).
Sk- ..... :... _. .„... :.. Ji'um. Linti. Se>c. Iml.. x\u\. (if""'^-
E. Eu Gii^n, 7>3WA. EwZ-^of. Sqc. {\%'}W\\ K, W^ Vcrh«n. Ahh
K^ Leopoid-Oirot. AkMi.. iKicjciv. (r^jJis); and M. Bi^rr. Saenct
(Ufiip^iv. tNnS., 1B97): lor ikmlmerut. Be? H J. Hiri^tn, Entom.
Tidsi-t »v. (1S9JK For Orthopt^^ra gtinerally. mx£. Btunner von
W»ttenwy1, Pir&dftfmui dtr euritpdiicfttji Orihopitrtn {UE[rztg. 1882).
mn6Ann, Mas Cfnuv. %\il (iB^j), &c. R. TUtnpel. Die GfrradflUgltr
Mtlttkunpas {Eirffttiach, t^oi). The Onhopfcta haw Ucn largely
for antaiomk*^! ^nd embryuioiiica] rcKarchet, the more iro-
Ifll of whkh 4 re cnenrii^nt^ under H^xapod;! t^.^r). Oi memoirs
on Apedal imiupt of Orthgpttra may be mcntlonfd hf re — ^J. O.
Wotnqd, C<iiiffl|wr ^f Vhatmidae (Und^n. Brit. Mus , 1 S59). and
^Mtj« F&rnUi*^ MaiitidiinLin (LonHan^ iftftjh L- C, Mi.dl and A-
Oenny. Tk* Cockrooik (Um5&n. iSaGh E- B- Poulion. Ttans, Ent,
Sx. liSn^], A. S. Packard, " Report on the RocVcy Mountain
Locirst** In ^k Reb. iKS. Sttrtey 0/ Ttwfiiitries (iW?^} For our
vaiLtivv tpecics see M. BinT. Britiik OrtkiffitffO (Haiider-^firid, 1 897);
D. Sharp's chapten (viii.-xiv ]| C^imlfrt'li^ Ndi. f littery, vol. v.
f i*9S)k Eive An excelli?n|: lujnmsiry ol our kflowk^gct. (G H. C)
0RTH08TATAB (Gr. dfiBoarirntt standing upright), the term
in Greek architecture given to the lowest course of masonry of
the external walls of the naos or celU, consisting of vertical
slabs of stone or marble equal in height to two or three of the
horizontal courses which constitute the inner part of the wall.
0RTH08TTLB (Gr. 6fi$<n, straight, and aivKot, a column).
In architecture, a range of columns placed in a straight row, as
for instance those of the portico or flanks of a classic temple.
ORTIQUEIRA, a seaport of north-western Spain, in the province
of Corunna; on the northern slope of the Sierra de la Faladoira,
on the river Nera and on the eastern shore of the Rfa de SanU
Marta— a winding, rock-bound and much indented inlet of the
Bay of Biscay, l>etween Capes Ortegal and Varcs. the nortbem-
Dost headlands of the Peninsula. ^ The official total, of the in-
habitants of Ortigueira (18,436 in xgoo) includes many families
which dwell at some distance; the actual urban population does
not exceed aooo. The industries are fishing and farming.
Owing to the shallowness of the harbour large vessels cannot
enter, but there is an important coastbg trade, despite the
dangerous character of the coast-line and the prevalence of fogs
and gales. The sea-bathing and magnificent scenery attract
visitors in summer even to this remote district, which has no
railway and few good roads.
ORTLER, the highest point (za^oa ft.) in Tirol, and so in the
whole of the Eastern Alps. It is a great snow-dad mass, which
rises £. of the Stelvio Pass, and a little S. of the upper valley of
the Adige (whence it is very conspicuous) between the valleys of
Trafoi (N.W.) and of Sulden (N.E.). It was kmg consldeted to be
wholly inaccessible, but was first conquered in 1804 by three
Tirolese peasants, of whom the chief was Josef Pichler. The
fiist traveller to make the climb was Herr Gebhard in 1805
(sixth ascent). In 1826 Herr Schebelka, and in 1834 P. K. T.
Thurwieser attained the summit, but it was only after the
discovery of easier routes in 1864 by F. F. Tuckett, £. N. and
H. E. Buxton, and in 1865 by Herr E. von Mojsisovics that the
expedition became popular. Many routes to the summit are
now known, but that usually taken (from the Payer Club hut,
easily accessible from either Sulden or Trafoi) from the north is
daily traversed in summer and offers no difficulties to moderately
experienced walkers. (W. A. B. C.) 1
ORTNITt or Otnit, German hero of romance, was originally
Hertnit or Hartnit, the elder of two brothers known as the
Hartungs, who correspond in German mythology to the Dioscuri.
His seat was at Holmgard (Novgorod), according to the TkidrekS'
saga (chapter 45), and he was related to the Russian saga heroes.
Later on his dty of Holmgard became Garda, and in ordinary
German legend he ruled in Lombardy. Hartnit won his bride,
a Valkyrie, by hard fighting against the giant Isungs, but was
killed in a later fight by a dragon. Hb younger brother, Hardheri
(replaced in later German legend by Wolfdietrich), avenged
Ortnlt by killing the dragon, and then married his brother's
widow. Ortnit's wooing was corrupted by the popular interest
in the crusades to an Oriental BwatUfahrtsaga^ bearing a very
dose resembUnce to the French romance of Huon of Bordeaux.
Both heroes recdve similar assbtance from Alberich (Oberon),
who supplanted the Russian Ilya asOrtnit's epic father in
middle high German romance. Neumann maintained that the
Russian Ortnit and the Lombard king were originally two
different persons, and that the incoherence of the tale is due to
the wdding of the two legends into one.
See editions of the HddenJmtk and one of OrtnU and WolfiiUrkk
by Dr. J. L. Edlen von Lindhausen (Tabingen, 1906): articles in the
ZeiUchrift far d*uts<ket AUerlum by K. MQllcnhoff (xiL pp. M4-354*
1865; xiii. pp. 185-192. 1867), by J. ScemOller (xxvi. 201-211, 1882),
and by E. H. Meyer (xxxviit. pp. 85-87, 1894), and in Cermania by
F. Nermann (vol. xxvii. pp. 101-210, Vienna. 1882). See also the
literature dealing with Huon of Bordeaux.
ORTOLAN, JOSEPH LOUIS WLXtAR (i8o2-i873)> French
jurist, was bom at Totdon, on the aist of August 1802. He
studied law at Aix and Paris, and eariy made his name by two
volumes, Ex^ication kislonqw des instUutes de Justinien (1827),
and HisUrire de la ligislalhn romaine (1828), the first of which
has been frequently republbhed. He was made assbtant
librarian to the court of cassation, and was promoted after
the Revolution of 1830 to be secretary-gcneraL He was also
commissioned to give a course of lectures at the Sorbonfte on
constitutional law, and in 1836 was appointed to- the chair of
comparative criminal law at the university of Paris. He pub-
Ibhed many works on constitutional and comparative law, of
which the following may be mentioned: Histoire du droit
coHstituti^nnel en Europe pendant le moyen dge (183 x) ; Introductiam
khtarique an court de Ugislation pinole comparie (1841); he was
the author of a volume of poetry Les enjanlints (1845)- He
died in Paris, on the 27th of March 1873.
ORTOLAN (Fr. ortolan, Lat. kortulanus, the gardener bird,
from kortuSt a garden), the Emberita kortulana of Linnaeus. »
bird celebrated for the delicate flavour of iu flesh, and a member
342
ORTON— ORVIETO
of the Emb&isUae, a PuBefine family not separated by moat
modem authors torn the FringiUidae. A uuive of most
European ODuntries— the British Islands (in which it occurs
but ruely) ezcepted'*«a well as of western Asia, it emigFates
in autumn presumably to the southward of the Mediteiranean,
though its winter quarters cannot be said to be accurately
known, and returns about the end of April or beginning of May.
Its distribution throughout its breeding-range seems to be very
local, and for this no reason can be assigned. It was long ago
said in France, and apparently with truth, to prefer wine-growing
districts; but it certainly does not feed upon grapes, and is
found equally in countries where vineyards are unknown — reach-
ing in Scandinavia even beyond the arctic drcler-and then
generally frequents corn-fields and their neighbourhood. In
appearance and habits it much resembles its congener the
yellow-hammer, but wants the bright colouring of that species,
its bead for instance being of a greenish-grey, instead of a lively
yellow. The somewhat monotonous song of the cock is also
much of the same kind; and, where the bird is a familiar object
to the country people* who usually associate iu arrival with the
return of fair weather, they commonly apply various syllabic
interpretations to its notes, just as our boys do to those of the
yelk>w-hammer. The nest is placed on or near the ground,
but the cgp seldom show the hair-like markings so characteristic
of those of most buntings. Its natural food consisu of beetles,
other insects and seeds. Ortolans are netted in great numbers,
kept alive in an artificially lighted or darkened room, and ied
with oats and miU<t. Jn a very short time they become enor-
mously fat and arc then killed for the table. If , as is supposed,
the ortolan be the AfUicria of Varro, the practice of artifidaAy
fattening birds of this species is very ancient. In French the
word Ortohn is used so as to be almost synonymous with the
English *' bunting " — thus the OrloUmrdt-ntige is the snow*
bunting {PUcirophanes nivalis), the Orlolan-ie-m is the rice-bird
or " bobolink " of North America {Ddickonyx crydwnts), so
justly celebrated for its delicious flavour; but the name is also
applied to other birds much more distantly related, for the
Ortolati of some of the Antilles, where French is spoken, is a
little ground-dove of the genus Chwmaepdia.
In Europe the Beccafico (fig-eater) shares with the ortolan
the highest honours of the dkh, and this may be a convenient
place to point out that the former is a name of equally elastic
signification. The true Beccafico is said to be what is known
in England as (he garden-warbler (the MoUtcitla salicaria of
Linnaeus, the Syl9ia korknsis of modem writers); but in Italy
any soft-billed small bird that can be snared or netted in iis
autumnal emigration passes under the name in the markets
and cook-shops. The " beccafico," however, is not as a rule
artificially fattened, and on this account is preferred by some
sensitive tastes to the Ortolan. (A. N.)
ORTON. JOB (i7i7~i7S3)f English dissenting minister, was
bom at Shrewsbury on the 4th of September 1717. He entered
the academy of Dr Philip Doddridise at Northampton (f.v.),
became minister of a congregation formed by a fusion of Pred>y-
ierians and Independents at High Street Chapel, Shrewsbury
(1741), received Presbyterian ordination there (i745)» resigned
in 1766 owing to ill-health, and lived in retirement at Kiddes-
minster until his death. He exerted great influence both among
dissenting minbters and among clergy of the established church.
He was deeply read in Puritan divinity, and adopted Sabellian
doctrines on the Trinity. Old-fashioned in most of his views,
be disliked the tendencies alike of the Methodists and other
revivalisu and of the rationalizing dissenters, ye( he had a
good word for Priestley and Theophilus Lindsey.
Among his numerous works arc Letttrs to DissenUni Ministers
(ed. by S. Palmer. 2 vols., 1806). and Practical Works (2 vols., with
letters and memcur. 1843).
ORTONA A HARB. a small seaport and episcopal see of the
Abruxzi, Italy, in the province of Chieti, i> m. direct E. of that
town and 105 m. by rafl S.S.E. of Ancona. P«>p. (1901) 8667
(town); is,s'3 (commune). It is situated on a promontory
930 ft. above sea-level, and conmected with the port below by
a wifv-rope railway. FVom the ruined castle magnificent views
to the south as far as the Punta di Penna can be obtained.
The cathedral has been restored at various times, but pr ea q ^ c a
a fine portal of 13x2 by a local artist, Nicolo Mancini. At one
side of it is the Palazzo de Pinis «ith five pointed windows.
The town occupies the site of the ancient Ortona, a seaport
of the Frentani; it lay on the Roman coast-road, which here
turned inland to Anxanum (Lanciano), id m. to the S. The
town suffered much from the ravages of the Turks, who laid
it in ruins in 1566, and also from frequent earthquakes.
For diKoveries in the neighbourhood see A. de Kino in NoUaU
iegli Scan (1888). 646, (T. As.)
ORTZEN, QEORO. baron von (1829- ), German poet
and prose-writer, was bora at Brunn in Mccklcnburg-Schwerin.
He served as an officer of Prussian hussars (1S50-1855), entered
the consular service and alter employment at New York (1879)
aiul Constantinople (1880) was appointed to Marseilles (1S81), and
then to Christiaxua (1889), retiring in 1892. He published
about thirty volumes, mostly of lyrics and aphorisms, including
CcdickU (3rd ed. 1861), Aus den Kimpfen des Lebcia (1868).
Dtuiscke TraumCf deutscke Siege (1876), Epigromme und Epilogs
in Pfosa (1880), Es war ein Traum (1902). His Erlebnisse und
Studien in der Gegewwart (Leipzig, 1875) appeared under the
pseudonym Ludwig Robert, and Nackt (Stuttgart, 1899), a
collection of sonnets, under that of Stephen Erv^y.
ORURO, a department and town of Bolivia. The department
is bounded N. by La Paz, E. by Cochabamba and Potosi, S. by
Potosf, and W. by Chile; it forms a part of the ancient Titicaca
lacustrine basin, and has an area of 19,127 sq. m., the greater
part of which is semi-arid and covered with extensive saline
deposits. It is bordered by Cordilleras on the E. and W., and
by transverse ridges and detached groups of elevations on the
N. and S. The slope and drainage is toward the S., but many
of the streams are waterless in the dry season. The outlet of
Lake Titicaca, the Desaguadero river, flows southward into
Lake Pampa-Aullaguas, or Podpo, on the eastem side of the
department near the Cordillera de los Frailes. Lake Po5po is
13,139 ft. above sea-level, or 506 ft. lower than Titicaca, and its
waters discharge through a comparatively small outlet, called
the Lacahahuira, into the lagoon and saline morasses of Coipasa
( I '1057 ft. elevation) in the S.W. comer of the department.
Oruro is almost exclusively a mining department, the country
being too arid for agricidture, with the exception of a narrow
strip in the foothills of the Cordillera de los Frailes, where a few
cattle, mules and llamas, and a considerable number of sheep
are reared. The mineral wealth has not been fully developed
except in the vicinity of the capital, in the north-east part of the
department, where there are large deposits of tin, sUver and
copper, Oruro being the second largest producer of tin in the
republic. There are borax deposits in the western part of the
department, but the output is small.
The capital of the department is Oruro, 115 m. S.S.E. (direct)
of La Paz; it is an old mining town dating from the 17th century,
when it is said to have had a population of 70,000. The census
of 1900 gave it a population of i3i57Sf the greater part of whom
are Indians. A considerable number of foreigners are interested
in the neighbouring mines. The elevation of Oruro is 12,250 ft.
above sea-level, and its climate is characterized by a short cool
summer and a cold rainy winter, with severe frosts and oocasioiuil
snow-storms. The mean annual temperature is about 43" F.
Oruro is the Bolivian terminus of the Antofagasta railway
(o- 7 5 metre gauge) , 574 m* long, the first constructed in Bolivia. A
law of the 27th of November 1906 provided for the constmction
of other lines, of metre gauge, from La Paz (Viacha) to Oruro,
from Oruro to Cochabamba, and from Oruro to Tupiza, making
Oruro the most important railway centre in Bolivia. Oruro
enjoys the nominal distincrion of being one of the four capitals
of the republic, an anomaly which was practically ended by the
revolution of x 898, since wUch time the government has remained
at La Paz.
ORVmO (anc. YoUinii (9.9.). later Urhs Vehu, whence the
modem name), a town and episcopal see of the province of
Perugia, Italy, on the Paglia, 78 m. by rail N. by W of Rome.
Pop. (190X) 8820 (town); 18,208 (commune). It crowns an
isolated rock, 1033 ft. above aafr-isvel, 640 ft. above the plain.
ORYX— ORZESZKO
343
commanding spkhdid Views, and is approached on (he east by a
funicular railway from the aUtion. The town is vefy pictiiresqiie,
both from ita magnificent poaition and also from the unTisually
large number <>f fine 13th-century bouses and palaces which atill
exist in its sUects. The chief ^lory of the place is its splendid
cathedral, dedicated to the Virgin; it was began ^ote 1285,
perhaps by Amolfo di Cambio, on the site of an older church; and
from the 13th till the i6th century ^as enriched by the labouia
of a whole Succession of great Italian painters and sculptors.
The exterior is covered wkh black and white marble; the interior
ia of grey limestone with bands of a dark basaltic stone. The
[dan oonsista of a large rectangular nave, with aemJdrcular
recesses for alurs, opening out of the aisks, north and south.
There are two transeptal chapels and a short choir. The most
magnificent part of the eacterior and indeed the finest polychrome
monument in eiistence is the west facade, built of richly*
sculptured marble from' the designs of Lorenzo Maitani of Siena,
and divided into three gables with intervening pinnadcs, dosely
resembling the firont of Siena cathedral, of which it is a reproduc-
tion, with some improvements. With the splendour d the whole,
the beauty of the composition is marvellous, and it may rank as
the hi^Mst achievement of Italian Gothic. It was begun in
rsro, but the upper part was not completed till the i6th century.
The mosaics are miodem, and the whole church haa suffered
greatly from recent restoration. The four wall^surfaces that
flank the three western doorways are decorated with very
beautiful sculpture in relief, once ornamented with colour, the
des^s for which, according to Burckhardt, must be ascribed to
the architect of the whole, though executed by other (but stiU
Sienese, not Pisan) hands. The Madonna above the principal
portal falls into the same category. The subjects are scenes
from the Old and New Testaments, and the Last Judgment, with
heaven and Hell. In the Interior on the north, the CappeUa del
Corporale possesses a large silver shrine, resembling in form the
cathedral facade, enriched with countless figures in relief and
subjects in translucent coloured ename]s~-one of the most
important specimens of early silversmith's work that yet exists
in Italy. It was begun by Ugolino Vieri of Siena in 1337, and
was made to contain the Ho^ Corporal from Bolsena, which,
According to the legend, became miraculously stained with Uood
during the celebration of mass to convince a sceptical priest of
the truth of the doctrine of transubstantiation. This is supposed
to have happened in 1263, while Urban IV. was residing at
Orvieto; and it was to commemorate this mirade that the
existhig cathedral was built. On the south side is the diapd of
S. Brisio, separated from the nave by a fine 14th-century wrought-
iron screen. The walls and vault of this chapel are covered with
some of the best-preserved and finest frescoes in Italy^— among the
noblest works of Fra Angelioo and Luca SignorcUi, mainly
painted between 1450 and 1501— the latter bdng of especial
importance in the history of art owing to their great influence
on Michelangelo in his early days. The choir stalls are fine and
elaborate specimens of tarsia and rich wood-carvin^—the work
of Antonio and Pietro dcUa Minella (x43r-r44x). In 16th-
century sculpture the cathedral is especially rich, containing
many statues, groups and altar-reliefs by Simone Mosca and
Ippolito Scalsa. Close by are two Gothic buildings, the bishop's
palace (r364) and the Palazso dei Papi (begun in 1296), the
latter with a huge hall now containing the Museo Civico, with
various medieval works of art, and also objects from the Etruscan
necropolis of the ancient Volsinii (q.v.). The Palaazo Faina
has another interesting Etruscan coUeaion. The Palazao del
Comune is Romanesque (rath century), but has been restored.
S. Andrea and S. Giovenale are also Romanesque churches of the
xitb century; both contain later frescoes. ' To the lath century
belongs the ruined abbey of S. Severo, 1 m. south of the town. The
church of S. Domenico contains one of th^ finest works in
sculpture by Aroolfo del Cambio. This is the tomb with re-
cumbent e&gy of the Cardinal Brago or De Braye (taSa), with
much beautiful sculpture and mosaic. It is signed BOC ows
ncrr AiNVtrvB. It was imitated by Giovanni Pisano in his
noooBcnt to Pope Benedict XI. at Perugia. Among the later
buildftags, a few may be noted by Sanmtcheh of Veromi, who
was employed as chief architect of the cathedral from 1509
to 1528. The fortress built in 1364 by Cardinal Albomoz has
been convened into a public garden. The well, now disused,
called II poeso di S. Patrizto, i^ one of the chief curiosities of
Orvieto. It is aoo ft. deep to the water-level and 4a ft. in
diameter, cut In the rock, with a double winding mdined plane,
so that asses could ascend and descend to carry the water from
the bottom. It was begim by the architect Antonio da San
Gallo the younger in 1527 for Clement VII., who fled to Orvieto
after the sack of Rome, and was finished by Simone Mosca under
Paul m.
. The town appears under the name (H/ffit'fiarM in Procopiua
(Bell. Golk. ii. xi, &c); who gives a somewhat exaggerated
description of the site, and as Urbs Vttus elsewhere after his
time. Belisanus starved out Vitiges in 539, and became master
of kr In 606 it fell to the Lombards, and was recovered by
Charlemagne. It formed part of the donation of the Countess
Matflda to the papacy. Communal independeDce had probably
been acquired as early as the end of the lotb century, but the
first of the popes to reside in Orvieto and to recognize its com*
munal administration was Hadrian IV. in 1x57. It was then
governed by consuls, but various changes of constitution supers
vened in the direction of enlarging the governing body. Ita
sympathies were always Guelphic, and it was closely allied with
Flocenoe, which it assisted in the battle of Monteaperto (ia6o),
and its constitution owed much to her modeL In 1x99 the first
p<HUstd was elected, and in xas^ the first capilano del fopoU,
There were considerable Gudph and Ghibelline struggles even at
Orvieto, the btter party being finally destroyed in 13x3, and the
representatives of the former, the Monaldeschi, obtaining the
supreaw power. The territory of Orvieto extended from Chiusi
to the coast at Orbetello, to the Lake of Bolsena and the Tiber.
The various branches of the Monaldeschi continually fought
among themselves, however, and the quarrels of two of them
divided the city into two factions under the names of Muffati
and Mercorini, whose struggles Listed until 1460, when peace waa
finally made between them. After this period Orvieto waa
peaceably ruled by papal governors, and had practically no
history. . Owing to the strong Guelphic sympathies of the in-
habitants, and the inaccessible nature of the site, Orvieto waa
constantly used as a place of refuge by the popes. In 1814 it
became the chief town of a district, in 1831 of a province, and in
x86o with Urobria became part of the kingdom of Italy, aiul
became a snbprefecture.
See L. Fumi. // Duomo iT Orvieto e i suoi re$taari (Rome, 1891);
Orvieto, note storiche e biotrafiche (CittA di Castello, 1891), and other
works. (T. As.)
ORTX (Gr. 6pv^t a pickaxe, hence applied to the animal), the
scientific name of a group of African antdcqtes 01 reUtively large
size with long straight or sdmitar-shaped homa» whidi are
present in both sexes, and long tufted tails. They are all desert
animals. The true oryx of classical writers was probably the
East and North-east African beisa-oryx {Oryx beisa)^ which is
rq>Uced in South Africa by the gemsbuck (oryx gauUa). In
Northern Africa the group is represented by the sdmitar-bomed
O. lencoryx or O. algaxal, and in Arabia by the small white oryx
(O. heaUix). See Antelope.
ORZESZKO or Osszbszko, BUZA (184a- ), Polish
novelist, was bom near Grodno, of the noble family of
Pawlowaki. In her sixteenth year she married Piotr Orseszko,
a Polish nobleman, who was exiled to Siberia after the insur-
rection of X863. She wrote a series of powerful riovels and
sketches, dealing «'ith the social conditions of her country.
Eli Makower (1875) describes the relations between the Jeaa
and the Polish nobility, and Meir Eiofawia (X878) the conflict
between Jewish orthodoxy and modem liberalbm. Oh ike
Niemen (1888), perhaps her best work, deals with the Polish
aristocracy, and Lost Sotds (x886) and Cham (1888) with rural
life in White Russia. Her study on Patriotism and Cotm^
poKtanism appeared in x88gi A unBbrm edition of her works
qjpeared in Warsaw, 1884-188^
3+4
OSAKA— OSCA LINGUA
OSAKA, or Ozaxa, a dty of Japan in the province of Settsu.
Pop. (1908) x,xa6,S9o. It lies in a plain bounded, except
westwardj where it opens on Osaka Bay, by hills of considerable
height, on both sides of the Yodogawa, or rather its headwater
the Aji (the outlet of Lake ]3iwa), and is so intersected by river-
branches and canals as to suggest a comparison with a Dutch
town. Steamers ply between Osaka and Kobe-Hiogo or Kobe,
and Osaka is an important railway centre. The opening of the
railway (1873) drew foreign trade to Kobe, but a harbour for
ocean-4teamers has been constructed at Osaka. The houses are
mainly built of wood, and on the 31st of July 1909 some 12,000
bouses and other buildings were destroyed by fire. Shin-sai
Bashi Suji, the principal thoroughfare, leads from Kitah^ma,
the district lying on the south side of the Tosabori, to the iron
suspension bridge (Shin-sai Bashi) over the Dotom-bori. The
foreign settlement is at Kawaguchi at the junction of the
Shirinashi and the Aji. It is the seat of a number of European
mission stations. Buddhist and Shinto temples are numerous.
The principal secular buildings are the castle, the mint and the
arseiuL The castle was founded in 1583 by Hideyoshi; the
enclosed palace, probably the finest building in Japan, survived
the capture of the castle by lyeyasu (16x5), and in 1867 and 1868
witnessed the teceptbn of the foreign legations by the Tokugawa
shoguns; but in the btter year it was fired by the Tokugawa
party. It now provides military headquarters, containing a
garrison and an arsenal. The whole castle is protected by high
and massive walls and broad moats. Huge blocks of granite
measuring 40 ft. by xo ft. or more occur in the masonry. The
mint, erected and organized by Europeans, was opened in 1871.
Q^ka possesses Iron-works, sugar refineries, cotton spinning
mills, ship-yards and a great variety of other manufactures. The
trade shows an increase commensurate with that of the popula-
tion, which in 1877 was only 384,105.
I Osaka owes iu origin to Rennio Shonin, the eighth head of the
Shin-Shu sect, who in 1495-1496 built, on the site now occupied
by the castle, a temple which afterwards became the principal
midence of his successors. In 1580, after ten years' successful
defence of bis position, Kenryo, the eleventh " abbot," was
obliged to surrender; and in 1583 the victorious Hideyoshi
made Osaka his capital. The town was opened to foreign
trade in 1868.
I OSAWATOMIIB; a dty of Miami county, Kans^^, U.S.A.,
about 45 m. S. by W. of Kansas City, on the Missouri Pacific
railway. Pop. (1900) 4191 (937 negroes); (1905, state census)
4857; (19x0) 4046. A state hospital for the insane (1866) is
about I m. N.E. of the dty. The region is a good one for general
farming, and natural gas and petroleum are found in abundance
in the vidnity. Osawatomie was settled about 1854 by rolonists
sent by the Emigrant Aid Company, and was platted in 1855;
its name was coined from parts of the words " Osage " and
" Pottawatomie." It was the scene of two of the " battles "
of the " Border War," and of much of the political violence
resulting from the dashes between the *' pro-slavery " and the
" free-state " factions of Missouri and Kansas. On the 7th
of June x8s6 it was plundered by about X70 pro-slavery men
from Missouri. On the 30tb of August 1856 General John W.
Rcid, commanding about 400 Missourians, attacked the town.
The atuck was resisted by Captain John Brown (who had come
to Osawatomie in the autunm of 1855) at the head of about
40 men, who were soon overpowered. Of Captain Brown's
men, four were killed and two were executed. The town was
looted and practically destroyed. A paik commemorating the
battle was dedicated here on the 31st of August 1910.
OSBORll. SHERARD (1832-1875), English admiial and
Arctic explorer, the son of an Indian array officer, was bom on the
S5th of April 1822. Entering the navy as a first-class volunteer
in 1837, he was entrusted in 1838 with the command of a gunboat
at the attack on Kedah in the Malay Peninsula, and was present
at the reduction of Canton in X841, and at the capture of the
batteries of Woosung in x 849. From 1 844 till 1848 he was gunnery
mate and lieutenant in the flag-ship of Sir George Seymour
in the Pacific He took a prominent part in 1849 in advocating
a new search expedition for Sir John Franklin, and in tS$o
was appointed to the command of the steam-tender " I^neer "
in the Arctic expediHon under Captain Austin, in the course
of which he performed (x8si) a remarkable sledge-journey to
the western extremity of Prince of Wales Island. He published
an account of this voyage, entitled Stray Learns from an Arctic
Journal (X852), and was promoted to the rank of commander
shortly afterwards. In the new expedition (x8s 3-1854) under
Sir Edward Belcher he again took part as commander of the
" Pioneer." In X856 he published the journals of Captain
Robert M*Clure, giving a narrative of the discovery of the
North-West Passage. Early in 1855 he was called to active
service in connexion with the Crimean War, and being pronoied
to post-rank in August of that year was appointed to the
" Medusa," in which he commanded the Sea of Aaofl squadron
until the conclusion of the war. For these services he rec d ved
the C.B., the Cross of the Legion of Honour, and the Medjidie
of the fourth dass. As commander of the " Furious " he took
a prominent part in the operations of the second Chinese War, and
performed a piece of difficult and intricate navigation in taking
his ship 600 m. up the Yangtse-kiang to Hankow (x8s8). He
returned to England in broken health in 1859, and at thb time
contributed a number of 'articles on naval and Chinese topics
to Blaekwood*s Magaune, and wrote The Career^ Last Voyaga
and PaU 0/ Sir John Franklin (x86o). In x86x he commanded
the " Donegal " in the Gulf of Mexico during the trouble thcie,
and in 1863 undertook the command of a squadron fitted oot
by the Chinese government for the suf^ression of piracy on the
coast of China; but owing to the non-fulfiiment of the oondilion
that he should receive orders from the imperial government
only, he threw up the appointment. In 1864 he was appointed
to the command of the " Royal Sovereign ** in order to teat
the turret system of ship^building, to which this vessd had
been adapted. In 1865 he became agent to the Great Indian
Peninsula Railway Company, and two years later managing di*
rector of the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company.
In X873 he attained flag-rank. His interest in Arctic ezpioimtion
had never ceased, and in 1873 he induced Commander Albert
Markham to undertake a summer voyage for the purpose of
testing the conditions of ice-navigation with the aid of steam,
with the result that a new Arctic expedition, under Sir George
Nares, was determined upon. He was a member of the committee
which made the preparations for this .expedition, and died a
few days after it had sailed.
08B0RNB, a mansion and estate in the Isle of Wight, England,
S.E. of the town of East Cowes. The name of the manor in
early times is quoted as Austerbome or Oysterbome, and the
estate comprised about 3000 acres when, in 1 845-, it was porchased
from Lady Isabella Blackford by (^ueen Victoria. The queen
subsequently extended the esute to nearly 3000 acres, and a
mansion, in dmple Palladian style, was built from designs of
Mr T. Cubitt. Here the queen died in 1901, and by a letter,
dated Coronation Day 1902, King Edward VJI. presented the
property to the nation. By his desire part of Uie house was
transformed into a convalescent home for officers of the navy
and army, opened in 1904.
In 1903 there was opened on the Osborne estate a Royal
Naval College. The prindpal buildings lie near the Prince of
Wales's Gate, the former royal stable being adapted to use
as dass-rooffls, a mess-room, and other apartments, while certain
adjacent buildings were also adapted, and a gymnasium and a
series of bungalows to serve as dormitories, each accommodating
thirty bojfs, were erected, together with quarters for officers,
and for an attached body of marines. By the river Medina, on
the Kingsdown portion of the estate, a machine shop and
facilities for boating are provided.
At the church of St Mildred, Whippingham, i\ m. S.S.E. of
East Cowes, there are memorials to various members of the royal
family.
OSCA UNOUA, or Oscam, the name given by the Romans
to the language of (x) the Samnite tribes,and (3)tbeinhabitaiiu
of Campania (excluding the Greek colonies) from the 4th ceaAuty
OSCA LINGUA
3+5
S.C onwards. We know from intcriptions that it extended
southwards oyer the whole of the Peninsub, except its two
extreme projections (see Bruttu and Messapb) covering the
districts Icnown as Lucania and Frentanum, and the greater
part of Apulia (see Lucanu, Frcntamx, Apuua). Northward,
n very similar dialea was spoken in the Centrat Apennine
region by the Pasuoni, Vbstihi (f .v.) and others. But there
Is some probability that both in the North and in the South
the dialect spoken varied slightly from what we may call the
standard or central Oscan of Samnimn. There can also be
no rcssonable doubt, though doubt has strangely been raised,
that the popular farces at Rome called Atellanae wen acted
in Oscan; Strabo (v. p. 333) records this most explicitly sa a
curious survival.
This name, for what ought probably to be called the Samnite
or Saline speech, is due to historical causes, but is, in fact,
incorrect. The Osd proper were not Samnites, but the Italic,
Pre-Tuscan and Pre-Greek inhabitants of Campania. This is
the sense in which Strabo regularly uses the name *09itoi
(cf. v. 347), so that it is quite possible that we should oon-
nect them with the other tribes whose Ethnica were formed
with the -co- sufl&x and with the plebs of Rome (see Voua
and Roifs).
For further evidence aa to the history of the names Osci, Opseit
Opiei, aee R. S. Conway, Tht Italic DiaUcts, p. 149.
The chief monuments of the language, as ^>okcn in Campania,
come from Pompeii, Nola, Capua and Cumae (9.V.). From the
two towns last mentioned we have the interesthig group of
heraldic inscriptions known as ImUae (f .v.), and two interesting
curses inscribed on lead plates and, so to qiesk, posted in graves*
for conveyance to the deities of the Underworld. One of these
may be quoted as a typical specimen of the Oscan of Campania;
From the mcmmsi-Curse >—
Iwxkis iiUams
slaiiis gaoiis ntpfaitum neb deikum puAans;
iutkis uktans nmdium wtUiam
nep dtlkum nepfoAum piulod,
nep memuim nep Ham »\fet keriiad*
" (Ludoa Octauius, Statins Gautus neue memotare ncue indicare
posaint. Lucius Octauius Nouellum Velliam neue roemorare ncue
indicare possit, neue monumenturo neue sepulcrum (?) aibi adipis-
GStur.")
The language as spoken in Samnium may be illustrated by a few
■entenccs from the Tabula Agnonensis. now in the British
Museum : —
siai^ pis set kMln fterrlilif :
diivet verehasiAt staiif, dUM rqnluret
kereUAl kerrUM stan/, patasta\ piUOmt
dehat ienetal siat^f. aasalPitmsial saaktim
iefArim aUtrel pAterelpU akenA sakakUer.
fiuusasiah aa kiftAm sakarater:
Pemal kerrUal staiif, ammat kerrHat stadf,
Jluusat ktrrhal statlf, aklAt patera staiif.
(** Qui flttctl sunt in horto Cereal!, loui uigiKaram patrono (7)
■Utua. loui Rectori sutua, Herculi Cerealt sutua, Pandac Di^rlf
(?) statua, Diuac Genetae statua. In ara ignea crematio sancta
aitero quflque festo (an *anao'?) sancitur (an ' aanciatur * ?).
Deabus Ftoralibus iuxta borturo sacratur (an ' saciantur ' 7) :
Anteuoftae (?) Cereali statua, Nutrici Cereali statua. Florae
Ccreali statua, Meicurio patri sutua.")
It remains to notice briefly (i) the chief characteristics which
mark oS the Osco-Umbrian, or, as they might more conveniently
be termed, the Safine group of dialects, from the Latinian, and
(a) tlie features which distinguish Oscan and the dialects most
dosdy allied to it, e.g, NorthX)scan (see Paeucni), from the
Umbrianor (more strictly) Iguvine dialect (see Icuviuii).
(A.) PkoHohp. — I. The co nv er si on of the Indo-Eorooeaa
vcUra into labials, tf.f. Oscan and Umbrian pis^Lax. qms. Ok. Umb,
pod^Lat, quod.
Umb. petur^^urtus^Lat, qtiadrupedibta; Osc. kamUnad^Lat,
c sw ul w tf , from the Indo-European root Vem-, Eng. mum, Sanskrit
MOT-; Umb. accusative ^m «SaaskritWbii, Eng. am, the Lat. Ms,
oeuis having been borrowed from some Safioe dialect, since the pure
Latin form would have been *mlis.
7. The e xtru akm or syncope (o) of short vowels in the second
syllable of a word, e.t. Oscan s^id-, Umbrian m4-, from an lulic
stem *op€sd'j "to work, build." cf. Lat. opera, " work," and optr^
(although tha verb appears in Latin to have been invented only at a
late ptfiod); Osc. aetad, Umb. otfa-Lat. agUo; Umb. mersto-,
from Italk: •madesto^, *' iustus," beside Lat. medaOms. {b) Of aboit
vowds before final «, Osc kin (pronounced Aar(f)«Lat. kortms;
Umb. ikmins^LaiL. Jguuinms; Osc nom. pi. kmmums, O. Lat.
AfsiAMr; Umb. abL pL cats for *a9(fa«»Lat. auilms.
3. The pceservation of s before a, m and / (whereas tn Latin it is
lost with '* compensatory knetheoing *' of the previous vowel when
the change b medial): Umb. akasnes, abf. pL«Lat. akenu;
Paelignian pritmu (nom. sing. fem.)«Lat. ^ftwia: Osc. Stabw
lAt,Zaktus.
4. Instead of Lat. -^id- we have in Osco-Umbrian fm— ^hich
the Umbrian poet Plautus reproduces as a vulgarism in the well-
known line (MiUs dor., v. 14, L 1399), dislemnUa kominem, el dis-
pennUe; hence the gerundives, Osc. opsannam ^Lat. operandam.
So Umbrian pikaner^vom. pikanneis (gen. sing. masc). equivalent to
' ^'u fiandL It is not certain what the original group of sounds was
en appears in the shape of >!•»- in Osco-Umbnan and -nd- in
Latin, nor whether this group of sounds, whatever it was (possibiy
•ffi-), became -luf- before it became •nn-.
3. Final d became in both Oscan (d) and Umbrian (often written
a), eg, Oscan vU^LaL wa\ Umb. odro (nom. pL neut.)«Lat. atra,
6. Italic t became closer In Osco-Umbrian ; in the Oscan alphabet
it is denoted by a special sign k which is best reproduced by t
(although the misleading symbol f with an accent upon it is ire*
quently used). In the Umbnan alphabet (see Icuviim) it is variously
written a and «, and in the Latin alphabet, when used to write Oscan
and Umbrian. we have «, i, and occasionally even ai, e.g. Osc. ftfol^b m
Lat lemtis, but iigis (in Latin alphabet) « Lat. Ugibusi Umb. trej
and trif^Lat. tres; N. Osc sr/n-LaL sUn.
7. An original short t in Osco-Umbrian became identical in quality,
though not in quantity, with the vowel just described, and is written
with just the same symbols in all the alphabets, e.g. Osc. fU, Umbw
^e^-Lat-gaitf.
8. Predaely analogous changes happened with Italic 9 and Mi
the resulting vowel being denoted in Oscan alphabet both by « and
by A (V), in Umbrian alphabet by a, in Latin alphabet by a.
It is well to add here one or two other characteristics in which
Oscan alone is more primitive, not merely than Latin, but even
than Umbrian.
(a) Oscan retains s be t ween vowch, whereas in both Latin and
Umbrian it became r. In Oscan it secns to have become voiced,
as it is represented by s in Latin alphabet, «.f . geti. pL^em. a^
SMMM, prea. mni
(b) Oscan retains the diphthongs of, ct, m. on (representing both
oriEinal eu and ou) and au even in unaccented syllables, e.g- aol. pL
feUAts, *'muris*'; dat. pi. diumpals, "lymphis"; infin. deicuM
dicere.
if) Oscan retains final, d, e,g, abl. masc sbg. dfl/atf «Lat. deio.
(B.) Morpkoiogy,—L In uoums. (a) Considemble levelling has
taken place b c lw ee u the consonantal and the -^ stems; thus the
gen. sii^ masc of Osc tosroOT (neut. "Lat. " terra ") is teoirti, just
Uke that of the consonantal stem tangin-, gen. laHginels. Converedy
we have the abl. tangimad on the pattern of o- stem ablatives, ltl»
dalud. (b) In the d-stems and the s-stems we have several primitive
forms which are obscured in Latin, e.g. gen. siiHt' fem. aituas, " pecu*
niae ": gen. pi. masc HAslanAm. " Nolaoorum "; and the locative
is still a living case in both declensions, «x Osc /er#l " in terra,**
vtst " in via."
II. In warbs, (a) The formatkm of the infinitive In -tm-. eA
Osc esaiM, Umb. aram. ** eaat " ; opsaumt "operari. facere (a.
art LanN I^amgoacBj | 3a). (b) The for matk m of the future, and
ass teK *' ceasebunt " :
t, '• Iccerit "; Osc and
future perfect indicative lespe ctiv e l y, wijth
Oscan Mssi,** debit ";iMaj< " iurabit*':«c«Msrte)j;*'ca
Umb. farast, ** feret "; fut. perf. Osc frfaeust, " iccerit "i
Umb. fuoP' fuerit "; Umb. /akmst, ** fecerit," Jakarent, " fecerint '*;
fwrenl, " fuerint.'* (c) Several new methods of forming the nerfcct
from vowel stems, e,g. the Oman and Umbrian •/• perfects. Osc ist
sing. perf. ManafHOT,^' maadaui '*; 3rd Bii«. omaasieMaL " mandauit,
imperauit "f 3«d pL Osc Mans, '^fuerunt •* fcf. Umb. perf. subj,
pessive impersonal ptkajei, ^ piatum ait "). One other Jormatioo
occun frequently In Oscan (from A- verbs), whose orwin m obscure.
In this the perfect daneteriarie is -IK a.f . M^H^ *« probauit.'*
(A The oecuUer and interesting imperwaal or remi-pmoDal forma
whkh ultimatdy developed into a fntt passive, «a Osc aakraflt,
"sacrauerit alkima** governing anaccusauve; Uad». /eror, fcrat
alkiuia " (see.the section on the passive under Lahn Lantnage).
(C) Synlax.—U may be saki geaecany that th«e are very few if
any peculiarities in the syntax of the Oscan and Umbnan inscnp-
tions as compared with Latin usage, though a large number ol
familiar Latin kImmm appear, such as the abL absolute; the abl.
3+6
OSCAR I.— OSCEOLA
of ctrcumttance. tbe nnitive in judicial pfamses. the use of the neut.
adj. asan absttact BUMUntivc. e.^. Oscan wdaemom t^uUcom, " opti>
mum publkum," •'.«. ** optima ret publicae latio." In verbal forms
the aame uae of the gerundive comoined with the noun to represent
the total veibal action, €.g. Umb. oerer pehaner paea, " ards ptandae
causa": the usual sequence of lenses, e.(. the imperfect aubj in
Oiatio Obllqua representing the fut. indic in Oratto Recu (see
Cippus AbeUamus b 23. 2$)-, and finally the use of the perf. aub).
in (Jscan in prohibitions {tup ftfacid^ *'oeue (ecerit "). but also in
positive commands (Osc. sakrajtr, see above).
Fuller accounts of the dialects in all these aspects wiU be found
most exhaustively in Von Planta, GrammAtxk der Oskisck-umbrtscken
DiaUkU (StrassburK, 1802-1897). Less fully, but very clearly and
acutely in C D. Buck s Oscan and Umbrian Grammar (Boston,
i;.S.A., 1904). R. S. Conway, The ludtc DtaUcts, vol. li. (Cambridge.
|897)« gives a fuller account of tht alphabets and their history, a
Conspectus of tbe Aoddenoe and an account of the Syntax at some
length: (R. S. C.)
OSCAR I. (1799-1859), king of Sweden and Norway, was ihc
too of General Bernadotte, afterwards King ChArlcs XIV. of
Sweden, and his wife, Eugenie D^sir6e Clary, afterwards Quten
Desidexia. When, in August j8io, Bernadotte was elected
crown prince of Sweden, Oscar and his mother removed from
Paris to Stockholm (June 181 1). From Charles XIII. the lad
received the title of duke of Sddermanland (Sudermania). He
quickly acquired the Swedish language, and, by the tuhe he
reached manhood, had become a general favourite. His very
considerable native talents were developed by an excellent
education, and he soon came to be regarded as an authority on
all social-political questions. In 1839 he wrote a scries of articles
on popular education, and (tn 184 1) an anonymous work, Om
Slraff och sUaffanstaiUer, advocating prison reforms. Twice
during his father's lifetime he was viceroy of Norway. On the
X9th of June 1823 he married the princess Josephine, daughter
of Eugene de Beauhamais, duke of Leuchtenberg^ and grand-
daughter of the empress Josephine. In 1838 the king began to
suspect his heir of plotting with the Liberal party to bring about
a change of ministry, or even his own abdication. If Oscar
did not actively assist the Opposition on this occamon, his dis-
approbation of his father's despotic behaviour was notorious,
though he avoided aa actual rupture. Yet his liberalism was
of the most cautious and moderate character, as tbe Opposition,
shortly after his accession (March Sib, 1844), discovered to their
great chagrin. He would not hear of any radical reform of the
cumbrous and obsolete constitution. But one of his earliest
measures was to establish freedom of the press. Most of the
legislation during Oscar I.'s reign aimed at improving the economic
position of Sweden, and the riksiagt in its address to him in 1857,
lightly declared that he had promoted the material prosperity
of the kingdom more than any of his predeccssora. In foreign
affairs Osor I. was a friend of the principle of tuitionality. In
1848 he supported Denmark against Germany; placed Swedish
and Norwegian troops in cantonments in Fiinen and North
Schleswig (x849*i85o); and mediated the truce of Malmd
(August 26tb, 1848). He was also one of the guarantors of the
int^ty of Denmark (London protocol, May 8th, 1852). As
early as 1850 Oscar I. had conceived the plan of a dynastic
union of the three northern kingdoms, but such difficulties
presented themselves that the scheme had to be abandoned.
He succeeded, however, in reversing his father's obsequious
policy towards Russia. His fear lest Russia should demand a
stretch of coast along the Varanger Fjord induced him to remain
neutral during the Crimean War, and, subsequently, to conclude
an alliance with Great Britain and France (November asth,
185 s) for preserving the territorial integrity of Scandinavia.
Oscar I. left four sons, of whom two, Cul (Charics XV.) and
Oskar Fredrik (Oscar II.), succeeded to his throne.
' See T. Alln«n. Atkn Bemadtm (Stockholm, 1896): and C. E.
Aki«a» Mimun frdn Carh XtV^ Okots J. och Carlt XV. Laaaf
(Stockholm, 18&1, 1885). Also Noawar {kiMtcryi and Sweden
(Aiitory).
OSCAR n. (182^x907), king of Sweden and Norway, son
of Oscar I.^ was bom at Stockholm on the 21st of January 1829.
He entered tbe navy at the age of eleven, and was appointed
junior lieuteDant in July 1845. Later he studied at the univer-
sity of Upsala, where he distinguished himself in maihematiok
In 1857 he married Princess Sophia Wilhelmina, youngest
daughter of Duke William of Nassau. He succeeded his brother
Charles XY. on the i8lh of September 1S72, and was crowned
in the Norwegian cathedral of Drontheim on the iStb oC July
1873. At his accession be adopted as his motto BridraJMktnt
Kdi, " the welfare of the brother folk," and from the first h«
realized the essential difficulties in the maintenance of the i^jon
between Sweden and Norway. The political events which led
up to the final crisis in 1905, by which the thrones were separated*
are dealt with in the historical articles under Noawav and
Sweden. But it may be said that the peaceful solution eventu-
ally adopted could hardly have been attained but lor the tact
and patience of the king himself. He declined, indeed, to permit
any prince of his house to become king of Norway, but better
relations between the two countries were restored before his
death, which took place at Stockholm on tbe 8th of December
1907. His acut« intelligence and his aloo fn ess from the dynastic
considerations affecting most European sovereigns gave the
kipg considerable weight as an arbitrator in ^temaiional
questions. At the request of Great Britain, Germany and tbe
United States in i88g he appointed the chief justice of Samoa,
and be was again called in to arbitrate in Samoan affairs in 1899.
In 1897 be was empowered to appoint a fifth arbitrator if neces-
sary in the Venezuelan dispute, and he was called in to act as
umpire in the Anglo-American arbitration treaty that was
quashed by the senate. He won many friends in England by
his outspoken and generous support of Great Briuin at the time
of the Boer War (1899-1902), expressed in a declaration printed
in The Times of the 2nd of May 1900, when continental opinion
was almost universally hostile.
Himself a distinguished writer and musical amateur, King
Oscar proved a generous friend of learning, and did much to
encoun&ge the development of education throughout his
dominions. In 1858 a collection of his lyrical and narrative
poems. Memorials oj the Swedish Fleet, published anonymously,
obtained the second prize of the Swedish Academy. His *' Con-
tributions to the Military History of Sweden in the Years 171 x,
1712, 171J," originally appeared in the Annals of the Academy,
and were printed separately in 186$. His works, which in-
cluded his !Hpeeches, translations of Herder's Cid and Goethe's
Torquato Tasso, and a play, CastU Cronberg, were collected in
two volumes in 1875-1876, and a larger edition, in three volumes,
appeared in 1885-1888. His Easter hymn and some other
of his poems are familiar throughout the Scandinavian countries.
His Memoirs of Charles Xll. were translated into English in
1879. In 1885 he published his Address to the Academy of Music,
and a translation of one of his essays on music appeared in
Literature on the 19th of May 1900. He had a valuable collectum
of printed and MS. music, which was readily accessible to the
historical student of music.
His eldest son, Oscar Gustavus Addphus, duke of Wirmland
(b. X&58), succeeded him as Gustavus V. His second son, Oscar
(b. 1859), resigned his royal rights on his marriage in x888
with a lady-in-waiting, FrOken Ebba Munck, when he assumed
the title of Prince Bernadotte. From 1892 he was known ss
Count Wisborg. Tbe kihg's other sons were Charles, duke of
WestergOtland (b. 1861), who married Princess Ingebotg of
Denmark; and Eugene, duke of Nerike (b. 1865), well known
as an artist.
OSCBOLA (a corruption of the Seminole As-se-he-ko-lar,
meaning black drink) (c. 1804-1838), a Seminole American
Indian, leader in the second Seminole War, was bom in Georgia,
near the Chattahoochee river. His father was an Englishman
named William Powell; his mother a Creek of the Red Stick
or Mikasuki divison. In x8o8 he ronoved with his mother
into northern Florida. When the United States commiuioncn
negotiated with the Seminole chiefs the treaties oi Pa)'ne's
Landing (9th of May 1832) and Fort Gibson (28ch of March
1833) for the removal of the Seminoles to Arkansas, Osceola
Klxcd the opportunity to lead the opposition of the young
warriors, and declared to the U.S. agent, General Wiley Thomp-
OSCHATZ—OSCILLOORAPH
3+7
SOD, that any chief who prepared to remove would be killed.
At the Agency (Fort King, in Marion county) he became more
violent, and in the summer of 1835 Thompson put him in iroM.
From this confinement he obtained hit release by a professioB
of penitence and of willingness to emigrate. Late in November
1835 he murdered Charley Emathla (or Emartla), a chief who
was preparing to emigrate with his people, and on the aSth of
I^ecember he and a few companions shot and killed General
Thompson. On the same day two companies of Infantry imder
Major Francis L. Dade were massacred at the Wahoo Swamp
near the Wilhlacoojchcc river, while marching from Fort Brooke
on Tampa Bay to the relief of Fort King. In a battle fought
three days hter at a ford of the Withlacoochee, Osceola was
at the head of a negro detachmoit, and although the Indians
and negroes were repulsed by troops under General Duncan L.
Clinch (1787-1849), they continued, with Osceola as their most
crafty and determined leader, to murder and devastate, and
occasionally to engage the ttoops. In February 1836 General
Edmund P. Gaines (1777-1849), with about 1100 men from
New Orleans, marched from Fort Brooke to Fort King. When
he attempted to return to Fort Brooke, because there were not
the necessary provisions at Fort King, the Indians disputed
his passage across the Withlacoochee. In the same year Generals
Winfield Scott and Richard K. Call (1791-1862) conducted
campaigns against them with little effect, and the year closed
with General Thomas Sidney Jcsup (1788-1860) in command
with 8000 troops at his disposal. With mounted troops General
Jesup drove the enemy from the Withlacoochee country and
was pursuing them southward toward the Everglades when
•everal chiefs expressed a readiness to treat for peace. In a
conference at Fort Dade on the Withlacoochee on the 6th of
March 1837 they agreed to cease hostilities, to withdraw south
of the Hmsborough river, and to prepare for emigration to
Arkansas, and gave hostages to bind them to their agreement.
But on the and of June Osceola came to the camp at the head
of about 300 Mikasuki (Miccosukccs) and effected the flight of
all the Indians there, about 700 including the hostages, to the
Everglades. Hostilities were then resumed, but in September
Brigadier General Joseph M. Hernandez captured several chiefs,
and a few days later there came from Osceola a request for an
interview. This was granted, and by command of General
Jesup be was taken captive at a given signal and carried to
Fort Moultrie, at Charleston, South Carolina, where he died
in January 1838. The war continued until 1843, but after
Osceola's death the Indians sought to avoid battle with the
regular troops and did little but attack the unarmed inhabitants.
See J. T. Sprague, The Origin^ Pr^gras and Cotulusum 'of the
Florida War (New York, 184S).
OSCHATZ, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, in the valley
of the DtiUnitz, 36 m. N.W. of Dresden, on the trunk railway
to Leipzig. Pop. (1905) 10,854. One of its three Evangelical
churches is the handsome Gothic church of St Aegidius, with
twin spires. Sugar, felt, woollens, cloth and leather are manu-
factured, and there is considerable trade in agricultural produce.
Four miles west lies the Kolmberg, the highest eminence in the
north of Saxony.
See C. Hoffmann, Uhtoriuhe Besckreibung dtr Stadi Osckatt
(Oschatz. 1873-1874): and Gurlttt. Bau^ und Kunsidenkmdier der
AnUsmannschafl Osckatt (Dresden, 1905).
OBCHBRSLEBEN, a town of Geraiany, in the Prussian province
of Saxony, on the Bode, 34 m. by rail S.W. of Magdeburg, and
at the junction of lines to Halberstadt and Jerxheim. Pop.
(iQos) I3t37i. Among its industrial establishments are sugar-
refineries, ir6n-fotmdriei, breweries, machine-shops and brick
works. Oschersleben is first mentioned in 803, and belonged
in the later middle ages to the bishops of Halberstadt.
OSCILLA. a word applied in Latin usage to small figures,
most commonly masks or faces, which were hung up as offerings
to variow deities, either for propitiation or expiatk>n, and in
connexion with festivals and other ceremonies, it is usually
taken as the plural of osciUum (dimin. of oj), a little face. As the
9scUla swung in the wind, osclUore came to mean to swing, hence
in English " osdilatfon,*' the set of swinging backwaitls and
forwards, periodic motion to and fro, hence any variation or
fluctuation, actual or figurative. For the scientific pvobleina
connoted with oscillation see Mbchamics and Osollogiuph.
Many osciUa or masks, representing the head of Bacchus
or of different rustic deities, are still preserved. There is a suu-Ue
osciUum of Bacchus in the British Museum. Others still ia
existence are made of earthenware, but it seems probable that
wax and wood were the ordinary materials. Small rudely shaped
figures of wool, known as ^iKaei.were also hung up in Uie same
way as the cxiila.
The festival* at which the handng of esrOfo took place werei
(1) The Snuniimu ArtM, or eowmg fertivals, and the Foiomlm,
the country (estivab of the tutelary deities of Che pagi; both took
place in January. Hefe the oscUla were hung on trees, such as the
vine and the olive, oak and the pine, and represented the faces of
Liber. Bacchus or other deity connected with the euhlvation of the
soil (Vir?. Gwt' ii- 383.596). (3) The Fma* Laiinaa; in this
case games were played, amone them swiiwinf (fisdUafio)', cf. the
Greek festival of Aeara (see EarcoNB). nUns (s.v. OsciUum, ed.
MQUer, p. 194) says that this swinging was called osnUaUo because
the swii^ra masked their faces {os cdaro) out of shame. (3) Ac the
Compilalut, Festus aays {Pauk me FHL ed. MQller, p. 239) that pikm
and effigies virSes et mtdtebms made of wool were hang at the cross*
roads to the Lares, the number of pHa€ equalling that of the slaves
of the family, the ^giet that of Che chtldrm; the purpose being
to induce the Lares to nare the living, and to be content with thi
^ihe and images. This nas led to the gmefally accepted oonclosioa
that the custom of hanging these ase^ia represents an older prsctke
of expiating human sacrifice. There is also no doubt a connexion
with lustration by the purifying with air.
OSCILLOGRAPH. In connexion with the study of altenating
or varying electric current, appliances are required for determtn*
ing the mode in which the current varies. An instrument for
exhibiting optically or graphically these variations is called an
oscillograph, or sometimes an ondognph. Several methods have
been employed for making observations ol the form of alcefnating
current curves— (i) the point-by-point method, ascribed generally
to Jules Joubert; (j; the stroboscopic methods, of which
the wave transmitter ol H. L. Callendar. £. B. Rom, and E;
Hospitatier are examples; (3) methods employing a high-fre-
quency galvanometer or oscillograph, which originated with A. E.
Blondel, axid are exempli 6ed by his oscillograph and that of W.
Duddeli; and (4) purely optical methods, such •• those of I.
Frfthlich and JC. F. Braun.
In the point-by-point method the shaft of an alternator, or an
alternating current motor driven in step with U, is furnished with
an insulatmg disk having a metallic ^ip inserted in its edge. Again&t
this disk press two spnngs which are connected tof^ether at each
revolution bv the coouct of the slip at an assigned mstaot during
the phase ot the alternating current. This contact may be made
to dose the circuit of a suitable voltroeter» or to charge a condenser
in connexion with it, and the reading of the voltmeter will therefore
not be the average or effective voltage of the alternator, but the
instantaneous value of the electromotive force corresponding to
that instant during the phase, determined by the position 01 the
rotating contact slip with reference to the poles of tlic alternator.
If the contact springs can be moved round the disk so as to vary the
instant of contact, we oan pbt out the value of the observed in-
Btaatancous voluge of the machine or circuit in a wavy curwc,
showing the wave lorm of the electromotive force of the alternator.
This process is a tedious one, and necessarily only gives the average
form of thousands of different alternations.
In the Hospitaiier oodograph,^ a synchronous electric motor
driven in step with the periodic currrnt in the' circuit being tested
drives a cylmder of insulating material having a metallic sUplet into
its edge. This cylinder is driven at a slightly lower speed than that
of synchronism. Three springs press against the cylinder and make
conuct for a short time during each revolution, so that a coodcnscr
is charged by the dmiit at an assigned insuot during the alternating
currest •^haar, and then subsequently connected to a voltmeter.
This process, so to speak, samples or tests the varying electromotive
force of the alternating current at one particular msunt dunng the
phase and measures it on a voltmeter. Owing to the fact that the
cylinder is losing er gaining slightly in speed on the circuit peoodicuy.
the voltmeter goes slowly, say in one minute, through an the ptiases
» E. Hospitaiier. " The Slow Registration of Rapid Phenomena
the Electrical Rniew, (19M). 90, 969.
3+8
OSCILLOGRAPH
of voltase which are jperfonnod lapklly durinf each period by the
alternating current The voltmeter needle may then be made to
record its vanadona graphically on a drum covered with paper and
•o to delineate the wave form of the current The procew ia analo-
gous to the optical experiment of looking at a quickly rotating wheel
or engine through slits in a disk, rotating slightly faster or slower
than the object observed. We then Me the engine going through all
its motions but much more slowly, and can follow them easily. In
another form devised by Callendar.^ a revolving contact disk is
placed on the shaft of an alternator, or of a synchronous motor
driven by the alternating current under test. A |Mur of contact
springs are slowly shifted over so as to close the circuit at successive
assigned instants during a complete phase. The electromotive
force so selected b balanced against the steady potential difference
pratduced between a fixed and a slidii« contact on a wire traversed
Dy another steady current, and if there b any difference between
this last, the potential difference, and the instantaneous potential
difference balanced against it, a relay b operated and seu m action
a motor which shifu the contact boint along the potentiometer
wire and so restores the balance. Inis contact point also carries a
pen which moves over a rotating drum covenxl with paper. As
the brushes are slowly shifted over on the revolving contact so as
to select different phases of the alternating electromotive force,
the peJk foUows and draws a curve delineating the wave form of that
electromotive force or current An instrument devised by E, D.
Rosa is not very different in construction.' A commutator method
has also been devised by T. R. Lyle iPkil. Mag., November
1903, 6. 517) in which at an assigned instant during the phase a
sdection i» made from the periodic current and measured on a
galvanometer.
The oscillographs of A. E. Blondel* and W. Duddell operate on a
different principle. They consist esaentblly of a galvanometer of
which the needle or coil has such a short natural periodic time that
it can follow all the variations of a current which runs through its
cycle in say ifoth second. This needle or coil must be so damped
tnat when the current b cut off it returns to aero at once without
overshooting the mark. By means of an attached mirror and
reflected ray of light the motion of the movable system can be indi-
cated on a screen. This ra^ b also given a periodic motion of the
same frequency by reflection from a separate oscillating mirror
so as to make the two motions at right angles to one another, and
thus we have depkted on the screen a bright line having the same
form as the periodic current being tested. In W. Duddell's oscillo-
graph* (fiff. i) the galvanometer part consists of an electromagnet
in the field of which is stretched a loop of very fine wire. To this is
attached a mirror; henoe, if a current goes up one side of a loop and
down another, the wires are oppositdy displaced in the field. The
loop and mirror move in a cavity fuu of oil to render the system
dead-beat A ray^ of light is rcnected from this mirror and from
another mirror which is rocked by a small motor driven off the same
circuit, so that the ray has two vibratory motions imparted to it
at right angles, one a simple harmonic motion and the other a motion
imitating the variation of the current or electromotive force under
test. This ray can be received on a screen or photographic plate,
and thus the wave form of the current is recorded. In the Ouddell
oscillog^ph it b usual to pbce a pair of loops in the magnetk fieM,
each with its own mirror, so that a pair of curves can be delineated
at the same time, and if there is any difference in phase between
them, it will be detected. Thus we can take two curves, one showing
the potentbl difference at the end of an inductive circuit, and the
other the current flowing through the circuit. In one form of
Blondel's oscillograph, the ^^biating system b a small magnetic
needle carrying a mirror, but the principle on which it operates
b the same as that of the instrument above described. The oscillo-
graph can be made to exhibit optkally the form of the current curve
in non*cyclicaI phenomena, such as the discharge of a condenser.
In this case the large vibrating mirror must be oeciUated by a
current from an alternator, on the shaft of which is a disk of non-
conducting material with brass slips let into it and so arranged with
contact brushes that in each period of the alternator a contact is
made, chargine say a condenser and dischargiitg it through the
oscillograph. In thb way an optical represenution b obtained of
the oscillatory discharge of the condenser. A fom of thermal
oscillograph has been devised by J. T. Irwin (Jom. JnsL EUc. Eng.
Lond. 1907, 39. 617). In this instrument the periodk: current, the
rime variation of which is being^ studied, passes through a pair of fine
wires or strips, going up one wire and down the otho*. These wires
are also traversed in the same direction by a constant current from
a battery. The two currents are therefore added in one wire and
subtracted in the other, and produce a differential heating effect
which causes unequal expansion, and this in turn b made to tilt a
»H. L. Callendar, "An Alternating Cycle Curve Recorder,"
Blectrician.^l. 583.
« E. B. Koea. " An Electric Curve Tracer," Eiectriiian, 4a lad.
*-See Assoc. Prcnq. pour CAvanc. des Sciences (1898), for a paper
on oadllomph) describing Blondel's original invention 01 the
oscillograph in iSoi.
* Ekctnciau (1897). 39. 636.
mirror wfakh reflects a ray of light on to a screen or photafnphic
pbte as in the Duddell oscillograph.
Finally, purely optkal methods have been employed. Braun*
devised a lomi of cathode ray tube, consisring of a vacuum tube
having a narrow tubular portion and a bulbous end. The cathode
terminal b connected to the negativepole of an electroeutic machine,
such as a Wlmshurst or Voas machine, giving a steady pressure.
A cathode discharge b projected through two s^iall holes in pbtes
in the narrow part of the tube on a ffuoresoent screen at the end of
the enlaived end, and the cathode ray or pencil depicts on it «
small bright greenish patch of light. If a pair of coib 01 wire througH
which an alternating current b passing are placed on either side of
the tube, just beyond one of the plates with a hole in It, the field
Fic. I.
causes a periodic displacement of the cathode ray and dongates the
patch of light into a bright line. If this patch b also given a di»>
placement in the direction of right angles by examining it in a
steadily vibrating mirror, we see a wavy or oscillatory line ^ l^ht
which IS an opti^ representation of the wave form of a current in
the coib embracing the Braun tube.
References.—Ste I. A. Fleming. A Handbook for the Electrical
Laborctory and Teshmg Room, voL 1. (London, looi), which contains
a list of original papers on the OKillogiaph; Id., The Principles ej
Electric Wave TOegyapky (London, 1906), which nves iUustratnns
of the use of the osciUqrraph and the Braun cathode ray tube in
defMcting condenser discnaiges; also, for the development of the
Periodic Curves," La Lnmikre ileetrique (August 39tb, 190T); Id.,
•See K. F. Braun. Wied. Ann. (1897). «<>• SPJ H. M. Variey,
Pha. Mag. (1902). ^500; and J. M. Variey and W. H. F. Murdoct
•• On some Applicauonsof the Braun Cathode Ray Tube," Electrician
(1905). 55- 335.
OSH— OSHKOSH
349
New Otcinofranlw,
L'Bdatramt
iUeUupu (Mav^iQOa): Id..
Vtdairait Heetrtqui (October 28th,
'attmctcrs and OsctUosraphs." J. T. Irwin,
InU..Etec, ^g. (1907). 39- 617- 0- A- F*)
•'Theory of Oical ,
1902). "Hot Wire
Jout.
OSUi a town of Russian Turkestan, in the sovcrnment ol
Ferghana, 31 m. S.E. of Andijan railway terminus, at an altitude
of 4030 ft. Fbp. (1900) 37i397> U consists of two parts, native
and Russian. Here begins a good road up to the Pamirs, practic*
able for artilierjr The trade with China is considerable.
O'SHANASSY, SIR JOHN (i8i»-i883). British colonial states-
man, was bom in iStS at Holycross Abbey, near Thurles,
Tipperary, his father being a land surveyor. He married in
1830, and the same year emigrated to the Fati Phillip distria
of New South Wales, where he was for some time engaged in
farming, and subsequently commenced business in Melbourne.
Dr Gcoghegan, afterwards Roman Catholic bishop of Adelaide,
induced him to take part in public affairs. He was one of the
founders, and later the president, of the St Patrick's Society of
Melbourne, and represented the Roman Catholic body on the
denominational board of education. When Port Phillip was
separated from New South Wales in 1851 and became the
cokmy of Victoria, O'Shanaasy was returned to the Legislative
Council as one of the members for Melbourne. A few weeks after
the new colony began its independent existence gold was dis^
covered, and the local government had to solve a number of
difficult problems. The legislature was composed partly of
elected representatives, and partly of nominees appointed by
the governor in council. The great natural ability of O'Shanassy
forced him to the front, and for some time the policy of the
country was virtually shaped by him and by Mr (afterwards Sir)
W. F. Stawell, the attomey^general. It was very much owing
to the strong position Uken by O'Shanassy that the Legislative
Council was allowed to control not only the ordinary revenue
raised by taxation, but also the territorial revenue derived from
the sale and occupation of crown lands. From that dale the
Legislative Council, led by O'Shanassy, became virtually
supreme. After the Ballarat riots in 1854, O'Shanassy was one
of th« members of a.commission appointed to inquire into the con-
dition of the gold-fields. The commission's report was the founda-
tion of the mining legislation which, initiated in Victoria, was
gradually followed by all the Australasian colonics. O'Shanassy,
together with Sir Andrew Clarke; was one of the framcrs of the
responsible government constitution. Under this constitution
O'Shanassy was returned in 1856 to the Legislative Assembly for
Melbourne and Kilmore, but took his seat for the latter con-
stituency. Early in 1857 the Haines ministry, the first formed
after the concession of responsible government, was defeated, and
O'Shanassy formed a ministry of which he became the premier.
But he was defeated after holding office for little more than six
weeks. He returned to power in 1858 as chief secretary and
premier. One of the first duties of the new ministry was to
inaugurate the system of railways, and to raise the necessary
funds for their construction. O'Shanassy decided to float a loan
of eighr millions sterling through the instrumentality of six of
the Melbourne banks, and be began the series of borrowings by
the Australian governments which subsequently attained such
large proportions. In 1859 the ministry resigned, but in August
1861 O'Shanassy formed his third administration. During
the two years that it held office the government passed an
Education, a Local government, a Civil Service and a Land Act.
The object of this last act was to abolish the system of selling the
crown lands by auction, and to substitute another which insisted
rather upon residence and cultivation than upon obtaining the
highest possible price. The act did not carry out all the inten-
tions of its framers, but it was a step in the right direction.
The O'Shanassy government was defeated in June 1863, and its
chief never again succeeded in regaining ofHce. He did not stand
at the general election of 1866, and paid a visit to Europe. In
i8d7 he returned to Victoria, and was elected to the Legislative
Council. In 1870 he was created C.M.G., and in 1874 K.C.M.G.
In the latter year he resigned his seat in the council, and did not
le-enter public life until 1877, when he was returned to the
Assembly for Belfast. His strongly espiciied Conservative
opinions and his devotion to the interesU of the Roman Catholic
church impaired his influence in the legislature, which had become
extremely democratic during the eleven years that he had been
absent from it; and although Sir John was a fearless critic of the
policy of the government, he never succeeded in defeating itt
He had a singularly compcehensive grasp of all constitutional
questions, was an eloquent speaker and an ardent free-trader.
He retired from parUajBeot in x88o, and died in 1883.
OfHAUOHNESST. ARTHUR WILUAH BDOAR (1844-
1881), English poet, was bom in London on the 14th of Match
1844* uid at the age of seventeen dbiained throogh the first
Lord Lyttoo, who took a peculiar interest in him, the post
of transcriber in the library of the British Museum. Two
years later he was appointed to be an assistant In the natural
history department; where he spedsUaed in ichthyology.
But his natural bent was towards literatuie. He published
his Epic of Women in 1870, Lays of France, a free vetsioo of the
Lais of Marie de France, in 187s, and Musk and MoonKgkt
in 1874. In his thirtieth year he married a daughter of John
Wcstland Manton, 4od during the last seven yean of his life
printed no volume of poetry. Songs of a Worker was published
posthumously in 188 1, O'Shaughnessy dying on the 30th ol
January in that year from the effects of a chill upon a delicate
constitution. O^haughnessy was a true singer; but his poems
lack importance hi theme and dignity in thought. His melodies
arc often magnificent; and, as in The Pountain of Tears, thQ
richness of his imageiy conceals a certain vagueness and indeciaon
of the creative faculty. He was very felidtous in bold uses of
rcperition and echo, by which he secured effects which for
haunting melody are almost inimitable. His spirit is that of a
niild melancholy, drifting helplessly through the re^ties of
r»fe and spending itself in song. By some critics be has been
disparaged, but reparation was done to hisr memory by Francis
Turner Palgrave, who, in the second series of theColden Treatury,
said with some exaggeration that his metrical gift was the finest,
after Tennyson, of any of the later poets, and that he had ** m
haunting music all his own."
OSHAWA, a manufacturing town and port of entry of Ontario
county, Ontario, Canada, on Lake Ontario and the Grand
Trunk railway, 30 m, E.N.E. of Toronto. Pop. (1901) 4394.
It contains flour, Woollen and grist-mills, piano, farm implement
and carriage factories, foundries, tanneries, canning factories, &c.
There arc a ladies' college and good schools.
OSHIHA, a group of three small islands belonging to Japan,'
lying southwards of Kiushiu, in 30* 50' N. and 130" E. Their
names, from west to east, are Kuroshima. Iwo-shima and Taka-
shima. Kuro-sliima rises to a height of 2475 ft., and Iwoshiroa
has an active volcano 2480 ft. high. These islands are not to
be confounded with Oshima, the most northerly island of the
Izu-noshichito, or with the northern group of the Lucbu Islands.
There are several other islands of the same name in Japan,
Oshima signifying " big bland." One of the best known lies
oil the Kii promontory, and has been the scene of many maritime
disasters.
OSHKOSH, a city and the county-scat of Winnebago county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 75 jn. N.N.W. of Milwaukee, on the
W. shore of Lake Winnebago at the mouth of the Upper Fox
river. Pop. (1900) 28,284, of whom 7356 were foreign-bom
(iiKluding 4500 from Germany), an<V 16.942 of foreign parentage
(including 10,655 <^ German and 1015 of Bohemian parentage) i
(1910 census) 33,062. Oshkosh is served by the Chicago,
Milwaukee k St Paul, the Chicago k Northwestern and the
Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste. Marie railways, by river steam-
boat lines connecting with other Fox River Valley cities, with the
Wisconsin river at PorUge, and with the Great Lakes at Green
Bay, and by interurban electric lines connecting with Fond du
Lac on the S., Green Bay on the N. and Omro on the W. The
city lies on both sides of the Fox river, here spanned by six
steel bridges, and stretches back to Lake Butte dcs Morts, an
expansion of the Fox. North Park (60 acres), on the lake front.
3 so
OSIANDER— OSIER
is ihe roost noteworthy of tts parlis; and thrrc are Chautauqua
grounds on the lake front. Yacht races take place annually
on Lake Winnebago. Among the public buildings are the City
Hall, Post Office, Winnebago County Court House, 1'ublic
Library (22,000 volumes). Oshkosh b the seat of a State Normal
School (1871), the largest in the state. The principal industries
are the manufacture of lumber and of lumber products, all hough
the former, which was once of paramount importance, has declined
with the cutting of neighbouring forests. In 1905 the value
of the city's factory product was $8>796,705, the lumber, timber
and planing miU products being valued at $4,671,003, the
furniture at $751 15" u^<l the waggons and carriages at l475>955>
Oshkosh is an important wholesale distributing centre foi a
larse part of central Wisconsin. .. Farming and dairying are
Important industries in tlie vicinity.
Under the French regime the site of Oshkosh was on the
natural route of travel tor those who crossed the Fox-Wiscnnsin
portage, and was visited by Marquette, Joliet and La Salle
on their way to the Mississippi. There were tcmpc^ary trading
posts here in the 18th century. . About 1827 the first
permanent settlers came, and in 1830 there were a tavern, a
store and a ferry across the river to Algoma, as the S. side of
the river was at first called. The settlement was first known
as Saukeer, but in 1840 its name was changed to Oshkosh in
honour of a Menominee chief who had befriended the early settlers
and who lived in the vicinity until his death in 1856. The real
prosperity of the place began about 1845 with the erection
of two saw mills; in 1850 Oshkosh had 1400 inhabitants, and
between i860 and 1870 the population increased from 6086 to
13,663. In July 1874 and April 1875 the city was greatly
damaged by fire.
OSIANDER. ANDREAS '(149^x552)1 German reformer,
was bom at Gunzenhausen, near Nuremberg, on the ipth of
December 1498. Hb German name was Hciligmann, or, accord-
ing to others, Hosemann. After studying at Leipzig, Altenburg
and Ingolstadt, he was ordained priest in 1520 and appointed
Hebrew tutor in the Augus>tinian convent at Nuremberg. Two
years afterwards he was appointed preacher in the St Lorenz
Kirche, and about the same time he publicly joined the Lutheran
party, taking a prominent part in the discussion which ultimately
led to the adoption of the Reformation by the city. He married
in 1525. He was present at the Marburg conference in 1529,
at the Augsburg diet in 1530 and at the signing of the Schmalkald
articles in 1537, and took part in other public transactions of
importance in the history of the Reformation; that he had an
exceptionally large number of personal enemies was due to his'
vehemence, coarseness, and arrogance in controversy. The
introduction of the Augsburg Interim in 1548 necessitated his
departure from Nuremberg; he went first to Brcsbu; and
afterwards settled at KOnigsbcrg as professor in its new university
at the call of Duke Albert of Prussia. Here in 1 550 he published
two disputations, the one De k^e et evangelio and the other
De justijicatione, which aroused a controversy still unclosed
at his death on the 17th of October 1552. While he was funda-
mentally at one with Luther in opposing both Romanism and
Calvinism, his mysticism led him to interpret justification by
faith as not an imputation but an infusion of the essential
righteousness or divine nature of Christ. His party was after-
wards led by his aon-ln-law Johann Funck, but disappeared
after the tatter's execution for high treason in T566. f Osiander's
son Lukas (1534-1604), and grandsons Andreas (1562-1617)
and Lukas (1571-1638), were well-known theolo^ans.
Oiiander, besides a nomber of controwersial writings, published a
edition of the Vulgate, with notes, in 1522, aad a Harmony
oorrcctede
of the Gospels— ihe first work of its kind— in 1517. The best-known
work of his son Lukas was an Epitome of the Magdeburt Centuries,
^ the Life by W. M6ller (Elbetfetd. 1870).
OSIER (through Fr. from Late Lat. asanas «MJ9fffia, a bundle
of o»er or willow twigs), the common term imder which are
included the various species, varieties and hybrids of the genus
Salix, used in the manufacture of baskets. The chief species
in cultivation are: Salix timinalis (the common osier) and
5. iriaudro, S. amyfiaitM, S. purpurea and 5. fro^Uis, which
botam'catty are willows and not osien. The first named with
some forty of its varieties, formed until recent times the staple
basket-making material in England. It is an abundant cropper,
sometimes attaining on low-lying soils 13 ft. in height. Full-
topped and smooth, it is by reason of its pithy nature mainly
cultivated for coarse work and is generally used as brown stuff.
Some harder varieties, known as stone osiers and raised on drier
upland soils, are peeled and used for fiine work. 5. Jragilis,
with some half-score varieties, is almost exclusively used by
market gardener* for bunching greens, turnips and other produce.
Owing to the increased demand for finer work much attention
has beei) given (see Basket) in recent years to the cuhivotion of
the more ligneous and tougher species, S. Uiandra, S. purpurea
and 5. amyfiitUina with their many varieties and hybrids.
It is commonly supposed that osiers or wUlows will prove
remunerative and flourish with Httle attention on aay poor,
wet, marshy soil. This is, however, not the case. No crop
responds more readily to careftd husbandly and skilful cuUiva>
tion. Fcir the successful raising of the finer sorU of willows
good, well-drained, loamy upland soil is desirable, which before
planting should be deeply trenched and cleared of weeds. J. A.
Krabc of Prummcm near Aachen, the most scientific and
praaical of German cultivators, the results of whose experiments
have been {>ublished in his admirable Lekrbmck der ratioudUm
Weidenktdtur (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1886, et seq.) went so far as to
assert that willows prefer a dry to a wet soil. T. Sdby of Otford,
Kent, in a report dated the x8th of November 1800 (see Jour^
Soc. Artr, 180T, 3dz., 7s) stated that aU kinds ol willows
invariably throve best on the driest spots of some wet land
planted by him. Krabe found that in addition to loam, willows
did well on dry ferrugineous, sandy ground with s good top
soil of about 6 hi. in depth; on poor loamy day, and even oa
peaty moors.. .
At any time, from larc winter to early spring, the ground may be
planted with " sets," i.e. cuttings of about 9 to 16 in. in tength,
taken from clean, wcU-ripened rods. These are firmly set to within
3 to 6 in. of the top in rows, 16 to so in. apart and spaced at intervals
of 8 to 12 in. Yearling sets are largely planted, but the experiments
of Krabc tend to prove, and the practice of the best Midland and
West of England growers confirms, the superior productiveness of
sets cut from two yearling rods. W. P. Ellmore of Leicester, .the
most experienced and enterprising of Midland cultivators, pecfcrrcd
to plant his sets in sauares, 18 to ao in. apart, in order to admit of
the use of the horse hoe in both directions and a freer play of B«in
and. air. Great care should be exercised in planting lest the bark be
fractured, loosened or removed from the wood. Tne ground shotdd
be kept free of weeds by frequent hoeing and. if not subject to
periodical alluvial floods, manured yearly. The coarser 5. vimiualis
may be raised on lowland soil if not water-logsed or marshy, but
the same attention to trenching and weeding^ imperative. Ap-
proved varieties of willows cost from 5s. to 178. 6d. per 1000 sets.
The more valuable kinds arc known as: New kind, Black mauls,
Spaniards, Glib&kins, Long-bud, Long-skin, Lancashire red-bod,
French, Italians, Poincrantans and Councillors and scores of other
local names. A hybrid of 5. viminalis and 5. trtaudra^ known as
Black'top and introduced by Ellmore has been found to produce
the heaviest crops on the best Leicestershire fsrounds.
Cutting and binding uke place in early winter after the fait of the
leaf, the crop being known as green whole stuff. The coarser lands
are. sorted, cured (dried in the sun and wind) and stacked ready fee'
market. These are known as brown rods. The finer lands, after
the more shrubby or ill-grown rods, termed Ragged, have been le-
jected. are peeled or buRcd. Two methods of stripping are chiefly
practised: Crom the heads (sets) and from the |3it. By the former
method the rods are left on the ground until spring advances, when
a rapid growth of the cork camlrfam begins. They are then art
direct from the head and the bark is easily removed oy drawing the
rods throngh a bifurcated hand-brake of smooth, well-rounded steel,
framed in wood. Improved brakes worked by a treadle strip two
rods at a time. For the smaller staes, rubber brakes are sometimes
used and, for the very stnallest^ the fingers either bare or protected
by linen bands. This method ensures a clean-butted unlractuied
rod, but unless great judgment is exercised in sckcting the proper
time for cutting, the rods will remain double-skinned and the head
may bleed. By the " pit '* process the green rods are stood upright
in sha1k>w pits of water at a depth of about 6 to 9 in. ami! the sap
rises and growth begins, w.hcn they are ready for the brake. The
defects of this method are that the tops are liable to split in the
brake and the butts to remain foul. A third, known as the ** pie '*
system enables the grower to bridge over the interval, and to
keep his bands employed, between the end of the " head "and tlio
OSIMO— OSMAN
351
bennnni«<
indication <
JE of the •• pit '• Btrippings. The willows are cut at the first
dication of the sap risine and *' couched " in rotten peelings and
■oil at a slight «ngle, the butts being on the ground, which should
be strewn with damp straw from a manure heap. The tops are
oovend Ikhtly with rotted peelings and by periodical application
of water, icrmentation is induced at the bottom, heat is engeiKicrcd,
the leaves force their way through the covering and peeling may
begin. Peeling is chiefly done by women and lasts from early May
to the middle of July. After stnpping. the rods ace bleached in the
■un and stored for sale as White. If the rods are to be buffed they
are immersed in large tank^ of boiling water from 4 to 6 hours.
They are then allowcd to cool and mellow, arc stripped and carefully
dried in sun and air and remain dyed a rich tawny brown or bun
colour. Brown rods may also be buffed by sinking them in cold
water which is heated to boilii^ point, and maintained at that
temperature for the reauistte period. Sticks (two or three yeariing
osiers) are also grown lor whiteninc and buffin^^: the leas ligneous
varieties of 5. mminalis are best adapted for this purpose. Osiers
or willows when tied for market vary locally in girth. In the west of
EngUod. the Thames valley, Cambndgeshue and Norfolk a " bolt "
of green stuff measures ^2 to 45 in. in circumference at 10 io. from
tite butt; a bok of white or brown, ^o in. In the northern and
midland counties the stuff is invariably sold by weight. On the
continent of Europe osiers or wUk»wt are bunched in sixes of one
metre in girth at the butts and (except in Belgium) are also soU by
"nie cost of planting an acre of fine willows varies greatly; it was
estimated by R. L. and R. Cottcrell of Ruscombc, Berks, as follows:
trenching and cleaning ground. £12: sets, ao.ooo at 5s.
per 1000. A; planting and levelling £t. Hoeingi first year,
l^; Buccc^tng vears about £a. iss. per annum. . After la
to isyears the (icads become tired," and should be grubbed
up. Tne firrt year's crop, known as the " maiden " crop, is of small
value tnit should be cut and the ensuing years of maturity will
yield crops of about 130 bolts, .green, per acre, worth £q, 15s.
If whitened, the loss in bulk and in rejection being two-thirds, this
would produce about 44 bolts, which at ly) per load of 80 bolts,
the appreciated market value of 1907, wouldbc worth £16, los. The
cost 01 whitening is is. 6d. per bolt, but aaainst this the value
of the rejected Ragged, sold as Brown, should be set off. In years
of abumlant crops and short demand, prices have falten to £34
per kMd.
The cost of planting and the outlay for manuring and weeding
during the years of maturity of the crop, are higher in the Midlands
and the yield was estimated by Ellmore at 6 to 10 tons per acre,
sreen, worth from £3, los. to £6. per ton. White rods, costing
from £3, to £3. 7s. 6d. per ton tor extra labour, will realize from
£22 to £94 per ton. Buff rods costing (with coal at los. per ton)
£5 per ton extra, will realize from £22 to £32 per ton. From 21
to 3 tons of green are required to produce one ton white or
bufT Wm. Scaling of Notts estimated the entire cost of an osk^r
plantation at £33, 12s. per acre for the first year and the outlay
for the next two years at £7, 5s. and £6, 15s. respectively.
The maiden crop he valued at £8, 12s. and the second and third
years* crop at £17 aijd £22.
A table given by Krabe, based on results obtained for 12 planta*
tions amounting to 20 hectares (so I^nglish acres) during 30 years
showed the value of produce per Prussian acre ('255^ of an hectare)
to be in the 1st year, £3. 6s. In the 2nd year the value of the
produce was £8. 19s; in the 3rd year. £9, 15s.; in the 4th year,
£8, los.; in the 5th year. £8, is.; in tlie 6th year, £7, 6s.; in
the 7th year. £5. 19s.; in the 8th year. £8. 9s.: in the 9th year.
• 7th year. £5, 19s.; in the 8th year, £8, 91 . ...
£5. SS.; m the loth year. £6, los.; in the nth year, £5, us.;
m tne 12th year. £4; in the 13th year, £6, is.; in the 14th year,
fc9•.; in the 15th year. £2, 8s.; in the l6th year, £1, i8s.; in
17th year, £2. 7s.; in the i8th year, £2, 2s.; in the 19th year,
£3, 13s.; and in the 20th year, £1, lis.
The cultivation of osiers is attended with many disturbmg causes'-*
winter floods, spring frosts, ground vermin and insect pests of
various kinds, sometimes working great havoc to the crop.
The best comprehensive work on the subject is that by Krabe,
which has pass«I through sevctal editions. A pamphM on the
cultivation of osiers in the Fen diMricts is issued in England by the
Boanl of Agriculture. (T. 0.)
OSmO (anc. Auxtmum, ^.a.)/ a' town and episcopal see of the
Marches, Italy, in the province of Ancona, 10 m. S. of that town
by rail Pbp. (1901) 6404 (town); 18,475 (commune). It is
situated on the top of a hill 870 ft. above ata-level, whence there
Is a beautiful view, and it retains a portion of its ancient town
wall (2nd century B.C.). The fRtored cathedral has a portal with
sculptures of the 13th century, an old ctypt, a fine bronse font
of the'i6th century and a series of portraits of all the bishops
of the see; the town hall contains a number of statues found on
the site of the ancient forum and also a few good pictures. The
castle (1489) was built by Baccio Pontelli. Silk-spinning and
the raising of cocoons ate carried on.
QSIRU, one of the principal gods of the anctCBfc Egyptians.
See Egypt, section Egyptian Rdigiou.
OSKALOOSA, a dty and the county-seat of Mahaskn county,
Iowa, U.S.A., about 62 m. S.E. of Des Moines. Pop. (1900)
9212, of whom 649 were foreign-bom and 344 ««re negroes;
1(1910 U.S. census) 9466. It is served by the Chicago, Burling-
ton & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the Iowa
Central railways, and by intenirban electric lines. The city
is built on a fertile prairie in one of the principal coal-prodttcing
regions of the state. At Oskaloosa is held the Iowa yearly
meeting of the Society of Friends; and the dty is the seat of
Pcnn College (opened 1873), a Friends' institution, and of. the
Iowa Christian College (incorporated as OskakxMa College in
1856 a^ reincorporated under its present name in 1962). At
the village of University Pack (incorporated in 1909), a suburb
adjoining the city on the E., is the Central Holiness University
(1906; coeducational), where the annual camp meeting of the
National and Iowa Holiness Assoda^ons is hdd. Cool-mining
is the most important industry in the surrounding region. Tbere
are deposits of day and limestone in the vidnity, and among th«
city's manufactures are drain and sewer tile, paving and building
bricks, cement blocks, and warm-air furnaces; in 1905 the
factory products were valued at $779,894. OskakMsa was first
settled in 2843; it was sdected in 1844 by the county com-
missioners as a site for the county-seat, and was chartered as
a dty in 1853. It is said to have been named in honour of the
wife of the Indian chief Mahaska (of the Iowa tribe), in whose
honour the county was named; a bronse sutue of Mahaska
(by Sherry £. Fry, an Iowa sculptor) was erected hem in 1909.
See W. A. Hunter, " History of Mahaska County." Sn Annals oj
lowot vols, vi.-vii. (Davenport, Iowa, 1868-1869), published by the
Iowa State Hititorical Society.
OSHAN CUsxan), the usual form of the Arabic name
'Otbman, as representing the Turkish and Persian pronunciation
of the name. It is used, therefore, for (1) the founder of the
Osmanli or Ottoman dynasty, Osmon I., who took the title of
sulun, ruled in Asia Minor, and died in 1326, and (2) the sixtcaith
sultan Osman II., who reigned 1616-1621 (see TunKsy; History)^
For the third Mahommcdan caliph see Othu an and Caliphate.
OSMAN (x 832^1 900), Turkish pasha and mushir(fidd marshal),
was born at Tokat, in Asia Minor, in 183a. Educated at the
military academy at ConsUntinople, he entered the cavaby
in 1853, and served under Omar Pasha in the Russian War of
185^56, in Wallachia and the Crimea. Appointed a captain,
in the Imperial Guard, he went through the campaigns of the
Lebanon in i860 and of Crete in 1867 to 1869, under Mustapha
Pasha, when he disiinguisbed himself at the capture of the
convent of Hagia Georgia, and was promoted licut.-coloncL
He served under Redif Pasha in suppressing an insurrcctio*
in Yemen in 187 1, was promoted major-general in 1874, and
general of division in 1875. Appointed to command the army
corps at Widin in :876 on the declaration of war by Servia,
he defeated TchncrnaiefT at Saitschar and again at Yavor in
July, ihvadcd Servia and captured Alexlnatz and DeUgrad in
Oaober, when the war ended. Osman was promoted to be
musbir, and continued in the command of the army corps at
Widin. j When the Russians crossed the Danube in July 1877,
Osman moved his force to Plevna, and, with the assistance of
his engineer, Tcwfik Pasha, entrenched himself there 00 the
right flank of the Russian line of communication, and gradually
made the position a most formidable one. He repulsed the
three general assaults of the Russians on the 20th and 30th
July and the nth September, inflicting on them great loss—
some 30,000 men in the three battles. He held the position,
after being closely invested, until the 9th December, when,
compelled by want to cut his way out, he was severely wounded
and forced to capitulate. This famous improvised dcfexKc of
a position delayed the Russians for five months, and entailed
their crossing the Balkan range in the depth of winter after the
third battle of Plevna. The sultsn conferred on Osman the
Grand Cross of the Osmanie in brilliants and the title of " Ghazi "
(victorious), and, when he returned from imprisonment in Rn
352
OSMIUM— OSNABRUCK
made him commandant of the Imperial Guard, grand-master of
the artillery* and marshal of the palace. In December 1878
he became war minister, and held the post, with a siftall break,
until 1885. He died at Constantinople, in the palace built
for him by the sultan near Yildiz Kiosk, on the t4th of April
1900, and his body was buried with great pomp in the Sultan
Muhammad Mosque. .,.
OSMIUM [symbol Os., atomic wdght 190-9 (0«i6)], in
chemisMy, a metallic element, found in platinum ore in small
particles, consisting essentially of an alloy of osmium and
iridium and known as osmiridium. It was first obtained in
180J by Smithson Tennant (Phil. Trans., 1804, 94, p. 411). It
may be prepared from osmiridium by fusing the alloy with
zinc, the rinc being afterwards removed by distillation. The
residue so obtained is then powdered and ignited with barium
nitrate, which converts the iridium into its oxide and the osmium
into barium osmiate. The barium salt is extracted by water
and boiled with nitric acid« when the osmium volatilizes in the
form of its tetrozide. As an alternative the osmiridium is fused
with xinc, the rcgulus treated with hydrochloric acid, and then
heated with barium nitrate and barium peroxide* After fusion,
the mass is finely powdered and treated with cold dilute hydro-
chloric acid; and when action has finished, nitric and sulphuric
adds are added, the precipitated barium sulphate removed,
the liquid distilled and the osmium precipitated as sulphide.
The sulphide is converted into sodium osmichloridc by fusion
with salt, in a current of chlorine, the sodium salt transformed
into ammonium salt by precipitation with ammonium chloride,
and the ammonium salt finally heated strongly (H. Saintc-
Claire-DeviUc and H. J. Debray, An, iwtn., 1859 (5I, 16, 74;
see also C. £. Claus, Jour, praki. Chan., 1862, 85, p. 143; F.
W5hlcr, Pogg. 31, p. t6z; E. Lcidie and L. Qucncsscn, Bull.
toe. ekim., 1903 (8), 29, p. 801). The tetroxidc, OSO4, can be
easily reduced to the metal by dissolving it in hydrochloric
acid and adding sine, mercury, or an alkaline formate to the
liquid, or by passing its vapour, mixed with carbon dioxide
and monoxide, through a red<hot porcelain tube. The metal
has a blue-grey colour, and may be obtained in the crystalline
state by solution in tin. Its specific gravity is ai*5-23*48
(Deville and Debray) and its specific heat is 003 113 (Rcgnault).
It can be distilled in the electric furnace. In the massive ^tate
it is insoluble in all adds, but when freshly precipitated from
solutions it dissolves in fuming nitric add. On fusion with
caustic potash it yields potassium osmiate. It combines with
fluorine at 100* C, and when heated with chlorine it forms
a mixture of dilorides. A colloidal variety was obtained by
A. Gutbier and G. Hofmder {Jour, prakl. Ckem., itjos.iih 71.
P- 45') by reducing osmium compounds with hydrazine hydrate
in the presence of gum arabic
Several oxides of osmium are known.'* The protoxide, OsO, is
obtained as a dark grey insoluble powder when osmium sulphite is
heated with sodium carbonate in a current of carbon dioxide. The
iesquiexide, OwOh results on heating osmium with an excess of the
tctroxide. The dioxide, OsOi, is Torraed when potassium osmi-
chloride is heated with sodium carbonate in a current of carbon
dioxide, or by doctrolysis of a solution of the tetroxide in the
presence of alkali. It is insoluble in adds and exists in several
nj^dratcd forraa. The osmiateSt corrcspondii^ to the unknown
trioxide OsQi. are red or green colounra salts: the solutions are
only stable in the presence of excess of caustic alkali ; on boiling an
aqueous solution of the potassium salt it decomposes readily, forming
a black oredpitate of oamic add. H^OsO*. Pdasnitm csmiate,
K/>90«2H«0. lorrocd when an alkaline solution of the tetroxidc is
decomposed by alcohol, or by potassium nitrite, crysuIUzcs in red
octahcdra. It is stable in dry air, but in moist air rapidly decom-
poses. The tetroxide, OiOb is formed when osmium compounds are
heated in air, or with aqua regia, or fused with caustic alkali and
nitre. It is obtained aa a yellowish coloured mass and can be
sublimed in the form of needles which mdt at 40* C. It possesses
an unpleasant smell and its vapour is extremely poisonous. It
dissolves slowly in water, and the aqueous solution is reduced by
moat meuls with predpitatioo of osmium. It acts as aa ondtsing
agent, liberating iodine from potasnum iodide, converting alcohol
into acetaldrhyde, &c.
. Osmium dkhloride. OsCtt. is obulned as a daric coloured powder
when the metal is heated In a current of chlorine. Its solution
in water is deep blue in ooboc, but Uie cobnr changes rapidly to
green and yellow. The tridihrid*, OsClt* is only known in aolatioi
and is formed by the redudng action of mercury on amn
cal solutions of the tetroxide. A hydrated form*af comr'
OsCIs . 3H^ has been described. The UtrtUoride, OsCU is o
as a dark red sublimate (mixed with the dichkmde) when osi
heated in dry chlorine. It is soluble in water, but the dilute solution
rcadilv decomposes on standing. It combines with the chkirides of
the alkali metals to form characteristic double salts of the type
OsCl«.2MCl (osmichlondcs). Potassium osmickhride, KdOsCk. is
formed when a mixture of osmium and pousaium chloride is heated
in a current of chlorine, or on adding pousaium chloride and alcohol
to a solution of the tetroxide in hydrochloric acid, h crysUlUsea
in dark red ocuhedra which are almost insoluble in coM water.
The aqueous solution decomposes rapidly on boiling. Iodine has no
action on osmium, but on warming the tctroxide with a mixture
of potassium iodkle and hydrochloric add a deep emerald greea
colour is produced, due to the formation of a compound (>sIfl.2Hli
this reaction is a delicate test for osmium (E. Pinema Alvarca.
CompUs rendus, 1905, 140. p. 1254). Osmium disutpkide, OsSa, is
obtained as a dark brown prcdpiute. insoluble in sirater. by passing
sulphuretted hydrogen into a solution of an osmickloride. The
ietrasuipbide, OsS^, is similarly prepared when sulphuretted hydrogen
is paucd into acid solutions of the tctroxide. It is a brownish black
solid, insoluble in solutions of the alkaline sulphides. The atomic
weight of the metal has been determined by K. Seubert (£er.. 1888.
21, p. 1839) from the analysis of potassium and ammonium oami-
chbrides, the values obtained bdng approximatdy i^i.
OSNABROCK, a town and episcopal see of Germany, In the
Prussian province of Hanover, situated on the Haae, 70 m.
W. of the dly of Hanover, 31 ra. by rail N.E. of Mttnster, and
at the junction of the lines Hamburg-Cologne and Beriin-
Amsterdam. Pop. (1905) 59,580. The older streets contain
many interesting examples of Gothic and Renaissance domestic
architecture, while the substantial houses of the modem quarters
testify to the present prosperity of the town. The oM fortifica-
tions have been converted into promenades. The Roman
Catholic cathedral, with its three towers, is a spadoos building
of the X3th century, partly in the Romanesque and partly ia
the Transitional style; but it is inferior in architectural interest
to the Marienklrche, a fine Gothic structure of the i4ih and 1 sih
centuries. The town hall, a 15th-century Gothic building,
contains portraits of some of the plenipotentiaries engaged in
concluding the peace of Westphalia, the negotiations for which
were partly carried on here from 1644 to 1648. .Other imi«
portant buildings are the museum, erected in 1888-1889 and
containing sdentific and historical collections; the episcopal
palace and the law courts. The lunatic asylum on the Ger-
trudenberg occupies the site of an ancient nunnery. The town
h$s an equestrian statue of the emperor William I., a statue of
Justus Mdscr (i 729-1794) and a memorial of the war of J 870-187 f
Linen was formeriy the staple product, but it no longer retains
that position. The manufactures include machinery, paper,
chemicals, tobacco and cigars, pianos and beer. Other in-
dustries arc spinning and weaving. The town has large iron
and sted works and there are coal mines in the neighbourhood.
A brisk trade is carried on in grain and wood, textiles, iron goods
and Westphalian hams, while important cattle and horse fain
arc held here.
Osnabriick is an andent place and in 888 received the right
to establish a mint, a market and a toll-house. Surrounded
with walls towards the close of thi tith century, it maintained
an independent attitude towards its nominal ruler, the bishop,
and joined the Hanseatic League, reaching the height of its
prosperity in the 15th century. The decay inaugurated by
the dissensions of the Reformation was accelerated by the
ravages of the Thirty Years' War, but a new period of protpcriiy
began about the middle of the t8th century. The bishopric
of Osnabriick was founded by Charlemagne about 800, after
he had subdued the Saxons. It embraced the district between
the Ems and the Hunte, and was included in the archbishopric
of Cologne. By the peace of Westphalia it was decreed that
it should be held by a Roman Catholic and a ProtesUnt bishop
altematdy, and this sute of affairs lasted until the seculariza-
(ion of the see in i8oj. In 1815 the bishopric was given to
Hanover. The last bishop was Frederick, duke of York, a son
of (he English king George HI. Since 1857 Osnabriick has been
the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop.
OSNABURG-^OSROENE
353
See PriedeHct and Stievc. GtxkkkU dtr Sioii OnabriUk (Otna-
brikk, 1816-1836): Wurm. OsnabriUk, atuu Cescktckle, sein€ £a»>
nnd KunstdenkmOUr (Osnabrflck, 1906). and Hoflm«yer. Ce-
sckuhte der Stadt vnd des Reeierungsbemris OsnabriUk (OsnabrQck.
1904). See also the OsuabrScktr CtsckkhiMutUtn (OsnabrOck,
1891 foU: the OmabnUher UrkundaUnuk. e2c«d by F. PhiUppi
aod M. B&r (OsnabrOck. 1893-1003): and the publicationa of the
Verein fur GesckickU und Landeskunde von Osnabruck (OsnabrQck,
1 883 fof. ). For the history of the bishopric see J C. MOller. Cescktcktg
dtr WeilMMchAfe vim Osna^uck (Lingen, 1887); and C. StQve,
GeschuhU d$$ Uockaifts OaloMtek (Jena. 1872-1883).
OaXBURO, the name givea to a ooanish type of plain fabric,
originally made from flax yarna. It is now made from dther
flax, tow or jute yarnsr-^ometimea flax or tow warp with mixed
or jute weft, and often entirely of jute. The finer and better
qualities form a kind of common sheeting, and the various
kinds may contain from 30 to 36 threads per inch and xo to 25
picks per inch.
OSORIO, JBROMYIIO (i 506-1 580), Portuguese historian, was
a native of Lisbon and son of the Ouvidor Geral of India. In
1519 his mother sent him to Salamanra to study civil law, and
in 1535 he went oq to Paris to study phikisopliy, and there
became intimate with Peter Fabre, one of the founders of the
Society of Jesus. Returning to Portugal, Osorio next proceeded
for theology to Bologna, where he made such a name that King
John III. invited him in 1536-1537 to lecture on scripture in
the raofganized univeruty of Coimbra. He returned to Lisbon
in 1540, and acted as secretary to Prince Luis, and as tutor
to his son, the prior of Crato, obtaining also two benefices in the
diocese of Vizieu. In 1543 be printed in Lisbon his treatise
De nt^UUale. After the death of Prince Luiz In 1553, he with-
drew from court to his churches. He was named ardideacon
of Evora in 1560, and much against hb will became bishop of
Silves ip X564. The Cardinal Prince Henry, who had bestowed
these honours, desired to employ him at Lisbon in state business
when King Sebastian took up the reins of power in 1568, but
Osorio excused himself on the ground of his pastoral duties.
though he showed his seal for the commonwealth by writing
two letters, one in which he dissuaded the king from going to
Africa, the other sent during the latter's first expedition there
(X574), in which he called on him to return to his kingdom.
Sebastian looked with disfavour on opponents of his African
adventure, and Osorio found it prudent to leave Portugal for
Parma and Rome on the pretext of a visit ad Umma. His
scruples regarding residence, and the appeals of the king and
the Cardinal Prince, prevented him enjoying for long the hospi-
tality of Pope Gregory XIII., and he retumeid to his diocese and
died at Tavira on the aoth of August 1580. An exemplary
prelate, a learned scholar and an able critic, Osorio gained a
European reputation by writing in Latin, then the lingua
franca of the studious throughout Christendom, and the per-
fection of his prose style caused him to be named by contem-
poraries ''the Portuguese Cicero." His well-stocked libraiy
was carried off from Faro when the eari of Essex captured the
town in 1596, and many of the books were bestowed on the
Bodleian at Oxford..
His principal works written in Latin include: (1) De ^oria el
nobiiitate civtte d ckrisHana, an English version of which by W.
Blandie appeared in London in 1576. (s) De justUta, (3) De
retis insMuHone et ducipUna. (4) De wera saptenha. ($) De
rebus Emmanudis (is86), a history of the rcien of King Emanuel
which is little more than a translation of the chronicle on the same
subject by DamiSo de Goes. Otorio't book was turned into Portu>
gueae by F. M. do Nascimento (e.r), into French by J. Crispin
7a volSb, Geneva, 1610), and an Loglish parAphrasc in s vols, by
J. Gibbs came out in London in 1753. His Opera omnia were
published by his nephew (4 vols., Rome, 1593). Two of his polemical
trearisea have been translated Into English, hia EpistU lo Eltaabelk
Qmene of Endand by R. Shacklock (Antwerp, 1565)) Md his Con-
f^aiion ofM. W, Haddon byj. Fen (Louvain. 1568). His Portuguese
epistles, including the two before mentioned, were printed in Lisbon
in two editions in 1818 and 1819. and in Paris in 1859. For his
biography see Obras de D. F. A, Lobe, bishop of Viztu. I. 393-301
(Lisbon, 1848). fF Pa.)
OSPBBT, or Ospbay, a word said to be corrupted from
•* Ossifragc/' Lat. ossifraga, bone-breaker. The Ossifraga of
Pliny iHJf. x. 3) and some other classical writers seems lo have
been the Ltnuaergeycr (qt); but the mime, not inapplicable
la that case, has been transferred to another bird which is no
breaker of bones, save incidentally those of the fishes it dcvoufs.>
The ospiey is a rapacious bird, of middling size and of conspicu-
ously-marked plumage, the white of iu k>wer parts, and often of
iU head, contrasting sharply with the dark brown of the back and
most of its upper paru when the bird is seen on the wing It is
thcFaUo kaiiaOms of Linnaeus, but was, in xSxo, estabhshed by
J.C Savigny(Oir ie i' jSgypfe, p. 35) as the type of a new genus
Pandian, It is closely xelated to the family Fakomdae, but is
the represenutive of a separate family, Pamdionidae Pandtan
differs from the Faiecmdae not only pterylobgically, as obser\'cd
by C. L. Nitzsch, but also oateoh>gicaUy, as pointed out by
A. Mifaie-Edwards (Oil. fass. France, iL pp. 4x3, 419). In some
of the chaxacteis in which it diffexs stnicturally from the
PaUamdae, it agrees with certain of the owls, but the most
important parts of iU internal stmcture, as well as of its ptcrykxis,
foriiid a belief that there is any near alliance of the two grmtps^
The special chancters of the family are the presence of a revers-
ible outer toe, the absence of aa aftcishaf t and the feathering of
the tibiae.
The osprey is one of the most cosmopolitan birds-of-prey.
From Alaska to Brazil, from Lapland to Natal, from Japan to
Tasmania, and in some of the islands of the Pacific, it occurs
as a wmter-visitant or as a resident. Though migratory ia
Europe at least, it Is generally independent of climate. It breeds
equally on the half-thawed shores of Hudson's Bay and on the
cays of Honduras, in the dense forests of Finland and on the
bancB rocks of the Red Sea, in Kamchatka and in West Australia.
Among the countries it docs not frequent are Iceland and New
Zealand. Where, through abundance of food, it Is numerous^
as in former days was the case in the eastern part of the United
States— the nests of the fish-hawk (to use its American name)
may be placed on trees to the number of three hundred ckisf
together. Where food is scarcer and the spedes accordingly less
plentiful, a single pair will occupy an isolated rock, and jealously
expel all intruders of their kind, as happens in Scotland.' Few
birds lay eggs so beautiful or so rich in colouring: their white
or pale ground Is spotted, bbtchcd or marbled with almost every
shade of purple, orange and red^passing from the most delicate
lilac, buff and peach-bkasom, through violet, chestnut and
crimson, to a neariy absolute black. The fierceness with which
ospreys defend their eggs and young, in addition to the dangerous
situation not infrequently chosen for the eyry, make the task
of robbing the nests difficult.
The term ** osprey," applied to the nuptial plumes of the egreta
In the feather traoe. is derived from the French espnt; it has
nothing to d^ with the osprey bird, and its use has been supposed
to be due to a confusion with " spray." (A. N.)
OSROENB, or Osbhoeke, a district of north-western Mesopo-
tamia, in the hill country on the upper Bilecbas (Bdichusi mod.
Nakr Belik, BUikh), the tributary of the Euphrates, with iu
capital at Edeasa (9.V.), founded by Scleucus I. About 130 b.c.
Edessa was occupied byanomadic Arabic tribe, the Orriioci (Plio.
V 85; vi. 35, XI7,- 139), who founded a small state ruled by their
chieftains with the title of kings. After them the district was
called Orrhoene (thus in the inscriptions, in Pliny and.Dio
Cassius), which occasionally has been changed into Osroenc, in
assimilation to the Parthian name Osroes or Chosiocs (Khosrau).
The founder of the dynasty is therefore called Osroes by Procop.
Bdl Pen, L 17; but Qthii or Urbii, son of Hewyl {jU, " the
'Another supooted oM form of the name u **Orfraie'*; but
that is sakl by M. Rolland {Faune popuL France, iL p. 9. note),
quoting M. Suchier {ZtiUckr. rom. Pkilel. I p. 433). to arise from
a mingling of two wholly different sources: (i) Oripclar^us,
Oriperagus, Orprais and (3) Ossifraga. " Orfraic " again is occasion-
ally interchanged with Efraie (which, through such dialectical
forms as Fresate, Fressaia, m said to come (rom the Latin praesaga),
the ordinary French name for the barn-owl, Ahtco Jtammeus (sice
Owl). Aocardii '"■ ' ~* " " " ** ' '* '
the oldest f
is found as e. ., „ ^
•Two good examnl*^ of the differrnt localities chosen bjr '
bird for its ncct are iliuscrated in Ootkeea Woiieyana, pis. B. ft H.
35+
OSROES—OSSORY, EARL OF
siake "), Lb the d&nmide of Dionysius of TcUmahrei he it no
historical personality, but the eponym of the tribe. In the
Syrian Doctntte of Addai (ed. Phllippa 1876, p. 46) he is called
Arjaw, «.«. " the lion." The kings soon became dependants of
the Parthians; their names are mostly Arabic (Bekr, Abgar,
Ma*Hu)t but among them occur some Iranian (Parthian) names,
as Pacorus and PhratamaqMtes. Under Tigranes of Armenia
they became his vassals, and after the victories of LucuUus and
Pompey, vassals of the Romans. Their names occur in all wars
between Romans and Parthians, when they generally inclined
to the Parthian side, t.g. in the wars of Crassus and Tiajan.
Trajan deposed the dynasty, but Hadrian restored it. The
kings generally used Greek inscrq>tions on their .cohis, but
when they sided with the Parthians, as in the war of Bfarcus
Aurelitts and Verus (a.o. 161-165), *^ Aramaic legend appears
instead. Hellenism soon disappeared and the Arabs adopted
the language and civilization c^ the Aramaeans. This develop^
ment was hastened by the introduction of Quistianity, which
IS said to have been brought here by the apostle Judas, the
brotherof James, whose tomb was shown in Edessa. In 190 and
20I we hear of Christian churches in Edessa. King Abgar IX.
(or VIII.) (17^214) himself became a Christian and abolished
the pagan cults, especially the rite of castration in the service of
Atargatis, which was now punished by the loss of the hands (see
Bardesanes, " Book of the Laws of Countries " in Cureton,
SptdUgium Syridcum, p. 31). His convenion has by the legend
been transferred to hii ancestor Abgar V. in the time of Christ
himself, with whom he is said to have exchanged letters and who
sent him his miraculous image, which afterwards was fixed ovtt
the principal gate of the dty (see Abgak; Lipsius, Die edesse-
msche Abgarsage (1880); I>obschata, Ckristusbilder (1896))
Edessa now bM»nie the principal seat of Aramaic-Christian
(Synac) language and literature; the Uteraxy dialect of Syriac
is the dialect of Edessa.
Caracalla in at6 abolished the kingdom of Oirocne (Dio Casa.
77, I i. 14) and Edessa became a Roman colony. The list of the
kings of Osroene is preserved in the Syrian chronicle of Dionynus
of Tellmahre, which is checked by the coins and the data of the
Greek and Roman authors; it has been reconstructed by A. v.
Gutschmid, *' Untersuchungen fiber die Geschichte des Kfinlg-
reichs Osroene," in Mtmoirts de VAcod. de St PiUnt»urg, t.
xxxv. (1887). Edessa remained Roman tQl it was taken by
Chosroes IL in 608; but in 625 HeracHus con q uered it again.
In 638 it was taken by the Arabs. (Eo. M.)
08R0BS (also Osdkoes or Chosioes), the Greek form of the
Persian name Khosrau (see Chossoes). The form Osroei is
generally used for $, Parthian king who from his coins appears
to have reigned from about A.o. 106-139, as successor of
his brother Pacorus. But during all this time another king,
Vok>gaeses 11. (77-147) maintained himself in a part of the
kingdom. Osroes occupied Armenia, and i^aced Ezedares, a
son of Pacorus, and afterwards his brother Parthamasiris on the
throne. This encroachment on the Roman sphere led to the
Parthian war of Trajan, In 114 Parthamasitis surrendered to
Trajan and was killed. In Mesopotamia a brother of Osroes,
Meherdates (Mithradates IV.), and his son Sanatruces IL. took
the diadem and tried to withstand the Romans. Against them
Trajan united with Parthamaspates, whom he placed on the
throne, when he had advanced to Ctesiphon (i 16). But after the
death of Trajan (1x7) Hadrian acknowledged Osroes and made
Parthamaspates kmg of Edessa (Osroene); he also gave back
to Osroes his daughter who had been taken prisoner by Trajan
(Dio Cub. 68, 17, 92. 33; Malalas, p. 270 ff.; Spartian, Vila
Hadr. 5. 13; Pausan. v. xa, 6). But meanwhile Vok>gaeBcs II.
bad regained a dominant position; Us coins begin again in 122
and go on to 146, whereas after 121 we have no coins of Osroes
except in 128.
By ProcopiuB. P«w. 1. 17, 24, the name of the territory of Onoene
is derived from a dynast Osroes, but this b a fabe etymology (see
OSROBNB). (Ed. M.)
OStA (mod. Kissoto or Kissavo), a mountain in the district of
Magnesia in Thessaly, between Pelion and Olympus* from which
it is separated by the valley of Tempe. Height about 6400 ft.
The Giants are said to have piled Pelion upon it in their attempt
to scale Olympus.
OfiSElT* a municipal borough in the Morley parliamentary
division of the West Ridmg of Yorkshire, England, 3 m. \V of
Wakefield, on the Great Northern and (Horbury and Ossctt
station) the Lancashire and Yorkshire railways. P(^. (1901)
12,903. It includes the contiguous townships of Ossett, South
Osselt and Gawthorpe. The church of the Holy Trinity, a fine
cruciform structure in the Early Decorated style, was erected in
1865. Woollen cloth mills, and extensive ooiUienea in the
neighbourhood, emptoy the large industrial population. There
are medidnai springs similar in their properties to those of
Cheltenham. The municipal borough, incorporaud in 1S90, is
under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 ooundUors. Area 323S acrca.
OSSIAN, OssiN or OisiN, the legendary Irish 3rd-century boo
of Celtic literature, son of Finn. According to the legend
embodied in the Ossianic or Ossinic poems and prose romances
which early spread over Ireland and Scotland, Oanan and fab
Fenian followers were defeated in 283 at the battle of Gabhra by
the Irish king Carbery, and Ossian spent many yews in fairy*
land, eventually being baptized by St Patrick. As Oi«n he was
long celebrated in Iridi song and legend, and in recent years the
Irish literary revival has repopularized the Tcnian hero. In
Scotland the Ossianic revival is associated with the name of
James Macpberson {q.v).
See Celt Ltterature; aUo Nutt's Ossutm ami Ik OtsiaaU
Lateraturt (1899),
OSSIIIGTON, JOHN EVELYN DBNISON. Vxscotnrr (1800-
X873), English statesman, was the eldest son of John Deniaoa
(d X820) of Ossington, Nottinghamshire, where he was bora oq
the 27th of January x8oo. Educated at Eton and Christ Church,
Oxford, be became member of parliament for Newcastie-under*
Lyme in 1823, being returned for Hastings three years later, and
holding for a short time a subordinate position in Canning's
ministry. Defeated in 1830 both at Newcastle>under-Lyme and
then at Liverpool, Denison secured a seat as one of the membexs
for Nottinghamshire in 1831; and after the great Reform Act
he represented the southern division of that county bom 1832
until the general election of 1837. He represented Malton from
X841 to 1857, and North Nottinghamshire from 1857 to 1872. In
April 1857 Denison was chosen Speaker of the House of Commons.
Ro-dected at the hfginnfng of three successive pailiamcnu he
retained this position until February 1872, when he resigDed and
was created Viscount Ossington. He refused, however, to accept
the pension usually given to retiring Speakers. In 1827 he had
married Charlotte (d. 1889), daughter of William, 4th duke of
Portland, but he left no children. He died on the 7th of March
1873, and his title became extinct.
06SININO, a village of Westchester county. New York, U.S. A.,
30 UL N. of New York dty, on the E. bank of the Hudson rivrr.
Pop. (X900) 7939, of whom X642 were fordgn-bom; (1910. U.S.
census) 11,480. It is served by the New York Central & Hodsoa
River raflway, and by river steamboats. It is firely situated
overiooking the Tappan Zee, an expansion of the Hudson river,
and has excellent fsJcUitics for boating, sailing and yachting. The
village is the seat of Mount Pleasant Academy (18x4), Holbiook
School (x866) and St John's School (1843), all for bcors, and has
a fine public library. The Croton Aqueduct is here caxrxcd over
a stone arch with an eighty>foot span. At Ossining, near the
river front, is the Sixig Sing Prison, the beat-known penitentiary
in Uie United States. In 1906 a law was enacted providiitg
for a new prison in the eastern part of the sUte in place
of Sing Sing. The site of Ossining, oxiginally a part of the
Phiilipee Manor, was fixst aettled about 1700, taking the naaae
of Sing Sing fxom the Sm Sinck Indians. The viUage was id-
oorporated in x8x3, and was xeincorporated, with enlarged
botmdaries and a considerably increased population, in 1906,
the name bdng changed from Sing Sing tp Ouining in 1901.
OeSORT. TBOHAB BUTLBB. Eau. of (1634-1680), ddcst son
of James Butler, xst duke of Oimonde, wa% bom at Kilkenny
on the 8th or 9ih of July 1634. His early years were spent in
OSSORY— OSTADE
355
Ireland uxd Fnmce, and he became an accomplished athlete and
by DO means an indifferent scholar. Having come to London
in 165a he was rightly suspected of sympathising with the
exiled royalists, and in 1655 was put into prison by Cromwell;
after his release about a year later he went to HoUand and
married a Dutch lady of good family, accompanying^ Charles II.
to England in 1660. la x^i Butler became a member oi both
the English and the Irish Houses of CoiAmons^ representing
Bristol in the fohner and Dublin University in the latter House;
and in 1662 was made an Irish peei^ as eari of Ossory. He held
severai military appointmenU» in 2665 was made lieutenant;
general of the army in Ireland, and in x666 was created an
English peer as Lord Butler; but almost as soon as he appeared
in the House of Lords he was imprisoned for two days for chal-
lenging the duke of Buckingham* In 1665 a fortunate accident
had allowed Ossory to Uke pan in a big naval fight with the
Dutch, and in May 1672, being now in command of a sbq>, he
fought against the same enemies in Southwold Bay, serving
with great distinction on both occasions. The earl was partly
responsible for this latter struggle, as in March 1672 before war
was declared he bad attacked the Dutch Smyrna fleet; an action
which he is said to have greatly regretted later in life. Whilst
visiting France in 1672 he rejected the liberal offers made by
Louis XIV to induce him to enter the service of France, and
returning to England he added to his high reputati<m by his
conduct during a sea-fight in August 1673. The earl was intimate
with William, prince of Orange, and in 1O77 he joined the allied
army in the Netheriands, commanding the British section and
winning great fame at the siege of Mens in 1678. He acted as
deputy for his father, who was lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and In
parliament he defended Ormonde's Irish administration with
great vigour. In 16S0 he was appointed governor of Tangier, but
his death on the 30th of July 1680 prevented him from taking up
his new duties. One of his most intimate friends was John
Evelyn, who eulogizes him in his Diary. Ossory had eleven
children, and his eldest son James became duke of Ormonde in
X688.
See T. Carte, Life of Janus, duit <tf Ormonde (1851): and J.
Evelyn. Diary, edited by W. Bray (1890).
OSSORY {Osraiihe)t an ancient kingdom of Ireland, in the
south-west of La'nster. The name is preserved by dioceses
of the Church of Ireland and the Roman Catholic Church. The
kingdom of Ossory was founded in the 2nd century a.d , and its
kings maintained their position until xixo.
OSTADE, the name of two Dutch painters whose ancestors
were settled at Eyndhovcn, near the village of Ostaden. Early
in the 17th century Jan Hendricx, a weaver, moved from
Eyndhoven to Haarlem, where he married and founded a large
family. The eldest and youngest of his sons became celebrated
artists.
I. Adrian Ostade (1610-1685). the eldest of Jan Hendricx*s
sons, was born and died at Haarlem. According to Houbraken
he was taught by Frans Hals, at that time master of Adrian
Brouwer, At twenty-six he joined a company of the civic
guard at Haarlem, and at twenty-eight he married. His wife
died in X640 and he speedily re-married, but again became a
widower in 1666. He took the highest honours of his profession,
the presidency of the painters' gild at Haarlem, in 1662. Among
the treasuresof the Louvrecollection, a striking picture represents
the father of a large family sitting in state with his wife at his
side in a handsomely furnished room, surrounded by his son
and five daughters, and a young married couple. Jt is an old
tradition that Ostade here painted himself and his children in
holiday attire; yet the style is much too refined for the painter
of boors, and Ostade had but one daughter. The number
of Ostade's pictures is given by Smith at three hundred and
eighty-five, but by Hofstede de Groot (iqio) at over 900. At his
d^th the stock of his unsold pieces was over two hundred. His
engraved plates were put up to auction, with the pictures, and
0ty etched plates^most of them dated x647'i648 — ^were dis-
poeed of in 1686. Two hundred and twenty of his pictures
«re in public and private collections, of which one hundred
and four are signed and dated, while arrentcen an ilgBed with
the name but not with the date.
Adrian Ostade was the contemporary of David Teniera and
Adrian Brouwer. Like them he spent hia life in the delineation
of the homeliest subjects — tavern scenes, village fairs and country
quartera. Between Teniers and Ostade the contrast lies in the
different condition of the agricultural classes of Brabant and
Holland, and the atmosphere and dwellings that were peculiar
to each region. Brabant has moie sun, more comfort and a
higher type of humanity; Teniers, in consequence, » silvery
and sparkling; the people he paints are fair specimens of a well-
built race. Holland, ill the vicinity of Haarlem seems to have
suffered much from war; the air is moist and hazy, and the
people, as depicted by Ostade, are short, ill-favoured and marked
with the stamp of adversity on theirfeaturesand dress. Brouwer,
who painted the Dutch boor in his frolics and passion, imported
more of the spirit of Frans Hals into his ddineations than his
colleague; but the type is the same as Ostade's. During the
first years of his career Ostade displayed the same tendency
to exaggeration and frolic as his comrade, but he is to be dis-
tinguished from bis rival by a more general use of the prindplea
of light and shade, and especially by a greater concentration
of light on a small surface in contrast, with a broad cxpaflse of
gloom. The key of his harmonies remains for a time in the
scale of greys. But his treatment is dry and careful, and in
this style he shuns no difliculties of detail, representing cottages
inside and out, with the vine leaves covering the poorness of Uie
outer walls, and nothing inside to deck the patchwork of raftera
and thatch, or tumbledown chimneys and ladder staircases,
that make tip the sordid interior of the Dutch rustic of those
days. The greatness of Ostade lies in the fact that he often
caught the poetic side of the life of the peasant dass, in spite
of its ugliness, and stunted form and misshapen features. He
did so by giving their vulgar sports, their quarrels, even their
quieter moods of enjoyment, the magic light of the sungleam^
and by clothing the wreck of cottages' with gay vegetation.
It was natural that, with the tendency to effect which marked
Ostade from the first, he should have been fired by emulauon to
rival the masterpieces of Rembrandt. His cariy pictures are not so
rare but that we can trace how he glided out ot one period into the
other. Before the dispersion of the Gsell collection at Vienna in
1872. it was easy to study the ■ted.grey harmonies and exasgerated
caricature of his eariy works in the period intervenine between
1632 and 1638. There is a picture of a ** Countryman fiavine his
Tooth Drawn,** in the Vienna Gallery, unsigned, and painted about
1632; 'a "Bagpiper" of 1635 in the Liechtenstein Calleiv at
Vienna; cottage scenes of 1635 end 1636. in the museums of Karls.
ruhe. Darmstadt and Dresden; and " Card Players " of 1637 in the
Liecbtensteifl paluoc at Vienna, which make up for the loss of the
Gsell collection. The same style marks most of those pieces. About
1638 or 1640 the influence of Rembrandt suddenly changed his
style, and he painted the" Annunciation "of the Brunswick museum*
wbece the angels appearing in the sky to Dutch boors half asleep
amidst their cattle, sheep and dogs, m front of a cottage, at once
recall the sinillar subject by Rembrandt and his effective mode of
lighting the principal groups by rays propelled to the earth out of a
murky sky. But Ostade was tiot succcssfiii in this cffr>rt to vu^riae
Scripture. He might have been pardoned had he given dramatic
force and expression to his picture; but his shepherds were only
boors without much emotion, passion or surprise. His pkture was
an effect of light, as such masteriy, in its sketchy rubbing of dark
brown tone relieved by strongly unposted lights, but without the
very Qualities which made his usual subjects attractive, \llien. in
164^, he painted the beautiful interior at the Louvre, in which a
mother tends her child in a cradle at the ride of a great chimney
near which her husband is sitting, the darkness of a countnr loft is
dimly illumined by a beam from the sun that shines on the Case»
ment; and one might think the painter intended to depict the
Nativity, but that there u nothing holy in all the surroundings
nothing attractive indeed except tlie wonderful Rembrandtesque
transparency, the brown tone, and the admirable ke«»ng of the
minutest parts. Ostade was more at home in a similar effect applied
to the commonplace incident of the " Slaughterins of a Pis.' one
of the masterpieces of 1643. once in the Gsell collection. In thik
and similar subjects of previous and succeeding years, he returned
to the homely subjects in which his power and wonderiul observa*
tion made him a master. He does not seem to have gone back to
gonel illustrations till 1667, when he produced an admirable
. Nativity." which is only surpassed as regards arrangement and
colour by Rembrandt's " Carpenter's Family " at the Louvre, or the
3S6
OSTASHKOV— OSTEND COMPANY
*' Woodcutter and ChiMfNi ' in the gallery oC CuaeL Xanumnable
almost are the more familiar themes to which he devoted his brush
durm^ this interval, from small single figures, representing smokers
or drinkers, to vulsarizcd allegories of the five senses (Hermitage
and Brunswick galleries), hall-lengths of fishnrangera and bakeia
and cottage brawls, or scenes of gambling, or itinerant players and
quacks, and nine-pin players in the open air^ The humour in some
_. „ 'Tavern Scene" of the
Lacaze collection (Louvre, 1653). His art may be studied in the
large series of dated pieces which adorn every European caoital,
from St Petersburg to London. Buckingham Palace has a large
number, and many a good specimen li«i hidden in the private
collections of England. But if we should select a few as peculiarly
worthy oif attention, we might point to the " Rustics in a Tavern
of i66a at the Hague, the " Village School " of the same year at
the Louvre, the "Tavern Court-yaid " of 1670 at Caa«el« the
" Sportsmen's Rest " of 1671 at Amsterdam and the " Fiddler and
his Audience " of 1673 at the Hague. At Amsterdam we have the
likeness of a painter, sitting with his back to the spectator, at his
caseL The colour-grinder is at work in a comer, a pupil prepaxca a
pafette and a black dog sleeps on the ground. A replica of this
picture, with the date of 1666, is in the Dresden gallery. Both
specimens are supposed to represent Ostade himself. But un-
fortunately we aee the artist's back and not his face. In his etching
(Bartsck, ^) the painter ^ows himself in profile, at work on a
canvas. Two of hu latest dated works, the ^' ViUage Street " and
*' Skittle Players." which were noteworthy items in^the Ashburton
and Ellcsmere collections, were executed in 1676 without any sign
of declining powers. The prices which Ostade received are not
known, but pictures whkh were worth £40 in 1750 were worth
£1000 a century later, and Eari Dudley gave £4120 for a cotuge
interior in 1876. The signatures of Ostade vary at different periods.
But the first two letters are generally interbced. Up to 1655
Osude writes himself Ostaden. e.g. in the " Bagpiper "of 1635 in
the Liechtenstein collectk>n at Vienna. Later on he uses the long f
(f), and occasionally he signs in capital ktters. His pufnis are bis
own brother Isaac, Comclis B<^, Cornelia Duaart and Richard
Brakenburg.
a. Isaac Ostade (1621-1649) was bom in Haarlem, and began
his studies under Adrian, with whom he remained till 1641,
when he started on his own account. At an early period he
felt the influence of Rembrandt, and this is apparent in a
" Slaughtered Pig " of 1639, in the gallery of Augsburg. But he
soon reverted to a style more suited to his brush. He produced
pictures in i64f-x64a on the lines of his brother — amongst these,
the " Five Booses," which Adrian afterwards represented by
a " Man reading a Paper," a " Peasant tasting Beer," a " Rustic
smearing his Sores with Ointment " and a " Countryman
sniffing at a Snuff-box." A specimen of Isaac's work at this
period may be seen in the " Laughing Boor with a Pot of Beer/'
in the museum of Amsterdam; the rottage Interior, with two
peasanu and three children near a fire, in the Berlin museum,
a ** Concert," with people listening to singers accompanied by
a piper and flute player, and a " Boor stealing a Kiss from a
Woman," in the Lacaze collection at the Louvre. The bterior
at Berlin is lighted from a casement in the same Rcrobrandtesque
style as Adrian's interior of 1643 at the Louvxe. The low
price he received for his pictures of this character^in which he
could only hope to remain a satellite of Adrian — induced him
gradually to abandon the cottage subjects of his brother for
hndscapes in the fashion of Esaias Van de Velde and Salomon
RuisdaeL Once only, in 1645, he s^ems to have fallen into
the old groove, when he produced the "Slaughtered Pig,"
with the boy pufling out a bladder, in the museum of LiUe.
But thb was an exception. Isaac's progress in bis new path
was greatly facilitated by his previous experience as a figure
painter; and, although he now selected his subjects either
from village high streets or frozen canals, he gave fresh life
to the scenes he depicted by groups of people full of movement
and animation, which he relieved in their coarse humours and
sordid appearance by a refined and searching study of picturesque
contrasts. He did not live long enough to bring his art to
the highest perfection. He died on the x6th October 1649
having painted about 400 pictures (see H. de Groot, 19x0).
The first manifestation of Isaac's sancnder of Adrian's style is
apparent in 1644 when the skating and sledging scenes were executed
which wc see in the Lacaze collection and the gallrries of the Her-
mitage. Antwerp and LiUe. Three of these examples bear the
artist's name, spelt Iiack van Ostade. and the dates of 1644 and
1645. The roadside inns, with halu of travellers, form a compact
■eries from 1646 to 1649. ^'^ ^^ ^® '^'^ ^^'^ ^ ^ ^'^ luac has
very distinct peculiarities. The air which pervades bis compoarion
is warm and sanny, yet meUow and hacy, as if the sky were veiled
with a vapour coloured by moor moke The tree* are rubbiags of
umber, m vibich the prominent foliage js tipped with touches
hardened in a liquid state by amber varnish mediums. The same
principle applied to details such as glazed bricks or Ycnts in the mud
limng of cottages gives an unreal and conventional stam]^ to those
particular parts. But these blemishes are forgotten when one looks
at the broad contrasts of light and shade and the masterly figures
of horses and riders, and travcSlers and rustics, or quarrelling childn-n
and dogs, poultry and cattle, amongst which a favourite place is
always given to the white hone, which seems as invariable an a
days, unsullied oy smoke or vapour, preclude the use of the brown
tinge, and leave the painter no choice but to ring the changes oa
opal tints of great variety, upon which the figures emerge with
masterly effect on the light background upon which they are thrown.
Among^ the roadside inns which will best repay attention «e
should notice those of Buckingham Palace, the National Gallery,
the Wallace and Holford collections in England, and those oi the
Louvre. Berlin, Hermitage and Rotterdam miueums and the
Rothschild coUectkm at Vienna 00 the Continent. The finest of
the ice scenes is the famous one at the Louvre.
For paintings and etchings see Les Prhes Ostade, by Mamierite
van de Wide TParis. 1893). For his etchings seeL'tEstre d'Ostade,
ou description det eaux-fortes d§ ce mattre, &c., by Auguste d'Ocange
(x86o>, and Catahtiie raisenni de toutes les esiampes qui formemi
Vtaare wnsed ^Aariam van Ostadct by L. E. Faucheuz (Paiu,
1862). O.A.C.;P.G. K.)
OSTASHKOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver.
on Lake Seliger, 108 m. W.N.W. of the dty.of Tver; pop.
10,457. The cUmate is damfT and unhealthy. The town has
tanneries, and is a centre for the making of boots and shoes,
for a^cultural implements, fishing-nets and the building of
boats. The advantageous site, the proximity of the Smolenskiy
Zhitnyi monastery, a pilgrim resort on an isUnd of the lake
and the early development of certain petty trades combined
to bring prosperity to Ostashkov. Its cathedral (1673-16S5)
contains valuable offerings, as also do two other churches of
the same century.
OSTEND (Flemish and French Ostende), a town of Bdghim
in the proviiice of West Flanders. Fop. (1904) 41,181. It is
the most fashionable seaside resort and the second port of the
kingdom. Situated on the North Sea it forms almost the central
point on the 4a m. of sea-coast that belong to Belgium. In the
middle ages it was strongly fortified and underwent several
sieges, the most notable was that of x6ox-x6o4, when it only
surrendered by order of the states to Spinola. In X865 the
last vestiges of its ramparts were removed, and since that date,
but more especially since X898, a new town has been created.
The digue or parade, constructed of solid granite, extends for
over 3 m. along the ^ore in a southerly dirnrtion from the long
jetty which protects the entrance to the port. A fine casino
and the royal ch&let are prominent objects along the sea front,
and the sea-bathing is unsutpassed. In the rear of the town is
a fine park to which a race-course has been added. Extensive
works were begun in 1900 for the purpose of caxrying the baxixmr
back 2 m., and a series of large docks were excavated and extensive
quays constructed. The docks accommodate ships of brge
tonnage. Apart from these docks Ostend has a veiy considerable
passenger and provision traffic with England, and is the head-
quarters of the Belgian fishing fleet, esUmated to employ 400
boats and 1600 men and boys. Ostend is in direct rail^iay
commtmication with Brussels, Cologne and Beriin. It is also
the starting point of several light r^ways along the coast and
to the southern towns of Flanders.
OSTEND OOMPANT. The success of the Dutch, En^sk and
French East India Companies led the merchants and shipowners
of Ostend to desire to establish direct commercial relations ^ith
the Indies. A private company was accordingly formed in
17 1 7 and some ships sent to the East. The emperor Charles
VI. encouraged his subjects to raise subscriptions for the new
enterprise, but did not grant a charter- or letters patent. Some
success attended these early efforts, but the jealottsy of the
neighbouring nations was shown by the seizure of an Ostc&d
OSTEOLOGY— OSTERODE
357
meirhantmaii with its rich cupt by the Butch In 1719 oS the
coast of Alriai, end of another by the English near Madagascar.
The^Oetcnders, however,- despite these hnses, peneveved in
their project: The opposition cf th^ Dutch made Chades VL
hesitate foreoroe time to grant ibcir requests, but on the igtb
of December 1722 letteia* patent were granied by which the
company of Ostend received for lii^ period of thirty yearn the
privilege of trading in the East and West Indies and akmg the
coastsof Africa on this side and on tliat of the Cape of Good Hope.
Six directors were nominated by the emperor, and subscriptions
to the company flowed in so .lapidiy tliat the shares were at the
end of August 1723 at. 1/ to 15% premium. Two factories
were established, one at G>blom on the coast of Coromandd
near Madras, the other at Bankibasar on the jQanges. At the
outset the prospecU of. the company appeared to be most
encouraging, but its promoters had not reckoned witii the jealousy
and hostility of the Dutch and English. The Dutch appealed ■
to the treaty of Westphalia. (1648) by. which the king bf Spain
bad prohibited the inhabitanu of the southern Nethcslands
from trading with the Spanish colonies. The transference of
the southern Netherlands to AOstria by the peace of Utrecht
(1713) did not, said the Dutch, remove this disability. The
Spanish government, however, sifter some hesitation concluded
a treaty of commerce with Austria and recognised the company
of Ostend. The reply to this was a defensive league oenduded
at Herrenhausen in 1795 by England, the United Provinces and
Prussia. Confronted with Auch formidable opposition the court
of Vienna judged it best to yield. By the terms of a treaty
signed at Paris on the 3i8t of May 1727 the en^ieror jnspended
the charter of the company for seven years, and the powezs in
return guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction. The company, after
nominally existing for a short time in this sute of suspended
animaUon, became extinct. The Austrian Netherlands were con*
demned to remain excluded from maritime commerce with the
Indies until their union with Holland in 18x5. (G. E.)
OSTBOLOQY (Or. dartw, bone), that part or branch of the
science of anatomy which has for its subject the bony framework
of the body (see Bone, Skelxton, Akatouy, &c).
OSTBRMAN, ANDREI IVANOVICH, Count (1686-1 747)t
Russian statesman, was bom at Bochum in Westphalia, of
middle-class parents, his name being originally Heimich Johann
Friedrich Ostermann. He became secretary to Vice-Admiial
Comelis Knise, who had a standing oommisaion from Peter the
Great to pick up promising young men, and in 1767 entered the
tsar's service. His knowledge of the principal European languages
made him the tight hand of Vice-ChanceUor Shafirov, whom he
materially assisted during the troubksome negotiations which
terminated in thepeaceof the Pnith (i7xxK Ostorman, together
with General Bruce, represented Russia at the Ahmd peace
congress of 17 18. Shrewdly guessing that Sweden was at
exhaustion point, and that Gdrta^ the Swedish plenipotentiary,
was acting iiira vires, he advised Peter to put additional pressure
on Sweden to force a peace. In 1721 Osterman concluded the
peace of Nystad with Sweden, and was created a baron for his
services. In 1723 he was made vicepresident of the ministty
of foreign afilairs for bringing about a very advantageous com^
merdal- treaty with Persia. Peter also constantly oonstdted
him in domestic affairs, and he btroduced many administmtive
novelties, e^, " the table of degrees," and the reconstruction
of the Cbileffft of Foreign Affairs on morcTmodem lines. During
the reign of Catherine I. (1725-1727) Osterman's authority
still further increased. The conduct, of foreign affairs was left
entirely in his hands, and he held also the posts of minister of
commerce and postmaster-generaL On the accession of Peter
II. Osterman was appointed governor to the young emperor,
and on his death (1730) he refused to participate in the attempt
of Demetrius (jotitsuin and the Dolgonikis to conven Russia
into a limited constitutional monarchy. He held aloof till the
empress Anne was firmly established on the throne as autocnt.
Then he got his reward. His unique knowledge of foccign affairs
made him indispensable to the empress and her counsellors,
and even as to home affairs his advice was almost invariably
followed. It was at his suggestion that the cabfnet system was
introduced into Russia. Ail the useful reforms inUmduced
between 1730 and S740 are to be attributed to his Initiative.
He improved the state of trade, Jbweced taxation, encouraged
industry and promoted- educatiott, Ameliorated the judica^ue
and materially raised the credit pf Russia. As foreign ministef
be was ctutious and circumspect, but when war was necessary
he proeecuted it vigorously and left nothing to chance. The
successful conclusions of the War of the Polish Suooessioti (1733-
X735> ^od of the war with Turkey (i73<^9) were entirely due
to his diplomaicy . During the brief regency of AnnaXeopoldovna
(Pctober 1740-Deoember 1741) Osterman stood at the height of
his power, and the French ambassador. La Chetardie, reported
to his court that " it is not too much to say that he is tsar of
all Russia." Osterman's foreign policy was based upon the
Austrian alliance. He had, therefore, guaranteed the Pngmatic
Sanction with the deliberate intention of defending iL Hence
the determination of Franee to remove him at any cost. RussiSi
as> the natural aUty of Austria, was very obnoxfons to France;
indeed. it was only jthe accident of the Russian alliance which,
in 174T, seemed to stand between Maria Theresa and absolute
ruin. The most obvious method of rendering the Russian
alliance unserviceable to the queen of Hungary was by implicate
tng Russia *in hostilities with her ancient rival, Sweden, and
this Was brought about, by French influence and French money,
when in August 174X the Swedish government, on the most
frivolous pretexts, declared war against Russia. The dispositions
previously made by Osterman enabled him, however, to counter
the blow, and all danger from Sweden was over when, early in
^ptember, Field-Marshal Lacy routed the Swedish general
Wrangd under the wallsof the frontier-fortress of Villmanstxand,
which was carried by assault. It now became evident to La
Chetardie that only a revolutfon would overthrow Osterman,
and this he proposed to promote by elevating to the throne the
tsesarevna Elizabeth, who hated the vice-chancellor because,
though he owed everything to her father, he had systematically
neglected her. Osterman was therefore the first and the most
illustrious victim of the^on^ d'Uat of the 6th of December 1741.
Accused, among other things, of contributing to the elevation of
the empress Anne by his cabab and of suppressing a supposed
will of Catherine I. made in favour of her daughter Elisabeth,
he threw himself on the clemency of the new. empress. He was
condemned first to be broken on the wheel and then beheaded;
but, reprieved on 'the scaffold, his Sentence was commuted t^o
lifelong banishment, with his whole family, to Bereaov in Siberia,
where he died six years later.
See & Shubiasky, *' Count A. L Osterman *' (Rua.) in Syernnovi
Siyanie, vol. ti. /St Peier»bufg, 1863); D. Koraakov, frtm ik*
Lwu of Russian StaUsnun of the XV filth Century (Rus.) (Kazan,
1891) : A. N. Fllippov, " Documents relating to the Cabinet Ministers
of the Empress Anne '' (Rus.) (St Pctereburig, 1808) in the collections
of the Rusa. Hist. Sec. voL 104; A. A. Koohubinsky, Omni A. /.
Oi/armafi and tht propostd PartHton cj TurUy (Rus.) (Odessa. 1889) ;
Hon. " *-'-•- -1. .--•- « 1.- x„_. «,„.„..
(St F
(London^ iV?)! a^d Th» VaugkUr' of Pekf thi'Crtat (Londoo.
1899). chapters 1-3. (R. N. B.)
08TBR0DB, a town in the Pniastan provinoe of East' Pmssia,
7S m. by rail N.E. of Thorn, on Lake Drewens, and at the
junction of lines to Memel, Elbing and SchBnsee. Pop. (1905)
I3t957* It has a castle built by the Teutonic knights in 1270,
to whom the town owes its birth. Its principal manufaaures
are railway plant, machinery, beer, spirits and bricks, while
it has several saw-mills. Osterode has a lively trade in cattle,
greitt and timber.
Sec J. Mailer. Osttnde und Ostpnussen (Osterode. 1905).
OSnaora, a town in the Prussian provinoe of Hanover,
at the south foot of the Hare Mountains, 34 m. N.W. of Nord>
hausen by rail. Pop. (1905) 7467. The church of St Aegidiua
(Evangdicai), founded in 724 and rebuilt after a fire in 1578,
containssome fine tombs of the dukes of Brunswick-Grubenhagen,
who made Osterode their residence from 1361 to 145a. Other
buiUinga are th» fine town<hall and the hospitaL There are
3S8
OSTERSUND— OSTIA
m&nufactUKS of ootton and wooUin ^oods, dgan and leather,
and tanneries, d^eworks and gypsum quarries. In recent yean
OMerode has become celebrated as a health resort.
<iSTBR8UliD, a town of Sweden, capital of the district iplu\
of Jemtland, on the east shore of StotsjO (Great Lake), 364 ol.
N. by W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900) 6866. It lies at
an elevation of about 1000 ft. and is the metropolis of a moun-
tainous and beautiful district. Immediately fadng the town
B the lofty island of Fite, with which It is connected by a bridge
1 148 ft. long. A nmic stone conunemorates the building of a
bridge here by a Christian missionaTy, Austmader, son of Gudfast.
Ostersund was founded in 1786. It has a considerable trade in
timber, and a local trade by steamers on StorsjA. Electricity
is obtained for lighting and other purposes by utilising xhc
abundant water-iMwer hi the district.
OSTBRVALDp jean FRtoteiC (i66i-x747)> Swiss Pio-
testant divine, was bom at Neuchitd on the ssth of November
1663. He was educated at ZOrich and at Saumur (where he gradu-
ated), studied theology at Orleans under Claude Pajon, at Paris
under Jean Claude and at Geneva under I«ouis Tronchin, and
was ordained to the ministry in his native place in 168^. As
preacher, pastor, lecturer and author, he attained a.posiUon of
great influence in his day, he and his friends, J. A. Turrctin of
Geneva and S. Werenfcls (1657-1740) of Basd, forming what
was once called the " Swiss triumvirate." He was thought to
show a leaning towards Sorinianism and Aiminianism. He died
on the X4th of Apsil 1747.
His priodpal works are T>aUi dts jvarect it la camnpHon fHX
rigne aujounTkui parmi Us CkrUkns (1700), translated into Enfflish,
Dutch and German, practically a plea for a more ethical ana less
doctrinal type of Christianity; CiUchisme ou instriKtum dans la
fdigUm chrHienne (1702). also translated into English, Dutch and
Oernian; TraiU contn timpwdi C1707); Sermons snr dioers iexles
I^722>i734): Th«ologiM compendium (17^); and ' Traducium
00 la Bihie (1724). All his writings attained great popularity
amnng French Protestants: many were translated into various
bntcuages; and ** Ostervald's Bible,'* a revision of the French
translation, in particular, was long well known and much valued
in Bntain.
08TIA. an andent town and harbour of Latium, Italy, at
the mouth of the river Tiber on iU left bank. It lies 14 m. S.W.
from Rome by the Via Ostiensis, a road of very andent origin,
still followed by a modem road which preserves some traces of
the old pavement and remains of several andent bridges. It
was the i&rst colony ever founded by Rome~:acoording to the
Romans themselves^ by Ancua Martiua— and took its name
from its position at the mouth (fisUum) of the river. Its origin
is connected with the establishment of tbe-salt-marshes {salmae~~
see Saiasia, Via) which only cxsssed to exist in 187 5^ though it
accpitred importance as a harbour in very eariy times. When
it began to ^ve magistrates of its own is not known: nor Indeed
have we any inscriptions from Ostia that can be certainly aUri«
buted to the Republican period. Under the empire, on the other
hand, it had the ordinaiy magistrates of a ookmy, the diief
being duotiri^ charged with the administration of Justice, whose
place was ts^en every fifth, y^ur by ditoriri ,eonsoria polestatt
qutHquennaUs, then quaestons (or foumdal officials) .and then
aediies (building offidals). Therfe were dso the usual dccwvMay
(town councillors) and Augustaki. We learn much is to these
msgbtratA from the huge number of inscriptions that have been
found (over aooo in Ostia and Portus taken together) and also
as to the cults. Vulcan was the most impoitant:— perhaps m
eariy tunes the onljr— ddty woishipped at Ostia, and the priest-,
hood of Vukan was hdd sometimes by Roman senators. The
Dioscuri too, as patrons of mariners, were held ib Jionour. Later .
we find the worship of Isis and of Cy bde,the latter bcmg especially
flourishing, with lai^e corporations of dmdrophoH (priests who
carried branches of trees in procession) and amepktH (basket-
carriers): the worship of Mithrsa, too, had a lai^e number of
f oDowexs. There was a temple of Serapis at Portus. No traces
of Jewish worship have been found at Ostia, but at Portus
a considerable numbec of Jewish inscriptions in GredL have
come to light.
Of the church m Ostia there is no authentic record before the
4th century aj>.| though there are several Christian i
of an earlier date; but the first bishop of Ostia of whom we bawe
any certain knowledge dates from ajd. 3x3. Hw see still
continues, aixl is indeed hdd by the dean of the sacral college of
cardinals. A large number of the insciiptioos are also connected
with the various guilda-*-firemen (UHkmarii), carpenters and
metal workeis {fabri}, boatmen, lightermen and others (see J. P.
Waltaing, £ar Corporaiums professioneUeSf Brussels and LiCge).
Until Ttajan formed the port of Centumcellne (Civitavecchia)
Ostia was the best harbour along the low sandy coast of central
Italy between Monte Aigentario and Monte Circeo. It ia
mentioned in 354 b.c. as a trading port, and became important
as a naval harbour during the Punic Wars. Its commerce
increased with the growth of Rome, and this, and the decay oC
agriculture in Italy, which obliged the capital to rely ahaosc
entirdy on imported com (the importation of which was, from
267 B.& onwards, under the charge of a special quaestor
stationed at Ostia), rendered the possesion of Ostia the key
to the situation on natt than one occasion (87 B.a, ajk 409
amd 537). The inhabitants of the colony were thus resided
as a petrhanent garrison, and at first freed from the obligations
of ordinary military service, until they were later on obliged
to serve in the fleet. Ostia, however, was by no means an ideal
harbour; the mouth of the Tiber is exposed to the south-west
wind, which often did damage in the harbour itself; in aj>. 6s
no less than soo ships with thdr cargoes were sunk, and there
was an important guild of divers {ttrinatores) at (ktia. Tbe
difficulties of the harbour were increased by the continued
dlting up, produced by the enormous amount of solid material
brought down by the river. Even in Strabo's time (v. 3. 5,
p. 23 r) the harbour of Ostia had become dangerous: he speaks
of it as a " dty without a harbour owing to the silting up brought
about by the Tiber . . . : the ships anchor at considerable risk
in the roads, but the tove of gain prevails: for the huge number of
lighters which recdve the cargoes and reload them renders the
time short before they can enter ihe river, and having light fwd
a part of their cargoes they sail in and ascend to Rome."
Caesar had projected remedial measures, but (as In so many
cases) had never been able to carry them out, and It was not
until the time of Claudius that the problem was approached.
That emperor constructed a large new harbour on the right
bank, 2) m. N. of Ostia, with an area of 170 acres endoscd by
two curving moles, with an artificial island, supporting a lofty
lighthouse, in the centre of the space between them. This
was ooimected with the Tiber by an artificial rhannri, and by
this work Claudius, according to the inscriptions which he
erected in aj>. 46, freed the dty of Rome from the danger of
inundation. The harbour was named by Nero, Pottos Angusti
Trajan found himsdf obliged in aj>. 103, owing to the silting
up of the Claudian harbour, and the increase of trade, to con-
struct another port further inland— a hexagonal basin ***«^*»«s«ig
an area of 97 acres with enormous warehousesr— communicating
with the harbour of Claudius and with the Tiber by fflear» of
the channd already constracted by Claudius, this channd being
prolonged so ss to give also direct access to the sea. This became
blocked in the middle ages, but was reopened by Paul V. In 161 ».
and is still in use. Indeed it forms the right arm of the Tiber,
by which navigation is carried on at the present day, and Is
known as the. Fossa Tra/ana. The island between the two arms
acquired the name of Insula Sacra (still called Isola Sacxa) hj
which Prooopius mentioDs it.
Ostia thus lost a considerable amount of Its trade, but its
importance still continued to be great. The and and ard
centuries, indeed, are the high-water mark of its peospciity:
and it still possessed a. mfakt ia the 4th century aj>* Duxbtg tbe
Gothic wars, however, trade was confined to F0itas» aad the
ravages of pfrates led to iu gradual abandonment. Grego^r IV:
constructed in 8jo a fortified enceinte, called GrtgoiiopoKs, m
the eastern portion of tbe andent dty, and the Saracens were
signally defeated here under Leo IV. (847-856). Tbe battle is
.represented in Giulio Romano's fresco from Rapbad's deuga
in tbe Stanza dell' Incendio in the Vatican.
OSTIAKS
359
In the middle agcsOstia regiiiiedsomething of its importance,
owing to the silting up of the right azm of the Tiber. In 1483-
1486 Ghiliaiio delU Rovere (nephew of Pope Sixtus IV., and
afterwards himself Pope Julius II.) caused the castle to be
erected by Bacdo Pontelli, a little to the east of the ancient
■city. It is built of brick and is one of the finest specimens of
Renaissance fortification, and exemplifies especially the tiiasition
from the old girdle walls to the system of buttons; it still
has found comer towen> not polygonal bastions (Bufclchaidt).
Under the shelter of the castle lies the modem village. The
amall cathedral of St Auiea, also an early Renaisnncestnictnn,
with Gothic windows, is by some ascribed to Meo dd Caprina
(1430-X501). Hitherto Ostta does not teem to have been very
unhealthy. In 1557, however, a great flood caused the Tiber
to change its course, so that it no longer flowed under the walls
of the castle, but some half a mile farther west; and iu old
bed (Flume Morto) has ever since then served as a breeding
ground for the makrial mosquito {Afiopkgles ihriger)^ An
agricultural colony, founded at Ostta after 187$, and consisting
mainly of cultivators from the neighbourhood of Ravenna,
has produced a great change for the better in the condition of
the place. The modem village is a part of the commune of
Rome. The marshes have been drained, and a pumping sUU'on
erected near Castel Fusano. An electric tramway has been
constructed from Rome to Ostia and thence to the seashore,
now some 2 m. distant, where sea-bathing is carried on.
Excavations on the site of Ostia were only begun towards
the dose of the z8th century, and no systematic work was done
until 1854, when under Pius IX. a considerable amount was
done (the objects are now \n the Lateran museum). The Italian
government, to whom the greater part of it now bdongs, laid
bare many of the more important buildings in z88o>r889; but
much was left undone. Owing to the fact that the site is largely
covered with sand and to the absence of any later alterations,
the preservation of the btuldings excavated is very good, and
Ostia is, with the exception of Pompeii, the best example in
Italy of a town of the Roman period. Oh the east the
site is approached by an andent road, flanked by tombs. On
the right (N.) are some small well-preserved thermae, and the
iMirtacks of the firemen (tigiUs), a special cohort of whom was
stationed here. On one side of the central courtyard of the
latter building is a chapd with inscribed pedestals for imperial
statues (and and ard century a.d.) and a well-preserved bUck
and white mosaic representing a sacrifice (see J. Caroopino in
MHanges de r£ccle Prantaise, 1907).
To the south-west b the Fonim, an area 265 ft. square sur-
rounded by colonnades, in which were placed the offices of the
various coiegia or guilds of boatmen, raf tmen and others, which
had a spedal importance at Oslia; the names of the guilds
may still be read in inscriptions in the mosaic pavements of the
chambers. In the centre of the area are the substructions of
a temple, and on the south-east side are the remains of the
theatre, built in the eady imperial period, restored by Septi-
mius Severus in 196-197 and again ia the 4th or 5th century.
To the south-west of the Forum are the renuuns of three small
temples, one dedicated to Venus, and a well-preserved Mith-
raeum, with mosaics representing the seven planets, &c To
the south-west again is the conspicuous brick cells of a lofty
temple, on arched substructures, generally supposed to be that
of Vulcan, with a threshold block of afrkano (Euboean) marble
over r5 ft k>ng: from ft a street over 20 ft. wide lea(b north-
west to the river. It is flanked on each aide by well-preserved
warehouses, another group of which, surrounding a large court,
lies to the south-west. The brick and opus reliatlatum facing
of the walls is especially fine. HenCe an andent road, leading
between warehouses (into which the Tiber is encroaching), in
one room of which a number of weD-preserved large jars may
be seen embedded in the floor, runs dose to the river to a large
prfvate house with thermae, in which five mosaics were found:
it (groundlessly) bears the name of" imperial palace." Farther
to the south-west are remains of other warehouses, and (possibly)
of the docks— iong narrow chambers, which may have served
to (Dontain ships. Here are remains of (earlier) structures in opus
quadralmm whereas the great bulk of the ruins are in brickwork
and belong to the imperial period. The medieval Torre Boacdana
ntarks approzimatdy the mouth of the river in Roman times.
The south-eastern portion of the dty has been excavated only
very partially. To the south-west of the conspicuous temple
alluded to are the remains of a. temple of Cybele, with a portico.
This lay dose to the commencement of the Via Severiana (see
Sbvbuana, Vu), and the line of tombs which flanked it soon
begins. Farther south-east, a line of send dunes, covering the
ruins of ancient villas, marks the coastline of the Roinan period.
Some 3 OL to the south-east is the pine forest of Castel Fusano,
taking its name from a castle erected by the nuuchese SacchetU
in the t6th century. It is now the property of the Ciugi and
is leased to the king (see LAUUKnNA, Via). Here Drs Lowe and
Samboa made the decisive experiments which proved that the pro*
pagation of malaria was due to the raowqoiio Anopkdes danger.
See NoHne dtgli $eam, potnm: H. Dcsaau ia Corp. inuripi,
Latin, xiv. (Berlin, 1887). pp. i sqq., and the works of M. Jerome
Carcopina CT* As.)
OSTIAKS, or Ostyaxs, a tribe who inhabit the basin of the
Ob in western Siberia belonging to the Finno-Ugric group and
rdated to the Voguls. The so-called Ostyaks of the Yenisd
speak an entirely different language. Th^ best invesUgators
((^tr£n, Lerberg, A. Schrcnck) consider the trans-Uralian
Ostiaks and Samoyedes as identical with the Yugra of the
Russian annals. During the Russian conquest thdr abodes
extended much farther south than now, forty-one of their
fortified places having been destroyed by the Cossacks in 1501,
in the region of Obdorsk alone. Remains of these *• towns " are
still to be seen at the Kuiravat river, on the Ob 30 m. bdow
Obdorsk and elsewhere. The total number of the Ostiaks may
be estimated at 27,00a Those on the Irtysh are mostly settled,
and have adopted the manner of life of Russians and Tatars.
Those on the Ob are mostly nomads; along with 8000 Samoyedes
in the districts of Berezov and Surgut, they own large herds of
reindeer. The Ob Ostiaks are ra&sified to a great extent. They
live almost exdusivdy by fishing, buying from Russian merchants
com for bread, the use of which has become widely diffused.
The Oitiaks call themselves A*>yakh (people of the Ob), and it is
supposed that their present designation is a corruption of this name.
By lanjntage they belong (Cascr6n. Rtiuberickte, Reisebriefe; Ahl-
qyitt, Ofvers. af fituka Vei.'Soc. F&rk. xxi.) to the Ugrian t>ranch of
the eastern Furnish stem. All the Ostiaks speak the same bnguage,
mixed to some extent with foccicn efemiBna; but three or four lead*
ing dialects can be distinguished.
The Ostiaks are middle-sized, or of low stature, mostly meagre,
and not ill made, however dumsy their appearance in winter in
their thick fttr<€lothe8. The extremities are fine, and the feet are
usually small The skull is brachyoephalic, mostly of moderate
nse and height. The hair is dark and soft for the most part, fair
and reddish individuals being rare; the eyes are dark, generally
narrow; the nose b flat and DrQad|the mouth is large and witn
thick lips; the beard is scanty. The Mongolian type is more
strongly pronounced ia the women than in the meo. Op the whole,
the Cmiaka are not a pore race: the purest type is found among the
fishers on the Ob. the reindcer-Dreeoers of the tundra being lar^ly
intermixed with Samoyedes. Investigators describe them as lund,
gentle and honest; rioting b almost unknown among them, as
also thdt, tbb last o^ctirring only in the vicinity of Rusabn settle-
ments, and the only penalty enforced being the restitution twofold
of the property stolen.
They are vtry skilful in the arts they practice, especuUy in
carving wood and bone, tanning (with en-yolk and brains), pre-
paration of implements from birch-bark. SL Some o( their carved
or decorated bark implements (Ulm those figured in Middcadorff's
Sibiriickt Reiso, iv. 2) show considerable artistic skilL
•Their folk-lore, like that of other Fmnish stems, u imbued with
a feeling of natural poetry, and reflects also the sadness, or even the
despair, whkh has been notked among them. Christianity has
made some progress among them and St Nicholas b a popular saint.
but thdr ancient pagan obaervancM are still retained.
For the bnguage see Ahtqvist. Uher di* Spracke der Nord-Or^gakm
(1880) and (or customs, rdigkm. Ac., the Journal de la SociHi /mm-
Ougrunue, particulariy papers by Sirelius and Kariabtaen. and the
papers by Munk4cai, Gcnnep. Fuchs and others in the Ramu onentaU
pour Us ituides Ouralo-AUaxques; Patkanov, Die IrtyulhOsiiakeu
und. ikre VolkspoesU (Petersburg, 1900): PatkanofV. Jftirsck-
Ostjaken und tkre VMspoesie (1B97-1900); Papay, Semimluui
osQaJdseker Volksdiekhmtm (1906).
360
OSTRA— OSTRACODERMS
OSTRA, ao andent town of Umbria, Italy, near the modern
Montenovo, S.E. of Sena Gallica (Siniga^). It is hardly
mentioned by andent authors, but excavations have brought to
light remains of various buildings and some inscriptions exist.
Pliny mentions with it another ancient town, Suasa, 5 m. W.|
which also did not survive the classical period.
OSTRACISM, a political device instituted, probably by Cleis-
thenes in 508 B.C., as a constitutional safeguard for the Athenian
democracy. Its effect was to remove from Athens for a period
Of ten years any person who threatened the- harmony and
tranquillity of the body politic A similar device existed at
various times in Argos, Miletus, Syracuse and Megara, but in
these dties it appears to have been introduced under Athenian
influence. In Athens in the sixth prytany of each year the
representatives of the Boul£ asked the Ecdesia whether it was
for the wdfare of the state that ostracism should take place.
If the answer was in the affirmative, a day was fixed for the voting
in the eighth prytany. No names were mentioned, but it is clear
that two or three names at the most could have been under
consideration. The people met, not as usual in the Pnyx, but
in the Agora, in the presence of the Archons, and recorded their
votes by pladng in urns smdll fragments of pottery (which in the
ancient worid served the purpose o( waste-paper) (ostraca) on
which they wrote the name of the person whom they wished to
banish. As in the case of other frinlegia, osiradsm did not
take effect unless six thousand votes in all were recorded. Grote
and others hold that six thousand had to be given against one
person before he was ostracized, but it seems unlikely that the
attendance at the Ecdesia ever admitted of so large a vote against
one man, and the view is contradicted by Plut. Arist. c. 7. The
ostracized person was compelled to leave Athens for ten years,
but he was not regarded as a traitor or criminal. When he
returned, he resumed possession of his property and his civic
status was tmimpaircd. The adverse vole simply implied that
his power .was so great as to be injurious to the state. Ostracism
must thcrdTore be carefully distinguished from exile in the Roman
sense, which involved losS of property and status, and was for an
indefinite period (i.e. generally for Ufe). Certain writers have
even spoken of the " honour " of ostracism. At the same time
it was strictly unjust to the victim, and a heavy punishment to
a cultured citizen for whom Athens contained sJl that made life
worth living. Its political importance really was that it trans-
ferred the protection ot the constitution from the Areopagus to
the Ecdesia. Its place was afterwards taken by the Craphi
Paranomdu.
There is ho doubt that Cleislhenes' object was primary
to get rid of the Peisistratid faction without perpetual recourse
to armed resistance (so And rot ion, Ath. PW. 22, Ephorus,
Theopompus, Aristotle, Pol. iii. 13, 1284 a 17 and 36; viii. (v.),
3, 1302 b 15). Aristotle's Cow/i/k/wm of Athens (c. aa) gives a
list of ostracized persons, the first of whom was a certain
Hipparchus of the Peisistratid family (488 B.C.). It is an extra-
ordinary fact that, if ostracism was introduced in 508 B.C. for
the purpose of expelling Hipparchus it was not till twenty years
later that he was condemned. This has led some critics (see
Lugebil in Das Wesen . , , der Ostrakismos, who arrives at the
conclusion that o^tradsm could not have been introduced till
after 496 B.C.) to suspect the unanimous evidence of antiquity
that Cleislhenes was the inventor of ostradsm. The problem
is difficult, and no satisfactory answer has been given. Adian's
story that Qeisthenes himsdf was the first to be ostracized is
attractive in view of his overtures to Persia (see Cleisthenes),
but it has little historical value and conflicts with the chapter in
Aristotle's Constitution— which, however, may concdvably be
simply the Ust of those recalled from ostracism at the time of
Xerxes* Invasion, all of whom must have been ostracized less
than ten years before 481 {i.e. since Marathon). With the end
of the Persian Wars, theoriginal object of ost racism was removed,
but it continued in use for forty years and was revived in 417 B.C.
It now became a mere party weapon and the fardcal result of its
use in 417 in the case of Hyperbolus led to its abolition dlhcr at
once, or, as LugebU seeks to prove, in the archonship of Eudides
(403 B.C). Such a device tneviubly lent itself to abase (sec
Aristotle, Pd. 38, 1284 b aa oraeiaoTUBut kxfSuno),
Grote maintains that ottradsm was a useful device, 00 the
grounds that it removed the danger of tyranny, wad was belter
than the perpetual dvil strife of the previous ocnttuy. The
second reason is strictly beside the point, and tht irst has no
force after the Persian Wan. As a factor in party politics it was
both unnecessary <and injurious to the state. That in th^
Persian Wars, it deprived Athens of the wisdom of Xaathippus
and Aristides, while at the battle of Tanagra add perhaps at
the time of the Egyptian expedition the assistance of Qnuw
was lacking. Further, it was a blow to the iair-play of party
politics; the defeated party, having no leader, was reduced to
desperate measures, such as the assassination of Ephaaltea.
To defend it on the ground that it created and stimulated the
national consciousness is hardly reconcilable with the historic
remark of the voter who voted against Aristides becaose he
wished to hear no more of his incorruptible integrity; moreover
in democratic Athens the *' national consciousnesi " was, if
anything, too frequently stimulated in the ordinary course
of government. Aristotle, admitting its usefulness, rightly
describes ostracism aa in theory tyrannical; Mcmtcsquien
{Esprit des lois, xiu cc. 19, ap, &c.) defends it as a mild and
reasonable institution. 0^ the whole, the history of its effect ia
Athens, Argos, Miletus, Megara and Syracuse (where it was
called Petalismus)t furnishes no sufVident defence against its
admitted disadvantages. The following is a list of persons
who suffered ostracism: — Hipparchus (488); Megades (487).
Xanthippus (485). Aristides (483), Tbemistodes (471?); Cimon
(461?) Thucydides, son of Melesias (444)> Damon, Hyperbolus
(417) and possibly Cleislhenes himsdf {q.v.)»
Authorities.— For the procedure in O. see Appendix Pboti
(Porson, p. 675): Bce also, besides authorities quoted above. Butdt.
i. 620; Mailers Handbuck, tv. i. 121; Gilbert, Ct. St. i. 446-466
an4 Creek Constittaional Antiquities (Eng. trans., 1895); A. H. I.
Greenidge, Handbook of Creek Constitutional AntigmHes (1896;:
hbtories of Greece in general. The view maiotaincd in the text as
to the number of votes neccssarv is supported by Duruy {H. cf G.
ii. I, ^6), Boeckh, Wachsmuth, &c. ; opposed by Grote, Oman and
(on the whole) by Evelyn Abbott. On the danger of privilegia in
general see Cicero, de Legibus, jiL ^, and note that in Athem, ostra-
cism gratuitously antidpated a cnme which, if committed, would
-have been punishable m the popular Heliaea. Cf. also articie
Exile. (J. M. M.)
OSTRACODERMS or Ostracophores, the eariiest and most
primitive group of 6sb-like animals, found as fossib in Upper
Pran the TVmj. Key. So€,, BUnhurgk.
Fig. i.—Tkelodus xoticus, from the Upper Silurian of Lanarkshire,
restored by Dr R. H. Traquair; about one-half nat. dze.
Pmm Ite Pro€. CnL Attoe.
Fig. i.—Cepkataspis murthisom, from the Lower Old Red Sand-
stone of Herefordshire, restored by Dr A. S Woodward; about ooe-
haU nat. size.
Silurian and Devonian formations both in Europe and in North
OSTRAU—OSTRICH
361
Ancrio. TiMgr m to BAmed (tir. ibttttkiin or •beU-beann) | paired fioi. They must aho hsve been provided with the usual
in alluaion to the nacreota aheli-like appearance of the inner 1 gili^pparatus, but there is reason to believe that tbdr lower
face ol the plates of armoar which cover the more common | jaw waa not on the fish plan. They are, therefore, at least as
low in the aoological scale aa the exisUng lampreys, with
which Cope, Smith, Woodward and othem have associated
them. They are all small animals, many of them only a few
oentimetres in length.
The ddert axxl lowest family of Ostraoodcnns, that of
Coelolepidae, is known by nearly complete skeletoiis of Tkclodus
fwrn BritiA. Minaii, CoaUv^ tf tntH titku, by iw hri o a af the Thateet. (fig. l) and Lanarkia from the Upper Siluiyn mudatones of
Tig. i.—Pteraspis rostratd, (mm tht Lower Old Red Sandstone of Jb!i22?**i?;K^l!?.!ll' ^lu^^ i? u^'lH^ulf ^?u ^'i,^''"^^^
^rl^""' rc^ by br A. S. Woodward; about one-third STS^J^J^lSd ^^'^ST^v ^IS^^^^
members of the group. The Ostraco4.eTms are, hideed, known
only by the hard armature of the skin, but this sometimes bears
impressions of certain internal soft parts which have perished
Fig. i.-'Pterkktkys milUri. from the Middle Old Red Sandstone
of Scotland, restored by Dr R. H. Traquair; upper (A), lower (B),
and left-side view (C), about one-half nat. sice.
OT.oec., Median oedpItaL
m.9., Median ventral.
«<-. Angular.
a.dJ.. Anterior doTBO-lateral.
a.fM.a., Anterior median donaL
a.9J., Anterior ventro-lateraL
c. Central.
d.a.. Dorsal anconeaL
d.ar.t Dorsal articular. ■
«J., Extra lateral.
earn., £ztemal maii^naL
tjM., Internal marpnal.
I.. Lateral.
l.ou.t Lateral oodpitaL
M., Median.
9UM,, Marginals of lower limb.
Manila.
o., Ocular.
pM.t Posterior dorw>-lateraL
pM., Pre-median.
^.m.d.,Posterior median
dorsaL
pjtJ., Posterior vemro-bteral.
pt,m^ Post-median,
li., Semilunar.
I., Terminal,
vui.. Ventral anconeal.
r.or., Ventral articular.
during fossOiration. They agree with fishes in the possession of
median fins, and resemble the large majority of early fishes in their
onequal-lobed (heterocercal) tail, but they have no ordinary
of sharks, and were erroneously ascribed to sharks when they
were firat discovered in the Upper Silurian bone-bed at
Ludlow, Shropshire. The head and anterior part of the trunk
are deorcsaed and shown from above or below in the fossils,
and this region sharply, contracts behind into the slender tail,
whKh is generally seen in side view, with one small dorsal fin
and a forked heterocercal tail. The eyes are far forwards and
wide apart. In another family, that of the Cephalaspidac (fig. 3);
the ammals resemble the Coelolepids in shape, but their skin-
granules are fused into small plates, which are polygonal where
there must have been much Dexibility, and in rings round the
tail where the underlying successive plates of muscle nccessiuted
this arrangement. The eyes are close together. At the opening of
the gill<avity on each side at the back of the head, there is a flexible
flap, which b aometiroes interpreted as a paired limb. Part of the
armour of the Cephalaspkiians contains bone-cells, but the dermal
plates of two other families, the Pteraspidac (fig. %) and Drepanas-
pidae, consist merely of fused shagrven i^nulcs without any
advance towards bone. The Ptrraspidae are interesting as showing
on the Inner side of the dorsal shield impressions which suggest that
the ffill-cavities extended unusually far forwards to the front of the
head. Another family, known only by nearly complete skeletons
fiom the Upper Silunan mudstones of Lanarkshire, is that of the
Birkemklae, comprising small fusiform species which are covered
with granules disposed in curiously-arranged rows.. The highest
Ostraooderms are the Asterolepidac, which occur only in Devonian
rocks and include the familiar PUrkktkys (fig. 4) from the Middle
Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. In this family the primitive skin-
tubercles seem to have fused, not into polygonal plates, but along
the lines of the slime-canals. The Asteroieptd armour connsta of
symmetrically arranged, overlapping plates on the top of the head
and /ound the body, with a pair of flippers similariy armoured and
appended to the latter. The tail resembles that of other Ostraco-
dcrms and is sometimes covered with scales.
See E. Ray Lankester, The C^halaspidae (Monogr. Palaeont. Soc
1868, 1870); R. H. Traquair. The AsUnleUdae (Monogr. Palaeont.
Soc. 1894, 1904, 1006) and papere in Trans. Roy. Soe. Edinb.
vol. xxxix. No. 32 (1899), vol. xL Nos. 30, 33 (1903, 1905); A. S.
Woodward, CauS. Foss. Fishes, B.M. pt. u. O891); W. H. Gaskell.
Oriftis tf VtrUbraUs (London, 1908),. (A. S. Wa)
OSTRAU, the name of two Austrian towns In the Ostrau-
Karwin coal-mining districL (x) Mthrisch-Ostrau (Moravian
Ostrau), a town in Moravia, 9s m. N.E. of BrOnn by raiL Fop.
(1900) 30,1 35. It is situated on the right bank of the Ostxawitza,
near its confluence with the Oder, and it derives its importance
from the neighbouring coal mines, and the blast fumaoes and
iroD^woika which they have called into emstcnosL The menu*
factmes comprise sheet-lion, boilers, ainc, brick and tiles,
paraffin, petroleum, soap and candles. The Rothschild Iron-works
at Witkowiu are fai the vicinity, (s) POlnisch-Ostrau (Polish
Ostfau), a mining town in Austrian Silesia, opposite Mlhrisdk*
Ostrau. Pop. . (1900) 18,761, mostly Csedi. It has large-
coal mines, which form the south-western portion of the extensive
Upper Silcsian ooal fields, the largest Austrian deposit..
OSnUCH (O. Eng. estHdit; Fr. amtrucke; Span, asesfna;
Let. oot$ tlrulki&', Or. erpouMup or 6 filfyn arpaoBbs);
the 5ih<ajl9 cowafaw of Limtaeus, and the laxBCst oC living birds,
an adult male standing neariy 8 ft. high and weighing 300 lb.
The genus StnUhio forms the type of the group of Ratite
birds, characterized chiefly by large size, breast-bone without
a keel, strong running legs, rudimcntaiy wings and simple
featheiB (see Bno). The most obvimis distinctive character
presented by the ostrich b the presence of two toes only,
the third and fourth, on each fool— a character absolutely
peculiar to the genus Siruikio. In South America another
larie Ratite bird, the rhea, is called ostrich; it can be die*
tinguished at once from the true ostrich by its posscssioii of
three toes.
362
OSTROG— OSTROVSKIY
The wild oiitrich* is disappearing before the persecution of
man* and there are many districts, some of wide extent, frequented
by the ostrich in the x^th century — especially towards the
extremities o£ its African range— in which it no longer occurs,
while in Asia there is evidence, more or less trustworthy, of its
former existence in most parts of the south-western desert-
tracts, in few of which it is now to be found. Xenof^n's notice
of its abundance in Assyria {Anabasis ^ i. s) is well known.
It is probable that it still lingers in the wastes of Kirwan in
eastern Penia, whence examples may occasionally stray north-
ward to those of Turkestan,' even near the Lower Oxus, but
the assertion, often repeated, as to its former occurrence in
Baluchbtan or Sind seems to rest on testimony too slender
Ostrich.
for acceptance. Apparently the most northerly limit of the
ostrich's ordinary range at the present day b that portion ol
the Syrian Desert lying directly eastward of Damascus; and,
within the limits of what may be called Palestine, H. B. Tristram
iPaunc and Flora of PaUsiine, p. 139) regards it as but a straggler
from central Arabia, though we have little inlonnation as to
its distribotion in that country.
Africa is still, as in ancient days, the continent in which the
ostrich chiefly flourishes. There it appeals to inhalnt every
waste sufficiently extensive to afford it the solitude it loves.
Yet. even there it has to contend with the many species of
camivora which prey upon its eggs and young— the latter
espedi^y; and H. li ch tenst ei n bng ago remarked* that if it
* A good summaiy of the pment distribution is contained in the
Ogtriches and Ostrich Farming of De Mosenthal and Harttng, from
which the accompanying figure is, with permiasion, taken. Von
Heuglin. in his Omilkol^o Nordosl-Jlfrikas (pp. 935-yiS), and A.
Rcichenow in Die Vdid Afrikas, have given more particular details
of the ostrich's distribution in Africa.
* Drs Finsch and Hartlaub quote a 'passage from Remusat*s
Remarqties sur VoxUnsion de'l'sm^re ckinoist. stating that in
about the 7th century of our era a Uve " .camel*bird " was ttat aa a
present with an embassy from Turkestan to China.
* H. Lichtenstein, Reise im sudlicfun Africa^ ii. 43*45 (Beriin,
I8ia).
were not for its numerous enemies "the multiplicatlMi ol
ostriches would be quite tmcxampled."
Though sometimes assembling in troops of from thirty to fifty,
and then generally associating with zebras or with sooke of the larger
antelopes, ostriches commonly, and capedally in the brccdiDg
season, live in companies of not more than (our or five, one of which'
is a cock and the rest are hens. The latter lay their eggs in one and
the same nest, a shallow pit scraped out by their feet, with the earth
heaped around to form a kind of wall against which the outermost
circle of eggs rest. As soon as ten or a dozen eggs arc laid, the cock
begins to brood, always takii^ his place on them at nigfatfall snr-
rounded by the hens, while by day they relieve one another, more
it would seem to guard their common treasure from >ackals and
small beasts of prey than directly to forward the process of hatching,
for that b often kft wholly to the sun.* Some thirty eggs are laid
in the nest, and round it am scattered perhaps as many more.
These last are said to be broken by the old birds to serve as nourish-
ment for the newly-hatched chicks, whose stomachs cannot bear
the hard food on which their parents thrive. The greatest care t»
taken to place the nest where it may not be discovered, and the birds
avoid heme seen when going to or from it, while they display great
solicitude lor their young. C J. Anderwon in his Lute Argama
(PP* 353-269) has given a lively account of the pursuit by himself
and Francis Gallon of a brood of ostriches, in the course of which
the nude bird feigned being wounded to distract their attention from
his offspring. Though the ostrich ordinarily inhabits the most arid,
districts, it requires water to drink; more than that, it w91 fre»
fluently bathe, and sometimes even, aooording to Von Heu^in, in
tne sea.
The questk>n whether to recognize more than one species of
ostrich has been continually discussed without leading to a satis-
factory solution. While eggs from North Africa present a perfectly
smooth surface, those from South Africa are pitted. Moreov-cr
northern birds have the sldn of the parts not covered with feathers
flesh-coloured, while this skin is bluish in southern birds, and hence
the latter have been thought to need specific designation as 5.
australis. Examples from the Somali country have be^ described as
forming a distinct species under the name of S. molybdophanes from
the leaden colour of their naked parts.
The great mercantile value of ostrich-feathers, and the increas-
ing difficulty, due to the causes already mentioned, of procuring
them from wild birds, has led to the formation in Cape Colony,
S^Syptf the French Riviera and elsewhere of numerous " ostrich-
farms," on which these birds arc kept in confinement, and at
rcgubr intervals * deprived of their plumes. In favotiraUe
localities and with judidous management these establishments
yield very considerable profit (see Feather).
See. besides the works mentk>ned, E. D'Alton. Die Shetele der
Straussortijen V6mI ahgebUdti und besckrieben (Bonn, 1827): P. U
Sclater. " On the Struthious Birds living in the ZxxAogkal Society's
Menagerie, " Transactions, iv. p. 353, containing a fine represent atioa
(pi. 67). by J. Wolf, of the male Struthio cameltu; J. Forest. VAn-
truche (Paris, 1894): A. Douglass. Ostrich Farming in South Afrua
(London, 1881); modem anatomical work on the group is referred
to in the article Biaos. (A. N.)
OSTROOf a town of Russia, in the government of Volhynia,
95 m. W. of Zhitomir, at the confluence of the Vilya with the
Goryn. Pop. (1897) t4i53o. It is an episcopal , see oC the
Orthodox Greek Church, and in the x6th century had n fla«iral
academy, converted later into a Jesuit college. Here was made
and printed in 1581 the first translation of the Bible into oki
Slav. In the town is a brotherhood of Cyril and Methodius,
which maintains schools of its own. The tanning of light leather
is an active domestic trade; other industries are (Mttcries,
oil-works, soap, candle and tobacco factories. After being
plundered by tiie Cossack chicfuin Khmehiitski iA. X64S, and
conquered by the Russians seven years later, the town fell into
decay.
OSTROGOTHS, or East Gotbs, one of the two main branches
into which the Goths were divided, the other being the Visigoths,
or West Goths. See Goths.
08TROVSKIT, ALBZANDBR NIKOIAIVICH (X823-X886),
Russian dramatic author, was bom on the xsth of April X823 fat
Moscow, where his father was an official of the senate- . He studied
* By those whose experience is derived from the observatioo of
captive ostriches this fact has been often disputed. But, the differ-
ence of drcumstances under which they find themselves, and to
particular their removal from the heat-rctaintng sands of the desert
and its burning sunshine, is quite enough to account for the change
of habit. Von Heu^Un abo (p. 933) b explicit 00 thb point.
08TUNI— OSUNA
363
bw in tht univenity of that city» wkkh be quitted triihout
liaviAg submitted to tbe final esamioation. He was then
employMi as a derk in the office ol the " Court of Consdenoe/'
and subsequently in that of the Commsidal Court at Bloscow.
Both tribuiiala were calkd upon to settle disputes cUefiy ameag
the Russian merchant class, from which Oitiv¥skiy was thus
enabled to draw the chief chaiacten for his eailkst oomsdies.
Among these are Byidfwya Nimsta C'The Poor Bride")*
Byadma ne Porok (" Poverty not a Vice "), and Ns if ten toni
ne todis (literally " Don't pot yourself in another's sledge,"
meaning " Don't put yourself in a position for wfakh you are not
suited "). Of this biat NichehM I. said, ** it was not a play, but
The uncultured, self-satisfied Moscow merchants are
strUdttgly portrayed in Graad ("The Tempest") and Svtyi
lywii soddyomsya {"Between near relatives.no ac o ou n ts are
needed "), which was originally called " The Bankrupt." The
last-mentioned comedy was prohibited for ten yean, until the
accession of Alexander IL, and Ostrovskiy was dismiwffd the
government service and placed under the supervision of the
police. The Liberal tendencies of the new reign, however, soon
brought relief, Ostrovskiy was one of several well-kaown literary
men who were sent into the provinces to repovt on the condition
of the people. Ottrovskiy's field of inquiry lay along the upper
Volga, a part of the country menK>nble for some of the most
important events in Russian history. This mission induced him
to write several historical dramas of great merit, such as Kiama
Zakkarkk Uinin SoukkofMtk (tbe full name of the famous
butcher who saved Moscow from tbe Poles); ** Tbe False
Demetrius" and " Vassily Shuiaky "; Vasiiika MtkntUta (the
name of a favourite court huiy of Ivan tbe Terrible), and the
comedy, YaivodatdiS«mna VUge ('* The Mllilaiy Commander,"
or " A dream on the Volga "). Many of his later works treat of
the Russian nobility, and include Bytskutn Dengi (Hteialiy " Mad
Money "), Vospeelinitss {*' A Girt brought up In a Stranger's
Family "), and VelH 4 OvUi (" Wolves and Sheep "); others
relate to the wortd of actors, such as Uess (" Forest "), Be»
vim vitwvaUya (" Guiltlessly guilty"), and TaienH e Ppkl^niki
("Talents and their Admiren"). Ostrovskiy enjoyed the
patronage of Alexander lU., and received a pension of 3000
roubles a year. With the help of Moscow capitalists heesublished
In that city a model theatre and school of dramatic ait, of
which he became the first director. He also founded the Sodely
of Russian Dnmatic Art and Opera Composers. His death
took place on the S4th of June xS86, while travelling to his
est ate in Kostroma.
OiTDlfl, a picturesque walled city of Apulia, Italy, in the
province of Lecce, 33 m. by rail N.W. of Brindisi. Pop. (1901)
7734 (town); 39,811 (commune). It has a cathedral of the xsth
century with a fine Romanesque fac^tde, and a municipal library
with a collection of antiquities. The see has been aanalgamated
with that of Brindisi.
OSUNA, PBDRO TBUEZ OIRON, 3rd duke of (i575*x6?4),
Spanish viceroy of Sicily and Naples, was bom at Osuna, and
baptized on the tStb of January 1575. He was the son of Juan
Tellea Giron, the and duke, and of his wife Ana Maria de Velaaco,
a daughter of the constable of Castile. IVhen a boy he
accompanied his grandfather, the xst duke, to Na|^, where he
was viceroy. He saw service at the age of fourteen with the
troops sent by Philip II. to put down a revolt in Aregon, and
was married while still young to Dolb Catarina Enriquee de
Ribera, a grand-daughter on her mother's side of Hernan
Cortes,, the conqueror of Mexico. In 1598 he inherited the
dukedom. Before and after his marriage he was known for the
reckless dissipation of his life. The scandals to. which his
excesses gave rise led to his imprisonment at Ar6valo in x6oo.
This sharp lesson had a whoksome effect on the duke, and in the
same year he lett for Flandexs, with a body of soldiers rdsed at
his own expense. His appearance in Flanders as a grandee with
a following of his own caused some embanasiment to the king's
officers. But Osuna displayed unexpected docility and good
sense in the field. He was content to serve as a subordinate, and
took a full share of work and fighting both by land and sea.
When peace was made with Enghmd in 1604 he is said to have
visited London. He is said also to have paid a visit to Holland
during the armisdoe arranged to allow of the negotiations for the
twelve years' truce of 1609; but, as he was back in Spain by that
yeas, he cannot have seen mudi of the country. His services
had parked Us early offences, and be had been decorated with
the Golden Fleece. On the i8th of September x6io he was
named viceroy of Sicfly, and he took possession of his post at
Melasxo on the 9th of March i6xx. In 1616 he was promoted
to the viceroyalty of Naples, and heid the office till he was
recalled on the aSth of March 1690. The internal government
of Osuna in both provinces was vigorous and just. During his
Sicilian viceroyalty he organised a good squadron of galleys
with which he freed the coast for a time from the raids of the
Mahommedan pirates of the Barbery States and the Levant.
After his transfer to Naples Osona continued his energetic wars
with the pirates, but he- became concerned in some of the most
obtcore political intrigues of the time. He entered into a policy
of unmeasured hostility to Venice, which he openly attacked
in the Adriatic. The princes of the Spanish branch- of the
Habsburgs were at all times anxious to secure safe communica-
tion with the German possessions of their family, ^ence their
anxiety to dominate all northern Italy and secure possessioA
of the Alpine passes. It would have suited them very well
if they could have reduced Venice to the same state of servitude
as Gmoa. Osona threw himself into this policy with a whole
heart. There can be no reasonable doubt that he was engaged
with the Spanish ambassador, and the viceroy of Milan, in the
mysterious conspiracy against Venice in x6t8. As usual, the
Spanish government had miscalculated its resources, and was
compelled to draw back. It then found extreme difficulty
in controlling its fiery viceroy. Osuna continued to act against
Venice^ in an almost piratical fashion, and treated ^orders from
home with scant respect. Serious fears began to be entertained
that he meant to dedAn himself independent in Naples, and
had he tried he could have brought about a revolt .which the
enfeebled Spanish government could hardly have suppressed.
It is, however, unlikdy that he had treasonable intentions.
He allowed his naval forces to be gradually reduced by drafts,
and when superseded returned obediently to Madrid. After his
return he was imprisoned on a long string of charges, and largely
at the instigation of the Venetians. No judgment was issued
against him, as he died in prison on the S4th of September 1624.
The ** great duke of Osuna,*' as he is always called by the
Spaniards, impressed the imsginstion of his countrymen pro*
fouodly as a vigmons, domhiecring and patriotic leader of the
stamp of the x6th century, and he was no less admired by the
Italians. His ability was Infinitely superior to that of the ordinary
poh'tidans and courtiers of the time, but he was more energetic
than really wise, and he was an tetolcrablc subordinate to the
bureaucratic despotism, of Madrid.
The Visa di Don Pictro Giron, diua i* Ossuna. vicere ii NcpcK e
di Sicilia of Grrgorio Leti (Amsterdam, 1699) b full of irrelevances,
and oontasM much goisip, as well aa qwechcs wbich are manifestly
the invention of tbe author. But it is founded on good docuaienta»
and Lcti, an Italian who detested the Spanish rule, knew the state
of his own country well. See also Don C. Femandes Duro, £7 Cnn
Dvmie de Osuna y su Marina (Madrid, 1885), and Doatmentm
inuitai para la histaria da Espa»a (Madrid, 184a, Ac), vols, xliv.^
xlvii.
Of DllA, a town of southern Spain, in the provibce of Seville;
57 m. by rail E.S.E. of SeviUe. Pop. (1900) t8,07». Osuna
is built en a hill, overlooking the fertile plain watered by the
SaUdo, a sub-tributary of the Guadalquivir. On the top of the
hill stands the coliegkte church, dating from 1534 and coo*
taining interesting Spanish and eariy German paintings. These,
however, as well as the sculptures over tbe portal, suffered
considerably during the occupation of the place by tbe French
under Soult. The vaults, whidi are supported by Moorish
arches, contain tbe tombs of the Giron family, by one of whom,
Don Juan TeUez, the church was founded in x 534. Tbe univer-
sity of Osuna, founded also by him in 1549, was s uppi e s sed in
i8ro; but iu large buikling is still used as a secondary school.
3^+
OSWALD— OSWESTRY
The industries are agricultuie and the making of esparto mats,
pottery, bricks, oil, soap, doth, linen and hats.
Osuna, the Urso of Uinius, famous in the xst oentuxy B.a
for its long .resistance to the troops of Caesar, and its fidelity
to the Pompeians, was subsequently called by the Romans
Orsona and Gemina Urbanonun, the last name being due,
it is said, to the presence of two urban legions here. Osuna
was taken from the Mooes in 1239, and given by Alphonso X.
to the knights of Calatrava in 1264. Don Pedro Giron appro-
priated it to himsdf in 1445. One of his descendants, Don
Pedro Telles, was the first holder of the title duke of Osuna,
conferred on him by Philip IL in 1562.
Estcpa (pop. S591), a town 6 m. E.N.E. Is the Iberian and
Carthaginian Astepa or Qstipo, famous for its siege in 307 B.a
by the Romans under Publius Cocnelius Sdpio. When further
resistance became impossible, the people of Asteoa set fire to
their town, and all perished in the flames.
OSWALD (c. 605-643), king of Northumbzia, was one of the
sons of i£thelfrith and was expelled from Northumbria oa
the accession of Edwin, though he himself was a son of Edwin's
sister Acha. He appears to have spent some of his exile 1ft
lona, where he was instructed in the prindples of Christianity.
In 634 he defeated and slew the British king Ceadwalla at a
place called by Bede Deniscsbum, near Hefenfdth, which has
been identified with St Oswald's Cocklaw, near ChoUcrford,
Northumberland. By this he avenged his brother . Eanfrith,
who had succeeded Edwin in Berm'cia, and became king of
Northumbria. Oswald reunited Deira and Bemlda, and soon
raised his kingdom to a position equal to that which it had
occupied in the time of Edwin, with whom he is classed by Bede
as one of the seven great Anglo-Saxon kings. His dose alliance
with the Cdtic church is the characteristic feature of his reign.
In 635 he sent to the ddcrs of the Soots for a bishop. On the
arrival of Aidan in answer to this request he assigned to him
the island of lindisfarne as his see, near the royal dty of Bam>
borough. He also completed the minster of St Peter at York
which had been begun by Paulinus under Edwin. Bede declares
that Oswald ruled over " all the peofdes and provinces of Britain,
which includes four languages, those of the Britons, Picts,
Scots and Angles.'.' His relationship to Edwin may have hdped
him to consolidate Ddra and Bcmida. Early in his reign he
was sponsor to the West Saxon king Cyaegils, whose daughter
he married. In 643 he was defeated and slain at a pUce called
Maserfdd, probably Oswestry in Shropshire, by Peoda of
Merda.
See Bede, Risloria Bcdesiastica^ ed. C Phinuncr (OxEord, x8q6),
ii. 5, 14, 20\ iiL a, 3. 5, 6, 7, 9-14; Anglo-Saxm CkrtnicU, ed. J.
Earie and C Plummet (Oxford, 1899), j.a.,617,634,635. 642,654.
OSWALD (d. 992), archbishop of York, was a nephew of
Oda, archbi^p of Canterbury, and at an early age became,
by purchase, head of the Old Minster at Winchester. Desiring
to become a monk, he went with Oda's approval to the monastery
of Fleury on the Loire^-at that time the great centre of reviving
Benedictinism. Here he soon distinguished himself by the
monastic austerity of his life. In 959 he returned to England
at the request of Oda, who, however, died before his arrival
He now went to York to his kinsman the Archbishop Oskytd,
who took him with him on a pilgrimage to Rome. Soon after
his return he was appointed bishop of Worcester at the re-
commendation of Dunstan, his predocessor in the see (961).
As bishop he took a prominent part in that revival of monastic
discipline on Benedictine lines of which Aetbdwold, bishop
of Winchester, was the most ardent leader. His methods, how-
ever, were less violent than those of Aethdwold. Among other
religious houses he founded that of Ramsey in conjunction with
Aelhdwine, Ealdorman of East Anglia. In 97 2 he was translated
(again at * Dunstan's recommend^on) to the archbishopric of
Yotk, with which he continued to hold the see of Worcester.
Me died 00 the S9th of Febmaiy 993 and was buried at
Worcester.
$c« MrmonsU •f St Ihmstam, edited by W. Stubby Rolls ■erics
- • ,i»7i).
OSWALDTWISTLB, aa urban district in the AcoingtoQ
pariiamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the Leeds
and Liverpool Canal, 3I m. E.S.E. of Blackburn. Pop. (1901)
14,193.' It possesses cotton-mOIs, printworks, bleachworks and
chemical works, and in the neighbourhood are collieries, stoiK
quarries and potteries. At Poelfold, in the township, was bon
(1750) Sir Robert Ped, first baronet, who, as a fMcboxy^ornnoi
effe cted wide developments in the cotton industry.
08WBQ0, a dty, port of entry, and the county-seat of Ottwcso
county, New York, U.S.A., on the S.Ew shore of Lake (hktaiio,
at the mouth of the Oswego river, about 35 m. N.W. of SytBCoie.
Pop. (1900) 33,199, of wliom 3989 were foreign bora; (1910
census) 33.3^* It is served by the New York Central ft
Hudson River, the Ddawaxe, Lackawanna & Western, and the
New York, Ontario & Western railways, by several lines of lake
steamboats, and by the Oswego Canal, which connects Lake
Ontario with the Erie Canal at Syracuse. There is an inner
harbour of 9*35 acres and an outer harbour of 140 acres, whidi
are defended by Fort Ontario. The dty lies at an altitude of
300 ft, and is divided into two parts by the Oswe«o river.
Oswego is the seat of a state Normal and Training School (founded
as the Qty Training School in x86x, and a sute school since
1867), a state armoury, and a United States life-saving station;
«ffiong the public buildings are the City Ubcary (about 14*000
volumes in 1909), founded by Gerrit Smith in 1855, the Fedicral
BuUding and Custom House, the Oty Hall, the Qty Hospital,
the County Court House, an Orphan Asylum, and a buaiaeas
college. The Oswego river has here a fall of 34 ft. and furnisbcs
excellent water power. Among the principal manufactures are
starch (the dty has one c»f the lai^est starch factories in the
world), knit goods, railway car springs, shade<loth, boilers aod
engines, wooden-ware, matches, paper<cutting machinei, aod
eatt de cologne. The factory products were valued in 1905 at
I7i59a,i35. Oswego has a considerable trade with Canada;
in 1908 its exports were valued at $3,880,553 and its imports at
$999,164. Lake commerce with other ^Amezican Great Lake
ports is also of some importance, the principal artidea ol trads
being lumber, grain and coaL
The site of Oswego was visited by Samuel de Cbamplain ia
1616. Subsequently it was a station for the Jesuit nissienaries
and the cpweurs des Amx. In 1723 a regular trading post was
established here by English traders, and in 1727 Governor
William Burnet of New York erected the fint Fort Oswego
(sometimes qUled Fort Burnet, Chouaguen or PeppcrceU). It
was an important base of operations during King George's War
and the French and Indian War. In the years iJSS-^lS^ the
British erected two new forts at the mouth of the river, Foct
Oswego (an enlargement of the earlier fort) on the east and Fort
Ontario on the west la August 1756 Montcalm, marching
rapidly from Ticonderoga with a force of 3000 Freodi aod
Indians, appeared before the forts, then garrisoned by looo
British and cobnial troops, and on the X4th of August focoed
the abandonment of Fort Ontario. On the following day he
stormed and captured Fort Oswego, and, dismantling both,
returned to Ticonderoga. The British restored Foil Ontario
in 17 59, and maintained a garrison here untfl 1796, when, with
other posts on the lakes, they were, in accordance with the terms
of Jay's Tteaty, made over to the United States. It was bet«
in 1766 that Pontiac formally made to Sir WilHam Johnson his
arknowledgment of Great Britain's authority. On the 6th of
May 1814 Sir James Yeo, with a superior force of British and
CanndiaM, captured the fort, but soon afterwards withdrew.
In 1839 the fort was rebuilt and occupied by United States
troops; it was abandoned in 1899, but, ^^^^ having been recon-
structed, was again garrisoned in 1905. The modern dty may
be said to date from 1796. Oswego became the oounty-aeat ia
1816, was incorporated as a village in 1828 (when the Oswego
Canal was completed), and was first chartered as a dty in 1848.
See Churehill, ^th and Child, Lmidmarks »f Osweg» CamHy
(Syracuse. 1895). *
OSWESTRY, a market town and mimidpal borough in the
Oswestry parliamentary division of Shropshire, England, on
OSWIO— OTHO
365
the borden of Walesy iS m. N.W. from Shrewsbuty. Pop.
( 1 90X) g57Q. It is 00 a branch from the Chester line of the Greet
Western railway, and on the Cambrian main line. The situation
is pleasant and the neighbouring district well wooded and hilly.
The church of St Oswald, originally conventual, is Early English
and Decorated, but has been greatly altered by restoration. There
ifr a Roman Catholic chapel with presbytery, convent and school.
The grammar school, founded in the xeign of Henry IV., occupies
modern buildings. The nranidpal buildings (18Q3) include a
libraiy, and a school of science and art. On a hill W. of the
town are the castle grounds, laid out in tB90, but of the castle
itself only slight remains aro seen. The Cambrian tmHway
engine and carriage works are here; aod there are tanneries,
malting wodcs, machinery woiics and iron foundries. Frequent
agricultural fairs are held. The town is governed by a mayor,
6 aldenaen and 18 councillors. Area, 1887 acres.
Old Oswestry, also called Old Fort (Wdsh Hi» Dkm\ is a
British earthwork about a mile from the modem town. There
are various unsatisfactory accounts of the early history of
Oswestry (Blaneminster, or Album Monasterium), as that it
was calkd Trer Cadeirau by the Britons and Osweilhig after
Cunekia Wledig, prince of North Wales, had granted it to his
son OsweiL It derives its present name from Oswald, king of
Northumbrian who is said to hiavc been killed here in 64a, idthough
it was not definitely known as Oswestry until the zjth century.
In the Domesday Survey it is included in the manor of Maesburyj
which Rainakl, sheriff of Shropshire, held of Roger, earl of Shrews-
bury; but Rainald or his predecessor Warin had already raised
a. fortification at Oswestry called Louvre. The manor passed
in the reign of Henry I. to Ahm Fits-Flaad, in whose famfly it
continued until the death of Henry Fftzalan, earl of Arundel,
without male issue in 158a The first charter, of which a copy
only is preserved among the corporation records, is one given
in ia63 by John Fitzalan granting the burgesses sdf'govemment.
Richard II. by a charter dated 1398 granted all the privileges
which bekmgcd to Shrcwsbuiy, and a similar charter, was
obtained from Thomas, carl of Arundel in lAfi^ The town was
incorporated by Elizabeth in 1582 under the government of
two bailiffs and a* common council of 34 burgesses, and her
charter was confirmed by James I. in i6x6k A charter granted
by Charies 11. in 1673 appointed a maypr^ is aldermen and 15
common coundlmen, and remained the governinip charter until
the Mnnidpal Corporations Act of 1835 changed the corpomtion.
In rasS John Fitzahm obtained the right of holding a market
every week on Monday instead of Thursday. The maitet
ri^ts were hdd by the lord of the manor until 18x9, when Earl
Powis sold them to the corporation. In the X5& and x6th
centuries a weekly market was held at Oswestry for the sale
of woollen goods manufactuxed in North Wales, but in the Z7th
century the drapers of Shrewsbury determined to get the trade
into their own town, and although an Order in the Ftivy Council
was passed to restrain it to Oswestry they agreed in i6ai to buy
XK> more cloth there. The town was walled by the time of Edward
I. , but was several times burnt during Welsh invasions. In 164 a
it was garrisoned for Charles I., but two years later surrendered
to the parliamentary forces.
See Wniiam Cathnll, Tht History of Osvoestrr (1855); William
Price, The History of Osmslry from tk« Earlust Fmad (18x5);
Victoria County Htstory, Skropshiro,
OSWIO (Ci 6x3-670), king of Northmnbria, son of ^helfrith
and brother of Oswald, whom he succeeded in Bemida in 64a
after the battle of Maserfdd, was the seventh of the great
English kings enumerated by Bede^ He succeeded in making
the majority of the Britons, Picts and Scots tributary to him.
At Gilllng in 651 he caused the murder of Oswine, a relative
of Edwin, who had become king of Deira, and a few years
later took possession of that kingdom. He appears to have
consolidated his power by the aid of the Church and by a series
of judidous matrimonial alliances. It was pr^bly in 64a that
be married Eanfled, daughter of Edwin, thus uniting the two
rival d3mast{es of Northumbria. His daughter Alhfied he
married to Peada, son of Penda, king of Mercia, whUe another
daughter, Osthryth, became the wife of iEihelred, third son of
the same king. Oswio was chiefly responsible for the recon-
version of the East Saxons. He is said to have convinced their
king Sigeberht of the truth of Christianity by his arguments,
and at his request sent Cedd, a brother of Ceadda, on a mission
to Essex. In 655 he was atUcked by Penda, and, after an
unsuccessful attempt to buy him off, defeated and slew the
Mercian king at the battle of the Winwaed. He then took
possession of part of Merda, giving the rest to Peada. As a
thank-offering he dedicated his daughter iEIfled to the Church,
and founded the monastery of Whitby. About this time he is
thought by many to have obtained some footing in the kingdom
of the Picts m successfon to thdr king Talorcan, the son of his
brother Eanfrid. In 660 he married his son Ecgfrith to
^thdthrsrth,' daughter of the East AngUan king Anna. In
664 at the synod of Whitby, Oswio accepted the usages of the
Roman Church, which led to the departure of Colman and the
appointment of Wilfrid as bishop of York. Oswio died in 670
and was succeeded by his son Ecgfrith.
See Bede, Historia Bedesuistica, ii., ill., iv.. v., edited by C.
Phimmer (Odoid. 1896): Aniio-Saxon Ckromulo, edited by Earle
and Phimmer (Oxfocd». 1899).
inhmMM (e, S74-656), b full OtbmAn xbn 'AtfXn, the
third of the Mahommedan caliphs, a kinsman and son-in-law
of Mahomet and cousin of Abu Sofiln, whose son Moawiya
became the first of the Omayyad dynasty. He was elected
caliph in succession to Omar in 644, but owing to his alternate
weakness and cruelty and his preference of the Koreish for all
responsible positions irrespective of thdr capadty, he produced
strife throughout the empire whidi culminated in his assassina-
tion by Mahommed, son of Abu Bckr. He was succeeded by
All (^.v.). See Cauphatb, A. f 3.
OniNIBLb in the Bible, a chm settled at Debir or Kirjath-
sepher in S^Palestine (Judg. i. la sqq.. Josh. xv. x6 sqq., contrast
Josh. X. 38 seq.), described as the " brother * of Caleb. The
name appears in Judg. iiL 7-xi (see Judges), as that of a her*
who delivered Israel from a North Syrian king. That a king
from the Euphrates who had subjugated Canaan should have
been defeated by a dan of the south of Palestine has been
doubted. There Is no evidence of such a situation, and it has
been conjectured that Coshan-Rishathaim (the name suggests
*' C. of double wickedness "0 of Aram (crtM) has arisen from
some king (cp. Husham, Gen. xxxvi. 34) or dan (cp. Cush, Num.
xiL i; Cttshan, Hab. iiL 7) of Edom (om) to the south ot
southneast of Palestine. Ckhnid recurs in x Chron. iv. r3.
See A. KkMtennanii, Geseh. d. Voikes Israel (i 896), p. laa ; Cheyne^
Bmcy. Bi^ oot 969 aeq. and references; also the Utemture to Jui>gb&
OnrHO, MARGOS SALVIUS (33^9), Roman emperor from the
xStb of January to the x 5th of April aj>. 69, was bom on the
98th of Apr3 AJ>. $i. He bdonged to an andent and noble
Etruscan family settled at Ferentinum in Etraria. He appears
first as one of the most reckless and extravagant of the young
noUcs who surrounded Nero. But his friendship with Nero was
brought to an abrupt dose In 58, when Otho refused to divorce
bis beaatxful wife Poppea Sabina at the bidding of Nero, who at
once appmnted him governor of the remote province of Lusitania.
Hero Otho remained ten years, and his administntion was
marked by a moderatkm unusual at the time. When in 68 ha
neighbour Galba, the governor of Hispania Tarraconenas, rose
in revolt agunst Nero, Otho accompanied hfan to Rome. Resent-
ment at the treatment he had recdved from Nero may have
impelled him to this course, but to this motive was added before
long that of persona] ambition. Galba was far advanced in
years, and Otho, encouraged by the predictions of astrologers,
aspired to succeed him. But in January 69 his hopes were
dissipated by Galba's formal adoption of L. Calp^irnius I^ as the
fittest man to succeed him. Nothing remained for Otho but to
strike a bold bk>w. Desperate as was the state of his finances,
thanks to Itis previous extravagance, he found money to purchase
the services of some three-and-twenty soldiers of the praetorian
guard. On the morning of January X5, five days duly after the
adoption of Piso^ Otho attended as usual to pay his respects to
366
OTK/H. G.— OTIS, J.
the emperor, and then haitily accusing himself on the aoore
of private business hurried from the Palatine to meet his aficom-
plices. By them he was escorted to the praetorian camp, whcsCt
after a few moments of surprise and indecision, be was saluted
imperator. With an imposing force he returned to the Forum,
and at the foot of the Capitol encountered Galba, who, alarmed
by vague nunours of treachery, was making his way through a
dense crowd of wondering citizens towards the barracks of the
guard. The cohort on duty at the Palatine, which had accom-
panied the emperor, instantly deserted him, Galba, Pisa and
others were brutally murdered by the praetorians. The brief
struggle over, Otho rettimod in triumph to the camp, and on the
same day waa duly invested by the senators with the name of
Augustus, the tribunician power and the other Hignitirs belonging
to the principate. Otho had owed his success, not only to the
resentment felt by the praetorian guards at Galba's wdl-meant
attempts to curtsdl their privileges in the interesta of disci p line,
but also largely to the atUchment felt in Rome for the memory
of Nero; and his first acts as emperor showed that be was not
unmindfulof the fact. Heaccepted,orappeaiedtoaccq>t,theoog-
oomen of Nero conferred upon him by the shouts of the populace,
whom his comparative youth and the effeminacy of his appearance
reminded of their lost favourite. Nero's statues were again set
up, his frcedmen and household officers reinstalled, and the
intended completion of the Golden House announced. At the
same time the fears of the more sober and respectable citizens
were allayed by Otho's liberal professions of his intention to
govern equitably, and by his judicious clemency towards Marius
Cclsus, consul-designate, a devoted adherent of Galba.
But any further development of Otho's policy was checked by
the news which reached Rome shortly after his accession, that
the army in Germany had declared for ViteUius» the commander
of the legions on the lower Rhine, and was already advancing
upon Italy. After in vain attempting to conciliate Vitellius by
the offer of a share in the empu«, Otho, with unexpected vigour,
prepared for war. From the remoter provinces, which had
acquiesced in his accession, little help was to be expected; but
the legions of Dalmatia, Pannonia and Moesia were eager in his
cause, the praetorian cohorts were in themselves a formidable force
and an efficient fleet gave him the masteiy of the Italian seas. The
fleet was at once despatched to secure Liguria, and on the 14th of
March Otho, undismayed by omens and prodigies, started north-
wards at the head of his troops in the hopes of preventing the
entry of the Vltellian troops into Italy. But for this he was too
kte, and all that could be done was to throw- troops into Placentia
and hold the line of the Po. Otho's advanced guard successfully
defended Placentia against Alienus Caedna, and compelled that
general to fall hack on Cremona. But the arrival of Fabius
Valeos altered the aspea of affairs. The Vitellian commanders
now resolved to bring on a decisive battle, and their designs were
assisted by the divided and irresolute counsels which prevailed
in Otho's camp. The more experienced officers urged the im-
portance of avoiding a battle, until at kast the legions from
Dalmatia had arrived. But the rashness of the cmpeior'a brother
Titianus and of Proculus, prefea of the praetorianguarda, added
to Otho's feverish impatience, ovczxulcd all opposition, apd an
immediate advance was decided upon, Otho himself remaining
behind with a considerable reserve force at Brixdlum, on the
southern bank of the Po. When this decision was taken the
Othonian forces had already crossed the Po and were encamped
at Bcdriacum (or Betriacum), a small village on the ViaPostumia,
and on the route by which the legkms from Dalmatia would
naturally arrive. Leaving a strong detachment to hold the
camp at Bedriacum, the Othonian forces advanced along the Via
Postumia in the direction of Cremona. At a short distance from
that dty they unexpectedly encountered the Vitellian troopa.
The Othooians, though taken at a<liaadvantage, fought desper-
ately, but wexe finally forced to fall back in disorder upon their
camp at Bedriacum. Thither on the next day the victorious
Vitellians followed them, but only to oomo to terms at once with
their disheartened enemy, and to be welcomed into the camp as
friends. More unexpected still waa the cffsa produced at
Brixelluffi by the news of the battle. Otho waa still ia <
of a formidable force— the Dalmatian legkms had already reached
Aquileia; and the spirit of his soldiera and their officcis was un-
broken. But he was resolved to accept the verdict of the battle
which his own impatience had hastened. In a ^igniUmA tpoecb
he bade farewell to those about him, and then retiring to rest slept
soundly for some hours. Early in the morning he stabbed him-
self to the heart with a dagger which he had concealed tmdcr his
pillow, and died as his attendants entered the tent. His funeral
was celebrated at once, as he had wished, and not a few ci hia
soldiers followed thetr master's fxamplf by killing theaoselvca
athispyre: A plain tomb waa erected m his honour at BrixeOum,
with the simple inscription "Diis Manibos Mard Othonis."
At the time of his death (the 15th of April 69) he was in his
thirty-eighth year, and had reigned just three months. In all his
life nothing became him so well as his manner of leaving it, but
the fortitude he then Aamtd, even if it was not merely the courage
of despair, cannot blind us to the fact that he was little better than
a reckless and vtdous spendthrift, who was not the kss dangerous
because his fiercer posions were concealed beneath an affectation
of effeminate dandjrism. (H. F. P.)
See Tacitus. Htf<an«r,Lu-SO, 71-^ fi. I i*«i:
and Plutarch; Dio Caasius Ixiv.; Mcrivale, Hutory of Uu Ramamt
under the Empire, ch. 56; H. Schiller. GeschtdOe itr rdmiuitu
Kaiserteit (1883); U Paul. " Kaiaer M. Salvius Otho " in Rhnm.
Mus. Ivti. (1909) ; W A. Spooner. On Ike Ckaraeters of (Mho, Oiko.
and VitetUm, in Introd. to his edition (1891) of the Hutones of
Tacitus; B. W. Heoderwn, Cml War OMdlMUian w llu /Smms
Empire^ A.D. 69-70 (1908).
OTIS. HAmUSON ORAT (1765-184S), .
was bora in Boston, Maiaarhusfrts, on the 8th of October 1765.
He was a nephew of James Otis, and the son of Samuel Al^rne
Otis *(z740-j8i4), who was a member of tha Confederation
Congress in j 787-1 7^8 and secretary of the United States
Senate from its first session in X789.until his death. Young Qtis
graduated from Harvard College in 1783, waa admitted to the
bar in 1786, and soon Jbecame prominent as- a Federalist in
politics. He served in the Massachusetts House of Repre>
senUtives in 1796-1 797i in the National House of Representa-
tives in 1797-1801, as distiict-attomey for MassachusetU in
x8os, as speaJcer of the state House of RcpresenUtivcs in iSoj*
x8os, as a memberof the state Sienate from 1805 to 181 1, and as
president of that body in 1805-1806 and x8o8-i8i x, aa a member
of the United States Senate from 18x7 to x8ss, and as mayor of
Boston m X829-1833. He-was strongly opposed to the War ol
x8ia, and was a leader in the movement culminating in the
Hartford Convention, which he defended in a series of open
letters published in z824> sxul in his inaugural address as ma>-or
ofBoston. A man ol refinement and education, a member of an
influential family, a popular social leader and an doquent
speakec^-at the age of twenty-three he waa chosen by the town
authorities of Boston to deliver the Independence Day oration^
Otis yet lacked conspicuous ability as a tfatcsmsn He died ia
Boston on the a8th of October X848.
OTU, JAMBS (i7a5'-x783), American patriot, was bom at
West BaxnsUble, Manachusetts, 00 the 5th of February X72S*
He waa the eldest son of James Otis '(X709-X778), fourth ia
descent from John Otis (xs8x-x657}, a native of Barnstaple,
Devon, and one of the first settlers (in x6js) of Hingham, Mass.
The elder James Otis was elected to theprovhicial General Court
hi 1758, waa its speaker in i76o>x763, and was chief justice of
the Court of Common Pleas from X764 until 1776; he was a
promment patriot in the colony of Massachusetts The son
graduated at Harvard in 1743; «id after studying law in the
office of Jeremiah Gridley (X70S-X767), a well-known lawyer
with Whig sympathies, rose to great distinction at the bar,
practising first at Plymouth and after x75oat Boston. In X760 he
puUished RMdiments oj Lalim Prosody t a book of authority in its
time. He wrote a simihu- treatise upon Greek prosody; but
this was never nublished, because, as he said, there was not a
font of Greek lelfers in the country, nor, if there wexe, a printer
who could have set them up. Soon after the accession of Geoxfe
XIL to the throne of F.ngiand in fj^o^ the British government
OTLEY— OTTAKAR
367
dedded upon a rigid enfoicement of the BftVfgation acta, wUdt
had long been durigarded by the oolonists and had been ahnoat
wholly evaded during the French and Indian War. The Wiita el
Aaeistance issued in 2755 were about to expixe, and it waadecided
to isaue new ones, wUch would empower eastern house oflkcrs
to search any house for smuggled goods, though neither the house
nor the goods had to be specifically mentioned in the wxita.
l^uch opposition was aroused in Massachusetts, the k^aiity of the
writs was questioned, and the Superior Court consented to hear
aigumcnt. Otis held the office of advocatfrfenerai at the time,
and it was his duty to appear on behalf of the government.
He refused, resigned his offii^ and appeared for the people against
the issue of the writs, Gridlcy appearing on the opposite side.
The case was argued intheOMTown House of Boston in February
1761, and the chief speech was made by Otis. His plea waa fervid
in its eloquence and fearless in its assertion of the rights ei the
colonists. Going beyond the question at issue, he dealt with the
more fundamental question of the reUtion between the En^h
in America and the home government, and argued that even if
authorized by act of parliament such writs were null and void.
The young orator was elected in May of the same year^a repre-
sentative from Boston to the Massachusetts General Ccmrt.
To that position he was re-elected nearly every year of the re-
maining active years of his life, serving there with his father.
In 1766 he was chosen Speaker of the House of Representatives,
but the choice was negatived. In September 1762 the younger
Otis published A VindicaHon of the Condiut of the House of
Representaihes of Ike Provhce^of Masiachuseits Bay, in defence
of the action of that body in sending to the goveraor a message
(drafted by Otis) rebuking him for asking the assembly to pay
for ships he had (with authorisation of the Council and not of the
representatives) sent to protect New England fisheries against
French privateers; according to this message " it would be of
little cxmsequence to the people whether they were subject to
George or Louis, the king of Great Britain or the Ftench king, if
both were as arbitrary as both would be if both could levy taxes
without parliament." He also wrote various state papers
addressed to the colonies to enlist them in the common cause,
or sent to the government in England to uphold the ri^ts or
set forth the grievances of the cobnists. His influence at home
in controlling and directing the movement of events which led to
the War of Independence was universally felt and acknowledged;
and abroad no American was so frequently quoted, denounced,
or applauded in pariiament and the English press before 1769
as the recognised head and chief of the rebellious spirit of the
New England colonists. In 1765 Massachusetts sent him as one
of her representatives to the Stamp Act Congress at New York,
which had been called by a (^mmittee of the Massachusetts
General Court, of which he was a member; and here he was a
conspicuous figure, serving on the committee which prepared
the address sent by that body to the British House of Commons.
In 1769 he denounced m the Boston Gagetle certain customs
commissioners who bad charged him with treason. Thereupon
he became involved in an dtercation in a piiblic-house with
Robinson, one of the commissioners; the altercation grew into an
affray, and Otis received a sword cut on the head, which is
considered to have caused his subsequent insanity. Robinson
was mulcted in £2000 damages, but in view of his having made
a written apology, (Xis declined to take this sum from him.
From 1769 almost continuously until his death Otis w«s harm-
lessly insane, though he had occasional lucid intervals, serving as
a volunteer in the battle of Bunker Hill in tfjs and aiguing a case
in 1778. He was kilfed by lightning (it is said that he had often
expressed a wish that he might die In this way) at Andover,
Mass., on the 33rd of May 2783.
Otu's political writings were chiefly controverslat and e x er cis ed
an enormous influence^ his pamphlets being among the most effective
presentations of the areumcnts of the colonists against the arbitrary
oMasores of the British ministry. Hts more iniprunt pamphlets
were A Vindication of the Omiuct of the House of Retrtsentativts
of the Province of MassackuseUs Bay (1762): Tie Rt^ of the
BriHsh Colonies Asserted and Proeed (1764): A Vindication of the
Britiek Celanies sfwftul the Aspereiona igf Of Ho^fas G eml h m m en
hie Utters a Skeie Idand FHend—ei letter known at the time as
the " Halifax Libel " (1765): and ConsideraUons on Behalf o/T the
Colonists in a Letter to a NoSle Lord (1765).
The best biography is that by wilUam Tudor (Boston, 1823);
there ia a shorter one by Fnnds Bowen (Boston, 1847). The best
aoooant of Ods's chaiacteriatica and influence a« a writer may be
found in M. C* Tyler's Literary History of the American ReeoMion
(New York, 1897). See also the notes on the Writs of AssisUnce
by Horace Gray, Jr., in Quincy's Massachusetts Reports, I76t-'i777t
(Boston, 1865). Otia'a speech on the writs, reprinted from rough
notes Uken by John Adams, appears ta Appendix A of voL ii. of
C F» Adams's edition of the Works of John Adams (Boston, 1850).
0TLE7, a market town in the Otley parliamentary divisioa
of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 13 m. N.W. of Ueds
on the Midland and the North-Eastem railways* Pop. of urban
district (1901) 9230. It is picturesquely situated on the south
bank of the Wharfe, at the foot of the predpitoua Chevin Hill,
935 ft. in height. In this neighbourhood excellent building-atone
is quarried, which was used for the foundations of the Houaca
of Parliament in London, and is despatched to all paru of
England. The church of All Saints hu Nonnan portions^ and
a cross and other remains of pte-Nonnan date were discovered in
restoring the building. There are interesting monumenu of
members of the Faii^ family and others. Worsted spinning
and weaving, tanning and leather-dressing, paper-making and
the making of printing-machines are the principal industries.
The scenery of Wbarf^ale is very pleasant. In the dale, 7 m.
below Otley, are the fine ruins of Harewood Castle, of the 14th
centiury. The neighbouring church contains a noteworthy series
of monuments of the < 5th century in alabaster.
OTRANTOf a seaport and archieplscopal see of Apulia, Italy,
in the province of Lecce, from which it is S9§ m. S.£. by rail,
49 fL abone sesrleveL Pop. (1901) 2295. It is beautifully
situated on the east coast of the penlnsukof the ancient Calabria
(9.V.). The castle was erected by Alphonso of Aragon; the
cathedral, consecrated in 1088, has a rose window and side
portal of i48r. The interior, a basilica with nave and two aisles,
contains columns said to come fronv a temple of Minerva
and a fine mosaic pavement of xi66, with interesting representa-
tions ol the months, Old Testament subjects, &c. It his a crypt
supported by forty-two marble columns. The church of S.
Pietro has Byzantine frescoes. Two submarine cables start
from Otxanto, one for Valona, the other for Corfu. The harbour
is small and has little trade.
Otfanto occqpies the site of the ancient Hydrus or Hydruntum;
a town of (Sreek origin. In Roman times it was less inqwrtant
than Bnmdusium as a point of embarkatkm for the East, though
the distance to ApoUonia was less than from Brundusium.
It remained In the hands of the Byzantine emperors until it
Was taken by Robert Guiscard in 1068. In 1480 it was utterhf
destroyed by the Turkish fleet, and has never since recovered
its importance. About 30 m. S.E. lies the promontory of S.
Maria di Leuca (so called since ancient times from its white
diffs), the S.E. extremity of Italy, the andent Promontorium
lapygium or Sallentinum. The district between this promontory
and Otranto is thickly populated, and very fertile. (T. As.) 1
OTTAKAR I. (d. 1230), king of Bohemia, was a sroungcr
son of King Vladislav II. (d. 1 174) and a member of the Premy-
slide family, hence he is often referred to as Premysl Ottakar I.
His eariy years were passed amid the anarchy which prevailed
everywhere in his native land; after several struggles, in which
he took part, he was recognized as ruler of Bohemia by the
emperor Heniy VI. in r 192. He was, however, soon overthrown,
but rcoewhig the fight in 1x96 he forced his brother. King
Vladislav HI., to abandon Bohemia to him and to content
himadf with Moravia. Although confirmed in the possession of
his kingdom by the German king, Philip, duke of Swabia,
Ottakar soon deserted Philip, who thereupon declared him
deposed^ He then joined the rival German king, Otto of
Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., being recognised
as king of Bohemia both by Otto and by his ally. Pope Innocent
III. Philip's consequent invasion ol Bohemia was a great
success. (Xtakar, having been compelled to pay a fine^ again
nnged himsell among Philip's paniwnft and stUl later was
368
OTTAVA RIMA— OTTAWA
among the supporters of the young king, Frederick H Re
united MonvUi with Bohemia in I3at» and when he died in
December 1330 he left to his aoOf Wenceslaus I., a kingdom
united and comparatively peaceable.
Ottakar II., or PEEirvsL Ottaxak II. (e, 1330-1378), king
of Bohemia, was a son of King Wenceslaus I., and through his
mother^ Kunigimde, was related to the Hobenstaufen fimily,
being a grandson of the German king, Philip, duke of Swabia.
During his father's lifetime he ruled Moravia, but when in 1348
some discontented Bohemian nobles acknowledged him as their
sovereign, trouble arose between him and his father, and for a
short time Ottakar was imprisoned. However, in 1351 the young
prince secured his election as duke of Austria, where he
strengthened his position by marrying Margaret (d. 1367),
sister of Duke Frederick n., the last of the Babenbc^ rulers
of the duchy and widow of the German king, Henry VII. Some
years later he repudiated this lady and married a Hungarian
princess. Both before and after he became king of Bohemia in
succession to his father in September x 253 Ottakar was involved
in a dispute with Bela IV., king of Hungary, over the possesion
of Styria, which duchy had formerly been united with Austria.
By an arrangement made in 1254 he surrendered part of it to
Bela, but when the dispute was renewed he defeated the
Hungarians in July 1260 and secured the whole of Styria for
himself, owing his formal investiture with Austria and Styria
to the German king, Richard, earl of Comwal). The Bohemian
king also led two expeditions against the Prussians. In 1369
he inherited Caiinthia and part of Camiola; and having made
good his daim, contested by the Hungarians, on the field of
battle, he was the most powerful prince in Germany when an
election for the German throne took place in 1 373. But Ottakar
was not the successful candidate. He refused to acknowledge
his victorious rival, Rudolph of Habsburg, and urged the pope
to adopt a similar attitude, while the new king claimed the
Austrian duchies. Matters reached a climax in X276. Placing
Ottakar "Under the ban of the empire, Rudolph beskged Vienna
and compelled Ottakar in November 1376 to sign a treaty by
which he gave up Austria and the neighbouring duchies, retaining
for himself only Bohemia and Moravia. Two years later the
Bohemian king tried to recover his lost lands; he found allies
and collected a large army, but he was defeated by Rudolph
and killed at Dilmknit on the March on the a6th of August 1378.
Ottakar was a founder of towns and a friend of law and order,
while he assbted trade and welcomed German immigrants.
Clever, strong and handsome, he is a famous figure both In history
and in legend, and is the subject of a tragedy by F. Grillparzer,
Kdnig OUokars GfUk mid Ende, His son and successor was
Wenceslaus IL
See O. Lorenz, Gtukichte K9Hit Ott&kart, !i. (Vienna, 1866);
A. HuhtrtCetdtickt* Oestareichs, Band i. (Gotha. 1885): and F.
Palacky. CeukuMU nw B&kmen, Band i. (Prague, 1844).
OTTAVA BIMA, a stanxa of eight iambic Unes, containing
three rhymes, invariably arranged as follows. — a b ab a b c c
It is an Italian invention, and we find the earliest specimens
of its use in the poetry of the fourteenth century. Boccaodo
employed it for the Teseide, which he wrote in Florence in 1340,
and for the FUosirtUo, which he wrote at Naples some seven
years later. These remarkable epics gave to oUovs rima tU
classic character. In the succeeding century it was employed
by Politian, and by Boiardo for his famous OrUndo Innamorata
(r486). It was Pulci, however, in the M^emU Maggiore (1487),
who invented the peculiar mock-heroic, or rather half-serious,
half'buriesque, style with which 00dM rima has been roost
commonly identified ever since and in connexion with which it
was introduced into Enji^nd by Frcre and Byron. The measure,'
^ich was now recogm'zed as the normal one for all Italian
epic poetry, was presently wielded with extraordinary charm
and variety by Bcmi, Ariosto and Tasso. The meriu of it
were not perceived by the English poets of the r6lh and
17th centuries, although the versions of Tasso by Carew
(iS94) and Fairfax (1600) and of Ariosto by Harington (1591)
jxaerve its external construction. Tht sUaxalc forma feveated
by Sjpenacr and by the Fletchers have lew real Rlatlon to aflftw
rima than is commonly a8serted,and it is quite ineoireci to say
that the author of the Fairy Quern adopted aCte«0 fMM and added
a ninth line to prevent the sound from being OMnotoDoasly
iterative. A poction of Browne'a Brilamnia^i Pattorals is
composed in pure otfoso rima, but this is the only fanportaat
specimen in original EUzabethaa literature. Two centuries
later a very successful attempt was made to introdooe in English
poetry the flexibiiity and gaiety of dtaoa rima by John Hookham
Frere, who had studied Pulci and Casti, and had caught the
very movement of their diveiting measure. His WkitOecrafi
appeared in 1817. Hiis Is a specimen of the oUata rima el
Frere:—
But chiefly, when the ahadowy moon had abed
O'er woods and waters her mysterious hue.
Their passive hearts and vacant fancies fed
With thoughts and asptrationa strange and new.
Till their brute soub with inward working bred
Dark hinU that in the depths of instinct grew
Subjection— not from Locke's associations.
Nor David Hartley's doctrine of vibratk>ns.
Byron was greatly impressed by the opportunities foe aaiire
involved in Frere's experiment, and in October 18x7, in imtution
of WkistUcraJt, but keeping still ck»er to Puld, he wrote Btppo.
By far the greatest monument in ottava rima which exists in
Englishliterature is Dm/kois (18x9-1824). Byron also ensploycd
this measure, which was peculiariy adaptable to the purposes of
his genius, in The Vision of J^tdgment (1823). Meanwhile SheUey
aUo became attracted by it, and in i8ao translated the Hymns
of Homer into oilaoa rt$ita. The curious buiksgue ^c of
William Tennant (x 784-1848), AnsterPoir{i^ia), which preceded
all these, is written In what would be cUom rima if the eighth
line were not an alexandrine. The form haa been little used
in other languages than Italian and English. It was employed
by Bosc&n (x49o-x54a), who imitated Bembo vigorously ia
Spanish, and the very fine Aratuaua of Erdlia y Ziifiiga (iSi3~
1595)^ hi the same measure. Lope de Vega Carpk> wrote plenti-
fully in oltava rima. In Portuguese poetry of the x6th and X7th
centuries this measure obtained the sanction of C*m<>fBS> who
wrote in it hb immortal Lusiads (157a). OUMa rima has been
attempted in German poetry by Uhland and oUicis, but not for
pieces of any considerable length. (E. C.)
OITAWA* a tribe of North American IiuHaikS of Algoaquiaa
stock, originally settled on the Ottawa river, Canada, and later
on the north shore of the upper peninsula of Michifl^. They
were driven in 1650 by the Iroquois beyond the Mississippi,
only to be forced back by the Dakotas. Then they settled on
Manitoulin Ishmd, Lake Huron, and joined the French against
the English. During the War of Independence, however, they
fought for the latter. Some were moved to Indian Tcnitocy
(Okl ah o m a), but the majority live to^ay m scattered commu-
nities throughout lower Michigan and Ontario.
OTTAWA, the laigest tributary of the river St Lawrence;
ranking ninth in length among the rivers of Canada, being 685 m.
long. It fiows first westward to Lake Temiscaming; thence
south-east and east The principal tributaries on the left bank
are the Rouge ( x 1 5 m.). North Nation (60), Lievre (205), Gatmean
(t4u), Coulonge (135), Dumome (80); and on the right bank,
the South Nation (90), Mississippi (105), Madawaska (130) and
Petawawa (95). Canah at Ste Anne, Carillon and Grcnville
permit the passage of vessels drawing 9 ft., from Montreal up to
the dty of Ottawa. At Ottaw,i the river is connected with Lake
Ontario by the Rideau Canal The Chaudi^re FsUs, and the
Chats and other mplds, prevent continuous navigation above
the capital, but small steamers ply on the larger navigable
stretches. The Montreal, Ottawa and Georgian Bay Canal b
designed to surmount these obstructions and provide a navigable
channel from (joorgian Bay up French river, through Lake
NipissIng and over the height of land to the Ottawa, thence do^-n
to Montreal, of sufficient depth to enable vessels drawing 90 or
ai ft. to carry cargo from Chicago. Duluth, Fort William. &c
to Montreal, or, if necessary, to Europe, without breakirK bulk.
Except the tugsested Hudson Bay route, this canal would Ibnn
OTTAWA
3^9
the liioitcst route to the Atbntic Mftbetrd from tlie great sniii-
produdng uees of western Americs^
The Otuwa was first explored by Samuel de Cbamplaln in
16x3. Guunplain describes many of its tributaries, the Chaudidre
and Rideau Falls, the Long Sault, Chats and other rapids, as
well as the character of the river and its banks, with minuteness
and icasonable accuracy. He pbces the Chaudi^re Falls in
45" 38', the true position being 45° s?'* The Long Sault Rapids
on the Ottawa, about midway between Montreal and the capital,
were the scene of one of the noblest exploits in Canadian history,
when in i66z the young Sieur des Ormeaux with sixteen
comrades and a handful of Indian allies deliberately gave their
lives to save New France from an invasion of the Iroquois. They
intercepted the war party at the Long Sault, and for nearly a
week held them at bay. When finally the last Frenchman fell
under a shower of arrows, the Iroquois were tboro^ghly dis-
heartened and returned crestfallen to thdr own country. For
a hundred and fifty yean thereafter the OtUwa was the great
highway from Montreal to the west for explorers and fur-traders.
The portage paths around its cataracts and rapids were worn
smooth by the moccasined feet of countless voyageurs ; and its
wooded k^nks rang with the inimitable chansons of Old Canada,
as the canoe brigades swept swiftly up and down Its broad
stream. Throughout the 19th century the Ottawa was the
thoroughfare of the lumbermen, whose immense rafts were
carried down from its upper waters to Montreal and Quebec.
OTTAWA, a city of Carleton county, province of Ontario, and
the capital of the Dominion of Canada, on the right bank ^ the
Ottawa river, loi m.W. of Montreal and 217 m. N.E. of Toronto.
The main tower of the parliament building is in 45* »$' aS' N.,
and 75* 4a' 03* W.
The city stands for the most part on a cluster of hills, 60 to
155 fu above the river. It is on the main line of the Canadian
Pacific railway, which affords direct communicatfon with
Montreal by two routes, the North Shore and the Short Line,
one on either side of the Ottawa river. Branches of the same
railw^ lead to Brockville, on the St Lawrence river, passing
through the town of Smith's Falls where connexion is made with
the direct line from Montreal to Toronto ; to Prcscott, also on the
St Lawrence; northward through the Gatineau valley to
ManiwakI, in the heart of a famous sporting country, and
westward to Waltham, on the north side of the Ottawa. The
Grand Trunk offers a third route to Montreal, and another line
of the same railway leads to Parry Sound, on Georgian Bay.
The Ottawa and New York (New Yoric Central) runs to Cornwall,
on the St Lawrence, thence to New York. Electric railways
afford communication with all parts of the city and extend
eastward to Rockliffe Park and the rifle ranges, westward to
Britannia on Lake Deschencs, and through the neighbouring
town of Hull to Aylmer and Victoria Park. During the summer
months steamers ply down the Ottawa to Montreal, and by way
of the Rideau canal and lakes to Kingston on the St Lawrence.
A road bridge, partially destroyed in the great fire of 1900,
connects Ottawa with Hull ; a railway bridge spans the river
above the Chaudidre Falls ; and the Royal Alexandra Bridge,
bek>w the falls, carries both steam and electric railway tracks,
as well as roadways for vehicular and pedestrian traffic The
site of the city is exceedingly picturesque. For 3 m. it follows
the high southern bank of the Ottawa, from the Chaudiire Falls,
whose mist-crowned cauldron is clearly visible from the summit
of Parliament Hill, to and beyond the Rideau Falls, so named
by eariy French expk)rers beotuse of their curtain*like appear-
ance. The Rideau, a southern tributary of the Ottawa, once
formed the eastern boundary of the city, which, however, is now
absorbing a string of suburbs that lie along iu eastern banks.
The Rideau Canal cuts the city in two, the western portmn being
known as Upper Town and the eastern as Lower Town. Roughly
speaking the canal divides the two sectk>ns of the population,
the English occupying Upper Town and the French Lower Town,
though Sandy Hill, a fadiionable residential district east of the
canal, is mainly occupied by the English. Opposite and a little
below the mouth of the Rideau, the Gatineau flows into the
Jtx J
Ottawa from the north. Above the Cbaudiire Falb the river Is
broken by the Deschencs Rapids, and beyond these again it
expands into Lake Deschencs, a favourite summer resort for the
people of the dty. To the north lie the Laurentian Hills, broken
by the picturesque Gatineau Valley.
The crowning architectural feature of the city is the splendid
group of Gothic buildings on the summit of Parliament HID,
whose limestone bluffs rise 150 ft. sheer from the river. The
three blocks of these buildings form sides of a great quadrangle,
the fourth side remaining open. The main front of the central
or Parliament building is 470 ft. long and 40 ft. high, the Victoria
Tower (180 ft. high) rising over the prindpal entrance. Behind
and connected with the Parliament building is an admirably
proportioned polygonal hall, 90 ft. in diameter, in which the
library of parliament is housed. The comer stone of the main
building was laid by the then prince of Wales in x86o. The
buildings forming the eastern and western sides of the quadrangle
are devoted to departments of the Dominion government. To
the south, but outside the grounds of Parliament HiU, stands
the Langevin Block, a massive structure in brown sandstone,
also used for departmental purposes. The increasing needs of the
government have made necessary the erection of several other
buildings and an effort has been made to bring as many of these
as possible into a harmoniousgroup. The Archives building and
the Royal Mint stand on the commanding eminence of Nepean
Point, to the eastward of Parliament Hill, the Rideau Canal
lying between. Two large departmental buildings occupy ground
south of the Archives building and facing Parliament HOI, one
containing the Supreme Court as well as the Federal Department
of Justice. At the foot of Metcalfe Street, south of Parliament
Hill, stands the Victoria Museum, with the department of mines,
with the splendid collections of the Geological and Natural
History Museum the departmental library, and the National Art
Gallery. The Dominion Observatory stands outside the city,
in the grounds of the Central Experimental Farm. Plans were
approved in 1909 by the government for a union railway station
east of the canal, and immediately south of Rideau Street, and
a large hotel (Grand Trunk Railway), the Chateau Laurier, at
the southern end of Major's Hill Park. Other prominent
bttildingi are the dty hall, post oflfice, Carnegie library, normal
and model schoob, government printing bureau, county court
house, the Basilica or Roman Catholic cathedral, and Christ
Church cathedral (Church of England), the Roman Catholic
university of Ottawa and the collegiate institute.
The dty charities include four brge general hospitals, two of
wMcb are under Protestant auspices; one is controlM by Romaa
Catholics; the fourth is devoted to contagious diseases. Ottawa
is the scat of the Church of Eogland bishop of Ottawa, and of
the Roman Catholic archbishop of Ottawa. Several o( the
philanthropic and educational orders of the latter church are
established here, in nunneries, convents or monasteries. As
elsewhjre in OnUrio, the educational system is divided into
public schools (undenominatk>nal), and separate schools (Roman
Catholic), the latter supported by Roman Catholic taxpayer^, the
former by all other memben of the community. The collegiate
institute is common to both, and is used as a preparatory school
lor the universities.
Ottawa has been a great scat of the lumber tmde, and the
manufacture of lumber stQl forms an important part of the
industrial life of the dty, but the magnificent watcrpowcrs of
the Chaudidre and Rideau Falls are now utilized for match*
works, flour-mills, foundries, carbide factories and many other
flourishing industries, at well as for the development of electric
light and power, for the lighting of the dty and the running of
the electric railways.
The people of Ottawa possess a number of public parks, both
within and outside the dty, partly the result of their own fort-
sight, and partly due to the laboura of the Government Improve-
ment Commission. Parliament Hill itself constitutes a park of
no mean proportions, one of the noted features of which is the
beautiful Lover's Walk, cut out of the side of the cliff half way
between the river and the summit. The grounds above contain
2o
370
OTTAWA
Statues of Queen Victoria, as well as of Sir John Macdonald,
Alexander Mackenzie, Sir George Cartier and other Canadian
political leaders. On the eastern side of the canal is Major's
Hill Park, maintained by the government. Below Sandy Hill,
on the banks of the Rideau, lies Strathcona Park, an admirable
piece of landscape gardening constructed out of what was once
an unsightly swamp. Crossing the bridges above the Rideau
Falls, and passing the heavily wooded grounds of Rideau Hall,
the official residence of the governor-general, we come to Rock«
lifTe Park, beyond which lies the government rifle ranges. Rock-
liSe Park is the easternmost point of an ambitious scheme of
landscape gardening planned by the Improvement Commission.
From here a driveway extends to Rideau Hall; thence it crosses
the Rideau river to a noble thoroughfare cut through the heart
of Lower Town, and known as King Edward Avenue. Crossing
the canal by the Laurier bridge, the driveway turns south and
follows the west bank of the canal for 4 m. to the Central Ex*
perimental Farm, an extensive tract of land upon which expert-
mcntsin model farming are carried out by government specialists,
for the benefit of Canadian farmers. From the Experimental
Farm the driveway will be carried around the western side of the
city to the banks of the Ottawa, connecting by light bridges with a
group of islands above the Chaudi^ Falls which are to be con-
verted into a park reserve.
Ottawa is governed by a mayor, elected by tne city at large; a
board of control consisting of four members, similarly elected
and a board of 16 aldermen, a elected by each of the 8 wards.
The city returns s membcn to the Dominion House of Commons
and two to the provincial legislature.
. The population, of which one-third is French-speaking, the
remainder English (with the exception of a small German
element), has increased rapidly since the incorporation of the
city in 1854. It was S9>938 in 1901; 67,572 in 2906; and in
1907, including the suburbs and the neighbouring town of Hull,
over 100,000.
The earliest descripUon of the site of OtUwa is that of Samuel
de Champlain, in his Voyages. In June 1613, on his way up the
river, be came to a tributary on the south side, " at the mouth of
which is a inarvellous fall. For it descends a height of twenty
or twenty-five fathoms with such impetuosity that it makes an
arch nearly four hundred paces broad. The savages take
pleasure in passing under it, not wetting themselves, except from
the spray that is thrown off," This was the Rideau Falls, but
a good deal of allowance must be made for exaggeration in
ChampUin's account. Continuing up the river, " we passed," he
says, *' a fall, a league from there, which is half a league broad
and has a descent of six or seven fathoms. There are many little
islands. The water falls in one place with such force upon a rock
that it has hollowed out in course of time a large and deep basin,
in 'which the water has a circular motion and forms large eddies
in the middle, so that the savages call it Aslkoui which signifies
boiler. This cataract produces such a noise in this basin that
it is heard for more than two leagues." The present name,
Chaudi^re, is the French equivalent of the oki Indian name.
For two hundred years and more after Charaplain's first visit
the Chaudiire portage was the main thoroughfare from Montreal
to the great western fur country; but it was not until 1800 that
any permanent settlement was made in the vicinity. In that
year Philemon Wright, of Wobum, Massachusetts, built a home
for himself at the foot of the portage, on the Quebec side of the
river, where the dty of Hull now stands; but for some time the
precipitous cliffs on the south side seem to have discoursgcd
settlement there. Finally about 1820 one Nicholas Sparks
moved over the river and cleared a farm in what is now the bean
of Ottawa. Seven years later Colonel John By, R.E., waa sent
out to build a canal from a point below the Chaudiire Falls to
Kingston on Lake Ontario. The canal, completed at a coat of
$2,500,000, has never been of any great commercial importance;
it has never been called upon to fulfil its primary object, as a
military work to enable gun-boats and miliUry supplies to reach
the lakes from Montreal ¥rithout being exposed to attack along
the St Lawrence frontier. The building of the canal created a f air-
Stto; Mrs n. J. rnei, " inc Kiaeau v^anai ana tne Poomirr 01
vn." ibid.; M. Jamieson, " Aglimpee of our dty fifty years
ibid. ; I. M. Oxley, " The Capital of Canada," A«w EMtfamd
situ, N.S., 22, 3 » 5-323; Godfrey T. Vigne, Six Months im
siaed settlement at its Ottawa end, which cane to be kmawn
as Bytown. As the lumber trade developed Bytown inpidiy
increased in wealth and importance. In 1 854 it was iocoipoated
as a city, the name being changed to Ottawa; and four yean
later Queen Victoria selected Ottawa as the capital of Panada
Ottawa was admirably situated for a capiut fcom a potkical and
military point of view; but (here is reason to beliewe that the
deciding factor was the pressure exerted by the four other rival
daimanis, Montreal, Quebec, Toronto and Kingston, any three
of which would have fiercely resented the selection of the foufth.
The first session of parliament in the new capital was opened
in 1865.
BiBUOCRAPHT.— J. D. Edgar, Canada and its Cdpilai (Toronto,
1898); A. S. Bradley, Canada in Ike Twtniigtk Ceninry (Loodoa.
(903). pp- I30>i40; F. Gertrude Kenny, " Some acoouot of By-
town," Transaclums, vol. i., Women's Canadian Historical Society
of OUmoo; Mrs H. J. Friel. "The Rideau Canal and thePoondrr of
Bytown." ibid.; M. Jami
30," ibid.; ' -' - •
agasine, . ^. - - . , , .^
America (London, 1832), pp. 101-198: Andrew Wilson, History ot
Old Bytonm (Ottawa, 1876); Cnas. Pope, Incidents connected tekk
Ottawa (Ottawa, 1866); Wm. P. Lett, JtecaUecti&ns of Byiawm
(Ottawa, 1874): Wm. S. Hooter, Ottatoa Scenery (Ottowa. I8SS):
Joseph Tasse, Vallie de VOittaouais (Montreal, 1873). (L. J. B.)
OTTAWA, a city and the county-teat of La Salle county,
Illinois, U<S.A., on the Illinois river, at the month of the Fox,
about 84 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 10,588, of whom
X804 were foreign-bom; (iqio census) 953$. It is served
by the Chicago, Burlington & (^uincy, and the Chkago, Rock
Island & Pacific railways, by interurban electric railways, and
by the IlUnois 8t Michigan Canal. There is a monnmeat at
Ottawa to the 1400 soldiers from La Salle county iHw died in the
Civil War, and among the public buildintp are the County Court
House, the Owrt House for the second district of the Illinois
Appellate Court, and Reddick's Ubraty, founded by WiUiam
Reddick. Ottawa is the seat of the Pleasant View Luther
(Allege (co-educational), founded in 2896 by the Norwegian
Luthmns of Northern Illinois. There is a medicinal spring,
the water of which is called ** Sanicula " water. The water
supply of the city is derived from eight deep wells. There are
about 150 privately owned artesian wells^ la the vidntty are
large deposits of coal, of glass-sand, and of clay suiuble for
brick and tile. The city's manufactures include glass, brick,
tile, carriages and wagons> agricultural implements, pianos and
organs and cigars. The value of the factory products increased
from $1,737,884 in 1900 to $2,078,139 in 1905, or 19*6%.
The mouth of the Fox was early visited by French explorers,
and Father Hennepin is said to have discovered here in 1680
the first deposit of coal found in America. On Starved Rock,
a boki hillock about 125 ft. high, on the southern bank of the
lUioois, about midway between Ottawa and La Salle, the French
explorer La Salle, assisted by hb lieutenant Henri de Tonty
and a few Canadiaua voyageurs and Illinois Indians, established
(in December 1682) Fort St Louis, about which he gathered
nearly so.ooo Indians, who were seeking protection from the
Iroquob. The plateau-like summit, which originally oould
be reached only from the south by a steep and narrow path,
wss reiMleted almost impregnable to Indiiaa attack by a sheer
cliff on the river side of the hill, a deep ravine along iu eastern
base and steep declivities on the other sidss. On the summit
La Salle built store-houses and log huts, which he surrounded
by intrcnchments and a log palisade. The post was used by
fur traders as late as 1718. The hill has borne its present name
since shout 1770, when it becanw the last refuge of a small
band of Illinois flying before a brge force of Fottawattomies,
who bcUeved that an Illinois had assassinated Pontiac, in whose
conspiracy the Pottawattomies bad taken part. Unable to
dislodge the Ulinob, the Pottawattomies cut off their escape
and 1^ them die of starvation. Ottawa was hud ont in 1830,
incorporated as a village in 1838 and chartered as a city in 1853^
On the sist of August 1858 the first of the series of political
debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Doa^as,
in their contest for the United Stales senatorship, was held at
OTTAWA-^TTBRY ST: MARY
371
Ottawa. The semi-centeimial 6f this delMite was celebrated in
1908, wben the Ulini Chapter, Daughtera of the American
RevotatioD, caused a suitably Inscribed boulder weighing 93
tons to be' set up in Washington Park as a memorial.
OTTAWA, a city and the county-seat of Franklin county,
eastern Kansas, U.S.A., situated on the Osage (Marais des
Cygnes) river, about 58 m. (by rail) S.W. of Kansas City. Pop.
(1900) 6934, of whom 333 were foreign bom; (1905) 77»7; (x9»o)
7670. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka ft Santa F4 (which
has large repair shops here) and the Missouri Pacific railways.
There is a Carnegie library, and Forest Park, wkfain the dty
Umiu, is a popular meeting place of conventions and summer
gatherings, including the annual Ottawa Chautauqua Assembly.
Ottawa University (Baptist) was established here in 1865, as
the outgrowth of Roger Williams University, which had bceh
chartered in x86o for the education of Indians on the Ottawa
Reservation, and had received a grant of 30,000 acres from
the FMcral government in 1867. The university comprises
an academy, a colk^ge, a school of fine arts and a commercial
college, and in 1909 had 406 students. Ottawa has an important
trade in grain and live-stock; soft coat and natural gas are
found in the vidnity; the manufactures include ftour, wind-
mills, wire-fences, furniture, bricks, brooms and foundry products.
Ottawa was settled in 1854, and was first chartered as a city
in 1866.
OTTER (O. Eng. ote, 0lor, a common Teutonic word, cf.
Dutch and Ger. Otter, Dan. odder, Swcd. niter; it is to be referred
to the root seen In Gr. Mwp, water), a name properly given to the
well-known European carnivorous aquatic mammal {Lutra
vuliaris, or L. lutra), but also applicable to all the members of
the hitrine section* of the family ^ustcNdae (see CAamvoiA).
The otter has an elongated, low body, short limbs, short broad
feet, with five toes on each, connected together by webs, and
all with short, moderately strong, compressed, curved, pointed
claws. Head rather small, broad and flat; muale very broad;
whisken thick and strong; eyes small and black; ears short
and rounded. Tail a little more than half the length of the body
and head together, broad and strong at the base, and gradually
tapering to the end, somewhat flattened horizontally. The
fur is of fine quality, consisting of a short soft whitish grey
under-fur, brown at the tips, interspersed with longer, stiffcr
and thicker hairs, shining, greyish at the base, bright rich brown
at the points, especially on the upper-parts and outer surface
of the legs; the throat, cheeks, under-parts and inner surface of
the legs brownish grey throughout. Individual otters v^ry in size.
The total length from the nose to the end of the tail averages about
3I ft., of which the tail occupies i ft. 3 or 4 in. The weight of a
full-sized male is from 18 to 24 lb, that of a female about 4 lb less.
As the otter lives almost exclusively on fish, it b rarely met
with far from water, and usually frequents the shores of brooks,
rivers, lakes and, in some localities, the sea itself. It is a most
expert swimmer and diver, easily overtaking and seizing fish
fn the water; but w^en it has captured its prey it brings it to
shore to devour. When lying upon the bank, it holds the fish
between its fore-paws, commences at the head and then eats
gradually towards the tail, which it is said to leave. The female
produces three to five young ones in March or April, and brings
them up in a nest formed of grass or other herbage, usually
pbccd in a hollow place in the bank of a river, or under the
shelter of the roots of some overhanging tree. The otter is
found in localities suitable to its habits throughout Great Britain
and Ireland, though less abundantly than formerly, for, being
destructive to fish, it is rarely allowed to live in peace when
its haunts are discovered. Otter-hunting with packs of hounds
of a special breed, and trained for the purpose, is a pastime in
many parts of the country. It was formerly the practice to
kill the otter with long spears, which the huntsmen carried;
now the quarry is picked up and " tailed," or run into by the
pack.
The otter ranges throughout the greater part of Europe and
Asia: and a doiely allied but larger species, L. canadtHsis, is
extensively distributed throughout North America, where it b
pufsued f or its far. Aa Indian species, L. nmt, is trained by the
natives of some parts of Bengal to assist in fishing, by drivins the
fish into the nets. In China otters are taught to catch fish, Being
let into the water for the purpose attached to a long cord.
Otters are widely distributed, and. as they are much alike m site
and cokvation. their specific distinctions are by no means well
dcfin^ Besides those mentioned above, the following have been
described. L. caiifomica, North America; L.feiina, Central America,
Peru, and Chili; L. brasiliensis, Brazil; L. macuticoUis, South
Africa; L. wkiteleyi, Japan; L. chinensis, China and Formosa, and
other species. &>me, with the feet only sliihtly webbed, and
the claws exceedingly small or alto^her waniing on some of the
toes, and also with some difference in dental characters, have been
separated as a distinct genus, Aonyx. These ^re L. inuHguis from
South Africa and L. einerta from India, Java, and Sumatra.
More dislhict still is the sea-otter {Latax, or' Enkydro, Mris).
The entire length of the animal from nose to end of tail Is about
4 ft., so that the body is considerably larger and more massive
than that of the English otter. The sldn is pecoliariy loose,
and stretches when removed from the animal. The fur is
remarkable for the preponderance of the beautifuHy soft woolly
under-fur, the longer stiffer hairs being scanty. The genersd
colour is deep liver-brown, silvered or frosted with the hoary
tips of the longer stiff hairs. These are, however, removed
when the skin is dressed for commercial purposes.
Sea-otters are only found upon the rocky shores of certain
parts of the North Pacific Ocean, especially the Aleutian Islands
and Alaska, extending as far south on the American coast as
The Sea-Otter {Latax, or Enkydra, lutris). From Wolf.
Oregon; but, oedng to the persccutioa to which they are
subjected for the sake of their valuable skins, their numbers
are greatly dianinishing. The oUers are captured by spearing,
clubbing, nets and bullets. They do not feed on fish, like
tme otteia, but on dams, nmasels, sea-urchins and crabs; and
the female brings forth but a single yoong one at a time, appar-
ently at any season of the year. They are excessively shy and
wary; young cube are often captured by the hunters who have
killed the dam, but all attcmpu to rear them have hitherto
failed.
See Elliott Cbues, Mpnograpk m ATefA Amuricmn Fur-^nrimg
AmmttU (1877). (W. H. F.; R. L.*)
OTTBRT tT MART, a market town in the Honitea parlia-
mentary division of Devonshire, England, 15 m. B. by N. of
Exeter, on a branch of the London & South-Westero railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 3495- It ^ pleasantly situated
in the rich valley of the small river Otter. The T>arish church,
the finest in the county, is crudform, and has the unique
feature of transeptal towers, imiuted from Exeter Cathedral.
The northern has a low spire. The church, which is Eariy
English, with Decorated and Perpendicular additions, conuins
several andent tombs. The manor of Ottery belonged to the
abbey of Rouen in the time of Edward the Confessor. The
church was dedicated in irfio by Waher Broncsoembe, bishop
of Exeter; and t. 1335 Bbhop John GvantfiasoB, on founding
372
OTTIGNIES— OTTO I.
a secular college here, greatly enlarged the church; it has been
thought that, by copying the Early English style, he is responsible
for more of the building than is apparent. The town has a
large agrirultural trade. It is the birthplace of Samuel Taylor
Coleridge (1772); and W. M. Thackeray stayed in the vicinity
in youth, his knowledge of the locality appearing in Pendennis.
OTTIGNIES* a town of Belgium, in the province of Brabant.
It is an important station on the main line from Brussels to
Namur, and forms the point of junction with several cross lines.
It has extensive modem flower and vegetable gardens. Pop.
(1904) 2405-
OTTO, king of Greece (1815-1867), was the second son of
Louis I., king of Bavaria, and his wife Teresa of Saxe-Altcnburg.
He was bom at Salzburg on the ist of June 181 5, and was
educated at Munich. In 2832 he was chosen by the conference
of London to occupy the newly-erected throne of Greece, and on
the 6th of February 1833 he landed at Nauplia, then the capital
of independent Greece. Otto, who was not yet eighteen, was
accompanied by a council of regency composed of Bavarians
under the presidency of Count Josef Ludwig von Armansperg
( 1 787-1853), who as minister of finance in Bavaria had succeeded
in restoring the credit of the state at the cost of his popularity.
The task of governing a semi-barbarous people, but recently
fcmancipated, divided into bitter factions, and filled with an
exaggerated sense of their national destiny, would in no case
have been easy; it was not facilitated by the bureaucratic
methods introduced by the regents. Though Armansperg and
his colleagues did a good deal to introduce system and order
into the infant state, they contrived to make themselves hated
by the Greeks, and with sufficient reason. That the regency
refused to respond to the demand for a constitution was perhaps
natural, for the experience of constitutional experiments in
emancipated Greece had not been encouraging. The result,
however, was perpetual unrest; the regency, too, was divided
into a French and a Russian party, and distracted by personal
quarrels, which led in 1834 to the recall by King Louis of
G. L. von Maurer and Karl von Abel, who had been in bitter
opposition to Armansperg. Soon aften^'ards the Mainotes were
in open revolt, and the money obtained from foreign loans
had to be spent in organizing a force to preserve order. On
the ist of June 1835 Otto came of age, but, on the advice
of his father and under pressure of Great Britain and of the
house of Rothschild, who all believed that a capable finance
minister was the supreme need of Greece, he retained Armansperg
as chancellor of state. The wisdom of this course was more than
doubtful; for the expenses of government, of which the con-
version of Athens into a dignified capital was not the least,
exceeded the resources of the exchequer, and the state was only
saved from bankmptcy by the continual intervention of the
powers. Though King Louis, as the most exalted of Philhellenes,
received an enthusiastic welcome when he visited Greece in the
winter of 1835, his son's government grew increasingly unpopular.
The Greeks were more heavily taxed than under Turkish rule,
they had exchanged government by the sword, which they
understood, for government by official regulations, which
they hated; they had escaped from the sovereignty of the
Mussulman to fall under that of a devout Catholic, to them a
heretic. Otto was wcU intentioned, honest and inspired with
a genuine affection for hb adopted country; but it needed
more than mere amiable qualities to reconcile the Greeks to his
rule.
In 1837 Otto visited Germany and married the beautiful
and talented Princess Amalie of Oldenburg. The union was
unfruitful, and the new queen made herself unpopular by
interfering in the government. Meanwhile, at the instance of
the Swiss Philhellene Eynard, Armansperg had been dismissed
by the king immediately on his return, but a Greek minister
was not put in his place, and the granting of a constitution
was still postponed. The attempts of Otto to conciliate Greek
sentiment by efforts to enla. e the frontiers of his kingdom,
0^. by the suggested acquisition of Crete in 1841, failed of their
objea and only socceeded in embroiling him with the pawers.
His power rested wholly on Bavarian bayooeU; and nrhco,
in 1843, the last of the German troops were withdrawn, he
was forced by the outbreak of a revolutionary movement in
Athens to grant a constitution and to appoint a ministry of
native Greeks.
With the grant of the constitution Otto's troubles Increased.
The Greek parliament, like iu predecessors during the War ol
Liberation, was the battleground of factions divided, not by
national issues, but by their adherence to one or other of the
great powers who made Greece the arena of their rivaliy for
the control of the Mediterranean. Otto thought to counteract
the effects of political corruption and incompetence byoverridtog
the constitution to which he had st^vra. The attempt would
have been perilous even for a strong man, a native ruler and an
Orthodox believer; and Otto was none of these. His prestige,
moreover, suffered from the " Pacifico incident " in 1850^ when
Palmerston caused the British fleet to blockade the Peiracus.
to exact reparation for injustice done to a Levantine Jew who
happened also to be a British subject. For the ill-advised inter-
vention in the Crimean War, which led to a second occupation
of the Peiraeus, Otto was not responsible; his consent had been
given under protest as a concession to popular clamour. His
position in Greece was, however, becoming untenable. In 1861
a student named Dmsios attempted to murder the queen,
and was hailed by the populace as a modem Harmodioa. In
October 1862 the troops in Acaraania under General Theodore
Srivas declared for the king's deposition; those in Athens
followed suit; a provisional government was set up and sum-
moned a national convention. The king and queen, who were at
sea, took refuge on a British war-ship, and retumed to Bavaria,
where they were lodged by King Louis in the palace of the former
bishops of Bamberg. Here', on the 26th of July 2867, Otto
died. He had become strangely persuaded that he held the
throne of Greece by divine right; and, though he made ih> effort
to regain it, he refused to acknowledge the validity of the election
of Prince George of Denmark,
See E. A. Thouvenel, La Crkca du roi (Hhon (Paris, 1890): C. L.
von Maurer. Das griechische Volk, Ac. (1836); C. W^P. Menddssohn-
18^0 (London. 1838), the author of whicH was attached to the
British Legation at Athens.
OTTO I. (9x2-973), sumamed the Great, Roman emperor,
eldest son of King Henry I. the Fowler by his second wife Matilda,
said to be 8 descendant of the Saxon hero Widukind, was bom on
the 23rd of November 91 2. Little is known of his early years, but
he probably shared in some of his father's campaigns. In 979
be married Edith, daughter of Edward the Elder, king of the
English, and sister of the reigning sovereign iCthclstan. It is
said that Matilda wished her second son Henry to succeed his
father, as this prince, unlike his elder brother, was bora the
son of a king. However this may be, Henry named Otto hia
successor, and after his death in July 936 Otto was chosen
German king and crowned by Hndebcrt, archbishop of Mainz.
This ceremony, according to the historian Widukind, was
followed by a banquet at which the new king was waited
upon by the dukes of Lorraine, Bavaria. Franconia and Swabia.
Otto soon showed his intention of breaking with the policy of his
father, who had been content with a nominal superiority over the
duchies, in 937 he punished Ebcrhard. duke of Franconia, for
an alleged infringement of the royal authority; and in 938
deposed Eberhard, who had recently become duke of Bavaria.
During these years the Bohemians and other Slavonic tribes
ravaged the eastern frontier of Germany, but although one expe-
dition against them was led by the king in person, the defence
of this district was left printipally to agents. 'Trouble soon
arose in Saxony, probably owing to Otto's refusal to give
certain lands to his half-brother, Thankmar, who, although
the king's senior, had been passed over in the succession
as illcgiiima'te. Thankmar, aided by an influential Saxon
noble named Wichmann, and by Eberhard of Franconia, seized
OTTO I.
373
tiffi lortKK of Eresburg and took Otto's brother Henry priKvncr;
but soon afterwards he was defeated by the king and killed
whilst taking sanct uary. The other conspirators were pardoned,
but in 039 a Iresh revolt broke out under the leadership of Henry,
and Giselbert, duke of Lorraine. Otto gained a victory near
Xanten, which was followed by the surrender of the fortresses
held by his brother's adherents in Saxony, but the rebels, joined
by fiberhard of Fianconia and Archbishop Frederick of Makiz
oonttoued the struggle, and Giselfaert of Lorraine tiunsferred his
allegiance to Louis 1 V., kingof France. Otto's precarious position
was saved by a victory near Andcroach when Ebcrhard was
killed, and Ciselbert drowned in the subsequent flight. Henry
took refuge with Louis of France, but was soon restored to favour
ud entrusted with the duchy of Lorraine, where, however, he was
unable to restore order. Otto therefore crossed the Rhine and
deprived bis brother of authority. Henry then became involved
in a plot to murder the king, which wss discovered in time, and
the good oflkes of his mother secured for him a pardon at
Christmas 941. The deaths of Ciselbert of Lorraine and of
Eberhard of Franconia, quickly followed by those of two other
dukes, enabled Otio to unite the stem-duchies more closely with
the royal house. In 944 Lorraine was given to Conrad, surnamcd
the R^d, who in 947 married the king's daughter Lhitgard;
Franconia was retained by Otto in his own hands; Henry
married a daughter of Arnulf,duke of Bavaria, and received that
duchy in 947; and Swabda came in 949 to the king's son Ludolf,
who had married Ida, a daughter of the late duke, Hermann.
During these years the tribes living between the Elbe and the
Oder wera made tributary, bishoprics were founded in this
district, and in 950 the king himself marched against the
Bohemians and reduced them to dependence. Strife between
Otto and Louis IV. of France had arisen when the French king
sou^t to obtain authority ovej Lorraine and aided the German
lebds in 939; but after the German king had undertaken an
expedition into France, peace was made in 94a. Afterwards,
when Louis became a prisoner in the hands of his powerful
vassal Hugh the Great, duke of Prance, Otto attacked the duke,
who, like the king, was his brother-in-law, captured Reims, and
negotiated a peace between the two princes; and in subsequent
struggles between them bis authority was several times invoked.
In 945 Berengar I., margrave of Ivrea, left the court of Ottoaad
returned to luly, where he soon obtained a mastery over the
country. Afterthedeatbin9SoofLotha)r,kingof Italy, Berengar
sought the hand of his widow Adelaide for his son Adalbert; and
Henry of Bavaria and Ludolf of Swabia had already been meddling
independently of each other In the affairs of northern Italy. In
response to an appeal from Adelaide, Otto crossed the Alps in 951 *
He assumed the title of king of the Lombards, and having been
a widower since 946, married Adelaide and negotiated with pope
Agapetus II. about hb reception in Rome. The influence of
Alberic, prince and senator of the Romans, prevented the pope
returning a favourable answer to the king's request. But when
Otto returned to Germany in 952 he was followed by Berengar,
who did homage for Italy at Augsburg. The chief advisers of
Otto at this time were his wife and his brother Henry. Henry's
influence seems to have been resented by Ludolf, who in 946
had been formally designated as his father's stucessor. Wheta
Adelaide bore a son, and a report gained currency that Otto
intended to make this child his h«r, Ludolf rose in revolt and
was joined by Conrad of Lorraine and Frederick of Mains. Otto
fell into the power of the rebels at Mainz and was compelled to
agree to demands made by them, which, however, he promptly
revoked on his return to Saxony. Ludolf and Conrad were
declared deposed, and in 953 war broke out in Lorraine and
Swabia,'and afterwards in Saxony and Bavaria. Otto failed to
take Mainz and Augsburg; but an attempt on the part of Conrad
and Ludolf to gain support from the Magyars, who had seized
the opportunity to invade Bavaria, alienated many of their
supporters. Otto's brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, was
successful in restoring the royal authority in Lorraine, so that
when Conrad and Frederick soon afterwards submitted to Otto,
^ struggle was confined to Bavaria. Ludolf was not long in
foUowingr the exampto of Connd; and with the capture df
Regensburg in 955 the rising ended. Conrad and Ludolf retained
their estates, but their duchies were not restored to them. Mean-
while the Magyars had renewed their ravages and were attacking
Augsburg. Otto marched against them, and In a battle fought
on the Lechfeld on the roth of August 9SS the king's troops
gained a brilliant victory which completely freed Germany
from these invaders; while in the same year Otto also defeated
the Slavs who had been ravaging the Saxon frontien
About this time the king s^ms to have perceived the necessity
of living and ruling in closer union with the church, a change
of policy, due perhaps to the influence of his brother Bruno, or
forced upon him when his plana for uniting the duchies with the
royal house brought rebdlion in their train. Landsand privileges
were granted to prelates, additional bishoprics were founded,
and some years later Magdeburg was made the seat of an arch*
bishop. In 960 Otto was invited to come to Italy by Pope John
XII., who was hard pressed by Berengar, and he b^an to make
preparations for the journey. As Ludolf had died in 957 and
Olio, his only son by Adelaide, had been chosen king at Worms,
the government was entrusted to Bruno of Cologne, and Arch*
bishop William of Mainz, a natural son of the king. Reaching
Pavia at Christmas 961, the king promised to defend and respect
the church. He then proceeded to Rome, where he was crowned
emperor on the 2nd of February 962. After the ceremony he
confirmed the rights and privileges which had been conferred on
the papacy, while the Romans promised obedience, and Pope
John took an oath of fidelity to the emperor. But as he did not
long observe his oath be was deposed at a synod held in St Peter's,
after Otto had compelled the Ronuuis to swear they would elect
no popo without the imperial consent; and a nominee of the
emperor, who took the name of Leo VIII., was chosen in bis stead.
A pestilence drove Otto to Germany in 965, and finding the
Romans again in arms on his return in 9661 he allowed his aoidien
to sack the city, and severely punished the leaders of the ret)eilion.
His next move was against the Greeks and Saracens of southern
Italy, but seeking to attain his objects by negotiation, sent
Liudprand, bishop of Cremona, to the eastern emperor Nicephorua
U. to arrange for a marriage treaty between the two empires.
Niccphorus refused to admit the validity of Otto's title, and the
bishop was roughly repulsed; but the succeeding emperor,
John Zimisces, was more reasonable, and Theopbano, daughter
of the emperor Romaaus II., was married to the younger Otto
in 973. The same year witnessed the restoration of peace in
Italy and the return of the emperor to Germany, where he
received the homage of the nilen of Poland, Bohemia and
Denmark;, but he died suddenly at Memleben on the 7th of May
973> nnd was buried at Magdeburg.
Otto was a man of untiring peneveranceand relentlev energy,
with a high idea of his position. His policy was to crush all
tendencies to independence in Germany, and this led him to
grant the stera-duchies to his relatives, and aftervards to ally
himself with the church. Indeed the necessity for obtaining
complete control over the church waa one feaaon which induced
him to obtain the imperial crown. By thiastep the pope became
his vassal, and a divided allegiance waa cendeted impoMible for
the German deigy* The Roman empire of Che German nation
was indeed less universal and less theocratic under Otto, ita
restorer, than under Charlemagne, but what it lacked in spieadonr
it gained in sUbility. Hi$ object waa not to make the stale
rdigioua but the church political, and the clergy must first be
officials of the king, and secondly members ol an ecdcsiastical
order. He shared the piety and superstition of the age, and did
much lor the spread of Christianity. Although himself a stranger
to letters he wekomad acholara to his court and cagtrty seconded
the efforts of his brother Bruno to enooura^ learning; and while
he neither feared nor shirked battle, he was always ready to
secure hia ends by pcnoeabfe means. Otto was of tall and com-
manding presence, and although subject to violent bursts of
passion, was liberal to his friends and just to Us enemies.
BiBLiocRAPHT.— See Widukind, Fes testae Saxtmuae; Uudpraad
of Cremona, HistoHa (^onis; Flodoard of Rheims, Amiales;
374
OTTO II.— OTTO III.
HroUuit of GtndefsliciaiU Ctrmem de teslit Odd^*M—A\\ in ibe
Monwnenta Germ<una$ kidmca. Scriptcn-f* BOindt iJL and jv. (I fsin*
over and Berlin, 1826 fol.): Die Urkunden dcs K/iiseri OiUrs I., twined
by Th. von Sided b the Monumenta Cerma mat ki^ttrrua. D rf4c'm >ila
(Hanover, 1879): W. voo Giescbrecht, Cnc^kkhU ti^ dfiJa
Kaiseneit (Leipag, 1881): R. KApke and IL DtlmmJrr. Jnhfin,
des deutxkeu tieuks taUtr OU0 /. (Lcipx^^. 1876): Th.
Das PrmUgiuM OUo L fOr die r&mixke Kirtfu {fm\i\y\
H. von Sybcl, Die deulxke Nation und dc^ Kaitfrrekk •: '
1862): O. von Wydenbrugk, Die deutseke /^altoit wtd dm A .
(Munich. l86a)i J. FicKcr, Das deutatke Kaistrrtuk rj« u
unioersaleu und natioiuiUn Besiekunjun (Jnn^bruck, t^ji);
Deutsckes Kdnigthum UMd Kaisertkum tlnn^bruclc, iBfji):G. ftfaur.n-
brccher, " Die Kaiscrpolitik Otto I. in the llistonah^ Zfiinh^ift
(Munich. 1859): C. Waitx, Demtuke Vfr/iuiJtHtrte^cki^ht^ flv^cl,
1844): J. Ficker, Fersckungen tur Ret -hi ''
Italtens (Inn&bruclc« 1868-1874}; F. Fiac
die Lombardei vom Jahreost (Eiaenbcrg. iS,
UngflnucUacht auf dem Uckfdde (Augsburg. 1884),
fHfld fiiTihtffeifhc kte
■'fr Oltifs fr Zui in
jM: aoU K KiAht, Die
OTTO II. (955-983), Roman emperor, was the son of the
emperor Otto the Great, by his second wife Adelaide. He
received a good education under the care of his uncle, Bruno,
archbishop of Cologne, and his illegitimate half-brother, William,
archbishop of Mainz. He was chosen German king at Worms in
961, crowned at Aix-b-Chapclle on the 26th of May 961, and on
the 2stb of December 967 was crowned joint emperor at Rome
by Pope John XIU. On the 14th of April 972 he married
Theophano, daughter of the eastern emperor Romanus II., and
after sharing in various campaigns in Italy, returned to (krmany
and became sole emperor on the death of his father in May 975.
After suppressing a rising in Lorraine, difficulties arose in
southern Germany, probably owing to ()tto's- refusal to grant
the duchy of Swabia to Henry II., the Quarrelsome, duke of
Bavaria. The first conspiracy was easily suppressed, and in 974
an attempt on the part of Harold III., king of the Danes, to
throw off the German yoke was also successfully resisted; but
an expedition against the Bohemians led by the king in person
in 975 was a partial failure owing to the outbreak of further
trouble in Bavaria. In 976 Otto deposed Duke Henry, restored
order for the second time in Lorraine, and made another expedi-
tion into Bohemia in 977, when King Boleslaus II. promised to
return to his earlier allegiance. Having crushed an attempt
made by Henry to regain Bavaria, Otto was suddenly attacked
by Lothair, king of France, who held Aix in his possession for
a few days; but when the emperor retaliated by invading France
he met with little rcsbunce. He was, however, compelled by
sickness among his troops to raise the siege of Paris, and on the
letum journey the rearguard of his army was destroyed and the
■baggage scicod by the French. An expedition against the Poles
was followed by peace with France, when Lothair renounced
bit cUiim on Lorraine. The emperor then prepared for a journey
to Italy. In Rome, where he restored Pope Benedict VU., he
held a splendid court, attended by princes and nobles from
all parts of western Europe. He was next required to punish
inroads of the Saracens on the ItaUan mainland, and in September
981 he marched into Apulia, where he met at first with consider-
able Boccess; but an attiance between the Arabs and the Eastern
Empire, whose hostility had been provoked by the invasion of
Apulia, resulted in a severe defeat on Otto's troops near Stilo
in July 982. Without revealing his identity, the emperor
escaped on a Greek vessel to Rossano. At a diet held at Verona,
ktfdy attended by German and Italian princes, a fresh campaign
was anaaged ifdnst the Saracens. Proceedfaig to Rome, Otto
vaad tbeckctkm of Peter of P&via as Pope John XIV. Just
s *tenas reacbed him of a general rising of the tribes on the
■■«» teatks el Germany, be died in his palace in Rome on
'** t% ^ OaKBter 9S13. He left a son, afterwards the emperor
' '^ fli&ABe^nihteiB. He was buried in the atrium
' ^"^^ 9H*.«faR Ike church was rebuilt his remains were
''^^Mpi^wkcRys tomb may still be seen. Otto,
- ^ ' I sirtiha •• Etd,** was a man of small stature,
-'^^^'mmimm^ aad by training an accomplished
I and aided the spread of
object
- -m n.
cdittd by Th. von Sickd.
i (Hanover. 1879):
L. voD Ranke, Wett$uckickte^ P)srt vil (Lciptig, 1886)2 W. woa
Gicccbrecht. CeKkichte der deutuken KaiuruU (Leapug. 188 1>
1890); and Jahrbucher des deutschen Reicks unUr Katscr Otto II.
(Berlin, 1 837-1 840); H. Detmer, OUo II. his utm Tode seines
Voters (Lciprig, 1878): J. Mottmann. TkeoPkano du Ctmmktm
OUos II. in ikrer Bedeutung fur die Poiilik. QUos /. und Ottos II.
(C^ttingen. 1878) ; and A. Matthaei. Die Handel OUos IL mil Utkar
ton Frankreick (Hall6, 1882}.
OTTO lU. (980-1002), Roman emperor, eon of the cmpetor
Otto II. and Theophano,daughter of the eastern emperor Romanus
IL, was bom in July 980, chosen as his father's socxeseor nt
Verona in June 983 and crowned Ckrman king at Aix«la-Chapctte
on the 2sth of the following December. Otto IL had died a
few days before this ceremony, but the news did not readi
Germany until after the coronation. Eariy in 984 the king
was seized by Henry U., the (Quarrelsome, the deposed duke of
Bavaria, who clairoed the regency as a member of the reigning
house, and probably entertained the idea of obtaining the
kingly dignity himself. A strong opposition was quickly aroused,
and when Theophano and Adelaide, widow of the emperor
Otto the Great, appeared in Germany, Henry was compelled to
hand over the young king to his mother. Otto's menul gifu
were considerable, and were so carefully cultivated by Bemward,
afterwards bishop of Hildesheim, and by (Herbert of Aurillac,
archbishop of Reims, that he was called '* the wonder of the
worid." The government of Germany during his minority
was in the hands of Theophano, and after her death in June
991 passed to a council in which the chief influence was exercised
by Adelaide and WilUgis, archbishop of Maina. Having accom-
panied his troops in expeditions against the B<^mians and the
Wends, Otto was dedared of age in 995. In 996 be crossed the
Alps and was recognized as king of the Lombards at Pavta.
Before he reached Rome, Pope John XV., who had invited
him to Italy, had died, whereupon he raised his own cousin
Bruno, son of Otto duke of Giiinthia, to the papal chair as
Pope Gregory V., and by this pontiff Otio was crowned emperor
on the 2xst <^ May 996. On his return to Germany, the emperor
learned that Gregory had been driven from Rome, which was
again in the power of John Crcscentius, patrician of the Romans,
and that a new pope, John XVL, had been elected. Leaving
his sunt, Matilda, abbess of Quedlinburg, as regent of Germany,
Otto, in February 998, led Gregory back to Rome, took the
castle of St Angdo by storm and put Crescentius to death.
A visit to southern Italy, where many of the princes did homage
to the emperor, was cut short by the desth of the pope, to whose
chair Otto then appointed his former tutor Gerbert, who took
the name of Sylvester II. In the palace which he buUt on the
Aventine, Otto sought to surround himself with the splendour
and ceremonial of the older emperors of Rome, and dreamed of
making Rome once more the centre of a universal empire. Many
names and customs were introduced into hu court from that
of Constantinople; he proposed to restore the Romaii senate
and consulate, revived the office of paLridan, called himself
" consul of the Roman senate and people " and issued a seal
with the inscription, "restoration of the Roman empire."
Passing from pride lo humility he added " servant of the apostle,"
and " servant of Jesus Christ " to the imperial title, spent a
fortnight in prayer in the grotto of St Clement and did penance
in various Italian monasteries. Leaving Italy in the summer
preceding the year zooo, when it was popularly believed that the
end of the world was to come. Otto made a pilgrimage to the
tomb of his old friend Adalbert, bishop of Prague, at Gncsen,
and raised the city to the dignity of an archbishopric He then
went to Aix, and opened the tomb of Charlemagne, where,
according to a legendary tale, he fouAd the body of the great
emperor sitting upright upon a throne, wearing Uie crdwn and
holding the sceptre. Returning to Rome, trouble soon arose
between Otto and the citizens, and for three days the emperor
was besieged in his palace. After a temporary peace, he ilcd to
the monastery of Classe near Ravenna. Troops were collected,
but whilst conducting a campaign against the Romans, Otto
died at Patcrno near Vitcrbo on the 23rd of January 1002,
and was buried in the cathedral at Aix-U«Chs|)clk. Tradition
OTTO IV.— OTTO OF FREISING
ns
tays be wat enMUittd and polaoned by StepbMiia, tbe widow of
Crcscentius. The mystic erratic temperament of Otto, alternat-
ing between the most magnificent -schemes of empire and the
lowest depths of seH-debaaement, was not conducive to the
welfare of bis dominions, and during his reign tbe conditioat of
Germany deteriorated. He was liberal to tbe papacy* a>d was
greatly influenced by the eminent deiics with whom he cagedy
associated.
See Thanghlar, Vila BtmmrU tpucapi HOdtsheimetuis hi
the Monumenla Ctrmaniae hjatwiia, Scriptores^ Band iv. (Hanover
and Berlin. 1826 fol.): UHres de Ctrbert, edited by J. Havot (Paris.
1889); Die UrkutuUn Kaisers OUos I J I., edited by *Th. von
Sickci in the Monumento Cemumiae kistorita, Diplamata (Hanover,
1879): R. Wilraaaa, JokrkiUlm dtt deuUchem Reicks vnttr Kmiser
Otto III. (Berlin. l837-*i940>; P. Kchr, Die Urkunden OUo JJl.
(Innsbruck, 1890}.
OTTOIV.(«. I z82-i3];8), Roman empeior, second son of Henry
the Lion, duke of Saxony, and Matilda, daughter of Henry 11.,
king of England, was most probably bom at Argenton in central
Franoe. His father died when he was stiU young, and he waa
educated at the court of his uncle Richard I., king of EngUnd.
under whose leadership he gained valuable experience in war,
being appointed duke of Aquitalne, count of Poitou and earl
of Yorkshire. When the emperor Henry VL died in September
1 197, some of the princes under the leadership of Adolph,
archbishop of Cologne, were anxious to find a rival to Philip,
duke of Swabia, who had been elected Cerman king. After
■ome delay their choice fell upon Ottjo, who was chosen king
at Cologne on the gth of June 1198. HoatiUtiea broke out at
once, and Otto, who drew his main support from his heieditaiy
possessions in the Rhineland and Saxony, seised Aix-la-ChapeUe»
and was crowned there on the lath of July 1198. The eariier
course of the war was unfavourable to Otto, whose position
was weakened by the death of Rich^ of EngUnd in April
1 1 99; but his cause began to improve when Pope Innocent
III. declared for him and placed his rival under the ban in April
1 301. This support was purchased by a capitulation signed
by Otto at Neuss, which ratified the independence and decided
the botmdarics of the States of the Church, and was the first
authentic basis for the practical authority of the pope in central
Italy. In 1200 an attack made by Philip on Brunswick was
beaten oS, the city of Worms was taken, and subsequently
tbe aid of Ottakar I., king of Bohemia, was won for Otto. The
papal legate Guido worked energetically on his behalf, several
princes were persuaded to desert Philip and by the end of
1 203 his success seemed assured. But after a period of reverses.
Otto was wounded during a fight in July 1206 and compelled
to take refuge in Cologne. Retiring to Denmark, he obtained
military assistance from King Waldemar II.,and a visit to England •
procured monetary aid from King John, after which he managed
to maintain his position in Brunswick. Preparations were made
to drive him from his. last refuge, when he was saved by the
murder of Philip in June 1 308. Many of the supporters of Philip
now made overtures to Otto, and an attempt to set up Henry I.
duke of Brabant having failed, Otto submitted to a fresh election
and was chosen German king at Frankfort on the nth of
November x2o8 in tbe presence of a large gathering of princes.
A general reconciliation followed, which was assisted by the
betrothal of Otto to Philip's eldest daughter Beatrix, but as
she was only ten years old, the marriage was deferred until tbe
32nd of July X2I2. The pope who had previously recognized
the victorious PhiUp, hastened to return to the side of Otto;
the capitulation of Neuss was renewed and large concessions
were made to the church.
In August 1209 the king set out for Italy. Meeting with
no opposition, he was received at Vitcrbo by Innocent, but
refused the papal demand that he should concede to the church
all the territories which, previous to 1197, had been in dispute
between tbe Empire and the Papacy, consenting, however, not
to claim supremacy over Sicily. He was crowned emperor at
Rome on the 4th of October 1 209, a ceremony which was followed
by fighting between the Romans and the German soldiers,
lliepope then requested the emperor to leave Roman territory;
but he remained near Rome for somedays, demaadingfotlsfattioB
for the losses suffered by his troops. The breach with Innocent
soon widened, and in violation of the treaty made with the
pope Otto attempted to recover for the Empire all the properly
which Innocent had annexed to the Church', and rewarded his
supporten with large estates in tbe disputed territories. Having
occupied Tuscany be marched into Apulia, part of the kingdom
of Frederick of Hobenstaufen, afterwards the emperor Frederick
II., and on the iBth of November isio was excommunicated
by the pope. Regardless of this sentence Otto completed the
conquest of southern Italy, but the efforts of Innocent had
succeeded in arousing considerable opposition in Germany,
where the rebeb were also supported by PhiUp Augustus, king
of France. A number of princes assembled at Nuremberg'
declared Otto deposed, and invited Frederick to fill the vacant,
throne. Returning to Germany in March i3xa. Otto made,
some headway against bis enemies until the arrival of Frederick
towards the close of the year. The death of his wife in August
1 31 3 had weakened his hold on the southern duchies, and he
was soon confined to the district of the lower Rhine, although
supported by money from his uncle King John of England.
The final blow to his fortunes came when he was decisively
defeated by the French at Bou vines in July 1314. He escaped
with difficulty from the fight and took refuge in Cologne. His
former supporters hastened to recognize Frederick; and m
1216 he left Cologne for Brunswick, which he had received in
1 202 by arrangement with hisel'der brother Henry. The conquest
of Hamburg by the Danes, and the death of John of England,
were further blows to his cause. On the 19th of May i3i8
he died at the Harzburg after being loosed irom the ban by a
Cistercian monk, and was buried in tbe church of St Blasius
at Brunswick. He married for his second wife in May 12x4
Marie, daughter of Henry I., duke of Brabant, but left 00 children.
See Rteesta imperii V., edited by J. Ficker (Inasbnidc. 1881);.
t.. von Rankc. Weltges€hickt«, Part viii. (Lcjpxig. 1887-1888);
>y. von Gicscbrecht. Cesehickte der deutschen Kaiserteit, Band v.
(Leipzig, 1888): O. Abel. Kaiser Otto IV. mmd KOitig Ftiedrkk //.
(Berlin. i8s6); E. Wiakelnana. PkUippvonJkkmbmmd OUo IV.
, i8s6); E. Wia^ , _,
van Braumsckweit (L^ipaig, 1873-1878); C. Langerfeldt. Kaiser
Otto der Vierte (Hanover, 1873); R. Scnwemer. Innount 111. und
die deutsche Kirche vdkrend des Tkronstreites (Strassburv. 1882);
and A. Luchaire. Innocetii IN., la papanU el r empire (l^aite, 1906);
and InwocetU HI., im qmstion d^OrieM (Paris, 1906).
OTTO OP FRBSmO (c 1114-1x58), German bishop and
chronicler, was the fifth son of Leopold 111., margrave of Austria,
by his wife Agnes, daughter of the emperor Henry IV. By her
first husband, Frederick I. of Hobenstaufen, dtske of Swabia,
Agnes was the mother, of the German king Coniad HI., and
grandmother of the emperor Frederick I.; and Otto was thns
related to the most powerfid families in Germany. The notices
of his life are scanty and the dates somewhat uncertain. He
studied in Paris, where he took an cspedal interest in plnkMOpky,
is said to have been one of tbe first to introduce ther philosophy
of Aristotle into Germany, and he served as provost of a
new foundation In Austria. Havingentenrd tlw Cisterdaaiorder,
Otto became abbot of the Cistercian moaastcry of MoriaMid
in Burgundy about 1x36, and soon afterwards was elected bishop -
of Freising. This diocese, and indeed tbe wholeof fikvacia, was
then disturbed by the fend between tbe Welfs and the Hohen-
staufen, and the church was in a deptorable condition; but a
gteat improvement was brought about by tbe new bishop in
both ecclesiastical and secular matters. In xi47 he took part in
the disastrous crusade of Conrad III. The section of the cnisad- •
log army led by the bishop waa decimated, bat (Xto reached
Jerusalem,and returned to Bavaiia in iX48or i X49» He enjoyed
tbe favour of Conrad's successor, Frederick I.; wasprobsUy
instrumental in settling the dispute over the duchy of Bavaria
in 1 1 56; was present at the famous diet at Besancon In xiS7i
and, still retaining the dreSS of a Cistercian monk, died at
Morimond on the ssnd of September 1158. In x8s7 a sutoe of
the bishop was erected at Freising.
Otto wrote a Chromeon. sometimes called De dsubta etrntoHbm,
an historical and philosophk»I work in rishc book«« which follows
to some extent the lines laid down by Augustine and Oroslu«-
37^
OTTO OF NORDHEIM— OTWAY
Written during the time of the civil war in Gennanv, it contrasts
Jerusalem and Babel, the heavenly and the earthly kingdoms, but
also coniains much valuable information about the history of the
time. The chronicle, which was held in ver^ high regard by con-
temporariet, goes down to 1146, and from this date until IM9 has
been continued bjr Otto, abbot of St Blaaius (d. 1223). Better
known is Otto's Ceita FruUriei impcroioris^ written at the request
of Frederick I., and prefaced bv a letter from the emperor to the
author. The Gesta is in four books, the first two of which were
written by Otto, and the remaining two. or part of them, by his
pupil Ragewin. or Rahewin; it hu been argued that the third
book and the early part of the fourth were also the work of Otto.
Beginning with the quarrel between Pope Gregory VII. and the
emperor Ticnry IV., the first book takes the histoiy downi to the
death of Conrad III. in 1152. It is not confined to German affairs,
as the author digresses to tell of the preaching of Bernard of Clair-
vaux, of his zeal against the heretics, and of the condemnation of
Abelard: and discourses on philosophy and theology. The second
book opens with the election of Frederick I. in 1152, and deals
with the history of the first five ^rs Of hb reign, especially in
Italy, in some detail. From this point (i 156) the work is continued
by Kagcwin. Otto's Latin is exccllcntt and in spite of a slight
partiality for the Hoheostaufen, and some minor inaccuracies, the
Cesta has been rightly described as a " model of historical com-
P06itk)n." First printed by John Cuspinian at Strassburg in 1515,
Otto's writings are now found in the MonnnutOa Germaniae kistorica.
Band xx. (Hanover, 1868), and have been translated into German
by H. Kohl (Leipzig. i8fii-i8«6). The Gesta Fridtrici has been
pubKshed separately with introduction by G. Waicz. Ottcf is also
said to have written a history of Austria {Historia Austriaed).
See J. Hashagen. Otto mn Freising ah Ceschichtspkiiosoth vnd
RircktnpolUiker (Leipzig, 1900); I. Schmidlin, Die iesckkhtspkilC'
sapkiscke uad ktrckeHpioliiiscke Weltansckauung Otto von Freising
(Freiburg. 1906): W. Wattenbach. Deutsckiands GesckichtsquelUn,
Band ii. (Berlin, 1894K and for full bibliography, A. Potthast,
BiUiolhcca kistonca (Berlin, X696). (A. W. H.*)
OTTO OF NORDHBIII (d. X083), duke of Bavaria, belonged
to the rich and influential Saxon family of the counts of Nordheim,
and having distinguished himself in war and peace alike, received
the duchy of Bavaria from Agnes, widow of the emperor Henry
IIL, in 1061. In Z062 he assisted Anno, archbishop of Cologne,
to seize the person of the German king, Henry IV.; led a success-
ful expedition into Hungary in 1063; and took a prominent part
in the government during the king's minority. In 1064 he went
to Italy to settle a papal schism, was largely instramental in
securing the banishment from court of Addbcrt, archbishop of
Bremen, and crooaed the Alps in the royal interests on two other
occasions. He neglected hk duchy, but added to his personal
possessions, and in io6g shared in two expeditions in the cast of
Germany. In 1070 Otto was accused by a certain Egino of
being privy to a plot to murder the king, and it was decided he
should submit to the ordeal of battle with his accuser. The duke
asked for a 8a{e<onduct to and from the place of meeting, and
when this was refused he declined to appear, and was con*
acquently depciwcd of Bavaria, while his Saxon estates were
plundeiol. He obtained 00 support in Bavaria, but raised an
aitny amoag thft Saxons and caixied on a campaign of plunder
agiaost Henry until 1071, when he submitted; in the following
year he recetred back his private estates. When the Saxon
revolt Inoke out in 1073 Otto is repcesented by Bruno, the
author of Dt MZa SasonicOf as delivering an inspiring speech
to the assembled Saxons at Wormsieben, after which he took
connnaod of the insurgenta. By the peace of Gerstungen in
1074 Bavaria was restored to him; he shared in the Saxon rising
of Z075, after which he was again pardoned and mode adminf^
trator of Saxony. After the excommunication of Henry IV.
in X076 Otto attempted to mecyate between Henry and the
Saxons, but when these efforts failed he again pku%d himself
at their head. He assentod to the election of Rudolph, count of
Rhelnfdden, as German king, when his restoration to Bavaria
was assured, and by his skill and bravery inflicted defeats on
Henry's forces at MeBrichstadt, Flarchheim and HohenmOlsen.
He remained in arms against the king until bis death on the 1 1 th
of January 1083. Otto is described as a noble, prudent and
wariike man, and he possessed great abilities. His repeated
pardon showed that Henry could not afford to neglect such a
powerful personality, and his military talents were repeatedly
dbplayed. By his wife Richenza, widow of Hermann, count of
Wcrla, he left three sons and three daughters.
See W. von Giesebrecht. CesckMk ier ^nitckai Kmi$amrii,
Band iiL (Leipcig, 1881-1890); H. Mehmel, Ott* von Nordheim,
Hertog von Bayem (Gdttingen, 1870); E. Neumann, De OlUme dt
Nordkeim (Breslan, 1871); S. Riczlcr. Gesckicktt Bayems (Gotha,
1878): and A. Vogeler. Otto rktn Nordkeim (GOttingen, 1880).
OTTOMAM* a form of couch which usually luis a head but no
back, though sometimes it has neither. It may have square or
senUcircular ends, and as a rule it ts what upholsterers call
" stuffed over " — ^Ihat is to say no wood is visible. It belongs to
the same order of ideas as the divan (f.v.): its name indeed
betokens its Orienul origin. It was one of the luxurious appoint-
ments which Europe imported from the East in the 18th century:
the first mention that has been found of it b in France in 1729.
In the course of a generation it made its way into every boudoir.
but it appears originally to have been much larger than at present.
The word is also applied to a small foot-stool covered with
ca rpet, embroidery or beadwork.
OfTUMWA, a dty and the county-seat of Wapello county,
Iowa, U.S.A., on both sides of the D^ Moines river, in the S.E.
ptn of the sute, about 85 m. S.E. of Des MofneS. Pop. (1900)
18,197, o' whom 1759 were foreign>bom; (r9io census)
sa,oxa. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the
Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the Chkago, Rock Island &
Pacific, and the Wabash railways. The site on which it is buOt
forms a succession of terraces receding farther and farther from
the river. In the dty are a Carnegie library, a city hospital and
St Josei^'s Academy. Ottumwa is the headqtuirters of the
Ottumwa Division of the Southern Federal Ju<fidal District
of Iowa, and terms of United States District and Circuit courts
are held there. The city is in one of the richest coal regions of the
state, and ranks high as a manufacturing centre, pork-packing,
and the manufacture of iron and steel, machinery and agricultural
and mining implements being the leading industries. The value
of the factory product In 1905 was $ro,374,t83, an increase of
19' 5% since 1900. Ottumwa was fint settled in r843, was
incorporated as a town in i85r, and fitst chartered as a dty in
1857.
OTWAT, THOMAS (1652-1685), English dramatist, was bom
at Trot ton, near Midhunt, Sussex, on the 3Pd of March r652.
His father, Humphrey Otway, was at that time curate of Trot ton,
but Ot way's childhood was spent at Woolbeding, a parish 3 m.
distant, of which his father had become rector. He was educated
at Winchester OoUcge, and in X669 entered Chrfet Church, Oxford,
as a commoner, but left the university without a degree in the
autumn of 1672. At Oxford he made the acquaintance of
Anthony Cary, 5th viscount Falkland, through whom, he says
in the dedication to Caius Marius, he first learned to love lKX>ks.
In London he made acquaintance with Mrs Aphra Behn, who
in 167 2 cast him for the part of the old king in her Forced Marriagt,
or The Jealous Bridegroom, at the Dorset Garden Theatre, but
he had a bad attack of stage fright, and never made a second
appearance. In 1675 Thomas Bettcrton produced at the same
theatre Otway's first dramatic attempt, Atcibiades, which was
printed in the same year. It b a poor tragedy, written in hcrcMc
verse, but was saved from absolute failure by the actors. Mrs
Barry took the part of Draxilla, and her lover, the earl of
Rochester, recommended the author of the piece to the notice
of the duke of York. He made a great advance on this first
work in Don Carloz, Prince of Spain (licensed June r5, i6;6;
an undated edition probably belongs to the same year). The
malcriol for this rhymed tragedy Otway took from the novd
of the same name, written In 1672 by the Abb6 de Salnt-Rfal,
the source from which Schiller also drew his tragedy of Don
Cartas. In it the two characters familiar throughout his plays
make their appearance. Don Carlos is the impetuous, unstable
youth, who seems to be driwn from Otway himself, while the
queen's part is the gentle pathetic character repeated in his more
celebrated heroines, Monimia and Belvidera. " It got more
money," says John Downes (Roscius Anglicanus, 1708) of this
play, *' than any preceding modem tragedy." In 1677 Belterton
produced two adaptations from the French by Otway, Titus
and Berenice (from Racine's Birinice), and the Cheats oj Scapin
(from Molidre's Pourberies de Scapin), These were printed
OUBLIETTE— OUDENARDE
377
fofetlwr, with a dediation to Lord Rochester. In 1678 he
pioduced an original comedy, Frimdskip im Fathion, popular at
the moment, though it was hiited off the aUige for ita grao
indecency when it was revived at Drury Lane in 1749' Mean*
while he.had conceived an overwhelming passion for Mis Barry,
who filled many o( the leading parts in his pUys. Six of his
letters to her survive, the last of them referring to a broken
appointment in the MalL Mis Bany seema to ^ve coquetted
with Otway, but she had no intention of permanently offending
Rochester. In 1678, driven to desperation by Mrs Barry,
Otway obtained a commission throiigh Charles, carl of Plymouth,*
a natural son of Charles II., in a regiment serving in the Nether*
lands. The English troops were disbanded in 1679, but were
left to find their way home as best they could. They were also
paid with depredated paper, and Otway arrived in London late
in the year, ragged and dirty, a circumstance utilised by Rochester
in his '* Sessions of the Poets," which contains a scurrilous attach
on his former prot6g^. Early in the next year ( February 1680)
was produced at Dorset Garden the first of Otway's two tragic
masterpieces. The Orphan^ er The Unhappy Marriagt, Mrs Barry
playing the part of Monimia* Written in blank vene, which
shows a study of Shakespeare, its success was due to ihr tragic
pathos, of which Otway was a master, in the characters of Castalio
and Monimia. The HUhry and Fall oj Caiut AfariuSt produced in
the same year, and printed in 169a, is a curious grafting of Sbake^
speare's Romeo and Jnlid on the story of Marius as related in
Plutarch's Lives. In 1680 Otway also published The PoeVs
Complaint of hit Muse, or A Satyr against Libdls, in which
he retaliated on his literary enemies. An indifferent oonedy.
The SoUier*s Fortune (1681), was followed in February i68a by
Venice Preserved^ or A PM Diseaoer^d, The story is founded on
the Histaire de la conjuration des Espagwds eontre la Venise en
261S, by the Abb6 de Saint-R£al, but Otway modified the story
considersbly. The character of Belvidera is his own, and the
leading part In the conspiracy, taken by Bedamor, the Spanish
ambanador, is given in the play to the historically insignificant
Pierre and jaffier. The piece has a political meaning, enforced
in the .prologue. The Popish Plot was. in Otway's mind, and
Anthony, xst earl of Shaftesbury, is caricatured in Antonio.
The play won Instant success. It was transUted into almost every
modem European language, and even Dryden said of iu
** Nature is there, which is the greatest beauty." The Orphan
and Venice Preserved remained stock pieces on the stage until
the 19th century, and the leading actresses of the period played
Monimia and Belvidera. One or two prefaces, another weak
comedy, The Atheist (1684), and two posthumous pieces, a poem,
Windsor Castle (1685), a panegyric of Charles 11., and a
History of the Triumvirates (1686), translated from the French,
complete the list of Otway's works. He apparently ceased to
struggle against his poverty and misfortunes. The generally
accepted story regarding the manner of his death was first given
In TheophBus Cibber's Lives of the Poets, He is said to have
emerged from his retreat at the Bull on Tower Hill to beg
for bread. A passer-by, learning who he was, gave him a
guinea, with which Otway hastened to a baker's shop. He began
too hastily to satisfy his ravenous hunger, and choked with the
first mouthftd. Whether this account of his death be true or not,
it is certain that he died in the utmost poverty, and was buried on
the x6th of April 1685 in the churchyard of St Clement Danes.
A tragedy entitled Heroich Friendship was printed in x686 as
Otwa/s work, but the ascription is unlikely.
The Worhs of Mr Thomas Otaaj with some aceeu$U of his life and
wriHuts, published in 171a, was followed by other editions (1757.
176a. 1B13). The sundard edition u that by T. Thornton (1813).
A ielcctwn of his pbys was edited for the Mermaid series (iSoi and
1901) by Roden Noel. See also E. Gosse, Seventeenth Century
Studies (1883) : and Genest, History of the Stage.
OUBUBTTE, a French archfteoCural term (from outiier, to
forget), used in two senses of a dungeon or cell !n a prison or
castle which could only be reached by a trap-door from another
dungeon, and of a concealed opening or passage leading from a
dungeon to the moat or river, into which bodies of prisoners who
were to be secretly disposed of might be dropped. VioUet le
Due {Dia. de rarckilectm*) gives a diagram of such an oublieite
at the caatk of Pienefonds, Fiance. Many ao^alled " oubli-
ettes " in medieval castles were probably outkts for the disposal
of drainage, refuse, &c., which at tiBMS may have served for the
getting rid of prisoners.
OUCHf a brooch, dasp or buckle, especially one ornamented
with jewels, enamels, &c., and used to dssp a cope or other
ecderiastical vestment. It is also used, as m Exod. xuix. 6, of
the gold or silver Setting of jeiwds. The word is an example of thb
misdivision of a substantive and the indefinite article, being
properly " noncbe," ** a nouche *' being divided into " an ouche,"
asa naproD into an apron, anadder ikito an adder,and. reversely,
an ewt, le, eft, mto a newt. " Nouche " waa adapted into O. Fr.;
whence English took the word, from the Late Lat. fttiaea, brooch;
probably the original is Celtic, cL O. Irish note, ring, nasgaitu,
fist en.
OUDENARDB (Flemish Oudenaerde), a town of Bdgium in
the province of East Flanders, 18 m. S. of Ghent. Pop. (1QQ4)
6S7S. While it is best known for the great victory gamed by
Marlborough and Eugene over the French under VendAme in 1708,
Oudenarde has many featuns of interest. The town hall, which
took ten years to build (xsaS-'iSJS)* has after that of Louvain
the most elaborately deoocated facade in Bdgium. It wan
designed by U. van Peede and G. de Ronde, and is in tertiary
Gothic style. Thebelfry tower of five storeys with three terraocs,
surmounted by a golden figure, is a striking feature. The council
chamber contains a fine oak door and Gothic chimney*piece,
both c, xs3a There are also two interesting old churches, St
Walburga, partly of the xsth and partly of the r4th century,
and Notre Dame, dating from the 13th century. The fomer
ootttahis seveial fine pictaxes by Crseyer and other oM Flemish
masters.
The Battle of Oudenarde (June joth-July txth 1708) was fou^
on the ground north-w«st and north of the town, which waa then
regularly fortified and waa garrisoned by a force of the Allies.
The French army under the duke of Burgundy axxl Mardial
Vend6me, after an abortive attempt to invest Oudenarde, took
up a defensive position north of the town when Marlboimigh
and Eugene, after a forced march, arrived witfaithe main Allied
army. The advanced guard of the Allies under Genenl (Lord)
Cadogan promptly crossed the Srheidt and annihilated an out-
lying body of French troojps, and Cadogan rslaHishfd himself
on the ground he had won in front of the Fxeadi oentie. But
the Allied main army took a loi^ time to deflk «ver the Scheldt
and could form up (on the left of Cadogan's detadunent) only
slowly and by degrees. Observing this. Burgundy resolved to
throw forward his right towanfe Oudenarde to engage and htehd
the main body of the Allies before their line of battle could be
formed. This effected', it was hoped that the remamder of the
French army could isolate and destroy Cado^ui's detachment,
which was already doaely engaged with the French centre.
But he miscalculated both the endurance of Cadngan'a men
(amon^t whom the Pnissiana were oonspicucws for their tenadty)
and the rapidity with which in Mariboroogh's and Eussneli
hands the wearied troops of the Allies could be made to move.
Marlborough, who personally directed the opcratloaa on hh
left wing, not only formed hb line of battle successfully, but abo
began seriously to press the forces that had been sent to check
his deployment. Before long, while the hostile Idt wing still
remained Inactive, the unfortunate troops of the Fiench oentiv
and right were gradually hemmed in by the whole foroe of the
Allies. The decisive blow was delrveRd by the Dutch nuushai,
Overkirk, who was sent by Marlborough with a laxge force (the
bst reserve of the Allies) to make a wide tuxsing m o vement
round the extreme right of the French, and at the proper time
attacked them fai rear. A behUed attempt of the French left
to intervene wsa checked by the British cavalry, and the presnre
on the centre and right, which were now practically sortounded,
continued even after nightfall. A few scattered uniu managed
to escape, and the left wing retreated unmolested, but at tht
cost of about 3000 casualties the Allies inflicted a loss of 6000
killed and wounded and 9000 prisoneis on the enemy, who wen^
378
OUDINE— OUroA
moreover, so shaken that they never recovered their confidence
to the end of the campaign. The battle of Oudenarde was not
the greatest of Marlborough's victories, but it affords almost
the best illustration of his military character. Contrary to all the
rules of war then in vogue, he fought a piecemeal and unpre-
meditated battle, with his back to a river, and with wearied
troops, and the event justified him. An ordinary commander
would have avoided fighting altogether, but Marlborough saw
beyond the material conditions and risked all on his estimate
of the moral superiority of his army and of the weakness of the
French leading. His conduct of the battle, once it had opened,
was a model of the ** partial " victory—the destruction of a part
of the enemy's forces under the eyes of the rest — which was in
the 17th and i8th centuries the tactician's ideal, and was sufficient
to ensure him the reputation of being the best general of his age.
But it is in virtue of having fought at all that he passes beyond
the criteria of the time and becomes one of the great captains
of history. .
OUDUIlb BUGftHB ANDBt (1810-1887), French sculptor
and medallist, was bom in Paris in x8io, and devoted himself
from the beginning to the medallist's branch of sculpture,
although he also excelled in monumental sculpture and portrait
busts. H&ving carried off the grand prize f6r medal engraving
in 1831, he had a sensational success with his " Wounded
Gladiator," which he exhibited in the same year. He subse-
quently occupied official posts as designer, first to the Inland
Revenue Office, and then to the Mint. Among his most famous
medals are that struck in commemoration of the annexation of
Savoy by France, and that on the occasion of the peace of
ViUafranca. Other remarkable pieces are *' The Apotheosis of
Napoleon I.," *' The Amnesty," " Lo Due d'Ori^ans." *' Ber^
tholet," ** The Universal Exposition." " The Second of December,
1851," *' The Establishment of the Republic," ** The Battle of
Inkermann," and " Napoleon's Tomb at the Invalides." For
the Hotel de Ville in Paris he executed fourteen bas-reliefs,
which were destroyed in 187 1. Of his monumental works, many
ore to be seen in public places in and near Paris. In the Tuileries
gardens is his group of ** Daphnis and Hebe " ; in the Luxembourg
gardens the " Queen Bertha "; at the Louvre the " Buffon ";
and in the courtyard of the same palace the " Bathsheba." A
monument to General Espagne is at the Invalides, and a King
Louis VIII. at Versailles. Ondin6, who may be consideied the
father of the modem medal, died in Paris in 1887.
OnDIHOT. CHARLB MIOOUkS (x767*ia47)» duke of Reggio,
marshal of France, came of a bourgeois family in Lonraine, and
was bom at Bar«le^luc on the 95th of April 1767. He had a
passion for a military career, and served in the regiment of
M6doc from 1784 to 1787, when, having no hope of promotion
on account of his non-noble birth, he retired with the rank of
sergeant. The Revolutkm chsnged his fortunes, and in 1791,
on the outbreak of war, he was elected lieutcnant-oolonel of the
'5rI battalion of the volunteers of the Mcuae. His gallant defence
of the little fort of Bitsch in the Vosgea in 1799 drew attention to
him; he was transferred to the regular amiy in November 17931
and after serving la anmerons actioos on the Belgian frontier
he was promoted general of brigade in June 1794 for his conduct
at the battle of KaasersUutem. He continued to serve with the
greatest distinction on the Gcraiaa frontier under Hocbe,
Piehcgra and Moreau, and was repeatedly wounded and once
(in 1795) made prisoner. He was' Masstea's right hand all
through the great Swiss fampeign oL i799~first aa a general of
division, to wbidi grade he was promoted in April, and then as
chief of the staff^-'and won extraordinary distinction at the
battle of ZOrich. He was preKat under Maastea at the defence
of Genoa, and to distinguished himself at the OMttbat of Monaam*
baao that Napoleon presented him with a tword of honour. He
was pade inspector-general of infantry, and, on the esublish*
ment of the enf4re, given the Grand Croa of the Legion of
Honour, but was not iadnded in the fint oeaUon of marshals
He was at this time elected a member of the chamber of deputies,
but be had little time to devote to politics. He took a conspicu-
MS part in the wai of 180$ in ooBuannd of the famous division
of the "grenadiers Oudlnot." formed of picked troepe and
organized by him, with which he seised the Vienna bridges,
received a wound at Hollabrttnn, and delivered the decaive bk>«
at Austeriita. In 1806 he won the battle of Ostiolenfca, and
fought with resolutwn and success at FriedUnd. In 1808 he was
made governor of Erfurt and count of the Empire, and in 1809,
after dispkiying brilliant courage at Wagram, he wu promoted
to the rank of marshal. He was made dukA of Reggio, and
received a large money grant in April x8io. Oudlnot admin-
istered the government of Holland from 1810 to i8i3, and
commanded the IL con» of the Grande AmSe in the Russian
campaign. He was present at LOtzen and Bautaen, and when
holding the independent command of the corps directed to take
Beriin was defeated at Gross Beeren (see Napoleokic Cam-
paigns). He was then supeneded by Ney, but the mischief was
too great to be repaired, and Ney was defeated at Dennewitx,
Oudinot was not disgraced, however, holding important com-
mands at Leipzig and in the campaign of 1814. On the abdica-
tion of Napoleon he nUied to the new government, and was
made a peer by Louis XVIIL, and, unlike many of his old
comrades, he did not deseit to his old master in 1815. His last
active service was in the French invasion of Spain in 1893. in
which he commanded a corps and was for a tnne governor of
Madrid. He died aa governor of the Invalides on the t3th of
September 1847I Oudinot was not, and made no pretence of
being, a great commander, but he was a great general of division.
He was the beau-ideal of an infantry general, energetic,
thoroughly converunt with detail, and in battle as resolute and
skilful as any of the marshals of Napoleon.
Oudinot's eldest son, Ckailes Nicolas Vicioa, snd duke
of Reggio (i79i->S6i), lieutenant-gencnl, served through the
bter campaigns of Napoleon from 1809 to 1814, being in the
latter year promoted major for gallant conduct. Unlike his
father he was a cavalryman, and as soch held eommand of the
cavalry school at Saumur (i899->iS3o), and the inspeaor-
generalcy of cavalry (1836^1848). He is chiefly known as the
commander of the French expedition which besieged and took
Rome in 1840 and re-established the teroporsl power of the pope.
After the coup d*Hai of the snd of December 185 1, in resistance
to which he took a prominent part, he retired from military and
political Kfe. dying at Paris on the 7th of June 1863.
The 9nd duke wrote Aptrfu kiUonqtu but la it^itili de MoHrUf
dt France (1833); Considiratiotu surles ordres mdiiaires ds Satnt
Louts, $rc. (1813); L'Emploi des troupes aux grands traoaux d'utHi/f
puUique (1839); De la Caoalerie et du casememenl des troupes I
ekeval (1840); Des RaaomUs de FofwUe (1840); and a brief aoooaat
of his ItalMin opentioDS of 1849.
OUGHTEED. WILUAM (fl. 1575-1660), English mathe-
matician, was bom at Eton, and educated there and at King's
College, Cambridge, of which he became fellow. Being admitted
to holy orders, he left the university about 1603, and was pre-
sented to the rectory of Aldbury, near Guildford in Surrey;
and about 1698 he was appointed by the earl of Arundel to
instruct his son in mathematics. He corresponded with some
of the most eminent scholars of bis time on mathematical
subjects; and his house wss generally full of pupils from all
quarters. It is said that he exf^ued in a sudden transport of joy
upon hearing the news of the vote at Westminster for the restora-
tion of Charles IL
He pubUthed^ amoiiK other mathematical works', Claois Maike-
malka, in 1631. m which he introduced new signs for certain mathe-
matical operations (see Alcbbra) ; a treatise on navigation entitled
Circles of Proportion, in 163s ; works on- trigoaoraetry and diallia^
and hb Opmseida Malkematim, published posthumously in 1676.
OUIDA, the pen name — derived from a childish attempt to
pronounce " Louisa "^of Maria Louise [de la] Ramfe (1839-
190S), English novelist, bora at Bury St Edmunds, where her
birth was registered on the 7th of January 1839. Her father,
Louis Ramte, waa French, and her mother, Susan SuUon, En^iah.
At an eariy age she went to live in London, and there began
to contribute to the Nem Uoniidy and Btnilc^s Magaane.
In i860 her first story, afterwards republished as Beld in Bondage
(1863), appeared in the New Monthly under the title of GrawUU
da Vigna, and this was followed in quick succession by Stratkmort
OUNCE— OURO PRETO
379
It
(1865), Cktudn (1866) and Vndet Two Fktf (1867). ' The liM
of Ouida's subsequent works is a very long one; but it is sufficient
to »/ that» tofether inth MoUu (xS8o), tbose already named
a«e not only the most characterfstic, but also the best. In a
less diamatic genre, her BimU: StvrUs for CkUdren (x88a)
may aJso be mentioned; but it was by her more flamboyant
stories, such as Und& Jw Fhgt and Motks, that her popukur
success was achieved. By purely literazy critics and on grounds
of noralxty or taste Ouida's novels may be condemned. They
are generally flashy, Aud frequently unwholesome. It is im-
possible, however, to dismiss books like Ckandos and Umkr
Two Flags merely on such grounds. The emphasis given by
Ouida to motives of sensual passion was combined in her with
an original gift for situation and plot, and also with genuine
descriptive powers which, though disfigured by inaccurate
observation, literar>' solecisms and tawdry extravagance,
enabled her at her best to construct a picturesque and powerful
story. The character of " Offsrette " in Under Two Fhgs is
full of fine touches, and this is not an isolated instance. In
1874 Ouida made her home in Florence, aiul many of her later
novds have an Italian setting. She contributed from time to
time to the magazines, and wrote vigorously on behalf of anti-
vivisection and on Italian politics} but her views on these
subjects were marked by characteristic violence and lack of
judgment. She had made a great deal of money by her earlier
books, but bad spent it without thought for the morrow; and
though in 1907 she was awarded a Civil List pension* she died
at Viareggio in poverty on the asth of January 1908.
OUMCE. (i) (Through 0. Fr. vnce, modem one*, from Lat.
uHcia, twelfth part, of weight, of a pound, of measure, of a foot,
in which sense it gives the O.Eng. yncr, inch), a unit of weight,
being the twelfth part of a pound troy, "480 grains; in
avoirdupois-* 437*5 grains, iV of a pound. The /bM ounce h
a measure of capacity; in the Um'ted Kingdom it is equivalent
to an avoirdupois ounce of distilled water at 62^ F.; in the
IJnited States of America it is the xs8th part of the gallon,
m\ gin, * 456*035 grains of distQled water at its maximum
density (see Wbichts and Measvbes). (3) A name properly
applied to the Felis unda or snow leopavd (9.V.). It appears to
have been originally used of various spedes of lynx, and is still
sometimes the name of the Canada lynx. The word appears in
O. Fr. and Ital. as onu and loncCy anza and hma respectively,
and it is usually explained as being due to the confusion of the
I with the article, ionee and loma being changed to Fonee or
ToMsa, and the P subsequently dropped. If this be so the, word
is the saqie as " lynx," from the popuku Lat. Imnch^lyncia,
Gr. )i7f On the other hand onu and onta may be nassh'ied
forms of ytaj the Persian name of the panther.
OUNDLB, a market-town in the Northern parb'amentary
division of Northamptonshire, England, 30) m. N.E. of North-
ampton by a branch of the London & North-Western railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 3404. It is picturesquely situated
on an eminence, two sides of which are touched by the riyer
Nene, which here makes a deep bend. The church of St Peter
is a fnie building with Early Efaijish, Decorated and Perpendicular
porticos, with a western tower and k>fty spirt. Oundle School,
one of the English public schools, was founded under the will of
Sir William Laxton, Lord Mayor of London (d. 1556). There
art about aoo bc^ The school is divid^ into classical and
modem sides, and has exhibitions to Oxford and Cambridge
nniversities. A second-grade school was mstituted out of the
foundation in 1878. Oundle has a conaiderable agricultural
trade.
Wilfrid, archbishop of York, is saki to Jiavt been buried in
711 at a monastery in Oundle (Undele) which appears to have
been destroyed shortly afterwands, and was certainly not in
existence at the time of the Conquest. The manor, with a
market and tolls, was among the poasesswns confirmed in 972
by King Edgar to the abbot of Peterborough, to whom it still
belonged in 1086. The market waa then worth sea. yearly and
is shown by the quo warmnto rolls to have been held on Saturday,
the day bdag changed to Thursday in 1835. After the Disaolu*
tlon the market was granted with the manor to John, earl of
Bedford, and still belongs to the lord 0^ the manor. The abbot
of Peterborough about the 13th century confirmed to hia
men of Oundle freedom from tallage, -" saving to himself pleas
of portmanmoot and all customs pertaining to the market,";
and they agreed to. pay 8 marks, 12s. txd., yearly for their
privileges. The town was evidently governed by bailifiis ia
Z40X, when the " bafliffs and good men " received a grant of
pontage for the repair of the bridge caHed ** Aasheoonbrigge,"
but the town was never incorporated and never sent members
to parliament.
OUBO PRRO (" BUck Gold "), a dty of the state of Minas
Geiacs, BraxU, 336 m. by raO N. by W. of Kio dt Janeiro, and
about 300 m. W. of Victoria, Espirito Santo, on the eastern skipe
of the Sena de Espinha^o and within the drainage basin of the
Rio Dooe. Pop. (1890) 17,860; (1900) 11,116. Ouro Preto is
connected with Miguel Bumier, on the Central of Braxil railway,
by a metre-gauge line 31 m. in length. The dty is built upon the
lower sk>pe of the Serra do Ouro PrAo, aspur of the Espfnhaco,
deeply cut by ravines and divided into a number of irregular
hills, up which the narrow, crooked streets are buflt and upon
which groupa of low, old-fashioned bouses form each a separate
nucleus. From a mining settlement the dty gitw as the in*
equaUties of the site permitted. R. F. Burton {Hiffdandt e/
BroMUt London, 1869) says that its shape ** is that of a huge
serpent, whose biggest endisabout the Praba. . . . Theextremitiea
stretch two good miles, with raised convohitiona. . . . The
' strseting ' of both upper and kiwer town is very tangled, and
the old thoroughfares, mere ' wynds ' . . . show how valu^le
once was building ground." The rough streets are too steep and
narrow for vehides, and even riding on hoiseback is often diflkulu '
Several rivulets follow the ravines and drain into the RiheirAo
do Carmo, a sub-tributary of the Rio Ooce. The climate is
sub-tropical and humid, though the devation (37e»>38oo ft.)
gives a temperate dimate in winter. . The days are usually hot
and the nights cold, the vatiations in temperature being a
fruitful cause of bronchial and pulmonary diseases. Ouro.
Preto has several historic buikUn^; they are ef antiquated
appearance and built of the simplest materia]s~4>raken stone
and mortar, with an exterior covering of plaster. The more
noteworthy are the old government hoioe (now occupied by the
school of mines), the legislative chambers, munidpal hall and
jail— all fronting on the Praca da Independenda— and elsewhere
the old Casa dos Contos (afterwards the public treasury), »
theatre (the oldest in Braxil, restored in i86x-x86t) and a
hospital There are 15 churdies in the dty, some occupying
the most conspicuous sites on the hills, all dating from the more
pro^)erous days of the city's history, but all devoid of archi-
tectural taste. Oure Preto is the seat of the beat mining school
in Braxil.
The city dates from 170X, when a gold-mining settlement waa
established in iu ravines by Antonio Diaa of Taubati. The
drcumstance that the gold turned black on exposure to the
humid air (owing to the pxescnoe of silver) gave the name of
Ouro Preto to the mountain spur and the settlement. In 171X
it became a dty with the name of Villa Rica, a title justified
by its sixe and wealth. At one period of iu proaperity iu
population was estimated at 25,000 to 30,000^ In 1730 Villa
Rica became the capital of the newly created captaincy of
Minas (kraes, and in 1823 the capital of the province of the
same name under the empire of Dom Pedro I. When the empire
was overthrown in 1889 and Minas Geraes was reoaganiaed
as a republican state, it waa dedded to remove the capital to a
more favourable site and Bello Horiaonte waa chosen, bud
Ouro Preto remained the capital until 1898, when the new
town (also called Cidade de Minas) became the aeat of govern-
ment. ¥^th the decay of her mining iodustriea, Ouio Preto
had become merdy the political centre of the state. ThcRBioval
of the capital was a serious blow, aa the dty haa no industries
to support its population and no trade of importance. Tbe
event most prominent in the hbioiy of the dty was the c
of 1789, in which several leadis^ dtiiens wi
38P
OUSE-^USELBY, SIR F. A. G.
which one of its leas influential' members, an aiftfa (ensign)
of cavalry named Joaquim J056 da Silva Xavier, nicknamed
" Tirardentes " (teeth-pnUer), was executed in Rio de Janeiro
in 1 792. The conspiracy originated in a belief thai the Portuguese
crown was about to enfon::e pajrment of certain arrears in the
mining tax known as the " royal fifths," and its object was to
set up a republic in Brazil. Although a minor figure in the
conspincy, TiraKlentcs was made the scapegoat of the thirty
two men arrested and sent to Rio de Janeiro for trial, and
posterity has made him the proto-martyr of republicanism in
BrazU.
OUSB, the name of several English rivers.
(i) The Great Ouse rises in Northamptonshire, in the slight
hills between Banbury and Bracktey, and falls only about
Soo ft. in a course of x6o m. (excluding lesser windings) to its
mouth in the Wash (North Sea). With an easterly direction
it flows past Brackley and Buckingham and then turns N.E.
to Stony Stntford. where the Roman Watling Street forded it.
It receives the Tovc from the N.W.. and the Ouzel from the S.
at Newport PagnelL It then follows an extremely sinuous
course past OIney to Shambrook, where it turns abruptly S.
to BccUord. A north-easterly direction is then resumed past
St Neot's to Godmanchester and Huntingdon, when the river
trends easterly to St Ives. Hitherto the Ouse has watered
an open fertile valley, and there are many beautiful wooded
teaches between Bedford and St Ives, while the river abounds
in coarse fish. Below St Ives the river debouches suddenly
upon the Fens; its fall from this point to the mouth, a distance
of 55 m. by the old course, is little more than 20 ft. (the extensive
system of artificial drainage cuts connected with the river is
considered under Fbns). From Earith to Denver the waters
of the Ouse flow almost wholly in two straight artificial channels
called the Bedford Rivers, only a small head passing, under
ordinary conditions, along the old course, called the CUd West
River. This b joined by the Cam from the S. 4 m. above Ely.
In its northward course from this point the river receives from
the E. the Laxk, the Little Ouse, or Brandon river, and the
Wisaey. Behm Denver sluice, 16 m. from the mouth, the Ouse
is tidaL It flows past King's Lynn, and enters the Wash near
the S.E. comer. The river is locked up to Bedford, a distance
of 74^ m. by the direct course. In the lower part it bears a
considerable traffic, but above St Ives it is little used, and
above St Neot's navigation has erased. The drainage area
of the Great Ouse is 2607 sq. m.
(3) A river of Yorkshire. The river Ure, rising near the N.W.
boundary of the county in the heart ofthe Pennines, and traver»>
ing the lovdy valley famous imder the name Wensleydale,
unites with the river Swale to form the .Ouse near the small
town of Boroughbridge, which lies in the rich central plain of
Yorkshire. The course of the Swale, which rises in thie north
of the oountjp^on the eastern flank of the Pennines, is mostly
through this plain, and that of the Ouse is wholly so. It flows
S.E. to York, thence for a short distance S. by W., then mainly
SX. again past Selby and Goole to the junction with the Trent;
the great estuary so formed being known as the Humber. The
course of the Ouse proper, thus defined, is 61 m. The Swale
and Ure«re each about te m. long. Goole isa large and growing
port, and the river bears a considerable traffic up to York. There
B also some traffic up to Boroughbridge, from which the Ure
Navigation (partly a canal) continues up to Ripon. The
Swale b not navigable. The chief tributaries are the Nidd,
the Whaife, the Don and the Aire from the W., and the Derwent
from the N.E., but the detailed consideration of these involves
that of the hydrogr4>hy of the greater part of Yorkshire (g.v.).
All, espedaQy the western tribotaxies, traverse beautiful valleys,
and the Aire and Don, with oaais, are of importance as affording
communications between the manufacttning district of south
Yorkshire and the Humber ports. The Derwent is also navigable.
The drsinage area of the Ouse is 4133 sq. m. It is tidal up to
Nabum lodts, a distance of 37 m. from the junction with the
Ttant, and the total fall from Boroughbridge is about 40 ft.
(3) A- liver of Sonex, rising in the Forest Ridges between
Horsham and CUckfield, and draining an area of aboaC soo aq. ibl,
mostly in the Weald. Like other streams of this locsKty, h
breaches the South Downs, and reaches the English Channel
at Newhavcn after a course of 30 m. The eastward drift of
beach- building material formeriy diverted the mouth of this
nver from its present place to a point to the east near Seaford.
The Ouse is navigable for small vessels to Lewes, and Newhaven
ts an important harbour.
OUSEU or Ouzel, Anglo-Saxon ksU, eqnrvalent of the Gcimsa
Amid (a form of the word found in several old English books),
apparently the ancient name for what fo now more commonly
known as the blackbird (9 v.). Turius meniU, but at the present
day not often applied to that species, though used in a compound
form for birds belonging to another genus and family.
The water-ousel, or water-crow, is now commonly named
the " dipper "—a term apparently invented and bestowed in the
first edition of T. Bewick's Britisk Birds (ii. 16, i7)>-«ot, as is
commonly supposed, from the bird's habit of entering the water
in pursuit of its
prey, but because
"it may be seen
perched on the top
of a stone in the
midst of the
torrent, in a con-
tinual dipping
motion, or short
courtesy often re-
peated." The
English dipper,
CiHclus aquaiicuSf
is the type of a
small family, the
Cindidae, ptpb- Cituliu mtMiaum.
ably more neany
akin to the wrens iq.v.) than to the thrushes, and with
examples throughout the more temperate portions c( Europe
and Asia, as wdl as North and South America. The dippier
haunts rocky streams, into which it boldly enters^ generally
by deliberately wading, and then by the strenuous com*
bined action of its wings and feet makes its w^ akmg the
bottom in quest of its living prey->fresh>water moPoscs and
aquatic insects m their -larval or mature cooditioa. Com-
plaints of its attacks on the spawn of fish have not bees
justified by examination of the stomachs of captured sperimms.
Short and squat of stature, active and restless in its iuo y tu iaits»
dusky above, with a pure while throat and upper pait «f the
breast, to which succeeds a broad band of dark bay, it is a ^y«T*a««»
figure to most fishermen on the streams it frequents. The
water-ousel's nest is a very curious structore— outwardly
resembling a wren's, but built on a wholly different principle— an
ordinary cup-ahaped nest of grass lined with dead leaves, placed
m some convenient niche, but encased with moss so as to IbiB
a large mass that covers it completely except a snaaU hole for
the bird's passage. The eggs laid within are from four to seven is
number, and are of a pure white. The young ar^ able to swim
before they are fully fledged. (A. N.)
ODSBLEY, SIR FBBDIEICK ARTHUH QOBB <i8a5-i889)i
English composer, was the son of Sir Gore Ousdey, smbaeisdnr
to Persia, and nephew to Sir William Ouadey, the Oriental
scholar. He was bom on the isth of August iSas in London, and
manifested an extraordinary precocity in music, oompotiag an
opera at the age of eight years. In 1844, having succeeded to tJhe
baronetcy, he entered at Christ Church, and giadaated B.A. in
1846 and M.A. hi 1849. He was ordained m the kttcr year, and,
as curate of St Paul's, Rnightsbridge, served the parish of St
Barnabas, Pimlioo, until 1831. In 1850 he took the degree of
Mus3. at Oxford, and four years afterwards that of MasJ)..
his exercise being the oratorio St Pdycwrp, In 1855 he mooesded
Sir Henry Bishop as professor of music In the Univ^taky of
Oxford, was ordained priest and appointed precmior of Hctef^rd.
la 1856 he became vicar of St Miohad's, Teobary» and wardm
OUSELEr, SIR W.i-OtrrRAM
381
of St Michael's CoHese, whSch under him became an impdrtant
cduaubnal institution both in music and general subjects. His
iracks Include a sceond oratorio, Hagar (Hereford, 1873), a great
number of services and anthems, chamber music, songs, &c.,
and theoretical twrks of great importance, such as Harmony
(1868) and Counterpoint (1869) and Musical Form (1875). One
of his most useful worlcs is a series of chapters on English music
added to the translation of Emil Naumann's History of Music,
the subject having been practically ignored in the German
treatise. A profoundly- learned musician, and a man of great
general culture, Ouselcy's influence on younger men was wholly
for good, and be helped forward the cause of musical progress in
En^and p«haps more efiFectually than if he himself had been
among the more enthusiastic supporters of " advanced " music.
The work by whidi he is best known, St Potycarp, shows, like
most compositions of its date, the strong influence of Mendels-
sohn, at least in its plan and scope; ' but if Ouselcy had little
individuality of expression, his models in other works were the
English church writers of the noblest schooL He died at Here-
ford on the 6th of April 1889.
. OUSBLEY, SIR WILLIAM (t769-t84a)» British Orientalist,
eldest son of Captain Ralph Ousetey, of an old Iri^ family, was
bom m Monmouthshire. After a private education he went to
Pjsris, in 1787, to learn French, and there laid the foundation
of his interest in Persian literature. In 1788 he became a comet
in the ^th regiment of dragoons. At the end of 1794 he sold his
commission and went to Leiden to study Persian. In 1795 he
pttblished Persian Miscdlatties; in x 797-1799, Oriental CoRec-
Hmt; in 1799, BpUomo of the Ancient History of Persia; in 1806,
TkeOriental Geography of Ebn Haukal; and in 1801, a translation
of the BakkHydr Noma and Obsenations on Sonu Medals and
Corns. He received the degree of LL.D. from the university of
DuMin in 1797, and in 1800 he was knighted. When his brother,
Sir Gofe Oudey, was sent, in 1810, as ambassador to Persia,
Sir William accompanied him as secretary. He returned to
England in 18x5, and in x 8x9-1823 published, in three volimies,
TVoRff <« Various Countries of the East, especially Persia, in
j8io, tSii and i8ta. He also published editions of the Travds
nnd Arabian Proverbs of BurckhardL He contributed a number
of impoitant papeia to the Transactions of the Royal Society of
lit erature. He died at Boulogne in September 184 2. '
■ OUSTER (from Angk)-Fr. ouster, to remove, take away; O. Fr.
cstoTf mod. Fr. Sler, Eng. " oust," to eject, exclude; the dcriva-
tkm is not known; LaL obslare, to stand in the way of, resist,
would give the form but docs not suit the sense; a more probable
saggettion connects with a supposed kaustare, from kaurire, to
draw water; cf. " exhaust "). » legal term signifying disposses-
sion, especially the wrong or injury suffered by a person dis-
possesed of freeholds or chattels reaL The wrong-doer by getting
Into occupation forces the real owner to take legal steps to regain
bis r^ta. Ouster of the freehold may be effected by abatement ;
ix. by entry on the death of the person seized before the entry of
the heir, or devisee, by intrusion, entiy after the death of the
.tenant for Ufe before the entry of the reversioner or remainder-
Boan, by disseisitt, the forcible or fraudulent expulsion of the
occupier or person seised- of the property. Ouster of chattels
real is effected by disseisin, the turning out by force or fraud of
the legal proprietor before his esUte is determined. In feudal
law, the term ouster4o-main (LaL amovere manum, to take away
the hand) was applied to a writ or judgment granting the livery
of land out of the sovereign's hand on the plea that he has no
title to it, and also to the delivery by a guardian of land to a-
ward on lUs coming of age.
OUTLAWRYf the process of putting a person out ot the
protection of the law; a punishment for contemptuously
refusmg to appear when called in court, or evading justice by
disappearing. It was an offence of very early existence in
England, and was the punishment of those who. could not pay
the«er« or blood-money to the relatives of the deceased. By the
Saxon law, an outlaw, or laugklesman, lost his libera lex and had
XK> protection from the Xraok-pledgc in the decennary in which
be was sworn. He was, loo. a frondloswa n , because he Jorf eited
his friends; for if any of them rendered him any assistance, they
became liable to the same punbhment. He was, at one time,
said to be caput lupinum, or to have a wolf's head, from the fact
that he might be knocked on the head like a wolf by any one that
should meet him; but so early as the time of Bracton an outlaw
might only be killed if he defended himself or ran away; once
taken, his life was in the king's hands, and any one killing him had
to answer for it as for any other homicide. The party guilty of
outlawry suffered forfeiture of chattels in all cases, and in cases
of treason or murder forfeiture of real property: for other
offences the profits of bnd during his lifetime. In cases of
treason or felony, outlawry was followed also bv corruption of
blood. An outlaw was dvt/itorfnar/Mttf. Hecouiidnotsueinany
court, nor had he any legal rights which could be enforced, but
he was personally liable upon all causes of action.- An outlawry
might be reversed by proceedings in error, or by application to a
court. It was finally abofishnl in dvil proceedings in 1879^
while in criminal ptx)ccedings it has practically become obsolete,
being unnecessary through the general adoption of extradition
treaties. A woman was said to be waived rather than outlawed.
In Scotland outlawry or fugitation may be pronounced by the
supreme criminal court in the absence of the panel on the day of
trial. In the United States outbwry never existed in civil cases,
and in the few cases where it existed in* criminal proceedings it
has beco me obsolete.
OUTRAOB (through 0. Fr. ultrage, eltrage, oullrage, from
Lat. ultra, beyond, exceeding, cf. ItaL oltraggio; the meaning
has been influenced by connexion with " rage," anger), originally
extravagance, violence of behaviour, language, action, &c,
hen ce es pedaJly a violent injury done to another.
OUTRAH, SIR JAMES (X803-X863), English general, and
one of the heroes of the Indian Mutiny, was the son of Benjamin
Outram of Butterley Hall, Derbyshire, dvil engineer, and was
bom on the 29th of January X803. His father died in 1805,
and his mother, a daughter of Dr James Anderson, the Scottish
writer on agriculture, removed in x8xo to Aberdeeiikhire. From
Udny school the boy went in x8x8 to the Marischal College,
Aberdeen; and In 18x9 an Indian cadetshlp was given him.
Soon after his arrival at Bombay his remarkable energy attracted
notice, and in July 1820 he became acting adjutant to the first
battalion of the xsth regiment on iu embodiment at Poona,
an experience which he found to be of immense advantage to
him in his after career. In X825 he was sent to Khandcsh, where
he trained a light infantry corps, formed of the wild robber
Bhils, gaining over them a marvellous personal influence, and
employing them with great success in checking outrages and
plunder. Their loyalty to him had its prindpal source in their
boundless admiration of his hunting achievements, which in
cool daring and hairbreadth escapes have perhaps never been
equalled. OrtpnaUy a " puny lad," and for many years after
his arrival in India subject to constant attad^ of sickness^
Outram seemed to win strength by every new illness, acquiring
a constitution of iron, '* nerves of sted, shoulders and musdcs
worthy of a six-foot Highlander." In 1855 he was sent to
Gujarat to make a report on the Mahi Kantha district, and for
some time he remained there as political agent. On the outbreak
of the first Afghan War in 1838 he was appointed extra aide-de-
camp on the staff of Sir John Keane, and besides many other
brilliant deeds performed an extraordbary exploit in captoriiig
a baimer of the enemy before Ghazni. After conducting various
raids against Afghan tribes, he was in 1839 promoted, nujor,
and appointed political agent in Lower Sind, and later in Upper
Sind. Here he strongly opposed the policy of his superior,
Sir Charles Napier, which led to the annexation of Sind. But
when war broke out he heroically defended the residency at
Hyderabad against 8000 Baluchis; and it was Sir C. Napier
who then described him as " the Bayard of India." On his.
return from a short visit to England in X843, he was, with the
rank of brevet lieutenant-colond, appointed to a command
In the Mahratu country, and in 1847 he was transferred from
Satara to Baroda, where he incurred the resentment of the
Bombay government by his feariess exoosure of corrupt^'*'
382
QVM-T-OVARIOTOMY
In 1854 he was appointed resident at Lucknow, in which capacity
two yean later he canied out the annexation of Oudh and
became the first chief conmusaioner of that province. Appointed
in 1857, with the rank of lieutenant-general, to command an
expedition against Persia, he defeated the enemy with great
slaughter at Khushab, and conducted the campaign with such
rapid decision that peace was shortly afterwards concluded, bis
services being rewaided by the grand cross of the Bath.
From Persia he was summoned in June to India, with the
brief explanation— " We want all our best men here." It was
said of him at this time that " a fox is a fool and a lion a coward
by the side of Sir J. Outram."^ Immediately 00 his arrival
in Calcutta he was appointed to command the two divisions
of the Bengal army occupying the country from Calcutta to
Cawnpore; and to the military control was also joined the
commissionership of Oudh. Already the mutiny had assumed
such proportions as to compel Havelock to fall back on Cawnpore,
which he only held with diificulty, although a speedy advance
was necessary to save the garrison at Lucknow. On arriving
at Cawnpore with reinforcements, Outram, "in admiration
of the brilliant deeds of General Havelock," conceded to him the
glory of relieving Lucknow, and, waiving his rank, tendered
his services to him as a volimteer. During the advance he
commanded a troop of volunteer cavalry, and performed exploits
of great briHiancy at Mangalwar, and in the attack at the
Alambagh; and in the final conflict he kd the way, charging
through a very tempest of fire. The volunteer cavalry unani<
mousl/ voted him the Victoria Cross, but he refused the choice
on the ground that he was ineligible as the general under whom
they served. Resuming supreme command, he then held the
town till the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell, after which be con-
ducted the evacuation of the residency so aa completely to
deceive the enemy. In the second capture of Lucknow, on the
commander-in-duefs return, Outzam was entrusted with the
attack on the side of the Gumti,and afterwards, having reaocsed
the river, he advanced " through the Chattar Man^ to take
the r^dency," thus, in the words of Sir Colin Campbell, " putting
the finishing stroke on the enemy." After the capture of
Lucknow he was gazetted lieutenant-geneiaL In February
1858 he received the special thanks of both houses of parliament,
and in the same year the dignity of baronet with an annuity
of jCiooow When, on account of shattered health, be returned
finally to England in x86o, a movement was set on foot to mark
the sense entertained, not only of his military achievemenu,
but of his constant exertions on behalf of the natives of India,
whose " weal," in his own words, " he made his first object."
The movement resulted in the presentation of a public testimonial
and the erection of statues in London and Calcutta. He died
on the xzth of March 1863, and was buried in Westminster
Abbey, where the marble slab on his grave bean the pregnant
epitaph " The Bayard of India."
See Sir P. J. Goldsmid, James (hitramra Biofraphy {2 vols., 1880),
and L. J. Trotter, Tht Bayard ^ India (1903).
OVAL (Lat. ooum^ egg), in geometry, a closed curve, generally
more or less egg-like in form. The simplest oval is the ellipse;
more complicated forms are represented in the notation of
analytical geometry by equations of the 4th, 6th,. 8th .. .
degrees. Those of the 4th degree, known as bidrcular quartics,
are the most important, and of these the special forms named
after Descartes and Cassini are of most interest. The Cartesian
ovals presented themselves in an investigation ci the section of
a surface which would refract rays proceeding from a point
in a medium of one refractive index into a point in a
jnedium of a different refractive index. The most canvenient
equation is Ir'^m/ ^n, where r/ are the distances of a point on
the curve from two fixed and given points, termed the fod, and
/, m, II are constants. The curve is ob\'iously symmetrical about
' the line joining the fod, and has the important property that the
normal at any point divides the angle between the radii into
segments whose sines are in the ratio /: m. The Cassinian Ofval
has the equation r/ ■> a*, where ry are the radii of a point on the
curve from two ^ven fod, and a is a constant. ^ This curve is
symmetrical about two pcrpjWadiculiT ani.*^Il tpay coufat d
a single doaed curve or of two curves, according to the valoe of «;
the transition between the two types being a figure of 8. better
known as Bernoulli's lemniscate (£.».).
See Curve: also Salmon, mgbtr Plane Cuna,
OVAR, a town of Portugal, in the district of Avciro and at the
northern extremity of the Lagoon of Aveiro (g.v.)i ax m. S. of
Oporto by the Lisbon-Oporto railway. Pop. (1900) 10,46 a.
Ovar is the centre of important fisheries and has some trade in
wine and timber. It is visited by small coasting vessels which
ply to and from north-west Africa. Millet, wheat and vegetables
— cspedally onions— are the chief products of the low-lyinf
and unhealthy region, in which Ovar is situated.
OVARIOTOHT, the operation for removal of one or of both
of the female ovaries (for anatomy see R£PEOOUCIive SYsruf).
The progress of modem surgery has been conspicuously successful
in this department. From 1701, the date when Houstoo of
Car1uke,Lanarkshire, carried out hissuccessf ul partial extirpation,
progress was arrested for some time, although the Hunters (x 780)
indicated the practicability of the operation. In 1809 Ephnim
M'Dowell of Kentucky, inspired by the lectures of John Bell,
his teacher in Edinburgh, performed ovariotoi^y^ and, ooa-
tinuing to operate with success, cstabl^ed the possibility of
surgical interference. He was followed by others in the United
States. The cases brought forward by Lizars ol Edinburgh
were not sufficiently encouraging; the operation met with great
opposition; and it was not until Charles Clay, Speacar Wells,
Baker Brown and Thomas Kdth began work that the procedure
was placed on a firm basis and was regarded as Justifiable.
Improved methods were introduced, and surgeons vied with one
another in trying to obtain good results. Eventually* by the
introduction of the antiseptic system of treating woonds, this
operation, formerly regardeid as one of the most grave and anxiovt
in the domain of surgery, came to be attended with a lower
mortality than any other of a major character.
To give an idea of the terrible record associated with the opera*
tion in the third quarter of the xpth century, a passage may be
quoted from the English translation of the Idff </ PesUmr,
" As it was supposed that the infected air ol the hospitals might
be the cause of the invariably fatal resulu of the operation,
the Assistant^ Publique hired an isolated house in the Avenue
de Meudon, near Paris, a salubrious ^x>L ^ In 1863, (en women
in succession were sent to that house; the neighbouring inhabit-
ants watched those ten patients entering the bouse, and a short
time afterwards their ten coffins being taken away. " But as time
went on, the published statistics showed an increasing success
in the practice of almost every operator. • Spencer Wells slates
that in liis first five years one patient in three died; in his second
andthirdfive years one in four; in his fourth five yeanooeinfive;
in 1876-1877, one in ten. After the introduction of antiseptics
(1878-1884) he lost only xo'9% of his operation cases« but this
series showing a marked absence of septic oompiicatioBS. These
figures have been greatly improved upon in later yean, andatthe
present time the mortality may be taken at somewhcfe about
S, 7 or 9%.
Removal of the ovaries it performed when the ovaries are the teat
of cystic and other morbid changes; for fibroid tumouis of tbe
womb, in which case, by operating, one hastens the meoooause and
causes the tumours to grow smaller; and in cases where dysmenor*
rhoea is wearing oat and rendering osdess the life of the pattcnt —
less severe treatment having proved ineffectuaL Oophortetemy, by
which is meant removal of the ovaries with the view of produdag
a curative effect upon some other part, was introduced in 187a by
Robert Battty of Georgia (1828-1895). The operation is tometimes
followed by loss of sexual feding, and has been said to unscx the
patient, heoce ttroog objectioot have been urged againtt it. The
patient and her friemis should dearly onderttand the object of the
operation and the results likdy to be gained by it. Lastly, the ovaries
are sometimes removed with the hope of checking the progress of
{noperable Cancer of the breast.
From the time that the opentxni ef ovariotooay was fiist ertab*
lished as a recognised and lawful surgical procedure, there hat bcra
much disputation as to how the pedicle of the ovary, which consists
of a fold of peritoneum (the broad ligament) with included blood-
ve**'1s, ^.ould b<' treated. Some operatr^rs were in favour o' *
it with strong silk, and bringing the ends of the ligatores <
OVATION— OVERBECK
383
ibt abdomen. Ocfaen ittt9 in fevoar of hsvuig • ftronc meul
cUrop upon thoai^ ctnictures, or of aeariiu them with the actual
cautery, whikt others claimed that the best resulu were to be
obtained by firmly tying the pedicle, cuttine the ligatures . 'short,
dropping the pedicle into the abdomen and closing the wound.
This last method is sow^ almost univenally adopted. (£. O.*)
OVATION (Lat evoiw), a zninor form of Roman '* triumph.''
It was awarded either when the campaign, thou^ victorious, had
not been important enough for the higher honour; when the war
was not entirely put an end to; when it had been wa^ with
unworthy foes; or when the general was not of rank sufficient
to give him the right to a biumph. The ceremonial was on the
whole similar in the two cases, but in an ovation the general
walked or more commonly rode on horseback, wore a tuo]^
magisterial robe, carried no sceptre and wore a wreath of
myrtle instead of laurel. Instead of a bull, a sheep was sacrificed
at the conclusion of the ceremony. The word is not, however,
derived from mr, sheep, but probably means ^ shouting '*
(cp. oCw) as a sign of rejoicing.
GITBIICO. Eng. fl/»,Ger.O/'(m,cf.Gr:Iir»6f,oyen),aclose chamber
•; compartment which may be raised to a considerable tempcrfl-
ture by beat generated cither within or without it. In English
the term generally refers to a chamber for baking bread and other
f6od substances, but it is also used of certain appliances employed
ift manufacturing operations, as in coking coal or making potteiy.
See HCatzno.
•OVERBECK. iOHANV FRIEDRICH (1789-1869), German
painter, the reviver of " Christian art " in the 19th century, was
bom in LQbeck on the 4th of July 1789. His ancestors for three
generations had been Protestant pastors; his father was doctor of
&WS, poet, mystic pietist and burgomaster of Ltibeck. Within a
stone's throw of the family mansion in the Kdnigstrasse stood the
gymnasium, where the uncle, doctor of theology and a volumlnqus
writer, was the master; there the nephew became a classic
scholar and recelvedinstntction in art.
The 3roung artist left Ltibeck in March 1806, and entered as
student the academy of Vienna, then under the direction of
F. H. FCIger, a painter of some renown, but of the pseudo-classic
school of the French David. Here was gained thorough knowledge,
hut the teachings and associations proved unendurable to the
sensitive, spiritual-minded youth. Overbeck wrote to a friend
that he had fallen among a vulgar set, that every noble thought
was suppressed within the academy and that losing all faith in
liumanity he turned inwardly on himself. These words are a
key to Iris future position and art. It seemed to him that in
Vienna, and indeed throughout Europe, the pure springs of
Christian art had been for centuries diverted and corrupted,
and so he sought out afresh the living source, and, casting on one
ride hxs contemporaries, took for his guides the early and pre-
Raphaelite painters of Italy. At the end of four years, differences
had grown so irreconcilable that Overbeck and his band of
followers were expelled from the academy. True art, he writes,
he had sought in Vienna in vain — " Oh! I tras full of ft; my
whole fancy was possessed by Madonnas and Christs, but nowhere
could I find response^.'* Accordingly he left for Rome, carrying
his half-finished canvas " Christ's Entry into Jerusalem,'* as the
charter of his creed — ^* I will abide by the Bible; I elect it as my
standing-point."
Overbeck in 1810 entered Rome, which became for fifty-nine
years the centre of his unremitting labour. He was joined by a
goodly company. Including Cornelius, Wilhelm Schadow and
Philip Veit, who took up their abode in the old Franciscan
convent of Son Isidoro on the Pincian HiO, and were known
among friends and enemies by the descriptive epithets — " the
Nazaritcs," "the pre-Raphaclitcs," " the new-old school,"
•* the German-Roman artists/' " the church-romantic painters,"
** the German patriotic and religious painters." Their precept
was hard and honest work and holy living'' they eschewed the
antique as pagan, the Renaissance as false, and built up a severe
revival on simple nature and on the serious art of Perugino,
Pinturicchio, Francia and the yOung Raphael. The characler-
bxSa of the style thus educed were nobility of idea, precision
and even h a r d nes s of ootline, scholastic composhion, with the
addition of light, shade and colour, not for allurement, but
chiefly for perspicuity and oompletton of motive. Overbeck was
mentor in the movement; a fellow-labourer writes: *' No one
who saw him or heard him ^leak could questwn his purity of
motive, his deep insight and abounding knowledge; he is a
treasury of art and poetry, and a saintly man." But the struggle
waa hard and poverty iu regard. Helpful friends, however,'
came in Nlebuhr, Bunsen and Frederick SchlegeL Overbeck in
1813 joined the Roman Catholic Churchy and thereby he believed
that l^s art received Christian baptism.
Faith in a misskm b^t enthusiasm among kindred minds, and
timely commissions followed. The Prussian consul, Bartholdi,
had a house on the biow of the Pincian, and he engaged
Overbeck, Cornelius, Veit and Schadow to decorate a room 34 ft.
square with frescoes (now in the Berlin gallery) from the story
of Joseph and his Brethren. The subjects which feU to the lot
of Overbeck were. the "Seven Yean of Famine " and " Josqth
sold by his Brethren." These tentative wall-piaures, finished in
1818, produced so favourable an impxession among .the Italians
that in the same year Prince Massimo commiasioned Overbeck,
Cornelius, Veit and Schnorr to cover the waSs and ceilings of his
garden pavilion, near St John Lateran, with frescoes illustrative of
Tasso, Dante and Ariosta To Overbeck was assigned, in a room
rs ft. square, the iUustxation of Xasao's JentsaUm DtUmrtd;
and of eleven compositions the largest and most noteworthy^
occupying one entire wall, is the " Meeting of Godfrey de Boaflloa
and Peter the Hermit." «. The completion of the fwKoes vciy
unequal in me rit — a fter ten years' delay, the overtaxed and
enfeebled painter delegated to his friend Joseph Fohiich..
The leisure thus gained was devoted to a thoroughly congenial
theme, the " Vision of St Francis," a waU^winting ao ft. long,
figures life sise, finished in 1830, for the chiircb of Sta Maiia degU
Angell near Asslsi. Overbeck and the brethren set themsdvea
the task of recovering the neglected art of fresco and of momi*
mental painting; they adopted the old methods, and thefr success
led to memorable revivals Uuougbout Europe.
Fifty yean of the artist's laborious life were given to oil and
easel paintings, of which the chief, for liae and import, are the
following: "Christ's Entry Into Jerusalem" (1834), in the
Marien Kirehe, Lttbeck; " Christ's Agony in the Garden "
(1635), in the great ho^tal, Hamburg; "Lo Sposalislo"
(1836), Racz3mski golleiy, Berlin; .the " Triumph of Religion in
the Arts " (1840), in the Stidel InsUtut, Frsakfort; '* Pieti "
(1846), (n the Marien Kirehe, LQbeck; the " IncteduHty of St
Thomas" (1651), in the posMssion of Mr Beresford Rope,
London; the " Assumption of the Madonna " (1855), in Cologne
Cathedral; "Christ delivered from the Jews " (1858), tempera,
on a ceiling in the Quiiinal Palace— a oommissioA fnm Phis IX.,
and a direct attack on the Italian temporal government, thcrelbie
now covered by a canvas adorned with Cupids* AH the artist's
works are marked by religious fervour, careful and protracted
study, with a dry, severe handling, and an absteaUous colour.
Overbeck belongs to eclectic schools, and yet was creative; he
ranks among thmken, and his pen was hardly less busy than his
penciL He was a minor poet, an essayist and a voluminous
letter-writer. His style is wordy and tedious; like his art it is
borne down with emotion and possessed by a somewhat morbid
" subjectivity." His pictures were didactic, and used as means
ofpropagandasforhisartisricandreUgiousfaith,and the teachings
of such compositions as the " Triumph of Religion and tJie Sacra-
ments " he enforced by rapturous literary effusioiis. His art was
the issue of his life: his constant thoughts, cherished in soUtode
and chastened by pnyer, he transposed into pictorial forms, and
thus were evolved countless and much-prized drawings and
cartoons, of which the most considerable are the Gospels, forty
cartoons (1852); Via Crucis, fourteen wateroolour drawings
(1857); the Seven Sacraments, seven cartoons (t96j)* Over-
beck's compositions, with few exceptions, are engraved. His
liferwork he sums up in the words— " Art to me is as the harp of
David, whereupon I wouM derire that psalms should at all
times be sounded to the praise of the Lord." HedSedinRoneiik
38+
OVERBURY— OVERTURE
X869, aged eighty, and fiea buried in San Bernardo, the church
wherein he worshipped.
I There are biocnphies by J. Beavington Atlduon (1883) and
Howitt (1886). (J. B. A.)
OVERBURT. SIR THOMAS (Z581-Z6X3), English poet and
essayist, and the victim of one of the most sensational crimes
in English history, was the son ol Nicholas Overboiy, of Bourton-
on-the-Hill, and was bom in 1581 at Compton Scorpion, near
ilmington, in Warwickshire. In theautumn of 1595 he became
A gentleman commoner <^ Queen's College, Oxford, took his
degree of B.A. in 1598 and came to London to study law in the
Middle Temple. He found favour with Sir Robert Cecil, travelled
on the Continent and began to enjoy a reputation for an acoom-
plishcd mind and free manners. About the year z6oz, being in
Edinburgh on a holiday, he met Robert Carr, then an obscure
page to the earl of Dunbar; and so great a friendship was struck
up between the two youths that they came up to London
together. The early histoiy of Carr remains obscure, and it
is probable that Overbury secured an introduction to Court
before his young associate contrived to do so. At all events,
when Carr attracted the attention of James L, in z6o6) by break-
ing his leg in the tilt-yard, Overbury had for some time been
servitor-in*ozdinary to the king. He was knighted in June
1608, and in Z609 be travelled in France and the Low Countries.
He seems to haye followed the fortunes of Carr very closely,
and " such was the warmth of the friendship, that they were
inseparable, . . • nor could Overbury enjoy any fdicity but
in the company of him he loved [Carr]." When the latter was
made Lqi4 Rochester in z6zo, the intimacy seems to have been
sustained^ But it was now destroyed by a new element. Early
in z6i I the Cburt became aware of the mutual attraction between
Rochester and the infamous and youthful countess of Essex,
who seemed to have bewitched the handsome Scots adventurer.
To this intrigue Overbury was from the first violently opposed,
pomting out to Rochester that an indulgence in it would be
hurtful to his preferment, and that the woman, even at this
early stage in her career, was already " noted for her injury
and immodesty." He went so far as to use, in describmg her,
a word which was not more just than scandalous. But Rochester
was now infatuated, and he repeated to the countess what
Overbury had said. It was at this time, too, that Overbury
wrote, and circulated widely in MS., the poem called "His
Wife," which was a picture of the virtues which a young man
should demand in a woman before he has the rashness to marry
her. It was represented to Lady Essex that Overbury's object
in writing this poem was to open the eyes of Rochester to her
defects. The situation now resolved itself into a deadly duel
for the person of Rochester between the mistress and the friend.
The countess contrived to lead Overbury into such a trap as
to make him seem disrespectful to the king, and she succeeded
so completely that he was thrown into the Tower on the 32nd
of April Z613. It was not known at the time, and it is not certain
now, how far Rochester participated in this fiirst crime, or whether
he was ignorant of it. But the queen, by a foolish phrase, had
sown discord between the friends; she bad called Overbury
Rochester's " governor." It is, indeed, apparent that Overbury
had beoome arrogant with success, and was 00 longer a favourite
at Court. Lady Essex, however,, was not satisfied with having
had him shut up; she was determined that " he should return no
more to this stage." She had Sir William Wade, the honest
Governor of the Tower, removed to make way for a creature of
her own, Sir Gcrvaise Elvis (or Helwys); and a gaoler, of whom
it was ominously said that he was " a man well acquainted with
the power of drugs," was set to attend on Overbury. This
fellow, afterwards aided by Mrs Turner, the widow of a pbysidaa,
and by an ^)othecary called Franklin, plied the miserable poet
with sulphuric add in the form of copper vitrioL But his con-
stitution long withstood the timid doses they gave him, and he
lingered in exquisite sufferings until the zsih of September
1613, when more violent measures put an end to his existence.
Two months later Rochester, now earl of Somerset, married the
chief murderess. Lady Essex. More than a year passed before
suapidoD wasfoused, and when It was, tbeUngdhowed ahatcfof
disinclination to bring the offenders to justice. In the oefebrated
trial which followed, however, the wickied plot was all discovered.
The four accomplices were hanged; the countess of Somersel
pleaded guilty but was spared, and Somccaet himsdl was dis->
graced. Meanwhile, Overbury's poem, The Wiftf was published
in 16x4, and ran through six editions within a year, the scandal
connected with the murder of the author greatly aiding its success^
It was abundantly reprinted within the next sixty years, and
it continued to be one of the most widely popular books of the
XTth century. Combined with later editions of The Wife, and
gradually adding to its bulk, were ''Characters" (first printed
in the second of the x6z4 editions), " The Remedy of Love **
(z62o), and " Observations in Foreign Travels " (z636). Later,
much that mtist be spurious w«s added to the gathering snow-
ball of Overbury's Works, Posterity has found the praise of
his contemporaries for the sententious and graceful moral verse of
Overbury extravagantly expressed. Tke Wife is smooth and
elegant, but uninspired. There is no question that the horrible
death of the writer, and the extnocdinary way in whidi his
murderers were brou^t to justice, gave an extraneous charm
to his writings. Nor can we be quite sore that Overbury waa
in fact sttch a "glorious constellation " of all the rehgioos
virtues ks the Z7th century believed. He certainly kept very
bad company, and positive evidence of his goodness is wanting.
But no one was ever more transcendently canonised by becomuig
the victim of oonspiratozB whose oimes wei» equally detestable
and unpopular. (E. G.)
OVBRDOOB* the name gtvea to -toy ooiameatal moulding
placed over a door. The overdoor u usually arcbiteaurai
in form, but is sometimes little more than a monkird shelf
for the reception of china or curioshica.
OVERMANTBU the name given to decorative cabinet work*
or joinery, applied to the upper part of a firqklaoew The over»
mantel is derived from the carved paneUing formerly applied
to chinmey-pieces of importance, but the word is now generally
restricted to a movable fitment, often consisting of a series of
shelves and niches for the reception of ornaments.
OVBRSOUL (Ger. Oberseele), the name adopted by Emcnon
to describe his conception of that transcendent unity which
embraces subjea and object, mind and matter, and in which
all the differences in virtue of which particular things cxkt are
absorbed. The idea is analogous to the various dortrines of
the absolute, and to the iUa of PUto.
OVBRSTONB. SAMUEL iONEB LOTD, in Baxok (Z796-
1883), English banker, the only son of the Rev. Lewis Loyd,
a Welsh dissenting minister, was bom on the a 5th of S^>tcmbcr
1796. He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Camhrif^
His father, who had married a daughter of John Jones, a banker
of Manchester, had given up the ministry to take a partnership
in his father-in-bw 's bank, and had afterwards founded the
London branch of Jones, Loyd & Co., afterwards incorporated in
the London and Westminster Bank. Loyd, who had joined his
father in the banking business, succeeded to it on the tatter's
retirement in 1844. He conducted the business so successfully
that on his death he left personal property of over £3,ooo,ooa
He sat in parliament as liberal member for Hythe from zSz9
to 1826, and tmsuccessfuUy contested Manchester in zSjs. As
early as zSjs he was recognized as one of the foremost authorities
on banking, and he enjoyed much influence with successive
ministries and chancellors of the exchequer. He was created
Boron Overstone in z8so. He died in London on the 17th of
November 1883, leaving one daughter, who married Robert
James Loyd-Lindsay, afterwards Lord Wantage.
OVERT ACT (0. Fr. nert, from omrir, to open), in law, an open
act, one that can be doariy proved by evidence, and from
which criminal intent can be inferred, as opposed to a mere
intention in the mind to commit a crime (see Intent). The
term is more particularly employed in cases of treason (f.v.), which
must be demonstrated by some overt or open act.
OVERTURE (Fr. ouverturc, opening), in music, the instni-
mental inUoduction to a dramatic or choral f^Mnp^iiwi. The
OVERYSEL
385
notjoa of an overturs tlras has 00 eidsfence until the ifih centary.
The locetla at the beipnning of Monteverde's Orfe^ {s a barbaric
flourish of eveiy piocurable instrument, alternating with a
melodious section entitled ritomelh; and, in so far as this con*
stitutes the first instrumental movement prefixed to an opera, it
may be called an overture. As an art-form the overture be^pn
to exist in the works of J. B. LuUy. He devised a scheme which,
althouf^ he himself did not always adhere to it, constitutes
the typical French overture up to the time of Bach and Handel
(whose works have made it classical). This French overture
consists of a slow introduction in a marked " dotted rhythm"
(l.e. exaggerated iambic, if the fint chord is disregarded), followed
by a lively movement in fugato style. The slow introduction
was always repeated, and sometimes the quick movement
concluded by returning to the slow tempo and material, and was
also repeated (sec Bach's French Overture in the KUnUHthnng)
The operatic French overture was frequently followed by
a series of dance tunes before the curtain rose. It thus naturally
became used as the prelude to a suite; and the Klanerlibttng
French Overture of Bach is a case in point, the overture proper
being the introduction to a suite of seven dances. For the same
reason Bach's four orchestratl suites are called overtures; and,
again, the prelude to the fourth partita in the KUmerUhung
is an overture.
Bach was able to use the French overture form for choruses,
and even for the treatment of chorales. Thus the overture,
properly so called, of his fourth orchestral suite became the
first chorus of the church cantata Unser Mund sei voU Lacfuns]
the choruses of the cantatas Preise Jerusalem den Herm and
Hdckst ervUnschtes Freudenfesl are in overture form; and,
in the first of the two cantatas entitled Nun komn der Heiden
HeUand, Bach has ingeniously adapted the overture form to the
treatment of a chorale.
With the rise of dramatic music and th* sonata style, the French
overture became unsuitable for opera; and Gluck (whose remarks
on the function of overtures in the preface to AUeste are
liistoric) based himself on Italian models, of loose texture, which
admit of a sweeping and massively contrasted technique (see
Symphony). By the time of Mosart's later works the overture
in the sonata style had clearly differentiated itself from strictly
symphonic music. It consists of a quick movement (with or
without a slow introduction), in sonata form, loose In texture,
without repeats, frequently irlthout a development section,
but sometimes substituting for it a melodious episode in slow
time. Instances of this substitution are Mozart's " symphony "
in (ROchers catalogue 318), which is an overture to an unknown
opera, and his overtures to Die EntjUkrung and to Lo Sp»w
iduso, in both of which cases the curtain rises at a point which
throws a remarkable dramatic 'light upon the peculiar form.
The overture to Figaro was at first intended to have a similar
slow middle section, which, however, Mozart struck out as soon
as he had begun it. In Beethoven's hands the overture style
and form increased its distinction from that of the symphony,
but it no longer remained inferior to it; and the final venion
of the overture to Leonora (that known as No. 3) is the most
gigantic single orchestnd movement ever based on the sonata
style.
Overtures to pUys, such as Beethoven's to Collin's Coriohn,
naturally tend to become detached from their surroundings;
and hence arises the concert overture, second only to the
symphony in importance as a purely orchestral art*form. Its
derivation associates it almost inevitably with external poetic
ideas. These, if sufficiently broad, nectt in no way militate
against musical integrity of form; and Mendelssohn's If elides
overture is as perfect a masterpiece as can be found in any art.
The same applies to Brahms's Tragic Overture, one of bis greatest
orchestral works, for which a more explanatory title would
be misleading as well as unnecessary. His Academic Fetdeal
Overture is a highly organized working out of German student
In modem opera the overture, Vorspid, EinUiiung, Intro-
duction, or whatever else it may be called, is generally nothing
more definite than that porfion of tha imisic which takes place
before the curtain rises. TannhaUser b the last case of high
importance in which the overture (as originally written) is a
really complete instrumental piece prefixed to an opera in tragic
and continuous dramatic style. In lighter opera, where sectional
forms are still possible, a separable overture Is not out of place,
though even Carmen is remarkable in the dramatic way in which
its overture foreshadows the tragic end and leads directly to
the rise of the curtain. Wagner's Vorspiel to Lohengrin h a
short' self-contained movement founded on the music of the
CraU. With all its wonderful instrumentation, romantic beauty
and identity with subsequent music in the first and third acts,'
it docs not represent a further departure from the formal classical
overture than that shown fifty years earlier by M€hul's interesting
overtures to Ariodanl and Uthal, in the latter of which a voice
is several times heard on the stage before the rise of the curtain.
The Vorspiel to Die Meistersinger^ though very enjoyable by
itself and needing only an additional tonic chord to bring it
to an endj really loses incalculably in refinement by so ending
in a concert room. In its proper position its otherwise dis-
pnc^xnrtionate climax leads to the rise of the curtain and the
engaging of the listener's mind in a crowd of dramatic and
spectacular sensations amply adequate to account for that long
introductory instrumental crescendo. The Vorspiel to Tristan
has been very beautifully finished for concert use by Wsgner
himself, and the considerable length and subtlety of the added
page shows how little calculated for independent existence
the original Vorspiel was. Lastly, the Parsifal Vorspiel is a
composition which, though finished for concert use by Wagner
in a few extra bars, asserts itself with the utmost lucidity
and force as a prelude to some vast design. The orchestral
preludes to the four dramas of the Ring owe their whole meaning
to their being mere preparations for the rise of the curtain;
and these works can no more be said to have overtures than
Verdi's Falstaf and Strauss's Salome^ in which the curtain rises
at the first note of the music. (D. F. T.)
OVERYSEL, or Ovekyssel, a province of Holland, bounded
S. and S.W. by (Selderland, N.W. by the Zuider Zee, N. by
Friesland and Drente, and £. by the Prussian provinces Of
Hanover and Westphalia respectively; area 1*91 sq. m.; pop.
(<904) 359,443- It includes the island of Sdiokland in the
Zuider Zee. Like Drente on the north and GeMcrland on tho
south, Overyset consists of a sandy flat relieved by hillodLS, and
is covered with waste stretches of heath and patches of wood and
high fen. Along the shores of the Zuider Zee, however, west
of the Zwdle-Lecuwarden railway, the country is low-lying and
covered for the most part with fertile pasture hnds. Cattle*
rearing and butter and cheese making are consequently the chief
occupations, while on the coast many of the people are engaged
in making mats and besoms. The river system of the province
is determined by two main ridges of hills. The first of these
extends from the southern border at Markeio to the Lemeler
hill (262 ft.) near the confluence of the Vecht and Regge, and
forms the watershed between the Regge and the Salland streams
(Sala, whence Salis, Isala, Vscl), which unite at ZwoOe to form
the Zwarte Water. The other ridge of hills extends through the
south-eastern divi^n of the province called Twente, front
Enschede to Oot marsum, and divides the basin of the Almelosche
Aa firom the Dinkcl and its streams. The river Vecht crosses tht
province from E. to W. and joins the Zwarte Water,' which a>m-
municates with the Zuider Zee by the Zwobcfae Biep and with
the Ysel by ihe WlDemsvaart. Everywhere ateng the streams
is a strip of fertile grass-land, from which agriculture and cattle-
rearing have gradually spread over the sand-groundsw A large
proportion of the sand-grounds, however, is waste. Forest
culture is practised on parts of them, especially in the east,
and pigs are largely bred. The depoaiU of the Salland and the
Dinkd streams are found to contain iron ore, which is extracted
and forms an article of export to Germany. Roat-digging
and fen reclamation have been carried on from an eariy period,
and the area of high fen which formerly covered the portion
of the provfnoe to the north of the Vecht fai the neiglibourhood
386
OVID
of Dedcmsva&rt ha* been mostly ncUimed. This industxy it
now most Active on the eastern borders between Aknelo snd
Hardenberg, Vriezcnveen being the chief fen colony. Cotton-
spinning, together with bleaching-works, has come into prornln-
ence in the xQth century in the district of Twente. The reason
of its isolated settlement here is to be found in the former general
practice of weaving as a home craft and its organization as an
industry by capitaUst Baptist refugees who arrived in the X7th
and x8th centuries. The chief town of the province is ZwoUe,
and other thriving industrial centres are Deventer, famous for
its carpets and cake, and Almclo, Enschede, Hengelo and
Oldenzaal in Twente. Kampcn» Gcnemuidcn, Vollenbove and
Blokzyl, on the Zuidcr Zee, carry on some fishing trade. Near
VoUenhove was the castle of Toutenbui^g, built in 1503-1533 by
the famous stadtholder of the emperor Charles V., George Scbenk.
The castle was demolished in the beginning of the 19th century
■ad the remains are slighL The railway system of the province
is supplemented by steam tram-lines between Zwolle, Dedems-
vaait and Hardenberg.- . ^
' OVID [PCBUUS OviDius Naso] (43 B.c.-AJ>. 17), Koman
poet, the last of the Augustan age, was bom in 43 B.c, the last
year of the republic, the year of the death of Cicero. Thus the
only form of political life known to Ovid was that of the absolute
rule of Augustus and his successor. His character was neither
strengthened nor sobered, like that of his older contemporaries,
by personal recollection of the crisis through which the republic
passed into the empire. There is no sense of political freedom
in his writings. The spirit inherited from his ancestors was that
of the Italian country districts, not that of Rome. He was
bom on the 20th of March (his self-consciousness has preserved
the exact day of the monih)^ at Sulmo, now Sulmona, a town of
the Paeligni, picturesquely situated among the mountains of the
Abnuzi: its wealth of waters and natural beauties seem to have
strongly affected the young poet's imagination (for he often
speaks of them with affectionate admiration) and to have
quickened tn him that appreciative eye for the beauties of nature
which is one of the chief characteristics of his poems. The
Paeligni were one of the four small mountain peoples whose
proudest memories were of the part they had played in the
Social War. But in spite of this they had no old race-hostility
with Rome, and their opposition to the senatorial aristocracy
in the Social War would predispose them to accept the empire.
Ovid, whose father was of equestrian family, bebnged by birth
to the same social class as TibuUus and Propertius, that of old
hereditary landowners; but he was more fortunate than they
in the immunity which his native district enjoyed from the
confiscations made by the triumvirs. His vigorous vitality
was apparently a gift transmitted to him by heredity; for he
tells us that his father lived till the age of ninety, and that he
performed the funeral rites to his mother after his father's death.
While he mentions both with the piety characteristic of the old
Italian, he tells us little more about them than that " their
thrift curtailed his youthful expenses,"* and that his father
did what he could to dissuade him from poetry, and force him
into the more profitable career of the law. He and his brother
had been brought eariy to Rome for their education, where
they attended the lectures of two ntost eminent teachers of
rhetoric, AreUius Fuacus and Porciiis Latro, to which influence
is due the strong rhetorical element hi Ovid's style. He is
said to have attended these lectures eagerly, and to have
shown in his exerdses that his gifc was poetical rather than
oratorical, and that he had a distaste for the severer processes
of thought.
Like Pope, "he lisped in numbers,"* and he wrote and
destroyed many verses before he published anything. The
earliest edition of the AmortSf which first appeued in five books,
and the Htroida were given by him to the world at an eariy sge.
" Virga," he informs us» "he had only seen"; but Virgil's
friend and contemporary Aemilius Maocr used to read his
didactic poems to him; and even the fastidious Horace spme-
» Trirt. Iv. 10. It. t Am. I 3. la
' TrisL iv. to. ao " et quod tempubam scribere, venus crat.*'
times deUghted his ears with the music ol hit vcne.* He had a
close bond of intimacy with, the younger poets of the older
generation— TibuUus, whose deslh he laments in one of the few
pathetic pieces among his earlier writincs, and Propectius» to
whon( he describes himself as united in the doac ties of oonnde-
ship. The name of Maecenas he nowhere mentions. The time
of his influence was past when Ovid entered upon his poetical
career. But the veteran politician Messalla, the friend oi
TibuUus, together with his powerful son Cotta MessaUinus and
Fabius Maximns, who are mentioned together by Juvenal^
along with Maecenas as t3rpes of munificent patrons of letters^
and other influential persons whose names sre preserved ia the
EpisOesfroM Fontus, encouraged his litemry efforts and extended
to him their support. He enjoyed also the intimacy of poets and
Uterary men, chiefly of the younger generation, whose names he
enumerates in Ex Ponta^ iv. x6, though, with the exception of
Doroitius Maxsus and Grattius, they are scarcely more than
names to us. With the older poet, Macer, he UaveUed for more
than a year. Whether this was immediately after the com-
pletion of his education, or in the interval between the publica-
tion of his earlier poems and that of the Medta and Ars awtalorU
is unknown, but it is in his later works, the Fasti and Ueta-
morphosa, that we chiefly recofipize the impressions of the
scenes he visited. In one of the Epistles from Poaius (iL 10)
to his fellow-travdler there is a vivid record of the pleasant time
they had passed together. Athens was to a Roman then what
Rome is to an educated Englishman of the present day. Ovid
Speaks of having gone there under the influence of literary
enthusiasm, and a similar impulse induced him to vi^'t the
supposed site of Troy. The two friends saw together the iUusiii-
ous cities of Asia, which had inspired the enthusiasm of travd
in CatuUiis, and had become famiUar to Cicero and Horace during
the years they pasied abroad. They spent nearly a year ia
SicUy, which attracted him, as it had attracted Lucretius* and
Virgil,* by its mam'fold charm of climate, of sea-shore ani
inland scenery, and of legendary and poetical association. He
recalls with a fresh sense of pleasure the incidents of their tour,
and the endless delight which they had in each other's conversa*
tion. We would gladly exchange the record of his Ufe of pleasure
in Rome for more <^t these rccoUections. The highest type of
classic Roman culture shows its affinity to that of modem times
by nothing more clearly than the enthusiasm for travel among
lands famous for their natural beauty, their monuments of art
and their historical associations.
When settled at Rome, although a pubh'c car^ r leading to
senatorial position was open to him, and although he fiUcd various
minor judicial posts and claims to have filled them weU, he had
no ambition for such distinction, and looked upon pleasure
and poetry as the occupations of his life. He was three times
manied; when Uttle more than a boy to his first wife, whom
he naively describes as unworthy of himself;' but he was soon
separated from her and took a second wife, with whom his tmion,
although through no fault of hers, did not last long. She was
probably the mother of his one daughter. Later he was joined
to a third wife, of whom he always speaks with affection and
respect. She was a bdy of the great Fabian house, and thus
connected with his powerful patron Fabius Maximus, and was a
friend of the en^ress Xivia. It therefore seems Ukely that he
may have been admitted, into the intimacy of the younger
society of the Palatine, although in the midst of his most f ubome
flattery he does not claim ever to have enjoyed the favour of
Augustus. His liaison with his mistress Corinna, whom he
celebrates in the Amares, took place probably in the period
between his first and second, or between his second and third
marriageSb It is doubtful whether Coriniu was, like CatuUus*
Lesbia, a lady of recognised position, or whether she belongol to
«Jvv.v1L95-
*Lacret. i. 726—
" quae cum magna modis multis intranda videtur
gentltnis humanis neitio visendaquc fcrtur."
* Sueton. (Donatus), Vita Virg. ix " quamquam aecessu Cam-
paniae SkUiaeque plurimnm uteretur.
' Triit. Iv. la 69-70.
OVID
387
the tame dan As the Chloet aad Lakfes <tf Iforace's arttttJc
fancy. If we can trust the poet's later apcdogies for his life,
in whJch he states that he had never given occasion for any-
serious scandal, it is probable that she belonged to the dass of
UherHnae. However that may be, Ovid Is not only a less constant
but he is a less serious lover than his great predecessors Catullus,
TibuIlusandPropertius. His tone is that either of mere sensuous
leeling or of irony. In his complete emancipation fh>m afl
restraint he goes beyond them, and thus reflects fht tastes and
spirit of fashionable Rome between the years 20 B.C. and the
beginning of our era. Society was then bent simply on amuse-
ment; and, as a result partly of the loss of pditical interests,
women came to i^y a mdre important and brilliant part in its
life than they had done before. Julia, the daughter of the
emperor, was b/ her position, her wit and beauty, and her reck-
less dissipation, the natural leader of such a society. But the
discovery of her intrigue (2 B.C.) with lulus Antonius, the son of
Mark Antony, was deeply resented by Augustus as betng at
once a shock.to his affections and a blow to his policy of moral
reform. Julia was banished and disinherited; Antonius and her
many lovezs were punished; and the Roman worid awoke bom
Its foil's paradise of pleasure. Neatly coHictdently with this
scandal appeared Ovid's Ars ofMioHa, perhaps the most immoral
work ever written by a man of genius, though not the most
demoralizing, since it is entirely free from morbid sentiment.
By its brilliancy and heartlessness it appealed to the prevailing
taste of the fasliionable world; but Its appearance excited deep
resentment in the mind of the emperor, as is shown by his edict,
issued ten years later, against the book and its author. Augustus
had the art of dissembling his anger; and Ovid appears to have
bad no idea of thd storm that was gathering over him. He stiU
contiimed to enjoy the society of the court and the fashionable
world; he passed before the emperor in the annua! procession
among the ranks of the equltes; and he developed a richer vein
of genius than he had shown in his youthful prime. But he was
aware that pubKc opinion had been shocked, or professed to be
shocked, by his last work; and after writing a kind of apology for
it, called the Renudia amaris, he turned to other subjects, and
wrote during the next ten years the MekitMrpkoies and the Fasti.
He had already written the Heroides^ in which he had imparted
a modern and romantic interest to the hen^es of the old
mythology,* and a tragedy; the Medea, which must have afforded
greater scope for the dramatic and psychological treatment of the
passion with which he was most familiar. In the Fasti Ovid
assumes the position of a national poet* by Imparting poetical
life and interest to the ceremonial observances of the Roman
religion; but it is as the brilh'ant narrator of the romantic tales
that were so strangely blended with the realistic annals of Rome
that be succeeds in the part assumed by him. The Metamorphoses
Is a narrative poem which recounts legends lA which the miracul-
ous involved transformations of shape. Beginning with the
change from Chaos to Cosmos, legends first Greek and then
Roman are pa^cd in review, concluding with the metamorphosis
of Julius Caesar into a star and a promise of immortality to
Augustus. The long series of stories, which consist to a large
extent of tales of the love adventures of the gods with nymphs
and the daughters of men, is strongly tinged with Alexandrine
influence, being in fact a succession of epyllia in the Alexandrine
manner. This work, which Ovid regards as*hb most serious
claim to immortality, had not been finally revised at the time of
his disgrace, and in his despair he burnt it; but other copies
were in existence, and when he was at Tomi it was published at
Rome by one of his friends. He often regrets that It had not
received his final revision. The Fasti also was broken off by his
exile, after the publication of the first sbc books, treating of the
first six months of the year.
Ovid assigns two causes for his baxdshment, his Ars amatoHa,
and an actual offence.* ^'hat this was is not known, but his
*Tbe essentially modem character of the work appears in hb
making a heroine of the time of the Trojan war speak of vinting
•* learned - Athens (Heroid, U. 83).
* " Animot ad pubtjca carnuna fiexi " iTrisi. v. 1. 23).
* TtisL 3. S07>
frequent references to It enable us to conjecture its character.
He tells us that there was no breach of law on his part; he
distinctly disclaims having been concerned in any treasonable
plot: bis fault was a mistake of judgment (error), an unpre-
meditated act of foUy. He had been an unintentional witness
of some culpable act committed by another or others-^ some
act which nearly affected the emperor, and the mention of which
was likely to prove offensive to hinL' Ovid himself had reaped
no personal gain from his conduct. Though his original act was
a pardonable error, he had been prevented by timidity from
atoning for it subsequently by taking the straightforward course.
In a letter to an intimate friend, to whom he had been in the
habit of confiding all his secrets, he says that had he confided this
one he would have escaped condemnation.' In writing to another
friend he warns him against the danger bf courting too high
society. This offence, which exdted the anger of Augustus, was
connected in some way with the publication of the Ars amaloria,
»nce that fact was recited by the emperor in his sentence. AH
this points to hl^ having been mixed up In a scandal affecting
the imperial family, and seems to connect him with one
event, coincident with the time of his disgrace (a.d. 9), the
intrigue of the younger Julia, granddaughter of Augustus, with
D. Sihmus, mentioned by Tacitus.* Augustus deeply felt these
family scandals, lookmg upon them as acts of treason and
sacrilege. JuHa was badshed to the island of Trimexus, off the
coast of Apulia. Silanus withdrew into voluntary exile. The
chief punishment fell on Ovid, who was banished. The poet at
the worst could only have been a confidant of the intrigue; but
Augustus must have regarded him and his works as, if not the
corrupter of the age, at least the most typical representative
of that corruption which had tainted so direly even the imperial
family. Ovid's form of banishment was the mildest possible
{rdegatio)] it involved no deprivation of dvic rights, and left
him the possession of his property. He was ordered to remove
to the half-Greek, half-barbaric town of Tomi, near the moutk*
of the Danube. He recounts vividly the agony of his last night
In Rome, and the hardships of his November voyage down the
Adriatic and up the Gulf of Corinth to Lechaeum, where he
crossed the isthmus and took ship again from Ctonchreae to
Samothrace, whence in the following spring he proceeded over-
land through Thrace to his destination. For eight years he
bore up in his dreary solitude, suffering from the unhealthiness
of the dimate and the constant alarm of inroads of barbarians.
In the hope of procuring a remission of his punishment he wrote
poetical complaints, first in the series of the five books of the
Trisiia, seat successively to Rome, addressed to friends whose
names he suppresses; afterwards in a number of poetical
epistles, the Epistidae ex Fonto, addressed by name to friends
who were likely to have influence at court. He believed that
Augustus had softened towards him before his death, but his
successor Tiberius was Inexorable to his appeals. His chief
consolation was the exercise of his art, though as time goes on
he is painfully consdous of faHure In power. Bibt although the
works written by him In exile lack the finished art of his earlier
writings, their personal interest is greater. They have, like
the letters of Cicero to Attlcus, the fasdnatSoa exercised by
those worics which have been given to the world under the title
of Confessions; they are a sincere Nterary expression of the state
of mind produced by a unique experience— that of a nan,
when well advanced in yean but still retaining extraordinary
sensibility to pleasure and pain, withdrawn from a brilliant
sodol and intellectual position, and cast upo» his own resources
in a place and among people affording the dreariest oontrast
to the brightness of his previous life. How far these coafidences
are to be regarded as equally sincere expressions of his affectioik
or admiration for his correspondents is another question. Even
in those addressed to his wife, though he speaks of her with
affection and respect, there may perhaps be detected a certain
ring of insincerity in his conventional comparisons of her to the
Penelopes and Laodamias of ancient legend. Had she been a
Pciiek>pe or Laodamia she would have accompanied him in
* Trul. Ui. 6. II. • Anm, Si. 34.
388
OVID
his exile, as we Icam from TacHiu was done by other wives*
in the more evil days of which be wrote the record. The letters,
which compose the Tristia and Epistuloe ex Ponto, arc addressed
either to his wife, the emperor, or the general reader, or ta his
patrons and friends. To his patrons he writes in a vein of
supplication, beseeching them to use their inHuedce on his
behalf. To his rather large drde of intimate acquaintances
be writes in the language of familiarity, and often of affectionate
regard; he seeks the sympathy of some, and speaks with bitter-
ness of the coldness of others, and in three poems^ he complains
of the relentless hostility of the enemy who had contributed to
procure his exile, and whom he attacked in the Ibis, There is
a note of true affection in the letter to the young lyric poetess
Perilla, of whose genius and beauty he speaks with pride, and
whose poetic talents he had fostered by friendly criticism.'
He was evidently a man of gentle and genial manners; and, as
his active mind induced him to learn the language of the new
people among whom he was thrown, his active interest in life
enabled him to gain their regard and various marks of honour.
One of his last acts was to revise the PasHy and re-edit it with
a dedication to Cermanicus. The dosing lines of the Epistidae
ex Pofdo sound like the despairing sigh of a drowning man who
had long struggled alone with the waves: —
" Omnia pcrdidimus: tantummodo vita'relicta est,
Pracbeat ut scnsum materiamque mail."
Shortly after these words were written he died in his sixtv-first
year in A.a 17, the fourth year of thereign of Tiberius.
The temperament of 0\'id, as indicated in his writings, has
more in common with the suppleness of the later Italian than
with the strength and force of the ancient Roman. That stamp
of her own character and irodexstanding which Rome impressed
on the genius of those other races which she incorporated with
herself is fainter in Ovid than in any other great writer. He
ostentatiously disdoims the manliness which in the republican
times was regarded as the birthright not of Romans only but
of the Sabellian races from which he sprang. He is as devoid of
dignity in his abandonment to pleasure as in the weakness with
which he meets calamity. He has no depth of serious conviction,
no vein of sober reflcaion, and is sustained by no great or elevat-
ing purpose. Although the bdngs of a supernatural world
fill a large place in his writings, they appear stripped of all
sanctity and mystery. It is difficult to say whether the tone
of his nsferences to the gods and goddesses of mythology implies
a kind of half-believing return to Ihe most childish elements
of paganism, or is simply one of mocking unbelief. He has
absolutdy no reverence, and consequently inspires no reverence
in his reader. With all a poet's feeling for the life, variety and
subtlety of nature, he has no sense of her mystery and majesty.
The love which he cdebcates is sensual and superficial, a matter
of vanity as much as of passion. He prefers the piquant altrac-
tiotx of falsehood and fickleness to the charm of truth and con-
stancy. Even where he follows the Roman tendencies in his art
he perverts them. The Fasti is a work conceived in the prosaic
spirit of Roman antiquarianism. It is redeemed from being
prosaic by the picturesqueness and vivadly with wluch the
legends are told. But its conception might have been more
poetical if it had been penetrated by the religious and patriotic
spirit with which Virgil invests ancient ceremonies, and the
mysticism with which he accepts the revelations of sdence.
In this reH>cct the contrast is great between the reverential
treatment which the trivialities of legend and sdence recdve in
th6 Geargics and Aeneidf and the literal dcfinitcncss of the Fasti.
These defects in strength and gravity show a corresponding
result in Ovid's writings. Though possessing diligence, per-
severance and litenuy ambition, he seems incapable of concdv-
*Tac. Hist. i. 3 **comttatae profugos liberos matnes. Bocutae
maritos in cxilia coniugcs.*'
*rmf. tii. II, iv. 9. v. 8.
" rm<. iii. 7. Perilla has by many been erroneously supposed
to have been the poet's own dauphtcr; but ihis is impossible, since
she is described as youni? and still livinj under her mother's roof,
whet^s at the time of Ovid's eule his daughter was alnady manicd
to her second hunband.
ing a great and serious whole. Though a keen observer of the
superfidal aspects of life, he has added few great thoughts to
the intellectual heritage of the world.^ But with all the levity
of his character he must have had qualities which made him,
if not much esteemed, yet much liked in his own day, and which
are apparent in the genial amiability of his writings. He daims
for himself two virtues highly prized by the Romans, jides and
cani/7r->the qualities of sodal honour and kindly sincerity.
There is' no indication of anything base, ungenerotis or morose
in his rdations to others. Literary candor, the generous appreda-
tion of all sorts of excellence, he possesses in a renurkable degree.
He heartily admires everything in literature, Greek or Rocnan,
that had any merit. In him more than any of the Augustan
poets we find words of admiration applied to the rude genitu
of Ennius and the majestic style of Acdus. It is by him, not
by Virgil or Horace, that Lucretius is first named and his sub-
limity is fiist acknowledged.' The image of Catullus that roost
haunts the imagination is that of the poet who died so early —
" bcdera iuvcnalia ductus
Tempora,"
as he is represented by Ovid coming to meet the shade of the
young TibuUus in Elysium.* To his own contemporaries, known
and unknown to fame, he is as liberal in his words of recognition.'
He enjoyed society too in a thoroughly amiable and unenvious
spirit. He lived on a friendly fooling with a laige drde of men
of letters, poets, critics, grammarians, &c, but he showed none
of that sense of superiority which is manifest in Horace's estimate
of the " tribes of grammarians " and the poetasters of his day.
Like Horace too he courted the sodety of the great, thou^
probably not with equal independence; but unlike Horace be
expresses no contempt for the humbler worid outside. With
his irony and knowledge of the world it might have been expected
that he would become the social satirist of his age. But be
lacked the censorious and critical temper, and the admixture
of gall necessary for a successful satirist. In his exile he did
retaliate on one enemy and persistent detractor in the /Mr, a
poem written in imitation of a similar work by Callimachus;
but the Ibis is not a satire, but an invective remarkable rather
for recondite learning than for epigranunatic sting.
But Ovid's chief personal endowment was his vivadty, and
his keen interest in and enjoyment of life. He had no grain
of discontent in his composition; no regrets for an ideal past, or
longings for an imaginary future. The age in which he lived was,
as he tells us, that in which more than any other he would ha>'e
wished to live.* He is its most gifted representative, but he does
not rise above it. The great object of his art was to amuse and
delight it by the vivid picture he presented of its fasliions and
pleasures, and by creating a literature of romance which reflected
them, and which could stimulate the curiosity and fascinate the
fancy of a sodety too idle and luxurious for serious intellectual
cfTort. The sympathy which he felt for the love adventures of
his contemporaries, to which he probably owed his fall, quickened
his creative power in the composition of the Heroides and the
romantic tales of the Metamorphoses. None of the Roman poets
can people a purdy imaginary world with such spontaneous
fertility of fancy as Ovid. In heart and mind he is inferior to
Lucretius and Catullus, to Virgil and Horace, perhaps to Tibullus
and Propertius; but in the power and range of imaginative
vision he is surpassed by no ancient and by few modem poets.
This power of vision is the counterpart of his livdy sensuous
nature. He has a keener eye for the apprehension of outward
beauty, for the life and colour and forms of nature, than any
Roman or perhaps than any Creek pocL This power, acting upon
the wealth of his varied reading, gathered with eager curiosity
and received into a singularly retentive mind, has enabled him
to depict with consummate skill and sympathy legendary scenes
of the most varied and picturesque beauty. U his tragedy, the
* There arc found in him some cxcepttonally fine exprenfons.
such as Her. iii. 106 " qui hienc pro paina cum patriaque tacent '*:
and Met. vii. ao " video meliora probuque. deicriora sequor.**
» Am. i. 15. 19 ff. *Am. Hi. 9. 61.
' Ex PonU, iv. 16. • Ars amatoria, iH lai B,
oyiD
389
IMm, higUy insiaad by aadent cticka, hmi been preservied,
we should hitvc beta ablo to judfe whether Roman art was
capable of producing a gnat dxama. In many of the Heroidet,
and in several speeches scattered through his works, he gives
evideace of true dramatic creativeness. Unlike his great pre*
decesaor CatuUus, he has little of the idyllic in his art, or whatever
of idyllic there is v& It is lost in the rapid movement of his narra*
tive. But be is one, among the poets of all times, who can imagine
a story with the most vivid inventiveness and tell it with the
most unflagging animatioo. The faults of his vene and diction
axe those which arise from the vitality of his temperament — too
facile a flow, too great eiuberance of illustration. He hasas little
sense of the need of severe restraint in his art as in his life.' He is
not without manneiism* but he is qulu unaffected, and, however
far short be might fall of the highest excellence of vene or style,
it was not possible for him to be rough or harsh, dull or obscure.
As legsrds the school of art to which he belongs, be may
be described as the most brUb'ant representative of Roman
Aleaandrinism. The latter half of the Augustan age was, in
its social and intellectttsi aspects, more like the Alexandrine
age than any other era of antiquity. The Alexandrine age was
like the Augustan, one of refinement and luxury, of outward
magnificence and literary dilettantism flourishing under the
fostering influence of an absolute monarchy. Poetry was the
most important branch of literature cultivated, and the chief
subjects of poetry were mythological tales, various phases of
the passion of luve, the popular aspects «f science and some
aspects of the beauty of nature. These two were the chief
subjects of the later Augustan poetry. The higher feelings and
ideas which found expression in the poetry of Virgil; Horace
and the writers of an older generation no longer acted on the
Roman workL It was to the private tastes and pleasures of
individuals and society that Roman Alexandrinism had appealed
both in the poetry of Catullus, Cinlia, Calvus and their school,
and in that of Gallus, Tibullus and Propertius. Ovid was the
last of this class of writers.
His extant works fall naturally into three divisions, those of
his youth, of middle life and of his 'later years. To the- first
of these divisions bebng the amatory poems: (x) the three
books of AtHores (originaliy five, but reduced in a later recension
to three) relating to his amours with his mistress Corinna; (a)
the Afedieamimaformast or, as it is sometimes called Medkamina
facieit a fragment of a hundred Knes on the use of cosmetics;
<3) the three books of the Ars amatoria, rules for men and
women by which they may gain the affections of the other
■ex; (4) the Remedia amoris (one book), a kind of lecantation
of the Ar$ amatoria. To the second division belong (5) the
fifteen books of the Metamcrpkoses, and (6) the six books of
the Fasti, which was. originally intended to be in twelve books,
but which breaks off the account of the Roman calendar with
the month of June. To the third division belong (7) the five
books of the TrisHa, (8) the /6u, an invective against an enemy
who bad assisted to procure lus fall, written in elegiac couplets
probably soon after his exile; (9) the four books of EpishUag
€x Pernio. Of these the first three were published soon after the
Tristia, while the fourth book is a collection of scattered poems
published by some friend soon after the author's death. The
HalietUka a a didactic fragment in hexameters on the natural
history of fishes, of doubtful genuineness, though it Is certain
that Ovid did b^thi such a work at the dose of his life.'
In his extant works Ovid confined himself to two metres—
the elegiac couplet and the hexameter. The great mass of bis
poetry b written in the first; while the Metamorphoses and the
HalUutka are composed in the second. Of the elegiac couplet
he b the acknowledged master. By fixing It into a uniform
mould he brought it to its highest perfection; and the fact that
the great mass of elegiac vene written subsequently has en*
deavonred merely to reproduce the echo of hb rhythm is evidence
of hb pre<eminence. In the direct expression and illustration
of feeling his elegiac metre has more ease, vivacity and sparkle
than that of any of fab predecessors, while he alone has com-
> Piin. UiA. Not. xxxii. 15a.
municated to H, without altering its essential characteristic
of recurrent and regular pauses, a fluidity and rapidity of move-
ment which make it an admirable vehicle for pathetic and
piauresque narrative It waa impossible for him to give to
the hexameter greater perfection, but he imparted to it abo a
new character, wanting indeed the weight and majesty and
intricate harmonies of Virgil, but rapid, varied, animated
in complete acoord with the swift, versatile and fervid movement
of hb imagidation. One other proothe gave of hb irrepressible
energy by composing during hb exile a poem in the Getic (Gothic)
lanpinge in praise of Augustus, Tiberius and the imperial
fainily, the loss of which, whatever it may have been to literature,
b much to bt regretted in the interesu of philology.
It was in Ovid's writings that the world of romance and wonder
created by Greek imagination was first revealed to modem times.
The vivid fancy, the transparent lucidity, the liveliness, ease
and directness through which he reproduced hb raodeb made hb
works the mo^ accessible and among the most attractive of
the recovered treasures of antiquity. Hb influence was first
felt m the literature of the Italian Renaissance. But in the
most creative periods of Englbh literature he seems to have been
read more than any other andent poet, not even excepting
Virgil, and it was on minds such as those of Marlowe, Spenser,
Shakespeare,' Milton and Diydenthat he acted most powerfully.
Hb influence b equally unmistakable during the classical era
of Addison and Pope. The most successful Latin verse of modem
times has been written in imitation of him; the faculty of
literary composition and feeling for ancient Roman culture
has been largely developed in the great schoob of England and
France by the writing of Ovidian elegiacs. Hb works afforded
also abundant stimulus and materials to the great painters
who flourished diuing and immediately after the Renaissance.
Thus hb first daim on the attention of modem readers b the
influence which he has exercised on the development of literature
and art; for thb, if for no other reason, hb works must always
retain an importance second only to those of Virgil and Horace.
He b interesting further as the sole contemporary exponent
of the last half of the Augustan age, the external aspects and
inner spirit of which b known from the works, not of contemporary
historians or prose-writers, but from its poets. The successive
phases of Roman feeling and experience during thb critical
period are revealed in the poetry of Virgil, Horace and Ovid.
Virgil throws an idealizing and religious halo around the hopes
and aspirations of the nascent empire. Horace presents the
most complete image of its manifold aspects, realbttc and ideaL
Ovid reflects the life of the worid of wealth and fashion under
the influence of the new court, its material prosperity, Its refine-
ment, its frivolity and its adulation. For the continuous
study of the Roman worid in its sodal and moral reUtions hb
pUce b important as marking the transition between the repre-
sentation of Horace, in which the life of pleasure and amusement
has its place, but b subordinate to the life of reflection and serious
purpose, and that life which reveab itsdf in the cynicbm of
Martial and the scornful faidignation of Juvenal. He b the
last true poet of the great age of Roman literature, which begins
with Lucretius and doses with him. No Roman poet writes
with such vivadty and fertility of fancy; in respect of these
two qualities we recognize in him the coimtryman of Cicero
and Livy. But the type of genius of which he affords the best
example b more familiar in modem Italbn than in andent Roman
Uterature. While the serious spirit of Lucretius and Virgil
reappeared in Dante, it b Ariosto who may be said to reproduce
the light-hearted gaiety and brilliant fancy of Ovid.
Bibliography.— The life of Ovid waa first treated systetnattcaUy
by J. Maaaon. Ottdii vita ordiru iktonolonco digtsta (1780) (often
reprmtcd. e.t, in Burmann'a edition). Modem Uterature on thb
aubject will be found in Tcuffd'a HiOorj ef Roman Ltteratmre (Eng.
trans., ed. a), | a47. and S. G. Owcn'a edition of TrUtui, bk. i. The
very numerous manuscripts of Ovid are chiefly of late date, 13th
to 15th century. The cariieat and best are: for the Bi n i in a
Paris MS of the 9th, a WoUeabOttel MS. of tbe lath and an Etoo
•The iaihience of Ovid on Shakespeare b shown coaduaivcly
by T. Sw Baynee, SkakefPtan ShuHts (1894)* p. I95 '»
390
OVIEDO
(ragmMUry NfS. of the nth century (tKe BpistuU Sapphus, found
in no early MS., U best preserved in a 13th-century Frankfort, and
a 15th-century Harleian MS,); (or the Amora, Ars amatoria,
Remedia amons, two Paris MSS. of the 9th and lOth century re-
spectively; for the Medicamina fortnae a Florence MS. (Mardanus)
of the nth; for the Metamorphoses two Florence MSS. (Mardanus
and Laurentianua) and a Naples MS., all of the nth century; for
the Foiii two Vatican MSS. of the loth and nth century; for the
Tfistia a Florence MS. of the nth; for the Epishdae ex Ponto a
fragmentary WolfenbQttel MS. of the 6th and a Hamburg and
two Munich MSS. of the 12th: for the /K» a Trinity College, Cam-
bridge. MS. of the I2th: for the Halieutka a Paris MS. of the 9th
or toth^ and a Vienna MS. of the 9th century. Im^rtant for the
text of the Heroides and Metamorphoses is the interesting paraphrase
written in Creek by the monk Maximus Planudos in the Utter
half of the 13th oentuiy at ConsUntinople: that of the Heroides \k
Srintcd in Palmer's edition of the Heroides (1808), that of the
tetamorphoses in Lemaine's edition of Ovid, vol. v., edited by
Boissonade. See also Gudeman. De Heroidum Ondii codia PlaniuUo
(BerUn, 1888).
Two independent edUiones principes of Ovid were published con-
temporaneoufily in 1471, one at Rome, printed by SweYuheym and
Pannaru. and one at Bologna by Balthasar Azoguidius: these
8 resent entirely different texts. See Owen's Tristium libri, v. p. Iv.
. The following are the roost important edirions: those marked
with an asterisk have eimlanatory notes. Of the whole works:
*Hdnsius-Burmann (1727); *Amar-Lemaire (1820-1834); Merkel-
Ehwald (1874-1888); Riese (i 871-1889): Postgate's Corpus
fcftctum LaUnotuwi.hy \uil..us csJimrs (iS^^j.'rcprinted separately
liQatih O* MiiarAt* vflrki: Amort:s, •Nt'in «hy (1907); Heroides,
ScdWv*T tmncal) tUiftfifj *Falmer (16 j*^); Eptstida Sapphus
(*«|kira[fcSy), *Ut Vria {im&h Art amami^^ *P. Brandt. (k^mi);
M€di4^3*nina §^ma£ (criiic.-v^h Kur* (iSSi)' Metamorphoses, *J, C.
iahn (iSii); *Loct* U^\)*, Kan (cnii: J) (1880): •Magnus
fiflRSh "Hauot-Ehwald (1 89^1903) ; f\rH, *Gieng (1812);
(1900); EpistuUu ex
1887); •Eftis (1881);
^also adsaripUs (1878).
4i deserve mention*
ytm^to, Kom tifi6fi) (cTitkalK BV.
ffuJuutifa. 'Blrt. Di llalicviaih a-
Ttie toUowina vh r^c Trj[uiAn>iij
Am&tcs, C. iVlailu^e (1600) f?J; MerouUs, TurDcrvue ^I579K
Saltonstall (16^9); Sherburne (1630). various hands, preface by
Dryden (^ edition» 1683) ; Art of Lave and Remedy of Lose, Creed
(1600); Diyden and othen (1709); Metamorphoses, Golding (1567) *»■
Sandys (1026); I>ryden and others (1717); King (1871); Fasti,
Cower (1640); Rose (1866); Tristia^ baltonstalT (1633) ; Catlin
(1639): Churchyarde (1816); Epistles from Pontus, Saltonstal
(1639); Jones (1658).
The 8]
! special tre
numerous; a fairl
given in Owen's
History of Roman 1
der rimtseheH Lin
recent literature b
.^■:.i-. iivoiEicctel witli Ov^d are vry
- liit op to the time of publtcaUim is
] icj] KiitioTii), p, cviii E.: in T^un I's
.... , ; TAW., b y Watrjand in Sthaiu* <7f J- /i r hlo
"frjufj y^itd in iht tz%€c]Wnt niTlcal dijji's' - of
LlTiwald in the Jahrftberuht li^ Jwf Fnfti^ik'ittt
der dassischen Al'£rtumTieisifnst.haJt, xxjiL (1^84') pp* 157 BF.,
Ixxx. (1894) pp. J, (I- <:ix. (1902) pp. i,S7 ff. iTic fdtowintt *Ic- . rve
special mention. On ibt liistory of the text : Ehiwald, Ad hiih,iim
earminum Ovidianmnyn symlMflai (iSSg); Kfitistht Beitr^tiir tu
Ovids Epistula*. ex Panto ivbi/j}; Sedlnuyer, PtUetirmttio^ ad
Heroidas (1878): Gruppe. Min^s. pp^ 441 o, (on interpolations).
On style: Ovids ^iitiK>n in cfinncMon with other writers, — ^A.
ZIngerfe, Ovidius und ^tin VfrTk>ilinis tu dm Vet^'dgtm (18^9-
1871); MarliaTs OiU Studitn <iP77); W. j^fiffirt^ Viittprfitj-hunf;eH
mr EchtheiUfrage drt Hi^totdett Oiidi (187S); W. VoUersff* NUandrr
und Ovid (Gromti£<n. 1909 falL). PcciiliailcLes Of Ovid' a c^^le:
van Iddekinge, Df Ovidn R^mani iuris ptrifui Ci8tij: VV^ibj^tl,
De simUitwUnihui imaii'nil'asmts OiijfCfliit* CiaS^h RrCfca, On
Ovid's Use of Colour 'irtd C^cm Tfrmi (DaMical ittidic* in hrmgur of
H. Drisler) (1804! Mirttc : i>w itrucuire of ihc Ovidian peotarneter
examined in relati'ri 10 thi? textual criticitm, — KiJbtnj, Cfifti* der
WortsteUunt im P. h-iamiifr dti OviS {i^A) (f uily rtvtt*^! by Ellis,
Classical Review, i IS7)> Utfrajy &ppr*ti3tiOTi ; SctUr. R '.an
Poets of the i4«r.i 'Jf Jr^t Lahyt, Let Mft^merph^ift d"th:(i et
leurs moddes gutt. €>v^5 relation to work» ol art: w ■- 1 ct,
Ovids Werhe in ihrm tVbE/Ma mw uitiiktn Kwtst 1);
Engelmann, Bildrf-Atlit tu Ofii's Mttamorphfun (v ise
of exile: the most in[i?re!?tin| dticuuian lb bv Botfcief i .. )P'
position sous Us Cigars. See lUo Naseotle, Op4de. m fi>. j^j c^u.res
(1872); Huber, Die fVjotrlttt itr Verl^mnvnx dis Ovid (jfAB).
In^ence of Ovid vpon Sbakespetre: T. S. l&ynies. ShaknpcarB
Studies (1894), pp. 1^5 If.; Constable. Sliakespeare'i " Venut und
Adorns " in VerkiUms tu <Vii r Meiamorpkaien (i 690}^ (S. G. O)
OVIEDO, a maritime province of northern Spdun, bounded on
the N. by the Bay of Biscay,' E. by Santander, S. by Leon and
W. by Lugo. Pop. (1900) 627,069; area, 4«>5 iq. m. In
popular speech Oviedo is often called by iu ucknt name of
Asturias, which only ceased to be the ofRcial title of the prDvinoe
in 1833, when the Spanish system of local goverxmient wms
reorganixed. An account of the physical features, histoiy and
inhabitants of this region is given imder Asturias (f.v.). Oviedo
is rich in forests, coal, streams and waterfalls, whidi have
largely contributed to its modem industrial development. The
climate is genexaUy mild, but overcharged with humidity, aad
in the higher regions the winters are pn>tracted and severe.
The broken character of the surface prevents anything like
extensive agricidlural industry, but abundant pasturage is foand
in the valleys. The wheat crop frequently fails. Rye succeeds
better, and is often mixed with the maixe which forms the
prindpkl food of all but the higher classes. Chc9Uiut»—
here, as elsewhere in Spain, an impoitant article ct diet —
are very abundant on the hills, and the trees supply valuable
timber. AiH>les are abundant, and dder forms the oomman
drink of the people; but little attention Is paid to vines. The
horses of Oviedo rank among the best in Spain. Wild deer,
boars and bears wefe formerly common among the mountains;
and the sea-coasts, as well as the streanks, abound with fish,
including salmon and lampreys, which are sent to the markets of
Madrid. Large quantities of sardines and ttmny are also cured
and exported. Althotigh no trace exists of the gold for which
Asturias was celebrated under its Roman rulers, Oviedo possesses
valuable coal measures, v^ch are worked at Langreo. Mievcs.
Santo Firme, Siero and elsewhere. More than 1,400,000 tons of
coal were produced in 1903, besides a considerable amount of
iron, mercury and ciimabar. The copper mines near Avflls and
Cangas de (5nis, and the copper works which long supplied the
fairs of Leon and Castile with kettles, poU and similar atensfls,
have lost their importance; but lead, magiiesia, arsenic, cobalt,
lapis laxuli, alum, antimony, jet, marble and rock-crystal art
found in various parts of the province, while amber and cocsl
are gathered along the coast. There are manufactures of fine
textiles, coarse doth and ribbons in Salas, POofla, Caaas and
Avil£s; of paper in Pianton; of porcelain and glass in Gij^o,
Avil^ and Pola de Surro; of arms In Oviedo and Trubia; while
foundries and works for the manufacture of agricultural faiiple>
ments, rails and pig-iron are ntmierous. An important hi^way
is' the 16th-century Camino realy or royal road, leading ftom
Gij6d to Leon and Madrid, which cost so mudi that the cm pcrer
Charles V. inquired if it were paved with silver. A railway from
Madrid to Oviedo, Gij6n and Avil^s runs through some of the
most diffictdt parts of the Canubrian chain. There are else
several branch railwajrs, induding numerous narrow-gauge lines.
OVIEDO, an episcopal city and capital of the Spanish province
of Oviedo; 16 ro. S. of the Bay of Biscay, on the river Mdon,
and on the Leon-Gij6n Oviedo-Trubia and Oviedo-Inficsto
railways. Pop. (1900) 48,103. Oviedo is built on a hill xtsiag
from a broad and picturesque valley, which is bounded on the
north-west by the Sierra de Naranco. The four main streets uf
Oviedo, which meet m a central square called the Plaxa Mayor
or Plaza de la Constitudoo, are the roads connecting Gljte and
Leon (north and south) and Santander and Grado (east and weal).
The streets are dean and well lighted; the projecting roofs of
the houses give a characteristic effect, and some portions of the
old Calle de la Plateria are highly picturesqtie. In the Fhxa
Mayor is the handsome Cssa Consistorial or town hall dating from
i66a; the Jesuit church of San Isidro (x$78^, and some andent
palaces of the Asturian nobility are architecturally Interesting.
The imiversity was founded by I^iilip III. in 1604; connected with
it are a fine library and physical and chemical museums. The
Gothk cathedral, founded in 1388, occupies the site of a chapel
fotmded In the 8th century, of which only the Camara Santa
remains. The west front has a fine portico of ornamented
arches between the two lowers. The interior contains tome fine
stained ghas, but has been much disfigured with modem lococo
additions. The Camara SanU (dating from 8o») oontains the
famous area of Oviedo, an xith-oentury Byxantine chest of
cedar, overiaid with silver reliefs of scenes in the lives of Christ,
the Virgin and the apostles. In it are preserved soma highly
sacred relics* two crosses dating from the 8ta and 9th oenturica
OVIEDO Y VALDE&--OWEN, JOHN
•sd olh«r valuable pl«cci of cold and saver plate. The cathedxal
library baa aome curioua old MSS., including a deed ol gilt made
by Alpbonso U. of Aatuxias ia 8x a, and a coUection of illumiiuited
dacumeots of the lath centuzy, called the Libro gUico. On the
Sierra de Naranco it the ancient Santa Maria de Naranco,
originally built by Ramiro I. of Asturias in 850 as a palace, and
afterwards turned into a church. Higher up the hill is San
Miguel de Lino, also of the 9th century; and on the road to
Gij6n, about a mile outside the town, is the SantuUano or church
of. St Julian, also of veiy early date. Few towns in Spain have
better schools for primary and higher education, and there are
a Uterary and scientific IcMtitute, a meteorological observatory,
a school for teachers, a school of art, adult classes for artisans,
an archaeological museum and several public Ubraries. Oviedo
ia the centre of a thriving trade in agricultural products; ita
other industries are marblo-qoanying, and the manufacture of
arms, cotton and woollen fabrics, iron goods, leather and matches.
Oviedo, founded in the reign of Fruela (762), became the fixed
residence of the kinp of the Asturias in the time of Alphonso II.,
and continued to be so until about 934, when the advancing
reconquest of Spain from the Moors led them to remove their
capital to Leon. From that date the history of the city was
comparatively uneventful, until the Peninsular War, when it was
twice plundered by the French-^-under Ney in 1809 and under
Bonnet in 1810.
OVIBDO Y VALDte, OONULO FBRNAnDIZ DB (147^
< 557)1 Spanish historian, was bom at Madrid in August 1478.
Educated at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella, in his thirteenth
year he became page to (heir son, the Infante Don John, was
present at the siege of Granada, and there saw Columbus previous
to his voyage to America. On the death of Prince John (4th of
October I49))t Oviedo went to Italy, and there acted as secretary
to Gonsalo Femandex de Cordoba. In 1514 he was appointed
supervisor of gold-smeltings at Sao Domingo, and on his return
to Spain in iss^ was appointed historiographer of the Indies,
He paid five.nore. visits to America before his death, which took
place at Valladolid in ISS7<
Betides a romance of ehivminf entitled OoHbaUi (istqX Oviedo
wraie two extensive works of permanent valuet la Gtmtr^l y
matMrai kistoria de hs Ihiias and Las Quinquanenas de la pMWsa
de EspaKa. The former work was first issued at Toledo (lA26\ in
the form of a mimmary entitled La Natural hyst&ria de hs Indtas;
the fi(M part of La Histaria general de lot ludins appeared at Seville
In 1535; but the complete work was not published till i8si-i85St
when It was edited by J[. A. de los Rios lor the Spanish Academy
of History. Though written in a diffuse style, it embodies a mass
of curiou» information collected at first hand, and' the incomplete
Seville edition was widely read in the English and French verstons
published by Eden and Poleur rwpeaively in-iSSS ond 1556.
Las Caaas dncribe* it as " containing almoct as many lies as pages."
and Oviedo undoubtedly puts the roost favourable interpreutton
on the proceedings of his countrymen: but, apart from^a patriotic
bias which is too obvious to be misleading, his narrative is both
trustworthy and interesting. In his Quinqitatenas he indul^ tn
much lively pmip concerning eminent contemporaries; this col-
lection of quaint, moralising anecdotes was first published at Madrid
in x88o. under the editorship of Vicente de la Fuente.
OVOLO (adapted from Ital. u99oh, dioMnutive of mom, ao
egg; other foreign equivalents are Fr. ««e, ichiw, ^uari de r^ndi
Lat. ukinus), in architecture, a convex moulding known also
aa the echinus, which In Claaaic architecture was invariably
carved with the egg and tongue. In Roman and Italian work the
moulding is called by workmen a quarter round. It must not
be confounded with t he echipus of the Greek Doric capital, as t his
was of a m^rc varied form and of much larger dimensions than
the ovolo, which was only a subordinate moulding.
. OWATONNA, a city and the county-seat of Steele county.
Minnesou. U.S. A., on I he Straight river, in the S.E. part of the
•tale, about 67 m. S. of Minneapolis and St Paul. Pop. (1900)
5561, of whom 1160 were foreign-bom; (1905) S^S^l (i9'o)
5658. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the
Chicago & North- West cm. the Chicago, Rock Island ft Pacific
and the Minneapolis, Rochester & Dubuque (electric) raUways.
Four fine steel bridges span the river at or near the city. Among
.Ihe public buildings tre a handsome county court-house, a city
39»
hall, an anaouiy , a city hospital and a public library. Owatonoa
is the seat of the Pillsbiiry Academy (Baptist), the Sacred Heart
Academy (Roman Catholic) and the Canfield Comm^dal
School, and immediately west of the city is the State Public
School for Dependent and Neglected Children (x886). The city's
commercial importance is largely due to iu situation in a rich
daiiying and farming district, for which it is the shippbg centre.
It hu also various mamfactnxva. Tliere are valuable mineral
springs in the vidnity. The municipality owns and operatea
the water-works. Owatonna was settled about 1855, was in-
corporated aa a village in 1865, was chartered as a city in 1875
and received a new charter in 1909. Its name is a Sioux word
meaning " straight/* the river having been previously named
Straight river.
OWBOO, a village and the oounty-seat of Tioga county,
New York, U.S.A,, on the Owego Creek and on the N. side of the
Susquehanna river, ai m. W. of Binghamtoh. Pop. (ipro, VS.
census) 4633. It is served by the Erie, the Lehigh Valley and
the Delawara^ Lackawanna & Western railways; a branch of
the last connects with Ithaca, N.Y. Owego occupies the site
of an Indian (probably Tuscaiora) village named " Ah-wa-ga,''
which waa destroyed by General Jamea Clinton in 1779. The
name, of which " Owego " Is a corruption, ia said to mean
" where thci valley widens.'' A white settlement and trading
peat were set np here In 1785, and the village of Owego waa
incocponted in 1817.
OWBH, SIR HUGH (1804-1881), Welsh edncatkmist, waa
bom near Talyf oel Feny» Anglesey^ on the Z4th of January 1804*
Educated at a private school at Carnarvon, Jie became derk ia
1835 to a banister in London. In 1836 he entered the oi&cc of
the Poor Law Commisaion, eventually becoming chief derk of
the Poor Law Board, and tctiriag in 187a to devote himself
exdusivdy to educational work. As early as 18159 he had
become sccietaiy iqr an association to start a Natbnal achool
in IsUngtott, and in 1843 he had published A LeUer to the Wdsk
Peaph on tine need of educational activity, which was widdy
read. Succeaiful in arauaing the interest of the British and
Foreign School Society, he became in- 1846 hononry aecietary
of ita newly-formed branch, the Cambrian Schod Society. Ht
waa cine of the founders of the Bangor Nonaal College, for the
training of teachers, and of the University College of Wales at
Aberystwith, of which for many years he was honorary secittaiy
and treaaurer. Be waa for three yearn a member of the London
Scbod Board. Hia Scheme for secondary education, focnndated
in t88i, was almost whoUy adopted after his death in the Welsh
Intermediate Education Act of i88q. The revival of the Honour-
abk (Vmiodorion Society, the National Eisteddfod Association
and the Social Science Sectkw of the National Eisteddfod was
doe to Owen. He was knighted in rcoognition of his service to
Welsh education m August i88t; but died at Mentone on the
aofth of November. A bronse'sutue waa effected sit Canuumn in
188 8 by public subscription.
OWBN. JOHN (OvENtis or AitdoenuiI (cT x56»-i6a4), Welsh
epigrammatist, waa bom at Plas Dhu, Caniarvonshin, about
1 s6a He waa educated under Dr Bilson ai Winchester School,
and at New College, Oxford. He waa a fellow of his college from
1584 to 1591. when he became a schoolmaster, first at Tkellecfc*
near Monmouth, and then at Warwick, where he was master of
the school endowed by Henry VIII. He becvne distinguished
for his perfect mastery of the Latin language, and for the humour,
f eUcity and point of his epigrams. The Contfaiental scholars and
wits of the day used to call hfan " the British MartiaL*' He waa
a staunch Protestant besides, and could not resist the temputioa
of turning Ids wit against the Roman CathoNc Church. This
practice caused his book to be placed on the Index prekibUoeittt
in 1654, and led a rich old unde of the Roman GathoUc com-
munion to cut him out of his wilL When the poet died in i62t,
his countryman and relative. Bishop WilUaroa of Lincoia, who
is said to have supported him in his Uter years, erected a moau*
meat to his memory in St Paul's cathedral srith a Latta epitapk
Owen*s Epiframmata are divided into twelve books, of which
the fim four woe published in 1606, and the i«a( at four different
392
timet. Owen frequendy adapts and alter* to hb own purpose the
line* of his predeces s ors in Latin verse, and orie such borrowinjE
has become celebrated as a quoution, though few know where it is
to be found. It u the first line of this epigram : —
*' Tcmpora mutantur, nos et mutamur in illis:
Quo modo? fit semper tempore pejor homo."
(Lib. I. ad Edoardum Noel. epig. 58.)
This first line b altered from an epigram by Matthew Borfoomus,
one of a series of mottoes for various emperors, thw one being for
Lothaire 1.
" Omnia mutantur, nos et mutamur in illis:
Ilia vices quasdam res habet, ilia vices."
There are editions of the Epignunmata by Elzevir and by Didot;
the best b that edited by Renooard (3 vob., Parb, 1795). Transla-
tiona into EnsUsb, either in whole or in part, were made by Vicars
(1619); by Pecke, in hb Panuusi Puerperium (1659); and bv
Harvey in 1677, which b the most complete. La Torre, the Spanish
epigrammatbt. owed much to Owen, and translated his works into
Spanish In 167^ French transbtk>ns of the best of Owen's epigrams
were published by A. L. Lebnin (1709) and by KMvalant (1819).
OWBf, JOHN (1616-1683), English Nonoonfonxust divine, was
bom at Stadham in Oxfordshire in 16x6, and was educated at
Queen's College, Oxford (B^. 1632, M.A. 1635), noted, as Fuller
tells us, lor its metaphysfcians. A Puritan by training and
conviction, in X637 Owen was driven from Oxford by Laud's new
statutes, and became chaplain and tutor in the famUy of Sir
Robert Dormer and then in that of Lord Lovelace. At the
outbreak of the civil' troubles he sided with the parliament, and
thus lost both hb place and the prospects of succeeding to hb
Welsh royalist uncle's fortime. For a while be lived tn Charter-
bouse Yard, in great nnsettlement of mind on religious questions,
which was removed at length by a sennon preached by a stranger
in Aldermanbury Chapel whither be had gone to bear Edmund
Calamy. Hb first publicalion, Thg Display of Arminianism
(1643), was a spirited defence of rigid Calvinism. It was dedi-
cated to the committee of religion, and gained him the living of
Fordham in Essex, from which a " scandalous minbter " had
been ejected. At Fordham he remained engrossed in the work
of hb parish and writing only The Duty of Pattort and Peoplt
Dutinguishtd until 1646, when, the old incumbent dying, the
presentation lapsed to the patron, who gave it to some one else.
He was now, however, coming into notice, for on the 39th of
April he preached before the Long parliament. In thb sermon,
and still more in fab Country Essay for the Practiu of Church
Conmment, which he appended to it, his tendency to break
away from Presbyteriauism to the more tolerant Independent or
Congregational system b plainly seen. Like Milton he saw
little to choose between " new presbyter " and " old priest," and
disliked A rigid aiKl arbitrary polity by whatever name it was
called. He became pastor at Coggeshall in Essex, where a large
influx of Flembh tradesmen provided a congenial Independent
Atmosphere. Hb adoption of Congregational principles did not
effea hb theological position, and in 1647 he again attacked the
Arminians in Tho Death of Death in the Death of Christ, which
drew him into long debate with Richard Baxter. He made the
friendship of Fairfax while the latter was besieging Colchester,
AiKi urgently addressed the army there against religrous persecu-
tion. He was chosen to preach to parliament on the day alter
the execution of Charles, and succeeded in fulfilling hb deh'cate
task without directly mentioning that event. Another sennon
preached on the 19th of April, a vigorous plea for sincerity of
religion in high places, won not only the thanks of parliament
but the friendship of Cromwell, who carried him off to Ireland as
bb chaplain, that be might regulate the affairs of Trinity College.
He pleaded with the House of Commons for the religious needs of
Ireland as some years eariier he had pleaded for those of Wales.
In 1650 be accompanied Cromwell on hb Soottisb campaign. In
March 1651 Cromwdl. as chancellor of Oxford, gave him the
deanery of Chrbt Church, and made him vice-chancellor in
September 1653; in both offices he succeeded the Presbyterian
Edward Reynolds.
During his eight years of official Oxford life Owen showed
himself a firm disciplinarian, and infused a new spirit of thorough*
oess into dons and uodergradtutes alike, though, as John
hodkit lettifirs, the Axistotcliao tradiUons In education Stt0ered
OWJEN, JOHN
no change. With PhiKp Nye he unmasked the popular astro-
loger, William Lilly, and in spite of hb share in condemning
two Quakeresses to be whipped tot disturbing the peace, Iris
rule was not intolerant.* Anglican services were conducted
here and there, and at Chrbt Church itself the Anglican cbaptaia
remained in the college. While little encouragement was given
to a spirit of free inquiry,* it b unhistorical to say that Puritanism
at Oxford was simply " an attempt to force education and culture
into the leaden moulds of Calvinbiic theology." It must be
remembered, too, that Owen, tmlike many of hb contemporaries,
found hb chief interest in the New Testament rather than the
Old. During hb Oxford years he wrote Jmstitia Dirima (1653),
an exposition of the dogma that God cannot foigfve sin without
an atonement; Communion with Cod (1657), which has been
called a "piece of wire-drawn mystidsm"; DoOrime of tha
Saints^ Perseverance (1654), hb final attack on Armtnianism;
Vindiciae Boangelicae, a treatise written by order of the Council
of State against Sodnianbm as expounded by John Bidle;
On the Mortification of Sin in Believers (1656), an introspective
and analytic work; Schism (1657), one of the most read-
able .of all hb writings; Cf Temptation (1658), an attempt to
recall Puritanbm to its cardinal spiritual attitude from the
jarring anarchy of sectarianism and the pharbaism whick bad
foUowed on popularity and threatened to destroy the early
simplicity.
Besides all hb academic and literary concerns Owen was
continually in the midst of affairs of state. In 1651, on October
34 (after Worcester), he preached the thanksgivhig actraoa
before parliament. In 1652 he sat on a council to consider
the condition of Protestantism in IVeland. la October 1653
he was one of several minbters whom Qromwell summoned
to a consultation as to church union * In December the degree
of D.D. was conferred upon him by his university. In the parlia-
ment of ittS4 fae sat, but only for a short time» as member for
Oxford university, and, with'Baxter, was placed on the committee
for settling the " fundamentab " necessary for the toleratioo
promised in the Instrument of Government. In the same year
he was chairman of a committee on Scottish Church aifatn.
He was, too, one of the Triers, and appears to have behaved
with kindness and moderation in that capacity. As vice^
chancellor he acted with readiness and spirit when a Royalist
rising in Wiltshire broke out in 1655; hb adherence to Cromwell,
however, was by no means slavish, for he drew up, at the request
of Desborough and Pride, a petition against hb receiving the
kingship. Thus, when Richard CromwcU succeeded hb lather
as chancellor, Owen k)&t hb vice-chancelloiship. In 1658 he
took a leading part in the conference of Independents which
drew up the Savoy Declaration.
On the death of Cromwell Owen joined the Wallingford House
party, and though he denied any share in the deposition of
Richard Cromwell, he threw aU hb weight on the tide of a simple
republic as against a protectorate. He assbted In the restoralkm
of the Rump parliament, and, when Monk began his march
into England, Owen, in the name of the Independent churches,
to whom Monk was supposed to belong. And who were keenly
anxious as to hb intentJona, wrote to dissuade him from the
enterprise.
In MaKh 1660, the Presbyterian party being uppermost.
Owen was further deprived of hb deanery, which was gives
back to Reynolds. He retired 10 Stadham, where he wrote
various controversial and theological works, in espcciA] the
laborious Theotogoumena Pantodapa, a hbtory of the rise And
progress of theology. The respect in which mAny of the
authorities held his intellectual eminence won him an immunity
denied to other Nonconformists. In i66x was published the
celebrated Fiat Lux, a work by the Franciscan monk John
* H. L. ThompMn. CkriU Omrck ("Oxford Cbllcge Histories *')
pp. 70 leq.
•Owen
made a very unhappy attack on Brian Walton's POtygbc
Owen probably drew up the scheme for a nattonal church
inded by be " '-•--.
Bible.
-A *^»5! **' tolerated dbsent which was presented to
pariiamcnt. Sot IX Mnmoa.MUlon/vf. 39^3/6^
OWEN, SIR RICHARD
393
Vaaccnt Cane, in which the oneneat end beauty of RMsaa
Catholicism are contrasted with the conXusion and multiplicity
of Protestant sects. At Clarendon's request Owen answered
this in 1662 in his Animadversions; and so great was its success
that he was offered preferment if he would conform. Owen's
condition for making terms was liberty to ail who agree in doctrine
with the Church of England; nothing therefore came of the
negotiation.
in i66j he was invited by the Congregational churches
in Boston, Ii^ew England, to become their minister, but declined.
The Conventicle and Five Mile Acts drove him to London: and
in 1666, after the. Fire, he, like other leading Nonconformist
ministers, fitted up a room for public service and gathered
a congregation, composed chiefly of the old Commonwealth
officers. Meanwhile he was incessantly writing; and in 1667
he published his CaUekUmt which led to a proposal, " more
acute than diplomatic," from Baxter for union. Various papers
passed, and after a year the attempt was dosed by the following
laconical note from Owen: " I am still a well-wisher to these
mathematics." It was now, too, that he published the first
part of his vast work upon the Epistle to the Hebrews, together
with his exposition of Psalm 130 and his searching book on
Indwelling Sin,
In 1669 Owen wrote a spirited remonstrance to the Congrega-
tionalists in New England, who, under the influence of Presby-
tcrianism, had shown themselves persecutors. At home, too,
he was busy in the same cause. In 1670 Samuel Parker's
Ecclesiastical FdUy attacked the Nonconformists in a style of
clumsy intolerance. Owen answered him {Truth atid Innocenca
Vindicated); Parker replied with personalities as to Owen's
connexion with Wallingford House. Then Andrew Marvell
with banter and satire £naUy disposed of Parker in The Rehearsal
Transposed. Owen himself produced a tract On the Trimty
(i66g), and Christian Lone and Peace (1673).
At the revival of the Conventicle Acts in 1670, Owen was
appointed to draw up a paper of reasons which was submitted
to the House of Lords in protest. In this or the following year
Harvard College invited him to become its president; he
received similar invitations from some of the Dutch uni-
versities.
When Charles issued his Declaration of Indulgence in 1673,
Owen drew up an address of thanks. This indulgence gave the
dissenters an opportunity for increasing their churches and
services, and Owen was one of the first preachers at the weekly
lectures which the Independents and Presbyterians jointly held
at Princes' Hall in Broad Street. He was held in high respect
by a large number of the nobility (one of the many things which
point to the fact that Congregationalism was by no means the
creed of the poor and insignificant), and during 2674 both
Charles and James held prolonged conversations with him in
which they assured him of their g9od wishes to the dissenters.
Charles gave him 1000 guineas to relieve those upon whom the
severe laws had chiefly pressed, and he was even able to procure
the release of John Bunyan, whose preaching he ardently
admired. In 1674 Owen was attacked by William Sherlock, dean
of St Paul's, whom he easily vanquished, and from this time until
x68o he was engaged upon his ministry and the writing of
religious works. The chief of these were On Apostasy (1676),
a sad account of religion under the Restoration; On the Holy
Spirit (1677-1678) and The Doctrine of Justification (1677). In
1680, however, Stillingflcet having on May xx preached his
sermon on " The Mischief of Separation," Owen defended the
Nonconformists from the charge of schism in his Brief Vindica-
lion. Baxter and Howe also answered Stillingflcet, who replied
in The Unreasonableness of Separation, Owen again answered
this, and then left the controversy to a swarm of eager com-
botants. From this time to his death he was occupied with
continual writing, Histurbed only by suffering from stone and
asthma, and by an absurd charge of being concerned in the Rye
House Plot. His most important work was his Treatise on
Bvangdical Churches, in which were contained his latest views
(Cgarding church governmeat. He died at Ealing on the a4th
of August 1683, just twenty-one years after he had gone out
with so many others on St Bartholomew's day in 1662, and was
buried on the 4th of September in BunhiU Fields.
For engraved portraits of Owen sec first edition of S. Palmer's
Nonconjormtsts' Memorial and Vertue's Sermons and Tracts (1721).
The chief authorities for the life are Owen's Works\ W. Ormc s
Memoirs of Owen; A. Wood^s Athenae Oxonienses; R. Baxter's
Life; D. Weal's History of the Puritans; T. Edwards's Gangraenai
and the various histories of the Independents. See also The Golden
Book of John Owen, a collection of extracts prefaced by a study of
his life and age, by James Moffatt (London, 1904).
OWEN. SIR RICHARD (1804-1892), English biologist, was
bom at Lancaster on the 20th .of July 1804, and received his
early education at the grammar school of that town. In 1820
he was apprenticed to a local surgeon and apothecary, and in
1824 he proceeded as a medical student to the university of
Edinburgh. He left the university in the following year, and
completed his medical course in St Bartholomew's Hospital,
London, where he came under the influence of the eminent
surgeon, John Abernethy. He then contemplated the usual
professional career; but his bent was evidently in the direction
of anatomical research, and he was induced by Abernethy to
accept the position of assistant to William Clift, conservator
of the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. This congenial
occupation soon led him to abandon his inuntion of .medical
practice^ and his life henceforth was devoted to purely scientific
labours. He prepared an important series of catalogues of the
Hunterian coUection in the Royal College of Surgeons; and in
the course of this work he acquired the unrivalled knowledge
of comparative anatomy which enabled him to enrich all depart-
ments of the science, and specially facilitated his researches
on the remains of extinct animals. In X836 he was appointed
Hunterian professor in the Royal College of Surgeons, and in
1849 he succeeded Clift as conservator. He held the latter
office until X856, when he became superintendent of the natural
history department of the British Museum. He then devoted
much of his energies to a great scheme for a National Museum
of Natural Histoiy, which eventually resulted in the removal
of the natural history collections of the British Museum to
a new building at South Kensington, the British Museum
(Natural History). He retained office until the completion of
this work in 1884, when be received the distinction ti K.C.B.,
and thenceforward lived quietly in retirement at Shecsi
Lodge, Richmond Park, until his death on the x8th of December
x89t.
Whilaoccupied with the cataloguing of theHunterian collection,
Owen did not confine his attention to the preparations before
him, but also seised every opportunity of dissecting fresh subjects.
He was especially favoured with the privilege of investigating
the animals which died in the Zoological Society's gardens;
and when that society began to publish scientific proceedings
in 183 1, he was the most voluminous contributor of Anatomiol
papers* His first notable publication, however, was his Memoir
on the Pearly Nautilus (London, 1832), which was soon recognized
as a classic. Henceforth he continued to make important
contributions to every department of comparative anatomy and
soology for a period of over fifty years. In the sponges Owen
was the first to describe the now weU-known " Vcnus's flower
basket " or Euplectclla (X84X, 1857). Among Entozoa bis most
noteworthy discovery was that of Trichina spiralis (1835),
the parasite infesting the muscles of man in the disease now
termed trichinosis (see also, however,. the article on Paget, Sir
James). Of Brachlopoda he made very special studies, which
much advanced knowledge and settled the classification which
has long been adopted. Among MoUusca, he not only described
the pearly nautilus, but also Spirula (1850) and other Cephalo-
poda, both living and cxUnct; and it was he who proposed
the universally-accepted .subdivision of this dass into the
two orders of Dibranchiata and Tetrabranchiata (1833). The
problematical Arthropod Idmulus was also the subject ot a
special memoir by him in 1873.
Owen's technical descriptions of the Vertebrata were stiU
more numerous and extensive than those of the invertebrate
394
OWEN, ROBERT
animals. His Compof alive Anatomy and Physiology of Verte-
brates (3 vob., London, 1866-1868) was indeed the result of more
personal research than any similar work since Cuvier's Leqons
d'anatomie comparie. He not only studied existing forms,
but also devoted great attention to the remains of extinct
groups, and Immediately followed Cuvier as a pioneer in verte-
brate palaeontology. Early in his career he made exhaustive
studies of teeth, both of existing and extinct animals, and pub-
lished his profusely illustrated work on Odontograpky (1840-1845).
He discovered and described the remarkably complex structure
of the teeth of the extinct animals which he named Labyrintho-
donts. Among his writings on fishes, bis memoir on the African
mud-fish, which be named Protopterus, laid the foundations for
the recognition of the Dipnoi by Johannes MUller. He also
pointed out later the aerial connexion between the teleosiean
and ganoid fishes, grouping them in one sub-class, the Tcleostomi.
Most of his work on reptiles related to the skeletons of extinct
forms, and his chief memoin on British specimens were reprinted
in a connected series in his History of British Fossil Reptiles
(4 vols., London, 1849-1884). He published the first important
general account of the great group of Mesozoic land-reptiles,
to which he gave the now familiar name of Dinosauria. He
also first recognised the curious early Mesozoic Uind-reptiles,
with affinities both to amphibians and mammals, which he
termed Anomodontia. Most of these were obtained from
South Africa, beginning in 1845 {Dicynodon), and eventually
furnished materials for his Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia of
South Africa, issued by the British Museum !n 1876.* Among
his writings on birds, his classical memoir on the Apteryx (1840-
1846), a long series of papers on the extinct Dinomithidae of
New Zealand, other memoirs on Aptornis, Nolomis, the dodo,
and the great auk, may be specially mentioned. His monograph
on Archaeopterjfx (1863), the k>ng-tailed, toothed bird from the
Bavarian lithographic stone, is also an epoch-making work.
With regard to living mammals, the more striking of Owen's
contributions reUte to the monotremes, marsupials, and the
anthropoid apes. He was also the first to recognize and name
the two natural groups of typical Ungulata, the odd-toed
(Perissodactyla) and (he even-toed (Artiodactyla), while describ-
ing some fossil remains in 1848. Most of his writings on mammals,
however, deal with extinct forms, to which his attention seems
to have been first directed by the remarkable fossils collected
by Darwin in South Ainerica. Toxod&n, from the pampas,
was then described, and gave the earliest clear evidence of an
extinct generalized hoof animal, a " pachyderm with affinities
to the Rodentia, Edentata, and Herbivorous Cetacea." Owen's
interest in South American extinct mammals then led to the
recognition of the giant armadillo, which he named Clyptodon
(1839), and to classic memoirs on the giant ground-sloths,
Mylodon (1843) and Megaiherium (z86o), besides other important
contributions. At the same time Sir Thomas Mitchell's dis-
covery of fossil bones in New South Wales provided material for
the first of Owen's long series of papers on the extinct mammals
of Australia, which were eventually reprinted in book-form
in 1S77. He discovered Diprolodon and Thytaedeo, besides
extinct kangaroos and wombats of gigantic size. While occupied
with so much material from abroad, Owen was also busily
cor.ectlng facts for an exhaustive work on similar fossils from
the British Isles, and in 1844-1846 he published his History
of British Fossil Mammals and Birds, which was followed by
many later memoirs, notably hb Monograph of the Fossil
Mammalia of the Mesozoic Formations (Palaeont. Soc., 1871).
One of his latest publications was a little work entitled Anliptity
of Man as deduced from the Discovery of a Human Skeleton
during Excavations of the Docks at Tilbury (London, 1884).
Owen's detailed memoirs and descriptions require laborious
attention in reading, on account of their nomenclature and
ambiguous modes of expression; and the circumstance that
very little of his terminology has found universal favour causes
them to be more generally neglected than they otherwise
would be. At the same time it must be remembered that he
vat a pionrer in condse anatomical nomendatnre; and, ao far
at least as the vertebrate skeleton is concerned, his terms were
based on a carefully reasoned philosophical scheme, which first
clearly distinguished between the now familiar pbenomcna
of " analogy " and " homology." Owen's theory of the Arcke^
type and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ( 1 848), subsequently
illustrated also by his little work On the Nature of Limbs (1849).
regarded the vertebrate frame as consisting of a series of funda-
mentally identical segments, each modified according to its
tiosition and functions. Much of it was fanciful, and failed when
tested by the facts of embryology, which Owen systematicaHy
ignored throughout his work. However, though an imperiect
and distorted view of certain great truths, it poueaaed a distinct
value at the time of its conception. To the discussion of the
deeper problems of biological phUoaopl\y he made scarcely
any direct and definite contributions. •Hi^.ccneralitles rardy
extended beyond strict comparative anatomy, the phen o mena
of adaptation to function, and the facts of geographical or
geological distribution. His lecture on *' vhrgin reproduction "
or parthenogenesis, however, published in 1849, contained the
essence of the theory of the germ-plasm elaborated later by
August Weismann; and he made several vague statcnents
concerning the geological succession of genera and species of
animals and their possible derivation one from another. He
referred especially to the changes exhibited by the successive
forerunners of the crocodiles (1884) and horses (t868); but it
has never become clear how much of the modem doctrines of
organic evolution he admitted. , He contented himself with
the bare remark that " the inductive demonstration of the
nature and mode of operation " of the laws governing life
would ''henceforth be the great aim of the phOoaophical
naturalist."
See The Life of Richard Owen, by his grandson. Rev. RicbanI
Owen (2 vols., London, ibg^). (A. & Wo.)
OWEH, ROBERT (1771-1858), English social reformer, was
bom at Newtown, Montgomeryshire, in North Wales, on the
14th of May 1771. His father had a small business in Newtown
as saddler and ironmonger, and there young Owen received all
his school education, which terminated at the age of nine. Alter
serving in a draper's shop for some years he settled in Manchester.
His success was very rapid. When only nineteen years of age
he became manager of a cotton mill in which five hundred people
were employed, and by his administrative intelh'genoe and energy
soon made it one of the best establlshmenU of the kind in Great
Britain. In this factory Owen used the first bags of American
sea-island cotton ever imported into the country; it was the
first sea-island cotton from the Southern States. Oiwen also made
remarkable improvement in the quality of the oottoo span;
and indeed there is no reason to doubt that at this early age he
was the first cotton-spinner in England, a position entirely doe
to his own capadty and knowledge of the trade. In 1794 or
1795 he became manager atid one of the partners of the Cborlton
Twist Company at Manchester. During a visit to Glasgow he
had fallen in love with the daughter of the proprietor of the
New Lanark mills, David Dale. Owen induced his partners
to purchase New Lanark; and after his marriage with Miss Dale
he settled there, as manager and part owner of the milb (x8oo).
Encouraged by his great success in the management of cotton
factories in Manchester, he had already formed the Intention of
conducting New Lanark on higher principles than the current
commercial ones.
The factory of New Lanark had been started in 1784 by Dal^
and Ark Wright, the water-power afforded by the falls of the Clyde
being the great attraction. Connected with the mills were about
two thousand people, five hundred of whom were cfaildrvn,
brought, most of them, at the age of five or six from the poor-
houses and charities of Edinburgh and Glasgow. The children
especially had been well treated by Dale, but the general condition
of the people was very unsatisfactory. Many of them were the
lowest of the population, the respectable country people refusing
to submit to the long hours and demoralizing drudgery of the
factories; theft, drunkenness, and other vices were common;
education and samtation were ab'ke neglected; most famiBc*
OWEN, ROBERT
395
Kvedcolyinonerootti.' It«ast]|i»popii]st{oii;thiuoominHUd
to hi^ care, which Owen now let hinudf to ctevate and amciiofate.
He gfeatiy improved their houses* and by the unsparing and
benevolent exertion of his personal influence trained them to
habits of order, ckanUncsa and thrift. He opened a store,
where the people could buy goods of the soundest <|uality at
little more than cost price; and the sale of ddnk was placed
under the strictest supervision. His greatest success, however,
was in the education of the young, to which he devoted special
attention. He was the founder of infant schools in Great
Britain; and, though he was antidpated by reformers on the
continent of Europe, he seems to have been led to institute them
by his own views of what education ought to be, and without
hint from abroad. In all these plans Owen obtained the most
gratifying suooess. Though at first regarded with suspicion as a
stranger, he soon won the confidence of his people. The mills
continued to be a great commercial success, but it is needlesa
to say that some of Owen's schemes involved considemble
expense, which was displeasing to his partners. Tired at last of
the restrictions imposed on hhn by men who wished to conduct
the business on the ordinary pcinc^kles, Owen formed a newfirm,
who, content with 5% of return for thdr capital, were ready to
give freer scope to his philanthropy (1813). In this firm Jeremy
Bentham and the well-known Quaker, WilHam Allen, were
partners. In the same year Owen first appeared as an author
of essays, in which he expounded the principles on Which his
sysum of educational philanthropy was based. From an eady
age he had lost all belief in the prevailing forms of relijpon, and
had thought out a creed for himself, which he considered an
entirely new afid original discovery, • The chief points in this
philosophy were that man's character is made not by him but
for him; that it has been formed by circumstances over which
he had no control ; that he is not a proper subjea either of praise
or l^mc'-these principles leading up to the practical conclusion
tha& the great secret in the right formation of man's character
is to place him under the proper influences—physical, moral
and social— from his earliest years. These principles-^f tlie
irresponsibility of roan and of the effect of early influencesr-are
the keynote of Owen's whole system of education and social
ameliocaiion. As we have said, they are embodied in his first
work, A Nan View cf Society, or Essays on the Principie of the
PormaHon of the Human Character , the first of these essays (there
are four in all) being published in ZS13. It is needless to say that
Owen's new views theoreticaUy belong to a very old system of
philosophy, and that his originality is to be found only in his
benevolent application of them. For the next few yeais Owen's
work at New Lanark continued to have a national and even a
European significance. His schemes for the education of his
workpeople attained to something like completion on the opening
of the institution at New Lanark in 1816. He was a zealous
supporter of the factory legislation resulting in the act of 1819,
which, however, greatly disappointed him. He had interviews
and communications with the leading members of government,
including the premier. Lord Livopool, and with many of the
rulers and leading statesmen of Europe. New Lanark itself
became a much-frequented place of pilgrimage forsodal reformers,
statesmen, and royal pcmnages, including Nicholas, afterwards
emperor of Russia. According to the unanimous testimony of
all who visited it, the resulta achieved by Owen were smgularly
good. The manners of the children, brought up under his
system, were beautifully graceful, genial and unconstrained;
health, plenty, and contentment prevailed; drunkenness was
almost unknown, and illegitimacy was extremely rare. The
most perfect good feeling subsisted between Owen and his
workpeople, and aU the operations of the mill proceeded with
the utmost smoothness and regularity; and the business was
a great commercial success.
ifitherto Owen's work had been that of a philanthropist,
whose great distinction was the originality anid unwearying
unsdfishness of his methods. His first departure in socialism
took place in 18x7, and was embodied in a report communicated
to the committee of the House of Commons on the poor law.
The general misery and stagnaUon of trade consc<iuent on the
termination of the fftMX war was engrossing the attention of the
country. After clearly tracing the special causes connected with
the war which had led to such a deplorable state of things, Oiiven
pointed out that the permanent cause of distress was to be found
in the competition of human labour with machinery, and that
the only effective remedy was the tmitcd action of men, and the
subordination of machinciy. His proposals for the treatment of
pauperism were based on these principles. He recommended that
communities of about twelve hundred persona each should be
settled' on quantities of land from 1000 to 1500 acres, all living
in one large building in the form of a square. With public kitchen
and mess-rooms. Each family should have its own private apart-
ments, and the entire care of the children till the age of three,
after which they should be brought up by the community, their
parents having access to them at meals and aU other proper limes.
These communities might be established by individuals, by
parishes, by counties, or by the state; in every case there should
be effective supervision by duly qualified persons. Work, and
the enjoyment of its results, should be in common. The size of
his community was no doubt partly suggested by his village of
New Lanark; and he soon proceeded to advocate such a scheme
as the best form for the reorganization of society in generaL
In its fully developed form — and it cannot be said to have changed
mududttring Owen's lifetime— it was as follows. He considered
an asaodatioB of from 500 to 3000 as the fit number for a good
working community. While mainly agricultural, it should
possess all the best machinery, should offer every variety of
employment, and should, as far as possible, be self-contained,
" As these townships," as he also called them, " should increase in
number, Unions of ihem fcderatively united shall be formed in
cirdcs of tens, hundreds and thousands," till they should embrace
the whole world in a common interest.
His plans for the cure of pauperism were recdved with great
favour. The Times and the Morning Post and many of the lead-
ing men of the country countenanced them; one of his most
steadfast friends was the duke of Kent, father of Queen Victoria.
He had indeed gained the ear of the country, and had the prospect
before him of a great career as a sodal reformer, when he went out
of his way at a large meeting in London to declare his hostility
to all the recdved forms of rdigion. After this defiance to the
religious sentiment of the country, Owen's theories were in the
popular mind assodated with indBdelity, and were hencefor-
ward suspected and discredited. Owen'a own confideoce,
however, remained unshaken; and he was anxious that his
scheme for establishing a community should be tested. At last,
in 1825, such an experiment was attempted under the direction
of his disdple, Abram Combe, at Orbiston near Glasgow; and in
the next year Owen himsdf commenced another at New
Hannony (}.».), Indiana, U.S. A. After a trial of about two years
both failed completely. Ndther of them was a pauper experi-
ment; but it must be said that the members were of the most
motley description, many worthy people of the highest aims
bdng mixed with vagrants, adventurers^ and crotchety, wrong-
headed enthusiasts. After a long period of friction with William
Allen and some of his other partners, Owen resigned all connexion
with New Lanark in xSzS. On his return from America he made
London the centre of his activity. Most of his means having been
sunk in the New Harmony experiment, he was no longer a
flouijshing capitalist, but the head of a vigorous propaganda,
in which sodalism and seculaxism were combined. One of the
most interesting features of the movement at this period was the
establishmeut in 183a of an equitable Uibour exchange system,
in which exchange was effected by means of labour notes, the
usual means of exchange and the xtsual middlemen being alike
superseded. The word " sodalism " first became current in the
discussions of the Association of all Classes of all Nations, formed
by Owen in x83$. During these years also his secularistic
teadnng gained such influence among the working classes as to
give occasion for the statement in the WeOminiter Retiew (1830)
that his prindples were the actual creed of a great portion of
them. His views on marriage, which were certainly lax, gave
396
OWENS— OWL
just ground for offence. At this period some more communfetic
experiments were made, of which the most important were that
at Ralahinc, in the county of Clare, Ireland, and that at Tytherly
in Hampshire. It is admitted that the former (1831) was a
remarkable success for three and a half years, till the proprietor,
having ruined himself by gambling, was obliged to sell out.
Tytherly, begun in 1839, was an absolute failure. By 1846 the
only permanent result of Owen's agitation, so zealously carried
on by public meetings, pamphlets, perkxlicals, and occasional
treatises, was the co-operative movement, and for the timtf even
that seemed to have utterly collapsed. In his later years Owen
became a firm believer in spiritualism. He died at his native
town on the 17th of November 1858.
.- Owen left four sons, Robert Dale, William, David Dale and
Richard, all of whom became citizens of the United States.
RoBEKT Dale Owen, the eldest (180Z-1877), was for long an
able exponent in his adopted country of his father's doctrines.
In 1836-39 and 1851-52 he was a member of the Indiana House of
Representatives and in 1844-47 *** * Representative in Congress,
where he drafted the bill for the founding of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution. He was elected a member of the Indiana Constitutional
Convention in 1850, and was instrumental in securing to widows
and married women control of their property, and the adoption
of a common free school system. He later succeeded in passing
a state law giving greater freedom m divorce. From 1853 to 1858
he was United States ounister at Naples. He was a strong
believer m spiritualism and was the author of two well-known
books on the subject: Footfalls on the Boundary of Another
World U^S9) and The DthaUaUe Land Between this World and the
Next (1872). Owen's third son, David Dale Owen (1807-1860),
was in 1839 appointed United States geologist, and made exten-
sive surveys of the north-west, which were published by order of
Congress. The youngest son, Richard Owen (1810-1890), was
a professor of natural science in Nashville University.
Of R. Owen's numerous works in exposiiion ol his system, the
most important are the New View «/ Society, the Report communi-
cated to the Committee on the Poor Law; the Booh of the New
Moral World; and ReooliUion in the Mind and Practice of the Human
Race, See Life of Robert Owen written fy himself (London, 1857).
and Tkreadine my Way, Twenty-seoen Yeats of Autobiography, by
Robert Dale Owen (London, 1874). There are also Lioes of Owen
by A. J. Booth (London, 1869). W. L. S^rsant (London, i860),
LWd Jones (London. 1889). F. A. Packard (Philadelphia. 1866)
and F. Podmore (London, 1906). Sec also H. Simon, Robert Owen:
sein Leben und seine Bedeutung fur die Gegenwart (Jena, 1905);
E. DoIl£ans. Robert Owen (Paris. 1905); G. J. Holyoake. History of
Cooperation in England (London, 1906): and the article CoM-
Mumstf.
OWENS, JOHN (1790^1846), English merchant, was bom at
Manchester in 1790, the son of a prosperous merchant. Early
in life he became a partner in his father's business and was soon
noted for his ability as a cotton buyer. His business prospered,
and the firm traded with China, India, South America and the
United States, dealing in many other commodities. His large
fortune he suggested leaving to his fiiend and partner George
Faulkner (i790>i86o), already a rich man. Bat by the latter's
advice he bequeathed it to trustees for the foundation of a
college (Owens College, Manchester, opened 1851, now part of
Victoria University), based upon his own ideas of education.
He died in Manchester on the a9th of July 1846. His bequests
to friends and charities amounted to some £53,000, while for the
coUege he left £96.654. Among the conditions for its foundation
the most important was that which discountenanced any sort of
reUgious test for students or teachexa.
OWENSBORO. a dty and the oounty-aeat of Daviess county,
Kentucky, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, iia m. by raa W.S.W. of
Louisville. Pop. (1890) 9837; (1900) 13,189, of whom 3061
were negroes; (1910 census) 16,011. The dty is Served by the
Illinois Central, the Louisville & Nashville, and the Louisville,
Henderson & St Louis railwajfs, and by steamboat lines to river
ports. At Owensboro are the Owcnsboro College for women (non-
sect.), opened in 1890, Saint Francis Academy, and a Roman
Catholic school for boys. Two miles S. of the dty is Hickman
Park {to acres), a pleasure reson, and £. of the dty is a suouDcr
Chautauqua park. Owensboro is situated in a good agifeoltwnl
region; coal, iron, building stone, day, oil, lead and sine abonDd
in the vicinity; and the city has a notably large trade m tobacco
(especially strip tobacco) and has various manufacture!. The
value of the dty's factory products increased from $1,740,123
m 1900 to $4,187,700 in 1905, or 140-6%. The. monidpaliiy
owns and operates its electric-lighting plant and watcr^worka.
Owensboro was settled about 1798, and for several years was
commonly known as Yellow Banks; in 1816 it was laid out a>
a town and named Rossborough, and two years Utcr the pRscat
name was adopted in honour of Colond Abraham Owen (1769-
1811), a Virginian who removed to Kentucky in 1785, served in
several Indian canipaigns, and was killed in the battle of Tippe-
canoe. Owensboro was incorporated as a dty in 1866.
OWEN SOUND, a town and port of entry in Ontario, Canada,
and capital of Grey county, situated 99 m. N.W. of Toronto,
on Georgian Bay. Pop. (1901) 8776. It is the terminns of
branches of the Canadian Pacific and Grand Trunk railways
and of the Canadian Pacific and other steamship lines plying
to ports on Lakes Huron and Superior. Its harbour is one of the
best on Lake Huron, and navigable by lake vessels of the largest
size. It is a flourishing town, containing shipbuilding yards,
and manufactories of mill machinery, agricultural implementi,
furniture and sewing-machines, flour-mills, saw-mills and large
grain elevators.
OWL (O. Eng. CU, Swed. Uggi^t Ger* £«2»-aU allied to
Lat. Ulula, and evidently of imiutive origin), the general
English name for every nocturnal bird of prey, of which group
nearly two hundred spedes have been recogniaed. The owls
form a very natural assemblage, and one about the limits a£
which no doubt has for a long while existed. They were
formerly placed with the Acdpitres or diurnal birds of prey,
but are now known to belong to a different group of birds, and
are placed as a suborder Striges of Coraciiform birds, their nearest
allies being the goatsuckers. The subdivision of the group has
always been a fruitful matter of discussion, owing to the great
resemblance obtaining among all its members, and the existence
of safe characters for its division has only latdy been at all
generally recognized. By the older naturalists, it is true, owis
were divided, as was first done by F. Wiilughby, into two
sections— one in which all the spedes exhibit tufts of feathers
on the head, the so-called '* ears " or " boms, " and the second
in which the head b not tufted. Ihe artificial and therefore
untrustworthy nature of this distinction was shown by Isidore
Geoffroy St-Hilaire (Ann. Se. NaturtUes, xn. 194-203) in
1830. The later work of C. L. Nitach on ptcrylography and of
A. Milne-Edwards on osteology has led to a division of the
family Strigidae into the sub-families Striginae, in which the
unnotched sternum has its broad keel joined to the furcula,
and Buboninaef in which the sternum b notched posteriorly,
the davides do not always meet to form a furcula, nor meet the
sternum. The Striginae contain the screech- or bani*owls {Strix)
and the partly intermediate HeliodUus of Madagascar, whilst
all the other genera are now placed with the Bubonisiae,
Among owls are found birds which vary in length from 5 hi.
— as (Uauddium cabanense, which b therefore mudi smaller
than a skylark — to more than a ft., a size that b attained by
many spedes. Thdr plumage, none of the feathers of which
possesses an afteishaft, is of the softest kind, rendering their
flight almost noiseless. But one of the most characteristic
features of thb whole group b the ruff, consisting of several
rows of small and much curved feathers with stiff shafts —
originating from a fold of the skin, whidi begins on each side of
the base of the beak, runs above the eyes, and passing downwards
round and behind the ears turns fon^rd, and ends at the diin —
and serving to support the k»nger feathers of the " dbk " or
space immediately around the eyes, which extend over it. A
considerable number of spedes of owb, betonging to varkios
genera, and natives of countries most widely separated, are
remarkable for exhibiting two phases of coloration — one in which
the prevalent browns have a more or less rusty-red tinge, and the
ether in which they indfaie to grey. Another chancteristic of
OWL
397
owls is tbi rtversible property of their outer toes^wbidi ate triiea
perching quite backwonte. Many forms have the legs and toes
thickly clothed to the very claws; others have the toes, and even
the tvBi, bare, or only sparsely beset by bristles. Amoog the
bare-legged owls those of the Indian Kthipa arc conspicuous*
and this featuare is QHually correlated wiih their 6sb-catditng
habits; but certainly other owls that are not known to catch
fish present much the same character.
Among the multitude of owb there is only room here to make
further mentiott of a few of the moce interesting. Fiist must be
noticed the tawny owl— the Sirix jtridulc of Linnateis, the type,
as has been above said, of the whole group, and especially of the
Strigine section as here understood. This is the 5>nntffif aluco
of some authors, the chal-huarU of the French, the spedcs whose
tremulous hooting '" tu-whit, to-who," has been celebrated by
Shakespeare, and, as well as the plaintive call, *'keewick,"
of the young after leaving the nest, will be familiar sounds to many
readers, for the bird is very generally distributed throughout
most parts of Europe, extending its range through Asia Minor
to Palestine, and also to Barbary—bnt not belonging to the
Ethiopian Region or to the eastern half of the Pahuatrctlc It
Fig. I.— S/n'jr ecddsnUdis^
is the largest of the species indigenous to Dritain, and is strictly
a woodland bird, only occasionally choosing any other place for
its nest than a hollow tree. Its food consists almost entirely
of small mammals, chiefly rodents; btrt, though on this account
most deserving of protection from all classes, it is subject to the
stupid persecution of the ignorant, and is rapidly declining in
numben.' Its nearest allies in North America arc the 5. nebulosa,
with some kindred forms, one of which, the 5. ouiderUalis of
California and Arizona, is figured above; but none of them seem
to have the " merry note " that is uttered by the European
spedcs. Common to the most northerly forest-tracts of both
continents (for, though a slight difTerence of coloration is observ-
able between American examples and those from the Old World,
it is impossible to consider it specific) is the much larger 5.
cinerea or 5. tappouica, whose iron-grey plumage, delicately
mottled with dark brown, and the concentric circles of its fadal
disks make it one of the most remarkable of the group. Then
may be noticed the genus Bubo — containing Several spedcs
> An owls have the habit of casting up the indigestible parts of
the food swallowed in the form of pdkts, which may often be found
in abundance under the owl-roost, and reveal without any manner of
doubt what the piey of the birds has been. The result in nearly
every case shows the enormous service they render to roan in destroy-
ing rats and mice. Details of many observations to this effect are
recorded in the Btrickt iber die XIY. Virsammlung da Deuluktn
OmHkologBn-CcseU*(k9ft (pp. y>-y^).
wUch from their liie aie uniiQy known as eag|e>ovb. Hen
theNearctic and Palaearctic forms are suffidently distinct —
the latter, B. ipunus,* the due or grand due of the French,
ranging over the whole of Europe and Asia ikorth of the
Himalayas, while the former, B. nrginiamUt extends over
the whole of North America. A contrast to the generally
sombre colour of these birds is shown by the snowy owI» NycUa
seandiaca, a drcumpolar species, and the only one of its genus,
which disdains the shelter of forests and braves the most rigorous
arctic climate, thotigh compelled to migrate southward in winter
when no sustenance is left for iL Its large size and white
plumage, more or less mottled with black, distinguish this fropi
every other owl.. Then may be mentioned the birds commonly
known in English as " horned " owls — the hibous of the French,
belonging to the genus Asia. One, A. otus (the Olus vulgaris
of some authors), inhabits woods, and, distinguished by its long
tufts, usually borne erected, would seem to be common to both
America and Europe — though experts profess their ability to
distinguish between examples from each country. Another
species, A. accipUrinus (the Otus braehyolus of many authors),
has much shorter tufts on its head, and they are frequently
cazricd depressed so as to escape observation. This is the
"woodcock-owl" of English sportsmen, for, though a good
many are bred in Great Britain, the majority arrive in autumn
from Scandinavia, just about the time that the immigration
of woodcocks occurs. This species frequents heaths, moors and
the open country generally, to the exclusion of woods, and has
an enormous geographical range, including not only all Europe,
North Africa and northern Asia, but the whole Of America —
reaching also to the Falklands, the Galapagos and the Sandwich
Islands — for the attempt to separate specifically examples
from those locahties only shows that they possess more or less
well-defined local races. Commonly placed near Asw^ but
whether reaUy akin to it caimot be stated, is the gentis Seops,
of which nearly forty species, coining txom different parts of
the world, have been described; but this nimiber should probal^
be reduced by one half. The type of the genus S. fitc, the
peSit due of the French, is a well-known bird in the south of
Europe, about as big as a thrush, with very delicately pencilled
plumage, occasionally visiting Britain, emigrating in anttmsm
across the Mediterranean, and ranging very far to the eastward.
Farther southward, both in Asia and Africa, it is represented
by other spedes of very similar size, and in the eastern part of
North America by S. asio, of whidi there is a tolerably distinct
western form, 5. kennieoUif besides several local races. S. nsio
is one of the owls that espedally exhibits the dimorphism of
coloratkm above mentfamed, and it was long before the true
state of the case was understood. At first the two forms were
thought to be distinct, and then for some time the belief obtained
that the ruddy birds wero the young of the greyer form which
was calksd 5. tuuvia\ but now the " red owl " and the " mottled
owl " of the older American ornithologists are known to be one
spedes.' One of the most remarkable of American owls is
Speotyio eunicuhria, the bird that in the northern part of the
continent inhabits the burrows of the prairie dog, and in the
southern those of the biscacha, whero the latter occurs— making
holes for itself, says Darwin, where that is not the case— ^ratlle-
snakes being often also joint tenants of the same abodes. The
odd association of these animals, interesting as it is, cannot
hero be more than noticed, for a few words must be said, ere we
leave the owls of this section, on the spedes whids has association
of a very different kind — the bird of Pallas Athene, the emblem
of the dty to which sdence and art were so weteoipe. There
can be no doubt, from the many representations on coins and
sculptures, as to thdr subject being the Carim n&ehta of modem
ornithologists, but those who know the grotesque actions and
ludicrous expression of this veriuble btiffoon of birds can never
* This species bears confinement very well, and propagates freely
therein. To it belong the histork owls of Arundel Castle.
•Sec the remarks of Mr Ridgway in the work before qnofed
IB. N. Amtriea, iii. o. ro). whore also resoonse is made to tHe
obwuvationa of Mr Alfeo in the Harvard BuSUtim ($. 338. 339V
398
OWLING— OX
Flo. 2.Stnx flammea.
cease to wonder at iu having been seriously selected as the
symbol of learning, and can hardly divest themselves of a
suspicion that the choice must have been made in the spirit of
sarcasm. This little owl (for that is its only name — though it
is not even the smallest that appears in England), the cJuvicke
of the French, is spread throughout the greater part of Europe,
but it is not a native of Britain. It has a congener in C. brama,
a bird well known to all residents in India.
Finally, we have owls of the second section, those allied to the
screech-owl, Strix flammea, the Effraie^ of the French. This,
with its discor-
dant scream, its
snoring, and its
hissing, is far too
well known to
"^ need description,
for it b one of
the most widely*
I spread of birds,
I and is the owl
that has the
greatest geo-
graphical range,
inhabiting almost
every country in
the . world —
Sweden and Nor-
^way, America
north of fait. 45*^,
and New Zealand
being the prin-
cipal exceptions. It varies, however, not inconsiderably, both
in size and intensity of colour, and several ornithologists
have tried to found on these variations more than half-a-dozen
distinct species. Some, if not most of them, seem, however,
hardly worthy to be considered geographical races, for their
differences do not always depend on locality. R. Bowdler
Sharpe, with much labour and in great detail, has given his
reasons {Cat, B, Brit. Museum^ ii. zqi-joq; and Ornith. Jdis-
€eUaHy^ i. 269-298; ii. 1-21) for acknowledging four" subspecies "
of 5. flammea, as well as five other species. Of these last,
5. tenebricosa is peculiar to Australia, while 5. ncvae-koUandiae
inhabits also New Guinea, and has a " subspecies," 5. castanops,
found only in Tasmania; a third, 5. Candida, has a wide range
from Fiji and northern Australia through the Philippines and
Formosa to China, Burmah and India; a fourth, S. capensis, is
peculiar to South Africa; while S.thomeruis is said to be confined
to the African island of St Thomas. To these may perhaps have
to be added a species from New Britain, described by Count
Salvadori as Strix ouranUa, but it may possibly prove on further
investigation not to be a strigine owl at all. (A. N.)
OWLINO, in English law, the offence of transporting wool or
sheep out of the kingdom, to the detriment of the staple manu>
facture of wool. The name b said to owe its origin to the fact
that the offence was usually carried on at night-time, when the
owb were abroad. The offence was stringently regulated by
a statute of ^ward III. (1336-7), while many subsequent
statutes also dealt with it. In i $66 the offence was made punish-
able by the cutting off of the left hand and nailing it in a public
place. By a sutute of 1660 the ship and cargo were to be
forfeited. In the reign of George I. (1717-1718) the penalty
was altered to transportation for seven years* The offence was
abolished in 1824.
OWOSSO, a dty of Shiawassee county, Michigan, U.S.A., on
Shiawassee river, about 79 m. N.W. of Detroit and 28 m. N.E. of
Lansing. Pop. (1900) 8696, of whom 1396 were fordgn-bom;
(1910 census) 9639. It is served by the Michigan Central,
the Grand Trunk, and the Ann Arbor railways, and is a division
* Through the dialectic forms Frtiaie and PrtsaUn the origin of
the word is easily traced to the Latin prae$apx — ^a bird of bad omen ;
but it ha* also been confounded with Orjrate, a name of the Osprey
point of the last. It la situated in the coal am of Mkhtgan,
and has various manufactures, including beet-sugar, for whidi
Owosso is an important centre. The value of the city's factory
products increased from $2,055,052 in 1900 to $3,109,232 in
1905, or 51*3%. The mtmicipality owns and openics h^
water-works. Owosao was settled about 1834 and chartered as
a dty in 1859.
OX,sirictlyspeaking, the Saxon name for the malesof domesti-
cated cattle \Bos taurus), but in a xoologtcal sense employed so
as to indude not only the extinct wild ox of Europe but likewise
bovine animals of every description, that is to say true oxen,
bison and buffaloes. The characteristics of the sub-fam3y
Bamnae, or typical section of the family Bavidae, arc given
in the article BovioAz (q.v.); for the systematic position of that
family see Pbcosa.
In the typical oxen, as represented by the existing domesti-
cated breeds (see Cattle) and the extinct aurochs (9.*.), the
horns are cylindrical and placed on an elevated crest at the very
vertex of the skull, which has the ftontal region of great length
The aurochs was a black animal, with a lighter dorsal streak, and
horns directed upwards m the shape of a pitchfork, black at their
tips, but otherwise whitish. The fighting bulb of Spain, the
black Pembroke cattle of Wales, with their derivatives the white
park<attle of Chillingham in Northumberland, are undoubtedly
the direct descendants of the aurochs. The black Kerry breed
and the black or brown Scotch cattle are also more or less nearly
related; and a similar kinship b claimed for the Siemental
cattle of Switzerland, although their colour is white and fawn.
Short-horns are a modem derivative from cattle of the same
general type. Among other Britbh breeds may be mentioned
theDevonsand Herefords, both charactcrixed by their red colour;
the long-homed and Sussex breeds, both with very large horns,
showing a tendency to grow downwards; and the Ayrshire.
Polled, or hornless, breeds, such as the polled Angus and polled
Suffolk, are of interest, as showing how easily the homs can be
eliminated, and thus indicating a hornless ancestry. The white
cattle formerly kept at Chartlcy Park, Staffordshire, exhibit signs
of affinity with the bng-hom breed. The Channel Island cattle,
which are either black or fawn, would seem to be nearly allied
to the Spanish fighting breed, and thus to the aurochs. The great
white or cream coloured cattle of Italy, Austria, Hungary and
Poland, which have very long black-tipped homs, are abo prob-
ably not far removed from the aurochs stock.
On the other hand, the great tawny draught cattle of Spain
seem to indicate mixture with a different stock, the homs having
a double curvature, quite different from the simple one of the
aurochs type. There are reports as to these cattle having been
forineriy crossed with the humped eastern species; and their
characteristics are all in favour of such an origin. Htunped cattle
are widely spread over Africa, Madagascar and India, and forra
a dbtinct spedes. Bos indicus, characterized by the presence
of a fleshy hump on the shoulders, the convexity (instead of
concavity) of the first part of the curve of the homs, the very
large size of ihe dewlap; and the general presence of while rings
round the fetlocks, and light drdes surrounding the eyes.
The voice and habiu of these cattle are abo markedly different
from those of European cattle. Whether humped cattle arc of
Indian or African origin cannot be determined, and the species
b known only in the domesticated condition. The largest homs
are found in the Galla cattle, in which they attain enormous dimen-
sions. In Europe the name zebu b generally applied lo the Indian
breed, although no such designation b known in India itself.
A third type b apparently indicated by the ancient Egyptian
cattle, which were not humped, and for which the name Bos
aegyptiacm has been suggested. The cattle of Ankole, on the
Uganda frontier, which have immense homs, conform to this
type.
A second group of the genus Bos b represented by the Indo>
Maby cattle induded in the sob-genus Bihos (see Bantin. Gauk.
and Gaval); they are characterized by the more or less marked
flattening of the homs, the presence of a well-marked ridge on the
anterior half of the back, and the whiu legs,
OXALIC AQD— OXALIS
399
a this
in tb*
More distinct are the bisons, forming the sub-genus Bison,
represented by ibe European and the American species (see
Bison), the forehead of the skull being much shorter and wider,
and the horns not arising from a crest on the extreme vertex,
while the number of ribs is different (14 pairs in bisons, only
13 in oxen), and the hair on the head and neck is long and shaggy.
Very dose to this group, if indeed really separable, is the Tibetan
yak (9.9.) > forming by itself the subigenus PSepkag;ia.
The most widely different from the true osen are, however,
the buffaloes (see BuFrALO)» whkh have coaaequently the most
claim to genetic distinction. From all other Bmina$ they differ
by the triangular section of their horns. They are divisible into
two groups, an African and an Asiatic, both of which are gener-
ally included in the sub-genus, or genus, Bubalus, although the
latter are sometimes separated as Bt^elus, Tb» smallest
member of the group is the anoa (qjo.) of Celebes.
As regards the origin of the ox-tribe we are still in the dark.
The structure of their molar teeth affiliates them to the antelopes
of the Oryx and Hippolragus groups; but the early bovines lack
horns in the female, whereas both sexes of these antefepes are
horned.
Remainf of tlie wild ox or aufpdis are abaadant in the superficial
deposits of Europe, Western A«a, and Northern Africa; those
from the brick-earths of the Thames valley indicating animals of
immense proportions. Side by aide with these are found remains of
a huge btaon, genemlly r egarded as specifically distinct from the
living European animal and termed Bcs (Bison) priscus. In the
Pleistocene of India occurs a large ox {Bos namadicus), possibly
showing some affinity with the Bibos group, and in the same forma-
tion are found remains of a buffalo, allied to, but distinct from the
living Indian kpecies. Large oxen also occur in the Lower Pliocene
of India, although not closely allied to the living kinds; while in
the sanne formation are found remains of bison (or (?] yak) and
buffaloes, some of the latter being neariy alun to the anoa, although
much larger. Perhaps, however, the most interesting are tne
remains of certain oxen from the Lower Pliocene of Europe and
India, which have been described under the sub-generic (or generic)
title of Leptobos, and are characterixed by the absence 01 horns
in the females. In other respects they appear to come nearest to
the bantin. Remains of extinct bisons, some of gigantic stle, occur
in the superficial formations of North America as far south as Texas.
See R. Ly6ekk€T,WildOxin,SktipttiidGaais (London. iteS).
OXAUC ACID. Ht Cs04 •2KsO, one of the ddest known oiganic
acids. Scheele prepared it by oxidixing sugar with niuk add,
and showed it to be identical with the acetosellic add obtained
from wood-sorrel. It is foimd in the form of its add potassium
salt in many plants, especially in wood-sorrel {Oxaiis aceteuUa)
and in varieties of Rmmex; as ammonium salt in guano; as
calcium salt in rhubarb root, in various lichenis and in plant
cells; as sodium salt in species of Salicornia and as free add
in varieties of Boteha. It is also present in urine and In urinary
calculL It is formed in the oxidatmn of many organic compounds
{e.g. sugar, starch and cellulose) by nitric acid, and also ky the
fusion of many oxygen-holding compounds with caustic alkalis,
this latter method being employed for the manufacture of ocalic
acid. In this process cellulose (in the form of sawdust) is made
into a stiff paste with a mixture of strong caustic potasih and soda
solution and heated in flat iron pans to 200-250* C. The some-
what dark-coloured mass is lixiviated with a small amount of
warm water in order to remove excess of alkali, the residual
alkaline oxalates converted into Insoluble caldum oxalate by
boiling with milk of lime, the lime salt separated, and decom-
posed by meftns of sulphuric add. It is found that the sawdust
obtained from soft woods is the best material for use in this
process. It may be obtained synthetically by heating sodium
in a current of carbon dioxide to 366* C; by the oxidation of
ethylene glycol; by heating sodttun formate to 400* C. (V. Merz
and W. Wdth, Btr., 1882, 15, p. 1513), and by the sponUneoos
hydrolysis of an aqueous solution of cyanogen gas.
The hydrated acid crystallizes in prisms which effloresce in
w, and are readily soluble in water. It loses fts water of
crystallization at lOo* C, and begins to sublime at about 150-
160* C, whilst on heating to a still higher temperature It
partially decomposes into carbon dioxide and formic add, or
into carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water; the latter
decomposition being also brought about by heating oxalic
add "with concentrated sulphuric add. The anhydrous add
melts at 189* s* C. <E. Bamberger, Ber., 18S8, 21, p. 1901) and
is frequently used as a condensing agent. Phosphorus penta*
chloride decomposes it into carbon monoxide and dioxide,
the reaction bdng the one generally applied for the purpose of
preparuig phosphorus oxychloride. When heated with i^ycerin
to too'" C. it yields formic add and carbon dioxide; above this
temperature, ally! alcohol Is formed. Nascent hydrogen reduces
it to glyoollic add. Potassium permanganate In add solution
oxidizes it to carbon dioxide and water; the manganese sulphate
formed has a catalytic accelerating effect on the decomposition.
Oxalic add Is very poisonous, and by Reason of its great
similarity in appearance to Epsom salts, it has been very fre-
quently mistaken for this substance with, in many cases, fatal
results. The antidotes for oxalic add poisoning are mUk of
lime, chalk, whiting, or even wall-plaster, followed by evacua-
tion brought about by an enema or castor oil. Only the salts
of the alkali metals are soluble in water. Beade the ordinary
add and neutral salts, a series of salts called quadroxalates is
known, these being salts containing one molecule of add salt,
in combination with one molecule of acid, one of the most common
being "salt of sorrel," KHC,04*H,C,04-2H>0. The oxalates
are readily decomposed on heating, leaving a residue of carbonate,
or oxide of thfe metal. The silver salt decomposes with explosive
violence, leaving a residue of the metaL
Potassium Jtrrous oxalate, FelCt(Ca04)rH|0, is a strong reducing
agent and i* used as a photographic devebpcr. Potassium feme
oxalate, FcKiCCaOOs. is used m the prepiratwn of platinatypes,
owing to the fact that its solution is rapidly decomposed by sun*
l«ht.2FeK,CCiOi),-2IFe{Q(C/)4).+K.C^^^ myioxalaie.
(CO-OC^th» prated by boihng anhydrous oxalic aad with
absolute alcohol, is a colourless liquid which boils at 186* C. Methyl
oxalate (CO-OCHi)!. which u prepared in a similar manoer, is a
solid melting at 54* C. It is used m the preparation of pure methyl
alcohol. On treatment with xinc and alkyl iodkles or with xinc
aikyls they arc converted into esters of hydroxy-dialkyl acetic acids.
An impure oxalyl chloride, a liouid boQing at 70* C, has been ob-
Uined by the action of phosphorus pentachkmde on ethyl oxalate.
Oxamic acid^ HO^C'CONHt, is obtained on heating acid ammonium
oxalate: by boilii^ oxamide with ammonia; and among the
products produced when amino-adds are oxidised with potassium
permanganate Q. T. Halsey, ZeiLf, physiol. Ckem., 1898. 25, o. 525).
It is a crystalline powder difficultly soluble in water and melting at
2ro* C. (with decomposition). Its ethyl ester, known as oxaroae-
thane. crystalliacs in chombk plates whkh melt at 114-115*0
Pho:«>borus pentachloride converts it into cj^an-caxbonk ester, the
ethyl examine chloride first formed being unstable: ROOC-CONHs
-^R0CK:C(Cl,).NHr^NC0OR. OximtfeJCOWNH, produced by
the actk>n of a mixture of phosphorus pentachloride and oxychloride
00 oxamic^add (H.
cesinpri
crystallixesin prisms, and when boiled with water is rapidly hydro-
lyscd to oxamide and oxalk acid. Oxamide, (CONfUs, Is best pre-
pared by the actbn^of ammonia on the esters of oxalic add. It is
also obtained by the action of hydrogen peroxide on hydrocyanic
acid, or of manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid on potassium
cyanide. It is a white crystalline powder which b almost insoluble
In cold water. It melts at 4i7-4»x C. (with decomposition) when
heated in a sealed tube (A. Michael. Ber., 1895. 28. p. 1612^. When
heated with phosphorus pentoxide it yickis cyanogen. It is readily
hydrolysed by hot solutions of the caustk alkalis. Sutstituled
oxamidcs are produced by the action of primary amines on ethyl
oxalate. Semfoxamaside, HiN-COCO-NH-NHt. is prepared by the
action of hydrazine hydrate on oxamaethane (W. Kerp and K.
Ungcr. Ber, 1897, 30^ p. 586). It crystallises in plates whkh melt
at 220-221* C. (with dccomfiositkm). It is only slightly soluble in
water, but is readily soluble in acids and alkalis, ft reduces silver
salts rapidly. It condenses with aldehydes and ketones to prodooe
scmtoxamaaobesa
OZAEIS, tn botany, a large genus of small herbaceous plants,
comprising, with a few small alUcd genera, the natural order
Oxalidaceae. The name b derived from Gr. 6^vt, add,
the plants bdng add from presence of add caldum oxalate,
h contains about 220 spedes, chiefly South African and tropical
and South American. It a represented in Briuin by the wood-
sorrel, a small stemless plant with radical trefoil-like leaves
growing from a creeping scaly rooutock, and the flowen borne
singly on an axillary stalk; the ffowere are regular with five
sepals, five obovate, white, purple-vdncd, free petab, ten
stamens and a centra] five-lobed, five-celled ovaiy with five
400
OXAZOLES— OXENBRIDGE
free styles. The fruit is a capsule, splitting by valves; the seeih
have a fleshy coat, which curls back elastically, ejecting the true
seed. The leaves, as in the other species of the genus, show
a " slecp-roovcmtot," becoming pendulous at night.
Oxalis crenala. Oca of the South Americans, is a tuberous-rooted
half-hardy perennial, native of Peru. Its tubers arc comparatively
small, and somewhat acid; but if they be exposed in the sun from
six to ten days they become sweet and floury. In the climate ol
England they can only be grown by starting them in heat in Mardi,
and planting out in June m a light soil and warm situation. They
grow freely enough, but few tubers are formed, and these of small
size. The fleshy stalks, which have the acid flavour ot the family,
may, however, be used in the same way as rhubarb for urts. The
leaves may be
eaten in salads. It
is easily propa-
gated by cuttings
of the stems or by
means of sets like
the potata
Oxalis Deppei or
0. UUaphyUa, a
bulbous perennial,
native of Mexico,
has scaly bulbs,
from which are
produced fleshy,
1 tapering, white,
8cmi-t T a a spa r cnt
I roots, about 4 in. in
* length
Wood-sorrel {Oxalis AuloseUa). i. Fruit
which has split open; the seeds arc shot out by
the clastic contractions of their outer coat, s.
.ingthand3to4in.
in diameter. Tney
strike down into
the soil, which
should therefore be
made light and rich
' with abundance of
decayed vegetable
matter. The bulbs
should be pbnted
about the end of
April. 6 in. apart,
in rows i ft. asun-
der, being only
just covered with
soil and having a
situation with a
southern aspect.
The roots should
be dug up before
they become affected by frost, but if protected they will continue
to mcrcase in size tilt November. When taken up the bulbs should
be stored in a cool dry place for replanting and the roots for use.
The roots arc gently boiled with salt and water, peeled and eaten
Cke asparagus with melted butter and the yolks of eggs, or served
up like salsafy and scorzonrra with white sauce.
Many other species are known in cultivation for edgings, rockwork
or as pot-plants for the greenhouse, the best hardy and half-hardy
kinds being O. artnaria, purple; 0. Bowiei, crimson; O. ennea-
phytla, white or pale rose; O. florihttnda, rose; O. hsiandra, pink;
O. ktteola, creamy yellow; O. variabilis, purple, white, red; and
0. vuAacea, violet.
OXAZOLBS. a group of organic compounds containing a
ring complex (shown below) composed of three carbon atoms,
and one oxygen and one nitrogen atom; they are isomeric with
the isoxazoles {q.v.). They are obtained by condensing a
halogen derivatives of ketones with addamides (M. Lewy,
Ber. 1887, 20, p. 2576; 1888, 21, p. 2195)
^^<OH^Br -CH ^*^^<OCH '
by the action of concentrated sulphuric add on nitriles and
benzoin (F. Japp, Jow. Ckem. Soc. 1803, 63, p. 469); and by
passing hydrochloric add gas into a mixture of aromatic aide^
hydes and thdr cyanhydrins (£. Fischer, Ber. 1896, 29, p. 20$),
RCH<g[J+OHCR^R C<C^^R
They are weak bases, and the ring system is readily split by
evaporation with hydrochloric add, or by the action of redudng
and oxidixing agents.
The dihydnM)xazoles or oxaaolincs arr sinrilarfy fonned when
^hak)gen alkyt amides are condensed with alkali (S. Gabriel.
Ber. 1889, ta. p. 2220). or by the action of alkali 00 the compounds
formed by the interaction oTethykoc chlorhydrin oa ni triks > They
are strong bases characterized by a quinoline-Uke smell. The
amino-oxazolines are known as alley lene-^arcas and are formed
by the action of potassium cyanate on the hydrobromides of the
bromalkylamittes (S. Gabriel. Btr. 1895. a8. p. 1899)- They ore
strong bases. T«trahydro-4fxaaoUs or oxazoUdines result from the
action of aldehydes on amino-alcohols (L. Knorr, Btr. 1901. 34.
p. 3484). The above types of compounds may be represented l^
the following formulae >~
N - CHv N - CHv N-C(NH,)v NH-CH,v
CH-Ch/^' CHvCH/^' CH, -CH,'^' dH,-CH,/^
■ tpinf >i^pTa Z 4> | i IMT ffwa Iftli *^^*****-
The beffMoxatoUs are formed when ortho-aminophcnols are con-
When warmed with adds they split into their components, "ftey
behave' as weak bases. By the condensation of onho-aminophcnois
with phosgene or thiopfiosgene. oxy and thio-derivatives are
obtained, the (OH) and (SB) groups beine ntuated in the m position,
and these compounds on treatment with amines yitlA amino d>
rivativcs.
OXB. PEDER (1 520-1 57 s), DaniA Finance Minister, was bom
in 152a At the age of twdve he was sent abroad to complete
his education, and resided at the principal univcndtiesof Germany*
Holland, France, Italy and Switzerland for seventeen years.
On his return he found both his parents dead, and was
appointed the guardian of his deven young brothers and sisters,
in which capacity, profiting by the spoliation of the church,
he accumulated immense riches. His extraordinary financial
abilities ajid pronounced polilicaj capadty soon found ample
scope in public life. In 1552 he was raised to the dignity of
Rigsraad (councilkir of state); in 1554 he successfully accom-
plished his first diplomatic mission, by adjusting the differences
between the elector of Saxony and the margrave of Brandenburg.
The same year he held the post of governor of Copenhagen and
shared with Byrge Trolle the control of the treasury. A few
years later he incurred the royal disfavour for gross malversation
in the administration of public properly, and faih'ng to com-
promise matters with the king, fled to Germany and engaged
in political intrigues with the adventurer Wilhdm von Crumbach
(1 503-1 567) for the purpose of dethroning Frederick II. in favour
of Christina of Lorraine, the daughter of Christian II. But
the financial difficulties of Frederick II. during the stress of
the Scandinavian Seven Years' War compelled him, in 1566,
to recall the great financier, when his confiscated estates were
restored to him and he was reinstated in ail his offices and
dignities. A change for the better immediately ensued. The
finances were speedily put on an excdlent footing, means were
provided for carrying on the war to a successful issue (one of the
chief expedients being the raising of the Sound tolls) and on the
condusion of peace Oxc, as lord treasurer, not only reduced
the national debt considerably, but redeemed a large portion of
the alienated crowu-laiids. He reformed the coinage, developed
trade and commerce and introduced numerous agricultural
reforms, especially on his own estates, which he was never weary
of enlarging, so that on his death he was the wealthiest land>
owner in Denmark. Oxe died on the 24th of October iS7S»
after contributing, more than any other statesman of hb day,
to raise Denmark for a brief period to the rank of a great power.
See P. Oxt's lice ot lamet (Copenhagen. 1675): Danmarks rtfci
hittoru. vol. 3 (C)pcnnagcn, 1897-1905).
OXENBRIDGB, JOHN (1608-1674). English Nonconformist
divine, was born at Daventiy, Northamptonshire, on the joih
of January 1608, and was educated at Emmanud CoUege,
Cambridge, and Magdalen Hall, Oxford (B.A. 1628, M.A. 1631).
As tutor of Magdalen Hall he drew up a new code of articles
referring to the government of the college. He was deprived
of his ofiice in May 1634, and began to preach, with a similar
disregard for constituted authority. After his voyages to the
Bermudas he returned to England (1641). and after exercising
an itinerant and unattached ministry settled for some months
in Great Yarmouth and then at Beverley. He was minister
at Berwick -on-Tweed when in October 1652 he was appointed
a feUow of Eton College. There in i6s8 he preached the fuaeral
OXENFORD— OXENSTJERNA
tcfinoo of FnmdB Rout, tlw pioviott, and thence in 1660 he was
ejected. He returned to hU preaching at BerwIck-on-Tweed,
but was expelled by the Act of Uniformity in i66a, and a/ter
spending some lime in the West Indies settled (1670) at Boston,
Masaachosetta, where he was ordained minister of the First
Church. He died on the 28th of December 1674. A few sermons
are all that he published. His first wife (d. 1658) was " a scholar
beyond what was usual in her sex," and Andrew Marvell, who
was their friend, wrote an epiuph for her tomb at Eton which
was defaced at the Restoration ; his second wife (d. 1659) was
Frances Woodward* daughter of the famous vicar of Bray;
his third was a widow whom he met at Barbados.
OXBNPORA, JOHN (1819-1877)* English dramatist, was
bom at Camberwcll on the xath of August 1812. He began his
Utenry career by writing on finance. He was an excellent
linguist, and the author of many translations from the Gemkan,
notably of Goethe's DUktung und Wakrkeii (1846) and Ecker-
mann's C»mers«ihns of Godke (1850). He did much by his
writing to sptead the fame of Schopenhauer hi England. His
first play was My FdUm Qerkt produced at the Lyceum in
1855. This was followed by a long series of pieces, the most
famous of which was perhaps the Porter's Knci (1858) and
Twice KUUi (1835). About 1850 be became dramatic critic of
Tk* Timet, He died in Southwark on the sist of February 1877.
Many tefereneev to hit pieces will be found in The Life amd As
miniseenees ef E,L* mancMard (ed. C. Scott and C. Howard. i89i>-
OXBMHAM, HBNRY NUTOOMBB (1899-1888), English
ecdesiologist, son of a master at Harrow, was bom there on the
X5th of November 1899. From Harrow he went to Balliol
0>llege, Oxford. He took Anglican ordcis In r854, but became
a Roman Catholic in 1857. At first his thoughts turned towards
the priesthood, and he spent some time at the London Oratory
and at St Edmund's College, Ware; but being unable to sur-
render his belief in the vaUdity of Anglican orders, he proceeded
no further than minor orders in the Roman Church. In 1865
he made a prolonged visit to Germany, where he studied the
language and literature, and formed a close friendship with
Ddllinger, whose First A%t of the CMristian Church he translated
in 1866. Oxenham was a regular contributor to the Saturday
Review. A selection of his essays was published in Short Studies
in Ecclesiastical History and Biography (1884), ^nd Short Studies^
Ethical and Religious (1885). He also translated in 1876 the
and vol. of Bishop Hefele's History of the Councils of the Church,
and published several pamphlets on the reunion of Christendom.
HU Catholic Doctrine of the Atonement (1865) and Catholic
Bschaiotogy and Unioersalism (1876) are sUndard works.
Oxenham died at Kensington on the a^rd of March x888.
See J. Gillow's Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics,
voL V. An interestifts obttuarv notice on (Aenhstn waa writtea by
Viusimus, Le, Dean fohn Oakley of Manchester, for the Manchtsier
Guardian, and published in pamphlet form (Manchester, 18S8).
OXBNSTJERNA, an ancient Swedish senatorial family, the
origin of which can be traced up to the middle of the 14th
oentury, which had vast estates in Sodermanland and Uppland,
and began to adopt its armorial designation of Oxenstjcrna
(" Ox-forehead ") as a personal name towards the end of the
i6th century. Its most notable members were the following.
I. COVNT AxsL GusTAVssoM (1583-1654), chancellor of
Sweden, was bora at Fdnti in Uppland, and was educated with
his brothers at the universities 6f Rostock, Jena and Wittenberg.
On returning home in 1603 he was appointed hammerfunher to
King Charltt IX. la x6o6 he was entrusted with his first
diplomatic mission, to Mecklenburg, was appointed a senator
during his absence, and henceforth became one of the king's
most trusted servants. In x6io he was sent to Copenhagen to
prevent a war with Denmark, but was unsuccessful. This
embassy is important as being the beginning of Oxenstjema's
long diplomatic struggle with Sweden's traditional rival in
the north, whose most formidable enemy he continued to be
throughout life. Oxenstjema was appointed a member of
Gustaviis Adolphus's ooundl of regency. High aristocrat as
he was, he would at first willingly have limited the royal power.
AX7*
401
An oligarchy guiding a limited monarchy was ever his ideal
government, but the genius of the young king was not to be
fettered, so Oxenstjcrna was content to be the colleague instead
of the master of his sovereign. On the 6ih of January 1612 he
was appointed chancellor. His conti oiling, organizing hand was
speedily felt in every branch of the administration. For his
services as first Swedish plenipotentiary at the peace of Knilred,
1613, he was richly rewarded. During the frequent absences
of Custavus in Livonia and Finland (X614-X616) Oxenujcma
acted as his vice-regent, when he displayed manifold abiliiies
and an all-embracing activity. In i6ao he headed the brilliant
embassage despatched to Berlin to arrange the nuptial contract
between Gusuvus and Mary Ekanora of Brandenbiurg. It was
his principal duty during the king's Russian and Polish wars
to supply the armies and the fleets with everything necessary,
including men and money. By this time he had become so
indispensable that Custavus, in 1633, bade him accompany him
to Livonia, where Oxenstjema was appointed governor-general
and commandant of Riga. His services in Livonia were
rewarded with four castles and the whole bishopric of Wenden.
He was entrusted with the peace ncgotiatioits which led to the
truce with Poland in X623, and succeeded, by skilful diplomacy^
in averting a threatened rupture with Denmark in x6a4. On
the 7th of October x6a6 he was appointed governor-general of
the ixewly-acquired province of Prussia. In 1629 he concluded
the very advantageous truce of Altmark with Poland. Previ-
ously to this (September 1628) he arranged with Denmark a
joint occupation of Stralsund, to prevent that important fortress
from falling into the hands of the Imperialists. After the battle
of Breitenfeld (September 7th, 1631) he was summoned to assist
theking with hiscounseis and co-operation in Germany. During
the king's absence in Franconia and Bavaria in 1632 he was
appointed legatus in the Rhine lands, with plenipotentiary
authority over all the German generals and princes in the
Swedish service. Although he never fought a battle, he was a
born strategist, and frustrated all the efforts of the Spanish
troops by his wise regulations. His military capacity was
strikingly demonstrated by the skill with which he conducted
large reinforcements to Gustavus through the heart of Germany
in the summer of 1632. But it was only after the death of the
king at LOtzcn that Oxenstjema's tme greatness came to light.
He inspired the despairing Protestants both in Germany and
Sweden with fresh hopes. He reorganized the government both
at home and abroad. He united the estates of the four upper
circles into a fresh league against the common foe (1634), in
spite of the envious and foolish opposition of Saxony. By the
patent of the xath of January 1633 he had already been ap-
pointed legate plenipotentiary of Sweden in Germany with
absolute control over all the territory already won by the Swedish
arms. No Swedish subject, either before or after, ever held such
an unrcstriaed and far-reaching authority. Yet be was more
than equal to the extraordinary difficulties of the situation.
To him both warriors and statesmen appealed invariably as
their natural and infallible arbiter. Richelieu himself declared
that the Swedish chancellor was " an inexhaustible source 0!
well-matured counsels." Less original but more sagacious than
the king, he had a firmer grasp of the realities of the situation.
Gustavus would not only have aggrandized Sweden, he wotUd
have transformed the German empire. Oxenstjema wisely
abandoned these vaulting ambitions. His country's welfare
was his sole object. All his efforts were directed towards pro-
curing for the Swedish crown adequate compensation for its
sacrifices. Simple to austerity in his own tastes, he nevertheless
reoogiuaed the political necessity of impressing his allies and
confederates by an almost regal show of dignity; and,at the
abortive congress of Frankfort-on-Main (March 1634), held for
the purpose of uniting all the German Protestants, Oxenstjema
appeared in a carriage drawn by six horses, with German princes
attending him on foot. But from first to last hb policy suffered
from the slendemess of Sweden's material resources, a cardinal
defect which all his craft and tact could xu>t altogether conceal
from the vigilance oC her enemies. The success of his system
402
postulated an uniolemipted series of triumphs, whereas a
single reverse was likely to be fatal to it. Thus the frightful
disaster of N5rdlingen (September 6th, 1634; see Sweden:
History) brought him, for an instant, to the verge of ruin, and
comp^ed him, for the first time, so far to depart from his policy
of independence as to solicit direct assistance from France. But ,
well aware that Richelieu needed the Swedish armies as much
ts he himself needed money, he refused at the conference of
Compile (1635) to bind his hands in the future for the sake
of some slight present relief. In t6j6, however, he concluded
a fresh subsidy-treaty with France at Wismar. The same year
he returned to Sweden and took his scat in the Regency. His
presence at home overawed all opposition, and such was the
general confidence inspired by his superior wisdom that for the
next nine years his voice, especially as regarded foreign affairs,
was omnipotent in the council of state. He drew up beforehand
the plan of the Danish War of 1643-1645, so brilliantly executed
by Lennart Torstensson, and had the satisf^tion of severely
crippling Denmark by the peace of Brttmscbro (1645). His
later years were embittered by the jealousy of the young Queen
Christina, who thwarted the old statesman in every direction.
He always attributed the exiguity of Sweden's gains by the peace
of OsnabrQck to Christina's undue interference. Oxenstjerna
was opposed at first to the abdication of Chrbtina, because he
feared mischief to Sweden from the unruly and adventurous
disposition of her appointed successor, Charles Gustavus. The
extraordinary consideration shown to him by the new king
ultimately, however, reconciled him to the change. He died
at Stockholm on the 38th of August 16(4.
Sec ^Mf OmHStjtmas skriften och brefitxling (Stockholm. 1888
et seq.) : A. de Mamy, Oxtnstjema et RickeluM d C&mpiign€ (Paris.
1878).
a. Count JohanAxeisson (1611-1657), son of the foregoing,
completed his studies at UpsaU in 1631, and was sent by his
father on a grand tour through France, the Netherlands and
Great Britain. He served under Count Gustavus Horn in the
Thirty Years' War from 1632, and was subsequently employed
by his father in various diplomatic missions, though his instruc-
tions were always so precise and minute that he was little more
than the executor of the chancellor's wishes. He was one of the
commissioners who signed the truce of 1635 with Poland, and
in 1639, iQuch against his father's will, was made a senator.
Along with Salvius he represented Sweden at the great peace
congress of Osnabrttck, but as he received his instructions direct
from his father, whereas Salvius was in the queen's confidence,
the two "legates" were constantly at variance. From 1650
to 1652 he was govemor-genenl of Pomerania. Charles X.
made him earl marshal.
3. Gabuel Gustafsson (1587-1640), brother of (i), was
from z6ia to 1618 the chii^ adviser of Duke John, son of
King John III., and Gustavus Adolphus's competitor for the
Swedish throne^ After the duke's death he became, virtually,
the locum-tenau of the chancellor (with whom he was always
on the most intimate terms) during Axel's frequent absences
from Sweden. He was also employed successfully on numerous
diplomatic missions. He was most usually the intermediary
between his brother and the riludai and senate. In 1634 he
was created k>rd high steward. His special department, " Svea
Hofret," the supreme court of justice, was ever a model of
efficiency, and be frequently acted as chancellor and lord high
treasurer as weU.
See GcMel Custafssens href tiU Riks KonsUr Axd Oxenstkrna,
1611-1640 (Stockholm, 1890).
4. Count Bsngt or Bsnidxct Gabkizlsson (1623-1703),
was the son of Axel Oxenst jema's half-brother, Gabriel Bengtsson
( 1 586-1656). After a careful education and a long residence
abroad, he began his diplomatic career at the great peace con-
gress of Osnabrflck. During his stay in Germany be made the
acquaintance of the count palatine, Charles Gusuvui, after-
wards Charles X., whose confidence he completely won. Two
years after the king's accession (1654), Oxenstjcrna was sent
to represent Sweden at the Kreislag of Lower Saxony. In
1655 he accompanied Charlct to Poland and was made fovemor
OXFORD, EARLS OF
of the conquered provinces of Kulm, Kujavia, Maaovia nad
Great Fbland. The firmness and humanity which be displayed
in this new capacity won the affectionate gratitude of tlw
inhabitants, and induced the German portion of them, notably
the city of Thorn, to side with the Swedes against the Poles.
During Charles's absence in Denmark (1657), Oxenstjenia, ia
the most desperate circumstances, tenadoudy defended Thorn
for ten months, and the terms of capitulation ultimately ob-
tained by him were so advantageous that they were made the
basis of the subsequent peace negotiations at Oliva, bc t w ten
Poland and Sweden, when Oxenstjema was one of the chief
plenipotentiaries of the Swedish regency. During the domina-
tion of Magnus de la Gardie he played but t subordinate part
in affairs. From 1 662 to 1666 he was governor-general of Livonin.
In 1674 he was sent to Vienna to try and prevent the threatened
outbreak of war between France and the empire. The con-
nexions which he formed and the sympathies which he won hcte
had a considerable influence on hb future career, 'and reMiked
in his appointment as one of the Swedish envoys to the congrens
of Nijmwegen (1676). His appointment was generally regarded
as an approximation on the part of Sweden to Austria and
Holland. During the congress he laboured assiduously in an
anti-French direction; a wdl-juatified distrust of Fnnce was,
indeed, henceforth the keynote of his policy, a policy diaasetrk-
ally opposed to Sweden's former system. In 1680 Charles XI.
entrusted him absolutely with the conduct of foreign afiairSk
on the sole condition that peace was to be preserved, an office
which he held for the next seventeen years to the very great
advantage of Sweden. His leading political principles were
friendship with the maritime powen ((heat Britain and Holland)
and the emperor, and a dose anti-Danish altiaace with the
bouse of Holstein. Charles XI. appointed Oxenstjcrna one
of the regents during the minority of (^haries XII. The manial
prodivities of the new king filled the prudent old chancellor
with alarm and anxiety. His protests were frequent and
energetic, and he advisml Charles in vain to accept the tcnas
of peace offered by the first anti-Swedish coalition. Oxenstjema
has been described as " a shrewd and subtle little man, of gentle
disposition, but remarkable for his firmness and tenadty of
character."
d'Avaux pemdont Ua mwUm i6qj, xdir-tdgS (Utrecht, 1882. Ac.).
(R. N. B.)
OXFORD, EARU OF, an English title held successively by
the families of Vere and Harley. The three most important earh
of the Vere line (pee Veke) are noticed aeparatdy below. The
Veres held the earldom from rx42 until March 1703, when it
became extinct on the death of Aubrey de Vere, the aoth earL
In 1 71 1 the En^ish statesman Robert Harley (see below) was
created earl of Oxford; but the title became extinct In this
family on the death of the 6th earl in 1853.
OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TR Easl >or (1550-1604),
son of John de Vere, the x6th carl, was bom on the rsth of Aprfl
1550. He matriculated at Queen's College, Cambridge, but
he removed later to St John's College, and was known as Lord
Bolebec or Bulbeck unto he succeeded in 1561 to the earldom
and to the hereditary dignity of great chamberlain of Vj»gtanH
As one of the rt>yal wards the boy came under the care of Lord
Bnrghley, at whose house in London he lived under the tutonfaop
of his maternal unde, Arthur Golding, the translator of Ovid.
His violent temper and erratic doings were a constant source
of anxiety to Buighley, who neverthdess in 1571 gave him
his eldest daughter, Anne, in marriage. Oxford more than
once asked for a miKtary or a naval command, but- Buighley
hoped that his good kwks together with his skill In dancing and
in feats of arms would win for him a high position at court.
His accomplishments did indeed secure Elizabeth's favour, hot
he offended her by going to Flanders without her consent in
1 574, and more seriously in 1582 by a duel with one of her gentle-
men, Thomas Rnyvet. Among his other escapades was a futile
* /.r. in the Vere Bae.
OXFORD, EARLS OF
403
plot to mcue tarn the T»wcr Thorns HowBid, 4th diike of
Norfolk, with whom he was distantly cooaectcd. In 1579 he
insulted Sir Philip Sidney by calling him a " puppy " on the
teani»<oozt at Whitehall. Sidney accordingly challenged
Oxford, but the queen forbade him to fight, and required him
to apologise on the ground of the difleience of rank between
the disputants. On Sidney's refusal and consequent disgrace
Oxford is said to have schemed to murder him. The earl sat
on the special conunission (1586) appointed for the trial of Mary
queen of Scots; in 1589 he was one of the peeis who tried
Philip* Howard, earl of Arundel, for high treason; and in i6ox
he took part in the trial of Essex and Southampton. It has
been suggested that Oxford was the Italianated Englishman
ridiculed by Gabriel Haivey in his Sptadum Tuacamsmi, On
his return from a journey to Italy in 1 575 he brought back various
inventions for the toilet, and his estate was rapidly dissipated
in satisfying his extravagant whims. His iirst wife died in 1588,
and from that time Burghky withdrew his support, Oxford
being reduced to the necessity of seeking help among the poor
men of letters whom he had at one time or another befriended.
He was himself a 'lyric poet of no small merit. His fortunes
were partially retrieved on his second marriage with Elisabeth
Trentham, by whom he bad a son, Heniy de Vere, 18th earl of
Oxford (i593~i625). He died at Newington, near London, on
the a4th of June 1604*
His poems, scattered in various anchologics'— the Paradise of
Dainty Devius. England's Parnassus, Phoenix Nest, BHglands
Helicon — and elsewhere, were collected by Dr A. B. Grosart in
vol. iv. of the Fuller Worthies Library (1876).
OXFORD, JOHH DB VERB, ijth Earl of (i44$-x5I3), was
second son of John, the lath carl, a prominent Lancastrian,
who, together with his eldest son Aubrey de Vere, was executed
in February 1462. John de Vere the younger was himself
attainted, but two years later was restored as 13th earl. But his
loyalty was suspected, and for a short time at the end of 1468
he was in the Tower. He sided with Warwick, the king-maker,
in the political movements of 1469, accompanied him in his
exile next year, and assisted in the Lancastrian restoration of
1470-1471. As constable he tried John Tiptof I, carl of Worcester,
who had condemned his father nine years before. At the
battle of Bamct, Oxford was victorious in command of the
Lancastrian right, but his men got out of hand, and before
they could be rallied Warwick was defeated. Oxford escaped
to France. In 1473 he organized a Lancastrian expedition,
which, after an attempted landing in Essex, sailed west and
seized St Michael's Moimt in Cornwall. It was only after a
four months' siege that Oxford was forced to surrender in
February 1474. He was sent to Hammcs near Calais, whence,
ten years later, in August 1484, he escaped and joined Henry
Tudor in Brittany. He fought for Henry in high command at
Bosworth, and was rewarded by restoration to his title, estates
and hereditary ofHce of Lord Chamberlain. At Stoke on the
i6th of June r486 he led the van of the royal army. In 1493
he was in command in the expedition to Flanders, and in 1497
was foremost in the defeat of the Cornish rebels on Blackhcath.
Bacon {Hist, of Henry VII . p. 192, ed. Lumby) has preserved
a story Ihat when in the summer of 1498 Oxford entertained the
king at Castle Hedingham, he assembled a great number of his
retainers in livery; Henry thanked the carl for his reception,
but fined him 15,000 marks for the breach of the laws. Oxford
was high steward at the trial of the earl of Warwick, and one of
the commissioners for the trial of Sir James TyrcU and others
in May 1502. Partly through iU-hcalth he took Uttle part after-
wards in public afPairs, and died on the loth of March 1513. He
was twice married, but left no children.
Oxford it frequently mentioned in the Paston Letters, which
include twenty written by him, mostly to Sir John Paston the
youneer. Sec The Paston Letters, ed. J. Gairdner? Chronicles ef
liOudon, ed. C. L. Kingsfoid (1905): Sir lames Ramsay, Lancaster
cmd Yorhi and The Political History of Eng^nd, vols. iv. and v.
(J906). (C. L. K.)
OXFORD^ ROBERT DE VERB, 9TK Earl or (x363<i393).
English courtier, was the only son of Thomas de Vere, 8th carl of
08ford„aad Msod (d. 1413). daughter of Sir Rslph de Uffotd
(d. 1346), and a descendant of King Henry HI. He became
9tb earl of Oxford on his father's death in 1371, and married
Philippft (d. 141s), daughter of his guardian Ingebmm de Couci,
eail of Bedford, a son-in-Uw of Edward III., quickly becoming
very intimate with Richard II. Already hereditary great
chamberlain of England, Oxford was made a member of the
ppvy council and a Knight of the Garter; while castles and
lukds were bestowed upon him» and he was constantly in the
company of the young king. In 1385 Richard decided to send
his friend to govern IreUnd, and Oxford was given extensive
rights in that country and was created marquess of Dublin for
life; but although preparations were made for his journey he
did imt leave England. Meanwhile the discontent felt at
Richard's incompetence and extravagance was increasing, one
of the contributory causes thereto being the king's partiality
for Oxford, who was regarded with jcatousy by the nobles and
who made powerful enemies about this time by divorcing his
wife, Philippa, and by mariying a Bohemian lady. The king,
however, indifFerent to the gathering storm, created Vere duke
of Ir^and in October 1366, and gave him still more extensive
powers in that country, and at once matters reached a climax,
Richard was deprived ol his authority tot a short time, and
Vere was ordered in vain to proceed to Ireland. The latter was
then among those who were accused by the king's uncle Thomas
of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, and his supporters in November
1387; and rushing into the noith of England he gathered an
army to defend his royal nuister and himself. At Radcot Bridge
in Oxfordshire, however, his men fled before the troops of
Gloucester, and Oxford himself escaped in disguise to the Nether*
lands. In the parliament of 1388 he was found guilty of treason
and was condemned to death, but as he remained abroad the
sentence was never carried out. With another exile, Michael
de \a Pole, duke of Suffolk, he appears to have lived in Paris
until after the tieaty between England and France in June 1389,
when he took refuge at Louvain. Ho was killed by a boar whilst
hunting, and left no childien. In 1395 his body was brought
from Louvain to England, and was buried in the priory at
Earl's Colne, Essex.
Sec T. Walsingham, Historia Anglicana^ edited by H. T. Riley
l»96).
OXFORD, ROBERT HARLET, ist Eam.' or (i66i>i734),
English statesman, commonly known by his surname of Harlet,
eldest son of Sir Edward Harky (1634-1700), a prominent land-
owner in Herefordshire, and grandson of the celebrated letter-
writer La4y Brilliana Harley {c, 1600-1643), was bom in Bow
Street, Covcnt Garden, London, on the 5th of December i66r.
His school days were passed at Shilton, near Burford, in Oxford*
shire, in a sn^ll school which produced at the same time a lord
high treasurer (Harley), a lord high chancellor (Simon Harcourt)
and a lord chief justux of the common pleas (Thomas Trevor).
The principles of Whiggism and Nonconformity were instilled
into his mind at an early age, and if he changed the pohiics of
his ancestors he never formally abandoned their religious opinions.
At the Revolution of 1688 Sir Edward and his son raised a troop
of horse in support of the cause of William UI., and took posses-
sion of the city of Worcester in his interest, lliis recommended
Robert Harley to the notice of the Boscawen family, and led
to his election, in April 1689, as the parliamentary representative
of Tregony, a borough under their control He remained its
member for one parliament, when he was elected by the con-
stituency of New Radnor, and he continued to represent it until
his elevation to the peerage in 1711.
From the first Harley gave great attention to the conduct of
public business^ bestowing especial care upon the study of the
forms and ceremonies of the House. His reputation marked
him out as a fitting person to preside over the debates of the
House, and from the general election of February 1701 until the
dissolution of 1705 he held with general approbation the ofike
■ /.«. in the f laricy line.
f04
of Speaker. For t part of this period, from the i8th of Mky
' S704, he combined with the speakership the duties of a principal
secretary of sute for the northern depsirtment, displacing in that
office the Tory eari of Nottingham. In 1703 Harley first made
use of Defoe's talents as a political writer, and this alliance with
the press proved so successful that he afterwards called the genius
of Swift to his aid in many pamphlets against his opponents in
politics. While he was secretary of state the union with Scotland
was effected. At the time of his appointment as secretary of
state Hariey had given no outward sign of dissatisfaction with
the Whigs, and it was mainly through Marlborough's good
opinion of his abilities that he was admitted to the ministry.
For some time, so long indeed as the victories of the great English
general cast a glamour over the policy of his friends, Harley
continued to act loyally with his colleagues. But in the summer of
1707 it became evident to Godolphin that some secret influence
behind the throne was shaking the confidence of the queen in her
ministers. The sovereign had resented the intrusion into the
administration of the impetuous earl of Sunderland, and had
persuaded herself that the safety of the church depended on the
fortunes of the Tories. These convictions were strengthened
in her mind by the new favourite Abigail Hill (a cousin of the
duchess of Marlborough through her mother, and of Harley on
her father's side), whose soft and silky ways contrasted only too
favourably in the eyes of the queen with the haughty manners
of her old friend, the duchess of Marlborough. Both the duchess
and Godolphin were convinced that this change in the diqx>sition
of the queen was due to the sinister conduct of Harley and his
relatives; but he was for the present permitted to remain in his
office. Subsequent experience showed the necessity for his dis-
missal and an occurrence supplied an opportunity for carrying
out their wishes. An ill-paid and poverty-stricken clerk, William
Gregg, in Harley's oflice, was detected in furnishing the enemy
with copies of many documents which should have been kept
from the knowledge of all but the most trusted advisers of the
court, and it was found that through the carelessness of the head
of the department the contents of such papers became the
Common property of all in his service. The queen was thereupon
informed that Godolphin and Marlborough could no longer serve
in concert with him. They did not attend her next council,
on the 8th of February 1708, and when Harley proposed to
proceed with the business of the day the duke of Somerset drew
attention to their absence, when the queen found herself forced
(February xi,) to accept the resignations of both Harley and
St John.
Harley went out of office, but his cousin, who had now become
Mrs Masham, remained by the side of the queen, and contrived
to convey to her mistress the views of the ejected minister.
Every device which the defeated ambition of a man whose
strength lay in his aptitude for intrigue could suggest for hasten-
ing the downfall of his adversaries was employed without scruple,
and not employed in vain. The cost of the protracted war with
France, and the danger to the national church, -the chief proof of
which lay in the prosecution of Sacheverell, were the weapons
which he used to influence the massesof the people. Marlborough
himself could not be dispensed with, but his rdations were dis-
missed from their posts in turn. When the greatest of these.
Lord Godolphin, was ejected from office, five oomraJssioners to
the treasury were appointed (August 10, 17x0), and among
them figured Harley as chancellor of the exchequer. It was the
aim of the new chancellor to frame an administration from the
moderate members of both parties, and to adopt with but slight
changes the policy of his predecessors; but his efforts were
doomed to disappointment. The Whigs refused to join in an
alliance with the man whose rule began with the retirement from
the treasury of the finance minister idolized by the city merchants,
and the Tories, who were successful beyond their wildest hopes at
the polling booths, could not understand why their leaders did
not adopt a policy more favourable to the interests of their party.
The clamours of the wilder spirits, the country members who met
at the " October Club," began to be re-echoed even by those
who were attached to the person of Harley, when, through an
OXFORD, 18T EARL OF
unexpected event, his popularity was restored at « bonad.
A French refugee, the ex-abb< de la Bourlie (better known by tbe
name of the marquis deGuiscard), was being examined before the
privy council on a charge of treachery to the nation which bad
befriended him, when he stabbed Hariey in the breiat witli
a penknife (March 8, X7tx). T» a man in good heslth the
wounds would iH>t have been setions, but the minister had been
for some time indisposed — a few days before the occurrence Swift
had penned the prayer " Pray God preserve his health, every-
thing depends upon it "—and the joy of the nation on his re-
covery knew no bounds. Both Houses presented an address .to
the crown, suitable response came from the queen, and mi
Harley's reappearance in the Lower House the speaker made an
oration which was spread broadcast through the country. On
the 33rd of May 171 x the ininister became Baron Hailey of
Wigmore and eari of Oxford and Mortimer; on the 3oth of
May he was created lord treasurer, and on the >sth of October
171 2 t>ecame a Knight of the Garter. Well rai^t hit friends
exclaim that he had " grown by persecutions, tamioga out, and
stabbings."
With the sympathy which this attempted assassinatioii had
evoked, and with the skill which the lord treasurer possessed
for conciliating the calmer members of either political party,
he passed through several months of office without any loss of
reputation. He rearranged the nation's finances, and oontinacd
to support her generals in the field with ample resources for
carrying on the campaign, though his emissaries were in com-
munication with the French king, and were settling the terms ol
a peace independently of England's allies. After many weeks of
vacillation and intrigue, when the negotiations were frequently
on the point of being interropted, the preliminary peace was
signed, and in spite of the opposition of the Whig majority in
the Upper House, which was met by the creation of twelve new
peers, the much-vexed treaty of Utrecht was brought to a con-,
elusion on the 31st of March 17x3. While these nc^tiati<ms
were under discussion the friend^ip between Oxford and St
John, who had become secretary of state in September 1710,
was fast changing into hatred. The latter had resented the rise
in fortune which the stabs of Guiscard had secured for hia
colleague, and when he was raised to the peerage with the
title of Baron St John and Viscount Bolingbroke, instead of
with an earldom, his resentment knew no bounds. The royal
favourite, whose husband had been called to the Upper House
as Baron Masham, deserted her old friend and relation for his
more vivacious rival. The Jacobites found that, although the
lord treasurer was profuse in his expressions of good will for their
cause, no steps were taken to ensure its triumph, and they no
longer placed reliance in promises which were repeatedly made
and repeatedly broken. Even Oxford's friends began to com-
plain of his habitual dilatorinessj and to find some excuse for
his apathy in ill-health, aggravated by excess in the pleasures
of the table and by the loss of his favourite child. By slow
degrees the confidence of Qatcn Anne was transferred from
Oxford to Bolingbroke; on the 27th of July 17x4 the former
surrendered his staff as lord treasurer, and on the xal August
the queen died.
On the accession of George I. the defeated minister retired
to Herefordshire, but a few months later his impeachment was
decided upon and he was committed to the Tower on the x6th
of July 1715. After an imprisonment of nearly two years the
prison doors were opened in July X717 and he was allowed to
resume his place among the peers, but he took little part in pubfic
affairs, and died almost unnoticed in London on the stst of May
r724. He married, in May i68s, Edith, daughter of Thomas
Foley, of Witley Court, Worcester. She died in November
169T. His second wife was Sarah, daughter of Simon Middleton,
of Edmonton. His son Edward (1689-1741), who succeeded
to the title, married Henrietta (d. 1755)1 daughter and hdresa
of John Holies, duke of Newcastle; and his only child, a daughter
Margaret (17x5-1785)1 married William Bentinck, and duke ol
Portland, to whom she brought Welbeck Abbey and the London
property which she inherited from her mother. The cwldom
OXFORD
405
Ciken piind to a ooushi, Bdward, 3rd earl (e. 1699-1755). >tfMl
cveatiially became extinct with Alfred, tke 6th cari (tSo^-iSsj)-
Hailey's statetmaoship may seem but intrigue and finesse,
bttt his cliaracter is set forth In the brightest coloun in the poems
of Pope and the prose of Swift. The Irish dean was his discrtmin-
ating friend in the hours of prosperity, his unswerving advocate
in adversity. The boolis and manuscripts which the ist earl
of Oxford and his son collected were among the glories of their
age. The manuscripts became tlie property of the nation in
'753 mkI are now in the British Museum; the books were sold
to a boolcseller called Thomas Osborne in 1742 and described
in a printed catalogue of five volumes <i743'(74S)f Dr Johnson
writing an account of the library. A selection of the rarer pam-
phlets and tracts, which was made by William Oldys, was primed
in eight volumes (1744-1746), with a preface by Johnson. The
best edition is that of Thomas Park, ten volumes (1808-1813). ^
the recollection of the HarleUn manuscripts,' the Harieian library
and I he Harteian i€isceUany, the family name will never die.
BiBUoCRArMV.—The beat life of Harley u by E. f "* ' " -
Articles relaiing to him are in £ficf. Hi^ Rev. xv.
BiBUoCRArMV.—The beat life of Harley u by E. & Roacoc (1903).
. Articles relaiing to him are in Engf, Hi$L Rev. xv. 938-3«> (Defoe
and Harley by Thomas BateBon): Trtxns. c/ ike Royal HisL Soc.
xiv. N.S. 69-1 3 1 (development of political parties temp. Q. Anne
by W. Frewen Lord): Edinburgh ttariewt clxxxvii. 1^1-178.
457-480 (Hariey papers). For nu relations with St Jonn see >
Stchel's Boii*gbrolu (1901-1902. 3 vols.); for those with Swift,
CXCIII.
Walter
consult the JowntU to Stella and Sir Henry Craik's Life of Svnfi
(2nd cd.. 1894. 3 vols.). (W. P. C.;,
OXFOBD* a city, municipal and parliamentary borough,
the county town of Oxford^ire, England, and -the seat of a
famous university.* Pop. (1901) 49436. It is situated on the
river Thames, 51 m. by road and 63I m. by rail W.N. W. of London.
It is served by the main northern line of the Great Western rail-
way, and by a branch from the London & North- Western system
at Bletchjey; while the Thames, and the Oxford canal, running
north from it, afford water communications. The ancient nucleus
of the city stands on a low gravel ridge between the Thames and
its tributary the Chcrwell, which here flow with meandering
coursesand many branches and backwaters through flat meadows.
Modern extensions of Oxford cross both rivers, the suburbs of
Osney and Botley lying to the west, Grandpont to the south, and
St Clement's to the east beyond the CherweU. To the north
is a large modern residential districL The low meadow land is
bounded east and west by well-wooded hills, rising rather
abruptly! though only to a slight elevation, seldom exceeding
Soo ft. Several points on these hills command celebrated views,
tuch as that from Bagley Hill to the S.W.. or from Elsfield to
the N.E., from which only the inner Oxford is visible, with its
collegiate buildings, towers and spires— ^a peerless city.
Mais roads from east to west and from north to south inter-
feet near the centre of ancient, Oxford at a point called Carfax.'
and form four principal streets. High Street (east), Queen Street
(west), Cornmarket Street (north) and St Aldate's (south).'
Commarket Street is continued northward by Magdalen Street,
and near their point of junction Magdalen Street is intersected
by a thoroughfare* formed, from west to east, by George Street,
Broad Street* Holywell Street and Long Wall Street, the last of
which sweepa south to join High Street not far from Magdalen
Bridge over the CherweU* ' This thoroughfare is thus detailed,
because it approximately indicates the northern and north*
eastern confines of the ancient dty.' The old walls indeed (of
which there axe many fragments, notably a' very Ane range in
New 0>Qege fpurden) indicate a somewhat smaller area than that
defined by these streets. Their line, which slightly varied, as
excavations have shown, In different afes, bent south-westward
from Cornmarket Street, where stood the north gate, till it reached
the enceinte of the castle, which ]i« at the west of the old dty,
* See also UrnvKtaiTits.
* This word, which ocotrs elsewhere in England, means a place
where four roads meet. Its ultimate origin is the Latin qmodrifnrrus,
four-forked. Eariier English forms are tarfuks, carrefor*. The
modem French b carnfotir.
* In the common speech of the university some streets are never
spoken of at such, but, e.g., as " the High," " the Com " (i.e. Com-
market), !' the Broad." St Aldate's tn pronounced St Olds, and
the Cherwirn (pronouncad CbarwdU is called " the Char."
flanked on one side by a branch of the Thames. From the castle
the southern wall ran east, along (he modem Brewers* Street;
the south gate of the dty was in St Aldate's Street, where it ■
joined by this lane, and the walls then continued along the north
side of Christ Chuich meadow, and north-eastward to the cast
gate, which stood in High Street near the junction of Long
Wall Street Oxford had thus a strong position: the castle
and the Thames protected it on the east; the two rivers, the
walls and the water-meadows between them on the south and
east; and on the north the wall and a deep ditch, of which
vestiges may be traced, as between Broad and Ship Streets.
An eariy rivalry between the univerntics of Oxford and
Cambridge led to the circulation of many groundless legends
respecting their foundation. For example, those which |„.,„,,
connerted Oxford with " Brute the Trojan," Ring "'■■•^'
Mempric (1009 B.C.), and the Druids, are not fonnd before the
t4ih century. The town is as a fact much older than the tmi*
verity. The historian, John Richard Green, epitomises the
relation between the two corporations when he shows* thMt
" Oxford had already seen five centuries of borough life before
a student appeared within its streets. . . The university found
Oxford a busy, prosperous borough, and reduced it to a duster
of lodging-houses. It found it among the first of English munid-
palities, and it so utierty crashed its freedom that the recovery
of some of the commonest rights of self-government has only been
brought about by recent legislation." A poor Romano-British
village may have existed on the peninsula between Thames and
Cherwell. but no Roman jroad of importance passed within
3 m. of it. In the 8th century an indication of the existence of
Oxford is found in the legend of St Fridcswide, a holy woman
who is said to have died in 73 s, and to have founded a nunnery
on the site of the present cathedral. Coins of King Alfred have
been discovered (though not at Oxford) bearing the name Oksna>
forda or Onnaforda, which seems to prove the existence of a mint
at Oxford. It is clear, at any rate, that Oxford was already
important iCs a frontier town between Merda and Wessex when
the first unquestionable mention of it occurs, namely in the
English Chronicle under the year 9^, when Edward the Elder
" took to himself " London and Oxford. The name points to a
ford for oxen across the Thames, though some have connected
the syllable ** ox-" with a Celtic word meaning " water," com-
paring it with Ouse, Osney and Exford. The first mention of the
townsmen of Oxford is in the English Chronicle of 1013, and that
of its trade in the Abingdon Chronicle, which mentions the toll
paid from the nth century to the abbot of Abingdon by boats
passing that town. Notices during that century prove the
growing importance of Oxford. As the chief stronghold in the
upper Thames valley it sustained various attacks by the Danes,
being burned in 979, 1003 and loio, while in 1013 Sweyn took
hostages from it. It had also a considerable political importance,
and several gemots were held here, as in 1015, when the two
Danish thanes Sigfrith and Morkere were treacherously killed
by the Mercian Edric; in 1030, when Onute chose Oxford as
the scene of the confirmation of " Edgar's law " by Danes and
English; in 1036, when Harold I. was chosen king, and in 1065.
But Oxford must have suffered heavily about the time of the
Conquest, for according to the Domesday Survey (which for
Oxford is unusually complete) a great proportion of the ** man-
sions " (to6 out of 397) and houses (478 out of 721) were ruined
or unoccupied. The city, however, had already a market, and
under the strong hand of the Norman sheriff Robert d'Oili
(c. 1 070- 1 1 19) it prospered steadily. He made heavy exactions
on the townsfolk, though it may be noted that they withheld
from him Port Meadow, the great meadow of 440 acres which is
still a feature of the low riverside tract north of Oxford. But
d'Oili did much for Oxford, and the strong tower of the castle
and possibly that of St Michael's church are extant relics of his
building activity. His nephew, another Robert, who held the
castle after him, founded in 11 39 the most notable building that
* In his essay on " The Eariy History of Oxford." reprinted from
Stray Studies, to Skidiet in Qx/ord History, by the Oxford Historical
Society (1901).
4o6
OXFORD
Oxiotd has lo€t. This was the priory (fhottXy afterwards the
abbey) of Osney, which was erected by the branch of the Thames
oezt west of that by which the castle stands. In its finished
state it had a splendid church, with two high towers and a great
range of buildings, but only slight fcagmenu may now be traced.
About 1130 Henry 1. built for himself Beaumont Palace, the
site of which is indicated by Beaumont Street, and the same king
gave Oxford. its first known charter (not still extant), in which
mention is made of a gild merchant. This charter is alluded to
in another of Henry II., in which the citizens of Oxford and
London are associated in the possession of similar cgstoms and
liberties. The most notable historical incident connected with
the city in this period is the escape of the empros Matilda from
the castle over the frozen river and through the snow to Abingdon ,
when besieged by Stephen in 114a.
It is about this time that an indication is first given of organized
teaching in Oxford, for ini 133 one Robert Pullen is said to have
instituted theological lectures here. No earlier facts are known
concerning the origin of the university, though it may. with
probability be associated with schools connected with the
ecclesiastical foundations of Osney and St Frideswide; and the
tendency for Oxford to become a centre of learning may have
been fostered by the frequent presence of the court at Beaumont.
A chancellor, appointed 'by the bishop of Lincoln, is mentioned
in 12x4, and an early instance of the subordination of the town
to the university is seen in the fact that the townsfolk were
required to take oaths of peace before this official and tW arch-
deacon. It may be mentioned here that the present practice of
appointing a non-resident chancellor,, with a resident vice«
chancellor, did not come into vogue till the end of the xsth
century. In the 13th century a number of religious orders,
which here as elsewhere - exercised a profound influence on
education, became established in Oxford! In 1221 came the
Dominicans, whose later settlement (c. 1260) js attested by
Blackfriars Street, Preacher's Bridge and Friars' Wharf. In
1324 the Franciscans settled n.ear the present Paradise Square.
In the middle of the century the Carmelites occupied part of the
present site of Worcester College, but their place here was taken
by the Benedictines when, aliout 13x5, they were given Beaumont
by Edward II., and removed th^e. The Austin Friars settled
near the site of Wadham College; for the Cistercians Rewley
Abbey, scanty remains of which may be traced near the present
railway stations, was founded c. 1280. During the same century
the political importance of Oxford was maintained. Several
pariiaments were held here', notably the Mad Parliament of 1258,
which enforced the enactment of the .Provisions of Oxford.
Again, the later decades of the 13th century saw the initiation
of the collegiate system. f> Merton, University and BaUiol were
the earliest foundations under this system. The paragraphs
below, dealing with each college successively, give the dates and
circumstances of foundation for all. As to the relations between
the university and the city, in 1248 a charter of Henry III.
afforded students considerable privileges at the expense of
townsfolk, in. the way of personal and financial protection.
Moreover, the chaiicellor already possessed juridical powers;
even over the townsfolk he shared jurisdiction with the mayor.
Not unnaturally these peculiar conditions engendered rivalry
between " tovrn and gown ; rivalry led to violence, and after
many leaser encounters a climax was reached in the riot on St
Scholastica's and the following day, February loth and nth.
1354/5- Its immediate cause was trivial, but the townsmen
gave rein to their long-standing animosity, severely handled the
scholars, killing many, and paying the penalty, for Edward UI.
gave the> university a new charter enhancing its privileges.
Others followed from Richard II. and Henry IV. A charter
given by Henry VIII. in 1523 at the instigation of Wolsey
conferred such power on the university that traders of any sort
might be given its privileges, so that the city had no jurisdiction
over them. In 1571 was passed the act of Elizabeth which
incorporated and reorganized the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge. In 1635 a charter of Charles I. confirmed its privi-
leges to the university of Oxford, of which William Laud had
become chancellor in 1630, VetUgcs of these
powers (as distinct from the niore equable divisioa €i tfghu
between the two conwrations which nowobtains) loogsuzvivcd.
For example, it was only in, 1825 that the ceremony of icparalioR
enforced on the municipality after the St S cbolasii c a riots was
discontinued.
During the leign of Maiy,in x5S5,thfre took place, 00 a spot
in Broad Street, the famous martyrdom of Ridl^ and Latimer.
Cranmer followed them to ihe stake in 1556, and the three are
commemoratod by the ornate modem cross, an early work o<
Sir G. G. Scott (1841), in St GUes Street beside the church of
St Mary Magdalen. A 'period such as this must have been in
many ways harmful to the University, but it recovered prosperity
under the care of Elizabeth and Wolsey. Durii^g the dvfl war.
however, Oxford, as a city^ suddenly acquired a new prominence
as the headquarters of the Royalist party and the meeting-place
of Charles I.'s parliament. This importance ia not incomparable
with that which Oxford possessed in the Mecdan period. How-
ever the. frontier shifted, between the districts held by the
king and by the parliament, Oxford was always dose to it.
It was hither that the king retired after EdgehiU, the two battles
of Newbury and Naseby; from here Prince Rupert made his
dashing raids in 1643. In May 1644 the earl of Esses and Sir
William Waller first approached the city from the east and
south, but failed to endosc the king, who escaped to Worcester.
returning after the engagement at Copredy Bridge. The final
investment of the city, when Charles had lost every other
stronghold of importance, and had himself escaped in disguise,
was in May 1646, and on the 24th of Jane it surrendered to
Fairfax. Throughout the war the secret sympathies of the dtizcns
were Parliamentarian, but there was no conflict within the walls.
The disturbances of the war and the divisions of parties, however,
had bad effects on the univeisity, bdng subversive of disdpfine
and inimical to stndy; nor were these effects whoHy remo\'ed
during the Commonwealth, in spite of the care of CromweD,
who was himself chancellor in i65t-r657. The Restoration
led to conflicts between students and dtizens. Charles 11. held
the last Oxford parliament in t68i. James IL's action in foidng
his nominees into certain high offices at last brought the univer-
sity into temporary opposition to the crown. Later, however.
Oxford became strongly Jacobite. In the first year of George I. "^
reign there were serious Jacobite riots, but from that time the
city becomes Hanoverian in opposition to the university, the
feeling coming to a head in 1755 during a county election, which
was ultimately the subject of a parliamentary inquiry. But
George III., visiting Oxford in r785, was well recdved by both
patties, and this visit may be taken as the termination of the
purely. poUtical history of Oxford. Details of the history of the
university may be gathered from the following detcrtplioo of
the colleges, the names of which are arranged alphabetically.
All Souls College was founded in 1437 by Henry Chlcheley (^.r),
archbishop of Canterbury, for a warden, 40 fellows, 2 chaplaina,
and derks. The charter was issued in the name of am^^^
Henry VI., and it has been held that Chichelcy wished, " '
by founding the college, to expiate his own support of the
disastrous wars in France during the reign of Henry V. and the
ensuing regency. Fifty fdlowships in sJI were provided for by
the modern statutes, be^des the honorary fellowships to which
men of eminence are sometimes elected. Some of the fellowships
are held in connexion with university offices; but the majority
are awarded on examination, and are among the highest honours
in the university offered by this method. The only under-
graduate membets of the college are four bible-derks,* so that
the college occupies a peculiar position as a society of graduates.
The colfege has its beautiful original front upon High Street;
the first quadrangle, practically unaltered since the foundation,
is one of the most characteristic in Oxford. The chapd has a
splendid reredos occupying the whole eastern wall, with tiers of
figures in niches. After the original figures had been destroyed
during the Reformation the reredos was plastered over, but
I Here and in tome other cotlt^es this title is connected with the
duties of reading the Bible in chapel and saying grace in halL
OXFORD
407
wbea the plaster was removed, Sir Gilbert Scott found enough
rniuuos to render it possible to restore the whole. The second
quadrangle is divided from RadcUffe Square by a stone screen
and dotster. From the eastern* range of buildings twin towers
rise in graduated stages. On. (he north side is the library. The
whole b in a style partly Gothic, partly classical, fantastic, but
not without dignity. The architect was Sir Christopher Wren's
pupil, Nicholas Hawksmoor; the building was spread over the
first half of the i8th century. The fine library originated in a
bequest of Sir Christopher Codrington (d. 1710), and bears his
name. One of the traditional customs surviving in Oxford is
found at All Souls. Legend states that a mallard was discovered
in a drain while the foundations were being dug. A song
(probably Elizabethan) on this story is still sung at college
gaudies, and later it is pretended to hunt the bird. With such a
foundation as All Soub, a great number of eminent names are
naturaily associated (see Montagu Burrows, Worthies of All
Souls, 1874).
Bttlliol CMefs is one of the earUest foundations. "* About
1763 John de Baliol (see Bauol, family) began, as part of a
penance, to maintain certain scholars in Oxford. Dervorguila,
his wife, developed his work after his death in 1*69 by founding
(he college, whose statutes date from 1283, though not brought
into final form (apart from modem revision) untO 1504. There
are now twelve fellowships and fifteen scholarships on the old
foundation. Two fellowships, to be held by members already
holding fellowships of the coUege, were founded by James Hosier,
second Lord Newlands, in 190O. in commemoration of Benjamin
Jowett, master of the coUege. The buildings, which front upon
Broad Street, Magdalen Street and St Giles Street, are for the
most part modern, and mainly by Alfred Waterbouse, Anthony
Salvio and William Butterfield. The college has a high reputa-
tion for Kholarship. Its master and fellows possess the imique
right of electing the visitor of the coUege. In 1887 Balliol
College absorbed New Inn Hall, one of the few old balls which
had survived tin modem thnes. ( In the time of the civil wan
t royal mint was established in It.
Brasenosi CoUefe (commonly • written' and called B.N.C.)
was founded by William Smith, bishop of Luicoln, and Sir
Richard Sutton of Prestbury, Cheshire, in 1S09. Its name,
however, perpetuates the fact that it took the place of a much
earlier community in the university. There were several small
halls on its site, all dependent on other colleges or religious
houses except one— Brasenose Hall. ' The origin of this hall is
not known, but it existed in the middle of the latb century.
In 1334 certain students, wishing for peace from the faction-fights
which were then characteristic of their life in Oxford, migrated
to Stamford, where a doorway remains of the house then occupied
by them as Brasenose HaQ. From this an ancient knocker in
(he form of a nose, which may have belonged to the hall at
Oxford, was brought to the coUege in 1890. It presumably
gave name to the haU, though t derivation from hasinium
(Latin for a brew-house) was formerly upheld. * The original
foundation of the college was for a principal and twelve fellows.
This number is maintained, but supernumerary feUowships are
added. Of a number of scholarships founded by various bene-
factors several are confined to certain schools, notably Manchester
Grammar School. WiUiam Hulme (1691) established a founda-
tion which provides for twelve scholars and a varying number of
exhibitioners on entrance, and also for eight senior scholarships
open under certain conditions to members of the coUege already
in residence. The main front of the coUege faces Raddiffe
Square; the whole of this and the first quadrangle, excepting
the upper storey, is of the time of the foundation; and the
gateway tower is a specially fine example. The hall and the
chapel, with its fine fan-tracery roof, date from 1663 and 1666,
and are attributed to Sir Christopher Wren. In both Is s^^en a
curious attempt to combine Gothic and Grecian styles. Modem
buildinp (by T. C. Jackson) have a frontage upon High Street.
Robert Burton, author of Tke Anatomy of Melanckcty, became
an uadergraduate of the college in 1593; Reginald Heber in
iloo; Walter Pater became a feUow in. 1864.
Ckrisl Ckurch, in point of the number of its memben the
largest collegiate foundation in Oxford, is also eminent owing
to iu umque constitution, the history of which involves that
of the see of Oxford. Mention has been made of the priory
of St Frideswide and its very early foundation, also of the later
but more magnificent foundation of Osney Abbey. Both of
these were involved in the sweeping changes initiated by Wolscy
and carried 00 by Henry VIII. Wolsey projected the foundation
of a coUege on an even grander scale than that of the present
house. In 1534-1535 he obtained authority from Pope Clement
VII. to suppress certain religious houses for the purpose of
this new foundation. These included St Frideswide's, which
occupied part off the site which Wolsey intended to use. The
new coUege, under the nakne of Cardinal CoUege, was licensed
by the king in 1535. Its erection began immediately. The
monastic buildings were in great part removed. Statutes were
issued and appointments were made to the new offices. But
in 1539 Wolsey feU from power. Cardinal CoUege was sup-
pressed, and in 1533 Henry VIII. established in iU place another
college, on a reduced foundation, called King Henry Vlll.'a
College. Oxford had been, and was at this time, in the huge
diocese of Lincoln. But in 1543, on the suppression of Osney
Abbey, a new see was created, and the abbey church was made
its cathedral.' This anangemcnt obtained oiUy untO 1545,
when both the new cathedral church and the new coUege which
took the place of Wolaey's foundation were surrendered to the
king. In 1546 Henry es^abUshed the composite foundation
which now (subject to certain modern alterations) exists. He
provided for a dean and eight canons and 100 students, to
which number one was added in 1664. The church of St Frides-
wide*s foundation became both the cathedral of the diocese
and the coUege chapel. The establishment was thus at once
diocesan and coUegiate,* and it remains so, though now the
foundation consists of a dean, six canons, and the usual cathedral
suff, a reduced number of students (corresponding to the fellows
of other colleges) and scholars. Five of the canons are imiversity
professors. The disdpUnary administration of the coUegiate
part of the foundation isr voder the immediate supervision of
two students who hold the ofl&ce of censors. <^ueen Elisabeth
established the connexion with Westminster School by which
not more than three scholan are elected thence each year to
Christ Church. There is also a large number of valuable exhibi-
tions. The great number of emment men associated with Christ
CHiurch can only be indicated here by the statement that its
books have borne the names of several members of the British
and other royal famiUes, faicluding that of King Edward VII.
as prince of Wales and of Frederick VIII. of Denmark as crown
prince; also of ten prime minbters during the 19th century.
The stately front of Christ Church is upon St Aldate's Street.
The great gateway is surmounted by a tower begun by Wolsey,
but only completed in 1683 fjom designs of Sir Christopher Wren.
Though somewhat incongruous in dctaU, it is of singular and
beautiful form, being octagonal and surmounted by a cupola.
It contains the great beU ** Tom " (dedfcated to St Thomas of
Canterbtxry), which, though recast in 1680, formcriy belonged
to Osney Abbey. A clock strikes the hours on it, and at five
minutes past nine o'clock m the evening it is rung loi times by
hand, to indicate the hour of closing coUege gates, the numba
being that of the former body of students. The gate, the tower,
and the first quadrangle are aU commonly named after this
beU. Tom (^adrangle is the largest in Oxford, and after
various restorations approximates to Wolsey's original design,
though the ck>isters which he intended were never built. On
the south sde Ucs the haU, entered by a staircase under a magnifi-
cent fan-tracery roof dating from 1640. The haU itself is one
of the finest refectories in England; its roof is of ornate timber-
work (1539) and a splendid series of portraits of eminent otvmni
of the house adorn the walls, together with Holbein's portraits
* Aa a whole it is theicfore propeiiy to be spoken of at Oirist
Church, not Christ Church CoUege. In the coannon speech of the
univeraity it has become known as The House, thouch all the
cDltcgcs are technically *' houses."
4o8
OXFORD
of Henry VXU. and Wolsey. With the hall is connected the
great kitchen, the first building undertaken by Wolsey. An
entry through the eastern range of Tom Quadrangle forms the
west portal of the Cathedral Church of Christ.
The cathedral. o( which the nave and choir lerve also as the
college chapel, is the smallest English cathedral, but is of high
architectural interest. The plan is cruciform, with a northward
extension from the north choir aisle, comprising the Lady chapel
and the Latin chapel. It has been seen that probably in the 8th
century Sc Frideswide founded a religious house. In the east end
of the north choir aisle and Lady chapel may be seen two bk)cked
arches, rude, narrow and low. Excavations outside the wall in 1.887
revealed the foundations of three apses corresponding with these
two arches and anothe; which has been traced between them, and
in this wall, therefore, there is dearly a remnant of the small Saxon
church, with its eastward triple-apsidal termination. In. looj^
there took place the massacre of the Danes on St Brice's day at
the order of ^thelred 11. Some Danes took refuge in the tower of
St Frideswide's church, which was fired to ensure their destruction.
In 1004 the king undertook the rebuilding of the church. There
u full reason to believe that he had assisUnce from his brother-in-
law. Richard IL, duke of Normandy, and that much (^ his work
remains, notably in some of the remarkable capitals in the choir.
About 1 160, however, there was an extensive Norman restoration.
The arcades of the choir and of the nave, which was shortened by
Wolsey for the purpose of his collegiate building, have massive
pillars and round arches. Within these arches, not, as usual, above
them, a blind arcade forms the triforiura, and below this a lower set
of arches springs from the outer side of the main pillars. The
Norman stone- vaulted aisles conform in height with these kwer
arches. Over all is a clerestory with passage. The east end is a
striking Norman restoration by $ir Gilbert Scott, consisting of two
window^ and a rose window above them, with an intervening arcade.
The choir has a Perpendicular fan-tracei^ roof in stone, one of the
fincrt extant, and the early clerestory .is here altered to conform
with this style. The nave roof is woodwork of the i6th century,
and there is a fine Jacobean pulpit. The lower part of the tower,
with internal arcades in the lantern, is Norman ; the upper stage is
Early English, as is the low spire, jSbssibly the earliest built in
England. St Lucy's chapel in the south transept aisle contains a
rich flamboyant Decorated window. In the north choir aisle are
the fragments .which have been discovered and roughly recon-
structed of St Frideswide's shrine, of marble, with foliage beautifully
carved, representing plants symbolical of the life of the saint. The
Latin chapel is of various dates, but mainly of the "'*~ — ""ry.
The north windows contain contemporary glass; the ■■ i^.\ m ' ow
b a rich early work of Sir E. Bume-Jones, set in sU.<n- ^ ^rk <.1 an
inharmonious Venetian design. There are other bcai< f » 1 ■ j 5 w i n . J r iws
by Burne-Jones at the east en<|s of the aisles and Ladv ' h :j>: 1. md
at the west end of the south nave aisle. The correspcr' '1 nv: ^i iiip low
of the north aisle is a curious work by the Dutch art^^i; A'r.iJiim
van Ling (1630). There are many fine ancient monuni< n ^ -^, i.. .^.^ly
those of Bishop Robert King (d. 15S7). and of Uilv rii.'^--u'th
Montacute (d. 1355). The so-caHed watchmg-chiinh^r tir St
Frideswide's shrine is a. rich structure in stone and '" 1 ! < ing
from e. isoa The peculiar arrangement of the colk in
the cathedral, the nave and choir being occupied by iti-j-^-ll, . >ed
pews or stalls running east and west, and the position of the organ
on'a screen at the west end. add to the distinctive interior appearance
of the building. Small doistera adjoin the cathedral on the south,
and an ornate Norman doorway gives access from them to the
chapter-house, a beautiful Early English room. Above the doisters
on the south rises the "old library," originally the monastic re-
fectory, which has suffered conversion into dwelling and lecture-
To the north-east of Tom Quadrangle is Peck water Quadrangle,
named from an andent hall on the site, and built from the
design of the versatile Dean Henry Aldrich (1705) with the
exception of the library (i 716-1761), Which forms one side of
it. The whole is classical in style. The library contains some
fine pictures by Cimabue, Holbein, Van Dyck and others, and
sculpture by Rysbrack, RoubiUac, ChanUey and others The
small Canterbury Quadrangle, to the east, was buUt in 1773-
1783, and marks the site of Canterbury College or Hall, founded
by Archbishop IsUp in 1363, and absorbed in Henry VUL*s
foundation. To the south of the hall and old library are the
modem Meadow Buildings (1862-1865), overlooking the beautiful
Christ Church Meadows, whose avenues lead to the Thames and
CherweU.
Corpus Ckristi CdUtge (commonly called Corpus) was founded
in 1516 by Richard Fox, bishop of Winchester (i 500-1 528).
He at first hiteaded his foundation to be a seminary connected
with St Swithin's priory at Winchester, bat Hugh Oldham,
bishop of Exeter, foresaw the dissolution of the nooastcnea
and advised against this. Fox bad espedally in view the objed
of classical education, and his foundation, besides a president^
20 fellows and 20 scholars, induded 3 profcsaon— ia Greek,
Latin and theology— whose lectures should be open to the
whole university. This arrangement fell into desuetude, but
was revived in 1854, when fellowships of the collefe were
annexed to the professorial chairs of Latin and jurisprudence.
The foundation now consisu of a president, 16 fellows, 26
scholars and 3 exhibitioners. The college has its front
upon Merton Street* The first quadrangle, with its gateway
tower, is of the period of the foundation, and the gate-
way has a vauhed roof with beautiful tracery. In the ceiitrt of
the quadrangle is a curious cylindrical dial in the foros of a
column surmounted bxa pelican (the college symbol), consuucted
in 1581 by Charles TumbuU, a mathematician who entered the
college in 1573. The hall has a rich late Perpendicular loof of
timber; the chapd, dating from 1517, contains an altar-piece
ascribed to Rubens, and the small library includes a valuable
collection of rare printed books and MSB. The college retains
iu founder's crozier, and a very fine collection of old plate, for
the preservation of which it is probable that Corpus had to pay
a considefable sum in aid of the royalist cause. Behind the
main quadrangle are the classical Turner buildings, erected during
the presidency of Thomas Turner (1706), from a design attributed
to Dean Aldrich. The picturesque college garden is bounded
by the line of the old dty wall. There are modem buildings
(1885) by T. G. Jackson on the opposite side of Merton Street
from the main buildings. Among the famous xiames associated
with the college may be mentioned those of four eminent
theologians— Reginald Pole, afterwards cardinal (nominated
fellow in 1523), John Jewel, bishop of Salisbury (fellow 1542-
X553)f Richard Hooker (scholar, 1573) and John Keble (scholar,
1806). Thomas Arnold, the famous headmaster of Rugby
school, was a scholar of the college (181 1).
ExeUr CdUgt was founded, as Supeldon Hall, by Walter
Stapeldon, bishop of Exeter, in 13x4, but by the middle of the
century it had become known as Exeter Hall. The foundation
was extended by Sir William Petre in i $65. Stapddon's original
foundation for 13 scholars provided that 8 of them should
be from Devonshire and 4 from Cornwall. There are still
8 " Stapddon " scholarships confined to persons bom or
educated within thie diocese of Exeter. The foundation
consists of a rector, xa fellowships and 2X scholarships or
more. 'There are also a number of scholarships and exhibitions
on private foundations, several of which are limited in various
ways, including 3 confined to persons bora in the Channel
Islands or educated in Victoria College, Jersey, or Elizabeth
College, Guernsey. The college has its front, which is of great
length, upon Turl* Street. It has been extcnsivdy restored,
and its gateway tower was rebuilt in .1703. while the earliest
part of the quadrangle is Jacobean, the hall being an excellent
example dating from 1618. The chapd (1857-1858) is an ornate
structure by Sir Gilbert Scott; it is in Decorated style, of great
height, with an eastern apse, and has some resemblance to the
Sainte Chapelle in Paris. The interior contains mosaics by
Antonio Salviati and tapestry by Sir E. Burne-Jones and William
Morris. Scott's work is also seen in the frontage towards
Broad Street, and in the library (1856). The college has a beauti-
ful secluded garden between its own buildings and those of the
divinity school or Bodleian library.
Hertford CoUege, in its present form, is a modem foundation.
There were formerly several halls on the site, and some time
between 1283 and 1300 Ellas of Hertford acquired one of thcro,
which became known as Hert or Hart Hall. In 1312 it was sold
to Bishop Stapddon. the founder of Exeter, and was occupied
by his scholars for a short time. Again, some of William of
Wykeham's scholars were lodged here while New College was
building. The dependence of the hall on Exeter College was
maintained until the second half of the i6th century. In 1710
1 •• The Turl " ukes its name from a postern (Turl or Thorold
Gate) in the dty wall, to which the street ltd.
OXFORD
40.5
Rkhard Newtoo, formerly a Westmloater student of Christ
Clmrd), became principal, and in 1740, in spite of opposition
firom Eieter, he obtained a charter establishing Hertford as a
college. The foundation, however, did not prosper, and by an
inquisition off x8f 6 it was declared to have lapsed in 1805. With
part of its property the university was able to endow the Hertford
scholarship in 1854. Magdalen Hall, iririch had become inde-
pendent of the college of that name in 1602, acquired the site and
buildings of the dissolved Hertford College and occupied them,
but was itsdf dissolved in 1874, when its principal and scholars
were incorporated as forming the new Hertford College. An
cad o wHieu t was provided by Tliomas Charles Baring, then M.P.
for South Essex, for 15 fellows and 30 scholars, 7 lectiuers and
dean and bursar. The foundation now consists of a principal,
z-/ fenows and 40 scholars. Of the college buildings, which face
those of the Bodleian h'brary and border each side of New
College Ltne, no part is earlier than Newton's time. Modem
IraildittSB by T. G. Jackson (1903) incorporate remains of the
little early Ftipendicular chapel of Our Lady at Smith Gate
Oncorrectly called St Catherine's), which probably stood on the
outer side of the town ditch. There is a striking modem chapel.
. Jaus CoBege has always had an intimate association with
Wales. Queen Elizabeth figures as its foundress in its charter
of 1571, but she was inspired by Hugh ap Rice (Price), a native
off Brecon, who endowed the college. The original foundation
was for a principal, 8 fellows and 8 scholars. It now consists of
a principal and not less than 8 or more than 14 fellows, and there
are 24 foundation scholarships, besides other scholarships and
exhibitions, mainly on the ftnmdation of Edmund Meyricke, a
native of Merionethshire, who entered the college in 1656 and was
a fellow in 166a. Not only his scholarships but others also are
restricted (unless in default of suitable candidates) to persons
bom or educated in Wales, or of Welsh parentage. At Jesus,
as at Exeter, there are also some ** King Charies I." scholarships
for persons bom or educated in the Channel Islands. The college
buOdittgs face Turl Street; the front is an excellent reconstruc-
tion of 1856. The diapel dates from 1621, the hall from about
the same time, and the Ubraiy from 1677, being erected at the
expense of the.eminent principal (i66r-x673) Sir Lcoline Jenkins.
He and his predecessor. Sir Eubule Thelwall (1621-1630), were
prominent in raising the college from an early period of depresdon.
KebU Cctteffi is modem;' it received its charter in 1870. It
was erected 1^ subscription as a memorial to John Keble {q.v.).
Its stated object was to provide an academical education com-
bined with economical cost in living and a " training basAl upon
the principles of the Church of England." -The college is governed
by a warden (who has full charge of the internal administration)
and a council. There is a staff of tutors, and a number of scholar-
ships and exhibitions on private foundations. The buildings lie
somewhat apart from other collegiate buildings towards the
north of the city, facing the university parks, which extend from
here down to the river Cherwell. They are from the designs
qf William Butterficld, and are principally in variegated brick.
The chapel has an elaborate scheme of decoration in mosaic;
and the library contains a great number of books collected by
Keble, and Holman Hunt's picture, " The light of the World."
Lincoln College was founded in 1427 by Richard Flemyng,
bishop of Lincoln. It was an outcome of the reaction against the
djDCtrines of Wydiffe, of which the founder of the college, once
thdr earnest supporter, was now an equally earnest opponent.
He died (143 1) bdore his schemes were fully carried out, and the
college was straggling for existence when Thomas Rotherham,
whUe bishop of Lincoln and visitor of the college, reconstituted
and re-endowed it in 1478. The foundation consbts of a rector,
I a fellows and 14 scholars. The buildings face Turl Street. The
hall dates from 1436, but its wainscoting within was added in
X70Z. The chapel, in the back quadrangle, is an interesting
example of Perpendicular work of very late date (1630). The
interior is wainscoted in cedar, and the windows are filled with
Flemish glass introduced at the time of the building. There is
a modem library building in a classic Jacobean style, com-
pleted in Z906; the collection of books was originated by Dean
John Forest, who abo buflt the hall. Among the eminent
associates of this college was John Wesley, fellow 1726-1751.
Magialm CoiUge (pronounced Ifaudkn; in full, St Mary
Magdalen) was founded in 1458 by William of Waynfiete, bishop
of Winchester and lord chancellor of England. In 1448 he had
obtained the patent authorizing the foundation of Magdalen Hall.
In the coQege he provided for a president, 40 fellows, 30 demies,*
and, for the chapel, chaplains, clerks and choristers. To the
college he attached a grammar-school with a master and usher.
The foundarion now consists of a president, from 30 to 40
fellowships, of which 5 are attached to the Waynfiete pro-
fessorships in the university,' senior demies up to 8 and
junior demies up to 35 in number. The choir, &c., are
maintained, and the choral singing is celebrated. In order to
found his college, Waynflete acquired the site and buildings of the
hospital of St John the Baptist, a foundation or refoundation
of Henry UI. for a master and brethren, with sisters also, for
" the reUef of poor, scholais and other miserable persons." The
Magdalen buildings, which are among the most beautiful in
Oxford, have a long frontage on High Street, while one side rises
close to or directly above a branch of the river Cherwell. The
chief feature of the front is the bell-tower, a stracture which for
grace and beauty of proportion Is hardly surpassed by any other
of the Perpendicular period. It was begun in 2492, and com-
pleted in about thirteen years. From its summit a Latin hymn is
sung at five o'clock on May-day morning annually. Various sug-
gestions have been made as to the origin of this custom; it
may have been connected with the inauguration of the tower, but
nothing is certainly known. The college is entered by a modem
gateway, giving access to a small quadrangle, at one comer of
which is an open pulpit of stone. This was connected with the
chapel of St John's Hospital, which was incorporated in the front
range of buildings. Adjoining this is the west front of the college
chapel.* This chapel was begun in 1474, but has been much
altered, and the internal fittings are in the main excellent modem
work (1833 seq.). At the north-west comer of the entrance
quadrangle is a picturesque remnant of the later buildings of
Magdalen Hall. To the west is the modem St Swithun's quad-
rani^e, the buildings of which were designed by G. F. Bodley
and T. Gamer, and begun in x88o, and to the west again a
Perpendicular building erected for Magdalen College school in,
1849. To the east lia the main quadrangle, called the cloister*
quadrangle, from the cloisters which surround it. These have
been in great part reconstmcted, but in accordance with the
plan of the time of the foundation. Above the west walk rises
the beautiful " founder's " tower, low and broad. On this side
also is the valuable library. The south walk is bounded by the
chapel and the hall, which lie in line, adjoining each other. The
hall is a beautiful room, improved in 1906 by the substitution of
an open timber roof for one of plaster erected in the i8th century.
The panelling dates mainly from 1541; there is a tradition that
the part at the west end came from the dissolved Reading Abbey.
A curious series of figures which surmount the buttresses on
three sides of the cloisters date from 1508-1509. Some are
apparently symbolical, others scriptural, others again heraldic
To the north of the cloister quadrangle (a garden with broad
hiwns intervening) stand the so-called New Buildings, a massive
classical range (1733). To the north and west of Uiese extends
the Grove or deer park, where the first deer were established
probably c. 1720; to the east, across a branch of the Cherwell,
is the meadow sunounded by Magdalen Walks, part of which
is called Addison's Walk after Joseph Addison (demy and
fellow). Perhaps the most notable period in the lustory of the
college is that of 1687-1688, when the fellows resisted James n.'s
attempt to force a president upon them, in place of their own
choice, John Hough (1651-1743), successively bishop of Oxford,
* Singular dimnr, the last sytlahle accented. They conespond
to the Bcholan oiother college*. The name is derived from the fact
that their allowance was originally half (demi-) that of fellows,
kd founded
' Waynflete himself had founded three
moral phOoBophy and in theology.
*It actually faces about N.W.; the
deviatioB applies to
4IO
OXFORD
Lichfidd, and Worcester. Caidimd Wolsey was a feUow oC the
college about the time when the bell-tower was building, but the
attribution of the design to him, or even of any active part in
the erection, is not borne out by evidence. Among alumni of
the college were William Camden, Sir Thomas Bodley, John
Hampden, at the time of whose matriculation (x6io) Magdalen
was strongly Puritan, Joseph Addison, Dr Sacheverell, and for
a short period Gibbon the historian. Mention should be made
of the eminent president, Martin Joseph Routh, who was elected
to the office in 1791, and held it till his death in his looth year in
1854. Magdalen College school had new buildings opened for it
in 1894.
Merlon ColUge is of peculiar interest as regards its foundation,
which is geherally cited as the first on the present collegiate
model. At some time before 1264 Walter de Merton,^ a native
of Merton, Surrey, devoted estates in that county to the main-
tenance of scholars in Oxford. Thus far he followed an estab-
lished practice. In 1 264 he founded at Maiden a " house of
scholars of Merton " for those who controlled the estates in the
interest of the scholars, who should situdy preferably at Oxford,
though any centre of learning was open to thiem. By 1268 the
Oxford community had acquired the present site of the college;
In 1270 new statutes laid down rules of living and study, and in
1274 the whole foundation was established under a final det of
statutes at Oxford — i.e. the society ceased to be administered
from the house in Surrey. The society was under a warden, and
certain other officers were established, but no lim.it was set on the
number of scholars. The foundation now consbts of a warden,
from 19 to 26 fellows, and 20 or more postmasterships. The
postmasters of Merton correspond to the scholars of other
colleges; they had their origin in the portionUtae (t.0. founda-
tioners who had a smaller portion or emolument than fellows),
instituted in 1380 on the foundation of John Wyllyot (fellow
X334, chancellor X349). The college is adjacent to Corpus, with
its front upon Merton Street, and some of its buildings are of
the highest interest, notably the chapel and library. The chapel
consists of a choir and transepts with a tower at the crossing:
but a nave, though intended, was never built. The choir is of
the purest Decorated workmanship (dating probably from the
last decade of the 13th century), with beautiful windows exhibit-
ing most delicate tracery. The transepts show the appearance
«of Perpendicular work, but there is also work of the earlier style
in them; the massive tower is wholly of the later period {c, 1450).
The library, which lies on two sides of the 90-called " mob "
quadrangle, dates from X377--1378, and was mainly the gift of
William Rede, bishop of Chichester (1369-X386). It occupies
two beautiful rooms and is of great interest from its early founda-
tion and the prcservatbn of its ancient character. The treasury
is a small room coeval with the foundation, with a curious high^
pitched ashlar roof. The other buildings, which are of various
dates, are mainly disposed about four quadrangles, including
that of St Alban's Hall, which, possibly dating from the early
part of the 15th century, was incoiiwrated with Merton College
in 1882. The college hall retains an original door with 6ne
ironwork, but the building is in great part modernized. A
beautiful garden lies east of the buHdings, being separated from
the meadows to the south by part of the old dty waU. Modem
buildings (1907) have a frontage upon Merton Street; others
(1864) overlook the meadows. Traditionally the names of
Roger Bacon, Duns Scotus and Wydiffe have been associated
with this college. Anthony Wood (1632-X695), the antiquary
and historian of the university, was a postmaster of the cdlcge.
New ColUge was founded by WHliam of Wykeham in 1379.
The founder's name for it, which it still bears in its corporate
title, Is the College of St Mary of Winchester. But there was
already a St Mary's College (OrieO. Wykeham's house thus soon
became known as the New CoU^, and the substantive is still
retained in the ordinary speech of the university, whereas in
mentioning the titles of other poUeges it is generally omitted;
> He was chancellor of the kinsdora In 1361-1263. and again in
1272-1274, juBticiar la 1271 and trishoo of Rochester in 1274. He
died la 1977-
Wykeham designed an cidudve coDnerion beCuMB Us OifDri
college and his school at Winchester. This oonaoion b bmIb-
taincd in a modified form. Wykeham's foundatioB ««a tor a
warden, and 70 fellows and scholars, with chaplain* and a chois.
The present foundation consists of a warden, and not awie than
36 fellows, while to the scholarships 6 dectioot ace nuwlc
annually from Winchester and 4 from elsewhere. The choir it
maintained, as at Magdalen. Five of the fellowabipa were
attached to university professorships, of which three (losic,
ancient history and physics) are called Wykeham pcofcasorskipa.
The buildings of New College remain in great measure as designed
by the founder, and iUustrate the magnificence oC his scheoic.
Tht main gateway tower fronU New College Lane The chapd
and hall stand in line (as at Magdalen), on the north aide of the
front quadrangle. The period of building was that of tha develop-
ment of the Perpcndiculax style. In shape the chapd was the
prototype of a form common in Oxford, consisting of a choir«
with transepts forming an antechapel, but with no mvc. The
remarkable west window in monochrome was erected, c, 1783,
from a design by Sir Joshua Reynolds. The reredos, with iu
tiers of figures ia niches, had a history similar to that at AU
Souls, being postered over in 1567. In the same way. Coo, it
was restored c 1890; but previously James Wyatt had di»>
covered traces of the original, and had uxuuccessfuUy attempted
the restoration of the niches in plaster, carrying out also, aa
elsewhere in Oxford, other extensive alterations of which the
obliteration was demanded by later taste. Portions of the old
woodwork were incorporated in the excellent new work of X879
(Sir Gilbert Scott). In the chapel is preserved the beautiful
pastoral staff of the founder, and there is a fine series of memorial
brasses, main^ of the xsth century, in the antechapeL To the
west of the chapd are the doistera, consecrated in 1400, and tha
detached tower, a tall massive builcUng on the line of the dty wall
As dready mentioned, a fine remnant of this wall adds to the
picturesqueness of the college garden. The hall was completed
in X368, and has a Tudor screen and wainscoting. The garden
quadrangle, the east side of which ia open to the gardens, dates
from 1682-X708. On the north side of the college precincts,
facing HolyweU Street, are extensive naodem buildings by Sir
G. G. Scott and B. Champneys. In 1642, when Oxford was play-
ing its prominent part in the Civil War, the tower and cloisters of
New College became a royalist magazine.
Orid College was founded by Edward II. in 1326. The
origiiutor of the scheme and the prime mover in it was Adam
de Brone, the king's almoner, who in X324 had obuiaed royd
licence to found a college; but in 1326 he surrendered his rights
to the king, who issued charter and statutes, and created Brome
the first provost. This foundation was for a provost and xo
fellows, but a number of bequests extending over nearly a century
from X445 enabled additiond fellowships to be established.
The foundation, howew, now consists of the provost, xs
fellows and 2 professorid fellows, with at least xa scholan
and a number of exhibitioners. St Mary Hall, wtudi had been
the manse of St Mary's church, was given with the church to
the college by the founder, and was opened as a hall with a
prindpd of its own. It was, however, incorporated with the
college m 1902. Orid College was dedicated to St Mary the
Viigin, and the name by which it is now known appears first
in 1349. It was derived from a tenement called La Oride (but
the origin of this name is unknown), which had occupied part
of the college dte, had belonged to Eleanor of Provence, wife of
Edward I., and had been given by her to her chapldn, James oC
Spdn (Jacobus de Ispania). The buildings of Orid, which Uce
Oriel Street, are not coevd with the foundation. The first
quadrangle, with its elaborate battlements, dates from 1620-
1637. The inner quadrangle has buildings of X719, X729 and
later dates. The modern extension on Cecil Rhodes's founda-
tion faces High Street. Early in the X9th century a number
of eminent men associated with Orid gave the college Us well*
known connexion with the "Oxford Movement." Edward
Copleston, dected fcUow in i795i became provoot in 18x4-
In xSxi John KeUe and Richard Whatdy were elected fellowi*
OXFORD
411
tlie one from Corpus; the other had been at OrieL • Agaia in
1815 Thomas Arnold, afterwaids headmaster of Rugby, wos
elected from Corpus, with Renn Dickson Hampden of Oriel.
Later feUows were John Henry Newman (1823) and Edward
Piuey (1893). James Anthony Froude entered the college in
X835; Matthew Arnold became a fellow in 1845. Cccfl John
Rhodes matiictflated in 1875, and, besides his foundation of
Rhodes scholarships, made a large bequest to the college.
Pemhroks Cottege wss founded in 1694. Thomas Tesdak
(1547-1609) of Glympton, OifohSshire, left money for the
support of scholan in Oxford, indicating Balliol College as his
preference, but not insisting on this. Richard Wightwick
(d. 1630), rector of East Ilsley, Berkshire, added to Tesdale's
bequest, and though Balliol College desired to benefit by it,
James I. preferred to figure as the founder of a new college
with these moneys. Pembroke, which was named after William
Herbeit, eail of Pembroke, then chancellor of the university,
was thus devek>ped out of Broadgates Hall, which had long been
eminent as the residence of students in law. The original college
foundation was for a master, 10 feDows and xo scholars, but
a number of scholarships and exhibitions has been added by
benefactors. Of the scholarships some are awarded by preference
to candidates, possessing certain qualifications, notably that of
education at Abingdon school, which Tesdale intended to benefit
by his bequest. The buildings of Pembroke lie south and west
of St Aldate's Church, opposite Christ Church; they surround
two picturesque quadrangles, but are in great part modem.
The college preserves some relics of Samuel Johnson, who entered
it in X729.
QueeiCs C^Ugf was- founded in X340-X341 by Robert de
Eglesfield, chaphun of Phihppa, queen-consort, of Edward HI.,
and was xuimed in her honour. Her son, Edward the Bkck
Prince, was entered on the books of the college, and Henry V.
received education here. Several queens were among the
benefactors of the college— Henrietta Maria, Caroline, Charlotte.
The queen-consort ir always the patroness of the college.
The foundation conasts of a provost, from 14 to x6 fellows,
and about .25 scholars. There was formerly an intimate
coimexion between this college and the north of England.
Five scholarships, called Eglesfield scholarships, are now given
by preference to natives of Cumberland or Westmorland,
and the Hastings exhibitions founded by Lady Elizabeth
Hastings (i 683-1 739) are open only to candidates from various
schools in these counties and in Yorkshire. This connexion
dates from the foundation. Eglesfield (d. 1349) was probably
a native of Eaglesfield in Cumberland, and provided that the
IS fellows or schdars of his foundation were preferably to
be natives of this county pr Westmorland. During the time of
Wydiffe, who while rector of Lutterworth resided for two years
in the coDege, the foundation was by a ruling of the visitor
(the archbishop of York) actually confined to the two counties
mentioned, and so remained until 1854. The buildings date
mainly from the close of the X7tl) century and the beginning of
the x8th. They front High Street with a massive classical
screen, flanked by the ends of the east and west ranges of buildings
of the front quadrangle, and surmounted in the centre by a
statue of (2ucen Caroline under a cupola. The buildings are the
work of Sir Christopher Wren and Nicholas Hawksmoor. The
library contains a valuable collection, e^>ecially of historical
works, and is fitted with wood-carving by Grinling Gibbons.
There is also here an interesting contemporary sutue in wood of
(2ueen Philippa. The chapel retains several medieval windows
from the former Gothic chapel, and some stained glass painted
by Abraham van Ling (1635). The coUege preserves two early
customs--on Christmas day a dinner is held at which a boar's
bead is carried in state into the hall, and an appropriate andeot
carol is sung; and on New Year's day a threaded needle, with
the motto " Take this and be thrifty," is presented to members
in the conege* hall. The origin of this custom is traced to a
rebus on the founder's tamt—ciguilU d fit (needle and thread).
St Jokm's Colkie was founded in 1555 by Sir Thomas White,
Kt., alderman of London (1493-1567). It occupied the site
of a house for Cisterdan students in the universfty, founded by
Archbishop Chicheleyin X437 and dedicated to St Bernard of
Clauvauz. White's foundation was originally for a president,
50 fellows and schokrs, and a diaplam, choir, &c., for the chapel
White established the intimate connexion which still exists
between his coUege and the Merchant Taylors' sdiool in
London, in the foundation of whidi, as a prominent officer in
the Merchant Taylors' Company, he had a share. The college
foundation itow consists of a president, from 14 to x8
fellowships, not less than 28 schoUrships, of which 15 are
appropriated to Merchant Tabors' school, and 4 senior
scholarships, similarly appropriated. The buildings incorjMrate
some of Chichdey's work, as in the front upon St Giles's Street,
with its fine gateway. Similariy, in the front quadrangle,
the hall and chapel bdonged to the house of St Bernard, though
subsequently much altered. A passage with a rich fan-traceried
roof gives access from the front to the back quadrangle, on the
south and east sides of which is the library. The south wing
dates frofn 1596, the east from 1631. The latter is of the greater
interest; it was buHt at the charge of William Laud, and the
designs have been commonly attributed to Inigo Jones. The
north and west sides of the quadrangle, of the same period, have
doisters. The union of the classical style, which predominates
here, with the characteristic late Perpendicular of the period,
makes this quadran^^e architecturally one of the most interesting
in Oxford, as the college gardens, which its east front overlooks,
are among the most picturesque. The most notable period of
the history of the coUege is assodated with Laud, who entered
the college in 1589, was elected a fellow in 1593, became president
hi x6xx andxhanceDor of the university in 1629. Relics of him
are preserved in the library, and he is buried in the chapel,
together with White, the founder, and M^Iliam Juxon, president
X63X-1633, and afterwards archbishop of Canterbuxy.
Trinity College was founded in 155$ by Sir Thomas Pope,
Kt. (dl X559), of Tittenhanger, Hertfordshire. He acquired and
used for his college the ground and buildings of Duiham College,
the Oxford house of Durham Abbey, originally founded in the
X3th 'century (see Dushait, dty). Trinity is therefore one of
the instances of collegiate foundation forming a sequel to the
dissolution of the monasteries, for Durham had been surrendered
in X540. Pope's foundation provided for a president, X2
fellows and X3 scholars. There are now x6 schobirships and
a number of exhibitions. There are also some scholarships
in natural sdence, on the foundation (X873) of Thomas Millard,
whose bequest also provides for a lectiirer and laboratory. Hie
front quadrangle of Trinity lies open to Broad Street; on its
east side are modem buildings (by T. G. Jackson, 1887), on the
north, the president's house and the chapd in a dassic style,
dating from X694. It contains a rich alabaster tomb of Pope,
the founder, and his third wife, and has a fine carved screen and
altar-piece by Grinling Gibbons. The remainder of the buildings,
fanning two small quadrangles north of the chapel, indudes
parts of the old Durham coUege, but these have been much
altered. Gardens extend to the east. John Henry Newman
was a commoner of this college; Edward Augustus Freeman,
the historian, and William Stubba, bishop of Oxford, were
among its fellows.
University College (commonly abbreviated Univ.) has daimed
to find its origin in a period far earlier than that to which the
earliest historical notice of the university itself can be assigned.
In a petition to Richard H., respecting a dispute as to property
the members of the " mickel universitie hall in Oxford " quote
King Alfred as the founder of the house, for 26 divines. The
date of 872 was claimed, and in 1872 a millenary celebration
was held by the college. Moreover, in 1727 a dispute as to the
mastership of the college led to an appeal to the Court of King*s
Bench to determine the right of visitation, and it was found
that this right rested with the crown (as it now docs) on the
ground of the foundation by Alfred. Leaving tradition, however,
it is found that William of Durham, archdeacon of Durham,
d3ring in 1249, bequeathed money to the university to tr>w«'«»*
masters at Oxford. In 1253 the univeisity acquired
4.12
OXFORD
cenemeat on this bequest; farther Acquisitions followed; and
in 12S0 an inquiry was held as to the disposition of the bequest,
and statutes were issued to the society on Durham's foundation,
the university finding it necessary to make provision for its
individual governance. This intimate connexion between the
university and the early development of a college has no parallel,
and to it the college owes iu name. The college, as it may now
be called, developed slowly, further statutes being found neces-
sary in 1297 and 131 1; unlike other foundations which were
established, with a definite code of statutes from the outset, by
individual founders. It is possible, however, to maintain that
the founders of Merton and Balliol were influenced in their
work by that of William of Durham. The foundation consists
of a master, 13 feUows and x6 scholars, and there are a
large number of exhibitions. The buildings have a long front-
age upon High Street. The oldest part of the buildings was
begun in 1634. The chapel, built not long after, was altered in
Decorated style by Sir Gilbert Scott, but contains fine wood-
work of 1694, and windows by Abraham van Ling (1641). The
old library dates from X66S-X670, hvX a new library was built
by Scott, in Decorated style, and contains great statues of Lord
£l<U>n and Lord Stowdl, members of the college, the design of
which was by Sir Francis Chantrey. The hall dates from 1657,
but has been greatly altered. The extension of the college has
' necessiuted that of its buildings in modern times. A chamber
built for the purpose contains a statue, by Onslow Ford, of
Percy Bysshe Shelley, presenting him lying drowned. The
poet entered the college in 18x0.
Wadkam College was founded in 16x2' by Nicholas Wadham
(d. 1609) of Merificld, near Ilminster, Somersetshire, and Dorothy
his wife, who as his executrix carried out his plans. The
original foundation consisted of a warden, 15 fellows, 1 5 scholars,
with 3 chaplains and a clerks. It now consists of a warden,
8 to xo fellows and x8 scholars. The college, which has
its frontage upon Parks Road, occupies the site of the
house of ^e Austin Friars. No part of their btiildings is re-
tained. The erection of the college occupied the years i6io>
x6i3, and while the buildings are in the main an excellent
example of their period, the ch?pel (as distinct from the ante-
chapel) is of peculiar interest. This appears and was long held
to be pure Perpendicular work of the xsth century, but the
record of its building in x6ix is preserved, and as the majority
of the builders stem to have been natives of Somersetshire it is
supposed that in the chapel they closely imitated the style
which is so finely developed in that county. The buildings of
Wadham have remained practically unchanged since the founda-
tion, either by alteration of the existing fabric or by addition.
Beautiful gardens lie to the east and north of them; the warden*s
garden is especially fine. In the quadrangle is a dock designed
by Christopher Wren, who entered -the coDege in 1649. It was
in this year that John Wilkins, warden (X64&-1659), initiated a
weekly phflosophkal club, out of the meetings of which grew
the Royid Society, which received its charter in 1662.
Worcester College was founded in its present form in X7X4, out
of a bequest by Sir Thomas Cookes, Bart. (d. 170X) of Bentley
Pauncefoot. Worcestershire. On part of the site, in X283,
Gloucester Hall had been founded for Benedictine novices from
Gloucester. After the dissolution of the monasteries, the
buildings were used by Robert King, first bishop of Oxford,
as a palace (1542); later it was acquired by Sir Thomas White,
founder of St John's College, and again became a halL This
fell into difficulties, and was in great poverty when the present
foundation superseded it. Cookcs's foundation provided for a
provost, 6 fellows and 6 scholars; there are now from 6
to 10 jfcllows, and from xo to x8 scholars. Four of the
scholarships are appropriated to Bromsgrove school, of which
Cookes was a benefactor. The frontage of the buildings, in
Worcester Street, is in a classical style, but the quadrangle
retains some of the old buildings of Gloucester Hall. The
gardens, with their lake, are fine.
>The year in which the sUtutes were isHied; Docothy Wadham
bad received the royal charter in x6io.
The academical halls, which were of vsQr etriy ocigm« ««rt
originally in the nature of lodging-bouses, in which stnrirnis
lived under a principal chosen by themselves. But „ ^^
they were gradually absorbed by the colleges as ^^
these became firmly established. The only rcsnaixung
academical hall is that of St Edmund, which is said to bare
been founded in X336, and to derive its name from Edmund
Rich, archbishop of Canterbury, who is known to have taoi^
at Mord, and was canonized in XS4S. The hall came inlo
the possession of Queen's College in i5S7> and the principal
is nominated by that society. The buildings, which fons a
small quadrangle east of Queen's College, date mainly from
the middle of the x8th century. There are three private balb
in Oxford, established imder a imivexsity statute of x883, whidi
provides for such establishment by any member of convocatkw
under certain conditions and under lioence from the vice-
chancellor. Non-collegiate students,* f.c. mcmbexs ^ the
university, possessing all its privileges without being membcis
of any college, were first admitted in x868. As a body tbey axe
under the care of a delegacy and the supervision of a cenaoc
Women are admitted to lectures and university examinationa
but not to its degrees; they have four colleges or halls— Somer-
viUe College (i879)» Lady Margaret HaU (1879), St Hugh's Hall
(x886) and St Hilda's Hall (1893). Among foundations in-
dependent of university jurisdiction and intended primarily
for the teaching of theology are the Pusey House (X884, founded
in memory of Edward Bouvcrie Pusey), St Stephen's House
(1876) and Wydiffe Hall (X878), both theological coDcfes;
Mansfield College (Congregational, founded to take the i^ce
of Spring Hill College, Birmingham, in 1889) and Manchester
College (x 893), also a nonconformist institution. The bnildinjs
of Mansfield, es^ially the chapel, should be noticed as of very
good design in Decorated and Perpendicular styles. None e(
these houses is a residence for undergraduates. There is a
theological college at Cuddesdon, near* Oxford, where also is
the bishop of Oxford's palace.
A notable group of buiklinKS connected with the univerBity standa
between Broad btreet and High Street, and between Exeter aad
Brasenosc and All Souls colleges. Among these the prin- -. . ^^^
cipal are the old schools buijdings, which form a fine T*''j7~^
2uadrangle, and are now mainly occupied by the Bodleian ^^!^
ibraiy, more extensive accommodation for the schools jgaMtoea»
(examinations, 8k..) being provided in the modem range
of buildings facing High Street and King Street, completed in 1883
from the designs of T. G. Jackson. The ercctbn of the old scboob
qtiadrang^ was b<^n in 1613. and the architecture combines late
uothic with classical details. On the inner face of the gateway
towers are seen the five Roman orders, in tiers, one above another.
The .windows, parapet and rich pinnacles, however, are Gothic.
The quadrangle was founded by Sir Thomas Bodley, who cooccivvd
the addition of schools to the celebrated library which bean his
name. The main chamber of the Bodleian Library is entered from
the quadrangle. The library (sec Libsaries) was opened in 1601.
The central part of the room dates from 1480. when it was completed
to contain the library given to the university by Humphrey, duke of
Gbucester (d. 1447). This library was destroyed in the time of
Edward VI. Bodley added the east wing, the west wing followed
in 1634-1640, being built to house the collection of John Seklen,
one of the principaiof many benefactora of the library. The wfade
forms a most beautiful room, enhanced by the finely painted cciliiif
and the excellent design of the fittings. In the storey above the
library is the picture-gallery, containing portraits of chnnceUorSk
founders and benefactors of the university. The basement of the
central part of the library is formed by the Divinity School, a splendid
chamber (1480), in whkh the most nouble feature is the groined raoC,
divided into compartments by widely splayed arches, and adorned
with rich tracery and carved pendants. The Convocation House,
bdow the west wing of the library, and entered from the west end
of the school, has a roof with fan tracery. To the north of these
buildings. Ranking Broad Street, are the Sheldonlan Theatre, tke
old building of the Clarendon Prns and the Old Ashnwrfean buikiiog.
" The Sheldonian " was built in 1664-X669 at the charge of Gilbert
Sheldon (1598-1677), chancellor of the university and archbishop
of Canterbury, from the design of Sir Christopher Wren. The
principal public ceremonies of the university, including the ** Ed-
" the annual commemoratkMi of benefactors, accompai ' '
'l^enerally helcl in this buildins, which b par
wen adapted for its purpose.
by the conferring of honorary degrees and the redtatioo of prae
compodtions. are generally held in this building, which b particularly
* ' Its purpose. The umverMty printing prese was
* This title was given by a sUtute of 1884.
OXFORD .
413
early «iublulMd m its upper rmn. Thts iMthutioa hmn the aaine
of the Clareadon Press from the fact that it was founded partly from
the proceeds of the sale of the earl of Clarendon's Eistory oj the
JUbeiiion, the copyright of which was given to the university by .his
■on Henry, the second earL In 1713 it occupied the building erected
for it close to the theatre; in 1830 it was moved to the larger build-
ings it now occupies in Walton Street. Printing in Oxford dates
from the seventh or ctghth decade of the 15th century, but. was
only carried on spasmodically until 1585. when the first university
printer was Joseph Oames. AU the subsidiary processes of type-
loundii^. stereotyping, &c., are carried on in the buildings of the
press, and paper is supplied from the university mill at Wolvetcote.
The press is to a large extent a commercial firm, in which the uni-
versity has a preponderating inSucnce, governing it through a
delegacy. The Broad Street building is used for other, purposes
of the university, as is the adjacent Old Ashmolcan building, which
originally (1683) conuined the Ashmolean Museum, described here-
after, and now affords rooms for the School of Geography (1899).
To the south of the old schools, between Brasenose and All Souls
colleges, is the fine classical rotunda known as the RadcUffe Libranr
or camera, founded in 1737 by the eminent physician John Radclifle
(1650-1714). The aichitect was James Gibbs. In 1861 the building
was devoted to the purpose it now serves, that of a reading room to
the Bodleian Library, the collection of medieval and scientific works
it contained being removed to the University Museum. The exterior
gallery round the dome is celebrated as a view-point.
To the south of the Radcliffc Library, bordering High Street, is
the church of St Mary the Virgint commonly called the University
church, on a site which is trauitionally said to have been occupied
by a church even from King Alfred's time. Its principal feature is
B fine Decorated tower and spire, dating from the early part of
the 13th century. The body of the churdi, however, is mamly an
excellent exaropk» of Perpendicular work. The main entrance
from High Street is beneath a classical porch erected in 1617 by
Morgan Owen, a chaplain of Archbishop Laud; the statue ol the
Virgui and Child above it was alluded to in the impeachment of
the archbishop. On the north side of the chancel is a building of
earlier date than the |>reaent church ; it is Decorated, of two storeys,
and haa Krved various purposes conneacd with the university,
including that of housing a library before thfe foundatUm by
H umphrey, duke of Gbuccster. The university sermonsarc preached
in St Mary's church.
A massive pile of classical -buiklings (1&15) at the comer of
Beaumont and St Giles's Streets is devoted to the Taylor Institution,
tlic Univernty Galleries and the Ashmolcan Museum. Sir Robert
Taylor, architect (1714-1788), k>ft a bequest to establish the teaching
of modem European languages in Oxford, and to provide a building
for the purpose, and the eastem wing is devoted to this purpose,
containing a library. In the University Galleries the most notable
fca.tures are the cdebrated Arundel marbles, a large aeries of drawings
for iMCtures by Raphael and Michelangelo, and models for busts and
statues by Sir Francis Chantrey. yhe new building for the Ash-
molean Museum was added in 1893; ^^ ii> connexion both with
the buildiiMF and with subsequent additions to the collections the
benefactions of Charles Drary Edward Fortnum (1820-1899) should
be remembered. The nucleus of this collection was formed by John
Tradcscant, a traveller and botanist (1608-1663), who left it to Elias
Ashmole (q.v.), who added books, paintings and other objects, and
p res e n ted the whole to the university in 1679. When the museum
wtta moved from the Old Aahroolean building, the collection was in
great part distributed: thus, books were sent to the Bodleian
Libraiy, and natural history objects to the University Museum.
The Adimolean Museum now contains excelknt collections of
Egyptian, Greek, Roman and British antiquities, and many other
objectsi among which perhaps the most widely famous is the Alfred
Jewel, an ornament of crystal, enamel and ^old, bearing King
Alfred's name, and found at Athclncy. Tlie University Museum is
an extenuve buildine close to the parks, opposite Kcble Colleg^.
Its foundation was the outcome of the necessity of keepins pace in
the university with the extended range of modem scientific study.
It tras built in 1856 seq., and contains the following departments: —
medicine and public ncalth, comj>arative anatomy, physiolo^,
human anatomy, zoology, experimental philosophy, physics,
chemistry, geology, mineralogy and pathology. There is also here
the Pitt-Rivers eUinognphicu museum, which had its origin in the
coUcctioa of Augustus Heniy Lane Fox Pitt-Rivers, presented to
the university in 1883. Additional buildings contain the Radcliffe
Library and various laboratories. The university observatory is in
the parks, not far from the museum, but an older observatory is that
called the Radcliffe (i773-i79S)> btiilt by the trustees of the Radcliffe
bequest, as was the RadcUffe Infirmary (1770) standing near the
observatory, in Woodstock Road. Opposite Ma|(dalen College, by
the banks of the Cherwcll, is the beautiful botanic garden founded
by Henry Danven, eari of Danby, in l6a2. with whidi are con-
vected a library, herbarium and museum. The Indian Institute
Jlttfs), in Broad Street, was founded as a centre for the study of
itdun subjects, and for the use of native students in the university
and prospective Indian civil servants. The Oxford Union Society,
the principal university dob, founded in 1825, has its rooniSt with
Kbcmry Md debating haU, near Commarket Streeu
Ancieot buIldinfB in Oxfofd. apart from ooAegiate and univcfslty
buiMings* are mainly ecclesiastical, but there are a few notabfe
exceptkxis. The castle, whkh. as already indkated, was ^
erected by Robert d'Oili at the west of the ancient city, SLi
retains its massive tower, standing picturesquely by the •■"■'^i*'
river, and a mound within which is a curious chamber containing
a welL There is also a Norman crypt-chapel, but the county court
and gaol buiklings adjacent are modem. Among oki houses, of
which not a few survive in Holywell Street and ebewheie. Buhop
King's palace in St Aklate's Street may be mentkmed; It has been
in great part defaced by modem alterations, while the remaining
front IS a beautiful hatf-timhcrod ami gabled example dated 1628;
but ornate ceilings pieaerved in some of the rooms date from the
erection in the ume of Edward VL KetteU Hall in Broad Street
IS another fine house, now used aa » private reskleaoe. but formerly
put to coU(«iate use, having been built by Ralph iCetteU. president
of Tnniiy (1599-16^3). Among ancient churches in Oxford, after
the cathedral and St Maiy's, the chief in interest is St Peter'^in-tbe-
East, which has a fine Norman chancel, crypt and south doorway,
with additions of Early English and later date. St Michael's church,
the body of which as now existing is of little interest, has a very
early tower fiith century) of massive construction, which probably
served as a defence for the north gate of the city. St Giles's church
has Norman remains, but is chiefly notable for the excellent character
of iu Eu-ly English portions and for a beautiful font of that period.
Holywell church retainsa fine Norman chancel arch ; and the churches
of St Mary Magdalen. St Aldate's, St Ebbe's and St Thomas
the Martyr are all of some antiquarian interest in spite of extensive
modem alteratkm. Only the 14th century tower remains of St
Martin's church at Carfax, the body of the church, which was a
complete reconstmaion of 1820. being removed at the close of the
century, in the course of street-widening. Some of the modern
churches are on sites of early dedication. The church of All ^ints
in High Street was rebuilt in 1 706-1 708 from the design of Dean
Aldrich, and is a good classical example. Beneath several buiklings
in this part of the city the cryots of cariier halls or other buiUlinn
remain. In the suburb of Cowley are remains, including the chapd,
of the hospital of St Bartholomew, originally a foundatwn for lepeia
(1126). The village church at lAley, not far beyond the eastern
outskirts of the city, with its ornate west end, tower and chancd,
is one of the most nouble small Norman churches in England. Of
modem dty buildings, the only one of special note is the town hall
(1893-1897). which hasa staking frontage upon St Aldate's Street.
" The Chancellor, Masten and Scholars of the University of
Oxford " form a corporate body, within which the colleges are so
many individual corporations. The university was ., j^ . ^
governed by sututes of iu own making which were «'«'*J]^"0'
codified and brought out of the confusion into which fT**^^
they had fallen in the course of centuries in 1636, during ij^f ;
Laud's chancellorship. A commission was appointed to T*?:;*
inquire fully into the condition of the university in 1850; ""*■•
it reported in 1852, and in 1854 the constitution was amended by
the Oxford University Act. In 1876 another commission was
appointed, and in 1877 the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge
Act was passed. This act provided for the appointment of com^
misaoncrs who (1882) made statutes for each coUcge, excepting
Hertford, Kcble and Lincoln, the first and seoMul of which are
modern foundations, while the third is governed under statutes of
1855. The highest officer of the university is the chancellor, who b
elected by the memlicrs of convocation, haids office for life, and is
generally a distinguished member of the university. He docs not
take an active part in the details of administration, delegating this
to the vice-chancellor, who is, therefore, practically the head. He
b nominated annually by the chancellor, and must be the head of a
college. He appoints four pro-vice-chancellors, also heads of colloccs,
to exercise his authority in case of necessity. The high steward is
appointed for life, with the duty of trying grave criminal cases
when the accused b a resident member of the university. Two
proctors are appointed annually by two of the colleges in rotati on :
their special duty is a disciplinary surveillance over members of the
university m jIoIh putiUari when these are not within the jurisdiction
of their colleges. They are assisted by four pro-proctors. Tlie
principal duty of the public orator b that of presenting those wtio
are to receive an honorary master's degree, and of making s|xcchcs
in the name of the university on ceremonial occasions. The rcKist rar
acts as the recorder of the various administrative bodies of the
university, and the secretary to the Board of Faculties has similar
duties with regard to these boards, hb work bcit^ closely assocuit>>d
with that of the registrar. The chancellor's court exercises civil
jurisdiction in cases m which one of the parties b a resident member
of tbe university. The university returns two members (burgcabcs)
to pariiament, the privilege dating from 1604.
The HebdomadaP Council consUts of the chancellor, vire-
chancellor, immediate ex-vice-chancellor and proctors as ofTi'ial
mtynbers, and of eighteen other members (heads of houses^ pro-
fessors, &c.} elected for terms of six years by the congregation of
the university. The council ukes the initbtive in promulgating.
*From Greek IffUmka, the number seven; the Hebdomadal
JBoBcd inititutcd ia 1631 waa appointed to hoki a weekly moeting.
414
OXFORD— OXFORD, PR.OVISIONS OF
ditcnsMag and nibimttin|( to Convocation all the legislation of
the univenuty. The Ancient House oC Congregation consists of
" regents." f^. doctors and mastcrsof arts for two years after the term
in which they take their decrees, professors, heads of colleges and
other resident officer^ &c. The house thus includes all those who
are concerned with education and discipline in the university, but
it now has practically no functions beyond the grantinj^ of degrees.
it lost its wider powers under the act of 1 854* when the Congregation
of the university was created: This body, which tncludn Ksides
certain officiab all members of Convocation who have resided for a
fixed period within one mile and a half of Carfax, approves or amends
legisbtion submitted by the Hebdomadal Council previously to. its
submission to Con^wocation ; it also has considerable powers in the
election of the various administrative boards. The House of Con-
vocation consists of all masters of arts and doctors of the higher
faculties who have their names on the university books, and has
the final control over all acts and business of the university. There
are boards of curators for the Bodleian Library, the university
chest and other institutions, delegates of the common university
fund, the museum and the press, for extension teaching, local
examinations and other stmibr purposes, visitors for the Ashmolean
Museum and university galleries, and many other administrative
bodies. There are boards for the following faculties: theology,
law, medicine, natural science and arts (including literat kumaniores,
oriental languages and modern history). Axnong the numerous
Thu was followed by the five Regius professorships of divinity,
civil law, niediciiie. Hebrew and Greek, founded by Henry VHl.
in 1546.
The colleges, as already seen, conrist of a head, whose title varies
in different colleges, fellows (who form the governing body) and
scholars. To these are to be added the commoners, who arc not
" on the foundation," i.e. those who either receive no emoluments,
or hold exhibitions which do not (generally) entitle them to rank
¥fith the scholars. The college officer who is immediately concerned
with the disciplinary surveillance of members of the college in statu
pupiUari is the dean (except at Christ Church). Each undergraduate
(this term covering all who have not yet proceeded to a degree) is,
as regards his studies, under the immediate supervision of one of
the fellows as tutor. The university terras are four — Mkrhaelmas
(which beffins the academic year, ana is therefore the term in which
the ma)onty of undeigraduates begin reddence), Hilary or Lent.
Easter and Trinity. The last two run consectitively without in-
terval, and for certain purposes count as one; thev are kept by three
weeks* residence in each, while the two first are Kept by six weeks'
residence In each, though the terms properly speaidng are longer.
The examinations required to be passed m order to obtain the first
or bachelor's degree may be summarized thus; — {a) Responsions,
usually taken very early in the course of study. Exemption is in
many cases granted when a candidate has -passed a certificate
examination held by univernty examiners at the school where he
has been educated. (M First public examination or School of
Moderations, usually uken after four or six terms. U) Second
public examination or final school (this in the case of lUerae humani-
cres is commonly calkd "Greats") usually takes place at the
end of the fourth year of residence. '^ Pass " schools and " honour "
schools are dbtinguished; in the latter candidates are grouped in
classes aococding to merit. Nq further examination or other exercise
is required for the degree of master of arts. Among the numerous
scholardiips and prizes offered by the university^ (as distinct from
the colleges) a few of the most noted may be mentioned — the Craven
and the Trerand classical scholarships on the foundation respectively
of John. Lord Craven (d. 1648). who also founded the travelling
fcUow^ips which bear his name lor the study of antiquities, and of
John Ireland, dean of Westminster (1835); the schobrship com-
memorating Edward, ear^ of Derby (chancellor 1852-1869); the
law scholarship commemorating John, first earl of Eldon; the
chancellor's pnzes In Latin verse and English prose (initiated by
the earl of Lichfield, chancellor 1762-1773) and m Latin prose (by
Lord Grenville, 1809); the Newdieate prize for English verse,
founded by Sir Roger Newdigate (1B06); the Gaisfoni prizes in
Greek verse andptxMe (1856), commemorating Thomas Gaisford,
dean of Christ Church; the Arnold historical essay (1850), com-
memorating Thomas Arnold, headmaster of Riceby school; and the
theological foundations of Edward Bouverie rusey and Edward
Ellcrton, feflow of Magdalen. Universitv scholarships, such as
those mentioned, are awarded to persons who are already members
of the ttaivenity (who must in some cases already have taken a
degree); they Uius differ from college scholarships, which are
generally open to persons who have not yet matriculated. The
Rhodes scholarships (see Rhodis. Cecil) stand ak>ne. They are
an adaptation of the college scholarship to a special purpose, but
are not in the award of any one college. Arrangemen ts exist whescby
members of the uoiverntles of Cambrid^ or Dublin may be " in-
corporated " as members of Oxford Umveisity : and whereby the
period of necessary academical residence at Oxford University is
reduced in the case of students from •• affiliated " colleges within the
United Kiagdom. Special proviaioaa eft also nade in the case of
students fro'm amy foreign university and from certain eolonUI ao4
Indian universities. The number of persons who matricelete at
Oxford University is about 850 annually.
The principal social functions in tnc university take place ia
*' Eighu* Week." when, during the summer term (Easter aad
Trinity), the college cight-oarcobumping races are hcM. and also,
more espccblly. in " Commemoration Week." at the close of the
same term, when the university ceremonies connected with the
commemoration of benefactors, the conferring of degrees komaru
causa, &c., are held, and balls are given in some of the colleges..
The city of Oxford (as distinct irom the university) returns one
member to paribment. having lost its second mcmoer under the
Redistribution Act of 1885. before which date it had been entirely
disfranchised for a year owin^ to bribery at the ekction of 1881.
The municipal government is in the hands of a mayor, issddCrmea
(including. 3 from the university) and 45 coundlk>rs (9 from the
university). . Area, 4676 acres.
AuTHoaiTiBS.— Sec the Oxford Vnmrsity CaUmdar fanniially)
and the Oxford Historical Register, Oxford. The Oxford Historical
Society has issued various works dealing with the history. In the
" College History " series, London, the stor>' of each college forms a
volume by a member of the foundation. The principal earlirr
authority is Anthony 4 Wood (o-v.). See also lames Ingram (pr»-
sident of Trinity, 1834-1850), Memorials of O^ord (Oxfonl. i8J7):
A. Lang. Ox/ortf (London. 188O: H. C. Maxwell Lyte, //cslary «/f*«
University of Oxford to 1530 (London. 1886) ; Hon. G. C. Brodrick.
History of the University of Oxford in " Epochs of Church History"
series (London. 1886); C. W. DoSHe, Oxford, in " Historic Towns "
series (London, 1867) ; Oxford and Oxford Life, ed. J. Welb (London,
1894). (O. J. R. H.)
* OXFORD, a village In BuUer county, Ohio» U.S.A., about
40 m: N.W. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1900) soog; (1910) 3017.
Oxford b served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton raflway.
It is the seat of Miami University (co-educational; cheitered
in 1809, opened as a grammar school in 18x8, and organixed as a
college in 1834), which had 40 instructors and 1076 studcou in
1909. At Oxford also are the Oxford College for Women,
chartered in 1906, an outgrowth, after various changes of name,
of the Oxford Female Academy (1839); and the Western
College for Women (chartered in 1904), an outgrowth of the
Western Female Seminary (opened in 2855). The fiist settlement
on the site was made about 1800.
OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF, the articles constituting a
preliminary scheme of reform enacted by a parliament which
met at Oxford (England) on the i ith of June 1358. King Hcmy
III. had promised on the 2nd of May that the state of his lealm
should be rectified and reformed by twenty-four oounsdiors
who were to meet at Oxford for this purpose five wedis later.
Twelve of these counsellors were chosen by the king,aiid twelve
by the earls and barons. When the paiVainent met each twelve
of these twenty-four chose two from the other twelve, and thb
committee of four was empowered, subject to the approval of
the whole body, to elect a king's council of fifteen members.
The twenty-four then provided that the new councfl should
meet three times a year in parliaments to which twdNre com-
Riissioneis were to be summoned to discuss the affairs of the
realm on behalf of the whole community. Another body of
twenty-four was appointed to treat of an aid, which was prot>ably
the aid which had been demanded earlier in the year. Oa
the 32nd of June the king appointed new wardens of some of the
castles which were then in the custody of his Poitevin half-
brothers and their friends, and on the same day he gave directions
that the twenty-four should proceed with the work of reform, and
the committee of four with the election of the council of fifteen.
Meanwhile it was provided that the sheriffs and the three great
officers of state were to hold office for a year only, and to render
accounts at the expiration of their terms of oflke. On the 34th
of August in pursuance of a provision by the parliament the
king directed four knights in each county to inquire into the
trespasses and wrongs which had been committed by aheriifs,
bailins and other officials. For many of the grievaacet of the
liarona the Oxford parliament provided no. remedy; and they
were only partly redressed by the Provisions joI WeaUninster
in the autumn of 1359. The king dedared his adhesion to the
Provisions of Oxford on the i8th of October by prodamatioot
in English, French and Latin, but in t36i, having obtained a
papal dispensation from his oath of observance, he entirely
repudiated them. The barons, however, insisted on his obUgatioa
OXFORDIAN— OXFORDSHIRE
41$
to observe tfaa ptwSaiota, and the dispute ww cvcDtually
xeferred to U>e arbitration o£ Louis IX. of France, who formally
annulled them on the 33rd of January 1264, but expressly
declared that his decision was not to invalidate the privileges,
liberties and laudable customs of the realm of England, which
had existed before the time of the provisions.
No oflidal record of the Provtsbna of Oxford has been preserved.
and our knowledge of them is chiefly derived from a scries of notes
end extracts entered in the Annals of Burton Abbey, which are
probably neither exhaustive. nor in correct- ordcf. Soethe Awnales
mmmsUeif vol. i. (Burton), edited by U. R. Luatd for the Rolls
aeries; FatttU Ratts.Hnuj III. (pnntcd text): Fetdim (Record
Commission edition); W. Stubba, Comlilutional History and
Sdea CharUrs, and Charles B^moot, Simon de Montfort (1884).
OXFORDIAN, in geology, the'name ^ven to a scries of strata
in th« middle Oolites which occur between the Corallian beds
and the Combrash; the division is now taken to include the
Oxford Clay with the underlying Callovian stage {q.v.). The
argillaceous beds were called " Clunch* Clay and Shale" by
William Smith (1815-18x6); in r8i8 W. Buckland described
them under the unwieldy title " Oxford, Forest or Fen Clay."
The term Oxfordian was introduced by d'Orbigny in 1844.
The name Is derived from the English county of Oxford, where
the beds are wcU developed, but they crop out almost continu-
ously from Dorsetshire to the coast of Yorkshire, generally'
forming low, broad valleys. They are well exposed at Wey-
mouth, Oxford, Bedford, Peterborough, aqd in the clifTs at Scar-
borough, Red Cliff and Gristhorpe Bay. Rocks of this age are
found abo in Uig and Skye.
The Oxford Clay
weathering brown or ,
more afaaly. The beds frequently tend 'to be calcareous and
bituminous, while in places there b a considerable amount of Kgnite.
Sepuria of large aiae are common, they have been out and poGshcd
at Radipole and Mclbuty Osmund in Dorsetshire, where they arc
known as Melbuiy mari>le or " turtle-stones'*; they were used to
form table-tops, ftc. In Yorkshire the Oxford Clay is usually a
is usually bluish or greenish-grey in colour,
r yellow; ra the lower portions tt ts somewhat
grey sandy soale. In the central and southern English counties
the Oxfonl Oay is divisible m folbws:--
\ pyriliied fatSblnbaoQe of Qnemltitoctnt LamUrti).
< Shales with pjrrftked (octib (subaNie ol Cosmccem /aim].
The upper sonc contains also Cryphaea dHalata (large forms),
Strpula vert^alis, BeUmniUs kastatus, Aspidoceras perarmatum^
Cardioeeras vtrUbnle. The lower lone yields Reineckia anceps,
PtUccem Ottilia, Qumsiedbteemt Manae, C^smoctns Jason,
CtnMmm muriaUitm, and a small form of Gryphata diiaUUa. The
remaias of fishes and saurian reptiles have been found. The Oxford
Clay is dug for brick-making at Weymouth, Trowbridge, Chippco-
bam, Oxford. Bedford, Peterborough and Pletton.
The ** Oxfordian " of the continent of Europe is divided accocdine
to A. de Lapfiarent into en opiser (Afgovian) and a fewer (Neuvixyeo)
sabstage. in the former he includes part of the English Coralline
Oolite and in the bttcr the lower Calcareous Grit, white a portion
of the lower Oxford Clay is placed In the Divesian or upper substagc
of the Calk>vian. In north-west Germany the Oxford Clay is re-
presented by the Hcrstimer beds. Most of the European formations
on this horizon are days and marls with occasional limestone and
ironstone beds.
See Jurassic. Callovian, Coralliak. J. A. H.)
OXFORDSHIRE (or Oxon), an inland county of England,
bounded N.E. by Northamptonshire, N.W. by Warwickshire,
W. by Gloucestershire,, S.S.W. and S.E. by Berkshire, and £. by
Buckinghamshire; area 755>7 sq. m. The county lies almost
wholly in the basin of the upper Thames. This river forms
ita southern boundary for 71 m., from Kelmscot near Lechlade
(Gloucestershire) to Remenham below Henley-on-Thames,
excepting for vety short distances at two points near Oxford.
The main stream is the boundary line, but from Oxford
upward the river often sends out branches through the flat water>
meadows. The prindpal tributaries joining the Thames on the
Oxfordshire side do not in any case rise within the county,
but have the greaur part of their courses through it.
Tbesk tribuuries are as follows, pursuing the main river down-
wards. (1) The Windrush, rising in Gloucestershire, follows a
narrow and pleasant valley as far a^ Witney, after which it meanders
in several branches throuftih rich flat country, to join the Thames
at. Newbridge, (a) The Evenlcde, also rising in Gloucestershire,
foitaw the westcta county boundary for a shon disunoe, and Ibllewe
e similar but weft beaotiful valley to the Thames bdov Eynakaifi.
From the north it receives the G^rme, which jeins it on the confines
of Blenhenn Parl^ where jthe woodland scenery is of peculiar rich-
ness. 0) The Cherwdl, ruing in Northamptonshire^ forms
10 m. of the eastern boundary, and with a straight aoutheriy c
)oins the Thames at Oxford. From the cast it reoeivea the
which drains the flat tract of Ot Moor. (4) The Thame, rising in
Buckinghamshire, rans south-west and west, forming 6 m. of the
eastern boundary, after whkh it turns south to join the Ttenee
near D6rchestcr._ Above the point of tuoctmn the Thamea is often
called the Isis. Lastly, a small part of the northeastern boundary
IS formed by the Great Ouse (which discharges into the North Scsgi
here a very slight stream, some of whose head-feeders rise within
Oxfordshire^
The low hiDs which He south of the Windrush, and those
between it and the Eventode (which attain a greater height)
are foothills of the CotteswoM range, the greater part of which
lies in Gkmcestershiro. Between the Windrush and Evenlode
they are clothed with'the remaining woods of Wychwood Forest,
one of the ancient forests of England, which was a royal preserve
from the time of John, and was disafforested in i86r. Its extent
was 3735 acres of forest proper. The hiUs continued north of the
Evenlode (but not under the name of Cotteswold) at an average
elevation over 500 ft The range terminates at Edge Hill, just
outside the county in Warwickshire. The hills bordering the
Cherwell basin on the east are of slight elevation,-until, running
east from Oxford into Buckingham^re, a considerable line of
heights is found north of the Thame valley, reaching 560 ft.
in Shotover hill, overlooking Oxford. Across the south-east of
the county stretches the bold line of the Chiltem Hills, running
N.E. and S.W. On the western brow, Nettlebed Common, an
extensive plateau, reaches at some points nearly 700 ft. of
altitude. The district was probably once covered with forest,
and there are still many fine beeches, oaks and ash trees. William
Camden in his survey of the British Isles (158^ mentions forests
as a parttcular feature of Oxfordshire scenery, and there are
traces still left of natural woodland in various parts of the lower
country.
The Thames flows through a deep gap from about (xoring
downwards, between the ChHterns and the Berkshire Downs.
Here, as above at Nuneham and other points, the sylvan scenery
is fine, and Henley and Goring are favourite riverside resorts on
the Oxfordshire shore. The western feeders of the Thames and
Chemv'cll have much rich woodland in their narrow valleys,
and the sequestered village of Great Tew, on a tributary of the
Cherwell river, may be singled out as having a situation of
exceptional beauty.
Ceotop.^T^xt influence of the rocky substratum upon the char-
acter oithe scenery and soil is deariy marked. It is sufficient to
point, on the one hand, to the dry chalky upland of the Chiltem
Hills and the oolitic limestone hills in the north-west, or the Corn-
brash with its rich, fertile soil; and. on the other hand, to the dreary
scenery of the Oxford Clay land with its cold, unproductive soif.
CreuccouB rocks occupy the south-eastern corner of the county;
Jurassic rocks prevail over the remainder. The general dip is
towards the south-cast, and the strike oCthe strata is S.W.-N:E.;
therefore in passing from south to north, beds are traversed which
are successively lower and older. The Chihem Hills, with a strong
scarp facing liic north-west, are formed of Chalk, the Lower Chalk
at the foot and the hard Chalk rxk at the sumnut; from the top
of the hills the Upper Chalk-with-FIiots descends steadily towards
the Thames. Here and there, as at Shiplake and Nettlebed. outliers
of Tertiary clays rest upon it. The Upper Greensand forms a low
feature at the foot of the Chalk hills; this is succeeded by the Gault,
with an outcrop varying from 4 m. to i) m. wide between Dor-
Chester and Sydenham; It is a pale blue clay, dug for bricks at
Culham. The Lower Greensand appears from beneath the Gault
at Culham and Nuneham Courtney and in outliers north of Coddes-
don. The Kimmeridge clay, in the grass-coveird vales between
Sandford and Waterperry, is separated from the Lower Greensand
by the Portland limestone and Portland sands and by the thin
Purbeck beds: it is dug for bricks at Headington. Both Portland
and Purbeck beds may be observed in Shotover hiO ; the Portland
limestone is quarried at Garsington. The Coral Rag. with calcareous
grit at the base, is a shelly, coral-bearing limestone, traceable from
Sandford to Wheatley ; it has been extensively quarried at Heading-
ton hill. North-west of the last-named formation a broad outcrop
of Oxford Clay crosses the county: while this is mostly under
pasture, the next lower formation, the Cornbrash, a brownish
nibbly limestone, gives rise to a loose brown soil very saitable for
the cultivation of wheat. Exposures of Combiasb occur at Norton
4i6
OXFORDSMIRB
Bridgt. Woodstock BiidShipton; It formt a brood platoou between
Middleton Sconey and Bicester. Inliere also lie in the Oxford Clay
plain at Islip. Chariton. Mcrton and Black Horse Hill. Wychwood
Forest ha» given its name to the " Forest Marble." an inconstant
■cries of limestones which thin out eastward and become at^illacooas.
The Great Oolite limestones, with the " Stoncsfield Slate " at the
base and oocasional maris, form the higher gfound in the north-
west. An excellent freestone is qunrricd at Tainton and Milton.
The Inferior Oolite scries of sands and limestones forms the Rollright
Ridge and caps Shenlow and Epwell hills; it also reaches down to
Chipping Norton and eastward to Steeple Aston. The three divinons
of the Lias are represented in the N.W. of the county. The most
important is the middle member with marlstone, which, being a hard
calcareous bed at the top, forms an elevated ridn along the limit
of the outcrop. The marlstone is quarried for oaiiding stone at
Hornton, and for road metal in many places, and. as it contains a
considerable amount of iron oxide, it has been extensively worked
for iron at Adderbury. Fawler and etsewhere. The Upper Lias clays
occur mostly as animportant outliers. The Lower Lias days have
been exposed by the Evenlodc near Charlbury and by the Cherwell
in the upper part of its valley. A hard shelly limestone called
Banbury marble occurs in this part of the Lias. Glacial drift is
sparingly scattered over the south-western part of the county, but
b more plentiful in the noah«eastera portion. Valley gravels are
associated with the main stream courses and gravd, day-with-
flints and brick earth rest upon much of the chalk slope. Coal
Measures have been proved at a depth of about 1200 ft. near Burford.
OimaU and Agriculture.— The climate is healthy and gcnefalty
dry except in the low ground bordering the Thames, as at Oxford;
but colder than the other southern districts of England, especially
in the bleak and expo:}ed regions of the Chiltcrns. Crops arc later
in the uplands than tn more northerly utuations at a lower elevation.
In the northern districts there is a strong yet friable loam, well
adapted for all kinds of crops. The centre m the county is occopied
for the most part by a good friable but not so rich sod, formed of
decomposed sandstone, chalk and limestone. A large district in
the south-east is occupied by the chalk of the Chiltem HillsM>artly
wooded, partly arable, and partly used as sheep-walks. The re*
mainder of the county is occupied by a variety of miscellaneous
soili ranging from coarse sand to heavy tenacious clay, and occa-
sionally very fertile. Nearly seven-eighths ol the area of the
county, a high proportion, is under cultivation. The acreage under
grain crops is ncariy etiually divided between barley, oats and
wheat. There is a considerable acreage under beans. More than
half the txital acreage under green crops is occupied by turnips,
and vetches and tares are also largely grown. Along the smaller
streams there are very rich meadows Tor grazing, but those on the
Thames and Cherwell are subject to floods. The dairy system
prevails in many places, but the milk is manufactured into butter,
littk: cheese being made. The improved shorthorn is the most
common breed, but Alderncy and Devonshire cows are largely kept.
Of sheep. Southdowns are kept on the lower grounds, and Leicesters
and Cotteswolds on the hills. Pigs are extensivdy reared, the
county bang famous for iu brawn.
Manufaeturts. — Blankets are manufactured at Witney, and tweed,
girths and horsecloths at Chipping Norton. There are paper mills
at Shiplake. Sandford-on-Thames. Wolvercot and Eynsham. using
water power, as do the blanket works and many mills on the tributary
streams of the Thames. Agricultural implements and portable
engines are made at Banbury, and gloves at Woodstock, the last
a very ancient industry. Banbury has been long celebrated for the
manufacture of a peculiar cake. Some iron ore is raised (from the
middle Liaj), and the (|uarries and days for brick-making are im-
portant, as already indicated. A large number of women and girls
are employed in several of the towns and villages in the lace manu-
facture.
Communications.— The northern line of the Great Western railway,
leaving the main line at Didcot Junction in Berkshire, runs north
through Oxfordshire by the Cherwell valley. Oxford %% the junction
for the Worcester line, run9ing north-west by the Evenlodc valley,
with branches from Chipping Norton Junction into Gloucestershire
(Cheltenham), and across the nonh-west of the county to the
northern line at King's Sutton. From Oxford also the East
Gloucester line serves Wttney and the upper Thames. Another
Great Western line, from Maidenhead and London, enters the
county on the cast, has a branch to Watlington, serves the town of
Thome, and runs to Oxford. The Great Central railway has a branch
from its main line at Woodford in Northamptonshire to Banbury,
the north and south expresses u^ng the Great Western route south-
ward. Branches of the London and North Western railway from
Bletchlcy terminate at Oxford and Banbury. As regards water-
communications, the Thames is navigable for large launches to
Oxford, and for barigscs o\'er the whole of its Oxfordshire coune.
None of its tributaries in this county is commercially navigable.
The Oxford Canal, opened in 1790, follows the Chcrvkcll north from
Oxford and ultimately connects -with the Grand Junction and
Warwick canals.
Population end Administration.— Tht area of the ancient
county ]• 483,626 acres, with a population in 1891 of 185,240
and in 1901 of 181,1 30. The vea of flie tdminbtntlve cotuity a
480,687 acres. The municipal boroughs are Banbury (pop. i s/y6S),
Chipping Norton (3780), Henley-on-Thames (5984), Oxford,
a dly and the county town (49.336) and Woodstock (1684).
The urban districts are Bicester (3023), Caversham (6580),
Thame (2911), WbeaUey (872), Witney (3574). Bamptoa
(1167) and Burford (1146) in the west, and Watlington (1154)
in the south-east, are the other prindpal country towns. The
county is in the Oxford circuit, and assizes are kdd at Oxford.
It has one court of quarter-sessions, and is divided into ti
petty sessional divisions. The borough of Banbury and the
dty of Oxford have separate courts of quarter-sessions and
commissions of the peace, and the borough of Henley-on-Thames
has a separate commission of the peace. The total number of
dvU parishes in 304. Oxfordshire is in the diocese of Oxford,
and contains 244 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or
in part. The ancient county is divided (since 1885) Into three
parliamentary divisions: Banbury or northern, Woodstock
or mid, and Henley or southern, each returning one member.
It also includes part of the parliamentary borough of Oxford,
returning one member, in addition to which the univexsiry
of Oxford returns two members.
Education.— On account of the famous university of Oxford and
other educational institutions there, the county as regards educatioo
holds as high a position as any in England. In connexion with the
university there is a day training college for achoolmastcnw arjl
there is also in Oxford a residential training college for schroJ-
mistresscs (diocesan), whkh takes day students. There is a training
college for schoolmasters in the dioceses of Oxfond and CkNioestvr.
at Culham. At Cuddcsdon, where is the palace of the bishops nf
Oxford, there a a theoloeical college, ofvcned in 1854. At Bloxham
is the large f^rammar school of All Saints, and there are several
boys' schook in Oxford.
History. — The origin of the county of Oxford is aomcwhat
uncertain; like other divisions of the Mercian kingdom, the
older boundaries were entirciy wiped out, and the district was
renamed after the prindpal town. The boundaries, except for
the southern one, which is formed by the Thames, are utiftdaL
There are fourteen hundreds in Oxfordshire, among them being
five of the Chillcm hundreds. The jurisdiction over these five
belonged to the manor of Benson, and in 1 199 to Robert de Hare^
court, a name which is still to be found in the county in the
Harcourls of Slanton-Harcourt and Nunduim. The cotmty
includes small portions of Berkshire and Buckinghamshire,
which lie in the hundreds of Bampton and Ploughley respectively.
There has been h'ttle change in the county boundary; but acts
of William IV. and Victoria slightly increased its area.
The district was overrun in, the 6th century by the victoaous
West Saxons, who took Benson and Eynsham, at noay be
seen in the Saxon Ckronide for 571. In the 7th century the
Mercians held all the northern border of the Thames, and
during the 8tli century this disUict twice duuigcd hands*
falling to Wessex after the battle of Burford, and toMerda
after a battle at Benson. As part of the Mcrdan kingdom it
was induded in the diocese of Lincoln. A bishopric had been
established at Dorchester as eariy as 6341 ^'hcn Birinus, the
apostle of Wessex, was given an episcopal seat there, but when
a bishop was established at Winchester this bishopric seems
to have come to an end. Before the Merdan conquest in 777.
Oxfordshire was in the diocese of Sherborne. In 873 the juris-
diction of Dorchester reached to the Humber, and when the Danes
were converted it extended over Ldcestershire and Lincolnshire.
Oxfordshire forming about an dghth of the diocese. At the
Conquest there was no alteration, but in 1092 the tent was
« ransf erred to Lincoln. In 1 542 a bishopric of Osney and Thame
was established, taking its title from Oxford, the last abbot of
Osney being appointed to it. In 1546 the existing bishopric
of Oxford was established. The ecclesiastical boundaries remain
as they were when arehdcacons were lint appeiinted — the
county and airhdeaconry being conterminous-Hind the rounly
being almost entirely in the diocese of Oxford. The Danes
overran the county during the nth century; Thurkell's army
burnt Oxford in loio. and the combined annics of Sweyn and
Olaf aomtd Watling Street and lavtged the district, Oxfoid and
OXFORDSHIRE
4«7
Wincketterralmiittiiig to than. In toi8 Danes and Eaglttli-
men chose Eadgar's law •at an assembly in Oxford, and in X036,
on Canute's death, his son Harold was chosen kin^ Here also
took place the stonny meeting (oUowiog the assembly (femot)
at Northampton, in which Harold allowed Tostig to be outlawed
and Morkere to be choseih earl in his place, thus preparing the
way for his own downfall and for the Norman Conquest. The
destniaion of houses in Oxford recorded in the Domesday
Survey may possibly be accounted for by the ravages of the
rebel army of Eadwine and Morkere on this occasion, there being
no undisputed mention of a siege by William. Large possessions
in the county fell to the Conqueror, and also to his rapacious
kinsman, Odo, bishop of Winchester. The bishop of Lincoln
also had extensive lands therein, while the abbeys of Abingdon,
Osney and Godstow, with other religious houses, held much land
in the county. Among lay tenants in chief, Robert D'Oili,
heir of Wigod of Wallingford, held many manors and houses
in Oxford, of which town he was governor. The importance of
Oxford was already well established; the shire moot there is
mentioned in Canute's Oxford laws, and it was undoubtedly
the seat of the county court from the first, the castle being the
county gaol. The principal historical events between this period
and the Civil War belong less to the history of the county than
to that of the city of Oxford (^.v.). The dissolution of the
monasteries, though it affected the county grcady» caused no
general disturbance.
When King Charics I. won the first battle of the CivQ War at
EdgehiU (s3rd of October 1642), Oxford at once became the
material and moral stronghold of the royalist cause. £very
manor house in the district became an advanced work, and from
Banbviry in the north to Marlborough in the west and Reading
in the south the walled towns formed an outer line of defence.
For the campaign of 1643 the r6Ie of this strong position was to
be the detention of the main parliamentary army until the royalists
from the north and tne west could come into line on either hand,
after which the united royal forces were to dose upon London
«n all sides, and in the operations of that year Oxfordshire
successfully performed iu allotted functions. No serious breach
was made in the line of defence, and more than once, noUbly
at Chalgrove Field (i8th of June 1643), Prince Rupert's cavahy
struck hard and successfully. In the campaign of Newbury
whidi followed, the parliamentary troops under Essex passed
through north Oxfordshire on their way to the relief of Gloucesur,
and many confused skirmishes took place between them and
Rupert's men; and when the campaign closed with the virtual
defeat of the royalisU, the fortresses of the county offered them
a refuge which Essex was powerless to disturb. The following
campaign witnessed a change in Charies' strategy. Realizing
bts numerical weakness he abandoned the idea of an envelop-
ment, and decided to use Oxfordshire as the stronghold from
which he could strike in all directions. The commanding
situation of the dty itself prevented any serious attempt at
investment by dividing the enemy's forces, but material wants
made it impossible for Charles to maintain permanently his
central position. Plans were continually resolved upon and
cancelled on both sides, and eventually Essex headed for the
south-west, leaving Waller to face the king alone. The battle
of Cropredy Bridge followed (zglh of Jan.), and the victorious
king turned sooth to pursue and capture Essex at Lostwithid
in Cornwall. In the remaining operations of 1644 Oxfordshire
again served as a refuge and as a base (Newbury and Donm'ngton).
With the appearance on the scene of Cromwell and the New
Model army a fresh interest arose. Having started from Windsor
on the aoth of April 164s, the future Protector carried out a
daring cavalry raid. He caught and scattered the royalists
unawares at lalip; then he pursued the f natives to Bletchington
and terrified the governor into surrendering. He swept right
round Oxford, fought again at Bampton. and finally rejoined
his chief, Fairfax, in Berkshire. A few days Uter Charles anln
marched away northwards, while Fairfax was ordered to besiege
Oxford. In spite of the difficulties of the besiegera Charles
was compelled to turn back to relieve the dty. and the consequent
delay led to the campaign and disaster of Naseby. Yet even after
Naaeby the actual position of Oxfordshire was practically un-
shaken. It is true that Abingdon with its parliamentary garrison
was a standing menace, but the districu east of the Cherwdl
and Thames, and the triangle bounded by Oxford, Faringdon
and Banbury, still retained iu importance, till cariy in 1646 the
enemy dosed from all sides on the last stronghold of royalism.
Stow-on-the>Wokl witnessed the final battle of the war. On
the 9th of May Banbury surrendered, and two days' later Oxford
itself was closely invested. On the S4th of June the dty capitu-
lated, and three days later Wallingford, the last place to give
in, followed its example.
The war left the county in an exceedingly impoverished
condition. Its prosperity had steadily declined since the eariy
I4tb century, when it had been second in prosperity in the
kingdom, owing its wealth largely to its well-watered pastures,
which bred sheep whose wool was famous all aver England,
and to its good supply of water power. Salt is mentioned as
a product of the county in Domesday Book. Various small
industries grew up, such as plush-making at Banbury, leather
works at Bampton and Burford, gloves at Woodstock, and
malt at |Ienley. Glass was made at Benson and Stokenchurch
in the rdgn of Henry VI., and the wool trade continued, though
not in so flourishing a state, Witney retaining its fame in blanket-
making. The pestilence of 1349, the convezsion of arable into
pasture land, and the eadosure of common land in the early
x6th century had led to agricultural depression and discontenL
In 1830 the endosure of Otmoor led to serious riots, in
which the people gathered in Oxford at St Giles' fair joined.
The county was represented in parliament in 1289 by two
i4ii/»^titf.— The remains of castles are scanty. The majority
of them were probably built for defence in the civil strife <^
Stephen's reign (1x00-1135), and were not maintained after
order was restored. Considerable portions of the Norman
Oxford Castle survive, however, while there are sb'ghter remains
of the castle at Bampton, the seat of Aylmer de Valence in 1313.
Among remains of former mansions there may be noted the
14th century Greys Court near Henley-on-Thames, Minster
Lovdl, on the Windrush above Witney, and Rycote, between
Thame and Oxford. Minster Lovell, the extensive ruins of
which make an exquisite picture by the river-side, was the seat
of Francis, Lord Lovd, who, being the son of a Lancastrian
father, incurred the hatred of that party by serving Richard HI.,
and afterwards assisted the cause of Lambert Simnd, mysteri-
ously disappearing after the battle of Stoke. The remains of
Rycote (partly incorporated with a farmhouse) are of fine
Elizabethan brick, and in the chapel attached to the manor
there is remarkable Jacobean woodwork, the entire fittings of
the church, induding the canopied pews and altar-table, being
of this period.. Here Elizabeth was kept in r5S4, before her
accession, and afterwards resided as queen. Of andcnt mansions
still inhabited, the finest is Broughton Castle near Banbury,
dating from 1301. Others arc Shirburn Castle, begun in 1377,
but mainly Perpendicular of the next century; Stanton Hsir-
court. dating from 1450, with a gatehouse of 1540, a vast kitchen,
and Pope's Tower, named from the poet, who stayed here more
than once. Mapledurham, on the Thames above Reading, is
a fine Tudor mansion of brick; and Water Eaton, on the Cher-
well above Oxford, is a singularly perfect Jacobean house of
stone, with a chapel of the same period resembling pure Per-
pendicular. Of other mansions in the county Blenheim Pabce,
near Woodstock, must be mentioned. The former Hdion
House (now replaced by a Georgian building), near Wheatlcy,
was the scene in 1646 of the wedding of Ircton, the soldier of
Cromwell, with his leader's daughter Bridget.
The influence of such a centre of learning as the university
was naturally very great upon the ecclesiastical history of
the neighbourhood. A large number of monastic foundations
arose, such as those of Augustinian canons at Bicester, Cavers-
ham, Cold Norton, Dorchester, Osncy (a magnificent4oundaiioo
juu outside the waUs of Oxford) and Wioxton: qf Cistefdaas,
4.t8
OXIDE— OXIMES
ftt Bruem and Thame; of Benedictines, at Cogges, Eynabam,
Milton; of Mathurios, at Nuffield; of Gilbeitines, at Clatter-
cote; of TemplaiSi at Sandford-on-Tbamcs. There 'was at
Gosford one ol the only two preccptories of female Templais
in England. Of ail these, excepting the abbey church at Dor«
Chester, remains are scanty. A few domestic buildings remain
at Studley; the boundary walls still stand of Godstow Nunnery
on the Thames, the retrdit and burial-place of Rosamund Clifford
or " Fair Rosamund," the object of Henry IL's famous court>
ship; and there are traces of Rewley Abbey within Oxford.
In ecclesiastical architecture Oxfordshire, apart froln Oxford
itself, is remarkably rich, but there is no dominant style, nearly all
the churches being of mixed dates. In fact, of the most important
churches only Iffley, Adderbury and Minster Lovctl need be taken
as types of a single atyle. Iffley, picturesquely pbccd above the
Thames i m. S. of Oxford, b one of the finest examples of pure
Norman in Cnaland, with a highly ornate west front. Adderbury,
4 m. S. of Banbury, is a great cruciform Decorated church with a
massive central tower and spire. Minster Lovcll, also cruciform, is
pure Perpendicular; its central tower is supported, with beautiful
and unusual effect, on four detached piers. For the restf, one feature
common to several is to be noticed. The short ungainly spire of
Oxford cathedral was among the earliest, if not the first, constructed
In England, and served as a model from which were probably
developed the splendid central spires of the great cluirehes>at
Witney, Bampton, Shipton-under-Wychwood and Bradwell. Tliere
are also three fine spires in the nonh: Bloxham, Adderbury and
'" ') Sutton (across the border in Northamptonshire), which are
r proverbial as typifying length, strength and beauty. Blox-
King's Sutton (across the border in Northamptonshire), which are
locally proverbial as typifying length, strength and beauty. Blox-
ham church, mainly Decorated, with Norman portions and a re-
markable Early Ei^ish west front, is one of the largest and most
beautiful in the county. In the west fiuKord (Norman and later)
is noteworthy, and in the porch of the fine Norman church of
Langford is seen the rare feature of a crucifix with the figure cloaked.
At South Leigh are remarkable mural paintings of the 15th century.
About s ni. N. of Oxford there are Kidlington (Decorated) with a
beautiful oeedle-ltke Perpendicular spire, and Islip, which, as* the
birthplace of Edward the Confessor, retains a connexion with his
Abbey of Westminster, the Dean and Chapter of which are lords of
the manor and patrons of the Kving. In the south-east. Dorchester
Abbey, with iu nave of transitional Norman, has a curious E)e-
coratcd Jesse window, the tracery representing the genealogical
tree of the patriarch. At Cuddcsdon there is another large cruciiorm
church. Norman and later. Ewelme church (Perpendicular) is
renurkable for the tomb of Alice. Duchess of Suffolk (1475), gorgeous
with tracery and gilded canopy, and that of Sir Thomas Chaucer
(1434). ornamented with enamelled okiu of arms. Here William
de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, founded in 1436 the picturesque hospital
and free school still standing.
AuTHORiTias.— 71* Natural History of Oxfordshire (Oxford,
i67;r. and cd. 1705) : Shelton, Enpantd IllHStraiums of the prineipal
Annuities of Oxfordshire, from drawints fy T. Mackeiaio (Oxford.
tSsA); Sir T. Phillips, Oxfordshire Pedttrees (Evesham. 1835):
f. M. Davenport. Lords Lieutenant and High Sheriffs ofOxford, 1086
(Oxford. 1868), and Oxfordshire Annals (Oxford. 1869).
OXIDB, in chemistry, a binary compound of oxygen and other
elements. In general, oxides are the most important compounds
with which the chemist has to deal, a study of their composition
and properties permitting a valuable comparative investigation
of the elements. It is possible to bring about Che direct com-
bination of oxygen with most of the elements (the presence
of traces of water vapour is generally necessary according to
the researches of H. B. Baker), and when this is not so, indirea
methods arc avaiktble, except with bromine and fluorine (and
also with the so-called inert gases — argon, helium, &c.), which
so far have yielded no oxides. Most of the elements combine
with oxygen in several proportions, for example nitrogen has five
oxides: NsO. NO, NsOi, NOi. NA; for dassificatory purposes,
however, it is advantageous to assign a typical oxide to each
element, which, in general, is the highest having a basic or add
character. Thus in Group I. of the periodic system, the typical
oxide is MiO, of Group U. MO, of Group III. M|(\ of Group IV.
MOi, of Group V. MiOb, of Group VL M(V
Five species of oxides may be distinguished: (1) basic osddes,
(2) acidic oxides, (3) neutral oxides, (4) peroxides, (5) mixed anhy-
drides and salts. Basic oxides combine with adds or acidic oxides
to form salts; Mmilcrly addic oxides combine with basic oxides
to form salts also. The former are more usually yielded by the
metals (some metals, however, form oxides belonging to the other
groups), whilst the latter are usually associated wltn the non-metals.
An oxide may be both addic and basic, «.«. combine with bases as
groups), whilst the latter are usually associated wit
An oxide may be both addic and basic, «.«. comb
well as adds; this is the case with elements oocurriog at the transi-
tion between (wsigeiDC and oxygenic dements in the periodic cIm^-
fication, eg. alummium and sine. Neutral oxides cotabktm DeSthcr
whh acids nor batc^ to give salts nor with water to give a baae or
acid. A typical mepit«r is nitric oxide; carbon monoxide and
nitrous oxide may also be put in this class, but it must be remembered
that these oxides may be regarded, in some measure at least, as the
anhydrides of formic and hyponitrous add. although, at the aane
time, it is impossible to Obtam these adds by simple hydration of
these oxides. Peroxides may in most cases be defined as oxida
containing more oxygen than the typical oxide. The failure of this
definition b seen in the case of lead dioxide, whidi b oenainly a
peroxide in properties, but it b also the typical oxide of Group IV.
to which lead belongs. All peroxides have ondizing pn^jento.
Peroxides may be basic or acidic. Some basic oxides yield h>-dro-
gen peroxide with acids, others yield oxygen (these also liberate
chloniie from hydrochloric acid), and may combine with lower
acidic oxides to form salts of the normal basic oxide with the
higher addk oxide. Examples are BaOt+H|SO«-iBaSO«+H/>t:
2MnOt+2H,S04-2MnSO«-|-2H^+0,: Mna4-4Ha»Mna,+
sHiO+Clt: PbO,+SO,-PbSO, (i.e. PbO+SO.). Two
of basic peroxides may be distinguished: (1) the
or peroxidates. contaimng the oxygen atoms ia a
oxygen atoms m a duun, <.f,
Na-0-O-Na, 6-Ba.6, which'yickl hydrogen peroxide with adds:
and (3) the polyoxides, having the oxygen atoms doubly linked to
the metallic atom, e.g. 0:Mn: 0,0:Pb:0. and giving oxygen w' '
sulphuric acid, and chlorine with hydrochloric. L. Manno (Z<
with
. . . :Zeit.
anorg. Chem., 1907, 56, p. 231) pointed out that manganese and
lead dioxkie behaved differently with sulphur dioxide, the former
giving dtthionate and th e latter sulphate, and suggested the foUowing
formulae: 0:Mn:0, (^'Pbi 6. as explaining this difference. A
simpler explanation is that the manganese dkncide finit giws a
normal sulphite which rearranges todtthionate. thus: MnOb-f 2SOt -
Mn(S0»)t-^MnSA. whilst the lead dioxide gives a basic sulphite
which rearranges to sulphate, thus: Pb0+S0t = Pb0S0i-»Pt>SO«.
Acidic peroxides combine with basic oxides to form ** per salts, and
bv k>ss of oxyeen yiekl the addic oxide typical 01 the dement.
Mixed anhydnaes are oxides, which yield with water two adds, or
are salts composed of a basic and acidic oxide of the same sMxal.
Examples of mixed anhvdrides are ClOa and NOi. whkh aive
chlorous and chloric add, and nitrous and nitric add: 2CIO1 +
HK)-HCIOi+HClO„ 2NO,-hHtO-HNO>-|*HNO.; and ef misxd
salts Pb/)> and Pb^i. whkh may be regarded as lead meu- and
ortho-ptumbate: PbOPbOt, 2PbOPb0b.
Oxidation and Reduction. — 1 n the narrow sense " oxidation " may
be regarded as the combination of a substance with oxygen, and
conversely, "reduction" as the abstraction of oxygen; in the
wider sense oxidation indudcs not merdy the addition of oxygen,
but also of other electronegative elements or groups, or the removal
of hydrogen or an electro-positive element or group. In inorgank
chemistry oxidarion is associated in 'many cases with an increase in
the active valency. IgruNing processes of oxidation or redociioa
simply brought about by heat or some other form of energy, we may
regard an oxidising agent as a substance having a strong affinity for
electro-positive atoms or groups, and a reducing agent as having a
strong affinity for electro-negative atoms or groups; in the actual
processes the oxkltxing agent suffers reduction and the redudng agent
oxidation.
Many sub st anc es undergo simutuneous oxidation and reduction
when treated in a particular manner; this b known as self- or
auto-oxidation. For example, on boiling an aqueous solution of a
hypochlorite, a chkirate and a chkiridc results, part of the origitial
salt bdng oxidind and part reduced: 3Na(X:i«NaC10>+3Naa.
Similarly phosphorous and hypophosphorous adds give phosphoric
acid and phosphine, whilst nitrous add gives nitrk: add and nitric
oxide: 4H,P0,=3H,P04+PH,: 2H,PO,-H,PO«+PH,; sHNOk-
HNOa-|-2NO-|-HiO. In ofganic chemistry, a celebrated cxampis
b Cannixsaro's reaction whcrnn an aromatsc aUehyde gives an acid
andanalcdiol: aC:<H»CHO-|-H.O<»C^HtCOkH-t-CH»CH/>H.
The important oxuil^ng agents include: oxygen, ozone, per-
oxides, the haloeens chlorine and bromine, oxyacids such as nttrk
and those of chlorine, bromine and iodine, and alas chromic and
Eermanganicadd. The important redudng agents indude hydrogen,
ydrides such as those of iodine, sulphur, phosphorus, ftc, carbon,
many metals, potas^um, sodium, aluminiuiA, nugnesium, &c..
salts of lower oxyadds, lower salts of metals and lower oxides.
OZUIBS. in organic chembtry, compounds contaimng the
grouping >C : N • OH, derived from aldehydes and ketones by
condeosiog them with hydroxylamine. Those derived from
aldehydes are known as aldoximes, those from ketones as
ketoximes. They were first prepared by V. Meyer in x88j
{Bar.t 1SS2, 25, pp. 1324, 1525, 2778). They are dther colour-
less liquids, which boil without decomposition, or crystalline
solids; and are both basic and addic in character. On reduction
by sodium amalgam in glacial acetic add solution they yield
primary amines. They are hydrolysed by dilute auAcral adds
OXIMES
4»9
yielding hyilroiylunifle and the pticat aldehyde ee kelooe.
The eldoumei are cooverted by the aeiioa oC dehydrating
ageoU iato nltrika: RCU : N0H-4RC i N+HiO. The ket-
Qximct by the action of acetyl chloride uadergo a pecuJiar intra-
moleciilar ie-art«B8Bnent known as the Beckipann traoa-
formation (E. Beckmann, Btr.t 1886, 19, p. 989; i>887» ^1 P-
2580), yielding as final products an add-attiide or anilide, thus:
RC( :NOH)R'-^RC(OH) :NR'-> RCONHR'.
Ai ngard^ the Goosdtutioo of the oximes, two potaibtUties exist.
namely >C : NOH, or > C^ ■ , aod the firvt of these is presumably
oorract, rince on alkybtion and sabsequent hydrolyns an alkvl
bydroxylamine of the type NHa*OR b obtained, and consequeativ
it is to be presumed that in the alkylated oxime, the alkyl ^up is
attached to oxygen, and the oxime itself therefore contains the
hydroxvl group. It is to be noted that the oxiaws of aromatic
aklehyacs and of unsyounetrical aromatic ketones frequently exist
in isomeric forms. Inis isomerism is explained by the Hantzsch-
Werner hypothesis (3<r.. 1890. 23, p. ll) in which the assumption
is made that the three valencies of the nitrogen atom do not lie in
the same plane. Thus in the case of the simple aldoximes two con-
figurations are possible, namely: " *"°Hn M •*"*»'"'*"»
where the H atom and OH group are contiguous, being known as
iyn-akloximes and the latter as the an/i-aldoximcs. The syn-ald-
oximes or treatment with acetyl chloride readily lose water and yield
nitriles; the anti-aldoximes as a rule arc acetylated and do not yield
nitriles. The isomerism of the oximes of unsymmetrical ketones is
explained in tlw same manner, and their configuration is determined
by an application of the Beckmann transformation (see Ber.^ 1891*
• . -»R.C(QH): NR'-»R.CONHR'(R'andOH."iyii").
N-OH
J^'l . -»RN : C(OH)R'->RNH.COR'(RandOH."i7ii*').
HO* N
Aldoximes are generally obtained by the action of bydroxylamine
hydrochloride on the aldehyde in presence of sodium carbonate;
tne oodme being then usually extracted from the solution by ether.
They nay also oe prepared by the reduction of orimary nitro com-,
pounds with stannous chloride and concent ratecf hydrochloric acid:
by the reduction of unsaturated nitro compounds with aluminium
amalgam or zinc dust in the presence of dilute acetic acid (L. Bouve-
ault. Comptes rntdus, 1902. 134, p. ii45):RtC:CHNO»-»R,C: CH-
NHOH-^R,CHCH : NOH. and by the action of alkyl iodidcson the
sodium salt of nitro-hydroxylamme (A. Angeli, Rntd. Acad, d,
Lincei, 1905, (5), 14, ii. p. 41 1}, the cycle of reactk>ns probably being
as follows:
N0kNHOH->HN0»+HNO: HNO+RI-»HI-f RNO
(CH/THtNO-^CHjCH: NOH).
Pormaidaxime, CHt'. NOH. was obtained by w. R. Dunsun
iJour. Chem. Soc., 1898. 7^, p. ju) as a colouHess liquid by the
addition of bydroxylamine nydrocnloride to an aqueous solution of
formaldehyde in the presence oC sodium carbonate; the resulting
solution was extracted with ether and. the oxime hydrochk>ride
precipittted by gaseous hydrochloric add. the precipitate being then
dissolved in water, the solution exactly neutralised and distiiled.
It boils at 83-85* C. and bums with a green coloured flame. It is
ve&dily transformed into a solid paiymtr, probably (CHi:NOH)i.
In the absence of water, it forms salts of the type (CHt: NOH)rHCl
with adds. ^ It behaves as a powerful redudng agent, and on hydro-
lysis with dilute mineral acidis is decomposed mto formaldehyde and
bydroxylamine, together with some formic add and ammonia, the
amount of each product formed varying with temperature, time of
reaction, amount of water present, &c. Thw latter reaction is
probably due to^ some of the oxime existing in the form of the
isomeric formamide HCO- N Hi. Acetyl- and DenzoVl-formaldoxime
are derivatives of the threefold polymeric form. The acetyl com-
pound on reduction yields two of its nitrogen atoms in the form of
ammonia and the third in the form of methylamine.
AceUiJdoxime, CHiCVl: son, crystallises in needles which melt
at 47* C. On continued fusion the melting point gradually sinks to
about 13* C probably owins to conversion into a polymerK form.
Chloraioximtt CCUCH : NOH. is obtained when pne molecular
propKortion of chloral hydrate is warmed with four molecular pro-
portwns of bydroxylamine hydrochloride and a little water. U
crystallises in prisms which melt at 30* C. A chloral bydroxylamine*
CCUCHOHNHOH. melting at 98^ C is obtained by allowing a
mixture of one molecular proportwn of chloral hydrate with two
molecular proportions of hydroxybmine hydrochloride and one of
sodium carbonate to stand for some time in a desiccator.
dyaximt, HON:CHCH:NOH. obtained from glyoxal and
hydroxylamine. or by boiling amidothiazole with cxce» o( hydroxy-
faumine hydrochloride and water, melts at 178" C. and is readily
ioluble in hot water.
i^ccuHC 'aW^^ dteriw.''HON:CHCHrCUrCH:NOH. is
obtained by boHsiig an alcohoUc solution of pyrrol with bydroxylamine
hydrochloride andanhydrous sodium carbonate (G. Oamidan, Ber..
1884, 17. p. 534). It melts at 173* C; and on reduction with
sodium in alcoholic solution yidcfa tetramethylene diamine. A
boiling solutioa of caustic potash hydrolyacs it to ammonia and
succinic acid.
BsnsoldoxtMiei.— The aHndme (benz-imf^aldoxlnie) is formed by
the actk>n of hydroxyUmine on bensaldehyde. It melts at 35* C.
and boils at 117* C. (14 mm.). Adds convert it into the ^<oxiine
(bens-jya.akioK}me) which mdu at 125* C. When distilled under
diminisned pressure the fi-fotm reverts to the «-modification (see
Beckmann, Ber., 1887. ao. p. 27^6; 1889, 22, pp. 429, 513, 1531,
1588).
KeUaimu are usually rather more difficult to prepare than ald-
oximes, and generally require the presence of a fairly concentrated
alkaline solution. Tney may also be prepared by the reduction of
pseudo-nitrols (R. Schofl. Brr., 1896, 29. p. 87), the reaction probably
RR:C(NO»)NO->RR:C:(NHOH),-»RR:C:NOH+NH,OH.
in
(CH,)«C:NOH. melu at* 58-99* C. and is readtty
"1 salt is obtained by the action of
of benzene (A. W. TitHerley,
•odamide on the oxime. in presence of benzene
J(fmr. Chem. Soc., 1897, 71. P- 461).
Misit^oxime, (CHi)tC: CHC( : NOH)CHfc exists In two modifica-
tions. The Morm is obtained by the direct action of hydroxylamine
hydrochloride on meaityl oxide, the hydrochloride so formed being
decomposed by sodium carbonate. It crystallises in plates' which
melt at 48-40* C. and boil at 92* C. (9 mm.). When boiled for
some time with caustic soda, it is converted into the oily «-oxime.
which boils at 83-84* C. (9 mm.). Both forms are volatile in
steam. The a^xime, on long continued boiling with a concentrated
solution of a caustic alkali, js partially decomposed with formation
of some acetone and acetoxime (C. Harries. Ber^ 1898^ 31, pp. 1381.
1808: 1899, 32, p. 1331). By the direct action of hydroxylamine on
a methyl alcohol soluttoo of mesityl oxide in the presence of sodium
methylate a bydraxylamino- ketone, diaeeton* kydroxylomimt,
(CHi)iC(NHOH)CH.COCH«isfonned, In a similar manner phorono
* Aeetopkeiumeoximt, C.H»Cf :NOH)CH,. melts at 59* C. In
gisdal acetic acid solution, on the addition of oonoentratcd sulbhorio
add, it is converted into aoetaailide. BtnMopk e nom 9ximet CcHkC
( :NOH)CiHi, exists only in one modification whkh melts at 140* C ;
whereas the unsymmetrical benzophenones each yield two oximes.
O. Wallach {Ahm., 1900. 312. p. 171) has shown that the saturated
cydic ketones yidd oximes which by an appKcation of the Beckmann
reaction are converted into iioximes. and these lattei 00 hydrolysis
with dilute mineral adds aie transformed iato acyclic amino^andsf
thus from cycbhexanone. t-amidocaproic acid (*-leucine) may be
^"•<;:h..ch>'^^»'"^^«'<ch.ch..nh
-*ch/^"'*^"'^^"
_ .- \ch,.ch,.nh.
An ii«enioas application of the fact that oximes easily lose the
elements of ^ater and form nitriles .was used by A. Wohl (Ber.,
1893, 26, p. 730) in the " breaking down " of the sugars. Glucose-
oxime on wanning with acetk anhydride is simultaneously acetylated
and dehydrated, yiekHng an aoetylatcd gluconitnle. which wlwn
warmed with ammooiacal silver nitrate loses hydrocyanic add and
is transformed into an acetyl pentose. The pentose is then obtained
from the acetylated compound by successive treatment with ammonia
and dilute aads: —
CHjOH (CH0H),.CH0H.CH: NOH-»CH/>H;JCHOH)r .^
CH0H-CN->CHj0H(CH0H),.CH0.
tn order to arrive at the configuiation of the stereoisomeric ket-
oximes, A. Hantzsch (Ber., 1891. 24. p. 13) has made use of the IJeck-
mann reaction. %riiereby they are. cooverted into acid-amidcs.
Thus, with the tolylphcnylkctoximes. one yields the anilidc of
toluic acid and the other the toluldidc of benzoic add. the former
necessitating the presence of the phenyl and hydroxyl radicals in
the Jy» ppsitkm and the latter the tdyl and hydroxyl radicals m the
sya podtion. thus:
CHrCai. C C»H. ^ ch.C.H»CONHC.H»:
N'OH
5yR-phenyltolylketoxime
CH, CHrCCai. _^ cH,C»H.NHCOC.H.
HON
A ali-tdy Ipfaeny Iketoxime
in the case of the aUoximes, that one which most readily loses tha
elements of water on dehydration is assumed to contain its hydroxyl
radical adjacent to the movable hydrogen atom and is designated
the jyn-tximpound.
On the oxyamido^xinies see H. Ley. Ber., 1898. 31, p. 2126:
G. Schroeter, 5«r.. 1900, 33. p. I975>
420
OXUS
OXm, or Axn Daxta, one of the gitSit rivers of Central A^a.
^rior to the meeting of the commissions appointed for the deter*
Bunation of the Russo-Afghan boundary in 1885, ik> very
accurate geographical knowledge of the upper Oxus regions
existed, and the course of the river itself was but roughly mapped.
Russian explorers and natives of India trained for geographical
reconnaissance, and employed in connexion with the great
trigonometrical survey of India, had done so much towards
clearing away the mists which enveloped the actual course of the
river, that all the primary affluents were known, although their
reblive value was misunderstood, but the nature of the districts
which bordered the river in Afghan Turkestan was so imperfectly
mapped as to give rise to considerable political complication in
framing the boundary agreement between Great Britain and
Russia. From Lake Victoria (Sor-Kul) in the Pamirs, which was
originally reckoned as the true source of the river, to Khamiab,
on the edge of the Andkhui district of Afghan Turkestan, for a
distance of about 6fio m., the Oxus forms the boundary between
Afghanistan and Russia. For another 550 m. below Kharaiab
it follows an open and sluggish course till it is lost in the Sea of
Aral, being spanned at Charjui, 150 m. below Khamiab, by the
wooden bridge which carries the Russian railway from Merv to
Samarkand. The level of Lake Victoria is 13,400 ft. above sea.
At Khamiab the river is probably rather less than 500 ft.
For many years a lively geographical controversy drcled about
the sources of the Oxus, and the discussion derived some political
3o0itri. significance from the fact that the true source, wherever
it might be found, was claimed as a point in the Russo-
Afghan boundary. The final survey of the Pamir region (wherein
the heads of all the chief tributaries of the river lay hidden),
by the Pamir boundary commission of 1895 established the folk)w>
ing topographical facts in connexion with this question.^ The
elevated mountain chain which is now called the Nicolas tange,
which divides the Great from the Little Pamir, is a region of vast
glaciers and snow-fields, from which the lakes lying immediately
north and south derive the greater part of their water-supply.
On the north the principal glacial tributary of take Victoria
forms, within the folds of the gigantic spurs of the Nicolas
mountains, a series of smaller lakes, or lakelets, before joining the
great lake itself. On the south a similar stream starting farther
east, called Burgutai (denoting the position of a diUkult and
dangerous pass acro» the range) sweeps downwards towards
Lake Chakmaktin, the lake of the Little Pamir, which is some
400 ft. lower than Victoria. But at the foot of the mountain this
stream bifurcates in the swamps which lie to the west of Chak-
maktin, and part of its waters find their way eastwards into the
lake, and part flow away westwards into the Ab-i-Panja, which
joins the Pamir river from Lake Victoria at Kala Panja. This
at any rate is ihe action of the Burgutai stream during certain
seasons of the year, so that the glaciers and snowficlds of the
Nicolas range may be regarded as the chief fountain-head of at
least two of the upper tributaries of the Oxus, namely, the Aksu
(or Murghab) and the Pamir river, and as contributing largely
to a third, the Ab-i-Panja. Neither Lake Victoria nor Lake
Chakmaktin derives any very large contributions from glacial
sources other than those of the Nicolas range. It is possible that
there may be warm springs on the bed of Lake Victoria, as such
springs are of frequent occurrence in the Pamirs; but there is
no indication of them in the Chakmaktin basin, and the latter
lake roust be regarded rather as an incident in the course of the
Aksu— a widening of the river channel in the midst of this high-
level, glacier-formed valley — than as the fountain-head of the
infant stream. There ore indications that the bed of Lake
Victoria, as well as that of Chakmaktin, b rapidly silting, and
that the shores of the latter are gradually receding farther from
the foot of the hills. The glacial origin of the Pamir valleys is
everywhere apparent in their terrace formations and the erratic
b!ocks and boulders that lie scattered about their surface. It is
probable that the lakes themselves are evidence of (geologically)
a comparatively recent deliverance from the thraldom of the ice
covering, which has worn and rounded the lower ridges into the
smooth outlines of undulating downs.
Another important source of the river (consMered by (
to be the chief source) is to be found in the enonaoos gUcieiB
which lie about the upper or main branch of the Ab-i-Pkaja
(called the Ab-i-Wakhjir or Wakhaa), wfakh rises under the
mountains encloshig the head of the Taghdunbash PasBin.
Although the superficial area of glacial ice from which tbe Ab-i-
Wakhjir derives the greater part of its volume is not equal to
that found on the Nicolas range, it is qiute impossibk to frame
any estimate of comparative depth or bulk, or to separate the
volume of its contributions at any time from thoae which,
combined, derive their origin from the Nicolas range. If the
Aksu (or Murghab) and the Pamir rivei from Lake Victoria arc
to be considered in the light of independent tributaries, it is
probable that the Ab-t-Panja contributes as large a volume of
glacial flood to the Oxus as either of them.
From the point where the riven of the Great and Little PasBTn
join their forces at Kala Panja to Ishkashtm, at the elbow of tte
great bend of the Oxus northwards, tbe river vaUey has ^.
been surveyed by Woodthorpe; and the northern slopes "^^
of the Hindu Kush. which near Ishkashim extend in dopes «f
barely 10 m. in length from the main watershed to the river lnnki|
have been carefully mapped. These slopes reoresent the enmt of
Afghan territory which exists north of the Hindu Kush between
Kala Panja and Ishkashim. From Ishkashim northwards the river
rasses through the narrow rock-bound valleys of Shignan and
Roshan ere it sweeps north and west through the mounuins and
defiles of Darwaz. By the terms of the boundary aneemeot with
Russia this part of the river now parts Badakshan ana Darwaz from
the districts of Roshan. Shignan, and Bokhara, which forroeriy
mainuined an uncertain qlaim over a part of the territory on the
left-bank of the river. All this part of the Oxus. until the nver once
again emerges from the Bokhara hills into the open plains borderiag
Badakshan on the north, falls within the area of Russian surveys,
with which a junction from India has been effected both 00 the
Pamirs and in Turkestan.
At Langar Kisht, a little to the east of the Oxus bend, there is a
small Russian post of observatk>a. About 50 m. north of the bend,
where the Suchan or Ghund joins the Oxus from the iHHutam
Alichur Pamir, there is another and larger post called j%^^
Charog. On the left bank of the river the Afghans main- ^^ g^^^
tain a frontier post at the fort of Kala Bar Panja. -A
road will connect Charoe with the Alichur Panur, following the
general course of the Ghund stream, a road which will form a
valuable link in the chain of communications between Bokhaia and
Sarikol. Eighty-five miles north of Ishkashtm. at KoU Wamar.
the river which rises in the Little Pamir, and which is called Akso.
Murghab, or Bartang, joins the Oxus from the cast. It b on this
river that the Russian outpost. Murghab! (or Pamirski). is situated,
at an elevation of 13,150 It. above the sea. Fort Muighabi is con-
nected by a good military road with Osh. At this point the measure-
ment of the comparative lengths of tbe chief Plamir tributaries el
the Oxus is as follows: —
To the head of the Aksu at Lake Chakmaktin . . a6o milca.
To the head of the most easterly tributary of Lake
Vktoriajn the Great Pamir, about . ay> „
To the glacial sources of the Ab-i-Wakhjir, about . 230 m
For 130 m. the two latter are united in the main stream of the Oxni,
the volume of which has been further increased by the united forces
of the Ghund and Shakhdara draining the Alichur Pamir and the
heights of Shignan.
The narrow cramped valley of the river between Ishkarfiim and
Kala Wamar is hedged in on the west by a long ridge flanking the
highlands of Badakshan; on the east the buttresses and
spurs of the Shignan mountains (of which the strike is
transverse to the direction of the river and more or less
parallel to that of the main Hindu Kush watershed) "'
o^^vrhang its channel like a wall, and afford but little room
eichcr for cultivation or for tbe maintenance of a practicable
read. Vet the kiwer elevation (for this part of the Oxus stream b
not more than about 7000 ft. above sea-lcxTl) and comparativelv
mild climate give oppovtunities to the industrious Tajtk popalatioii
for successful agriculture, of which they are not eXow to avail them-
wives, and a track exists on the left bank of the river to Kala Bar
Panja opposite the Ghund (or Suchan) deboodiroent, which is
practicable for mules. There are no bridges, and the transit of the
river from bank to bank can only be effected by the tise of inflated
skins. Beyond the Bartang (or Mut|;hab) confluence the valley
narrows, and the difficulties of the river route increase. Between
Kala Wamar (6580 ft.) and Kala Khom (4400 ft.), where tbe Oxus
a^in bends southwards, its courw to the north-west n almost at
nght angles to the general strike of the Darwaz mountains, which is
from north-east to south-we^t. following the usual conformation of
all this port of high Asia. Thus its chief affluents from the north-
east, the Wanj and the Vaz Ghulam. drain valleys which are com-
paratively open, and which are said to be splendfdiy fertile. At
OXU3
42k
Ktflft Klram tbtf livw ■• 4>o ft wlde^ aanonte to s^ ft in tk*
fuuTOwcit JBP'S^' '^ '^^ vtries with tbe oMtruction* (oraied
falung as much as 38 ft. when its upper chaoDcls are
^1^.'
The dimate of eMtern Bohhani and DarMia is <le1«htfut In
•umiaar* and Dr R«fel wntcapf its Alpine scenery and flora in terms
of enthusiastic admiration. In the valleys of the Waksb
and the Surkbab to the north of Darwaz, which form an
important part of the province of Karatcgin, maple, ash,
hawthorn, pislachioi and juniper grow freely in the
I forests, and ocetroot, kohl Eabi, and other veRtablea are
widely cultivated. About the cliffs and precipices of Uie Panja
valley near Kala Khum the wild vuie, ccrasus. and pomcsranate are
Co be found, and the plane tree and mulber^ flourish in groups near
the vitiates. Her* also, amongst other punts, the sunflower dc>
coratcs village gardens. The houses are built of stone and mortar,
and above the thatched straw roof which surmounts the double-
storeyed buildings the square water-tower rises gracefully. Every
house po sse ss es its staircase, its well, and cisterns for irrigation;
and on the whole the Atyan Tajiks of this northern section of the
Onus valley seem to be well provided with most of the comforts, if
not the luxuries of life. Their language is the language of Bokhara
and Samarkand. Bokharan supremacy was re-established in 1878.
when Kala Khum was occupied by Boknaran troops. Since then the
right bank of the river has been politically divided from the left,
•od the latter now bdongs to Afghanistan.
From Kakt Khum. whkrh fort about mam the matt northerly
point of the great bend of the Oxus round Badakshan, the river
lollowB a soutn-we«tcr(y course for another 50 m. through a close
mountainous region ere it wklens into the more open vafley to the
south of Koiab. It now becomes a river of the phthu from which
the mountams on either side stand back.
The topography of Darwaa south of the nver is not accurately
known, but at least one considerable stream of some 60 m. in Icngtn
drains to the north-east, parallel to the general strike of
the mountain system into the transverse course of the
Oxus, which it joins nearly opposite to the lateral valleys
of Yaa Ghulam and Wanj. This stream is called Pangi-Shiwa,
or Shiwa, but not much is known about it Another of about
equal length, starting from the same central^ water-parting of this
mountain block, and included within the Oxus bend, follows a tran^
verse direction at almost rkht angles to the Shiwa. and ioiiis the
Oxus valley near its debouchment into the more open Kolab plains,
where the course of the Oxus has again assumed a direction parallel
to the mountain strike. All that we know about this river (which
in called the Ragh or Sadda) is that towards its junction with the
Oxus it cuts through successive mountain ridges, which renders its
course impracticable as a roadway. It is^ necessary to avoid the
river, snd to pass by mountain tracks which surmount a series of
k)rai spurs or offshoots from the central pbteau, in order to reach
the Oxufl. The cadstenoe of this route, which travcrws the Darwax
mountains from east to west, cutting off the aortbem bend of the
Oxus, and connecting those easterly routes which internet the
Pnmirs by means of the Chund and Shakhdara (and which coo-
eentrate about Lake Shiwa) with Kolab in eastern Bokhara, is
important. (See Badakshan.)
from about the point where the Oxus co mm en ces to separate the
Bokharan province of Kolab from the comparatively open Afghan
... districts of Rustak and Kataghan, the channel 01 the
*2i? river b no longer confined within walls of mountains
^gf _., of vokanic and schistose formatmn. The Kolab and the
AiMvan. sarijhaij ^^ Waksh) flow into it in broad muddy
streams from the highlands of Karateghin, and the river at
once commences to adopt an uncertain channel wherever the out-
stretched arms of the hills fail to confine it within definite limits.
It divides its waters, splitting into many channels, leaving broad
central islands; and as the width increases, and the depth during
dry seasons diminishes opportunities for fords become comparatively
frequenL Between Kotab and Pata Kcsar, immediately north of
theTorkestan capital of Mazar-i-Sharif. there are at least three well-
known " gusws or fords, and there are probably more. Besides
the great muddy affluents from Karateghin on the north, the Kaba«
dian, the Surkhan, and the Darbant are all of them very considerable
tribuuries from Bokhara. The last of the three is the river on
whidi the well-known trade centre of Shirabad » built, some ao m.
north of the river. Near the junctkm of theSurfchnn with the Oxus
are the rubs of the andei^ city of Terroes, oo the nertlMm or
Bokharan bank, and the ferry at Pata Keiar <not far from the ruins
of an oU bridge) is the connecting link between Bokhara and Mazar
hereabouts. A Russian branch railway is said to have been recently
built from Samarkand to Termes.
From the south two very remarkable afinents of the Oxus Join
their streams to the main river between Kolab and the B4aaar
^^^^ crossings. The Kokcha and the KhanabadCor Kunduz)
™*"^ are the two great rivers of Badakshan. Tiie valley of
f! Hf ._ the Kokcha kads directly from the Oxus to Faizabad. the
^'^""^ capital of Badakshan. and its head is doseahowe Ishkashim
at the southern elbow of the areat Oxns bend, a few pass of only
9500 ft. dividing its waters from those of the main river. This
uadottbtedly was a section of the great centxml txade route of Asia.
whieft enee enanee te d Ferghana and Kerat wfth Kashgar and China.
(See Badaksrah.) Both these rivers tap the northein slopes of the
Hindu Kush, and daim their sources in the onnupped mouataia
wiMemess of KafirisUn. The Khanabad. or Kunduz, is also called
locally the Aksarai. All the rivers of Central Asia are known by
several names. To the west of the Kunduz no rivers find their way
through the southern banks of the Oxus. Throughout the plains of
Afghan Turkestan the drainage from the southern hOls is arrested
and lost in the desert sands.
The only island of any sise in tne bed of the river b the island of
Pnigbambar, a little below the rains of Termez. The inhabitants of
this ishind, and of a smaller one in the neighbourhood called Zarshoi,
wash for gold in the bed of the river.
At Airatan, a little above the Pata Kesar ferry, there are ruina,
as also at Khbht Tapa (where the road from Kabadian to Tash-
kurghan leaves the nver) and at Kalukh Tapa. At Khisht Tapa
there b a tradition of a bridge having once existed.
The Oxus river, as seen in flood at this part of its course, b an
imposing stream. It b rarely less than xooo yards wkie^ and in
some places it b fully a mile across. Its winter channel ^^ .
may be estimated at from two-thnds to three-fourths of ™2,"
its flood channd, except where it b confined within S^fT
narrow limits by a rocky bed, as at Kflif, where its un- "*■■•
varying width is only 540 yards. The average strength of the
current In flood is about 4 m. per hour, varying from 3| to 5 m.
The left bank of the Oxus above Kilif is. as a rule, low and flat, with
reed swamps bordering the stream and a strip of jungle between
the reeds and the edge of the elevated sandy desert. The jungle
is chiefly tamarisk and padah (willow). Swamp deer, pheasants,
and occasionally tigers are found in it. The right bank is generally
higher, drier, more fertile and more populated than the left.
A widebdt of blown sand (or Chul), sprinkled with saxaul jungle,
separates the swamps on th« south side of the river from the cultivateq
plains of Afghan Turkestan; but in places, notably foe ^ ^..
about 12 ra. above Khamiab, where the Russo- Afghan Try *"
boundary touches the river, through the districts whi<Ji are "'*
best known by thename of Khwaja Salar. and again in a leas degree for
go m. above the ferry at Kilif, a very successful war has been waged
y the agricultural Turkman (of the Ersari tribe^ against the en-
croachtng sand- waves of the desert; and a strip of riverain soil
avera^ng about a mile in wUth has been reclaimed and cultivated
by irrigation. The cultivation, s up por t e d by canab drawn from
the Oxus, the heads of which are constantly bdng destroyed by
flood and again renewed, b of a very high order. Wheat and barley
spread in broad crops over many square miles of rich soil; the fielcu
are intemacted by namw little stone-walled lanes, bright with' way
side flowers, amongst which the poppy and the punila thistle of
Badghb are predominant; the houses are neatly built of stone*
and stand scattered about the landscape in single homesteads,
substantia] and comfortable; and the spreading willow and the
mulberry offer a most gratefid shade to the wayfarer in summer time,
when the heat b often insupportable. The- bery blasts of summer,
furnace-heated over the red-hot Kizil Kum, are hardly less to be
feared than the ice-cold shamshir for north-western Dlizzard)' of
winter, which freezes men when it finds them In the open desert, and
frequently destroys whole caravans.
The prindple on whkrh the Oxus ferries are worioed b peculiar
to those regions. Large flat-bottomed boats are towed across the
river by small horses attached to an outrigger projecting
beyond the gunwale by means of a surdngle or bellyband.
They are taus partially supported In the water whilst
they swim. The horses are guided from the boat, and a twenty- or
thirty-foot baige with^ heavy load of men and goods will be towed
across the river at Kilif (where, as already stated, the width of the
river b between 500 and 600 yards only) with ease by two of
these animab. The Kilif ferry is on the direct htgh-rond between
Samarkand and Abcha. It b periiaps the bett-used ferry oo
the Oxus.
Khwaja Salar derives some historical significance from the fact that
''''■**■ ' the settlement of the Russo-
KMwa§a
it presented a substantial difficulty to t
Afghan boundary, in which it was assigned by agreement
as the point of junction b e t wee n that bonnouy and the
Oxus. It had been defined in the agreement as a "post"
on the river banks, and had been so described by Bumcs in hb
writings some fifty years previously. But 00 post such as that
indicated couM be discovered. There was a district of that 1
Kltng from Khamiab to the neighfaonrfKrad of Kilif, and at the
Kilif end of the district was a aiaiat sacred to the Khwaia who bore
the name. It was only after bug inquiry amongst kxaf cultivatora
and kindowners that, about 2 m. bdow the ziarat, and nearly
opposite to the site of the present Karfcin hnxaar, the position of a
lost ferry was identified, which had once been laarlKd by a riverside
hamlet called by the name of the saints The feny had tons dis*
appeared, and with it a o>nsidcrable slice of the nverude auuvial
sou, which had been washed into the stream by the action of floods.
The post had, in fact, subsided to the bottom of the river, but the
of its danppenrance had been both far«eachaiig and
expensive.
Below Khamiao, to its final disappearance m the Aral Sea. the
' gittl river roUs in silent majesty through a vast expanse of sand and
4S3
OXUS
Under RtMmn ainpfees a oooiidenble strip of alluvbl
■(ril on the kit bank has been brought under cultivation, meatoring
it^mf 4 or 5 m. in width, and there is more cultivation on
Mm^ uK banks oC the Oxus now than there is in the Merv oosu
itoelf, but it is confined to the immediate neighbourhood
of the river» for no alHucnts of any considerable size exist. The river
b navigable below Chariui, and takes its place as an important unit
in the general scbeme of Russian frontier communications. There
b now a regular steamer service, twice a week in summer and Once
a week ^ winter, as far as Pata Kasar. The steamers are flat-
bottomed paddle boats drawing 3 ft.
An important feature in connexion with the course of the Qxus
b the discussion that has arisen with regard to its former debouch-
ment into the Caspian Sea. On thb point much recent
evidence has been col l ected, and it appears certain that
-—.^— there was a time an the post^Pliocene Age when a tong
^^^^ gulf of the Caspian Sea protruded eastwards nearly as
Car as the longitude of Merv, covering the Kara Kum sands, but not
the Kara Kum plateau to thie north oi the sands, which b separated
from the sands by a distinct sea beach. At the same time another
bmndiof the same gulf protruded northwards in the direction of the
Aral, probably as far as the Sary Kamish depression, which lies to
the west of the Khivan delta of the Oxus, separated (rom it by wide
beds of kxss, cbys and gravel, covering rocks of an unknown age.
The Murghab river and the Hari Rud, which terminate in the oases
of Merv and Sarakhs, almost certainly penetrated to the gulf of the
Kara Kum, but the question whether the Oxus was ever deflected
so as to enter the gulf with tlie Murghab cannot be said to be answered
dedsivelv at present. The former connexion between the Caspian
and Aral by means of the gulf now represented by the Sary Kamish
depression seems to be admitted by Russian scientbts, i\or, would
there appear to be much doubt about the connexion between the
Khivan oasu and the northern extremitv of the Sary Kamish. In
this discussion the names of Kaulbars, Lessar, Annenkov, Konshin
and other Russian geographers are conspicuous. The ^neral
conclusions are ably summed up by I*. Kropotkin m the
September number of the Jtmrnoi of the Royal Geographical Society
for 1898.
Bistory.-^ln the most remote ages to which written hbtoiy
carries us, the legioiis 6ki both sides of the Oxus were subject
to the Persian monftrchy. Of thdr populations Herodotus
mentions the Bactrians, Chorasmlans, Sogdians and Sacae as
contributing their contingents to the armies of the great king
Darius. The Oxus figures in Persian romantic hbtory as the
limit between Iran and Tunui, but the substntum of settled
population to the north as weU as the south was probably of
Iranian lineage. The valley b connected with many early
Magian traditions, according to which Zoroaster dwelt at Baikh,
where, in the 7th century b.c, hb proselytising efforts first
came into operation. Buddhism eventually spread widely over
the Oxus cpuntrieSi and almost entirely displaced the religion
of Zoroaster in its very cradle. The Chinese trsveller Hsuen
Tsang, who passed throui^ the country in 4J>. 630-644* found
Termes, Khulm, Baikh, and above all Bamian, smply pro-
vided irith fflonasteriie^, stupas and colossal images, which are
the striking characteristics of prevalent Bnddhbm; even the
Psmir highlands had their-monssteries.
Christianity penetrated to Khorasan and Bactda t an eariy
date; episcopal sees are said to have existed at Menr and
Samarkand in the 4tb and 5th centuries, and Cosmas ic S45)
testifies to the spcead of Christianity amoog the Bactriana and
Huns.
Bactria was long a province of the empire which Alexander the
Great left to hb succesaois, but the Greek hbtorians give very
little information of the Oxus basin and its inhabitants. About
950 B.c Diodotus, the "governor of the thousand cities of
Bactria,*' declared himself kii^, simultaneously with the revolt
of Arsaces which laid the foundation of the Parthian monarchy.
The Graeco*Bactrian dominion waa ovowhelmed entirely about
126 B.C. by the Yae<hi (9.*.), a ntmierous people who had been
driven westwards from thdr settlements on the borders of China
by the Hiungnu (g.i>.). From the Yue<hi arose, about the
Christian era, the great Indo-Scythian dominion v^ch extended
across the EOndn Kush southwards, over Af^g^anbtan and Sind.
The history of the next five centuries b a blank. In 57 x the
Haiathalah (Ephthalites, f .«.) of the Qxus, who are supposed
to be descendants of the yue<hi, were shattered by an faivasioo
of the Turkish khakan; and in the following century the Chinese
pilgrim Hsuen Tsang found the former empire of the Haiathalah
bfoken dp into a great iramber of smaR states, aU admowled^ng
the supremacy of the Turkish khakan, and several having names
identical with those which still exist. The whole group oif aatca
he calb Tkikhara, by which name in the foipi Tftkhaibtan, or by
that of Haiathalah, the oountiy conthiiied for ctntuica to be
known to the Mahommedans. At the time of hb pilgrinace
Chinese influence bad passed into Tokharbtan and Tranaooiaita.
Yazdeged, the last of the Saasanid kings of Persia, who died in
651, when defeated and hard pressed by the Moslems, Invoked
the aid of China; the Chinese emperor, Tattsung, issued an edict
organising the whole country from Ferghana to the borders of
Persia into three Chittese administrative districU, with 126
military cantonments, an organisation which, however, probably
only exbted on paper.
In 711*7x2 Mahommedan troops were conducted by Kotalba,
the governor of Khorasan, into the province of Khwarizm'
(Khiva), after subjugating which they advanced on Bokhara
and Samarkand, the ancient Sogdiana, and are said to ha\'e
even reached Ferghana and Kashgar, but ho occupation then
ensued. In 1016-1025 the government of Khwariun waa
bestowed by Sultan Mahmud oif Ghazni upon Altuntasb, one d
hb most distinguished generals.-
Tokharistan in general formed a part successively of the
empires of the Sa^anid dynasty (terminated ajk 909), of the
Ghaxnevid dynasty, of the Seljuk ^nces'of Persia and off
Khorasan, of the Ghori or Shansabanya kings, and of the sultans
of Khwarizm. The last dynasty ended with Sultan Jalal-ud-din,
during whose reign (laa 1-1231) a division of the Mogul army
of Jenghu Khan first invaded KLhwarizm, while the khan himsdf
was besieging Bamian; Jalal-ud^din, deserted by most of his
troops, retir^ to Ghazni, where he was pureed by Jenghix
Khan, and agahi retreating towards Hmdustan was overtaken
and driven aaosa th6 Indua.
The commencement of the i6th century was marked by the
rise of the Uzbeg rule in Turkestan. The Uzbegs were no one
race, but an agpegatloo of fragments from Turks, MoqgoU and
all the great tribes constituting the hosu of Jen^b and Batn.
They held Kundus, Balkh, Khwarizm and Khorasan, and for
a time Badakshan also; but Badakshan was soon woo by the
emperor Baber, and in 1 539 was bestowed on hb cousin Suleiman,
who by 1555 had established hb rule over much of the rcgioii
between the Oxus and the Hhidu Kush. The Mogul emperors
of India occasonally interfered in these provinces, notably
Shah Jahan in 1646; but, finding the difficulty of maintaining
so dbtant a frontier, they abandoned it to the IJzbcg princes.
About 176s the waxir of Ahmad Shah AbdaRof Kabid invaded
Badakshan, and from that time until now the domination of the
countries on the south bank of the Oxus from Wakhan to Balkh
has been a ipatter off frequent struggles between Afghans and
Uxbcgs.
The Uzbeg mle h Turkestan has during the last fifty years
been rapidly dwindling before the growth of Russian power. In
SS65 Russia invaded the JShokand territory, taking in ra|:^
Sttcoeaswn the dties of Turkestan, CMmkent and Tashkcnd.
In 1866 Khojend was taken, the power of Khokand was com-
pletely crushed, a portion was incorporated in the new Russian
province of Turkestan, while the remainder was left to be
administered by a native chief almost ss a Rus^an feudatory;
the same year the Bokharians were defeated at Irdjar. In
1867 an army assembled by the amir of Bokhara wu attacked
and dispersed by the Russians, who in 1868 entered Samarkand^
and became virtually rulers of Bokhara. In 1873 Khiva was
invaded, and as mudi of the khanate as lay on the ty^ bank
of the OxDS was incorporated into the Russian empire, a portion
being afterwards made over to Bokhara. Russia acquired the
right of the free nav^ion of the Oxus throughout its entire
course, on the borders of both Khiva and Bokhara. Hie ad*
ministration of the whole of the sutes on the right bank of the
Ox«is, down to the Russian boundary line at Ichka Yar, b now
in the hainis of Bokhara, including Karatefl^i»«^hich the
Russians have transferred to it from Khokand— and Darwaa
at the entrance to the Pamir highlands.
OXYGEN
+aj
AonoifTiBs,— Although mtKh hat been written of hte yean
about the scttrors of the Oxus within the rt^ion of the Pamirs,
there Is verj' imli- > < In.- i<.>iim\ in the wriring'^ tJ i^ixi^r.iphers of
modem date >- of ihat pun of ifs courwL- which separates
Darwax and J uriHStui iwm Dakhara, and thai; lirtle b
chiefly in tlM ' rv- porta luid gafetitB. Ac-, which are nut avail-
able to the I'.i III'. I he following autiioritiM nuy be run suited:
The Refwrt cl" ihc Pa ink Boundary Comiftiision o\ 11*95, pulilished
at Calcutta U^*}7)i Df A. Rcgcl, "Journey in KjirFtt^Khin and
Darwaa," /a-i-tJ'tdt, RuftJan Cko^^ Soc, vol. smi. (iSftj); t^;]^^lation»
vol. iv. Pnc R.CSr. Michelle '' Rci;ioiq* of the UpiKr tJxUf,"
vol. vi. Proc. R.GS. (i5S4>; Critsb-uhn " Crfoiogipl fittcJ Notes,"
No. 3, Afghiin B^^unriary Coninii-tsifjn fiflg5); C. Y:iEc^ j\i>rAem
Aftkanistan a^ndDir, iSSSk Curtftn, *' The Pamirs," wt. viii.
ZtfKf. /{.(;.5:. (le^); Krtjpotkin, " OM Bed* or the Oxjs." Jwr.
i?.C-S. (Sefltcmticr 160^); Cobbold, Inn^moii Aiia (London, 1900).
To the above r:]:iy bt! added ihc Reports of the Ra^do-AIghirh Boun-
d.iry Commi^^iui] ol 1^^4-1385, and that of Uckhart'^ Nt; ion in
I8«5, and the Indian Survey Reports (T. U. H.*)
OZYGEH (symbol 0, atomic weight 16), • ooH-metallic chemical
element It was appareotly first obtained in 1737 by Stephen
Hales by strongly heating minium, but he does not seem tahave
recognized that be had obtained & new element, and the first
published description of its properties was duo to J. Priestley in
1774, who obtained the gss by Igniting mercuric oxide, and gave
it the name *' dephlogisticated air." JL W. Scheele, working
independently, ahK> annouficed in 1775 the discovery of this
element which he called, "empyreal air" iCrellf' Antutkn^
r78St 3» PP> 239* SQt)* A. L. Lavoisier repeated Priestley's
experiments and named the gas ** oxygen '* (from Gr. 6(6r, sour,
yofv&bf, I pr()duce) to denote that in a large number of cases,
(he proiducts formed by the combustion of substances in the gas
were of an Acid character. Oxygen occurs naturally as one of
the chief constituents of the atnoosphere, and in combtnation
with other elements it is foimd in very large quantities; it
constitutes approximately eight-ninths by wei^t of water ahd
nearly one-half by weight of the rocks composing the earth's
crust. It is also disengaged by growing vegetation, pUuita
possessing the power of absorbing carbon dioxide, assimflating
the carbon and rejecting the oxygen. Oxjrgen may be prepared
by heating mercuric oxide; by strongly heating manganese
dioxide and many other' peroxides; by heating the oxides of
precious metals; and by heating many oxy-acids and oxy-salts
to high temperatures, for example, nitric add, snlphhric acid,
nitre, lead nitrate, zinc sulphate, potassium chlorate, &c.
Potassium chlorate is generally used and the reacUon is accder*
atcd an4 carried out at a lower temperature by previously
mixing the salt with about one-third of its weight oif manganese
dioxide, which acts as a catalytic agent. The actual decomposi-
tion of the chlorate is not settled definitely; the following equa-
tions give the results obtained by P. F. Frankland and Dingwall
(Ckem. News, 1887, 55, p. 67)>-at a moderate heat: 8KC10»-
6KCl04+3KCl+20i, succeeded by the following reactions
as the temperature increases: 2KaOi«-KC104+KCl+0» and
2KC10i«2K(n+30i (sec also F. Teed, ibid., 1887, 55, p. 91;
H. N. Warren, ibid., 1888, 58, p. »47; W. H. Sodeati, Proc. Chem.
Soe., X901, 17, p. 149). It may also be obtained by heating
manganese dioxide or potassium bichromate or potassium
permanganate with sulphuric acid; by the action of cobalt salts
or manganese dioxide on a solution of bleaching powder (Th.
Fleitmann, Ann., 1865, 134, p. 64); by the action of a ferrous
or manganous salt with a salt of cobalt, nickel or copper on
bleaching powder (G. F. Jaubcrt, Gcr. pat. i57i7»); hy passing
chbrine into milk of lime (C. Winkler, Jour, prakl. Chem., x866,
98, p. 340); by the action of chlorine on steam at a bright red
heat; by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by bleaching
powder, manganese dioxide, potassium ferricyanide in alkaline
solution, or potassium permanganate fn add solution; by
heating barium peroxide with an aqueous solution of potasiium
ferricyanide (G. Kassner, Zeil. angew. Ckem., 1890, p. 448)
BaO»+2K,Fe(CN).-BalFeKa(CN)6Ji+Oi; by the decomposi-
tion of sodium and potassium peroxides with a solutioh
Of potassium permanganate in the presence of a trace of
Aickel salts (G. F. Jaubert, Ccmpies rendus, 1902, 134,
p.77«).
NmnetcMs inistlioda htnt been devised for the nairafacttire of
oxygen. The more important are as follows: by decomposing
strongly heated sulphuric add in the presence of a contaa
substance; by heating an intimate mixture of one part of
sodi^mi nitrate with two parts of zinc oxide (T. H. Pe|>per,
Dingier*! Jour., 1863, 167, p. 39): 2ZnO+4NaNO»-*
2ZnCONa)i+2Ns-|-50i; by the use of cuprous chloride which
when mixed with clay and sand, moistened with water and
heated in a current of air at xoo-zoo* C. yields an oxychloride,
which latter yields oxygen when heated to 400* C (A. Mallet,
CompUs rendus, 1867, 64, p. S36; 1868, 66, p. 349); by the
electrolysis of solutions of sodium hydroxide, using nickel
electrodes; by heating calcium plumbate (obtained from
litharge and odcitmi carbonate) in a current of carbon dioxide
(G. Kassner, Uonit. Scieni., 1890, pp. 503, 6x4); and from air
byihepxDcessof Tessi6duMotay (Ding, Jour., 1870, 196, p. 230),
in which air is drawn over a heated mixture fk manganese
dioxide and sodium hydroxide, the sodium manganate so formed
bdng then healed to about 450* C. in a current of steam, the
folbwing revetnble reaction taking place: 4NaOH+2MnOi+
Oti±2NasMnO«+3HsO. Oxygen is largely prepared by Brin's
process {Mim. soc. des Ingin. do., x88x, p. 450) in which barium
monoxide is heated in a current of air, forming the dioyide,
which when the retorts are eidiausted yields up oxygen and
leaves a residue of monoxide; but this method is now bdng
superseded, its place being taken by the fractional distillation
of liquid air {The Times, Engin, Suppl., April 14, 1909, p. 13)
as carried out by the Lmde method (Eng. Pat. 141 n; X903).
Oxygen is a colourless, odourless and tastdess gas. It Is
somewhat heavier than air, its specific gravitv being i* 10523
(A. Leduc, Comptes rendus, 1896, 123, p. 805). It is slightly
soluble in water and more so in akohol. It also dissolves quite
readily in some molten metals, especially silver. Oxygen does
not bum, but Is the greatest supporter of combustion known,
nearly aU the other elements combinmg with it tmder suitable
conditions (d. Oxide). These reactions, boweirer, do not take
phice if the substances are absol^itdy dry. Thus H. B. Baker
{Proc. Ckem. Soc., X903, 18, p. 40) has shown that perfectly
dry oxygen and hydrogen will not combine even at a temperature
of 1000^ C. It b the only gas capable of supporting respiration.
For the properties of liquid oxygen see Liqvid Gasss.
It Is found, more especially in the case of orsanic compounds, that
if a subsunce whidi oxidiies readily at OKunary temperature be
mixed with another which is not capable of such oximition, then
both are oxidized simultaneously, the amount of oxygen used being
shared equally between them; or in some cases when the substance
IS spontaneously oxidized an equivalent amount of oxygen is con-
verted into ozone or hydrogen peroxide. This phenomenon was first
noticed by C. F. Schonbem (Jour. proU. Ckem., rS58-i868^. who
found that on oxidizing lead m the presenoe of sutpnuric acid, the
same quantity of oxy^jgen is used to tocm lead oxide as Is converted
into hydrogen peroxide. In a similar manner M. Traube {Ber.,
1882-1893) found that when zinc is oxidized in presence of water
equivalent quantities of zinc hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide are
formed at first, thus: Zn+HtO+Oi«ZnO-|-HA» loUowed by
ZnO + HsO « Zn(OH)t.Zn -f H|Ok « Zn(OH )> Theoxygen uniting with
the substance undergoing oxidation b generally known as " bound
oxygen," whilst that which is transformed into ozone or hydnveo
pcrmtide is usually called " active oxyipen.." C. Engler {Ber., 1897,-
30, p. 1669) caltt the substance which undergoes oxidation the
' autoxidtzer " and the substance which unites with the active
oxygen the "acceptor"; in the oxidation of metals he expresses
results as: M-|-0»-MO», followed by MOi-^MO-hO, and if water
be present, O+H/)-Hii0i. Various theories have been devek>ped
in order to account for these phenomena. Schoobdn {loc. eit.'i
assumed that the ordinary oatvgen nn^ule is decomposed into two
parts which carry electrv^ charges of opposite kinds, the one with
the positive charge being called ''^antozone " and the other carrying
the negative charge being calkid *' ozone," one variety being pce-
ferentiaUy used up by the oxidizing compoond or element and the
other for the secondary reaction. ). H. Van't Hoff {ZcU. pkyu
Chem., 1893, 16, p. 411) is of the opinion that the oxygen molecule
i« to a certain extent ionized and that the ions of one kind are pre-
ferably used by the oxidizing compound. Traube {be. eti.), on the
other hand, concludes that the oxygen molecule enters into action as
a whole and that on the oxidation of metals, hydrogen peroxide and
the oxide of the metal are the primary products of the reaction.
A. Bach (Com pies rendus, 1897, 124. p. 2) considers that the fir<
stage in the rraction constsu m the production of a peroxide which
424
OXYHYDROGEN FLAME— OYSTER
then iateraeu with water to fonn hydrogen peroxide (see ako W.
Manchot, Ann., 1901, 31^. p. 177; 1902, 325. p. 95).
Oxygen is a member of the sixth group in the periodic classifica-
tion, and consequently possesses a maximum valency of six. In
most cases it behaves as a divalent element, but it may also be
quadrivalent. A. v. Baeyer and V. Villiger (£<r., looi, 34, po. 2679,
3612) showed that many organic compounds (ethers, alcohols,
aldehydes, ketones, &c.) behave towards acids, particularly the more
complex acids, very much like bases and yield crystallized salts in
which quadrivalent oxygen must be assumed as the basic element.
These alts are considered to be derived from the hypothetical base
OHcOH, oxonium hydroxide (compare sulphonium salts). Further
see J. Schmidt, " Uber die basischen Eigenschaftcn des Sauerstoffs "
(Berlin, 1904). Baeyer and Villiger assume for the configuration ^f
the salts of carbonyl compounds the arrangement > C : O ^^. whilst
J. W. Bruhl and P. W. Walden point out from the physico-chcmural
standpoint that in water and hydrogen peroxide the oxygen atom
is prouably 9uadrivalent.
The atomic weight of oxwen is now generally taken as 16, and as
such is used as the standaH by which the atomic weights of the
other elements are determined, owing to the fact that most elements
combine with oxygen more readily than with hydrogen (see Els-
mbnt).
Oxygen is widely used in msdical practice as well as in sunery.
Inhalations of the gas are of service in pneumonia, bronchitis, heart
disease, asthma, angina and other conditions accompanied by
cyanosis and dyninoea. They often avert death from asphyxia, or
render the end less distresnng. Oxygen is also administered in
chloroform poisoning, and in threatened death from the inhalation
of coal gas or nitrous oxides. It is of value in cyanide and opium
poisoning and in the resuscitation of the apparently drowned. The
mode of administration Is by an inhaler attached to an inhalation
bag, which serves to break the force with which the oxygen issue's
from the cylinders in which it is sold in a compressed form. It can
be administered pure or mixed with air as required. If given in too
p-cat quantity a temporary condition of apnoea (cessation of breath-
ing) is produced, the blood being fully charecd with the gas. Oxygen
may be applied locally as a disinfectant to loul and diseased surfaces
by the use of the peroxide of hydrogen, which readily parts with
its oxygen: a solution of hydrogen^ peroxide therefore forms a
valuable spray in diphtheria* tonsillitis, laryngeal tuberculosis and
ozacna. It can also be used with advantagje in inoperable uterine
cancer, favus and lupus, and as an iniection in gonorrhoea and
suppurative conditions of the ear. It rcfievcs the pain of wasp and
bee stings. Internally hydrogen peroxide is used in various diseased
conditions of the gastro-intestinal tract, such as dyspcp»a, diarrhoea
and enteric fever. The B.P. preparation Liquor Ilyiroienii Peroxidi
dose i to 3 drs. is synonymous with the Aqua Hrdrozemi Dioxidi
of the US.P. and the ten-volume solution termed eau cxygeni* in
France. It is customary to use oxygen in combination with chloro*
form, or nitrous oxide in order to produce insensibility to pain (see
Anaesthbtics).
OXTHYDROGEH FLAMB, the flame attending the com^Wtion
of hydrogen and oxygen, and characterized by a very high
temperature. Hydrogen gas readily burns in oxygen or air
with the formation of water. The quantity of heat evolved,
according to Julius Thomscn, is 34,116 calories for each gram
of hydrogen burned. This heat-disturbance is quite independent
of the mode in which the process is conducted; bat the tempera-
ture of the flame is dependent on the circumstances under which
tlie process takes place. It obviously attains its maximum in
the case of the firing of pure " oxyhydrogen " gas (a mixture
of hydrogen with exactly half its volume of oxygen, the quantity
it combines with in becoming water, German Knall-gas). It
becomes less when the " oxyhydrogen " is mixed with excess of
one or the other of the two reacting gases, or an inert gas such
as nitrogen, because in any such case the same amount of heat
Spreads over a larger quantity of matter. Many forms of
oxyhydrogen lamps have been invented, but the explosive
nature of the gaseous mixture rendered them all more or less
dangerous. It acquired considerable apptication in platinum
works, this metal being only fusible in the oxyhydrogen flame
and the electric furnace; and also for the production of limelight,
as in optical (magic) lanterns. But these applications are being
superseded by the electric furnace, and electric light.
OTAHA, IWAO, PuNCE (1842- ). Japanese field-marshal,
was bom in Satsuma. He was a nephew of Saigo, with whom
his elder brother sided in the Satsuma iasurrectioB of 1877, but
be neveftbelesB remained loyal to the imperial canse and com-
manded a brigade against the insurgents. When war broke out
letwcen China and Japan in 1894, he waa appointed coounaodcr-
in-chief of the second Jat>aaeso army corpsi wfaicli, 1
the Liaotung Peninsula, carried Port Arthur by storm, and,
subsequently crossing to Shantung, captured the fortress of
Wei-hai-weL For these services he received the title of maiqiiesa»
and, three' yean kter, he became field-marshaL When (1904)
his country became embroiled in war with Russia, he waa
appointed commander-in-chief of the Japanese armies in Man-
churia, and in the sequel of Japan's victory the mikado bcMowcd
on him (1907) the rank of prince. He received the British Order
of Merit in 1906.
OYER AND TBRMDIBR, the Anglo-French name, mcnniag
" to hear and determine," for one of the oonunissioos by whsdi
a judge of assize sits (see Asbue). By the oommiMJon of oyer
and terminer the commissioners (in practice the judges of assaze,
though other persons are named with them in the conunissioo)
are commanded to make diligent inquiry into 9^ treasons,
felonies and misdemeanours whatever committed in the oatmtieft
specified in the commission, and to hear and determine the aarae
according to law. The inquiry is bj means of the grand jury;
after the grand jury has found the bills submitted Co h, the
commissioners proceed "to hear and determine" by means
of the petty jury. The words oyer and terminer are also used
to denote the court which has jurisdiction to try offences within
the limits to which the commission of oyer and terminer extends.
By the Treason Act 1708 the crown has power to Sssoe com-
miastons of oyer and terminer in Scotland for the trial of treason and
mumrision of treason. Three of the lords of jusliciaiy must be in any
such commission. An indictnKnt for either of the offences mentioned
may be removed by certiorari from the court of oyer and tereuiKS
into the court of Justiciary.
In the United States oyer and terminer is the name given to courts
of criminal jurisdiction in some states, t.g. New York, New Jersey,
Pennsylvaiua, and Georgia.
OYSTBR. The use of this name in the vernacular is equivalent
to that of Ostrta (Lat. from Gr. 6aTpM>, oyster, so called from
its shell, icTtav, bone, shell) in zook>gical nomenclature; there
arc no genera so similar to Ostrca as to be confounded with
it in ordinary language. Ostrca is a genus of Lamellibianch
Molluscs. The degeneration produced by sedentary habits in
all laroellibranchs has in the oyster reached its most advanced
stage. The valves of the shell are closed by a single large adductor
muscle, the anterior adductor being absent. The muscular
projection of the ventral surface called the foot, whose various
modifications characterise the different classes of MoUtura,
is almost entirely aborted. The two valves of the .shell are
unequal in size, and of diiTerent shape; the left valve b larger,
thicker and more convex, and on it. the animal restsin its natural
state. This valve, in the young oyster, is attached to some object
on the sea-bottom; in the adult ii is sometimes attached,
sometimes free. The right valve is flat, and smaller and thinner
than the left. In a corresponding manner the right side of the
animal's body is somewhat less developed than the left, and to
this extent there is a departure from the bilateral symmetry
characteristic of Lamellibranchs.
The organization of the oyster, as compared with thai of a
typical lamcllibranch such as Anodpn (see Lamelubkanchia),
is brought about by the reduction of the anterior part of the
body accompanying the k)ss of the anterior adductor, and the
enlargement of the posterior region. The pedal ganglia and
auditory organs have disappeared with the foot, at all events
have never been detected; the cerebral ganglia are very minute,
while the parieto-splanchnic are well developed, and constitute
the principal -part of the nervous system.
According to Spengel, the pair of ganglia near the mouth,
variously called labial or cerebral, represent the cerebral pair
and pleural pair of a gastropod combined, and the parieto<
splanchnic pair cmitspond to the visceral ganglia, the com*
missure which connects them with the cerebro>pIeural represent*
ing the visceral commissure. Each of the visceral ganglia is
connected or combined with an olfactory ganglion underlying
an area of spedaliaed epithelium, which constitutes the olfactory
organ, the osphradium. The heart and pericardial chamber
in the oyster lie along the anterior face of the adduaor mitfclc»
OYSTER
425
■linoit pecpendidilar to tbe direction of ^b» ^» frftk which
in Atuion they aie parallel. In Anodon and the majority of
lamtllibimscfaa the ventricle aunoiinda tha intctiiae; in the
aystenthe two aie quite independent, the intestine paiting above
the pericardittn. The renal organs of the oyster were dia-
covered hy Ueek to agree in their morphological reUtiooa with
those of other lameUtbranchs.
The generative organs of the oyster consist of a system of
blanching cavities on each side of the body lying immediately
beneath the surface. All the cavities of a side are ultimately
in commnnicalion with an efferent duct opening on the surface
of the body a little above the line of attachment of the gills.
The genital opening on each side ik situated in a depre«ion of
the surface into which the renal organ also opens. The genital
products are derived from the cells which line the cavities of
the genital organs. The researches of Hoek have shown that .in
the same oyster the genital organs at one time produce ova, at
another spermatoeoa, and that consequently the oyster does not
fertilise itself. How many times the sJtemationof sex may take
place in a season is not known. It must.be borne In mind that
in what follows the species of the European coasts, Ostrea
edulis, is under consideration. The ova are fertilised in the
genital duct, and before their escape have undergone the earliest
stages of scgmeolalion.. After escaping from the genital aperture
they find their .way into the infra-branchial part of the mantle
cavity of the parent, probably by passmg through the supra*
branchial chamber to the posterior extremity of the gills, and
then being conducted by the inhalent current caused by the
cilia of the gills into the infra-branchial chamber. Xn the latter
thi^ accumulate, being held together and fastened to the gills
by a white viscid seaction. The mass of ova thus contained in
the oyster is spoken of by ojrster fishers as "white spat," and
an oyster containing them Is said to be " sick." While in this
position the ova go through the earlier stages of development.
At the end of a fortnight the white spat has become dark-
coloured fnrni the appearance of coloured patches in the develop-
ing erobiyos. The embryos having then reached the condition
of " trochospberes " escape from the mantle cavity and swim
about freely near the surface of the water among the multitude
of other creatures, larval and adult, which swarm there. The
Urvae are extremely minute, about riv in. k>ng and of glassy
transparency, except in one or two spots which are dark brown.
From the trochosphcro stage the free larvae pass into that of
" vcligers." How long they remain free is not known; Huxley
kept them in a glass vessel in this condition for a week. Ulti-
mately tliey sink to the bottom and fix themselves to shells,
stones or other objects, and rapidly take on the appearance of
minute oysters, forming white disks Vv !"• ^^ diameter. The
appearance of these ndnute oysters constitutes what the fisher?
men call a " fall of spat." The experiment by which Hoek
conclusively proved the change of sex in the oyster was as follows.
In an oyster containing white spat microscopic examination
of the genital organs shows nothing but a few unexpellcd ova.
An oyster in this oonditioa was kept in an aquarium by itself
for a fortnight, and after that period its genital organs were
found to contain multitudes of ^permatoaoa in all stages of
development.
The breeding season of the European oyster lasts from May
to September. The rate of growth of the young oyster is, roughly
speaking, an inch of diameter in a year, but after it has attained
a breadth of 3 in. its growth is much slower. Professor M5bius is
ot opim'on that oystera over twenty years of age are rare, and that
most of the adult Schleswig oysters are seven to ten years old.
The development of the Ainerican oyster, O. vxr^imaiM, and
of the Portuguese oyster, 0. angfdata, b very similar to that of
O. eduUSf except that there is no period of incubation within the
mantle cavity of the parent in the case of these two spedes.
Hence it is that so-called artificial fertilization is possible; that
is to say, fertilization will take place when ripe eggs and milt
are artificially pressed from the oysters and allowed to fall into
a vessel of tea-water. But if it is possible to procure a supply
of spat (rem the American oyster by keepfaig the swarms of larvae
fai eonftnameiittit ongbt to be possible In the case of CheCuzopean
oyster. All that would be necessaiy would be to take a number
of mature oysters containing while spat and lay them down
in tanks till the larvae escape. This would be merely carrying
oyster culture a step farther back, and instead of ooUecting the
newly fixed oysters, to obtain the free larvae in numbers and
so insure a fall of spat independently of the uncertainty of
natural conditions. This method has been tried several tiroes
in England, in Holland and in France, but always without
permanent success.
Natural beds of oysters occur on stony and shelly bottoms
at depths varying from 3 to 20 fathoms. In luture the beds
are liable to variations, and, although Huxley was somewhat
sceptical on this point, it seems that they are easily brought
into an unproductive condition by over-dredging. Oysters do
not flourish in water containing less than 3% salt; and hence
they are absent from the Baltic. The chief enemies of oysters
are the dog-whelk, Purpura hpiUut^ and the whelk-Ungle»
Murex trinactus^ which bore through the shells. Starfishes
devour large numbers; they are able to pull the valves of the
shell apart and then to digest the body of the oyster by their
everted stomach. Cliona, the boring sponge, destroys the shells
and so injures the oyster; the boring annelid Ltuecdore also
excavates the sbelL
The wandering life of the larvae makes it uncerain whethex
any of the progeny of a given oyster-bed will settle within its
area and so keep up its numbers. It is known from the history
of the Liimfjord beds that the larvae may settle 5 m« from their
place of birth.
The genus Ostrea has a world-wide distribution, in tropical and
temperate seas; seventy species have been distinguished. Its
nearest allies are Pinna among living forms, £/t£ima among fossils.
For the so-called pearl-oyster see Pearl.
OysUr Jndustty. — Oysten are more valuable than any other
single product of the fisheries, and in at least twenty-five countries
are an important factor in the food-supply. The approximate
value of the world's oyster crop approaches £4,000,000 annually,
representing over 30,000^000 bushels, or nearly 10 billion oysters.
Not less than 150^000 persons are engsged in the industry, and
the total number dependent thereon is fully hall a million. The
following table shows in general terms the yeariy oyster product
of the wortd:—
Country.
Bushels.
Value.
United States . . .
Canada ....
Great Britain and Ireland
France. ....
2fi.«5S.76o
134.140
113.700
3,360,190
£a.5334«i
43^5
7S'.77«
84.400
44.000
40,230
"MOO
Holland ....
Italy .....
Other European countries
Asia, Africa and Oceania .
Total . . .
100,000
68.750
»9.M0
275-000
30.«35470
£3.718.436
VniUd States.— Iha oyster is the chief fishery product in the
United States. The states whkh lead in the quantity of oystcre
Uk*n are Maryland. Virginia. New York. New Jersey and Connecti-
cut; the annual value of the output in each of these is over fi .ooo/)oa
Other states with important oyster interests are Rhode Island,
North Carolina, Louisiana and California. The oyster' fisheries
give employment to over 56.000 fishermen, who man 4000 veaaeK
valued at $4,000,000, and tzioaa boata. valued at 1 1 .470.000: the
valoe of the 11.OQO dredges and 37»ooo tongs, rekes and other
appliances used is l^3.ooa The quantity of oysters taken in 1898
was 26.853,760 bushels, with a value of 812,667,405. The output of
cultivatedT oysters in 1899 was about 9,800.000 bushels, worth
vSi^OOfOOO*
CsMdo.— Oyster banks of some importance exist ta the Gulf
of St Lawrence and oa the coast of Bntish Columbia* AD of the
grounds have suffered depiction, and cultural methods to maintain
the supply have been instit uted. The oyster output of the Dominion
has never exceeded 200.000 bushels in a single year, and in 1898
was 134.140 bushels, valued at 8217.024.
Vmted Kinpiom.—Tht natural oyster beds of Great Bntam and
Ireland have been annong the most valuable of the fishery resources,
and British oysters have been famous from time Immemorial. The
most impoftant oyster region b the Thames estuary, the site of
extensive planting operations. The present supply u largely from
cultivated grounds. Important oystcr-produdng . centres are
426
OYSTER
WhU>tabfe.Golcfae8CeraiidBrifl:btliiiCfei. Theomterakadedoothe
coasts of England and Wales in 1898 numbered 55^09^000. valued
at ii22^20, and in 1899. 38.978.000. valued at £143.841- The
Scottish hshery has its centre at Inveraray and Ballantrae, and in
too^ yielded 218,000 oysters, valued at £865. Public tiyster grounds
of Ireland in 1903 produced 2.^^.800 oyrte -• -• — '
The fishery is most cxunsive at Wicklow, Qu(
Galway and Movillc. Planting is carriea on in seven counties
leeostown. Ballyl
,_^ „ jn in seven coui
the oysters taken from cultivate beds in 1903 numbered 2,687,500
oysters, valued at £m20.
France, — ^The industry owes its importance to the attention
S^ven to oyster cultivation. In the fiwery on public ground^ in
1896 only 6370 fishermen were engaged, employing 1627 vessels
and boats, valued at 1.473.449 francs, and apparatus worth 21 1495
francs, while only 13,127,217 kilograms of oysters were taken, or
about 320,000 bushels, valued at 414.830 francs. In the parka.
Claires and reservoirs the private culture of oysters has attained
great perfection. Fully 40,000 men, women and children are em-
ployed, and the output in 1896 was 1,53^.417.068 oysters, worth
17,537,778 francs. The principal centre is Arcachon.
Oyiier Culture. — ^Tbe oyster industry has passed from the
hands of the fisherman into those of the oyster culturist. The
oyster being sedentary, except for a few days in the* earliest
stages of its existence, Is easily exterminated in any given
locality; since, although it nuy not be possible for the- fishermen
to rake op from the bottom every individual, wholesale methods
of capture soon result in covering up or otherwise destcpying
the oyster banks or reefs, as the communities of oysters are
technically termed. The main difference between the oyster
industry of America and that of Europe lies in the fact that in
Europe the native beds, have long since been practically de-
stroyed, perhaps not more than 6 or 7 % of the oysters of Europe
passing from the native beds directly into the hands of the
consumer. It is probable that 60 to 75% are reared from the
spftt in artificial parks, the remainder having been laid down
for a time to increase in size and flavour in shoal waters along
the coasts. In the United States, on the other hand, from 30
to 40% are carried from the native beds directly to market.
The oyster fishery is everywhere, except in locah'ties where the
natural beds are nearly exhausted, carried on in the most reck-
less manner, and in aU directions oyster grounds are becoming
deteriorated, and in some cases have been entirely destroyed.
At present the oyster is one of the cheapest articles of diet in the
United 3utes; and, though it can luidly be expected that the
price of American oysters will always remain so low, still, taking
into consideration the great wealth of the natural beds along
the entire Atlantic coast. It seems certain that a moderate
amount of protection would keep the price of seed oysters far
below European rates, and that the immense stretches of sub-
merged land espedally suited for oyster planting may be utilized
and made to produce an abundant harvest at much less cost
than that which accompanies the complicated system of culture
in vogue in France and Holland.
The simplest form of oyster culture is the preservation of the
natural oyster-beds. Upon this, in fact, depends the whole
future of the industty, since it is not prolKible that any system
of artificial breeding can be devised which will render it p(^ble
to keep up a supply without at least occasional recourse to seed
oysters produced under natural conditions. It b the opinion
of almost aU who have studied the subject that any natural bed
may in time be destroyed by overfishing (perhaps not by
removing all the oysteis, but by breaking up the colonics, and
delhreting over the territory which they once occupied to other
kindf of animals), by burying the breeding oysters, by covering
up the projections suitable for the reception of spat, and by
breaking down, through the action of heavy dredges, the ridges
which are especially f tted to be seats ol the ookMiies.* The
' 'Even Huxley, the most ardent of all opponents of fishery
legislation, white denying that oyster-beds had been permanently
annihilated by dredging, practically admitted that a bed may be
reduead to such a condition that the oyster will only be able to
recover its former state b^ a long struggle with its enemies and
competition— in fact that it must re-es^Ush itself much in the
same way as they have acquired possession of new gtoonds in Jutland,
a pfocess whrch. according to nis own statement, occupiea thirty
years (Lecture at the Royal Institution. May nth. 1883, printed
with additions in the Enilisk lUustnUd Magmne, i. pp. 47-55.
iia-i3X).
immense oyster4>eda in Pocomoke Sound, Maiylaad, Ibw
practically been destroyed by over-dfodging, and many of the
other beds of the United States are seriously Hiiiaj^ t^
same is doubtless true of aU the beda of Europe. It ftas aho
been demonstrated that under proper restrittloa great fiuantitis
of mature oysters, and seed oysters as well, nay be taJten boos
any region of natural oyster-beds without i^juiions effects.
Parallel cases in agricalture and forestry will occur to every one.
MOtnus, in his most admirable essay DU AuUerund Dk AuMterm^
wrtksekafit has pointed out the proper means of pteservioff
natural beds, declaring that, if the average profit from a bed
of oysters Is to remain permanently the same, a sufficient number
of mother oysters must be left in it, so as not to diminirfi the
capacity of maturing. He further shows that the productive
capacity of a bed can only be nudntained in one of two ways:
(1) by diminishing the causes which destroy the young oystecs,
in which case the number of breeding oysters may safdy be
decreased; this, however, is practicable only under socli favour-
able oonditions as occur at Arcachon, where the beds nay be
kept under the consunt control of the oyster-culturist; (2) by
regulating the fishing on the natural beds in such a manner
as to make them produce permanently the highest possible
average quantity of oysters. Since the annual Increase of
half-grown oysters is estimated by him to be four hundred aiMl
twenty-one to every thousand full-grown oystersr he dalns that
not more than 49% of these latter ought to be taken from a bed
during a year.
The Schleswig-Holstein oyster-beds are the property of the
state, and are leased to a company whose interest it ii to preserve
their productiveness. The French beds are also kept under
government control. Not so the beds of Great Britain and
America, which are as a general rule open to ail oomeis,* except
when some close-time regulation is in force. Huxley has illus-
trated the futility of "ck>se-time" in his remark that the
prohibition of taking oysters from an oyster-bed during four
months of the year is not the slightest security against its betr)g
stripped clean during the other eight months. " Suppose," he
continues, " that in a country infested by wohres, you have a
flock of sheep, keeping the wolves off during the lambing season
will not afford much protection if you withdraw diepheid and
dogs during the rest of the year." The old dose-time lavs
were abolished in England in 1866, and returned to hi X876,
but no results can be traced to the action of parliament in either
case. Huxley's conclusions as regards the future of the o>'sier
industry in Great Britain are doubtless just as applicable to
other countric8*--that the only hope for the oyster consumer
lies in the encouragement of oyster-culture, and in the develop-
ment of some means of breeding oysters under such condltioBs
that the spat shall be safely deposited. Oy^er cultuie can
evidently be carried on only by private enterprise, and the
problem for legislation to solve is how to give such rights of pro-
perty upon those shores which are favourable to oyster culture
as may encourage competent penons to invest their money in
that undertaking. Such property right should undoubtedly be
extended to natural beds, or else an area of natural spawning
territory should be kept under constant control and surveillance
by government, for the purpose of maintaining an adequate
supply of seed oysters.
The extensk>n of the area of the natural beds is the second
step in oyster culture. As is well known to soolof^sts, and as
has been very luddly set forth by MObttis, the location of oyster
banks is sharply defined by absolute physical conditions. Viihtn
certain definite limits of depth, temperature and salinity, the only
requirement is a suiuble ph^e for atuchment. Oysters cannot
thrive where the ground b composed of moving sand or where
mud is deposited; consequently, since the sixe and number of
these places are very limited, only a very small peitentage of
the young oysters can find a resting-place, and the remainder
perish. M^ius estimates that for every oyster brought to
* Connecticut has greatly benefited its oyster industry by givii«
to oyster-culturisu a fee simple title to the lands under control bv
them.
OYSTER BAY
427
market from the Hobtdn baAks, 1,045,000 are destroyed or
die. By putting down suitable •• cultch " or " stools " immense
quantities of the wandering fry may be induced to settle, and
arc thus saved. As a rule the natural beds occupy most of the
suitable space in their own vicinity. Unoccupied territory may,
however, be prepared for the reception of new beds, by spreading
sand, gravel and shells over muddy bottoms, or, indeed, beds
may be kept up in locations fot permanent nattiral beds, by
putting down mature oysters and cultch just before the time of
breeding, thus giving the young a chance to fix themselves
before the currents and enemies haye bad time to accomplish
much in the way of destruction.
The collection of oyster spat upon artificial stools has been
practised from time immemorial. As early as the 7th centin-y,
and probably before, the Romans practbed a kind of oyster
culture in Like Avemus, which still survives to the present
day in Lake Fusaro. Piles of rocks are made on the muddy
bottoms of these salt-water lakes, and around these are arranged
circles of stakes, to which are often attached bundles of twigs.
Breeding oysters are piled upon the rookeries, and their young
become attached to. the stakes and twigs provided for their
reception, where they are allowed to remain until ready for use,
when they are plucked off and sent to the market. A similar
though ruder device is used in the Poquonock river in Connecti-
cvt. Birch trees are thrown into the water near a natural
bed of oysters, and the trunks and twigs become covered with
spat; the trees are then dragged out upon the shore by oxen,
and the young fry are broken off and laid down in the shalk>wi
to increase in size. In 1858 the methods of the Italian lakes
were repeated at St Brieuc under the direction of Professor P.
Coete, and from these experiments the art of artificial breeding
as practised in France has been developed. There is, however,
a marked distinction between oyster^culture and oyster-breeding.
In considering the oyster-culture in France it is necessary to
distinguish the centres of production from the centres of rearing or
lattening. The chief centres or rtamm of oyster production are
two, (1) Arcttchon, (3) Brittany. The basin of Arcachoai has an
area of about 38,000 acres at bisn water, ^nd only about i S.000 acres
are under water at low tide. The water b Salter than the sea. At
the beginning of the loth century there were only natural oyster
beds in the basin, and tncse produced 75 million oysters per annum.
But in the middle of the century the natural beds bad been almost
exhausted and the system of government control, letting " ^rks "
to private tenants, and artificial cultivation was instituted. Certain
beds in the basin are reserved and kept under government control.
Cultch is placed upon them every year, and gathering of oysteri
upon them is allowed only at intervals of two or more years* when
the authority thinks they are sufficientlx stocked to permit of it.
These beds supply spat for the private cultivators. The latter collect
the spat on tiles: these are made of earthenware and concave on
one side. One of the most impoftant points in the system is the
coating of the tiles with lime. It is necessary to detach the young
cysters from the tiles when they are neariy a year old {dttroquap):
this could not be done without destroying the oysters if they were
attached directly to the surface of the tile. The coating of time or
mortar is soft and brittle, and consequently the vcung oysters can
easily be detached with a stout knife. The method of Tuning the
tiles ichaiUate) consists in dipping them into a liquid mixture of
lime and water. Sometimes Ume only is used, sometimes equal
quantities of lime and sand, or Ume and mud. Often it is necessary
10 repeat the dipping, and for the second coat hydraulic hme may
be employed.
The tites coated with time are set oofon the shore near the low-
water mark of spring tides, at the beginning of the spattina
This is eariier In the south of France than in England ; at Arcachon
the colleccors are put in position about the middle of June. Various
methods are adopted for keeping the tiles in place and for arranging
them in the position most favourable to the collectlort of spat. At
Arcachon they are arran^ In piles each layer being tiwisvefse to
the one beh)w. so that the space formed by the concavity of the
tile is kept open. A wooden frame-work often surrounds the heap
of tiles to prevent them bring s cat tered by the waves.
In the following season^ about April, the young oyster*, then
from i> to I In* In diameter, are separated or mbn^ih. TbeV may
then be Placed in oyster eases (catfMi o$trtopkiUs) or In shallow
ponds ifwire$) made on the fore-shore. The cases are about 8 in.
deepk made wnh a wooden frame-work, and galvaniied wire netting
COP and* bottom, the Rd being hinged. These cases about 8 ft. by
4 ft. In dlmendons are fixed en the fore-shoie by means of diort
posts driven into the ground, so that they are raised about 9 In.
' '^' The yooQg oysters glow mpidiy iA these
or I ft. from the latter.
eas«i,aiidliavetobe>^h!nnedouttathcygRMrkiter. When they
have been in the boofas a year tbey aie lai|e enough to be plaeea
in the da%t» or simply scattered alone the fore-shore.
la Brittanv the coief scat of oyster production is the gulf of
Morbihan. where the estuaries of numerous small rivers furnish
foreshores suitable to the industry. Heto the prevalence of mud
is one of the chief obstacles^ and lor this leason the tile-coUectors
are usually fastened together by wire and suspended to posu {tmUs
en bwquets). The couectors are not set out before the middle of
July. The natural beds from wUch the supply of spat is derived
are reserved, but apparently are insufficiently protected, so that
much poaching goes on.
These two rci ' -
young oysters I
places on. the e
elsewhere. Among rearing districts Marennes and La Trembbde
ace specially celebnted on aocouna of the extensive system of
dairts at oyster ponds* in which the gceen oysters so much prized
in Paris are produced. The irrigation of the datres is entirely under
control, and the daires undergo a special preparation for the pro-
duction of the green oysters, whose colour seems to be derived from
a species of Diatom which i^uiub in the clains.
In Holland the French system of oystcr<ulture is followed in the
estuary of the Scheldt, with some modifications in detail. The tiles
used are flat and heavy, and are placed on the foreshores in an
oblique position resting on their edges and against each other. The
tiles with the young oystem on them are placed in enclosures
during the winter, wd ditrogiiai^ b ^wried out in the following
summer.
In England the use of tiles has been tried on various occasions,
in Cornwall on the river Fal, at Haylin|; Idand and in Essex, but
has nowhere become permanently established. The reasons for this
are that the fall of spat b not usually vecy abuodaatt and the kind
of labour required cannot be obtained at a sufficiently cheap rate.
In many places oysters are simply imported from Prance and
Holbnd and laid down to grow, or are ofatuned by dredging from
open grounds: At Whitstable most of the stock b thus obtained,
but cultch <».«. dead shelb) b here and elsewhere spattered over the
ground to serve for the attachment of spat. The use of cuitch as
collector b a very ancient practice in ^gland, and b still almost
universally maintained. In the estuaries of Emcx there are many
private or semi-private oyster fisheries, where the method of cuKure
IS to dredge up the oysters in auturim and place them in pits* whese
they are sorted out, aind the suitable ones are selected for the market.
Just before the close season the young oysters and all the rest that
remain are scattered over the beds ag^n, with ouantities of cultch,
and in many cases the fishery b maintainrd by the local fall of spat,
without importation. In some pb^es where the ground b auiuUe
cultch b spread over the foreshwes also to collect spat. The
Snuine English '* native ** b produced in its greatest perfection in
e Essex fisheries, and b probably the highest priced oyster in the
world.
In additiott to the litersture quoted see also the following : Rap-
r'i sur les reckerclus ccmefnant VkuUft d VoitrHcvltwt ptMii ter
Commission de la Sociiti Nierlandaise de Zoologic (Leiden, 1882-
1884); P. Brocchi. TraiU de I'ostrHculture (Paris. 1883); Bashfoid
Dean, European Oyster CnUure^ Bulletin U.S. Fish Commissioa.
voL X. for IMO; vol, xl for 1891 f J. T. Cunningham* Report of the
Lecturer on Fishery Subjects, in Report of Technical Instruction
Committee of <>>mwall (1899. 1900}. (G. B. G. : J. T. C)
OTSTBR BAT, a township of Nassau (formerly of Queens)
county. New York, on Long Island, about 95 m. E.N.E. of Long
Island Qty. Pop. (1890) 13,870, (1900) 16,334; (1910 centufl)
SI ,803. The township reaches from N. to S. across the island
(here about 26 m. wide) in the shape of a rough wedge, the
larger end being on Long IsUnd Sound at ibe N.; on the
noithem shore b the tripartite Oyster Bay, whose westcni am
b Mill Neck creek, whose central branch u Oyster Bay harbor,
and whose easternmost arm, called Cold Spring harbor, separates
the township of C^ter Bay from the township of Huntington.
On the south side of the township b South Oyster bay, immedi-
ately east of the main body of the Great South bay ; and between
South Oyster Boy and the ocean lie several island beaches, the
smaller and notthemmpst ones bdng marshy, and the southern,
Jones or Seaford beach, being sandy and having on the ocean
side the Zach's inlet and Jones Beach life-saving stations.
The township b served by four branches of the Long Island
railway; the Oyster Bay branch of the north shore to the village
of Sea Cliff (incorporated in 1883; pop. 1910, 1694), on the E.
side of Hempstead harbor, to Glen Cove, a large unincorporated
village, immediately N.E. of Sea ClilT. to Locust Valley and 'to
Mill Neck farther £., and to the village of Oyster Bay, the
terminus of the branch, on Oyster Bay baitor; tl|a W^<^
42$
OYSTER-CATCHER
River bnnch to HicksviUe and to SycmtX; a thitd bimnch to
FarmiDgdale, which abo has direct communicatioii by railway
with HicksviUe; and the Montauk division to Massapequa,
In the south-western part of the township on Mossapequa Lake
and Massapequa Creek, which empties into South Oyster B^.
The villages served by the railway are the only important
settlements; those on the hilly north shore are residential. To
the north of the village of Oyster Bay, on a long peninsuUr
beach called Centre ][sland, are the headquarters of the Sea-
wanhaka Yacht Club; and to the east of the same village,
especially on Cove Neck, between Qyster Bay Harbor and Cold
Spring Harbor, are many summer residences with fine grounds.
Massapequa, on the south shore, is a residential summer resort.
The villages of HicksviUe and Farmingdale are niral; the former
has many German settlers. Jericho, N.E. of HicksviUe, is a
stronghold of the Hicksite Quakers, who are mostly wealthy
landowners. In Locust Valley is Friends' Academy (1876), a
secondary school for boys and girls. There are a few truck farms
in the township, potatoes, cabbages and cucumbers for pickling
being the principal crops; * Oyster Bay asparagus " was once
a famous crop. Oysters are cultivated on the Sound Shore and
there are clam beds in Oyster Bay and South Oyster Bay. In
the vlUage of Glen Cove there is a large leather-belting factory.
David Pieterssen de Vries, in his Voyaga Jrom Holland to
America, makes the first mention of Oyster Bay Harbor, which
he explored in June 1639. In the same month Matthew Sinder*
land (or Sunderland) bought from James Forrett, deputy of
William Alexander, earl of Stirling, *' two little necks of land,
the one upon the east side of Oyster Bay Harbor "; but Sinder-
^nd made no settlement. .A settlement from Lynn, Mass., was
attempted in 1640 but was prevented by Governor WiUiam
Kicft. By the treaty signed at Hartford, Connecticut, on the
aQtb of September 1650 by the Commissioners of the United
colonies of New England and those of New Nelherland aU land
east of the west side of Oyster Bay was granted to the English,
and aU land west to the Dutch; but the Dutch placed C^ler
Bay, according to a letter of Pieter Sluyvesant written in 1659,
two and a half leagues farther east than the New Englanders
did. In 1653 an Indian deed granted land at Oyster Bay to
Peter Wright and others of Salem and Sandwich, Mass.,
who made a permanent settlement here; in 1663 another sale
was made to Captain John Underbill (d. 1672), who first went to
Long Island about 1653, when he led a force which fought the
only important engagement ever fought with the Indians on
Long Island, in which the colonists destroyed the fortification
at Fort Neck near the present Massapequa, of Tackapousha,
chief of the Massapequas, an Algonquian tribe, whose name
meant "great pond." Oyster Bay was for a time dosely
connected politically with New Haven, but in 2664 with the
remainder of Long Iskind it came under the New York govern-
ment of Richard NicoUs, to whose success Underhill had largely
contributed by undermining Dutch influence oil Long Island;
In 1689 a Friends' meeting-house was buUt at Jericho, the home
of Eliaa Hicks, near the present Hickaville, the site of which was
owned by his famUy and which was named in his honour; and
the Dutch buUt their first church in Oyster Bay in 1732. The
harbour of Oyster Bay was a famous smuggling place at the
close of the 17th century, when there was a customs house here.
The first Kttlement on the *' south side " of the township was
made about 1693, when the Massapequa Indians sold 6000 acres
at Fort Neck to Thomas Townsend, and his son-in-kw Thomas
Jones (166S-1713), who had fought for James II. at Boyne and
Aghrim, who became a high sheriff of Queen's county in 1704*
and who was the founder of the family of Jones and Floyd-
Jones, whose seat was Tryon HaU (built at South Oyster Bay,
now Massapequa, in 1770); Thomas Jones (i73«-i70a)t grand-
son of the first Thomas Jones, was a prominent Loyalist
during the War of Independence and wrote a valuable History
#/iV«w Y»k during At Rnolmtionary War, first published in 1879.
OYSTER-CATCHER, a bird's name which docs not seem to
OOCUf in books until 1731, when M. Catesby {Nal. Hist. Carolina^
L p. Ss) uaid it lor a species whkh he observed to be abundaat
on the oyster-banks left bare at low water in the riversol CamKna,
and believed to feed principally upon those molluscs. In 1776
T. Pennant applied the name to the allied British species, which
he and for nearly two hundred years many other English writen
had called the " Sea-Pie." The change, in spile of the misnomer
— for, whatever may be the case elsewhere, in England the bird
does not feed upon oysters — met with general approval, and the
new name has, at least in books, almost wholly replaced what
seems to have been the older one.^ The Oyster-catcher oi
Europe is the Haetnatopus* ostraUgus, or Linnaeus, belonging
to the group now called Limitolaet and is generally included in
the family Charadriidae; though some writers have placed it ia
one of iu own, Haematopodidat, chieHy on account of its pecuUir
biU— a long thin wedge, ending in a vertical edge, lu leet
also are much more fleshy than are generaUy seen in the Piovct
family. In its strongly-contrasted plumage of black and whiie,
with a coral-coloured bill, the Oyster-catcher is one of the most
conspicuous birds of the European coasts, and in many paru
is stiU very common. It is nearly always seen paired, though
the pairs coUect in prodigious flocks; and, when these are brokea
up, its shriU but musical cry of " lu-lup," " tu-lup," somewhat
pettishly repeated, helps to draw attention to it. lu wariness*
however, is very marvellous, and even at the breeding-scaaoo»
when most birds throw off their shyness, it is not easily a p proached
within ordinary gunshot distance. The hen-bird oommooly
lays three day-coloured eggs, blotched with black, ia m. very
slight hollow on the ground not far from the sea. As incubatioa
goes on the hoUow is somewhat deepened, and perhaps sonae
haulm is added to its edge, so that at last a very fair nesi is the
resulL The young, as in aU Limicolae, are at first clothed ia
down, so mottled in colour as closely to resemble the shingle
to which, if they be not hatched upon it, they are almost imme-
diately taken by their parents, and there, on the slightest alarm,
they squat close to elude observation. This species occurs
on the British coasts (very seldom straying inland) aU the year
round; but there is some reason to think that those we have in
winter are natives of more northern latitudes, while our home-
bred birds leave us. It ranges from Iceland to the shores of
the Red Sea, and h'ves chiefly on marine worms, Crustacea and
such moUuscs as it is able to obtain. It is commonly supposed
to be capable of prizing limpets from their rock, and of opening
the shells of mussels; but, though undoubtedly ft feeds on both,
further evidence as to the way in which it procures them is
desirable. J. E. Hariing informed the prcwnt writer that the
bird seems to by its head sideways on the ground, and thea,
grasping the limpet's shell close to the lock between the
mandibles, use them as scissor-blades to cut off the moUusc
from its sticking-place. The (>ysier-catcher is not highly
esteemed as a bird for the table.
Differing from this species In the possession of a longer biU,
in having much less white on its back, in the paler colour of iu
mantle, and in a few other points, is the ordinary Americaa
species, with at least three races, Haematopns paUiatus. Except
that its caU-note, judging from description, is unUke that of the
European bird, the habits of the two seem to be perfectly similar;
and the same may be said indeed of aU the other species. The
Falkland Idands are frequented by a third, H. Uueopus, very
similar to the first, but wftb a black wing-tining and pakr legs,
while the Australian Region possesses a fourth, H. longirostris,
with a very long biU as its name intimates, and no white on its
* It sccnii, however, very possible, judging from iu equivalents tn
other European languages, such a$ the FribUn Otstsrwisuksr, the
German Augslerman, AusUrnfeuher, and the Kke, that the name
" Oyscter-catcher " may have been not a colonial invention but
indigenous to the motber-oountry. though if had not found iu way
into print bcfocc The French Huttrier. however, appears to be a
word coined by Briason. " Sea-Pie " has its analogues m the French
Pie-de-Mtf, the German Murduer, Suttster^ and,so fonh.
* Whether it be the HoematopuSt whose name i« found in some
cdhions of Pliny (lib. x. cap. 47) i» at best doubtful. Other editions
have Himantoput; but Hardouio prefers the former reading. Both
words have passed into modem ornithology, the latter as the generic
name of the Si;ilt («.«.); and some writer^ havo blended the two ia
,i.« A impgtiw)»h» coo^pound HatmaiUopus,
OYSTERMOUTH— OZIERI
429
primaries. - Chin, Japui and possibly eastern Asia in gescral
have an Oystec-catcher which seems to be intermediate between
Iht Last and the first. 'This has received the nameof H. osculansi
but doubts have been expressed as to its deserving specific
recognition. Then we have a group of species in which the
plumage is wholly or almost wholly bkck, and among them
only do we find birds that fulfil the implication of the scientific
name of the genus by having feet that may be called blood-red.
H. nigir, which frequents both coasts oC the northern Pacific,
has, it b true, yellow legs, but towards the extremity of South
America its place is taken by H. ater, in which ihey arc bright
red, and this bird is further remarkable for its laterally com-
pressed and much upturned bill. The South African H. cdpettsis
has also scarlet legs; but in the otherwise very similar bird of
Australia and New Zealand, H, uHKolor, these members are of a
pale brick-cok>ur. (A. N.)
OYSTERMOUTH, or The Mumbles, ah urban dbtrict and
seaside resort in the Gower division of Glamorganshire, south
Wales, situated on the western bend of Swansea Bay, 4) m. S.W.
of Swansea, with which it is connected by the steam-tramway
of the Swansea and Mumbles Railway Company, constructed
in 1804. The London and North-Westem railway has also a
station at Mumbles Road, 2\ m. N. of Oystermouth. Pop.
(igoi) 44fit. The castle, which belongs to the duke of Beaufort
as lord of the seigniory of Gower, is an imposing ruin, nobly
situated on a rocky knoll overlooking the bay. Its great hall
and chapel with their traceried Gothic windows are fairly well
preserved. The earliest structure (probably only a " peel "
tower), built in the opening yeais of the 12th century, probably
by Maurice de Londres>,was destroyed by the Welsh in 1215.
The early English features of the square keep indicate that it
was soon rebuilt, by one of the De Breos lords (see Gowca).
In 13S4 Edward 1. stayed here two dajra as the guest of William
de Breos, and from that time on it became the chief residence
in Gower of the lords seignior and subsequently of their stewards^
and their chancery was located here till its abolition in 1535.
The parish church, which has an embattled tower, was restored
in t86o, when fragments of Roman tesadated pavement were
found in various parts of the churchyard. Roman coins were
also found in the village in 1832 and 183 7^-aU indicating that
there had been a small settlement here in Roman times. The
name of the castle appears in the Welsh chronicles as Ystum
LAwynarth, which, by the eli»on of the penultimate, was {Mrobably
changed by false analogy into Oystermouth-r-the bay being
noted for its oyster beds, its church is mentioned in the cartulary
of Gloucester (1141) ss Ostrenuwe.
The village itself is straggling and uninteresting, but the
high ground between it and the pretty bays of l^iiigiand and
Caswell on the southern side of the headland fronting the open
channel is dotted with well-built viOas and commands magnificent
views. The headland terminates in two rocky islands, which
to sailors coming up the channel would appear like the breasts
of " mammals," whence the comparatively modem name, The
Mumbles, is supposed to be derived. Gn the outet of these locks
is a ligfathoQse erected in 1794 and maintained by the Swansea
Harbour Trust The district is rapidiy increasing in popularity
•s a seaside reaoct. A pier was erected by the Mumbles Railway
Company at a cost of £12,000 in 1898. The fishing industiy,
once prosperous, has much diminished in importance, but there
are still oyster-beds in the bay.
OZANAM, AHTOINB FRftofolC (1813-1853), French scholar,
was bom at Milan on the 23rd of April 18 13. His family, which
was of Jewish extraction, had been settled in the Lyonnais ioi
many centuries, and had reached distinction in tlie tlurd genera-
tion before Fr6d£ric through Jacques Ozanam (1640-1717), an
eminent mathematician. Ozanam's father, Antoine, served in
the armies of the republic, but betook himself, on the advent of
the empire, to trade, teaching, and finally medicine. The boy
was brought up at Lyons and was strongly influenced by one of
his masters, the Abb6 Noirot. His conservative and religious
instincts showed themselves early, and he published a pamphlet
•gainst Saint-Simonianism in 183 1, which attracted the attention
of Lamartine. In the following year he was sent io study law
at Paris, where be fell in with the Ampere family, and through
ihcm with Chateaubriand, Lacordaire, MonUlembert, and other
leaders of the neo-CathoUc movemenL Whilst atiil a student
he took up journalism and contributed considerably to BaiUy's
Tribune, ta^ique, which became (November i, 1833) L'unu
aerr. In conjunction with other young men he founded in May
1833 the celebrated charitable society of St Vincent de Paul,
which numbered before his death upwards of two thousand
mcmbera. He received the degree of doctor of law in 1836, and
in 1838 that of doctor of letters with a thesis on Dante, which
was the banning of one of his best-known books. A year later
he was appointed to a professorship of commercial law at Lyons,
and in 1840 assistant professor of foreign literature at the
Sorbonnc. He married in June 184^, and visited Italy on his
wedding tour. At Fauriel's death in 1844 he succeeded to the
full professorship of foreign literature. The short remainder of
his life was extremely busy with his professorial duties, his
extensive literary occupations, and the work, which he still
continued, of district-visiting as a member of the society of St
Vincent de PauL During the revolution of 1848, of which he
took an unduly sanguine view, he once more turned journalist
for a short time in the ku nouvdU and other papers, lie
travelled extensively, and was in England at the time of the
Exhibition of 1851. His naturally weak constitution fell a prey
to consumption, which he hoped to cure by visiting luly, but he
died on his return at Marseilles on the 8lh of September 1853.
Ozanam was the leading historical and literary critic in the
neO'Catholic movement in France during the first half of the
iQth century. He was more learned, more smcere, and more
logical than Chateaubriand; less of a political partisan and less
of a literary sentimentalist than ]^Iontalembcrt. In contem-
porary movements be was an earnest and conscientioas advocate
of Catholic democracy and socialism and of the view that the
chureh should adapt itself to the changed political conditions
consequent to the Revolution. In his writings he dwelt upon
important contributions of historical Christianity, and main-
tained especially that, in continuing the work of the Caesars, the
Catholic church had been the most potent factor in civilizing the
invading barbarians and in organizing the life of the middle ages.
He confessed that his object was " to prove the contrary thesis
to Gibbon's," and, although any historian who begins ynXh the
desire to prove a thesis is quite sure to go more or less wrong,
Ozanam no doubt administered a healthful antidote to the
prevalent notion, particularly amongst English-speaking peoples,
that the Catholic church had done far more to enslave than to
elevate the human mind. His knowledge of medieval literature
and his appreciative sympathy with medieval life admirably
qualified him for his work, and his schoUrly attainments are still
highly esteemed.
His works were published in eleven volumes (Paris, 1862-1865).
They include Deux chancdiers iTAngUterre, Bacon de Vertdam <f
Saint Thomas de Cantorbiry (Paris. 1836): Dante et ia pkiiosophie
eatkaliqne au XJIDmg sOcle (Paris. 1839; and ed., enlarRCd 1843);
£tHdes neemanigues (a vela., Paris, 1847-1849)1 translated by A. C
Glyn as History qf Civilisation in the Fifth Century (London. 1868);
Documents inUitspour servir d I'histoire de Fltalie depuis le YlJI^
sitcte jusffu'au Xtl^»» (Paris. 1850); Les poitee franciscains en
Italic au Xllli^ siide (Paris, 1852). His letters have been partially
translated into Enetish by A. Coates (London. 1886).
There are Frencn lives of Ozanam by his brother, C. A. Ozanam
(Paris, 1882); Mme. E. Humbert (Paris. 1880); C. HuK (Paris,
i882>; M. de Lambel (Paris. 1887): L. Cumier (Paris. 1888): and
B. Fanlquicr (Paris. 1903). German lives by F. X. Karker (Pader.
bom, 1867) and E. Hardy (Mains, 1878); and an interesting English
biognaphy by Misa K. OlMcara (EdinburBh. 1867: and ed., London,
1878). (C. H. Ha.)
OZIERI, a town of Sardinia in the province of Sassari, from
which it is 34 m. E.S.E. by rail Pop. (1901) 9555* It is situated
X 280 ft. above sea-level on a steep slope, but faces north, and so is
not veiy healthy. In the centre of the town is a square with
a fine founUin of 1594. The cathedral was restored in 1848; it
is the seat of the diocese of Bisardo. The former cathedral of this
diocese lies some distance to the N.W.; it is a fine Romanesque
building of the xath and 13th centuries. Tlie district of Oderi
430
OZOKERITE— OZONE
fe famous for its batter— the only butter made in Sardinia^
cheeseiaad other pastoral products; cattle are also bred here.
See D. Scano, Storia ddF arte in Sardepu ial set. cl xiv. secdo
(Cagtiari-Saasari, 1907). p. 200.
OZOKERITE, or Ozocerite (Gr. H^tuf, to emit odour, and
ia}p6t, 'wax), mineral wax, a combustible mineral, which may be
designated as crude native paraffin (9.V.), found in many localities
in varying degrees of purity. Specimens have been obtained
from Scotland, Northumberland and Wales, as well as from
about thirty different countries. Of these occurrences the
oxokerite of the island of Tchdekcn, near Baku, ahd the deposits
of Utah, U.S.A., deserve mention, though the last-named have
been largely worked out. The sole sources of commercial supply
are in Galicia, at Boryslaw, Dxwiniacs and Starunia, though the
mineral is found at other points on both flanks of the Carpathians.
Oxokerite-deposits are believed to have originated in much the
same way as mineral veins, the slow evaporation and oxidation of
petroleum having resulted in the deposition of its dissolved
paraffin in the fosures and crevices previously occupied by the
liquid. As found native, ozokerite varies from a very soft wax
to a black mass as hard as gypsum. Its specific gravity ranges
from '85 to '95, and its melting point from 58* to 100* C. It is
soluble in ether, petroleum, benzene, turpentine^ chloroform,
carbon bisulphide, &c. Galidan ozokerite varies in colour frorn
light yellow to dark brown, and frequently appears green owing
to dichroism. It usually melts at 62* C. Chemically, ozokerite
consists of a mixture of various hydrocarbons, containing 85-7%
by weight of carbon and X4'3% of hydrogen. '
The mining of ozokerite was formeriy carried on in Galicia by
means of hand-labour, but in the modem ozokerite mines
owned by the Boryslaw Actien Gesellschaft and the Galizische
Krcdilbank, the workings of which extend to a depth of 200
metres, and 225 metres respectively, dectrical power is employed
for hauling, pumping and ventilating. In these mines there
are the usual main shafts and galleries, the ozokerite being
reached by levels driven along the strike of the deposit. The wax,
as it reaches the surface, varies !n purity, and, in new workings
especially, only hand-picking is needed to separate the pure
material. In other cases much earthy matter is mixed with the
material, and then the rock or shale having been eliminated by
hand-piddng, the "wax-stone" is boUed with water in large
coppers, when the pure wax rises to the surface. Tins is again
melted without water, and the impurities are skimmed off, the
material being then run into slightly conical cylindrical moulds
and thus made into blocks for the nuirket. The crude ozokerite
is refined by treatment first with Nordhausen oil of vitriol, and
subsequently with charcoal, when the cere^ne or cerasin of
commerce a obtained. The refined ozokerite or cercsine, which
usually has a mdting-point of 61" to 78" C, b largely used as an
adulterant of beeswax, and is frequently coloured artificially to
resemble that product in appearance.
On distillation in a current of superheated steam, ozokerite
yields a candle-making material resembling the paraffin obtained
from petroleum and shale-oil but of higher mdting-point, and
therefore of greater value if the candles made from it are to be
used in hot cUmates. There are also obtained in the distillation
light oils and a product resembling vasdine (9.*.). The residue
in the stills consists of a hard, black, waxy substance, which in
admixture with india-rubber is employed under the name of
okonite as an electrical instilator. From thereaidue a form of the
material known as ked-baUf used to impart a polished surface to
the heels and soles of boots, b also manufactured.
According to published statistics, the output of erode ozokerite
in Galicia in 1906 and 1907 was as follows:
1906. *9°Ji
Metric Tons. Metnc Tons.
a,ao5 a.a40
ate 370
Distnct*
Boryslaw.
Dzwiniacz
Scaninia .
OS (B.R.)
OZONE, allotropic oxygen, <^. tlie fint itcorded obaervaiioiis
of the substance are dtie to Van Manim (1785), who found that
oxygen gas through which a stream of electric sparks had
been passed, tarnished mercury and emitted a peculiar smdL
In 1840 C. P. Schonbein {Pogg. Ann. 50, p. 6t6) showed thai
this substance was also present in the oxygen liberated during
the dectroiysis of addutated water, and gave it the name
ozone (Gr: i^up, to smell). Ozone mixed with an excess of
oxygen is obtained by submitting dry oxygen to the silent
electric dischai^ge {at the temperature of liquid air, E. Briner
and E. Durand {Comptes rendus^ TQ07, 145, p. 1272) obtained
a 90% yield]; by the action of fluorine on water at o^ C.
(H. Moissan, Comptes nndust 1899, 129, p. 570); by tbe.actioo
of concentrated sulphuric acid or barium peroxide or on
other peroxides and salts of peradds (A. v. Baeyer and V.
Villigcr, Ber, 1901, 34, p. 355); by passing oxygen ovei
some heated metallic oxides, and by distilling potas^um per-
manganate with concentrated sulphuric add in vacuo. It is
also formed during many processes of slow oxidation. For a
description of the various forms of ozonizers used on the large
scale see N. Otto, Re9. gin. de ckemie pun tt appliqnU, 1900,
ii. p. 405; W. Elworthy, Eleki, Zeils., 1904, ti. p. 1), and H.
Guilleminot (Comptes rendus, 1903, 136, p. 1653). Ozone is
also pro(}uced by the action of cathode and ultra-violet rays
on oxygen. These methods of preparation give an ozone
diluted with a considerable amount of unaltered oxygen; A.
Ladenburg (Ber. 1898, 31, pp. 2508, 2830) succeeded in liquefy*
ing ozonized oxygen with liquid air and then by fractional
evaporation obtained a liquid confining between 80 and
90% of ozone. /
Ozone is a oolouriess gas which possesses a characteristic
smell. When strongly cooled it condenses to an indigo bine
liquid which is extremely explosive (see LiQmD Gases). Id
ozonizing oxygen the volume of the gas diminishes, but if the
gas be heated to about 300" C, it returns to its ong^ud volume
and is found to be nothing but oxygen. The same change of
ozone into oxygen may be brought about by contact with
platinum black and other substances. Ozone is only very slightly
soluble in water. It is a most powerful oxidizing agent, which
rapidly attacks organic matter (hence in preparing the gas,
rubber connexions must not be used, since they arc instantly
destroyed), bleaches vegetable colouring matters and acts
rapidly on most metals. It liberates iodine from solutioos of
potassium iodide, the reaction in neutral solution proceeding
thus: 0,-|-2RI-l-HiO»0,+I,-l-2KHO whilst in add aolntioa
the decomposition takes the following course: 4(^+I0HI*
5It+H30fe-f4H|0-l-30s (A. Ladenbunt, Ber. 1901, 34, p. 1184).
Ozone is decomposed by some metallic oxides, with regeneration
of oxygen. It combines with many unsaturated carbon com*
pounds to form ozonidcs (C Harries, Ber. 1904, 37, pp. 839
el seq).
The constitution of ozone has been determined by J. L. Sord
(Ann. ckim. pkys,, 1866 (4), 7> P* nj: i^S Uli IJ* P- <S7). vbo
showed that the diminution in volume when ozone is absorbed
from ozonized oxygen by means of oil of turpentine is twice as
great as the increase in vohiroc observed when ozone is kcob-
verted into oxygen on heating. This points to the gas pnrwiiing
the molecular formula Os. Confirmation was obtained by com-
paring the nte of diffusion of ozone with that of dilaiine, ishidi
gave 24*8 as the value for the density of ozone, conaequcstly
the molecular formula must be Ob (^. B. C. Brodie, PkU. Tremi.,
187a, pt. it p. 435)- More recently A. Ladenbnig {Ber. 1901.
34t P- 631) has obtained as a mean vahie for the molecular
wd^t the number 47-78, which corresponds with the above
molecolsr ■ (onnuls. Ozone is .used lazgdy for alimliahig
water.
P— PACATUS DREPANIUS
43 «
PTht sixteenth letter of tlie English alphabet, the fifteenth
in the Latin and the sixteenth in the Greek alphabet, the
latter in its ordinary form having the symbol for x before
0. In the Phoenician alphabet, from which the Western
alphabets are directly or indirectly derived, its shape, written
trom right to left, is 1. In the Greek alphabet, when written
from left to right, it takes the form f or Fl, the second form being
much rarer in inscriptions than the first. Only very rarely and
onlv in inscriptions of the 7th and 6th centuries B.C. are rounded
forms r, n found. In Italy the Etruscan and Umbrian form 1
(written from right to left), though more angular than the
Phoenician symbol, resembles it more closely than it does the
Greek. The earliest Roman form — on the inscription found in
the Forum in 1899 — is Greek in shape 1, though the second leg
is barely visible. The Oscan fl is identical with the rarer Greek
form. As time goes on the Roman form becomes more and more
rounded r,but not till Imperial times is the semicircle completed
so as to form the symbol in the shape which It still retains P.
The Semitic name Pi became in Greek rei, and has in the course
of ages changed but little. The sound of p throughout has been
that of the breathed labial stop, as in the English pin. At the
end of English words like lip the breath is audible after the
consonant, so that the sound is rather that of the ancient Greek
^, i.e, p-k, not/, as ^ is ordinarily now pronounced. This sound
is found initially also in some dialects of English, as in the Iri^h
pronundatton of pig as P'kig. For a remarkable interdiangc
between p ai|d qu sounds which is found in many languages, see
under Q. (P. Gi.)
PAARt, a town of the Cape Province, South Africa, 56 m, by
rail E.N.E. of Cape Town, Pop. (1904)* xi|393« The town is
situated on the west bank of the Berg river, some 400 ft. above
the sea. . It sUnds on the coast plain near the foot of the
Drakenstein mountains. West of the town the Paarl Berg rises
from the plain. The berg is crowned by thfee great granite
boulders, known as the Paarl, Britannia and Gordon Rock.
The town is beautifully situated amid gardens, orange groves
and vineyards. The chief public buildings are the two Dutch
Reformed churches, the old church being a good specimen of
colonial Dutch architcaure, with gables, curves and thatched
roof. Paarl is a thriving agricultural and viticultural centre,
among its industries being the manufacture of wine and brandy,
wagon and carriage building and harness making. South-east
of the town are granite quarries. The wines produced in the
district are among the best in South Africa, lanking second only
to those of Constantia.
The Paarl is one of the oldest European towns in South
Africa. It dates from 1687, the site for the new settlement being
chosen by the governor, Simon van der Stcll. It was named
Paarl by the first settlers from the fancied resemblance of one
ol the boelders on the top of the hill, when glistening in the sun,
to a gigantic pearl. Shortly afterwards several of the Huguenots
who had sought refuge at the Cape after (he revocation of the
edi<^ of Nantes were placed in the new settlement. The present
inhabitants are largely descended from these Huguenots.
PABIANICEl a town of Ru^an Poland, in the government of
Piotrkow, 30 m. N.W. of the town of Piotrkow, and to m. S.S. W.
from Loda railway station. Pop. (1897), 18,251. It lies amidst
extensive forests round the bead-waters of the N^, which wrre
the hunting-grounds of the Polish kings. It has woollen, doth
and paper mills, and manufactures agricultural implements.
PABNAt or Pvbna, a town and district of British India, in the
Rajsbahi division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The town is
situated on the river Ichhamati, near the old bed of the Ganges.
Pop. (1901), 18,434. The district of Pabna has an area of 1839
aq. m. Pop (1901), 1,420,461, showing an increase of 4-8% in
the decade. It is bordered along its entire east face by the main
•tream of the Brahmapuua or Jamana, ami along its south-wcsi
face by the Ganges or PadmC It is entirely ol alluvial origin,,
the silt of the annual inundations overiyiog straU of clay on
sand. Apart from the two great bordering rivers, it is inter-
sected by countless water-cl^ncls of varying magnitude, so
that during the rainy season every village is accessible by boat
and by boat on^y. Ahnost the whole area is one green rice-field,
the uniform level being broken only by dumps of bamboos and
fruit-trees, which conceal the vfllage sites. The district is a
modem creation of British rule, being first formed out of Rajshahi
district in 1832, and possesses no history of iU own. The two
sUple crops are rice and jute. Sirajganj, on the Brahmaputra,
is the largest mart for jute in Bengal The Eastern Bengal
railway cuts acroas the south-west comer of the district to Sara,
where a bridge crosses the Ganges. The district was affected
by the earthquake of the isth of June 1897, which was most
severely felt at Sirajganj.
PAB8T, FRBDBRICK (1836-1904), American brewer, was born,
at Nichoiaosrdth, in Saxony, on the 38th of March 1836. In
1848 he emigrated with his parents to Chicago. There he
became, first a waiter in an hotd,- then a cabin-boy on a Lake
Michigan steamer, and eventually captain of one of these vessels.
In thh last capadty he made the acquaintance of a German,
Philip Best, the owner of a small but prosperous brewery at
Milwaukee, and married his daughter. In 1862 Pabst was
taken into partnership in his father-in-law's breweiy, and set
himself to work to study the details of the business. After
obtaining a thorough mastery of the art of brewing, Pab«t
turned his attention to extending the market for the beer, and
before long had raised the output of the Best brewery to xoo,ooo
barrels a year. The brewery was eventually converted into a
public company, and its capital repeatedly increased in order to
cope with the continually increasing trade.
PACA, the Brazilian name for a large, heavily-built, short-
taOed rodent mammal, easily recogni^d by its spotted fur.
This rodent, Codogfinys (or Agouti^ poca, together with one or
two other tropical American species, represents a genus near
akin to the agoutis and included in the family Caviidae.
Pacas may be distinguished from agoutis by their heavier and
more compact build, the longitudinal rows of light spots on the
fur, the five-toed hind>feet, and the peculiar structure of the
skull, in which the cheek-bones are expanded to form large
capsules on the sides of the face, each endosing a cavity opening
on the side of the check. Their habits are very similar to those
of agoutb, but when pursued they invariably take to the water.
The young, of which seldom more than one is produced at a birth,
remain in the burrows for several months. The flesh is eaten
in BraziL Males may be distinguished from females by me skull,
in whkh the outer surface of the cheek-bones is roughened in the
former and smooth in the latter sex. The paca-rana {Dinomys
branicki)t from the highlands of Pem, differs, among other
features, by its well-developed tail and the arrangement of the
spots. (See RooENTU.)
PACATUS DRBPAHIUS, LATINUS (or LATonus), one of the
Latin panegyrists, flourished at the end of the 4th century ajk
He probably came from Agmnum (Agen), in the south of France,
in the territory of the Nitiobriges, and received his education
in the rhetorical school of Burdigala (Bordeaux). He was the
contemporary and intimate friend of Ausonius, who dedicated
two of his minor works to F^uatus, and describes him as the
greatest Latin poet after Virgil Pacatus attained the rank ol
proconsul of Africa (a.d. 390) and held a confidential position
at the imperial court. He b the author of an extant speech
(ed. £. Bihrens in Panegyriei ioHni, 1874, No. ti) delivered in
the senate house at Rome (389) in honour of Thcodosius I. It
contains an account of the life and deeds of the emperor, the
special subject of congratulation being the oooplete defeat ol
the usurper MaTimiw The speech is oac of the bes^
43«
PACCHIA AND PACXJHIAROTTO— PACHISI
kind. Though 'not altogether free from exaggeration and
flattery, it is marked by considerable dignity and self-restraint,
and is thus more important as an historical document than
similar productions. The style is vivid, the language elegant
but comparatively simple, exhibiting familiarity with the best
classical literature. The writer of the panegyric must be dis-
tinguished from Drepanius Fkmis, deacon of Lyons (c. 850),
author of some Christian poems and prose theological works.
See M. ^^a"' CesckichU ier romiscken LiUeraiur (1904), iv. L
PACCHIA. OIROLAMO DEL. and PACCHIAROTTO (or
Pacchiarotti), JACOPO, two painters of the Sicnese school.
One or other of them produced some good pictures, which used
to pass as the performance of Perugino; reclaimed from Penigino,
they were assigned to Pacchiarotto; now it is sufficiently settled
that the good works are by G. del Pacchia, whUe nothing of
Pacchiarotto's own doing transcends mediocrity. The mythical
Pacchiarotto who worked actively at Fontainebleau has no
authenticity.
Girolamo del Paccbia, son of a Hungarian cannon-founder,
was bom, probably in Siena, in i477- Having joined a turbulent
dub named the Bardottt he disappeared from Siena in 1535.
when the dub was dispersed, and nothing of a later date is
known about him. His roost celebrated work is a fresco of the
"Nativity of the Virgin," in the chapel of S Bernardino, Siena,
graceful and tender, with a certain arti6ciality. Another
renowned fresco, in the church of S Caterina, represenU that
saint on her visit to St Agnes of Montepuldano, who. having
just expired, raises her foot by miracle. In the National Gallery
of London there is a " Virgin and Child." The forms of G. del
Pacchia are fuller than those of Perugino (his principal model
of style appears to have been in reality Franciabigio); the
drawing b not always unexceptionable; the female heads have
sweetness and beauty of feature, and some of the colouring has
noticeable force.
Pacchiarotto was bom in Siena in 1474. In 1530 he took part
in the conspiracy of the Ltbertini and Popolani, and in 1534 he
joined the Bardotti. He had to hide for his life in 1 535, and
was concealed by the Observanline fathers in a tomb in the
church of S Giovanni. He was stuffed in dose to a new-buried
corpse, and got covered with vermin and dreadfully exhausted
by the ctese of the second day. After a while he resumed work;
he was exiled in 1539, but recalled in the following year, and in
that year or soon afterwards he died. Among the few extant
works with which he is still credited Is an *' Assumption cf the
Virgin," in the Carmine of Siena. Other works rather dubiously
attributed to him are in Siena, Buonconvento, Florence, Rome
and London.
PACB, RICHARD (c. 14S9-X536), EngUsh diplomatist, was
educated at Winchester under Thomas Langton. at Padua, at
Bologna, and probably at Oxford. In 1509 be went with
Cardinal Christopher Baiobridge, archbishop of York, to Rome,
where he won the esteem of Po|)e Leo X., who advised Henry
VI H. to take him into his service. The English king did so,
and in 1515 Pace became his secretary and in 1516 a secretary
of state. In 1515 Wolsey sent him to urge the Swiss to attack
France, and in 1519 he went to Germany to discuss with the
electors the impending election to the imperial throne. He was
made dean of St Paul's in 1519, and was also dean of Exeter
and dean of Salisbury. He was present at the Fiekl of the Cloth
of Gold in 1520, and in 1531 he went to Venice with the object
of winning the support of the republic for Wolsey, who was
anxious at this time to become pope. At the end of 1 526 he was
recalled to England, and he died in 1536. His chief literary
work was Dcfnutu (Basel, 1517)-
PACB (through O. Fr. pas, from Lat. passns, step, properly
the stretch of the leg in walking, from pandtrt, to stretch), one
movement of the leg in walking; hence used of the amount of
ground covered by each single movement, or generally of the
speed at which anything moves. The word is also used of a
measure of distance, taken from the position of one foot to that
af ihc other Sa making a single " pace," ix. Itom >) ft. (tbe
military pace) to i yard. The Roman pasuu was reckoned
from the position of the back foot at the beginning of the pace
to the position of the same foot at the end of the movement,
i.e. s Roman feet, 58-1 English inches, hence the Roman mile,
milU passuf 1646 yards.
For padng in horse-radng see HoftSB-lACnra
PACKS, JEAN NICOLAS (i 746-1823), French politician, was
bom in Paris, of Swiss parentage, the son of the ccnciergc of the
hdtd of Marshal de Castries. He became tutor to the marshal's
children, and subsequently first secretary at the ministry of
marine, head of supplies {munUumnaire zinirgl des vmes)^ and
comptroller of the king's household. After spending several
years in Switzerland with his family, he rettiraed to France at
the beginning of the Revolution. .He was employed success! vdy
at the ministries of the interior and of war, and was appointed
on the 2oth of September 1793 third deputy iuppUant of Paris
by the Luxembourg section. Thus brought into notice, he was
made minister of war in the following October. Pacbe was a
Girondist himself, but aroused their hostility by his incompetence.
He was supported, however, by Marat, and when he was super-
seded in the ministry of war by Bcumonville (Feb. 4. 1794) he
was chosen mayor by the Parisians. In that capadty he con-
tributed to the fall of the Girondists, but his relations with Hfbcit
and Chaumette, and with the enemies of Robespierre led to his
arrest on the loth of May i794> He owed his safety only to
the amnesty of the asth of October 1795* After aaing as
commissary to the civil hospitals of Paris in i799i ^^ retired
from public life, and died at Thin-Ie-Moutier on the x8th of
November 1823.
Set L. Pierquio, Uimoiret sur Facke ((Charlevillc, 1900).
PACHECO, FRANCnOO (is7i-i6s4)> Spanish painter tad
art historian, was bom at Seville in 1571. Favourable spe d mens
of his style are to be seen In the Madrid picture gallefy, and aho
in two churches at Akala de Guadaira near SeviOe. Ht attained
great popularity, and about the beghining of the 17th centmy
opened an academy of painting which was largely attended.
Of his pupils by far the most distinguished was Velasquex,
who afterwards became his son-in-law. From about 1625
he gave up painting and betook himself to literary sodety and
pursuits; the most important of his woiks in this department
is a treatise on the art of painting {ArUdeUtpintwa: sv mmti^ut-
dad y grandexa, 1649), which is of considerable value for the
information it contains on matters relating to Spanish art. He
died in T654.
PACHISl (Hindu packis, twenty-five), the natkmal tabte-gane
of India. In the palace of Akbar at Fatehpur Sflcri the court
of the zenana is divided into red and white squares, representing
a pachisi'board, and here Akbar played the game with his
courtiers, employing sixteen young slaves inm his harem a$
living pieces. This was also done by the emperors of DeUii in
their palace of Agra. A pachisl-board, which is usually cm<
broidercd on doth, is marked with a cross of squares, each limb
consisting of three rows of 8 squares, placed around a centre
square. The outer rows each have omam^nts on the fevrth
square from the end and the middle rows one on the end
square, these ornamented squares forming ** castles," in which
pieces are safe from capture. The castles are so placed that
from the centre square, or " home," whence all pieces start
going down tbe middle row and back on the outside and then to
the end of the next limb, will be exactly 25 squares, whence the
name. Four players, generally two on a side, take part. The
pieces, of which each player has four, are coloured yellow, green,
red and black, and are entered, one at a time, from the centre and
move down the middle row, then round the entire board and op
the middle row again to the home square. The nnovcs are
regulated by six cowrie shells, which are thrown by hand down a
slight incline. The throws indicate the number of squares a
piece may move, as well as whether the player shall have a
" grace," without which no piece, if taken, may be re-entered.
A piece may be taken if another piece lands on the same square,
nnitsa the square be a castle. The object of each aide' is !•
PACHMANN— PACIFIC BLOCKADE
433
get aH eight fdeott iDoad and bo«e hdott the opponeiiu can
do 8a
See Garnet, AndaU nd OHaOat, by E. Falkaer (London. 1892).
PACHHAMN, VLADinR V^ (i84»- ), Russian pianist.
was born at Odessa, where his father was a professor at the
university. He was educated in music at Vienna, and from
1869 to 18S3 only rarely performed in pubh'c, being engaged in
the meanwhile in assiduous study He then obtained the
greatest success, particularly as a player of Chopin, hb brilliance
of execution and rendering being no less remarkable than the
playfulness of his platform manner.
PACHMARHI. a hill-station and sanatorium for British troops
in the Central Provinces of India. Pop. (1901), 3020, rising to
double that number in the season. It is situated at a height
of 3500 ft. on a plateau of the Satpura hills in Hoshangabad
<fistrict, 32 m. by road from Piparia station on the Great Indian
Peninsula railway Though not free from fever m the hot season,
it affords the best available retreat for the Central Provinces.
PACH0IIIU8» St (399-346), Egyptian monk, the founder of
Christian cenobitical life, was bom, probably m 292, at Esna
in Upper Egypt, of heathen parents. He served as a conscript
io one of Constaniine's campaigns, and on his return became a
Christian (314); he at once went to live an eremitical life near
Dendera by the Nile, putting himself under the guidance of an
aged hermit. After three or four years he was called (by an
angel, says the legend) to establish a monastery of ccnobites, or
monks living in common (see MoNAsnasii, fi 4). Pachomms
spent his life in organizing and directing the great order he had
created, which at his death included nine monasteries with some
three thousand monks and a nunnery. The order was called
Tabennesiot, from Tabennisi, near Dendera, the site of the first
monastery. The most vivid account of the life and primitive
ntle is that given by Palladius in the Lausiac History, as witnessed
by him {c. 410). Difficulties arose between Paqhomius and the
neighbouring bishops, which had to be composed at a synod at
Esna. But St Athanasius was his firm friend and visited his
monastery c, 330 and at a later period. Pachomius died
(probably) in 346.
The best modem work on Pachomius is by P Ladeuse, Le Cino-
bitisnte pokhomien (1898). There have been differences of opinion
in regard to the dates; those given above are Ladcuzc's, now
commonly accepted. The priority of the Greek Ltfe of Pachomius
over the Coptic may be said to be established : the histoncal charac-
ter and value of this life are now fully recognised. A good ona-
lysis of all the literature is supplied in Herzog's ReaUncyklopadu
(id. 3). (E-Cfi.)
PACHUCA, a dty of Mexico and capital of the state of
Hidalgo, 55 m. direct and 68 m. by rail N N £ of the city of
Mexico. Pop. (1900), 37*487* Pachuca's railway connexions
include the Mexican, the Hidalgo and the Mexican OhenUl.
besides which it has 5 m. of tramway line. The town stands
in a valley of an inland range of the Sierra Madro Oriental,
at an elevation over 8000 ft. above the sea, and in the midst of
several very rich mineral districts— A tatonileo el Chico, Cupula,
Potofif, Real del Monte, Santa Rosa and Tepcnen6. It is said
that some of these silver mines were known to the Indians before
the discovery of America. Pachuca has some fine modem
edifice^ among which are the palace of justice, a scientific and
literary institute, a school of mines and metallurgy, founded in
1877, a meteorological observatory and a public library. Mimng
is the chief occupation of its inhabiunts, of whom about 7000
are empk>yed underground. Electric power is derived from the
Regla Falls, in the vicinity. The city's industrial establishments
include smelting works and a large number of reduction works,
among which are some of the largest and most important in
the republic. It was here that Bartolom6 de Medina discovered
the " patio " process of reducing silver ores with quicksilver in
1557, and bis old hacienda de beneficio is still to be seen. Pachuca
was founded in 1534, some time after the mines were discovered.
Here Pedro Romero de Terreros made the fortune in 1739 that
•nabled him to present a man-of-war to Spain and gain the title
of Count of Regla. Pachuca was sacked in 1812, and so keen
XX A
was the desire to possess its sources of wealth, in common with
other mining towns, that mining operations were partially
suspended for a time and the mines were greatly damaged.
In 1824 the Real del Monte mines were sold to an English
company and became the centre of a remarkable mining specula-
tion~the company ruining itself with lavish expenditures and
discontinuing work in 1848. The mines in 1909 belonged to an
American company.
PACHTMIRES, OBOROIUS (1249-^. 13x0), Byeantine histo-
rian and miscellaneous writer, was bom at Nicaea, in Bithynia,
where his father had taken refuge after the capture of Con-
stantinople by the latins in 1204. On their expulsion by
Michael Palaeologus in 1261 Pachymeres settled in Constanti-
nople, studied law, entered the church, aoid subsequently became
chief advocate of the church {rpotriiducos) and chief justice
of the imperial court (&«aio^6Xa{). His Uteraiy activity was
considerable, his most important work being a Byzantine
history in 13 books, in continuation of that of Geoigius Acropo-
lita from 1261 (or rather 1255) to 1308, containing the history
of the reigns of Michael and Andronicus Palaeologi. He was
also the author of rhetorical exercises on hackneyed sophistical
themes; of a Quadrinum (Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, Astro-
nomy), valtiable for the history of music and astronomy in the
middle ages; a general sketch of Aristotelian philosophy; a
paraphrase of the speeches and letters of Dionysius Areopagita;
poems, including an autobiography; and a description of the
Augusteum, the column erected by Justinian in the church of
St Sophia to commemorate his victories over the Persians.
The History has been edited by I. Bekker (183O in the Corpus
seriptorum ktst. hywanHnae, also in J. P. Micne. Patrolofia traeca,
cXliii.. cxliv. ; for editions of the mmor works see C Knimrachcr,
CesckichU der byaanHnisckem IMkrainr (1697).
PACIFIC BLOCKADB, a term invented by Hautefeuille, the
French writer 00 International Maritime Law, to describe a
blockade exercised by a great power for the purpose of bringing
pressure to bear on a weaker state without actual war. That it
is an act of violence, and therefore in the nature of war, is undeni-
able, seeing that it can only be employed as a measure of coercion
by marftime powers able to bring into actton such vastly superior
forces to those the resisting state can dispose of that resistance
is out of the question. In this respect it is an act of war, and
any attempt to exercise it against a power strong enough to
resist would be a commencement of hostilities, and at cmce bring
mto play the rights and duties affecting neutrals. On the other
hand, the object and Justification of a pacific blockade being to
avoid war, that is general hostilities and disturbance of inter-
natk>nal traffic with the sute against which the operation is
carried on» rights of war cannot consistently be exercised against
ships belonging to other states than those concemed. And yet,
if neutrals were not to be affected by it, the coercive effect of
such a blockade might be completely lost. Recent practice has
been to limit interference with them to the extent barely neces-
sary to carry out the purpose of the blockading powers.^
It is usual to refer to the intervention of France, England and
Russia in Turkish affairs in 1827 as the first occasion on which
the coerave value of pacific blockades was put to the test.
Neutral vessels were not affected by iL This was f<rflowed by a
number of other coercive measures described in the textbooks
as pacific blockades. The first case, however, in which the
operation was really a blockade, unaccompanied by hostilities,
and which therefore can be properiy called a " pacific blockade,"
was that which in 1837 Great Britain exercised against New
Granada. A British subject and consul of the name of Russell
was accused of stabbing a native of the country in a street brawL
He was arrested, and after being kept in detentfon for some
months he was tried for the unlawful carrying of aims and
* There is always the alternative of making the blockade an act
of war This was done in 1902-3. when Great Britain, Germany
and Italy proclaimed a blockade of certain poru of Venezuela and
the mouths of the Orinoco. The blockade in this case was not
paafic. but was war with all its consequences for belUcerents and
neutrals (see Foreign (XBce notice io Umiou CauUe of I^oember
so. 190a). 2a
434
PACIFIC OCEAN
sentenced to sik yore' imprisonment. The British goversmonl
resented this treatment as " not only cruel and unjust towards
Mr Russell, but disrespectful towards the British nation/' and
demanded the dismissal of the officials implicated and £tooo
damages " as some compensation for the cruel injuries which had
been infliaed upon Mr Russell" (State Papers, i837-i838,p. 183).
The New Granada gpveromcnt refused to comply with these
demands, and the British representaiivc, acting upon his
instructions, called in the aasistaoce of the West ladian fleet,
but observed in his communication to the British naval officer
in command that it was desirable to avoid hostilities, and to
endeavour to bring about the desired result by a strict blockade
only. This seems to be the first occasion on which it bad occurred
to anybody that a blockade without war might serve the purpose
of war. This precedent was shortly afterwards followed by
another somewhat similar case, in which from the i6th of April
to the 28th of November 1838 the French government blockaded
the Mexican ports, to coerce the Mexican government in tu accept-
a^ce ol certain demands on behaU of Frencli subjects who had
offered injury to their persons and damage to their property
through iosuffideot protection by the Mexican authorities.
The blockade of Buenos Aires and the Argentine ooost from
the 28tb of March 1838 to the 7th of November 1840 by the French
fleet, a coercive measure consequent upon vexatious laws affect-
ing foreign residents in the Argentine Republic, seems to have
been the first case in which the operation was notified to the
different representatives of foreign states. This notification
was given in Paris, and at Buenos Aires, and to cvc^ ship
approaching the blockaded places. This precedent of notifica-
tion was, a few years later (id45), followed in another blockade
against the same country by Great Britain and France, and in
one in 1842 and 1844 by Great Britain against the port of Grey-
town in Nicaragua. In 1850 Great Britain blockaded the ports
of Greece in order to compel the Hellenic government to give
satisfaction in the Don Padfioo case. Don Piadfico, a British
subject, claimed £s2,ooo as damages for unprovoked pillage of
his house by an Athenian mob. Greek vessels only were seijsed,
and these were only sequestered. Greek vessels kon^fide carry-
ing cargoes belonging to fordgnen were allowed to enter the
blockaded ports.
Before the next case of bk>ckade which can be described as
"pacific" occurred came the Declaration of Paris (April 15,
1856), requiring that " blockades in order to be binding must be
effective; that is to say» maintained by a force sufficient really to
prevent access to the coast of the enemy.*'
Some ill-defined measures of blockade followed, such as that
of i860, when Victor Emmanuel, then king of Sardinia, joined
the revolutionary government of Naples in blockading ports in
Sicily, then held by the king of Naples, without any rupture of
pacific relations between the two gDvemmenU; that of 1862, in
whieb Great Britain blockaded the port of Rio de Janeiro, to
exact redress for pillage of an English vessel by the Uxal popula-
tion, at the same time declaring that she continued to be on
friendly terms with the emperor of Brazil; and that in x88o,
when a demonstration was made before the port of Duldgno
by a fleet of British, German, French, Austrian, Russian and
Italian men-of-war, to compel the Turkish government to carry
out the treaty conceding this town to Montenegro, and it was
announced that if the town was not given up by the Turkish
forces it would be blockaded.
The hkickade which first gave rise to serious theoretical
discussion on the subject was that instituted by Fiance in 1884
in Chinese waters. On the Mtb of October 1884 Admiral
Courbct declared a bk>ckade of all the ports and roadsteads
between certain specified points of the island of Formosa. The
British government protested that Admifal Coubert had not
enough ships to render the blockade effective, and that it wns
therefore a viohition of one of the aitidcs of the Declaration of
Paris of 1856; raoneover, that the French government could only
interfere with neutral vessels violating the blockade if there was
a state of war. If a state of war existed, Eni^and as a neutral
was bound to close her coaling stations to belligerents.. The
British govemaeot held thaft Js the dicunataaeei ¥nmat wm
waging war and not entitled to combine the rights qf peace and
warfane for her own benefit. Since then pacific hkickadts have
only been exercised by the great powere as a Joint wwaatwc in
their common interest, which has also been that of peaces and
in this respect tbe term is taking a new signification in accordance
with the ordinary sense of the word " pacific."
In 1886 Greece was blockaded 'by Great Britain, Austria,
Germany, Italy and Russia, to prevent her from engaging in
war with Turkey, and thus forcing the powers to define their
altitude towards the latter power. The instructions given to
the British oonunander were to detain every ship under the
Greek flag coming out of or entering any of the blockaded ports
or harbours, or communicating with any ports within the limit
blockaded; but if any parts of the cargo on board of such ships
belonged to any subject or citizen of any foreign power other
than Greece, and other than Austria, Germany, Italy and Russia,
and had been shipped before notification of the blockade or aftei
such notification, but under a charter made befope.the notifies^
Uon, such ship was not to be detained.
On the blockade of Crete in 1897 it was notified that " the
admirals in command of the British, Austro-Hungarian, Frendi,
German, Italian, and Russian naval forces " had decided to put
the island of Crete in a stale of blockade, that " the blockade
would be general for all ships under the Greek flag," and that
" ships of the six powers or neutral powere may enter into the
ports occupied by the powere and land their merchandise, bat
only if it is not for the Greek troops or the interior of the bUnd,"
and that " these ships may be visited by the ships of the inter-
national fleets."
Since the adoption of the Hague (Convention of 1907 respectios
the limitation of the employment of force for the recovery of
contract debts, the contracting powere are under agreement
" not to have recourse to armed force for the recovery of contract
debts claimed from the government of one country by the gowem-
ment of another country as being due to its nationals, ".unless
" the debtor state refuses or neglccu to reply to an offer of
arbitration, or after accepting the offer prevents any csM^Miir
from being agreed on, or after the arbitration fails to submit to
the a ward" (Art. i). Though this docs not affect pacific
blockades in pfinciple, it supersedes them in practice by a new
procedure for some of the cases in which they have hitherto
been employed. (T. Ba.)
PACIFIC OCEAK, the largest division of the hydrosphere,
lying between Asia and Australia and North and South America.
It is nearly landlocked to the N., communicating with the
Arctic Ocean only by Bering Strait, which is 36 m. wide and of
small depth. The southern boundary is generally regarded
as the parallel of 40* S., bat sometimes the part of the great
Southern Ocean (40* to 66)^ S.) between the meridians passing
through South Cape in Tasmania and Cape Horn Is included.
The north to south distance from Bering Strait tothe Anuzctie
circle Is 9300 m., and the Pacific attains its greatest breadth,
10,000 m., at the equator. The coasts of the Padfic are of
varied contour. The American coaits are for the raOst pert
mountainous and unbroken, the chief indentation being the
Gulf of California; but the general type is departed from ia the
extreme north and south, the oouthom coast of South America
consisting of bays and fjords with scattered islands, while the
coast of Alaska is similariy broken in the south and becomes low
and swampy towards the north. The coast of Australia Is high
and unbroken; thete are no inlets of considerable size, although
the small openings Include some of the finest harboun in the
worid, as Morcton Bay and Port Jackson. The Asialie coasts
are for the most part low and irregular, and a number of seas
are more or less completely enclosed and cut off from communis
cation with the open ocean. Bering Sea is bounded by the
Alaskan Peninsula and the chain of the Aleutian Mands; the
sea of Okhotsk is enclosed by the peninsuhi of Kamchatka and
the Kurile Islands; the Sea of Japan is shut off by Sakhalin
Island, the Japanese Islands and the peninsula of Koren; the
YcUow Sea is an opening between the coast of Cbhrn and K«iea;
PACIFIC OCEAN
435
the Chiiu Sea lies between the Asiatic continent and the island
of Formosa, the Philippine group, Palawan and Borneo.
Amongst the islands of the Malay Archipelago are a number of
enclosed areas^the Sulu, Celebes, Java, Banda and Arafuia
seas. The Arafura Sea extends eastwards to Torres Strait, and
beyond the strait is the Coral Sea, bounded by New Guinea,
the islands of Melanesia and north-eastern Australia.
The area and volume of the Pacific Ocean and its teas, with the
mean depths calculated therefrom, are given in the article OcBAM.i
nxtjMjMt. "^^ Pacific Ocean has one and three-quarter times the
™™^ area of the Atlantic— the next brgest dtvisioa of the
hydroq>here— and has more than double its volume of water. Its
area is greater than the whole land surface of the globe, and the
volume of its waters is six times that of all the land above sea-
level. The total land area draining to the Pacific is estimated by
Murray at 7,500,000 aq. m,, or Utne more than one-fourth of the
area draining to the Atlantic. The American riven draining
to the Pacific, axcept the Yukon, Columbia and Colorado, are unim-
portant. The chief Asiatic rivers are the Amur, the Hwang-ho and
the Yanetsze-kiang: none of which enters the open Pacific directl]^.
Hence the proportion of purely oceani^ area to the total area is
greater in the Pacific than in the Atlantic, the supply of detritus being
smaller, and terrigenous deposits are not borne so far from land.
The bed of the Pacific is not naturally divided into physical
regions, but for descriptive purooses the parts of the area lying;
atmttmiaf ^*^ ^'^^ ^^"^ ^ ^^ ^' ^'^ Conveniently dealt with
o^j" sefMrately. The eastern region is charactenzed by great
uniformity of depth ; the 30oo-fathom line keeps close to
the American coast except off the Isthmus of Panama, whence an
ill-defined ridge of ten than sooo fathoms runs south-westwards,
and again off the coast of South America in about 40* S., where a
similar bank runs west and unites with the former. The bank
then continues south to the Antarctic Ocean, ip about 120* W.
Practically the whole of the north-east Pacific is therefore more than
2000 fathoms deep, and the south-east has two roughly triangular
spaces, including the greater part of the area, between 3000 and 3000
fathoms. Notwithstanding this great average depth, the " deerai "
or areas ovef 3000 fathoms are small in number and extent, rive
small deeps are rccognij»d along a line ck>se to the coast of South
America and parallel to it. in the depression encbsed by the two
banks mentioned — they extend from about 13" to y>' S. — end are
named, from north to south, Milne-Edwards deep, Krummel deep,
Bartholomew deep, Richards deep and Haeckcl deep. In the nortn-
east the deeps are again few and small, but they are quite irregularly
distributed, and not near the land. East of 150" W. the Pacific has
few idands; the oceanic islands are volcanic, and coral formations are
of course scanty. The most important group is the Galapagos Islands.
The western Pacific is In complete contrast to the part just
described. Depths of less than 2000 fathoms occur continuously
on a bank extending from south-eastern Asia, on whkh stands the
Malay Archipelagow This bank continues southwards to the
Antarctic Ocean, expanding into a plateau on which Australia
stands, and a branch runs eastwards and then southwards from
the north-east of Australia through New Zealand. The most
considerable areas over 3000 fathonw are the Aldrich deep, an irregu-
lar triangle nearly as large as Australia, situated to the east of ^few
Zealand, in which a sounding of 5155 fathoms was obtained by
H.M.S. " Penguin," near the Tonp;a Islands: and the Tuscarora
deep, a bng, narrow trough running immediately to the east of
Kanichatka, the Kurile islands and Japan. A long strip within
the Tuscarora deep forms the largest continuous area with a depth
greater than 4000 fathoms. All the rest of the western Pacific
is a region of quite irregular contour. The average depth varies
from 1500 to 3500 fathoms, and from this level innumerable volcanic
ridges and peaks rise almost or quite to the surface, their summits
for the meet part occupied by atolb and reefs of coral formation,
while interspersed with these are depressions, mostly of small area,
among which the deepest soundings recorded have been obtained.
The United States telegraph ship " Nero," while surveying for a
cable between Hawaii and the Philippines, sounded in 1900 the
ereatest depth yet known between Midway Islands and Guam
Ii2* 43' N.. 145 40' E.) in 5269 fathoms, or almost exactly 6 m.
The following table, showing the area of the floor of the Pacific
(to ao* S.) and the volume of water at different levels, is due to Sir
J. Murray—
Fathoms.
Areas,
(sq. m.)
Volume,
(cub. m )
0-100
100-500
500-1000
I000~9000
2000-3000
3000-4000
3.379.700
1.753.450
<. 707 .650
6.903.550
J9.621.550
2,164.150
94.850
55623.900
6,138.500
23.348.350
28.323.700
52.638.500
33.545.400
1.357.900
70,600
144.402.950
So far as our knowledge goes^ the present contours of the open
Pacific Ocean are almost as they were in PaUeocoic times, and in
the intervening ages changes of level and form have been slight.
There is no reason to suppose that any considerable part of the vast
area now covered by the waters of the Pacific has ever been exposed
as dry land. Henoe the Pacific basin may be regarded as a stable
and homogeneous geographical unit, clearly roark«i off round nearly
all its margin by steep sharp slopes, extending in places through
the whole known tamfe of elevation above sea-level and of depression
below it^-from the Cordilleras of South Aixierica to the island chains
of Siberia and Australia. (See Ocban.)
The deeper parts of the bed of the Pacific are covered by
deposits of red clay, whkh occupies an area estimated at no leas
than 105.673,000 sq. kalometres, or three-fifths of the
whole. Over a large part of the central Pacific, far
removed from any possible land-influences or deposits of ooze,
the red-day region u characterised by the occurrence of manganese,
which gives the day a chocolate colour, and manganese nodules arc
found m vast numbers, along with sharks' teeth and the ear-bones
and other bones of whales. Kadiolarian ooce is found in the central
Padfic in a region between 15** N. to 10" S. and 140* E. to 150* W.,
occurring in seven distinct localities, and covering an aita of
about t.007,000 sq. kik>nietres. The " Challenger " discovered an
area of radiolarian ooie between 7*-ia* N. and I47*-I52" W.,
and another in a'-io* S., I52*-153* W. Between these two areas,
almost on the equator, a strip of globi^rina ooxe was found,
corresponding^ to the zone of globigenna m the equatorial region
of the Atlantic. Gtobtcerina ooze covers considerable areas in the
intermediate depths of the west and south Pacific — west of New
Zealand, and ak>ng the parallel of 40" S., between 8o'*-98* W.
and 1 50*-*! 1 8" W. — but this deposit is not known in the north-
eastern part of the basin. The total area covered by it is esti-
mated at 38,332,000 sq. kilometre»->-about two-thirds of that in the
Atlamic. Pteropod ooze occurs only in the ndghboorhood of Fiji
and other idands of the western Pacific, passing up into fine coral
sands and mud. Diatom ooze has been found in detached areas
between the Plulippine and Mariana islands, and near the Aleutian
and Galapagos groups, forming an exception to the ecneral rule of
its occurrence only in high latitudes. All the enclosed seas are
occupied by characteristic terrigenous deposits.
Partly on account of its great extent, and partly because there is
no wide opening to the Arctic regions, the normal wind circulation Is
on the whole less modified in the North Pacific than in j, _^
the Atlantic, except in the west, where the south-west £!r^
monsoon of southern Asia comrols the prevailing winds. "*^*
its influence extending eastwards to 145* E.. near the Ladrooes,
and southwards to the equator. In the South i*acific the north-
west monsoon of Australia affects a belt running east of New Guinea
to the Sdomon Idands. In the east the north*east trade-belt
extends between 5* and 25" N.; the south-east trade crosses the
equator, and its mean southern limit is 35* S. The trade-winds
are generally weaker and less persistent In the Pacific than in the
Atlantic, and the intervening odt of equatorial calms is broader.
Excent in the east of the Pacific, the south-east trade is only fully
devefoped during the southern winter; at other seasons the regular
trade-belt is cut across from north-west to south-east by a band
twenty to thirty degrees wide, in whkh the trades alternate with
winds from north-east and north, and with calms, the calms prevail*
ing chiefly at the boundary of the monsoon region (<;* N.-is* S..
l6o*'-i85 EX This area, in which the south-east trade is interrupted,
includes the Fiji, Navigator and Society groups, and the Psumotus.
In the Marquesas group the trade- wind is constant. Within the
southern monsoon region there is a gradual transition to the north*
west monsoon of New Guinea in low latitudes, and in higher latitudes
to the north-east wind of the Queensland coast. The great warming
and abundant rainfall of the tshind regions of the western Pacific,
and the low temperature of the suriace water in the east, cause a
dispbcemertt of the southern tropical maximum of pressure to the
cast; hence we have a permanent "South Pacific antkydone"
close to the coast of South America. The characteristic feature of
the south-western Pacific is theitfone the relatively low pressore and
the existence of a true monsoon region in the middle of the trade-
wind belt. It is to be noted that tne climate of the islands of the
Padfic becomes more and more healthy the farther they are frorii
the monsoon region. The island regions of the Pacific are every*
where charactenzed by uniform high air-temperatures; the mean
annual range varies from 1 * to 9* r., with extremes of 24* to 2^^
and the diurnal range from 9" to 16*. In the monsoon region relative
humidity is high. vis. 80 to 90%. 'The rainfall is abundant; in the
western island groups there » no wdl-marked rsiny season, but
ovtr the whole region the greater part of the rainfall takes place
during the southern summer, even as far north as Hawaii. In the
trade-wind region we find the characteristk heavy rainfall on the
weather aides of the islands, and a shorter rainy season at the season
of highest sun on the lee side. Buchan describes the isbnd-studded
portion of the western Padfic as the most extensive region of the
globe characterized by an unusually heavy rainfall. Beyond the
tropical high-pressure beh, the winds of the North Padfk are under
thecootroTof an arcs of low pressure, whkh. however, attains ndther
the sine nor the inicnaity of the " tceland " depresaioa in the north
436
PACIFIC OCEAN
Atlantic The Rsult tt thtA aottb-westcrly vindt, which in winter
are exceedingly dry and cold, blow over the western or Anatic
area; westerly winoa prevail in the centre, and south-westerly and
southerly winds off the American coast. J n the southern hemisphere
there is a transition to the low*pressure belt encircling the Southern
Ocean, in which westerly and north>westerly winds continue all the
year round.
The distribution of temperature in the waters of the Paafic Ocean
has been fully investigated, so far as is possible with the existing
_ observations, by G. Schott. At the surface an extensive
TtrnptrMan, ^^^ ^ maximum temperature (over 20*C.) occurs over
10* on each side of the eouator to the west of the ocean. On the
eastern side temperature tails to 22* on the eouator and b slightly
higher to N. and S In the North Padfic, beyond lat. 4jd". the
surface IS generally, warmer on the E. than on the W , but tnis con-
dition is, on the whole, reversed in oorrespoodtng southern latitudes.
In the intermediate levels, down to depths not exceeding 1000 metres,
a remarkable distribution appears. A narrow atrip of odd water
runs along the equator, widest to the east and narrowing westward,
and separates two areas of maximum which have their greatest
intensicy in the western part of the ocean, and have their central
portions in higher latitudes as depth increases, apparently tending
oonsuntly to a poaitk>n In about latitude 30* to 35* N. and & A
comoariaon of this distribution with that of atmospheric pressure
U 01 great interest. High temperature in the depth may be uken
to mean descending water, just as high atmospheric pressure means
descending air, and hence it would seem that the slow vertical
movement of water in the Pacific reproduces to some extent the
phenomena of the *' doldrums " and " horse latitudes," with this
difference, that the centres of maximum intensity lie off the east
of the land instead of the west as in the case of the continents. The
isothermal lines, in fact, suggest tliat in the vast area of the Pacific
aomethittg corresponding to the " planetary ciicuhition " u estab-
tishcd, further investigation of which may be of extreme value in
relation to current int^uirics concerning the upper air. In the greater
depths temperature is cKtraordinariiy uniform, 80% of the existing
observations failing within the KmiU of 1*6" C. and 1-9" C. In the
enclosed seas oi the western Pacific temperature usually falls till
a depth corresponding to that of the summit of the barriers which
isolate them from the open ocean is reached, and below that point
temperature is uniform to the bottom. In the Sulu Sea, for example,
a tempnature of 10*3* C it reached at 400 fathoms, and this remains
constant to the bottom in 2500 fathoms.
The surface waters of the North Pacific are relatively fresh, the
salinity being 00 the whole much lower than in the other great
ffsffeffT- oc^ns* The saltest waters are found along a belt extend-
ing westwards from the American coast on the Tr(q>ic of
Cancer to 160* E.. then turning southwards to the eqtutor. North
of this wdinity .diminishes steadily, especially to the north-west,
the Sea of Okhotsk showing the loweat salinity observed in any
part of the globe. South and east of the axis mentioned salinity
becomes less co just north of the equator, where it jncreascs again,
and the saltcsc waters of the whole Pacific are found, as we should
expect, in the south-east trad»>wind region, the maximum occurring
in about 18" S. and 120* W, South of the Tropic of Capricorn the
isohalinca run nearly east and west, salinity diminishing i^uickiv to
Che Souffiern Ocean. The bottom waters have almost uniformly a
aalinity of 34-8 per millet corresponding doaely with the bottom
waters of the South Atlantk. but fresher than those of the North
Atlantic.
The surface currents of the Pacific have not been studied in the
same detail as those of the Atlantic, and their seasonal variations
,, are little known except in the monsoon regions. Speak-
*ing generally, however, it may be said that they are
for the moat part under the direct control of the prevailing
winds. The North Equatorial Current is due to the action of the
north-ea* trades. It splits into two parta east of the Philippines,
one division flowing northwards as the Kuro Siwo or Black Stream,
the analogue of the Gulf Stream, to feed a drift circulation which
folk>ws the winds of the North Pacific, and finally forms the Cali-
fornian Current flowins southwards along the American coast.
Part of thiarejoins the North Equatorial Current, and part probably
forms the variable Mexican Current, which follows the coasu of
Mexico and California dose to the land. The Equatorial Counter-
Current flowing eastwards is largely assisted dunM the latter half
of the year by the aouth-weat monsoon, and from Joiy to October
the south-west winds prevailing east of 150* E. further strengthen
the current, but later in the yf»r the easterly winds weaken or even
destroy it. The South Equatorial Current is pfoduoed by the south-
east trades, and is more vigoroos than its nortliem coumcrpart.
On reaching the western Radfic part of this current passes south-
wards, east of New Zealand, and again east of Australia, as the East
Australian Current, part northwards to join tlie Equatorial Counter-
Current, and during the north-east momoon part makes its way
through the China Sea towards the Indian Ocean. Daring the
south-west monsoon this last branch is reversed, and the surface
waters of the China Sea probably unite with the Kuro Siwo. Between
the Kuro Siwo and the Asiatic coast a band of cold water, with a
slight movement to the southward, known as the Oya Siwo. forms
the analogue of the " CoM Wall " of the Atlantic la tiie higher
latkndet of the South ftdfic the aurfaet mofyam flt fenaa part of
the west wind-drift of the Roaring Forties. On the west const of
South America the cold waters of the Humboldt or Peruvian Current
corresponding to the Benguela Current of the South Atlantic, malBe
their way northwards, ultimatdy joinine the South Equatorial
Current. The surtace dreolatioa of the Fedfic la, on the wf *
less active than that of the'Atlantic The ^entres of the lotati
atiooai
movement are marked by " Sargasso Seas in the north and south
basins, but they are of small extent compared with the Sarvasso Sea
of the North AtlantK. From the known peculiarities of the distri-
bution of temperature, it is probable that definiM dreubtioa of
water is in the Padfic confined to levels very near the surface, except
in the region of the Kuro Siwo, and possibly also in parts of toe
Peruvian CurrenL The only movement in the depths is the slow
creep of ice-cold water northwards ak>ng the bottom from the
Southern Ocean ; but this is more marked, »id apparently penetrates
farther north, than in the Atlantic.
See/ZrAwliof expeditionsof the U.S.S. ** Albatrasa " and " Thetis."
1888-1893; A. Agassia. Exptdition t» the Tropical PacHU, 1899-1900.
*994-i9?5: H.M.S. "Challenger," - ^- " "^ '^^
I889andj899: " Elisabeth," 18^:^! Caaelle." 1873-1876; '
••Egeria"^ 1888-
... -_,j-i 876:" Planet."
1906; " Penguin," 1891-190); " Tuscarora." 1873-1874; ** Vettor
Pisani." 1884; " Vitrax." 1887-1888; also observations of sorveyiqg
and cable ships, and spedal papers in the Annaien der ffydrognpkm
(for distribution of temperature see G. Schott, p. a, 1910).
(H.N.D.)
Islands or the pAcmc Ocean
Up to a certain point, the islands of the Padfic fall into an
obvious classification, partly physical, partly poUticaL In
the west there is the great looped chain which fringes the cast
coast of Asia, and with it endoses the series of seas which form
parts of the ocean. The north of the chain, from the Kurilcs
to Formosa, belongs to the empire of Japan; southward it is
continued by the Philippines (bek>nging to the United States
of America) which link it with the vast ardiipelago between the
Padfic and Indian oceans, to which the name Malay Archipdaflo
is commonly applied. As the loop of the Kuriles depends from
the southern extremity of Kamchatka, so from the east of the
same peninsula another loop extends across the northern part
of the ocean to Alaska, and hdps to demarcate the Bering Sea;
this chain is distinctly broken to the east of the Commandcf
Islands, but is practically continuous thereafter under the name
of the Aleutian Islands. Islands form a much less imporfanf
feature of the American Pacific coast than of the Asiatic;
between 48* N. and 38** S. there are practically none, and to the
north and south of these parallels respectivdy the islands,
though large and numerous, are purely continental, lying dose
under the mainland, enclosing no seas, and forming no separate
political units. South-eastward of the Malay Archipelago Ucs
" the largest island and the smallest continent," Australia;
eastward of the archipelago. New Guinea, the largest island if
Australia be regarded as a continent only. With Australia
may be associated the islands lying dose tmder its coasts,
induding Tasmania. Next follow the two great islands and
attendant blets of New Zealand.
There now remains a vast number of small islands which lie
chiefly (but not entirely) within an area which may be defined
as extending from the Philippines, New Guinea and Australia
to 130° W., and from tropic to tropic. These Islands fall
prindpaDy into a number of groups clearly enough defined to be
well seen on a map of small scale, they are moreover divided, as
will be shown, into three nuun divisions; but whereas they have
enough characteristics in common to render a general view of
them desirable, there b no well-rccognixcd name to cover thera
all. The name Polynesia was formerly taken to do so, but
belongs properly to one of the three main divisions, to which the
name Eastern Polynesia was otherwise given; Oceania and
Oceanica are variants of another term which has been used for
the same purpose, though by no means generally. Moieover
usage varies slightly as regards the Umils of the three main
divisions, but the accompanying table shows the most usual
classification, naming the prindpal groups within each, and
distributing them according to the poiwcrs to winch they are
subject.
The following islands may be classified as oceanic, but not with
any of the three main divisions: the Bontn Islands, north of the
Maxianasi belonging to japan; Lord Uowc and Norfolk Islands (tQ
PACIFIC OCEAN
437
Ntur South WdM): Easter Iibiid (to Oiile); the GsltpagMlsUndt
(to Ecuador). In an area to be defined roue hl^ as lyine about the
Tropic of Cancer, between Hawaii and the Bonin Iilanos. there are
scattered a few small iabnds and reefs, of mo«t of which the position,
if not the existence, is doubtful Such are Patrocinio (about 28* y>'
N.. 177* 18' E.) and Ganges (39* 47' N.. isi* 15' E.). amonc others
which appear on most maps. Marcus Island, in 23* 10' N.. 154* E..
was annexed by Japan in 1899 with a view to its becoming a cable
The foUowing ptragraphs review the oceanic islands generally,
and ar» therefore concerned almost entirely with the centnl
and mid-western parts of the ocean. It is impossible to estimate
the total number of the islands; an atoU, for instance, which may
IS1.AIIM or THB
slate in the Marquesas, which afford a type of the extinct
volcanic islands, as does Tahiti In other areas, however, there
b still volcanic activity, and in many cases volcanoes to which
only tradition attributes eruptions can hardly be classified ai
extinct. Hawaii contains the celebrated active crater of
Kilauea. In Tonga, in the New Hebrides, and in the long chain
of the Solomons and the Bismarck Archipelago there is much
activity. Submarine vents sometimes break forth, locaUy
raising the level of the sea-bottom, or even forming temporary
islands or shoals. Earthquakes are not uncommon in the
volcanic areas. Most of the volcanic islands arc lofty in propor-
tion to their size. The peaks or sharp cones in whidi Lhey
Pacific Ocean
Mblahbsia.
Area,
aq.m.
Pop.
MicaomuiA.
Area,
•q. m.
Pop.
POLYHBSIA.
Area.
»q. m.
Pop.
To Great
Britain.
Fiji ....
Louisiade Archip.
SanU Cms Iiland
Solomon IsUnds
(part) . . .
13,800
iai.000
5.000
5/»o
Gilbert Idaad .
166
30-000
America Idands .
Cook IsUnds'. .
ElUce IsUnds . .
Manihiki Idands .
N'ni6 ....
Phoenix IsUnds .
TokeUu IsUnds .
Tonga IsUnds. .
260
III
300
6,200
2r40O
1.000
4,000
60
170
500
19,000
Total. Britifch . . . .
21.465
266.000
166
30.000
843
33^30
To United
Suteiof
America
Guam ....
200
9.000
Hawaii
Samoa (pait) . .
6.651
95
154.060
6,000
Total. U.S.A
-
-
200
9.000
6.746
160,000
To France .
Loyalty Island .
NewCakdonia .
1.050
6450
20.000
5a/»o
Marquesas IsUnds
Paumotn Archip. •
Society IsUmIs .
Tubuai Idands .
WalUs Archip. .
110
40
4.300
18J00
a.ooo
4J00
7JDO
72.000
—
—
1.641
34.300
To Germany.
Bismarck Archip.
Solomon IsUnds
(part) . . .
20.000
4.W0
188.000
45.000
Caroline Islands .
Mariana Islands
(excL Guam) . .
Marshall IsUnds .
PeUw IsUnds . .
380
160
175
36.000
2.500
15.000
3.too
Samoa (part) . . 985
33.000/
Total, German
24.200
233.000
960
56,600
. . . '_:^^
^ '»> -V
New Hebrides* ,
5.106
50.600
\
Total . .
Melanesia . . .
5«.»7i
621.600
Micronesia . .
1.336
95.600
Pblynei^ ^
The above figures ^ve a total Und area for the whole region of 69.561 iq. m., with a popuUtion of 9T^^
part merely approximate.
be divided into a Urge number of islets, often bears a single
name. The number of names of islands and separate groups in
the Index to the Idands of the Pacific (W. T. Brigham), which
covers the limited area under notice, is about 2650, exclusive
of alternative names. 01 these, it may be mentioned, there is a
vast number, owing in some cases to divergence of spelling in
the representation of native names, in others to European dis-
coverers naming islands (sometimes twice or thrice successively)
of which the native names subsequently came into use also.
The idands may be divided broadly into volcanic and coral
idands, though the physiography of many isUnds u imperfectly
known. There are andent rocks, however, in New Caledonia,
which has a geological afl&nity with New ZeaUnd; oldacdimen-
Ury rocks are known in New PomeranU, besides granitt
porphyry, and sUtes, sandstone and chalk occur in ¥\l\, as
as young volcanic rocks. Along with these, simQarly, horebfc**
and diabase occur in the Pejew Islands and gneiss aatf *^
* These are dependencies of New ZeaUnd. as are abo ^*^
ing isUods and groups whkh lie apart from the mai* 'J^*'
clusters, nearer New ZeaUnd itself: Antipodes '»*»»*^ s'
Idands. Bounty IsUnds, Campbell Idsnds. '^ ^
Kermadcc IsUnds.
' Under British and French iadnenoe jointly.
te tad hf- ""
frequently culminate, <owJf^
vegetation, are the pnn^P^
to extol the beauty ofjj^.
In the central and "^
limits of the oceun^"*
30* N. and JO* ^
greatly lowai* 7
with the opr^
America, f
fairiyc**^
consi*^*
bet*
d
icr
size
work
r most
wised not
the islands
led its agents
/e added greatly
J their inhabitants,
^e natives was in some
jdr conversion to Chris-
dill^ but cases of this soit
^ tSOlam Ellis and John
^ and the esuh-
X oentic of i
438
PACIFIC OCEAN
groups, New Calfedoma and fiji), but in some caaes they are
wholly absent or nearly so (e.g. the eastern Solomon Islands and
the New Hebrides). Of the Polynesian Islands, the Hawaiian
chain presents the type of a volcanic group through which coral
reefs are not equally distributed. The main island of Hawaii
and Maui at the east end are practically without reefs; which,
however, are abundant farther west. Round the volcanic
Marquesas Islands, again, coral is scanty, but the Society
Islands, Samoa and Tonga have extensive icefs. The various
minor groups to the north of these (Ellice, Phoenix, Union,
Manihiki and the America Islands) are coral islands. Christmas,
one of the last-named, is reputed to be the largest lagoon island
in the Pacific. Tlie P^umotu Archipelago is the most extensive
of the coral groups.
The coral islands are generally of the form well known under
the name of atoll, rising but sl^tly above sea-level, 6at, and
generally oi annular form, enclosing a lagoon. Often, as has
been said, the atoU b divided into a number of iskes, but in some
smaller atoUs the ring is complete, and the sea-water gains access
beneath the surface of the reef to the lagoon within, where it is
sometimes seen to spout up at the rise of the tide. Besides the
atolls there is a type of island which has been oUled the elevated
coral island. The Jjoyalty Islands exhibit this type, in which
former reefs appear as low difis, elevated above the sea, and
separated from it by a level coasUl tzact. The island of Mar6
shows evidence of three such elevations, three distinct dififs
alternating with level tracts. For the much debated question
as to the conditions under which atolls and reefs are formed,
see Coral Keeis* As to the local distribution of reefs, it has
been maintained that in the case of active volcanic islands which
have no reefs, their absence is due to subterranean heat. The
contour of the soa-bed, however, has been shown to influence
this distribution, the continuation of the slope of a steep shore,
beneath the sea being adverse to their formation, whereas on
a gentler slope they may be formed.
Fhra.'^ln cooadering the flora of the islands it is necessary to
disdnguiah betweea the rich vegetation of the fertile volcanic islands
and the poor vegetation ol the coral islands. Those plants which
are widely distributed are gcnexally found to be propagated from
seeds which can Easily be carried by the wind or by ocean cumtfts,
or /orm the food of migratory birds. The tropical Asiatic element
predominates on the low lands: types characteristic of Australia
and New Zealand occur principally on the upper parts of the high
Islands. In Hawaii there are instances <rf American elements.
In the volcanic blands a distinction may be observed between the
windward and leeward flanks, the moister windward dopes being
the more richly clothed. But aUnost everywhere the vegetation
serves to smooth the contoure of the nigged nills, ferns, mosses and
shrubs growing wherever their roots can cling, and leaving only
the steepest cra^ uncovered to form, as in Tahiti, a striking con-
trast. The flora is estimated to include 15% of ferns, but they form
only the mo&t important group among many plants of beautiful
foliage, such as draceanas and crotons. riowcring plants aie
numerous, and the natives often (as in Hawaii) greatly appreciate
flowers, which thus add a feature to the picturesquene&s oi island-
life, thoush they do not usually grow in great profusion. Fruits
are abundant, though indigenous fruits are few; the majority have
beqn introduced by missionaries and others. Oranges are often
plentiful, also pine-apples, guavas, custard-apples, mangoes and
bananas. These last are of specjal importance, and the best kind,
the Chinese banana, is said to nave sprung from a plant given to the
missionary John WilKams, and cultivated in Ssmoa. The natives
article of commerce in the form of copra, from which palm oil is
expressed; the natives make use of this oil in made dishes, and also
of the soft half-green kernel and the coco-nut "milk," the clear
liquid within the nut. Their well-known drink, kava, is made
from a variety of pepper-plant. The most characteristic trees are
the coco-nut palm, pandanus and mangrove. The low coral Islands
suffer frequently from drought ; their soil Is sandy and unproductive,
and in some cases the natives attempt cultivation by excavating
trenches and fertilixing them with vegetable and other refute.
Fauna. — ^Thc indigenous fauna of the islands is exceedingly poor
Sn mammals, which are represented mainly by rats and bats. Figs
have been hdd to be indigenous on some islands, bat were doubtless
introduced by cariy navigators. Cattle and horses, where intro-
duced, are found to degenerate ^thcr rapidly unless the supf^ of
fresh stock is kept up. Birds are more numerous than T^v piVpg ^
among the osost Important kinds bdng the |»geoas and doves,
e^waally the fruit-eating pigeons Megapodes are found ia tl»e
Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides* Samoa. Tonga, the Carottncs
and the Marianas. The remarkable didameultis occurs in Saaio^
and after the introduction of cats and rata, whkh preyed upon it.
was compelled to change its habits dwdlina in trees inatcad of oa
the ground. Insect life is rich in northern Melanesia; in sooihetii
Melanesia it is less so; in Fiji cmmerous kinds of insects occur, wkile
individual numbers are small. In the rest of the islands the insect
fauna is poor. But if this is true of the land fauna as a whole,
especially on the atolls, where it consists mainly of a few birds.
lizards and insects, the opposite is the case with the marine Cauna-
Fish are exceedingly abundant, especially in the lagoons of atoll*,
and form an important article of food supply for the natives, wtio are
generally expert fishermen. The fish fauna of the isUnd* i«
especially noted for the gorgeous colouring of many of the species.
Amofw marine mammals, the dugong occura in the parts about
New Guinea and the Caroline Islands. Various sorts of whale are
found, and the whaling industry reached the height of its importance
about the middle of the t9th century In conslderiAg the marine
fauna the remark^le paiclo or Moto should be mentioned. This
annelid propagates its kind by rising to the surface and dividing
itself. The occurrence of this process can be predicted exactly for
one day. before sunrise, in October and November, and Ss both the
worm and the fish which prey on it arc appreciated by the natives
as food the occa«ons of its appearance ere of great importance to
them.
History. — Not long after the death of Coltlmbus, and when
the Portuguese traders, working from the west, had hardly
r«»ched the confines of the Malay Archlpetsgo, the Spaniard
Vasco Nufiez de Balboa crossed America at its narrowest part
and discovered the great ocean to the west of it (1513). The
belief in the short and direct westward passage from Europe
to the East Indies was thus shaken, but it was still held that some
passage was to be found, and in 1519-1521 Fcm&a deMagalbics
(Magellan) made the famous voyage in which he discovered the
strait which bears his name. Sailing thence north-westward
for many weeks, over a sea so calm that he named it El Aftr
pacifico, he sighted only two small islands. These may have
been Puha Puka of the Tuamotu Archipelago and Flint Island;
but it may be stated here that the identification of tslandi sighted
by the early explorers is often a matter of conjecture, and that
therefore some ishinds of which the definite discovery must be
dated much later had In £act been seen by Europeans at thb
early period. In this narrative the familiar names of isiaads are
used, irrespective of whether they were given by the first or later
discoverers, or are native names. Magellan reached the
" Ladrones " (Marianas) in 1521, and voyaged thence to the
Philippines, where he was killed in a local war. In isaa-isa4
various voyages of dis^very were made on the west coast of
America, partly in the hope of finding a strait connecting the
two oceans to the region of the central isthmus. In 1525-1517
Garcia Jofre de Loyasa sailed to the Moluccas, but, like MageOan,
missed the bulk of the oceanic blands. About this time,
however, the Portuguese sighted the north coast of New Guinea.
Fuller knowledge of this coast was acquired by Alvaro de
Saavedra (1537-1539), and among later voyages those of Ruy
Lopez de ViUalobos (1542-1545) and Miguel Lopes de Legaspi
(1564-1565) should be mentioned. These, however, like othen
of the period, did not peatly eitead the knowledge of the
Pacific isladds, for the couiae between the Spanish American and
Asiatic possessions did not lead voyagers among the moreexten-
sive archipeUgoca. For the same reason the British and Dutch
fleets which sailed with the object of harrying the Spaniards,
under Sir Fzands Drake (x577>i58o), Thomas Cavendish
(1586-1593) and Oliver van Noort (ts^i6oi), were nat, as
tcgarda the Pacific, of prime geographical importance. But the
theacy of the existence of a great southern continent was now
also attracting voyagers. Alvaro Mendafia de Neyra, after cross-
ing a vast extent of ocean from Pieru and sighting only one island,
probably in the EUice group, reached the Solomon Islands. In
S595~x 596 he made a second voyage, and though he did not again
reach these islands, the development of vi^hich was ld9 objective,
he discovered the Marquesas Islands, and afterwards Santa
Cruz, where, having attempted to found a settlement, he died.
Thereafter his pilot, Pedro Fernandez de Quiros. set oat with the
remainder of the company Co aoakc for the Philippines, aad 00
FAOHC OCEAN
439
tlie wa^f discovered Fonape of the Carolxae Islands, some of
which group, however, had been known to the Portuguese as
early as 1527. Qulroa returned to £urope» and* obtumng
Qommand of a fieet, made a voyage in 1605-1607 during which he
observed some of the Paumotu and Society Islands, and later
discovered the small Duff group of the Santa Cru2 Islands,
passing thence to the nuiin i^and of the New Hebrides, which he
hailed as his objective, the southern continent. One of his
commanders, Luis Vaes de Torres, struck off to the north-west,
coasted along the south of the touisiade Archipelago and New
Guinea, traversed the strait which bears his name between New
Guinea and Australia, and reached the Philippines. In (61 5-x6x 7
two Dutchmen, Jacob Lemaire and Willem Cornells Schouten,
having m view both the discovery of the southern continent and
the possibility of establishing relations with the East Indies
from the cast, took a course which brought them to the north
part of the Paumotu Archipelago, thence to part of the Tonga
chain, and ultimately to New Pomeranla, after which they,
reached the East Indies. In 1642-1643 Abel Tasmao, worl^ing
firom the east, discovered Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) and
the west coast of New Zealand, subsequently reaching the Tonga
Islands. Now for a while the tide of discoveiy slackened.
Towards the close of the century the buccaneers extended. their
activity to the Pacific, but naturally added little to general
knowledge. William Dampier, however, making various voyages
in 1 690-1 705, explored the coasts of Australia and New Guinea,
and at the opening of the century both the French and the
Dutch showed some activity. The Dutchman Jacob Roggeveen,
ilk the" course of a veyagc| round the world In i72r-i722,
crossed the Pacific from east to west^ and discovered Easter
Island, some of the northern islands of the Paumotu Archipelago,
and (as is generally supposed) a part of the Samoan group. The
voyage of Commodore George (afterw&rds Lord) Anson in 1740-
1744 was for purposes rather of war than of exploration, and
Commodore John Byron's voyage in x 765 had little result beyond
gaining some additional knowlcdge.of the Paumotu Archipelago.
It is about this time that what may be called the period of
rediscovery set in fully. In the ensuing account a constant
repetition of the names of the maia archipelagoes will be found;
it may of course be assumed that each successive voyager added
something to the knowledge of them, but on the other hand, as
has been said, islands were often rediscovered and renamed in
cases where later voyagers took no account of the work of their
predeccaaors, or where the earlier voyagers were unable clearly
to define the positions of their discoveries. Moreover, rivalry
between contemporary explorers of diflferent nationalities
sometimes caused them to ignore each other's work, and added
to the confusion of nomenclature among the islands.
In 1767 Samuel Wallis worked through the centra! part of the
Paumotus, ahd visited Tahiti and the' Marianas, while his
companion Philip Carteret discovered. Pltcaim, and visited
Santa^ Cms, the Solomons and New Pomerania. The French
were now taking a share in the wofk of discovery, and in i:^69
Louis Antoine de- Bougainville sailed by way of the central
Paumotus, the Society Islands, Samoa, the northern New
Hebrides^ the south coast of New Guinea and the Louisiade and
Bismarck archipelago^ The next voyages in chronological
order are those vf the' celebrated Captain James Cook (q.v.).
Within the limits of the area under notice, ha first voyage (1769)
included visits to TahICi and the Society group generally, to New
Zealand and to the east coast of Australia, his second <i 7 73-1 774)
to New Zealand, the Paumotu Archipelago, the Society Islands,
Tonga and subsequently Easter Island, the Marquesas and the
New Hebrides; and his third (1777-1778) to Tonga, the Cook or
Norway group, and the Hawaiian Islands, of which, even if they
were previously known to the Spaniards, he may be called the
discoverer, and where he was subsequently killed. In 1786
Jean Francois Galoup de La Perouse, in the course of the famous
voyage from which he never rettmiedj visited Easter Island,
Samoa and Tonga. The stflT more famous voyage of William
BUgh of the "Bounty " (1788) was followed by that of Captain
Edwards of the " Pandora'* (i79>)i «bo ^ ^ toutm of tab
sesrth lor Bligh discovered Rotumah and other islands. The
Hawaiian Islands came within the purriew of George Vancouver,
following the coarse of Cook in 1791. In 1792-1795 Joseph
Antoine d'Entrecasteaux, searching for traces of La Pirouse,
ranged the islands west of Tonga. In 1797 Captain J. W|lson of
the missionary ship " Duff " visited the Society group, Fiji,
Tbnga and the Marquesas, and added to the knowledge of the
Paumotu and Caroline Islands. Another power entered on
the field of exploration when the Russians sent Adam Ivan
Krusenstem to the Pacific (1805). He was followed by Otto
von Kotzehue (iSrd) and Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen
(1S19-1821). The work of these three was carried out princi-
pally ta the easternmost part of Polynesia. In X818-1819 the
French navigator Louis Claude Desaulses de Freycinct ranged
from New Guinea through the Marianas to Hawaii. Two of his
countrymen followed him in X823-X829— Louis Isidore Duperrey
and Dumoht d'Urville. Kotsebue made a second voyage, accom-
panied by sdentbts, in 1823-1826. In 1826-1828 Frederick
William Beechey was at work in the middle parts Of the ocean,
and Feodor Petrovich CotLntLfitke, the Russian drcumnavlgator,
in the northern. In 1834 Dr DebcD Bennett made scientific
researches in the Sodety, Hawaiian and Marquesas Islands, in
1835 Captain Robert Fltrroy was accompanied by Chariee
Darwin, and in 1836 sqq., Abel Aubert du Petit-Thouars was
carrying on the work of the French in the Pacific. Duriftg hrs
voyage of 1837-1840, Dumont d'Urvflle was again in Polynesia,
working westward from the Paumotu and Marquesas Ishinds by
Fiji and the Solomon, Loyalty and Louisiade groups to New
Guinea. In 1839 sqq. the first important American expedidon
was made under Charies Wilkes, who covered a great extent of
the ocean from Hawaii to Tonga, Fiji and New Zealand. Among
later British explorers may be mentioned Captain J. Elphinstone
Erskine (1849) *»d Captain H. M; Denham, and several impor-
tant voyages for scientific research were made in the second haM
of the 19th century, including one from Austria under Captain
Wiitterstorf Urbair (X858), and one from Italy in the vessel
"Magenta*' (x86s-ig68), which was accompanied by the scientist
Dr Enrico Giglioll. The celebrated voyage of H.M.S. "Challenger*.'
(1874-1875) and those of the American vessels "Tuscarora"
(X873-X876) and'* Albatross " (1888-1892) may complete the tale.
. Whalers, sealers and traders followed in the wake of explorers,
the traders dealing chiefly in copra, trepang, pearls, tortoisesheD,
&c. The first actual settlers in the islancb were largely men of.
bad character— deserting sailors, escapexs from the penal settle-
ments in Aoistralia and others. It is not to be supposed that
there were no orderiy colonists, but that the natives suffered
much at the hands of Europeans and Americans is only too
clear. The class of traders who made a living by disreputable
means and attempted to keep a monopoly of the i^and on which
they settled, becime notorious under the name of " beach-
combers," and for each of the many dark chapters in Polynesian
history there must have been many more nnwritten. The
kidnapping of natives for the South American and Australian
labour markets was common. It cannot be denied that there
has been actual deterioration of the native races, and elimination
in their numbera, consequent upon contact with Europeans and
Americans (see further, Polynesia). The romantic character
of island-history has perhaps, however, tended to emphasize
Its dark side, and it is well to turn from it to recognize the work
of the missionaries, who found in the Padfic one of their most
extensive and important fields of labour, and have exercised not
only a moral, but also a profound political influence in the islands
since the London Missionary Society first established its agents
in Tahiti in 1797. Many of them, moreover, have added greatly
to the scientific knowledge of the islands and their inhabitants.
The imposition of strict rules of life upon the natives was in some
instances carried too far; in others their conversion to Chris-
tianity was little more than nominal, but cases of this soil
are overshadowed by the fine work of William Ellis and John
Williams (c 1818) and many of their successors.
The discovery of sandalwood in Fiji in 1804, and the estab-
listament of a txade thereiii, made that group a oentic of inteieit
4+0
PACIFIC OCEAN
it the early iBodem. history of the Pad6c islands Monover
the London Missionary Society, having worked westward from
its headquarters in Tahiti to Tonga as early as 1797, founded a
settlement in Fiji in 1835. Meanwhile the white traders in
I-iji had played an intimate part in the internal political affairs
of the group, and in 1858 King Thakomhau, being threatened
with reprisals by the American consul 00 account of ceruin
losses of property which he had sustained, asked for British
protection^ but did not obtain it. The British, however, were
paramount among the white popuhtioQ, and as by 1870 not only
American, but also German influence was eitcnding through the
islands (the first German government vessel visited Fiji in i87>),
annexation was urged on Great Britain by Australia and New
Zealand. Meanwhile the labour traffic, which had been initiated,
so far as the Pacific islands were concerned, by an unsuccessful
attempt in 1847 to employ New Hebridean labourers on a
settlement near the present township of Eden in New South
Wales, had attained considerable proportions, had been
improperly exploited and, as alrea4y indicated, bad led the
natives to retah'aUon, sometimes without discemmeot, a
notorious example of this (as was generally considered) being
the murder of Bishop Pattcson in 1871. In 187a an act was
passed by the British government to regidate the labour traffic;
Fiji was annexed in 1874, and in 1875 another act established
the post of the British high commissioner.
In 1842 the French had formally annexed the Marquesas
Islands; and subsequently extended their sphere, as shown in
the table at the outset of this article, both in the cast of Polynesia
and in the south of Melanesia. In some of the island-groups
independent native states were recognized for some time by the
powers, as in the case of Hawaii, which, after the deposition of
the queen in 1893 and the proclamation of a lepublic in 1894,
was annexed to the United States of America only in 2898, or,
again, in the case of Tonga, which provided a curioUs eiamplft
of the subordination of a native organization to unauthorised
foreign influence. The partition of Polynesia was completed
in 1899, when Samoa was divided between Germany and the
United States. In Micronesia, since the discoveries of the early
Spanish navigators, the Carolines, Mariana and Pelew Islands
had been recognized as Spanish territory until 1885, when
Germany began to establish herself in the first-named group.
Spain had never occupied this group, but protested against the
German action, and Pope Leo XIII. as arbitrator amdcd the
Carolines to her. Thereafter Spain made attempts at occupation,
but serious conflicts with the natives ensued, and in 1899 the
islands were sold to Germany, which thus became the predomi-
nating power in Micronesia. When Germany acqmred the
Bismarck Archipelago in Melanesia the introduction of German
names (New Pomerania, Neu Pommcntt for New Britain; Neu
Mecklenburg for New Ireland; Neu Langenburg for the Duke of
York Group, &c) met with no little proteU as contrary to
precedent and international etiquette. The provision for the
joint influence of Great Britain and France over the New
Hebrides (1906) brought these islands into some piommence
owing to the hostile criticism direaed against the British
government both in Australia and at home. The partition of
the Pacific islands never led to any serious friction between the
powers, though the acquisition of Hawaii was attempted by
Britain, France and Japan before the United States aniaexed
the group, and the negotiations as to Samoa threatened trouble
for a while. There were occasional native risings, as in Samoa
(where, however, the fighting was rather in the nature of civil
warfare), the French possessions in eastern Polynesia, and the
New Hebrides, apart from attacks on individual settlers or
visitors, which have occurred here and there from the earliest
period of exploratioiL
Aimimsbmlun.^01 the British ponetrions amoog thelslandsof
the Pacific, Fiji n a oilony. and its governor is also high commts*
sioncr (or the western Pacibc. In this capscitjr. aisiitcd by deputies
and residefit commissioners, he exercises jurisdiction over all the
islands except Fiji and those islands whicn are attached to New
Zealand and New ScMth Wales. Some of the islands (e.g. Tonga)
are native nates under Britirii protection. Piccaira. ' -*
with iu peculiar conditions of settlement, has a peculiar anlMS «(
local Kovcrnmcnt. The New Hebrides are under a mixed Brittdi
and French commission. The Hawaiian Isbnds forma territory of
the United States of America and are administered as snch; Guam is
a naval sution. as is Tutuiia of the Samoan Islands, where the com-
mandant exercises the functions of governor. New Caledooia is a
French colony under a governor; the more easterly French islands
are jTouixd together under the title of the French Estabfishments
in Oceania, ami are administered by a governor, privy oounctl.
administrative council, &c, Papeete in Tahiti being the capitaL
The seat of government of the German pro t ec t orate of KaiM«
Wilhehn's Land (New Guinea) is HerbertshOhe in the Bismarck
Archipelago. The administrative area includes the German
Solomon Islands and the Caroline, Pelew and Mariana Islands, which
are divided into three administrative groups— the eastern Carolines,
western Carolines and Marianas. The Marshall Islands form «
"district" (Beark) within the same administrative area. The
German Samoan Islands are under an imperial governor.
Raus.^ln the oceanic islands of the Pacific three different peoples
occur, who have been called Mclancsians, Polynesians and Micro-
ncsians.^ These form themsdves naturally into two broad but very
distinct divinona — the dark and brown races; the first division
being represented by the Mclancsians, and the Polynesians and
Micronesians together forming the second. The Mclanesians.
sometimes called Papuans (9.*., the Malay nasse for the natives of
New Guinea, the hndi^uarters of the mce). are physicaUy negroid
in type, nearly black, with crisp curly hair, Aat noses and thick lips.
In all essentials they agree with the African type: such variations
as there are, for example, the more developed eyebrow ridges,
narrower, often prominent nose, and somewhat higher narrower
skull, obviously owing their existence to crosMng with the Malay or
the Polynesian races. The oceanic black peoples must thus be
regarded as having a connexion more or less remote with the African
negroes. Whether the two families have a common ancestor in
the negritos of Malayiia and the Indian archipelago, or whether
Papuan and Negrito are alike bcanchcs of an aboriginal Africa*
race, is a problem yet to be solved. But if their origin is unknown,
there is little doubt that the NT clanestans were the earliest occuranta
of the oceanic worid, possibly reaching it from Malaysia. They
undoubtedly constitute the ohlcst ethnic stock sometimes modifkd
on the spot by crossings with migmtory peoples (Malays. Poly>
nesians): sometimes, as m the eastern Pacific, giving way eatirely
before the invaders. The traditions of many of the Polynesisn
islanders refer to a black indisenous race which occupied their islands
ivedf, and 1*^ '^' ' " ' ' * "*
the black woolly-haired Papuan
type la not only found to<<lay in Melanesia proper, but traces of it
occur throughout Polyneda and Micronesia. That the oceanic
blacks form one family there can be no doubt, and it is evidence of
the immensely remote date at which their dispersion began that
they have a multitude of languages often unintdligtble caoepK
locally, and an extraordinary vanecy of insular customs: dillemitia-
tions which must have needed centuries to be effected. Furthermore
the Rev. R. H. Codrington (Metanesian LangMagts) has adduced
evidence to prove that Melanesia is the most primitive form of the
oceanic steck>languase, and that both Malsys and POlynesiana
speak later dialects oithis archak form of speech. The MdaacMaas
then, must be res^rded as the aborigines of Oceania. How they
came to occupy the region it is impossible to say. Evidence exists
as to the migrations cf the brown races; but there Is nothing to
explain how the blacks came to inhabit the isolsted Pacific islsnds.
In this oonnodon it is a curious fact, and one which deepens the
mystery, that, unlike the Polynesian peoples^ who are all bona
sailors, the blacks are singularly unskilful seamen.
The second ethnic division, the Pdynenan-Mtcronesian races,
represenu a far later migration and oocupatkm of the Pacific islawdB.
It has been urged that these brown peoples sprang from one stock
with the Malays and the Mabgasy of Madagascar: and that they
represent this parent stock better than the Malays who have been
much modified by crossings. But linguistic and physical evidence
are against this theory. It b prsctically ceitain that the Polyw
nesans at least are an older race than the Malays and their sab*
families. The view which has received roost general aoccptanoe
is that they represent a branch of the Caucasic division of mankind
who migrated at a remote period possibly in Neolithic times from the
Asistic mainland travelling by way of the Malay Archipelago and
gradually colonixing the eastern Pacific. The PolyncsiansL who, as
re pr e s en ted by such groups as the Samoans and Marquesas islanders,
are the physcal equal of Europeans, are of a light brown colour. taXL
wcll-pn^)ortioned. with regular and often beautiful features. Such
an explanation of the Polynesian's origin does not preclude a relatioa*
ship with the Mabys. It is most pn%able that the two stocks have
Asutic anceston in common, though the Polyne«ans remain to-
day, what they must have always Men in remote times, a distioct
race. Of their sub-division, the Microneabns, the same cannot be
said. They are undoubtedly a very hybrid race, owing thb dkanc^
teristic to their nographieal position in the area where the dominat-
ing rsces of the Pacific, Mabys, Polyncsans^ Mebnesiaas, Japanese
> From these the three main divisions of the Ubnds are
POLVIIBaU,Mll.aNBSIA. MlCKOMBSU (g^.).
PACK, O. VON— PACKER
aod Chincae, iMy be nid to coo vttye «
auBported tbt theory that Micronesia m
Philippines or wme portion of the Ma
Carefal investigations have
I was peopled larigdy from ihc
_ . ilippines or some portion of the Malay Archipelago at a much
later period than the Polynesian migration. The Micronesians
Ihen ara probably of Malav stock much modified by early Poly-
nesian crossings, and probably, within historic times, by Papuan and
even Japanese and Chinese migrations. While their general physuiuc
approximates to the Polynesian type^ they are often characterised
by a stunted form and a dark complexion.
In this review of the inhabiunts of the Pacific islands an imaginary
ethnological line has been drawn round it so as to include none but
the branches of the two great divisions. But on the borders of the
region, often without realboundary lines, arc grouped other peoples,
the true Malays, the Indonc«ans or prc-MaUys with the Negritos
to the westward and the Australians, who are generally admitted
to be a distinct race. Of these races detailed unforraatioo will be
found under their several headinss.
PrehisUtrU Remains.— ^nt 04 the most obscure questions with
which the cthnolonst has to deal is that of the prehistoric remains
which occur in dinerent and widely separated parts of the oceanic
region. The most remarkable oT these are on Easter Island,
where immense platforms built of dressed sionc without mortar are
found, together with stone images. Similar remains have been
found on Pitcairn Island. On the island of Tongatabu in the
Tonga group, there is a monument of great stone blocKs which must
have bMn brought thither by sea. In some of the Caroline l&Iands,
Sain, there are extensive remains of stone buildings, and in the
arianas stone monuments occur. No native traditions assign
origin to these remains, nor has any comoleie explanation of their
existence been offered.
BiBLiOG i A PH V . — For the results of the various voyages of explorers
•ee their narratives, especially those of Captain (.ooic, and among
the earlier CoUetlitms of voyages ^sce especially Captain James
Burney, Chronologual History of the Discoveries in Ike South Sea or
Pacific Ocean — from the earliest navigators to 1 764 — (London, 1803-
1817). Of general works (which arc few) sec C. E. Mcinickc,
Die Inseln des Stitten Oceans (Leipzig, 1875): F. H. H. Guillcmard.
Ansiraiasiat vol. iL, revised by A. H. Kcane, in Stanford's Compen-
dium o/Ceogmphy and Trasirl (London, 1908); and W. T. Brtgham,
Index to the Islands of the Pacific (Honolulu, 1900). Among other
works (the majority ot which deal only with parts of the rcgbn Known
to the writers from travel), see T. A. Mocrcnhout, l^oyofe* aux lies du
Grand Oeian (1837); W. Ellis. Polynesian Researches (London. 1853):
G. Turner, Nineteen Years in Polynesia (London, 1861): T.Wcst.
Ten Years in South Central Polynesia (London. 1865); J. Brcnchlcy.
Cruise 0/ the " Curaioa " among the South Sea Islands during 186s
(London, 1873): W. Coote. Western Pacific Islands (London. 1883):
H. H. Romilly, The Western Pacific and New Guinea (London, 1887) ;
H. Stonehewer Cooper. The Islands of the Pacific (London, 1888:
earlier editkMis. 1880, &c., were under the title Coral Lands)-, F. J.
Moss, Through AtoUs and Islands (Undon. 1889}: W. T. Wawn.
The South Sea Islanders and the Queensland Labour Trade (1889):
G. Haurigot. Les £lablissements franiais en Ociania (Paris. 1891):
B. F. S. B. Powell. In Savage Isles and Settled Lands (London, 1802) ;
" Sundowner." Rambles in Polynesia (London, 1897); M. M. Shoe-
maker. Islands oj the Southern Seas (New York, 1898) ; Joachim Graf
Pfeil, StWiM . . . aus der 5i2<£sre (Brunswick. 1809}; Robert Louis
Stevenson, In the South Seas (London, 1900}: A. R. Colquhoun,
The Mastery of the Pacific (London. 1902); G. Wegener,
Deutschland in der Sudsee (Bielefeld, 1903); A. Kr^imcr. /iavaii;
Ostmihronesieu, und Samoa (StuUi -- • — -
lasia, vol.
edited by , .
Account of the Seven Colonies of A ustratasia (Sydney J. With csperial
reference to the natives and their languages see Sir G. Grey, Poly-
nesian Mythology (London. 1855): W. Gill, U^ and Songs of
the South Pacific (London. 1876): J. D. Lang. Ort^m aiuf Migrations
eflhe Poljnestan Nation (Sydney. 1877); A. Lesson, Les Polynisiens
(Paris, t88o seq.); R. H. Codrington. The Melanesian Languages
(Oxford, i88<): E. Reeves, Brown Men and Women (London. 1898):
J. Gasgin* Among the Man-Eaters (London, 1899); A. C. Haddon.
Jlead-hunters, Black, White and Brown (London. 1903) ; D.Macdonald.
The Oceanic Languages: their Grammatical Structure, Vocabulary and
Origin (London, 1907): J. Macmillan Brown, Maori and Polynesian
(London. 1907), and the articles Polynesia ; Melanesia. And with
especial tclerence to natural history, J. D. Hooker, A Lecture on
Insular Floras (London, 1868): E. Drake del Castillo, Remarques sur
la flare de la Polynisie (Paris, 1890) ; H. B. Guppy. Observations of a
Naturalist in the Pacific, 1896-1899 (Loodon, 1903 soq.).
PACK, OTTO VON (c. 1480-1537), German coitspirator,
studied at the iinivenity of Leipsig, and obtained a responsible
positk>Q under George, duke of Saxony, which he lost owing to
hb dtthoneity. In xsaS he revealed to Philip, landgrave of
Hesse, the details of a scheme agreed upon in Breslau by the
archduke Ferdinand, afterwards ihe emperor Ferdinand I
and other influential princes, to conquer Hungry for Ferdinand
and then to attack the reformers in Germany. Pack was sent
ronesieu, und Samoa (Stuttsart, 1006); J. O. Rogers, Austra-
vol. vi. of the Historical Geography of the British Colonies,
by Sir C. P. Lucas (Oxfoid. 1907); T. A. Coghlan, Slatisiuat
441
to Hungary to concert joint measures with John Zapolya, the
opponent of Ferdinand in that country; but John, elector of
Saxony, advised that the associates of Ferdinand should be
adkrd to explain their conduct, and Pack's revelations were
discovered to be false, the copy of the treaty which he had
shown to Philip proving to be a forgery. For some time Pack
lived the life of a fugitive, finally reaching the Netherlands,
yrhcrc he was seized at the request of Duke George. Examined
under torture he admitted the forgery, and the government of 1 he
Netherlands passed sentence of death, which was carried out
on the 8th of February 1537. This affair has given rise to an
acute controversy as to whether Philip of Hesse was himself
deceived by Pack, or was his assistant in concocting the scheme.
Sec W. Schomburgk. Die Pachschen Handel (Leipzig. 1882):
H. Schwars, Landgrol Philipp ton Hessen und die Pachschen Hindd
(Leipzig. 1881); St Ehses. GefchkhU der Packsthen Handel (Freiburg.
1881) and Landgraf Philipbvon Hessen und Otto ton Pack (Freiburg,
1886); and L. von Ranke, Deutsche Gesckichte im Zeitalter der
Reformatiau (Leipzig, 1883).
PACK (apparently from the root pak-, paq-, seen in Lai.
pangere, to fasten; cf. " compact "), primarily a bunJle or
parcel of goods securely wrapped and fastened for transport.
The word, in this sense, is chiefly used of the bundles carried by
pedlars. It was in early use, according to the New English
Dictionary, in the wool trade, and may have been introduced
from the Netherlands. As a measure of weight or quantity the
term has been in use, chiefly locally, for various commodities,
e.g. of wool, 240 lb, of gold-leaf 20 books of 25 leaves each. In
a transferred sense, a " pack " is a collection or gathering of
persons, animals or things; and the verb means generally to
gather together in a compact body. " Pack-ice " is the floating
ice which covers wide areas in the polar seas, broken into large
pieces which are driven (packed) together by wind and current
so as to form practically a continuous sheet. " Packet,'* a
small parcel, a diminutive of "pack," was first confined tn
meaning to a parcel of despatches carried by a post, especially
the state despatches or " mail "; and " packet " properly
" packet-boat," was the name given to the vessels whi(;h carried
thiisse state despatches.
PACKER, ASA (1805- 1879), American capitalist, was bom
in Mystic, Connecticut, on the 29th of December 1805. In 182a
he became a carpenter's apprentice at Brooklyn, Susquehanna
county, Pennsylvania. He worked as a carpenter in New York
City for a time and then in Springville, Pennsylvania, but in
1833 settled at Mauch Chunk, in the Lehigh Valley, where he
became the owner of a canal-boat (carr>'ing coal to Philadelphia),
and then established the firm of A. h R. W. Packer, which built
canal-boats and locks for the Lehigh Coal & Navigation
Company, probably the first through shippers to New York.
He urged upon the Coal & Navigation Company the advantage
of a steam railway as a coal carrier, but the project was not then
considered feasible. In 1851 the majority of the stock of the
Delaware, I^high, Schuylkill & Susquehanna Railroad Company
(incorporated in 1846), which became the Lehigh Valley Railroad
Company in January 1853, came into his control, and between
November 1852 and September 1855 a railway line was built
for the Company, largely by Packer's personal credit, from
Mauch Chunk to Easton. He built railways connecting the
main line with coal-mines in Luzerne and Schuylkill counties;
and he pbnncd and built the extension (completed in 1868) of
the line into the Susquehanna Valley and thence into New York
state to connect at Waverly with the Eric railway. Packer
also took an active part in politics. In 1841 and 1842 he was
a member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives; in
1843-1848 was county judge of Carbon county; in 1853-1857 was
a Democratic member of the national House of Representatives;
and in 1869 was the Democratic candidate for the governorship of
Pennsylvania. In 1865 he gave $500,000 and 60 acres (after-
wards increased to 115 acres) in South Bethlehem, Pennsylvania,
for a technical school for the professions represented in the
development of the Lehigh Valley; Lehigh University was
chartered in 1866, and its main building, Packer Hall, was
compkted in 1669; he erected a library building in 1877 as a
442
PACORUS-rPAD
memorial to bis daughter, Mrs Lucy Packer Linderman; and
his will bequeathed $1,500,000 as an endowment for the univer-
sity and $500,000 to the university library, and gave the univer-
sity an interest (nearly one third) in his csUte when finally
distributed. He died in Philadelphia on the 17th of May iSyO-
1'he Packer Memorial Church (Protestant Episcopal) on the
Lehigh University campus, given by his daughter, Mrs Mary
Packer Cummings, was dedicated on the ijth of October 1887.
PACORUS, a Parthian name, borne by two Parthian princes.
1. Pacorus, son of Orodes I., was, after the battle of Carrhae,
sent by his father into Syria at the head of an army in 51 b.c
Thje prince was still very young, and the real leader was Osaces.
He was defeated and killed by C. Cassius, and soon after Pacorus
was recalled by his father, because one of the satraps had rebelled
and proclaimed him king (Dio Cass. xl. 38 sqq.; Justin xlii. 4;
cf. Cicero, ad Fam. xv. i\ ad AU. vi. i. 14). Father and son
were reconciled, but the war against the Romans was always
deferred. In the autumn of 45 Pacorus and the Arabic chieftain
Alcbaudonius came to the help of Q. Caccilius Bassus, who had
rebelled against Caesar In Syria; but Pacorus soon returned, as
his troops were unable to operate in the winter (Clc. ad AU. xiv.
Q. y, Dio Cass, xlvii. 27). At last in 40 B.C. the Roman fugitive
Titus Labienus induced Orodes to send a great army under the
command of Pacorus against the Roman provinces. Pacorus
conquered the whole of Syria and Phoenicia with the exception
of Tyre, and invaded Palestine, where he plundered Jerusalem,
deposed Hyrcanus, and made his nephew Antigonus king (Dio
Cass, xlviii. 24 sqq. ; Joseph. Ant. xiv. 13 ; Tac. Hist. v. g). Mean-
while Labienus occupied Cilicia and the southern parts of Asia
Minor down to th& Carian coast (Dio Cass, xlviii. 26; Strabo xiv.
660). But in 39 P. Ventidius Bassus, the general of Mark
Antony, drove him back into Cilicia, ivhere he was killed, defeated
the Parthians in Syria (Dio Cass, xlviii. 39 sqq.) and at last
beat Pacorus at Gindarus (in northern Syria), on the gth of
June 38, the anniversary of the battle of Carrhae. Pacorus
himself was slain in the battle, which effectually slopped the
Parthian conquests west of the Euphrates (Dio Cass. xlix. 19 seq. ;
Justin xlii. 4; Plut. Anton. 24; Strabo xvL 751; Velleius ii. 78;
cf. Horace, Od. iii. 6, 9).
2. Pacorus. Parthian king, only mentioned by Dio Cass.
Ixviii. 17; Arrian. ap. Suid. s.v, umiTri, according to whom he
sold the kingdom of Osroi^ne to Abgar VII.; and Ammianus
MarcelUnus xxiii. 6. 23, who mentions that he enlarged Ctesiphon
and built its walls. But from his numerous dated coins we
learn that he was on the throne, with interruptions, from a.d.
78-95. He always calls himself Arsaccs Pacorus. This mention
of his proper name, together with the royal name Arsaccs, shows
that his kingdom was disputed by rivals. Two of them wc
know from coins — Vologaeses II., who appears from 77-79 and
again from 111-146, and Artabanus III. in 80 and 81. Pacorus
may have died about 105; he was succeeded by his brother
Osroes. (£0. M.)
PACUVIUS, MARCUS (c. 320-130 Vc), Roman tragic poet,
was the nephew and pupil of Ennius, by whom Roman tragedy
was first raised to a position of influence and dignity. In the
interval between the death of Ennius (169) and the advent of
Accius, the youngest and most productive of the tragic poets,
be alone maintained the continuity of the serious drama, and
perpetuated the character first imparted to it by Ennius. Like
Ennius he probably belonged to an Oscan stock, and was born
at Brundusium, which had become a Roman colony in 244.
Hence he never attained to that perfect idiomatic purity of
style, which was the H>ecial glory of the early writers of comedy,
Naevius and Plautus. Pacuvius obtained distinction also as a
painter; and the elder Pliny {Nat. Hitt. xzxv. 19) mentions a
work of his in the temple of Hercules in the Forum boarnim.
He was less productive as a poet than either Ennius or Accius;
and we hear of only about twelve of his plays, founded on Greek
subjects (among them the Antiope^ Teiuer, Armorum Judicium,
Dulorestes^ ChryseSf Niptra^ &c., most of them on subjects con-
nected with the Trojan cycle), and one prattexla (Pauius) written
in connexion with the victoiy of Lucius Acmilius Pauius al Pydna
(168), as the ClaUidium^i Naevius and the Amhracia of Ennius
were written in commemoration of great military succeases.
He continued to write tragedies tUl the age of eighty, when he
exhibited a play in the same year as Acdus, who was then thirty
years of age. He retired to Tarentum for the last years of bis
life, and a story ts told by Gellius (xiii. 7) of his being visited
there by Accius on his way to Asia, who read his Atreus to him.
The story Is probably, like that of the visit of the young Terence
to the veteran Caecilius, due to the invention of later gram-
marians; but it is invented in accordance wtih the traditionary
criticism (Horace, Epp. il. i. 54-$$) of the distinction between
the two poets, the older being characterized rather by cultivated
accomplishment {Jocliis), the younger by vigour and animation
{alius). Pacuvius's epitaph, said to have been composed by
himself, b quoted by Aulus Gellius (i. 24), with' a tribute of
admiration to its " modesty, simplicity and fine serious spirit "*
Adulcsoens. tam etsi properas, te hoc saxum rogat
Vt scse aspicias. deinde quod acriptam 'st legas.
Hie sunt poctae Pacuvi Maici sita
Ossa. Hoc volebam neacins nc esses. Vale.
Cicero, who frequently quotes from him with great admiratior*,
appears {De opiimo gcnere oratorum, i.) to rank him first among
the Roman tragic poets, as Ennius among the epic, and Caedlius
among the comic poets.
The fragments of Pacuvius quoted by Cicero in illustration
or enforcement of his own ethical teaching appeal, by the forti-
tude, dignity, and magnanimity of the sentiment expressed in
them, to what was noblest in the Roman temperament. They
are inspired also by a fervid and steadfast glow of spirit and
reveal a gentleness and humanity of sentiment blended with the
severe gravity of the original Roman character. So far too as
the Romans were capable of taking interest in speculative
questions, the tragic poets contributed to stimulate curiosity
on such subjects, and they anticipated Lucretius in using the
conclusions of speculative philosophy as well as of common sense
to assail some of the prevailing forms of superstition. Among
the passages quoted from Pacuvius are several which indicate
a taste both for physical and ethical speculation, and others
which expose the pretensions of religious imposture. These
poets aided also in developing that capacity which the Roman
language subsequently displayed of being an organ of oratory*
history and moral disquisition. The literary language of Rome
was in process of formation during the and century B.C., and
it was in the tatter part of this century that the serie* of great
Roman orators, with whose spirit Roman tragedy has a strong
affinity, begins. But the new creative effort in language was
accompanied by considerable crudeness of execution, and the
novel word-formations and varieties of inflexion introduced by
Pacuvius exposed him to the ridicule of the satirist Ludllus, and,
long afterwards, to that of his imitator Persius. But, notwith-
standing the attempt to introduce an alien dement into the
Roman language, which proved incompatible with its natural
genius, and h[s own failure to attain the idiomatic purfty of
Naevius, Plautus or Terence, the fragments of his dramas are
sufficient to prove the service which he rendered to the formation
of the literary language of Rome as well as to the culture and
character of his contemporaries.
Fragments in O. Ribbcck, Ftagmenta scaenicae romanorum
peesis{ 1 897}. vol. i. ; mh: also his Romisthe Tragodit ( 1 875) ; L. MuUcr.
De Poiuntfabulis (1880); W. S. TeufTcl, Caecilius Staltus, Pacuituj,
Auius, Aframius (1858): and Mommsen. History cf Rome, bL iv.
ch. 13.
PAD. (i) Probably from the same root as " pod," the husk
or seed-covering in certain plants, a term used in various con-
nexions, the sense being derived from that of a soft cushion, or
cushion>like combination used either for protective purposes or
as stuffing or stiffening. In soology, it is particularly used o<
the fleshy elastic protuberances on the sole of the foot of many
animals such as the cat and dog, the camel, &c. ; and oC the aunilar
cushion beneath the toes of a bird's foot or of the tarsal cushion
of an insect. In sporting phraseology the whole ptw of a fos
or other beast of chase is called the " pad." A special technical
use, somewhat diiiicult to connect with the abuve meanings, is
PADDINO-^PADEREWSKI
44J
for CheM^ket df a Knee ^r Am tte hftiMtte of such tootv U a key-
hole savr. (j) The cunting word " piid/' now sarviving in such
words as "footpad," a highway robber, or "pad horse/' a
roadster ridiiig^horse with an easy acliott, is the same as " path/'
adapted directly from the Low Ger. form pad^ a track or road.
(j) There is an old English dialect word for a frog (Scottish and
North) or a toad, more familiar in the dimmutive " paddock "
(cf. HdmUi, iii. 4, 1*9! UtMt, i. i, 9). This is fomid m many
Teutonic languages, cf . Dan. ^odi^, Du. pad, kc. The diminu-
tive is to be distinguished from '^paddock," a imatt endosed
plot of ijastureland, an altered form of "parrock/' O. £ng.
pearroc. <SeePaRK.)
FADDmo, the term In textfle manufacture used for the
stiffening of various garmenUk The most useful and flexible
material for this puipose -is hair doth, but this is too expensive
to be used for the padding of cheap clothing. Hence many kinds
of fibrous material are employed for the same purpose. Hair,
cotton, flaa, tew, jnte and paper are used, albne and in com-
bination. The fabrics are first woven, and then starched to
obtain the necessary degree of stiffness and flexibility.
PADDIIfGTpN, a municipality of Cumberland cmmty. New
Sbuth Wdes, Australia, 3 m. S.E. of and suburban to Sydney.
It is a busy industrial suburb, devoted to brewing, tanning,
soap-boiling and various other manufactures. The town halt
is one of the finest in the colony, and there is an excellent free
library. Paddington returns one member to parliament. Pop.
(1901), 22,034.
PADDINGTON, a north-western metropolitan borongh of
London, England, bounded E. by Ilampstead and Mavylebone,
S. by the city of Westminster, and W. by Kensington, and
extending N. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop.
(1901), 143,976. The best houses are found in the 'streets
md squares of Bayswater, in the south-west, neighbouring
t9 Kensington Gardens (a ^malt part of which* is In' the
borough) and to Hyde Park, farther east, while in the
north-east are broad avenues and '* mansions" of residential
flats. Bayswiiter Road, skirting the park and gardens, forms
part of fhe southern boundary of the borough; Edgware Road
forms the eastern; from this Harrow' Road brahches north-west,
Bishop's Road and Westboume Grove form a thorougfhfare
westward, and Queen's Road, Bayswater, leads south from
there to Bayswater Road. The name of Paddington finds no
place in iDomesday — it may have been included in the manor
of Tyburn— and the hnd belonged to the Abbey of Westminster
at an early date. If was granted to the see of London by Edward
VI. In the i8th century the picturesque nrral scenery attracted
artists, and even in the middle of the 19th the open country was
reached within the confines of the present borough, which now
contains no traces of antiquity. Bayswater is iaid to take its
name from Bi^nard, a Norman, who after the Conquest held
land here and had a castle by the Thames not far above the
Tower of London, whence a ward of the city is caHcd Castle
Baynard. Many springs ftewed forth here; the stream called
Westboume was near at hand, and water was formerly supplied
hence to London. In the borough are the Paddington and the
Queen's Park technical institutes; St. Mary's Hospital, Praed
Street, with medical school; and Paddington Green chUdren's
hospital. The terminus of the Great Western railway, facing
Praed Street, is caflcd Paddington Station. The parliamentary
borough of Paddington has north and south divisions, each
returning one member. The borough council consists of a
mayor, 10 aldrrmcn and 60 councillors. Area, 1356'! acres.
PADDLE, (z) A verb, meaning to splash, dabble or play
•bout in water with the feet or hands. (2) .K spedcs of oar, with
a broad flat blade and short handle, used without a rowlock
for propelling canoes or other lightly -built craft (see Canoe).
(3) A small spade* like implement, apparently first used to clear
a ploughshare from clods of earth. The verb seems to be a
frequentative form of "pad," to walk, cognate with "path,'* or of
''pat/' to strike gently, an onOmatopodc word; it may have been
ioifluenced by the Fr. patromller, in much the same sense. The
verb may have given rise to "paddle," an oar, an easy transition
in aetkie;'but the Ntw EmgfUk IHaimtory idendfiei this wftb
the word for a small spade, which occuxs eariier than the
verb, and seems to have no connexioa in sense with it. The
implement was known in the xyth and i8th centuries also as
'* spaddle," a diminutive of " spade," but *' paddle " occurs in
this- sente at early as 1407. The term " paddle " has been
applied to many objecU and impbrnents resembling the oar in
its broad-bladcd end: e.g. a shovel used in mixing materials in
glass-making, in brkk-fliaking, ftc» and also to the float-boards
in the paddle-wheel of a steamboat or tht whed of a water-
miU.
PAOBKBORN (LaL PaietaB Foniet, i.e. the 4>rings of the
Pader), a town and episcopal see of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Westphalia, 63 m. N.E. from Dortmund on the
railway to Berlin via Altenbeken. Pop. (1903), 96,468, of whom
about 80% are Roman Catholics. It derives iu name from the
springs of the Pader, a amall aflluent of the Lippe, which rise
in the town under the cathedral to the number of nearly soo,
and with such force as to drive several mills within a few yards
of their source. A laiye part of tho town has been rebuilt
since a great fire of 1875. The most prominent of half-a-dozen
churches Is the Roman Gstholic Cathedral, the wetlern pan
of which dates from the irth, the central part from the tath,
and the eastern part from the X3th Century; it was restored in
1 891-1893. Among other treasures it contains the silver coflin
of St Liborius, a substitute for one which was coined into dollars
in i6m by Christian of Brunswick, the cdebrated freebooter.
The chapel of St Bartholomew, although externally insignificant,
dates from the earlier part of the nth century, and is counted
among the most intepcsting buildings in Westphalia; it was
restored Hi 185 2. The Jesuit church and the Pfotestant Abding-
hoFklrche are ako interesting. The townhaU is a picturesque
edifice of the 13th ccAtury; It was partly rebuilt in the x6th,
and was restored in the 19th century. Paderbora formcriy pos-
sessed a univenity, founded In 1614, with faculties of theology
and philosophy, but tins was closed in 1819. The manufactures
of the town include railway plant, ^ass, soap, tobacco wad
beer; and there is a taade In grain, cattle, fruk and wooL
Padefbom pwcs iH early development to Charienagnt, who '
held a diet here hi 777 and made It the seat of a bishop a few years
later. The Saxon emperors also held diets in the dty, which
about the year 1000 was surrounded with walls. It joined the
Hanseatic League, obtained many of the privileges of a free
Imperial town, and endeavoured to assert its independenee of
the bishop^ The citizens gladly accepted the reformed doctrines,
but the supremacy of the older faith was restored In 1604 by
Bishop Theodore von Fliistenberg, who forcibly took posseMton
of the city. It underwent the same fate at the hands of Chris-
tian of Brunswick during the Thirty Years' War. The bishopric
of Paderbom formed part of the areh-dmcese of Mains, and its
bishop became a prince of the eknpire about iroo. Some of
the bishops were men of great activity, and the bishopric
attained a certain measure of importance in North Germany,
in spite of ravages during the Thirty Years* War and the
Seven Years* War. It was secularized in 1803 and was given
to Prussia, and after losing it for a few yean that country
regained it by the settlement of 181 5. The latt bishop was
Franz Egoi» von Fihstenberg <d. <S?5). The bishopric had an.
area of nearly 1000 sq. m. and a population of about 100,000.
A new bishopric of Paderbom, with ecclesiastical authority
only, was established In i8ai.
Sec W. Richter, Ceschirkte ^er Stait Padtrbom (Paderbom,
1899-1903): A. Hfibinger. IHe Verfassitng dtf SwU Paderbom inv
MiUelalter (Munster. t^): and J. Freiscn. Die Untoersiiui Padrrham
(Paderbom. 1898). For the history of the b»«hopric see W, F.
Gicfers. Die Anfdnte des Bislums Tad<rborn (Paderborn. i860);
L. A. T. Holschcr. Die attere Diouse Paderbom (Paderbom. 1886);
the Urkmnden des Bistums Paderbom. etlitt-d by R. Wilm^ns (MOnster
1874-18801); and W« Kichcer, Stmditn ttnd Qmellen zur Paderhanur
Cescfuckk (Paderbom, 1893).
PADBREWSRI, lONACB JAW (i860- ), Polish pianist
and composer, was born in Podolia, a province of Russian
Poland. He siudied music chiefly at Warsaw, BeHin imd
444
PADIHAM— PADUA
Vienna, where he was a pupil of Theodor Lochetizky (b. 1830),
the pianist and composer. He made his first public appearance
in Vienna in i887» in Paris in 1889, and in London in 1890, his
brilliant playing created ^ furore which went to almost extrava-
gant lengtln of admiration; and his triumphs were repeated
in America in 1891. His name at once became synonymous
with the highest pitch of pianoforte playing, and sodcty was at
his feet. In 1890 he married Baroness de Rosen, and after 1900
he appeared but little in public; but he became better known as a
composer, chiefly of pieces for his own instrument. In 190X his
opera Manru was performed at Dresden.
PAOIHAM, an urban district in the Clitheroe parliamentary
division of Lancashire, England, 3 m. W. by N. of Burnley by
the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901), 12,205. ^^
lies in a wild and dreary district on the precipitous banks of the
Calder. It possesses large cotton mills, and quarries and coal-
mines an worked in the immediate neighbourhood. The
church of St Leonard, founded before 145 1, was frequently
altered before it was rebuilt in 1866-1868 in the Perpendicular
style. Padiham in 1251 was a manor in the possession of
Edmund de Lacy.
PAMLLA, JUAN LOPEZ DE, insurrectionary leader in the
" guerra de las comunidades " in which the commons of Castile
made a futile stand against the arbitrary policy of Charles V.
and his Flemish ministers, was the eldest son of the commendator
of Castile, and was bom in Toledo towards the close of the
15th century. After the cities, by their deputies assembled at
Avila, had vainly demanded the king's return, due regard for
the rights of the cortes, and economical administration, to be
entrusted to the hands of Spaniards, it was resolved to resort
to force, and the " holy junta " was formed, with FadiOa at its
head. An attempt was first made to establish a national
government in the name of the imbecile Joanna, who was then
residing at TordesUlas; with this view they took possession of
her person, seiaed upon the treasury books, archives, and seals
of the kingdom, and stripped Adrian of bis regency. But the
junta soon alienated the nobility by the boldness with which it
asserted democracy and total abolition of privilege, while it
courted defeat in the field by appointing to the supreme command
of its forces not Padilla but Don PedbK> de Giron, who had no
recommendation but his high birth. After the 'army of the
nobilKy had recaptured TordesiUas, Padilla did something to
retrieve the loss by taking Torrdobaton and some other towns.
But the junta, which was not fully in accord with its ablest
leader, neutraHied this advantage by granting an armistice;
when hostilities were resumed the commons were completely
defeated near Villalar (April 23, is'i)* «nd Padilla, who had been
taken prisoner, was publicly executed on the following day.
His wife, Dofta Maria Pacheco de Padilla, bravely defended
Toledo against the royal troops for six months afterwards, but
ultimately was compelled to take refuge ia Portuf^.
See Sandoval. Hisioria dt Carhs V (Pamplona. 1681): E. ^rm*
strong. The Emperor Ckarks V. (1902): A. Rodriqucs Vitb. Juana
la Ldoi (Madrid. 1892). and Pcro Mdia. Comunidades de Ca^Ula,
in the BiUiotua de autores espaMotet of Rivadeneyra, vol. xxi.
PADISHAH, the Turkish form of the Persian podshah, a liile
—equivalent to " lord king " — of the reigning sovereign.
Though strictly applied in the East to the «hahs of Persia, it
was aUo used of the Great Moguls or Tatar emperors of Delhi,
and hence it is now used by the natives of British India of the
British sovereign as emperor of India. In Europe it is applied
to the sultan of Turkey. The Persian padskah is from paH, lord,
master, and «AaA, king. It is now generally considered lo have
no etymological connexion with *' pasha " (9.*.).
PAD8T0W, a small seaport and market town in the St Austell
parliamentary division of Cornwall. England, on a branch of the
London & South Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901), 1566. It lies near the north coast, on the west shore,
and 2 m. from the RK>uth of the estuary of the river Camel, a
picturesque inlet which from Padstow Bay penetrates 6 m. into
the land The church of St Petrock, with a massive roods! one
in the churchyard, is oiaialy Perpendicular, with an Early
English tower. Within are an andent foot, a canopied |
and a fine timber roof over the nave^nd aisles. Other interest*
ing churches in the locality are those of St Petrock Minor,
St Minvcr, St Michael, St Constantino, and, most remarkable td
all, St Enodock's. This building, erected in the 15th ctnturjr
amid the barren dunes bordering the east shore of the cstoary
near its mouth, in place of a more ancient oratory, was looig
buried beneath drifts of sand. From a little distance only the
weather-beaten spire can be seen. A Norman font remains
from the older foundation. A monastery formeriy stooil od tbe
high ground west of Padstow, and according to tradition was
founded by St Petrock in the 6th and razed by the Danes in
the loth century. Its site is occupied by Prideaux Place, aa
Elizabethan mansion, which contains among other valuable
pictures Van Dyck's portrait of Queen HenrictU Maria. PcsUine
Point shelters Padstow Bay on the north-east, but the approach
to the estuary is dangerous during north-westerly gales. Pad*
stow, nevertheless, is a valuable harbour of refuge, although
the river channel is narrow and much silted. Dredging, however,
is prosecuted, the sand being sent inland, being useful as a
manure through the carbonate of lime with which it is impicg-
nated. The Padstow Harbour Association (1829) is devoted t»
the rescue of ships in distress, making no claims for salvage bcsrood
the suras necessary for its maintenance. Padstow has fiahcrics
and shipyards and some agricultural trade.
Padstow (Aldcstowe 1273, Patrikstowe 1326, Patrestowe
1346) and St Ives are the only two tolerably safe harbours on
the north coast of Cornwall. To this circumstance they both
owed their selection for early settlement. St Petrock, who has
been called the patron saint of Cornwall, is said to have landed
here and also to have died here in the 6th century. At the time
of the Domesday survey Bodmin, which treasured the saint's
remains, had bea>me the chief centre of rdigious influence:
Padstow is not mentioned in that record. It was included in the
bishop of Exeter's manor of Pawton, which had been annexed
to the see of CrcditoA upon its formation by Edward the Elder
in 909. Padstow was plundered by the Danes in 981. UntQ
then it is said to have possessed a monastery, which thereupon
was transferred to Bodmin. Two manors of Padstow are
mentioned later — the prior of Bodmin's manor, which included
the rectory, and a manor which passed from the Bonvilles to
the Greys, marquesses of Dorset, both of which were eventually
acquired by the family of Prideaux. From the letters patent
addressed to the baUifTs of Padstow demanding the survey and
delivery of ships for foreign service, the appointment of a king's
butler for the port, and the frequent recourse which was had to
the king's courts for the settlement of disputes of shipping,
Padstow appears to have been a port of considerable repute in
the 14th century. Its affairs were entrusted to a reeve or
bailiff acting in conjunction with the principal men of the town.
In 1540 Leland, without sufficient reason, credits Athelstan
with the bestowal of such privileges as it then enjoyed, and
describes it as a parish full of fishermen and Irishmen. Forty
years later Norden describes it as an incorporation and market
town. Carew in 1602 sutes that it had lately purchased a
corporation and derived great profit from it> trade with Ireland.
Some steps towards incorporation were doubtless uken, but
it is remarkable that no traces of its munidpal character are
discoverable in any subsequent records. A prescriptive market
is held on Saturdays; two fairs of like nature have disappeared.
PADUA (Lat. Pcinium ; ItaL Padeva), a dty of northern
Italy, on the river BacchigUone, 2$ m. W. of Venice and 18 m.
S.E. of Viccnza, with a population of 82,283. "Hie dty is
picturesque, with arcaded streets, and many bridges crossing the
various branches of the Bacchiglionc, whfch ooce snmninded
the andent walls. The Palazao della Ragione, with iU great
hall on the upper floor, is reputed to have the largest roof un-
supported by columns in Europe; the hall is nearly rectangular,
its length 267} ft., its breadth 89 ft., and iU hd^t 78 ft.; the
walls are covered with symbolical paintings in fresco; the building
stands upon arches, and the upper storey is surrounded by an
open lofipa, not unlike thai which surrounds the basilica oC
PADUCAH
+4-5
VIceoM; the Palauo tvis begiui ia 1171 and finidied In 1119; in
1306 ¥n Giovanni, an Auiusiiniaa friar, covered the whole wiih
one toot; originaUy there were three roofs, spanning the three
chambers into which the haU was at first divided; the internal
partition walls remained till the fire of 1420, when the Venetian
architects who undertook the restoration removed them, throw-
ing all three compartments into one and forming the pceaent
great haU. In the Piazaa dd Signoii is the beautiful loggia
called the Gian Guardia, begun in 1493. and finished in 1326,
and close by is the Palazao del Capitanio, the residence of the
Venetian governors, with its great door, the work of Falconelto
of Verona, 2532. The most famous of the Paduan churches
is the basilica dedicated to Saint Anthony, commonly called 11
Santo; the bones of the saint rest in a chapel richly ornamented
with carved marbles, the work of various artists, among them
ol Sansovino and Falconetto; the basilica was begun about the
year 1330 and completed in the following century; tradition
says that the building waa designed by Niccola Pinuio; it is
covered by seven cupolas, two of them pyramidaL On the piassa
in front of the church is Bonatello's magnificent equestrian
statue of Erasmo da Nami, the Venetian general ( 1 433-^44 >)•
The Eremitani is an Augustinian church of the X3th century,
distinguished as containing the tombs of Jacopo (1324) and
UbertLM) (x34s) da Carrara, lords of Padua, and for the chapel of
SS James and Christopher, illustrated by Mantegna's frescoes.
Close by the Eremitani is the small church of the Annunsiata,
known as the Madonna dell' Arena, whose inner walls are entirely
covered witji paintings by Giotto^ Padua has long been famous
for its university, founded by Frederick II. in 1238. Under the
rule of Venice the universily was governed by a board of three
patricians, called the Riformatori dello Studio di Padova. The
list of professors and alumni is long and illustrious, containing,
among others, the names of Bcmbo, Sperone Speroni, Vesclius,
Acquapendeoke, Galileo, Pomponazai, Pole, Scaligcr, Tasso
and Sobieski. The place of Padua in the history of art is
nearly as important as its place in the history of learning. The
presence of the university attracted nuny distinguished artists,
as Giotto, Lippo Lippi and Donatello; and for native art there
was the school of Squarcione (1304-1474), whence issued the
great Mantcgna (1431- 1506). The industry of Padua has
greatly developed in modem times. Corn and saw mills, dis*
tiUcrtes, chemical factories, breweries, candle-works, inkrworks,
foundries, agricultural machine and automobile works, have been
establtshnl and are fiourisbing. The trade of the district has
grown to such an extent that Padua has become the central
market for the whole of Venetia.
Padua claims to be the oldest city in north Italy; the inhab:*
tants pretend to a fabulous descent from the Trojan Antenor,
whose relics they recognixod in a large stone sarcophagus ex-
humed in the year 1274. Their real origia is involved in that
obscurity which conceals the ethnography of the eariiest settlers
in the Venetian plain. Padua early became a populous and
thriving city, thanks to its excellent breed of horses and the
wool of its sheep. lu men fought for the Romans at Cannae,
and the city became so powerful that it was reported able to
raise two hundred thousand fighting men. Abana in the neigh-
bourhood was made illustrious by the birth of Livy', and Padua
was the native place of Valerius Flaccus, Ascooios Pediinus
and Thrasea Paetus. Padua, in common with north-eastern
Italy, suffered severely from the invasion of the Huns under
Altila (459)' It then passed under the Gothic kings Odoacer
and Theodorie, but made submission to the Greeks in 540. The
dty was seised again by the Goths under TotHa, and agafai
restored to the Eastern Empire by NavMS fai 566. Foikming
the course of evenu oommon to most dties oif aoith-eastcm
Italy, the history of Padua falls under eight heads: (1) the
Lombard rule, (2) the Prankish rule, (3) the period of the bishops,
(4) the emergence of the conunune, (5) the period of the despots,
(6) the period of Venetian supremacy, (7) the period of Austrian
suprema^, and finally (8) the period of united Italy, (i)
Under the Lombards the dty of Padua rose in revolt (6ox)
against Agilulpb, the Lombard king, and af Ur suffering a Wag
and btoody skge iras stomed and bdned by him. The dty did
not easily recover from this blow, and Padua was still weak whea
the Franks succeeded the Lombards as masters of north Italy.
(2) At the Diet of Aix-la-Chapdle (828) the duchy and march of
Friuli, in which Padua lay, was divided into four counties, one
of which took iu title from that dty. (3) During the period
of episcopal supremacy Padua does not appear to have been
either very important or very active; The general tendency of
its policy throughout the war ol investitures was Imperial and
not Roman; and iU bishops were, for the most part, Germans.
(4) But under the surface two important movements were taking
place. At the begiiming of the tith century the dtiseos estab-
lished a constitution, composed of a general council or legidative
assembly and a credensa or executive; and during the next
century they were engaged in wars with Venice and Vicenza
for the fight of water-way on the Bacdriglione and the Brenta —
so that, on the one hand, the dty grew in power and self-
reliance, while, on the other, the great families of Camposan-
piero, D'Este and Da Romano b^an to emerge and to divide
the Paduan district between them. The dtizeos, in order t^
protea their liberties, were obliged to elect a podestk, and their
choice fell first on one of the D'Este family («. 1x75). The
temporary success of the Lombard league helped to strengthen
the towns; but their ineradicable jealousy of one another sooa
reduced them to weakness again, so that in 1236 Frederick IL
found little difiicuUy in establishing his vicar Esielino da Romano
in Padua and the neighbouring dties, where be practised fright-
ful cruelties on the inhabiunts. When Ezaelino met his death,
in I2SQ, Padua enjoyed a brief period of rest and prosperity:
the university flourished; the basilica of the saint was bcgunt
the Paduans became masters of Vicenza. But this advance
brought them into dangerous proximity to Can Grande delta
Scala, lord of Verona, to whom they had to yield in 1311. (s)
As a reward for freeing the dty from the Scales, Jaoopo da
Carrara was elected lord of Padua in 1318. From that date
till 1405, with the exception of two years (X38&-X390) when Gian
Golcazzo Vxsconti held the town, nine members of the Carxws
family succeeded one another as k>rds of the dty. It waa a long
period of restlessness, for the Carraiesi were constantly at war;
they were finally extinguished between the growing power of
the Visconti and of Venice. (6) Padua passed under Venetian
rule in 1405, and so remained, with a brief interval during the
wars of the League of Cambray, till the fall of the republic in
1 797. The dty waa governed by two Venetian nobles, a podcsii
for dvil and a captain for military affairs; each of these was
elected for sixteen months. Under these governors the great
and small councils continued to discharge municipal business
and to administer the Paduan law, contained in* the statutes of
1376 and 1362. The treasury was managfd by two chamber-
lains; and every five years the Paduans sent one of thetr nobles
to reside as ruindo in Venice, and to watch the interesU of his
lutive town. (7 and 8) After the fall of the Venetian republic
the history of Padua foUows the history of Venice during the
periods of French and Austrian supremacy. In i86(^ the battle
of KOniggraU gave Italy the opportunity to shake off the last of
the Austrian yoke, when Venetia, and with Venetia Padua,
became jpart of the united Italian kincdom.
See " Cbrooicon pauvinum,"in L. A* Mttratori'silaljfaittalo «lai»>
tat nudii am, vol. iv. (Milan, in8)V' Rdandino " and " Monaco
padovano " (Maratori*s Annah i'Jlatia, vd. v5i., Veoice. 1790; Cor-
(uaorum hlttoria.'* ibid. voL liL: Gattari, " Isturia padovana." ibid,
vol. xviL; VcrfKiUk " Vitae canaiieniium prindpum." ibid, vol,
xvi.): G. Verri. Slona ddh Uarca TraigianaCVtxac^, 1786): Abate
G. Ccnnari. AnnaU di Padooa (Padua"); C. Ctttadella, Stwia dtUa
dMHMaiMe earrarmt (Padua. 1842): P. LitU. Farngha edebri, >.*.
" CarrarcM '* (18IS-183S): C.Caotn./«iulmn9iM griM^ Al £Mifafitfa>
Ygntla (Milan, 1857)18. CoosatI, U BamUta di Saat Amlamia di
Padcn (Padua, 1833}. (H.F.B.)
PADUCAH, a dty and the county-seat of McCrackcn county,
Kentucky. U.S.A., at the confluence of the Tennessee river with
the Ohio, about Z2 m. below the mouth of the Cumberiand, and
about so m. E. by N. of Cairo, Illinois. Pop. (1890), 12,797;
(1900), 19,446, of whom 5814 were negroes and 516 were foreign*
bora; (1910 census) 28,760^ It is served by three bcaachea of
44^
PAEAN-^MfiONIA
the Illinois Central' ratlKHu! by a brin<h of the Nashville Chatta-
nooga 9t St Louis railway (of which it is the termimis), and by
steamboat lines to Pittsburg, Louisville, St Louis, New Orleans,
Nashville, Chattanooga, and other river ports. Paducab is in
a rich agricultural region, and its wholesale trade Is probably
greater than that of any other city of the state except Louisville.
Its trade is largely in groceries, whisky, tobacco, hardware,
grain and live stock, vegetables and lumber. It is a large loose-
leaf tobacco maricet, and is a headquarters for tow boats carrying
coal down the Mississippi. The Itlinob Central and the Nash-
ville, Chattanooga & St Louis railways ha\'c repair shops here;
and there are numerous manufactures, the value of the factory
products increasing from $2,976,93 r in 1900 to $4,443,323 in
1905, or 49*3%. Paducah (said to have been named in honour
of an Indian chief who lived in the vicinity and of whom there
is a statue in the city) was settled ia 1821, was laid out in 1837,
was incorporated as a town in 1830, and was chartered as a city
in 1856. The city was occupied by General U. S. Grant the 5th
of September 1861; on the asth of March 1864 it was entered
by a Confederate force under General Nathan B. Forrest, who,
however, was unable to capture the fortificatioDS and imme-
diately withdrew.
PAEAN (Gr. UtuAy, epic Tlat^ciir), in Homer (//. v. 401, 899),
the physician of the gods. In other writers the word is a mere
epithet of Apollo (q.v.) in his capacity as a god of healing (cf.
tarpAiuun-ii oDXiot), but it is not known whether Paean was
originally a separate deity or merely an aspect of Apollo. Homer
leaves the question unanswered; Hesiod (cf. schol. Hom. Od. iv.
432) definitely separates the two, and in later poetry Paean is
invoked independently as a health god. It is equally difficult
to discover the relation between Paean or Paeon in the sense of
" healer " and Paean in the sense of " song." Famell refers to
the ancient association between the healing craft and the sing-
ing of spells, and says that it is impossible to decide which is the
original sense. At all events the meaning of " healer " gradually
gftve place to that of " hymn," from the phrase 'H Oat^.
Such songs were originally addressed to Apolk) (cf. the Homeric
Hymn to ApoUo 37a, and notes in cd. by Sikes and Allen), and
after^'ards to other gods, Dionysus, Helios, Asclepius. About
the 4th century the paoan became merely a formula of adulation;
its object was either to implore protection against disease and
mlMortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been
rendered. Its connexion with Apollo as the slayer of the {iython
led to its association with battle and victory; hence it became
the custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and
before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also
after a victory had been won. The most famous paeans are those
of Bacehylides df.v,) and Pindar (<j.9.). Paeans were sung at
the festivals of Apollo (especially the Hyadnthia), at banquets,
and later even at public funerals. In later times they were
addmsed not only to the gods, but to human beings. In this
manner the Rbodians celebrated Ptolemy L of Egypt, the
Samiaas Lysander of Sparta, the Athenians Demetrius, the
Delphians Craterus of Macedon. The word " paean '* is now
used in the sense of any song of joy or triumph.
See A. Fairbanks. ** A Stndy of the Greek Piaean/* Na »1. of
CorneU SludUs in Classical PkiMogy (New York. 19D0) ; U R. Famell.
CtOis nS tkt Grttk Statu.
PAEUONI, a people of ancient Italy, first mentioned as a
member of a confederacy which included tne Marsi, Marrucini
and Vratini (^.v.), with wbkh the Romans came into conflict
in the second Samnite War, 335 b.c. (Liv. viiL 19). On the
submission of the Samnitct they all came into aUiance with
Rome in 305^302 B,a (Liv. ix. 45, x. 3, and Diod. xx. loi), the
Paelignians having fought hard (Diod. xx. 90) against even this
degree of subjection. Each of them was an independent nolt,
and in none was there any town or commtmity politically
separate from the tribe as a whole. Thus the Vestini issued
dHns m the 3rd century; eadi of them appears in the hst of the
allies in the Social War (Appian. B.C. I. 39, with J. Bdocb, Der
iiaUseke Bund utOer rontiscker Heicmonit, p. 51). How purely
ItaUc in sentiment these communities of the mountaxn country
remained appears from the choice of 'the motmiain fortress of
Corfinium as the rebel capital. It was renamed ViteOSo, tbe
Oscan form of Italia, a name which appears, written in Oscnn
alphabet, on the coins struck there in <fo B.& (see R. S. Omway,
The Italic Dialects, p. 316).
The inscriptions we possess are enough to show that the
dialect spoken by these tribes was substantially tbe same from
the northern boundary of the Frcntani to some place in the upper
Aterttus valley not far from Amitemum (mod. Aquila), and that
this dialect dosely resembled the Oscan of Lucania and Samniunii^
though presenting some peculiarities of its own, which warranty
perhaps, the use of the name North Oscan. The clearest off
these is the use of postpositions, as in Vestine Poimunie-fif
*' in templo Pomonali "; fvUroin-e, i.e. in proximum, ** on to what
lies before you.'* Others are tbe sibilation of consonanul i and
the assibilation of ^^ to some sound like that of English/ (de->
noted by B in the local variety of Latin alphabet), as in tidadn^
" viamdO," i.e. " ad-viam "; Mmsesa^VA. Mussedia ; and tbe
loss of d (in pronunciation) in the ablative, as in aefalu firtda
fertlid {i.e. aetatefertitifiniia), where the contrast of the last with
the other two forms shdws that the -d was an archaism still
occasionally used in writing. The last sentence of the inter*
esting epitaph from which this phrase is taken tnay be qooted
OS a specimen of the dialect; the stone was found in Pcntima, the
ancient Corfinium, and the ve^ perfect style of the Latin alpha*
bet in which it is written shows that ft cannot wdl be easier
than the last century B.C.: " Eite uus pritrorae pacris, puua
ecic lesce lifar," ** ite vos porro pacati (cum bona pace), qui hoc
scriptum (libar, 3rd decl. ncut.) Icgistis." The form lese (snd
plur. perf. indie.) is closely parallel to the inflection of the same
person in Sanskrit and of quite unique linguistic interest.
The name Paeaigni may belong to the NO-dass of Ethnica
(see Sabxni), but the difference that it has no vowel before
the suf&x suggests that it may rather be parallel with the
sufiix of Lat. prirngnns. H it bas any coimexioB with \jat.
paelex, "concubine," it is conceivable that it meant "half-
breeds," end was a name coined in contempt by the cooqoering
Sabines, who turned the tonta Maronca into the community of
the Hamtcint {q.v.). But, when unsupported by direct evi-
dence, even the most tempting etymology is an unsafe guide.
For the history of the P&eligni after 90 B.C. see the references
given in C. 7. L. ix. 390 (Snlmo, esp. Ovid, 9.g. Fasti,
iv. 79, Amor. ii. 16; Florus ii. 9; Caes., B.C., i 15) and 996
(Corfinium, e.g. Diod. Sic. xxxvii. 3, 4, Caes., B.C., i. rs). None
of the Latin inscriptions of the district need be older than SuOa,
but some of them both in language and script show the style
of his period (e.g. 3087, 3137); and, on the other hand, as several
of the native inscriptions, which are all in tbe Latin alphabet,
show the normal letters of the C^icenmian period, there is little
doubt that, for religious and private purposes at least, dk
Paelignian dialect lasted down to the middle of tbe zst centniy
B.C.
PaeUgnlan and this group of inscriptioos generally fcnn
a most important link in tbe chain of the Italic dialects, as
without them tbe transition from Oscan to Umbrian would
be completely lost. The unique collection of inscr^tions and
antiquities of Pentima and tbe museum at Sulmona were both
created by the late Professor Antonio de Nino whose brilliant
gifts and unsparing devotion to the antiquities of his native
district rescued every sln^e Paelignian monument that we
possess.
For further details and the text of the Inscnprions. the place--
namcs. Ac. see R. S. Conway, Tie Italic Dialects, pp. 93* sqq.. and
the eariter autboritiet there Qted. (R. S. C)
PAEONIA, in ancient geography, the land of the Paeonians,
the boundaries of which, like the eariy history of its inhabitants,
are very obscure. The Paeonians are reganled as descendants
of the Phrygians of Asia Minor, large numbers of whom in early
times crossed over to Europe. According to the national legend
(Herodotus v. i6>, they were Teucrian colonists from Troy, and
Homer (Iliad, ii. 84S) speaks of Paeonians from the AxSus
fighting on the aide of their Trojan kinsmen. Before the reign
PAEONIUS— PAER
447
.of Duiiit Hfi^bupta, they had made thdr way as far easi as
'Perinthua in Thrace on the Propontis. AtonetimeaUMygdonia,
together with Crestonke, was sabject to theoL When Xerxes
crossed Chalddioi on his way to Therma (Thessalonica) he is
said to have maiched "tfazough Paconian territory." They
occupied the entire vaJiey of the Azius ( Vardar) as far inland as
Stobi, the valleys to the east of it as for as the Strymon (Struma),
and (he country round Astibus and the river of the same name,
with the water of which they anointed their kings. Emathia,
the district between the HaUacmon (Bistritxa) and Axius, was
once called Paeonia; and Pieiia and Pelagonia were inhahited
by Pkeonians. In consequence of the growth of Macedonian
power, and under pressure from their Thradan neighbonrs, their
territory was considerably diminished, and in hifltorieal times
was limited to the N. of Macedonia from Blyria to the Strymon.
The chief town and seat d the kings was Bylasora (Veks,
Kuprolu on the Aadus); in the Roman period^ Stobi (Posto-
Gradsko). The Paeonians included several independent tribes,
all later vnited under the rule of a single king. Little is known
of their manners and customs. TheyadoptedthecultofDioDystis,
known amongst them as Dyalus or Dryafais, and Herodotus
(iv. 33) mentions that the Thracian and Paeonian women offered
sacrifice to Queen Artemis (probably Bendis). They worshipped
the sun in the form of a small round disk fixed on the top of a
pole; A passage in Athenacus (ix. p. 398) seems to indicate
the affinity of their language with Mysian. They drank barley
beer and various decoctions made from plants and herbs. The
oountry was neb in gold and a bituminous kind of wood (or
stone, which burst into a blaze when in contact with water) called
artvot (or avtvos). The women were famous for their industry.
Id this oonnexbn Herodotus (v. xj) tells the story that Darius,
having seen at Sardis a beautifid Paeonian woman carrying
a pitcher on her head, leading a horse to drink, and spinning
flax, dl at the same time,, inquired who she was. Having been
informed that she was a Paeonian, he sent instructions to
Megabyzus, commander in Thrace, to deport two tribes of the
nation without delay to Asia. At the time of the Persian
invasioa, the Paeonians on the lower Strymon had lost, while
those hi the north maintained, their independence. They
frequently made inroads into Macedonian territory, until they
were findJSy subdued by PhUlp, who permitted them to retain
their govenmient by kings. The daughter of Audoleon, one of
these kings, was the wife of Pynhus, king of Epirus, and Alex-
ander the GtczI wished to bestow the hand of his sister Cynane
upon Langanis, who had shown himself loyal to Philip. An
iiucription, discovered in 1877 at Otympia on the base of a statue,
sUtes that it was set up by the community of the Paeonians
in honour of their king and founder Dropion. Another
king, whose name appears as Lyppeius on a fragment of an
inscription found at Athens relating to a treaty of alliance is
no doubt identical with the Lycceius or Lycpcius of Paeonian
coins (see B. V. Head, Hisloria nvmontm, 1887, p. 207). In
s8o the Gallk invaders under Brennus ravaged the land of the
Paeonians, who, being further hard pressed by the Dardani, had
BO alternative but to join the Macedonians, whose downfall they
•bared. After the Roman conquest, Paeonia east and west of
the Axius formed the second and third districts respectively
of Macedonia (Livy xiv. 29). Under Diocletian Paeonia and
Pdagonia formed a province called Macedonia secunda or
toluiaris, belongmg to the prefecture of Illyricum.
See W. Tomaachck; " Die ahen Thraker '* in SUtuntsVeHekU dtr
k. Akad. der WissnuckaiUn, xxviii. (Vienna, 1893); H. F. O. Abel.
liaktdoMen vor Kdnii Fkitipp (Leiorig. 1847); C. 0. Mailer, Vber
dU Wohnsilttt die Abstammuni und die dlUre Geschichte des makedori'
ischen Volket (Berlin, 1825); T. Dcsdevise«-u-Dc2ert, Ciograpkie
cmdauu de4a UaeUoUu (Rira. 1863) ; see aUo Macbdonia.
PAB0NIU8, of Mende in Thrace, a Greek sculptor of the
latter part of the 5th century. The statement of Paosanias
that he executed one of the pediments of the temple of Zeus
at Olympia is rejected by critic& But we possess an important
work of Paeonitis in the Victory found in the German excava-
tions at Olympia, and set up, according to the most probable
view, in memory of the battle oi Sphacteria (see Gx£XX Asr,
fig. 36). It bears the inscription " Decficated to Olympian Zeus
by the Messenians and Naupactians as a tithe of the spoil of
their enemies. Paeonius of Mende made the sutue, and was a
successful competitor in the construction of the gable^figures
for the temple." The gable figures last mentioned were doubl}>
less gilt victories of bronze which stood on the gable, not iu it.
Pausanias seems to have misunderstood the phrase as implying
that Paeonius made one <A the pedimcntal groups.
PAEONY (botanically Paeonia; Kat. oxd. Ranunctilaoeae
qx.) a genus of plants remarkable for their lar^e and gorgeous
flowers. There are two distinct sets, one the strong<«rowiog
herbaceous kind, with fleshy roots and annual stems, derived
mainly from Patonia attijlcra and P, vfgwndis; the other called
the tree pseony, stiffogrowing plants with half-woody permanent
stems, which have sprung from the Chinese P. MotUan.
The herbaceous paeonies usually grow from a Co 3 ft. in
height, and have large much-divided leaves, and ample flowers
of varied and attractive ooburs, and of a lobular form in the
double varieties which are those most prised in gardens. They
usually blossom in May and June, and as ornaments for lai^t
beds in pleasure grounds, and for the front parts of shrubberies,
few flowers equal them in gorgeous effect. A good moist Idamy
soil suits them best, and a moderate supply of manure it
beoefidaL They are impatient of frequent transplantiags or
repeated divisions for purposes of pr<q>Agation» but when
necessary they may be multiplied by this means, early in
autunm, care being taken that a sound bud is attached to eai^
portion of the tuberous roots.
The older vaiieties of P, alb^flara include candidat fettOt
Jragrans, Sumei, JUevetiit rMbescttu, vestalis, WkilUyit &c;
those of P, cffkinalis embrace aUncans, onemonifiora, JBaxkri,
Uandat rosea, 5aMfi«, &Cb The garden varieties of moden|
times are, however, still more beautiful, the flowers being in
many instances dcUcate^ tinted with mora than one colour,
such as buff with bronxy centre, carmine with yeOowiah oentrti
rose with orange centre, white tinted with rose, &C
The Siberian P, Umuiolia^ with finely cut leaves and crimson
fbwcrs, is a graceful border plant, and its double-flowered
variety is perhaps the most degant of its race.
The Moutans or tree paeonies are remarkable for their sub-
shrubby habit, forming vigorous |dants sometimes attaining
a height of 6 to 8 ft., and producing in May magnificent flowers
which vary in colour from white to lilac, purple magenta, violet
and rose. These are produced on the young shoots, which
naturally bud forth early hi the spring, and an in consequence
liable in bleak localities, unless protected, to be cut off by spring
frosts. They require to be thoroughly ripened in summer,
and therefore a hot season and a dryish situatkm are desirable
for their well-being; and they require perfect rest during winter*
Small plants with a single stem, if wdl matured so as to ensure
their bloasoming, make very attractive plants when forced.
They are inaeascd by grafting in late summer or autumn on the
roots of the herbaceous paeonies.
The yellow-flowered tree paeony (P. luka) was introduced
from China in 1887, but is still very rare. There are hundreds
of names given to the colour vatiationa of both the herbaceous
and tree paeonies, but as these have only a fleeting interest
it is bette r to c onsult current catabgues for the latest types.
PAftR* FBRDWANDO (1771-X839), Italian musical composer,
was bom at P^ma on the xst of June 1771. He studied the
theory of music under the Violinist Ghiretti, a pupil of the
Conservatoire deUa Pieti de' Turchini at Naples. His first
opera. La iManda de* wagebondi, was published when he was
only sixteen; others rapidly followed, and his name was sooa
famous throughout Italy. In 1797 he went to Vienna, where his
wife, the singer Riccardi, had obtained an engagement at the
opera; here be produced a series of operas, including his JA
CamiUa ossia U Sottoraneo (1799) ^^ bis Atkiik (i8or). la
1803 be was appointed composer to the court theatre at Dresden,
where his wife was also engaged as a singer, and in 1804 the life
appointment of Hofkapellmeisler was bestowed upon him by the
elector. At Dresden be produced, imtor alia, II Sartim (iflps).
•448
PAESTUM— PAEZ, P.
an open which obtained a wide popularity, and Ltanora (1804),
based on the same story as Bciethoveo's Piddio, In 1807
Napoleon while in Dresden took a fancy to him, and took him
with him to Warsaw and Paris at a salary of 38,000 francs.
In 1 8x a be sncceedcd Spontini as conduaor of the Italian opera
in Paris. This post he retained at the Restoration, receiving
also the posta of chamber composer to the king and conductor
of the private orchestra of the duke of Orleans. In 1833 he
letired from the Italian opera in favour of RossinL In 183 x
he was elected a member of the l!Lcademy, and in 183 a was
appointed conductor of his orchestra by King Louis Philippe.
He died on the 3xd of May 1839.
Pair wrote in all 43 operas, in the Italian style of Paesiello
and Qmatosa. Hia other works, which include nine religious
Gompositiona, thirteen cantatas, and a short list of orchestxal
and chamber pieces, are of little importance; in any case the
superficial quality of his compositions was such as to secure
him popularity while he lived and after his death oblivion.
See R. Eitner, QueUen-Lixikom (Leiprig, 1902), viL 377, sqq., where
a list of his world is given.
PABSTUM (Gr. IIoMi&fWa; mod. Pesto), an andent Greek
dty in Lucania, near the sea, with a railway station 34 m. S.E. of
Salerno, s m. S. of the river Silarus (Salso). It is said by Strabo
(v. 351) to have been founded by Troesenian and Achaean
colonists from the still older colony of Sybaris, on the Gulf of
Tarcntum; this probably happened not later than about 6on b.c.
Herodotus (i. 167) speaks of it as being already a flourishing dty
in about 540 b.c., when the neighbouring dty of Vdia was
founded. For many years the dty maintained its independence,
though surrounded by the hostile native inhabitants of Lucania.
Autonomous coins were struck, of which many spedmens now
aist (see NumsiiATXcs). After long struggles the dty fell into
the hands of the Lucanians (who nevertheless did not estpel the
Greek coIonisU) and in 373 B.C. it became a Latfai colony under
the Roman rule, the name bdng changed to the Latin form
Paestum. It successfully resisted the attacks of Hannibal;
and it is noteworthy that it continued to strike copper coins even
imder Augustus and Tiberius. The ndghbourhood was then
healthy, highly cultivated, and celebrated for its flowers; the
" twice blooming roses of Paestum " are mentioned by Virgil
(Geor. iv. xi8), Ovid {Met, zv. 708), Martial (iv. 41, 10; vi. 80, 6),
and other Latin poets. lu present deserted and malarious state
b probably owing to the silting up of the mouth of the Silarus,
which has overflowed its bed, and converted the plain into
vnpfoductive marshy ground. Herds of buffaloes, and the few
peasants who watch them, are now the only occupanu of this
once thickly populated and garden-like region. In 871 Paestum
was sacked and partly destroyed by Saracen invaders; in the nth
century it was further dismantled by Robert Guiscard, and in
the 16th century was finally deserted.
The rains of Posidonia are among the most Interesting of
the Hellenic worid. The earliest temple in Paestum. the so-
called Basilica, must in point of style be assodated with the
temples D and F at Sdinus, and is therefore to be dated about
570-S54 B.a* It is a building of unique pbn, with nine columns
in the front and dghteen at the sides, 4! ft. in diameter. A line
of <^lumns runs down the centre of the cdU. The columns
have marked entasis, and the flutings end in a semicirde, above
which fa generally a torus (always present in the so-called temple
of Ceres). The capitals are remarkable, inasmuch as the necking
immedlatdy below the echinus is decorated with a band of leaves,
the arrangement of which varies in different cases. The columns
and the architraves upon them are well preserved, but there fa
nothing above the fiiexe ezfating. and the ceUa wall has entirely
disappeared. Next in point of date comes the so-called temple
of Ceres, a henatyle peripteios, whlc'a may be dated after 540 B.C.
Tlie columns are all standing, and the west and part of the east
pediment are stiU i» sUm; but of the cella, again, nothing fa
* The dating adopted in the prmcnt article, which is in absolute
contradiction to that given in the previous edition of this wor\t. is
that given by R. Koldewey and O. Puch«tein, DU grieckitcken
Tm$pd m UnUritatitm Mud SieiUtu (Berlin. 1899), ix-3S>
left. The capilabafelike those of the BadUea, but tlMdctail«
are differently worked out. In front of thit ttaple Mood a
sac ri fi d al altar as long as the temple itself.
The most famous of the temples of Paestum, the ao-called
temple of Neptune, comes neat in point of date (about 4S0 BjC),
It fa a hexastyle peripteroa with fourteen '*^**mn on cadi mde,
and fa remarkably well^preseived, both r^iptftft and the
epistyle at the sides bdng stitt m tU$u No tnoes of the deoota-
tion of the pedimenU and metopes have been preserved. The
cdla, the outer walb of which have to a great extent dfaappeaied,
has two internal rows of seven ^■*"*"*t 4I ft. in diameter, upon
which resu a simple epistyle, supporting a rowof smalkr cofauana,
BO that the interior of the oella wea In two storeys.
The Temple of Peace fa a boildinff of the Roman period of
the and century B.a, with six Doric oolumss on the front,
eight on the sides and none at the back; it wia excavated in
X830 and fa now entirely eovesed up. TVaces of a Roman
theatre and amphitheatre (?) have also been found. The drcnit
of the town waUs, well built of squared blocks of travertine,
and x6 ft. thick, of the Greek period, fa ahnost entire; they are
about 3 m. in circumference, endodng an inegular, noghly
rectangular area. There were four gates, that on the east with
a single arched opening bdng well-pteserved. Outside the ootth
gate fa a street of tombs, in some of whidi were found anaa,
vases and fine mural paintings (now in the Naples Museum).
The following uble gives the chief dimensions of the four temples
described above in feet: —
u
It
Jl
•3
J3j
•3
it
2^
ii
II
Basilica (so-
called).
Temple of
178
80I
1371
44i
4i
ax
so
Ceres (so-
called). .
Templeof
108
47i
78*
25k
6»
I9»
34
Neptune
(^xalled)
»97
80
149}
44i
4l
38
36
Temple of
Peace (so.
called). .
84
44»
48}
a8|
S
?
so
(T.Aa.)
PAEZ, JOSfi AMTOmO (i79»-i873), Venesuelan pitsident,
was bom of Indian parents near Acarigua in the province of
Barinas on the 13th of June 1 790. He came to the front in the
war of independence against Spain, and hfa military career, whidi
began about 18x0, was distinguished by the defeat of the Spanish
forces at MaU de la Mid (1815), at Mootecal and throughout
the province of Apurc (1816), and at Puerto Cabello (1833). In
1839 he furthered the secession of Veneauela from the republic
of Colombia, and he became iu fi^st president (X830-X834).
He was again president in X839-1843, and dicutor in 1846; but
soon afterwards headed a revolution against hfa successor aiwl
was thrown into prison. In 1850 he was released and left the
country, but in 1858 he returned, and in x86o was made
minfater to the United Sutes. A year afterwarda be again
returned and made himself dictator, but in 1863 was overthrown
and exiled. He died ia New York on the 6th of May X873.
His autobiography was published at New York in 1867-1869. and
his son Ramon I^es wrote P$Mk Lift of J. A, Pmm (1864). An
ApoUosis by Guzman Blanco was published at Parfa in 1889.
PABZ, PEDRO (x $64-1633). Jesuit raissiottary to Abyawub,
was bom at Olraedo in Okl Castile ia 1564. Having entered
the Sodety of Jesus, he was set apart for foreign misaioB service,
and sent to («oa in X588. Within a year he and a fcUow nua-
sionary were dispatched from that place to Abyssinia to act as
spiritual directors to the Portuguese residents. On hfa way
thither, he fell into the hands of pirates at Dhofar and was
seat to Sanaa, capital of the Yenan, where he was i frrt ^ in"!
PAGAN— PAGANINI
449
for sevm yctis by the padia as a slave. Having been redeemed
by his order in 1396, he spent some yean in mission work on the
wot coast of Xndia» and it was not until 1603 that he again set out
for Abyssinia, and landed at the port of Massawa. At the
headqoarters of his order, in Fremona, he soon acquired the
two chief dialects of the country, tfanslated a catechism, and
set about the education of some Abyssinian children He also
established a reputation as a preacher, and having been sum-
moned to court, succeeded in vanquishing the native priesu
and in converting Za-Denghel, the negus, who wrote to the
pope and the idng of Spain for more misBionacies, an act of seal
which involved him in civil war with the Abyssinian priests (who
dreaded the influence of Paci) and ultimately cost him his life
(Oct. 1604). Faez, who is said to have been the fiist European
to visit the source of the Blue Nile, died of fever in 1621.
In addition to the tiaodation of the Catechism. Pses is supposed
to be the author of a trcauaePe Abj/tsiuorum errcnbiutMd a history
of Ethiopia (cd. C. Bcccari m Rtrum aclhtopicarum Knptoru
occideMlales inedili a saeculo XVI ad XIX (1905).
See A. de Backer, Bibliotkbque de ta Compagnie ae Jisus (ed C.
Soiume i f u g e l) vi. (1895); W. D Coolcy in BvUtHn d* la sociHSdt
HhgrapkU (i$73>> 6th series. voL iii.
PAOAll, a town and former capital, in Myingyan district,
Upper Burma, 92 m. S.W. of Mandalay It was founded by
King Pyinbya in 847, and remained the capital until the extinc-
tion of the dsmasty in z a^ft. Psgan itself is now a mere village,
but hundreds of pa^nias in various sUges of decay meet the
eye in every direction. The majority of them were built by Kmg
Anawn-hta, who overcame the Peguan king, Manuha of Thaton
It was AnawxA'hta who introduced the Buddhist religion in
Upper Burma, and who carried off nearly the whole Thaton
popuktion to build the pagodas at Pagan on the model of the
Thaton originals. Many of these are of the highest architectural
interest, besides being in themselves most imposing structures
Pagan is stOl a popular place of Buddhist pilgrimage, and a
Buucum has .been built for the exhibition of antiquities found
in the neighbourhood. The population in igoz was 6254.
FA^AN (Lat. paganuT^ of or belonging to a paguSf a canton,
county district, village, commime), a heathen, one who worships
• false god or false ^xls, or one who belongs to a race or nation
wUch practises idolatrous rites and professes polytheism. In
its early appUcatfon pagomu was applied by the Christian Church
to those who refused to believe in the one true God, and still
followed the Greek, Roman and other andent faiths. It thus
of course excluded Jews. In the middle ages, at the time of
the crusades and hiter, "pagan" and "paynam" (O Pr
patHune, Late Lat. ^foiiifiiiMr, heathenism or heathen lands)
were particularly applied to Mahommedans, and sometimes to
Jews. A special significance attaches to the word when applied
to one who adopts that attitude of cultured indifference to, or
negation of, the various thelstic systems of religion wUdi was
taken by •» many of the educated and aratoamtk daises in
the andent Helleoic and Roman world.
It has kmg been accepted that the appKcatfon of the name
pagumt, villager, to non-Christiana was due to the fact that
it was in the mral districts that the oki faiths lingered. This
etphnstirm assumes that the use of pogmms in this sense arose
after the establishment of Christianity aa the religion genenlly
accepted in the urban as opposed to the rural districts, and
it la usually stated that an edict of the emperor Valentinian
ol 368 dealing with the rdigia pagononm (Cad. Thud, zvi. 2)
amtains the first -documentary use of the word in this secondary
It has now been shown that the use can be traced much
. Tertullian {e. 202; De carona mUiHs, xi.), says " A pud
kmac (Christum) tarn miles est paganus fidelis quam paganus
est miles infidelis." This gives the due to the true explanation.
In classical Latin paganus is frequently found in contradastine-
tion to miUs or armatus (d. especially Tac HiH i. 53, ii. 14,
88; iii. 24, 43> 77). where the opposition is between a regular
enrolled soldier and the raw half-armed rustics who sometimes
formed a rude militia in Roman wars, or, more widdy, between
a sokiier and a dviliaa. Thus the Christiana who prided them-
•dves Oft bdng " soldisrs of Christ " {mUUn) conkl xighiJiy term
the non-Cfarlstians ^goM. See also Gfbbon, Dtdine and Pall
of Ike Roman Bmpirt (ed. Bury, 1896), ch. xxi. note ad fin.
PAOANINI, mOOLO (1784-1840), Italian virtuoso on the
violin, was born at Genoa on the tSth of February 1784. His
father Antonio, a dever amateur, who was in the shipping
business, Uught him the vfolin at a very early age, and he had
further lessons from the maestro di eappeUa of the cathedral of
San Lorenzo He first appeared in public at Genoa in 1793,
with triumphant success. In 179s b« visited Parma for the
purpose of taking lessons from Alessaadto Rolla, who, however,
said that he had nothing to teach him On returning home,
he studied more diligently than ever, practising single passages
for ten hours at a time, and publishing compositions so difficult
that he atone could phy them. His first professfonai tour,
through the dties Of Lombardy, was made with his father In
1797. For some years he led a chequered career; he gambled at
cards, and had to pawn his vioKn; and between 1801 and 1804
he lived In retirement, in Tuscany, with a noble Udy who was
In love with Mm. In 1805 however he started on a tour through*
Europe, astonishing the worid with his matchless performances,
and espedally with his unprecedented playing on the fourth
string afone The princess of Lucca and Pkimbo, Napoleon^
sister, made him her musical director, and he became a prominent
figure at the court where hb caprices and audacities were a by-
word He abandoned this in i8r3, and visited Bologna, MlUn,
and other dties, gaining further fame by his extraordinary
virtuosity In Venice, in 1815, he began a liaison with Antonia
Biancki, a dancer, which lasted till 1828; and by her he had a
son Achillhio, bom in 1826. Meanwhile the world rang with
his praises. In 1827 the pope honoured him with the
Order of the (jolden Spur; and, in the following year,
he extended his travels to Germany, beginning with Vienna,
where he created a profound sensation. Re first appeared
hi Paris in 1831; and on the 3rd of June in that year
he played in London at the King's Theatre. His visit to
England was prduded by the most romantic stories^ He was
described as a political victim who had been immured for twenty
years in a dungeon, where he played all day long upon an old
broken vtolin with one string, and thus g^ned his wonderful
mechanical dexterity. The result of this and other foolish
reporu was that he could not walk the streets without bdng
mobbed. He charged what for that time were enormous fees;
and his net profiu in England afone, during his six yten of
absence from his own country, amounted to some £1 7,00a
In X832 he returned to Itsly, and bought a villa near Parma.
In 1833 he spent the winter In Paris, and in 1834 Berlios com-
posed for him his beautiful symphony, HarM en ItaHe. He was
than at the aenith of Us fame; but his health, long since ruined
by excessive study, declined rapkUy. In 1838 he suffered
serious kisses in Paris through the fiiluie of the " Casinv
Paganini/' a gamUing-honse which was refused a licence. The
disasters of this year increased his malady^-laryngeal phthisis-^
and, after much suffering, he died at Nice on the 17th of May
184a His will left a fortune of iicfitoo to his son Achillino;
and he bequeathed one of his vfoUns, a fine Joseph Guameriua,
given him In eariy life by a kind French merchant, to the munici-
pality of Genoa, who pseserve It as one of their treasures.
Pagaaini's style was impressive and passionate to the hnt
degree. His easHabiU passages moved his audience to tears,
w^Ie his iours de force wcse so astonishing that a Viennese
amateur publidy declared that he had seen the devil assisting
hiuL His name stands in history aa that of the nest extraordi-
nary eseeutant ever known on the violin; and in spite of greater
artisU or no less remarkable later virtuod, this reputatfon will
remain with Fsganini as the inaogurator of an epoch. He
was the first to show what could be done by brilliance of tech*
nique, and his oompodtions were directed to that end. He was
an undeniable genius, and it may be added that he behaved
and.feoked like one, with his tall, emada t ed figure and kMig
black hahr.
There are numerous fives of Paganini; see theartide and bibliO'
graphy in Gram's DktsatMiry of UusU,
450
PAGE, T. N,— PAGEANT
PAOB, THOMAS HEUOK (1853- ), Amerioiii author,
was born at Oakland Plantation, Hanover county, Virginia,
on the 33rd of April 1853, the great-grandson of Thomas Nctoon
(1738-1789) and of John Page (1744-1^08). both governors
of Virginia, the former being a signer of the Declaration of
Independence. After a coXirse at Washington and Lee Univer-
sity (1869-1872) he graduated in law at the university of
Virginia (1874), and practised, chiefly in Richmond, until 1893,
when he removed to Washington, D. C, and devoted himself to
wDting and lectuiing. In 1884 he had published in the Century
MagMtne " Marse Chan," a tale of life in Virginia during the
Civil War, which immediately attracted attentton. He wrote
other stories of negro life and character (" Meh Lady/' " Unc'
£dinburg's Drowndin'," and " Ole 'Stracted "), which, with
two others, were published in 1887 with the title In Oie Virginia,
perhaps his most characteristic book. This waa followed by
Befo' d* War (1888), dialect poems, written with ArmisUad
ChurchUI Gordon (b. 1855); On Newfwnd River (1891), Tht
Old Simtk (1891), social and pohtical essays; Mlsket and Other
Stcrtes (1892), The Burial of the Guns (1894)^ Pastime Stories
(1894), The Old CenUeman of the Blach Stefk {1B97) , SocuU Life
in Old Virginia before the War (1897), Two Prisoners (1898),
- Red Rach (1898), a novel of the Recoostxuctioa period, Gordon
Keith (1903); The Negro: the Southerner's ProbUm (1904).
Bred in the Bone and Other Stories (1904), The Coast 0/ Bohemia
(1906), poems; The Old Dominion: Her Making and her Manners
(1907), a collection of essays; Under the Crust (1907)* stories,
Robert E. Lee, the Southerner (1908); John Marvel, Assistant
(1909)4 a novel; and various books for children. He is at his
best in those short stories in which, through negro character
and dialect, he pictures the life of the Virginia gentry, especially
as it centred about the mutual devotion of master and servant.
PAGB, WILUAV (i&u-iS&s), American artist, was born al
Albany, New York, on the 3rd of January 1811. He studied
for the ministry at the Andover Theotogical Seminary in 1828-
1830 and in later life became a Swedenborgian. He received
his training in art from S. F. B. Morse and in the schoob of the
National Academy of Design, and in 1836 became a National
Academidan. From 1849 to x8<k>, he Uved in Rome, where
he painted portraits of hb friends Robert and Eluabeth
Browning. The first collection of Lowell's Poems (1843) was
dedicated to Page, who was also a friend of W. W. Story. la
1871-X873 he was president oC the National Academy of Design.
He died at Tottenville, Staten IsUnd, New York, on the 1st
of October 1885. Besides numerous portraits he painted
" Farragttt at the Battle of Mobile," belonging to the Tsar of
Russia; a " Holy Family," in the Boston Athenaeum; and ** The
Young Merchants/' at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine
Arts, Philadelphia. He modelled and painted several portraits
of Shakespeare, based on the Becker " death mask." He wrote
A. New Geometrical Method of Measuring ike Human Figure
(i860).
PAOB. (i) A term used of a boy, kd or young male person
in various capacities, positioos or offices. The etymology is
doubtful; the word is common to the Romanic languages;
d. O. Fr. and Span, page. Port, pagem, ItaL paggio The
Med. lat. Pagfus has been commonly referred to Gr. TcuStor,
diminutive of iraif, boy, but the connexion is extremely
doubtfuL Others refer the word to the pueri paodagogiani,
young slaves trained to become paedagpgi (Gr. vmdayuyoi),
•r tutors to young boys attending school. Under the empire,
numbers of such youths were attached to the imperial household
lor the purposes of ceremonial aUendanoe on state occasions,
IhiM occupying much the same position as that of the pages
of a royal or noble household in medieval and modem times.
In fact the term paedagogiani became equivalent to pueri
kajtorarii, qui in pahtio mimsterio pfimcipi* maHabant (so
Du Cangc, Ghssarium, j.v.). Littrfi refers pagiua to pogensis,
i^. rustic, belongiBg to the country districts {pagus), and adduoes
from this the fact that the pagii were not neceuarily hofh or
youths; and quotes from Claude Fauchet (1530-1601) the
' 1>. I. Orig. milit, cap. i.) thai up to the time of
Charles VI. (1368-1403) atid Chaika Vn. (r4e3*^r46i) ''fe
mot de Page .... sembloU £tre seulement doant i de
viles pecsonnes, comrae i gar^ons de pied." Skeat {Eiym.
Diet.) points out that the form of thb word in Portuguese,
pagem, indicates the derivation from pagensis. The void
" page " was applied in English to a boy or yonth who ms
employed as an assistant to an older servant, acting as it
were as an apprentice and learning his duties. In present
usage the chief applications are: (a) to a boy or lad, generally
wearing livery, and sometimes styled a "buttons," who is
employed as a domestic servant, and (b) to a young boy who,
dr^sed in fancy costume, forms part of the bridal pioce s si on
at tircddings. The word is also used (r) as the Utle of various
officials of different rank in royal and other households, thus
m the Bntish royal household there are pages of honour, a fMt^e
of the chambers, pages of the presence, and pages of the back
stairs These, no (toubt, descend from the pueri paedagogiomi
of the Roman imperial household through the young persons
of noble or gentle birth, who, during the middle and later a^es,
served m the household of royal and noble persons, and received
a training to fit them for their future posiiton in society. In
the times of chivalry the '* page " was one who served a knight
and was trained to kmghthood, and ranked next to a squire.
(See KnicHthood and Valet )
(3) In the sense of one side of a leaf of printed or written
matter, the word is derived through Fr. from Lat. paghia
{pangere, to fasten).
PAGEANT, in its most general sense a show or spectacle;
the more spedfic meanings are involved in the etymology of
the word and its connexion with the history of the early mysteiy
plays (see Dkama). In its early forms, dating from the i4tk
century, the word is pagyn m* pagen, the excrescent i or ^, as
in " tyrant," ** ancient," not appearing tfll later. The 7 ~
Lat. equivalent is pagina, and this, or at least the root I
which it is formed, must be taken as the source. The a
however, In which the word is used, viz. stage, platform, or
scene played on a stage, are not those of the dassicai Lat. P^gina^
a page of a book, nor do they apparently occur in the medieval
Latin of any language other than EngUsh. Further, it is not
clear which meaning comes first, platform or sqene. If the last,
then " scene." 1.0. a division <^ a play, might devdop oat of
** page " of a book. If not, then pagina b a fresh formatioa
from the root pag of pangere^ to fix or fasten, the word mraning
a fastened framework of wood forming a stage or pbtform;
cf. the classical use of cempago, structure. Others take pagfrna
as a tiansUtion of Gr. «Tma, platform, stage, a wotd froaa
the same root pag- Du Cange (dossarium) quotes a tae in
Med.' Lat. of pegma in this sense, Mackina iignea in qua statute
eoUocabantur, and. Cotgrave gives " PegmatOf a stage or frane
whereon pageants be set or carried."
As has been said, *' pageant " is first found in the sense of a
scene, a division or part of a play or of the platform on which
such scene waa played in the medieval draaaa. Thus we lead
of Queen Margaret in i4S> that at Coventry she saw *' aile the
pagcntes picyde save domesday which myght not be plcyde
for lak of day," and in the accounts of the Smiths' gild at
Coventry for 1450, five pence is paid " to bring the parent
into gosford-strcL" A dear idea of what these stages wmt
like when the mystery i^ays became pxooesstonal (ff«ce«aMs),
that is, were acted on separate pUtforms moving along a street,
is seen in Archdeacon Roger's oontemponUy acooont of the
Chester plays about the end of the x6th century. " The xnancr
of these playcs weare, every company had his pagiant, or pactc^
which pageants weare a high scaiolde witk s rowsses, a higher
and a fewer, upon 4 wheeles " (T. Sharp, Dissertation am Ika
Pageants or Mysteries at CovetUry, 1825, which contaias most
of the early references to the word) . The movable pUtfbrm, fiUod
with emblematic or allegorical figures, naturally played an im»
portaot pact in processional shows with no dialogue or dramatic
action. An instance (143') of the practice and the use of the
word is found in the Munimcnta gildkaUae londitnensis (cd.
Riley)* " Parabatur machina. .... in cujus
PAGET, SIR JAMES
glgas mume masnltodlBlfl .... ex utraqoe ktere ... In
tadeor pagbia erigebantur duo aniiaaUa vocata antehpt." At
Anne Bolt's coronation, June i, 1535, one "pageant " con-
tained figwes of ApoUo and the Muses, another represented
a castle, with '*a heavenly roof and under it upon a green
was a root or stock, Whereout sprang a multitude of white and
red roses " (Arber, Engfixk Ganuf, ii. 47, quoted in the Ntw
Bngfisk DuUoiury). Sudi "pageants'* formed a feature, In
a somewhat degraded shape, in the annual lord mayor's show
la London. The development in meaning from "moving
platform " to that of a " processional spectacle " or " show "
is obvious.
The soth century has seen in England what may in some
tispccu be looked on as a tevival but in general as a new depar-
ture in the shape of semi-dramatic spectacles illustrative of the
history of a town or locality; to such spectacles the name of
" Pageant " has been appropriately given. Coventry in iu
processwn in commemonition of Lady Godiva's traditional
etpk>it, has riace 1678 illustrated an incident, however mythical,
in the history of the town, and many of the ancient cities
of the continent of Europe, as Siena, Bruges, Nuremberg, &c.,
have had, and still have, at intervals a procession of persons
In the costumes of various periods, and of figures emblematical
of the towns' associations and history. The modem pageant
is far removed from a mere procession in dumb show, however
bright with cotour and interesting from an historical or artistic
point of view such may be made. It consists of a series of
scenes, representing historical events directly connected with
the town or locality in which the pageant takes place These
are accompanied by appropriate dialogue, speeches, songs, &c ,
and with music and dances. The effect is naturally much
heightened by the place of the performance, more particulariy
if thif is the actual site of some of the scenes depicted, as at the
Winchester Pageant (1908) where the background was formed
^ the ruins of Wohresey Casile. The Sherborne pageant of
1905 was the fiist of the series of pageants. In 1907 and 1908
they became very numerous; of these the principal may be
mentioned, those at Oxford, Bury St Edmunds in 1907; at
Winchester, Chelsea; Dover and Pevensey in 1908; and that of the
English Church at Fulham Palace 1909. a peculiarly interesting
esample of a pageant connected with an institution and not
a locality.
The artistic success of a pageant depends on the beauty or
historic interest of its site, the skilful choice of episodes and
dramatic incidents, the grouping and massing of colour, and the
appropriatenesa of the dialogue, speeches and incidental music.
It is here that the skill and Ulcnt of the writer, designer or
director of the pageant find scope. The name of the dramatist
Louis N. Parker (b. 1852), the author of the Sherborne pageant,
the earliest and one of the most successful, must always be asso-
dated with the movement, of which he was the originator."
■ More important, perhaps, than the aesthetic pteasure given
is the educational effect produced not only on the spectators
but also en the performers. The essence of the pageant is that
all who take part are residents in the pbce and kxrality, that
the costumes and accessories should be made locally, and that
all classes and all ages should share in a common enthusiasm
for the bringing back in the most vivid form the past history,
often forgotten, in which all should 'feel they have an equal
and common part. (C. Wb.)
PAOBT, SIR JAMES, Bart. (1814*1899), British, surgeon,
born at Yarmouth on the nth of January 1814, was the son of
a brewer and shipowner. He was one of a large famfly, and his
brother Sir George Paget (1809-1893), who became regius
professor of physic at Cambridge in 1872, also had a distinguished
career in medidne and was made a K.C.B. He attended a
day-school in Yarmouth, and afterwards was destined for the
navy; but thb plan was given up, and at the age of sixteen
he was apprenticed to a general practitioner, whom he served
for four and a half years, during which time he gave his leisure
hours to botanioing, and made a great collection of the flora
of East Norfolk. At the end of his apprenticeship he published
45*
with one of his brothers a very careful Sketch 6f the Natural
History of Y^mouth and Us NHtfihomhood. In October 1834
be entered as a student at St Bartholomew's Hospital. Medical
students in those days were left very much to themsdves; then
was no ck)se supervision of thdr work, but It is probable that
Paget gained rather than k)st by having to fight his own way.
He swept the board of prises in 1855, and again in 1836; and in
his first winter sesskm he detected the presence of the Trkkina
spifoliSt a minute parssite that infesU the muscles of the human
body.* In May 1836 he passed his examination at the Royal
College of Surgeons, and became qualified to practise. The
next seven years (1836-1843) were spent in London lodgings,
and were a time of poverty, for he made only £15 a year by
practice, and his father, having failed in business, could not
give him any help. He managed to keep himself by writing for
the medical Journals, and preparing the catalogues of the hospiul
museum and of the pathotogical museum of the Royal CoUege
of Surgeons. In 1836 he had been made curator of the hosphat
museum, and In 1838 demonstiator of morbid anatomy at
the hospital; but his advancement there was hindered by the
privileges of the hospital apprentices, and by the- fact that he
had been too poor to afford a house>suigeoncy, or even a dresser*
ship. In 184 X he was made auigeon to the Finsbuty Dispensary,
but this appointment did not give him any experience in the
graver operations of surgery. In 1843 he was appointed lecturer
on general anatomy (micicsoopit anatomy) and physiology
at the hospital, and warden of the hospital college then founded.
For the next dght years he lived within the walls of the ho^iital,
in charge of about thirfy studcaU resident hi the little eoUegs.
Besides his lectures and his superintendence of the resident
students, he had to enter all new students, to advise them how
to work, and to manage the finances and the general affairs
of the school Thus he was constantly occupied with the
business of the school, and often passed a week, or more, without
going outside the hospital gates. In 1844 he married Lydia,
jroungest daughter of the Rev. Henry North. In 1847 he was
appointed an assisUnt-surgeon to the hospital, and Arris and
Gale profiessor at the Coilegeof Surgeons. He hekl this professor-
ship for six years and each year gave six lectures in surgical
pathology. (The first edition of these lectures, which were
the chief sdentific work of his life, was pubKshed in 1853 as
Lectures on Surgical Pathology.) In 1851 he was elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society. In October 1851 he resigned the
wardensb^> of the hospital He had now become known as a
great physiologist nnd pathologist: he had done for pathology
in EngUnd what R. Virchow had done in Germany; but he had
hardly began to get into practioe, and he had kept himself poor
that he might pay his share of his father's debts--a task that
it took him fourteen years to fulfil.
It is probable that no famous surgeon, not even John Hunter,
ever founded hiir practice deeper in sdence than Paget did, or
waited longer fov his work to come back to him. In physiology
he had mastered the chief English, French, German, Dutch
and lulian litemture of the subject, and by incessant study
and microscope work had put himself levd with the most
advanced knowledge of his time; so that it was said of him by
R. Owen, in 1851, that he had his choice, dlher to be the first
physiologist in Europe, or to have the first surgical practice in
London, with a baronetcy. His physiological lectures at
St Bartholomew's Hospital were the chief cause of the rise in
the fortunes of its school, which in 1843 had gone down to a low
point. In pathology his work was even more important. He
fills the pUu:e in patbotogy that had been left empty by Hunter's
death in 1793— the time of transition from Hunter's teaching,
* This discoverv is utaally credited to R. Owen (f .si). The facts
appear to be a« JTollows: Paaet was a first-year's student, and. by
means of a pocket lens, found in the dissecting-room that the specks
in the infected muscles wercparasitic worms and not, as previously
thought, spicules of bone. Tnotnas Wormald. the senior oemonstrSK
tor. who WM no pathotosist, sent a piece o( the same musde to Owen,
who authoritatively pronounced the specks to be parssites and gave
them their scientific name. It b probable that Owen did not realise
that Pdfcet had already made the discovery, and it was naturally
associated with the name of the professor.
452
PAGET OF BEAUDESERT— PAGODA
which for all Us gmioeit was hindered by want of the moden
nicrosGope, to the pathology and bacteriology of the present day.
It is Paget's greatest achievement that he made pathology
dependent, in everything, on the use of the microscope— especially
the pathology of tumouis. He and Virchow may truly be called
the founders of modem pathology; they stand together, Paget's
LeOura m Surgical Pathology and Vixtbow's CeUulcr-Pathotogie.
When Paget, in 1851, began practice near Cavendish Square,
be had sttU to wait a few years more for success in professional
life. The " turn of the tide " came about 1854 or 1855; and
in X858 he was appointed suigeon extraordinaiy to Queen
Victoria, and in 1863 surgeon in ordinary to the prince of
Wales. He had for many yean the largest and most arduous
surgical practice in London. His day's work was seldom less
than sixteen or seventeen hours. Cases sent to him for final
judgment, with especial frequency, were those of tumours, and
of all kinds of disease of the bones and joints, and all " neurotic "
cases having symptoms of surgical disease. His supremacy
lay rather in the science than in the art of surgery, but his name
is associated also with certain great practical advances. He
discovered the disease of the breast and the disease of the bones
(osteitis deformans) which are called after his name; and he
was the first at the hospital to urge enucleation of the tumour,
instead of amputation of the limb, in cases of myeloid sarcoma.
In 187 1 he nearly died from infection at a post mortem
examination, and, to lighten the weight of his work, was obliged
to resign hii surgeoncy to the hospital In this same year
he received the bonour of a baronetcy. In 1875 he was
president of the Royal College of Surgeons, and in 1877
Hunterian orator. In 1878 he gave up operating, but for
eight or ten yean longer he still had a very heavy con-
sulting practice. In i88x he was president of the Inter-
national Medical Congress held in London; in 1880 he gave,
at Cambridge, a memorable address on " Elemental Pathology,"
setting forth the likeness of certain diseases of plants and trees
to thoae of the human body. Besides shorter writings he also
published Clinical LeUwes and Essays (ist ed. 1875) and Sindia
of Old Cast-books (189 1). In 1883, on the death of Sir George
Jcssel, he was appointed vice-chancellor of the university of
London. In 1889 he was appointed a member of the royal
commission on vaccination. He died in London on the jotb
of December 1890, in his eighty-fifth year. Sir James Paget
had the gift of eloquence, and was one of the most careful and
moat delightful speakers of his time. He had a natural and
unaffected pleasure in society, and he loved music. He possessed
the rare gift of ability to turn swiftly from work to play; enjoying
his holidays like a schoolboy, easily moved to laughter, keen
to get the maximun of happiness out of very ordinary amuse>
ments, emotional in spite of incessant self-restraint, vigorous
in spite of constant overwork. In him a certain Ugbt-bearted
enjoyment was combined with the utmost reserve, unfailing
religious faith, and the most scrupulous honour. He was all
his life profoundly indifferent toward politics, both national
and medical i his ideal was the unity of science and practice in
the professional life. (S. P )
PAGET OP BBAUDBSBRTp WILUAM PAGET, m Baxon
(1506-1563), Engltsh statesman, son of William Paget, one
of the serjeants-at-maoe of the city of London, was bom in
London in 190O, and was educated at St Paul's School, and
at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, proceeding afterwards to the
univernty of Paris. Probably through the influence of Stephen
Gardiner, who had early befriended Paget, he was employed by
Heniy VIIL in several important diplomatic missions; in 1531
he was appointed derk of the signet and soon afterwards of
the privy oouncil. He became secretary to Queen Anne of
Cleves in 1539. and in 1543 he was sworn of the privy council
and appointed secretary of state, in which position Henry VIII
in his later years relied much on his advice, appointing him
one of the council to act during the minority ol Edward VI.
Paget at first vigorously supported the protector Somerset,
while counselling a moderation which Somerset did not always
observe. In 1547 he was made comptroller of the king's house-
hold, chancellor of the duchy of JjuiCMter, and a knight o( llw
Garter; and in 1549 he was sunuDoned by writ to the Hovie of
Lords as Baron Paget de Beaudcsert About the umt time
he obtained extensive grants of lands, induding Cannork Chase
and Burton Abbey in Staffordshire,- aiid in London the icmdcnce
of the bishops of Exeter, afterwards known suocesaivdy aa
Lincoln Hotise and Essex House, on the site now occupied by
the Outer Temple in the Strand. He also obtained Bcaudmrt
in Staffordshire, which is still the chief seat of the PacK Caaily^
Paget shared Somerset's disgrace, being committed to t^
Tower in 1551 and degraded from the Order of the Garter in
the following year, besides suffering a heavy fine by the Star
Chamber for having profited at the expense of the Crown in his
administration of the duchy of Lancaster. He was, howcwer,
restored to the king's favour in 1555, and waa one of Uie twenty*
six peers who signed Edward's settlement of the crown on Lady
Jane Grey in June of that year. He made his peace with Queen
Mary, who reiosuted him as a knight of the Garter and in tlie
privy council in 1553, and appointed him lord privy seal in iss^*
On the accession of Elizabeth in 1558 Pacet letired fram public
life, and died on the 9th of June 1563.
By his wife Anne Preston he had four sons, the two eUcit of
whom. Henry (d. z 568) and Thomas, succeeded in turn to the peer*
age. The youngest son, Charles Paget (d. 161 a), was a well-known
Catholic conspirator against (^een Elizabeth, in the position of
secretary to Archbishop James Beaton, the ambassador of Mtjy
Queen of Scots in Paris; although at times he also played the part
of a spy and forwarded information to Walsingham and CcdL
Thomas, 3rd Baron Paget of Beaudescrt (e. 1540-1589), a
zealous Roman Catholic, was suspected of complicity in Charlea'a
plots and was attainted in 1587. But the peerage was restored
in 1604 to his son William (x 579-1699), 4th Lord Paget, whoae
son William, the 5th lord (1609-1678), fought for Charles 1.
at Edgehill. William, the 6ih k>rd (1637-1713), n supporter
of the Revolution of 1688, was ambassador at Vienna irooi i6CId
to 1693, and later at Consuntinople, having much to do with
brioging about the important treaty of Carlowitz in 1699. Henry,
tbe 7Lh baron (c 1665-1743)* was raised to the peenfe durii^
his father's lifetime as Baron Burton in 171a, bring one of the
twelve peers created by the Tory ministry to secure a majority
in the House of Lords, and was created eari of Uxbrid^ in 1714.
His only son, Thomas Catesby Paget, the author of an Essaj
on Human Life (1734) and other writings, died in January 1742
before bis father, leaving a son Henry (17 19-1 769), who becaine
and eari of Uxbridge. At the latter's death the caildon of
Uxbridge and barony of Burton became extinct, the older
barony of Paget of Beaudcsert passing to his cousin Henry Bayly
(1744-1812), heir general of tbe first baron, who in 1784 waa
created earl of Uxbridge. His second son. Sir Arthur Paget
(1771-1840}, was an eminent diplomatist during the Napoleonic
wars. Sir Edward Paget (1775*1849), the fourth son, served under
Sir John Moore in the Peninsula, and was afterwards secDnd
in command under Sir Arthur Wdlesley; the fifth, Sir Charka
Paget (1778-1839), served with distinction in the navy, and
rose to the rank of vice-admiraL The eldest son Henry William,
and earl of Uxbridge (i 768-1854), was in 1815 created marquoa
of Anglesey (9.P.).
PAGHMAK, a small district of Afghanistan to the \vcst of
Kabul, lying under the Paghmaa branch of the Hindu Kush
range. It is exceedingly picturesque, the villages ciingiDg to
the sides of the mountain glens from which water is drawn for
irrigation; and excellent fruit is grown.
PAGODA (Port, pagodc^ a word introduced in the i6th century
by the early Portugxiese adventurers in India, reproducing
phonetically some native word, possibly Pers. but-Aadak, a
bouse for an idol, or some form of Sansk. bkataval, divine,
holy), an Eastern term for a temple, especially a building of
a pyramid shape common in India and the Far Eiast and devoted
to sacred purposes; in Buddhii»t countries, notably f^'»*,
the name of a many-sided tower in which are kept holy relics.
More loosely " pagoda " \& used in the East to signify »aj
non-Chri»Uan or non-Mussulman place of worship. Pagoida or
FAHARI
45S
pafod «B$ abo tiie aaine ghren to a gold (oomloDally also
silver) coio, of about the value of seven shillings, at one time
current in southern India. From this meaning is derived the
expression " the pagoda tree," as synonymous with the " wealth
of the Indies," whence the phrase to " shake the pagoda tree."
There is a real tree, the Flumieria aeuminatat bearing the name.
It grows in India, and is of a small and graceful shape, and beats
yellow and white flowers tinged with red.
PAHARI (properly Pah&rl, the language of the mounUins),
a general name appUcd to the Indo-Aryan languages or dialecU
spoken in the k>wer ranges of the Hiroalajra from Nepal in
the east, to Chamba of the Punjab in the west. These forms
of speech fall into three groupa— an eastern, consisting of the
various dialects of Khas-kuri, the language of Nepal; a central,
spoken in the north of the United Provinces, in Kumaon and
Garhwal; and a western* spoken in the country round Simla
and in Chamba. In Nepal, Khas-ku|a is the language only of the
Aryan population, the mother tongue of most of the Inhabitants
being some form or other of Tibeto-Burman speech (see
TxBiTO-BuaiiAN Languages), not Indo-Aryan. As may be
expected, BLhas-kura is mainly differentiated from Central Pahari
through its being affected, both in grammar and vocabulary,
by Tibeto-Burman klioms. The speakers of Central and
Western Pahari have not been brought into dose association
with Tibeto-Burmans, and thehr language is therefore purely
Aryan.
Khas-kur&, as Its speakers themselves call it, passes under
various names. The English generally call it N^iAlI or Naipfti!
(ie. the language of Nepal), which is. a misnomer, for it is not
the principal form of speech used in that coimtiy. Moreover,
the Nepalesc employ a corruption of this very word to indicate
what is really the mam language of the country, vis. the Tibeto-
Burman NCwirt Khas-kura is also called G«rkhall, or the lan-
guage of the Gurkhas, and Pahirf or Parbatiyfi, the language of
the mountains. The number of speakers is not known, no census
ever having been taken of Nepal; but in British India X43,73i
were recorded in the census of igor, most of whom were soldiers
in, or others connected with, the British Gurkha regiments.
Ccutrjl Pahari includes three dialects-^Garhwftll, spoken
mainly in Garhwal and the country round the hill station of
Mussoorie; Jaunsftrl, spoken in the Jaunsar tract of Dehra Dun;
and RumaunI, spoken hi Kumaun, indudbg the country
round the hill station of Naini Tal. In xgox the iiumber of
speakers was 1,370,931.
Western Pahari indudes a great number of dialects. In
the Simla Hill states atone no less than twenty-two, of which
the most important are SirmaurT and Keonthall (the dialect
of SinUa Itself), were recorded at the last census. To tliese
may be added Chambi&U and Churihl of the state of Chamba,
MandeilX of the state of Mandl, G&dl of Chamba and Kangra,
Kuluhl of Kula and others. In 1901 the total number of
speakers was 1,710,039.
The southern face of the Ifimalaya has from time immemorial
been occupied by two classes of people. In the first pUce there
Is an Indo-Chinese overflow from Tibet in the north. Most of
these tribes speak Indo-CUnese languages of the Tibeto-Burman
family, while a few have abandoned their ancestral speech and
now employ broken half-Aryan dialects. The other dass
consists of the great tribe of Kha&is or KhaliySs, Aryan in
origin, the K&^iocof the Greek geographers. Who these people
originally were, and how they entered India, are questions which
have been more than once discussed without arriving at any very
definite condusion.* They are frequently mentioned hi Sanskrit
literature, were a thorn hi the side of the ruleis of Kashmir,
and have occupied the lower Himalayas for many centuries.
Nothing positive is known about their language, which they
have k>ttg abandoned. Judging from the relics of it which
appear hi modem Pahari, it is probable that it belonged to the
'See ch. W. of vol. il. of R. T. Atkinson*t ttimahyan Districts
fftke Nortk-Wesiem Provinces of India, forming vol. xiof the " Gaaet-
teer of the North-Western Provinces" (Allahabad. 1884). and the
Arekuciofjicai Survey of India, xiv. 135 tqq. (Calcutta, isSs).
sane group as Kashmiri, Lahnda and Shidhl. They spread
slowly from west to east, and are traditionally said to have
reached Nepal in the early part of the isth century a.d.
In the central and western Pahari tracts local traditioos
assert that from very early times there was constant communica-
tion with Rajputana and with the great kingdom of Kanauj
in the Gangetlc Doab. A succession of immigrants, the tide
of which was materially increased at a later period by the
pressure of.ilhc Mussulman invasion of India, entered the
country, and foimdcd several dynasties, some of which survive
to the present day. These Rajputs mtermarricd with the
Khasa inhabitants of their new home, and gave their rank to
the descendanu of these mixed unions. With the pride of birth
these new-bom Rajputs hiherited the language of their fathers,
and thus the tpngue of the ruling dass, and subsequently of the
whole population of this portion of the Himalaya, became a fora
of Rajasthani, the language spoken in distant Rajputana.
The Rajput occupation of Nepal is of later date. In the early
part of the i6th century a number of Rajputs of Udaipur m
Rajputana, being oppressed by the Mussulmans, fled north
and settled in Garhwal, Kumaon^ and western Nepal. In
A.D. 1559 a party of these conquered the small state of Gurkha,
which lay about 70 m. north-west of Katmandu, the present
capital of NcpaL In x 768 Prithwi Narayan Shah, the thca
Rajput ruler ot Gurkha, made himself master of the whole of
Nepal and founded the present Gurkhali dynasty of that
country. His successors extended their rule westwards over
Kumaon and Garhwal, and as for as the Simla Hill sUtea. Tha
inhabitants of Nepal induded not only Aryan Khasas, but also^
as has been said, a number of Tibeto-Burman tribes. The
Rajputs of Gurkha could not impose thdr language upon these
as they did upon the Khasas, but, owing to its bdng the tongue
of the ruling race, it ultimatdy became generally understood
and employed as the lingua franca of this polyglot country.
Although the language of the Khasas has disappeared, the tribe
is still numerically the most important Aryan one in this part
of the Himalaya, and it hence gave its name to its newly adopted
speech, which Is at the present day locally known as ** Khas-kuro.**
In Uie manner described above the Aryan language of the
whole Pahazi area ii now a form of Rajasthani, exhibiting
at the same time traces of the old Khasa language which it
superseded, and also in Nepal of the Tibeto-Burman forms of
speech by which it is surrounded. (For infofmatioa legaiyling
Rajasthani the reader is referred to the axtides Indo-Aeyam
Languages; Pkauit; and Gujaxati.)
Khas-kura shows most traces of Tibeto-Burman influence^ The
gender of nouns is purely sexual, and. although there is an oblique
case derived from Rajasthani, it is so often confounded with the
nominative, that in the singular number either can be employed for
the other. Both these are due to TibeCo-Bunnaa influeaoe, but the
non-Aryan idiom b most prominent in the use of the verb. There
is an indefinite tense referring to present, past or future time accord-
ing to the context, formed by suffixing tne verb substantive to the
speech, as in that tongue, the subject of any tense of a transitive
verb, not only of a tense derived from the past partidple, is put into
the agent case.
In tastera and Central Pahari the vert> substantive m fdmed
from the root acht as in both Raiaathani and Kashmiri. In Rajaa-
thani its present tense, being dierived from the Sanskrit present
{uhdmt, I go. does not cliange for gender. But in Pahari and Kash-
miri it must be derived from the rare Sanskrit particle •ftekHas,
gone, for in these languages it is a partidpial tease and does change
according to the gender of the subject. Thua, in the singular we
have: —
Khas-kura.
KnmaunL
Kashmiri.' |
Masc.
Fern.
Masc
Fern.
Masc
Fern.
lam. . . .
Thou art . . .
Hcia. . . .
ckm
chas
cha
dm
ekes
cka
cha
chai
ck
dkC
cHi
dH
cku*
dm
Here we have a relic of the old Khasa
aid, seems to
tre a relic of the old Khasa language, which, as has been
have been related to Kashmin. Other relics gf Khasa,
454
PAHLAVI
jr with oortb-neitcn India, are the tendency to shorten
j VDveb. the practice of cpenthesis, or the modification of a vowel
by the one which follows in the next syllable, and the frequent occur-
rence of disaspiration. Thus, Khas siknu, Kumauni siknd, but
Hindi MtknOt to learn; Kumauni yitd, plural ydsd, of this kind.
Regarding Western Pahari materials are not so complete. The
speakers are not brought into contact with Tibeto-Bunnan languages,
and hence we find no trace of these. But the signs of the influence
of north-western languages are, as miKht be expected, still more
apparent than farther east. In some dialects epenthesis is in full
swmg. as in (Churahi) khild, eating;, fem. kkdUi. Very interesting
is the mixed origin of the portpoaitions defining the various cases.
Thus, while that of the genitive is generally the Rajasthajii r^,
that of the dative continually points to the west. Sometimes it is
the Sindhi kki (tee SiifDHi). At other times It is jd, where is here a
locative oi the baae «i the Sindhi cenitivc postposition Jd. In
all Indo-Aryan languages, the dative postposition is by origin the
locative of some genitive one. In vocabulary, Western Tahari
often employs, for the more common ideas, words which can most
readily be ooimected with the north-western and Pitioa groups.
(See iNDO-AiiYAM Lancuagbs.)
LiTBKATVRB. — Khas-kura has a small literature which has grown
up in recent years. We may mention the BirsikH, an anonymous
collection of folk-Ules. and a RAMdyana b^ Bh&nu Bha^a. There
are also several translations from Sanskrit. Of kite ^ears k>cal
adiolais have done a good deal towards creating an interest m
Central Pahari. Special mention may be made of Ganga Datt
Upretrs Proverbs and F^Uore of Kumaun and Garkwil (Lodiana,
t8<)4h the same author'* Dialects of the Kumaun Division (Alm6ra',
1900); and Jwala Datt Joshi's translation of Dancjio's Sanskrit
DaSa Kumdra Caritu (Almora, 1892). A kical pool who lived about
a century ago, Gum&ni Kavi by name, was thc^ author of vcrsea
written m a peculiar stvte, and now much admired. Each verse
consists of four lines, the first three being in Sanskrit, and the
fourth a Hindi or Kumauni proverb. A conection of these, edited
by Rewa I>att Upreti« was publiriied in the Indian Antiquary for
1909 (pp. 177 seq.) under the title of GumOM-nUu Western Pahari
has no literature. Portions of the Biblo have been translated into
Khas-kura (under the name of " Nepafi ")« Kumauni, Garhwatii
jaunsari and Chambiali.
AuTHOMTiES.-^ H. KcUogg*s Hindi Grammar (and ed., London.
1893) includes both Eastern and Central Pahari in its survey. For
Khas see also A. Turnbull. NepaR, i. e. Gorkkali or Parbate Grammar
fDarjccling. 1904), and G. A. Grierson. " A Specimen of the Khas or
Naipftli Language," in the Ztitschrift ier deutsehen mortenldndtsfhen
CtseUsekaft (1907)* hd. 659 aeq. There is no authority dealing wItAi
Western Pahari as a whole. A. H. Diack's work. The Kuiu DtaUct
9f Hindi (Lahore, 1896). may be consulted for Kuluhi. See also
T. Grahame Bailey's Languages of the Northern Himalayas (Royal
Asiatk Society, London, 1906). Vol. ix., pt. iv., of the lAnptishe
Survey ef India contains full particulars ot ^ the Pahari diakccs
in great detail. (G. A. Gr.)
PABLAVl, or Pehlsvi, the mme grvca by the foHowen of
Zoroaster to the character in which are written the ancient
translations of their sacred books and some other works which
they preserve (see Persia: Language). The name can be traced
back for many centuries; the great epic poet FirdousI (second
half of the loUi Christian century) repeatedly spciks of Pahlavl
books as the sources ol his aarralives, and be tells us among
other thin0i Chat in the time of the first Khosrau (Chosroes I.,
A.D. SJ 1-579) the Pahlavl character alone was used in Persia.*
The learned Ibn MoV^a* (8th century) calls Pahlavl one of
the languages of Persia, and seems to imply that it was an
official language.' We cannot detennine what characters,
perhaps also dialects, were called Pkhlavf before the Arab period.
It Is most suitable to confine the word, as is now generally
done, to designate a kind of writing — not only that of the
Pafalavi books, but of all inscriptions on stone and metal which
use similar characters and are written on essentially the same
principles as these books.
At first sight the Pahhivl booiks present the strangest spectacle
of miztnie of speech. Pbrdy Semitic (Aramaic) words— and
these not only nouns and verbi, but namerals, particles, demon-
strative and even personal pronouns — stand side by side with
Persian vocables. Ofteo, however, the Semitic words are
compounded In a way quite unsemitic, or have Persian termi-
nations. As read by the modem Zoroastrians, there are also
* We cannot assume, bowevtr. that the poet had a dear idea of
what Pahlavf was.
* The pasMge. in which useful facts are muted op with stranse
notions, ts given abridged in Fikrist, p. 13, more f uilv by Y&kQt. hi.
935. but most fully and aocurateiy in the unprinted Mafdtih taA'aUm.
many words whicH are ndAcr SoaMc abr PeMbos'ttat ft fa
soon seen that this traditional prdnnndation Is untmsiwortby.
The ehoracter is cursive and very ambiguous, so that, far 4BBm>
pie, there is but one sign for n, u, and r, and <Mke lor y, tf , and g,
this has led to mistakes in the received prooundation, which for
many words can be shown to have been at one time more cocrect
than it is now. But ^>art from such blunders there lemain
phenomena which could never have appeared in a real languagrf
and the hot strife which raged till recently aa to whether I^sMavf
is Senutic or Persian has been dosed by the discovery that it
is merely a way of writing Persian in wiiich the Petaian wonts
are partly repreeentedr-to the eye, not to the cor— by their
Semitic equivalents. This view, the development of vhicli
began with Westergaard {Zendavetta, p. ao, note), is in foil
accordance with the true and ancient tradition. Tbtis Ibn
Mo^afiEa*, who 'translated ma^y Pahi«^ books into Arabic,
tells us that the Persians had about One thousand Woids which
they wrote otherwise than they were prooDUBoed in Peisian.*
For bread he says they wrote ihma, i.e, the Acamaic iaf^mU,
but they pronounced ndn, which JM the oomftoa Persiaa wraid
for bread Sonilarly bika, the Aramaic besrd, flesh, was pco-
nounced as the Persian g6$hk We still possess a ghMsaiy wliich
actually gives the PaUavI writing witii its Pecaiaa pronunciation.
This glossary, which besides Aramaic nvocds contains also m
variety of Persian words disguised in antique fonnl^ or fay errors
due to the contracted style of writing, exists in various shapes, all
of which, in spite of their corruptiotts, go back to the worit n-liich
the statement of Ibn Mo^affa' had in view.* Thus the Penians
did the same thing on a much larger scale, as when in Ettclish
we write £ (hbra) and pronounce " pound " or wtite 6r or ^
(et) and pronounce " and." No system was followed la the
choice of Semitic forms. Sometimes a noun was written in iia
status abscluius, sometimes the emphatic d wns added, and Uiis
was sometimes written as a sometimes as it. One veri> was
written in the perfect, another in the imperfect .£ven vaxaous
dialects were laid under contribution. The Seodtic s^ns by
which Persian synon3Pins were distinguished ai« somctincs
quite arbftraiy. Thus in Persian kkwisk and khtpoi botli iKan
*' self "; the fonner is written nrsha (nafshd or Mfskek), the
latter BHFsha wjth the preposition bi prefiaed. Personal
pronouns are expressed in the dative (tA with prepositional I
prefixed), thus lx (lakh) lot Ht, " thou," um {land) for amd,
"we." Sometimes the same Semitic sign stands lor two
distinct Persian words that happen to agree in sound; thus
because kdnd is Aramaic for " this," rna represents not only
Persian 2, " this," but also the interjection «, i.e. " O " as pi«>
fixed to a vocative. Sometimes for clearness a Persian tenninn-
tion is added to a Semitic word; thus, to distinguish b et wieen
the two words for father, pit and piiar, the former is wriuea
AB and the latter abitr. The Persian form is, however, not
seldom used, even where there is a quite well-knowa Semitic
ideogram.*
These difficulties of reading mostly disappear when the
ideographic nature of the writing is recqgnicol We do not
always know what Semitic word supplied some ambigudus
group of letters («, g. pun for pa, "to," or ht foe agar, "if");
but we always can tell the Persian word — which hi the one
important thing— though not always the exact pronunciation
of it in that older stage of the language which the extant Pahlavl
works belong to. In Pahlavl, for example, ^e woid for " fcnaale"
is written mdtak, an andent form which afterwards passed
through mSdhak into mOdka. But it was a mistake of later
ages to fancy that because this was so the sign T also meant D.
» Fihrist, p. 14, line 1 3 acq., cf. lipc 4 seq. The fonner 1
was first cited by Quatrcm&re, Jour. J4*, (1835). i. 256, and ducuaned
by Clcrmont-Ganncau, ibid. (1866), f. 430. The exprestuons it uses
are not always dear ; perhaps the author of the Fiknst has condenaed
somewhat.
* Editions oy HoshangjI, Tamaspji Asa and M. Haug (Bombay,
1870). and by C. Salemann (Leiden. 1878). See also J. Olshauwn.
"Zur WQrdigung der Pahlavi-glossare " in Kuhn's 2nf. /. mnL
Sprforsek., N.F., vi. 521 seq.
* For examples of various pdnilunties see the notes to Nfildclce's
tmnslation oTthe story of Artakkshlr i Pdpakdn (COttlsgen. tS?^.
PAIGNTON
4-55
and 10 t6 irrite T f or D in nmaf cases* especaally in foraga
proper names. That a word is written in an older form than
that which is pronounced is a phenomenon common to many
languages whose literatuce.covcfs a bng period. So in English
we still write, though we do not pronounce, the guttural in
Uirough, and write laugh when we pronounce laf.
Much graver difiiculties arise from the cursive nature of the
chaiacters alreacfy alluded to. There are some groups which
may theoretically be read in hundreds of ways; the same tittle
sign may be ^. i^^ n\ u\ m, m, ru, and the n too may be
cithcf AoriUr.
In older times there was still aome little. disUnction
between lettos that ace now quite identical in form, but even
the Egyptian fragments of Pahlavl writing of the 7th ocntiuy
show on the whole the same type as our MSS. The practical
inconveniences to those who knew the language were not so
0reat as they may seem; the Araba also long used an equally
ambiguous character without availing themselves of the dia-
critical pQtata wliich had been devisid long befo^.
Modem MSS., ioUpwing Arabic models, intrdduce diacritical
points from time te timis, and often incorrectly. These giVe
illtle help, however, in compariMn with the s(><aUed Pflzand
i» tranacriptioR of Pahlavt texts, as they are to be spoken, ia
the character in which the Avoid itself is written, and which
is quite dear and has all vowds as well as consonants. The
transcription Is not philologioany accurate; the language is
often modemlzf d, but not uniformly so. PAzand MSS. present
dialectical variations, according to the taste or intelligence of
authors and cop^ts,'and aM have many false readings. For
OS, however, they are of the greatest use. To get a conception
of Pahlavl one eaanot do better than read the Uindi-Khiraih
in the Pahlavl with cooatant reference to the Pizand.^ Critical
labour, is stiQ required to give an approximate reproduction
of the author's own pronunciation of what he wrote.
The oohis tof the later Sessaaid kings, of the princes of Tabar-
istan, and of some govemoi^ in the- earlier Arab period, exhibit
to alphabet very similar to PaUav! MSS. On the older coins
the sevefal letters aee more clearly distinguidied, and in good
spedmens of weU-qtruck* coins of the oldest Sassanians almost
eveiy letter can be recognised with certamty. The same holds
good for the inscriptions en gems and other small monumenU
of the early- Sassatian period; but the dearest of aU are the
rock inscriptions of the Sasianiana in the ^rd and 4th centuries,
though iflr the 4th cental]^ a tendency to cursive iorms begins
to appear. Only r and v are always quite alike. The character
of the language and the system of writing is essentially the
same en coins, gems and rocks as in MS5.r— pure Persian, in
part strangely disguised hi a Semitic garb. In details there are
many differences between the Pahlavl of* inscriptions and the
books, fenian cndinip added to wonds written in Semitic
form are much less common in the former, so that the person
and number of a verb are often not to be made out. There
are also oithogrtphic variations; e.g. long A in Persian forms is
always expressed in book-Pahlavl, but not always in inscriptions.
The unfamiliar contents of some of these inscriptions, their
limited number, their bad preservation, and the imperfect way
in which some pf the most important of them have been
fjublisbed' leave many things still obscure m these monuments
of Persian kings; but they have done much to clear up both
great and small points in the history of PahUvl*
Some of the oldest Sassaniaa inscriptions are accompanied "by
a text belonging to the same system of writing, but with many
variations in (ktail,^ and an alphabet which, though derived
^ Tkt Book of tkt Mainyof-i-Khcrd in the Original PaUat^ ed. by
Fr. Ch. AndrcM (Kiel. 1887): idem. ThtPaxand and SanskrU Texii,
by E. W. West (Stuctfart and London. 1871),
*Sce especially the great work of F. StoUe, Persepolis {2 vols.,
Berlin, 18^2). It was De Sacy who began the decipherment of the
iaacripCiOrtB.
'.Thus we now know that the Krtture in book-Pahlavs which means
" in/' the original letters of which could not be made out, is for ra,
'* between.*' It is to be read andar.
*7l\iftput, "son," is written -a instead of n\s:pisk, ** before."
fe written •'«rip. but ia the uraat Pahlavf It h^'rAm^
from the same source with the other Pahlavl alphabets (the :old
Aramaic), has quite different forms. This character is also
found on some gems and seals. It has been called Chaldaeo-
Pahlavl, ftc. Olshausen tries to make it probable that this
was the writing of Media and the other that of Persia. The
Persian dialect in both sets of inscriptions is identical or
nearly so.*
The name Pahlavl means Parthian, PaUav being the regular
Persun transformation of the older Parthava.* This fact
points to the condusion that the system of writing was devdoped
in Parthian times, when the great nobles, the PahUvftns, ruled
and Media was their main seat, *'the Pahlav country." Other *
Imguistic, graphicd and histoiical indications point the sam^
way; but it is still far from dear how the system waa developed;
We know, indeed, that even under the Achaemenids Aramaic
writing and speech were employed far beyond the Aramaic
lands, even in official documents and on coins. The Irantaos
had no convenient character, and might borrow the Aramaic
letien as naturally as they inbsequently borrowed those of
the Arabs. But this does not explain the strange practice of
writing Semitic words in place of so many Persian words which
were to be read as Persian. It cannot be the invention of an
individual, for in that cast the system would have'been snore
conautently worked out, and the appearance of two or more
kinds of Pahlavf side by side at the beginning of the Sassanian
period would be inex[dkable. But we. may remember that the
Aramaic character first caiue to the Iranians from the region
of the lower Euphrates and Tigris, where the complicated
cuneiform character arose, and where it hdd its ground long
after better ways of writing wesc known. In later antiquity
probably very few Persians could read and mite. All kinib
of stmnge things are conceivable in an Eastern character
confined to n narrow drde. Of the facts at least there is no
doubt.
The Pahlavl literature embraces the transitions of the holy
books of the Zoeoastriaas, dating probably from the 6th century,
and certain other religious books, especially the liindi-Kkiradk
and the Bund4ikish,'' The Bundokisk dates from the Arab
period. Zoroastrian priests continued to write the old language
as a dead tongue and to use the dd character long after the
victoiy of a new empire, a new reUgion, a new form of the
language (New Persian), and a new character. There was
once a not quite inconsiderable profane titerature, of which a
good deal is preserved in Arabic or New Persian versions or
reproductions, particularly in historical books about the time
bdore Islam.* Very tittle profant titerature still exisU ia
Pahlavl; the romance of Ardashhr has been mentioned above. '
See E. W. West's " Pahlavf Literature." in Gdger and Kdm*s
Qrundrit der iranisehen PkiMagie (1^), vol ii.; "The Eatent*
Language and Age of Pahlavi Literature " in Sitxungsber. dtr k.
Akad. der vriss. PkU. u. hist. Klasse (Munich. 1888), pp. 399-443
and his Pahlax^ Textt in Sacred Books oj the m^t (1880-1697). The
difficult study of Pahlavi is made more difficult by the corrupt
state of our. copies due to ignorant and cardesa scribes.
Of glossaries, that of West (Bombay and London. 1874) is to be
recommended; the large Pahlavi. Gujarat! and English lexicon of
Jamaspii Dastur Minochehcrji (Bombay and London. 1877-1883)
IS very lull, but has numerous false or uncertain forms, and must be
used with much caution. (TH4 N.)
PAIGNTON, a seaside resort m the Torquay parUamentary
division of Devonshire, England, on Tor Bay, aj m. S.W. oif
Torquay, on the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901), 8385. The church of St John is mainly Perpendicular,
•What the Tihriii (p. 13 scq.) has about various forms of Persian
writing certainly refer? In part at least to the species d Pahbvf.
But the statements arc hardly all reliable, and in the lack d trusts
worthy specimens little can be made d them.
« This was finally proved by OUhausen, fdlowing earlier scholars;
sec J. Ol^hauscn. Parthava vnd Pahlav, liOda und Mdh (Berlin.
1877. and in the Monatsb. of the Academy).
f Translations ed. by F. Spiegel <i86o). the B^nddkish by N. L.
Westen;aard (Copenhagen. 1851) and F. Justi (Leipzig. 1868); other
Pahlavi books by Spiegel and Haug. by Hoshangji, and other Indian
Pirsees.
■ One other book, the stories d KatHag and Dantnag. In a Syriac
venion from the Pahlavf. the latter taken from Che f—- "-^^
456
PAIL— PAINE, THOMAS
but has a hte Nonnsn doorway, and contains a carved and
painted pulpit, and in the Kirkham chapd aevexal interesting
monuments of the Kirkham family, and a beautiful though
damaged stone screen. Among other buildings and institutions
are a novitiate of Marist Fathers, a science and art school, a
pier with pavilion and conceit rooms, and a yacht dub. Little
remains of an old palace of the bishops of Exeter apart from
the 14th-century Bible Tower. Its last tenant was Bbhop Miles
Coveidale, who in 155 s published the first English translation
of the whde Bible. The town owes its popularity to a firm
expanse of sand, good bathing facilities, and a temperate climate.
PAIU a bucket^ a vessel for carrying water, milk or other
liquids, made of wood or metal 01 other material, varybg in
aize, and usually of a circular shape and somewhat wider at the
top than the bottom. The word is of somewhat obscure origin.
The pitsent form points to the O. Eng. paegd, but the sense, that
of a small wine-measure, a gill, is difficult to connect with the
present one. The earlier forms of the word in Mid. Eng. spell the
word payU, patUCf and this rather points to a connexion with
O. Fr. patUe, poydict a small pan or flat dishtfrom Lat. pateUa,
diminutive of patera, dish. The sense here also presents <fiffi-
culties, " pail " in English being always a deep vessel.
PAILLERON. fiDOUARO JULES HENRI (x834*x899), French
poet and dramatist, was bom in Paris on the 17th of September
1834. He was educated for the bar, but after pleading a single
case he entered the first dragoon regiment and served for two
years. With the artist J. A. Beauci he travelled for some time
in ttorthem Africa, and soon after hb return to Paris in x86o he
produced a volume of satires, Les ParasiUs, and a one-act piece,
Ix Parasite, which was represented at the Odfon. He married
in x863 the daughter of Fran^b Buloz, thus obtaining a share
in the proprietorship of the Revue des deux mondes. In 1869
he produced at the Gymnase theatre La Faux minagfiSt *■ four-
act comedy depending for its interest on the pathetic devotion
of the Magdalene of the story. V£iinuiU (1879), a brilliant
one-act comedy, secured another success, and in x86x with
Le Monde oU Von s*ennme PaiUeron produced one of the most
strikingly successful pieces of the period. The play ridiculed
contemporary academic society, and was filled with transparent
allusions to weU-known people. None of hb subsequent efforts
achieved so great a success. PaiUeron was eiccted to the French
Academy in 18S3, and died on the 30th of April 1899.
PAIHPOU a filling port of western France, in the department
of C6te>^u-Nord, 97^ m. N.N.W. of St Brieuc by road. Pop.
<x9o6), 3340. Paimpot b well known for Its association with the
Icelaiidic cod-fisheries, for which it aimually equips a large fleet.
Steam sawing and boat-building are carried on; grain, &c., b
exported; imports include coal and timber. A tribunal of
oommerc« and a achool of navigation are among the public
institutions.
PAIN (from let. poena, Gr. r6bni, penalty, that which must
be paid: O. Fr. peine), a term used loosely (x) for the psycho-
logical state, Irhicfa may be generally described as ** unpleasant-
ness," arising, e.(. from the contemplation of a catastrophe or of
moral turpitude, and (2) for physical (or psycho-physical) suffer-
ing, a specific sensation localized in a particular part of the body.
Tlie term b used in both senses as the opposite of ** pleasure,"
though it b doubtful whether the antithesb between physical
end psychical pleasure can be equally well attested. The
investigation of the pleasure-pain phenomena of consdousneaa
has taken a piomipent pbce in psychological and ethical specula-
tion, the terms " hedonics " and " algedonics " (dX7i}5{oy, pain
of body or mind) being coined to express different aspects of
the subjecL So in aesthetics attempts have been made to assign
to pain a specific psychological function as tending to increase
pleasure by contrast (so Fechner): pain, r.f. b a necessary ele-
ment in the tragic Scientists have experimented elaborately
with a view to the pvecise localization of pain-sensations, and
*' pain*maps " can be drawn showing the exact situation of
what are kikmn as ** pain-spots." For such experiments
instruments known as " aesthesiometers " and "algometers"
have been devised. The great vaiicty of painful
throbbing, duO, acute, intennittent, nabbi ng l e d to tbe
conclusion among earlier investigators that pains differ in quality.
It is, however, generally agreed that all pain b qualitatively
the same, though subject to temporal mad intensive inodificatioa.
(See PsvcBOXXKiy; Aksibstics; Nsavous Sycxuc; Sni*
PATHETIC SySTEU .)
PAIN, BARRY (1867- ), English humorout writer, was
educated at Cambridge, and became a prominent contributor to
The Crania. James Payn insert^ hb stoiy, '* The Hundred
Gates," in the CemkiU Mogasine in 1889, and shortly afterwavda
he became a contributor to Punch and the Speaker, and joixied
the staffs of the Daily Ckronide and Black and WkiU. Hb works
include: In a Canadian Canoe (1891); papen reprinted fnm Tka
Cranta; Playthings and Parodies (X893); The Kindness of tha
Celestial (1894); The Octam of Oamdius (X897); BltMa (1900);
Another English Woman's Loee Letters (xgox), &c As a writer
of parody and lightly hunoroos stories hb name has becono
widely known.
PAINB, RORBRT TREAT (1731*1814)1 American politidan^
a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was bom in Boston,
Massachusetts, on the xith of March 1731. He graduated at
Harvard in X749, >nd was admitted to the bar in 1759. In 176S
he was a delegate to the provincial convention which was called
.to meet in Boston, and conducted the prosecution of CaptaiB
Thomas Preston and hb men for their share in the famous
'* Boston Massacre " of the sth of March 177%. He served in the
Massachusetts General Court in X773-1774, In the Plrovincis]
Congress in X774>x77s,and in the Continental Congress in 1774*
X778, and was speaker of the MasnchusetU House of Represea*
Utivcs in X777, a member of the executive council in I779, a
member of the committee which drafted the constitution of
X780, attorney-general of the sute from X777 to 1790, and ■
judge of the state supreme court from 1790 to 1804. He died
in Boston on the xxth of May x8x4.
See John Sanderson, Biegrapky of the Siioers of Ae DeclaraHom
of Independetue (PbiUdelphia. 1823). vol. ii.
Hb son, RoBEKT Txxat Paine ( 1 7 73-x8x x), who was chxbtcned
Thomas but in x8ox took the xuune of hb lather and of an elder
brother who died without issue in 1794, was a poet of some repute,
but his verses have long been forgotten. Hb best known pc«^
ductions are Adams and Liberty, a once popular song written io
1798, The Intention of Letters {i79S), uid The Ibtling Passion^
the Harvard Phi Beta Kappa poem of 1797.
Hb Works in Verse and Prose (Boston, x8i2) cootains a bio»
graphical sketch.
PAINB, THOMAS (x737'iSo9)> Englbb author, was bon at
Thetford, Norfolk, on the 39th of January 1737, the son of a
Quaker staymaker. After several years at sea .and after trying
various occupations on land, Paine took up hb father^s trade ia
London, where he supplemented hb meagre grammar school
education by attending science lectures. He aocoeeded in X76e
in gaining an appointment in the excise, but was discharged for
neglect of duty in x 765. Three years later, however, he received
another appointment, at Lewes in Sussex. He look a vigofous
share in the debates of a local Whig dub, and in 177a he
wrote a pamphlet embodying the grievances of excisemen and
supporting their demands for an increase of pay. In 1774 he
was dismissed the service for absence without leave— in order
to esc^3e hb creditors.
A meeting with Beniamin Franklin in London was the tiuniisf
point in hb life. Franklin provided him with letters to hb soift>
in-bw, Richard Bache, and many of the leaders in the ookmies'
resistance to the mother country, then at an acute stages Paioe
sailed for America in X774. Bache introduced him to Robert
Aftkin, whose Pennsylvania Magaxine he helped found aikd
edited for eighteen months. On the 9th of January X776 Paine
published a parof^let entitled Common Sense^ a telling array of
arguments for separation and for the establishment of a republic.
Hb argument was that hidcpendence was the only consistent
line to pursue, that " it must come to that some time or other ";
that it would only be more diflicult the more it was delayed,
and that independence was the sarett road to uoioB. WciUcn
PAINESVILLE— PAINTER-WORK
4S7
ia dmple co&viadag hngoage* it was read everywhere, and the
open movement to independence dates from its publication.
Wasbingtoo said that it " worked a powerful change in the minds
of many men." Leaden in the New Yorli Pxovindai Congress
considered, the advisability of answering it, but came to the
conclusion that it was unanswerable. When war was declared,
and fortune at first went against the cobnists* Paine, who was
then serving with General Greene as volunteer aide-de-camp,
wrote the first of a wries of influential tracts called Tkg Crisis,
of which the opening words, "Theie are the times that try
men's* aouls/' became. a battle-cry. Paine's services were
rec^piixed by an appointment to be secretary of the commission
tent by Congress to treat with the Indians, and a few months
later to be secretary of the Congressional committee of foreign
affairs. In 1779, however, he oommitted sn indiscretion that
brought him into trouble^ • He published information gained
from h» official position, and waa compelled to resign. He was
afterwards derfc of the Pennsylvania legislature, and accom-
paitied John Laurens during his mission to France. His
aervkca were eventuaUy rcco^uxed by the stata of New York
by a grant of an estate at New Rochelle,and from Pennsylvania
and, at Washington's, suggestion, from Congress he received
oonsiderable gifts of money«
Ini787 he sailed for Europe with the model of an iron bridge
he had designed. . TUs was publicly exhibited in Paris and
London, and attracted great crowds. In England he determined
to *' open the eyes of the people to the madness and stupidity
vi the government." His first efforts in the Prospects oh tko
Rubicon (1787) were directed agahiat Pitt's war poUcy,and to-
wards securing friendly relatioos with France. When Burke's
Mtfloclions on tko JUtolutioH in Franco appeared, in 1790, Paine
at once wrote his answer. The JUgkis of Hon, The first part
appeared on the 13th of March 1791, and had an enormous
circulation before the government took alarm and endeavoured
to suppress it, theret^ exciting intense curiosity to see it,
even at the risk of heavy penalties. Those who know the book
only by hearsay as the work of a furious incendiary will be
iurprised at the dignity, force and temperance of the style;
it waa the circumstances that made it inflammatory; Pitt
** used to say," according to Lady Hester Stanhope, " that Tom
Paine was quite in the right, but then he would add, ' What am
I to do? As things are, if I were to encourage Tom Paine's
opimons we should have a bloody revolution.'" Paine was
indicted for treason in May 1792, but before the trial came off he
waadected by the department of Calais to the French convention,
and escaped into France, followed by a sentence of outlawry.
The first yean that he spent in France form a curious episode in
his life. He was enthusiastically received, but as he knew little
of the language translations of his speeches had to be read for
hia. He was bold enough to speak and vote for the " detention
of Louis during the war and his perpetual banishment after-
wards," and he pointed out that the execution of the king would
alienate American sympathy. He incurred the suspicion of
Robespierre, was thrown into prison, and escaped the guiUotine
by an accident. Before his arrest he had completed the fint
part of the Afs of Reason^ the publication of which made an
instant change in his position on both sides of the Atlantic, the
indignation in the United States being as strong as in England.
The iifs of JUason can now be estimated calmly. It was written
from thepoint of view of a Quaker wbodid not believe in revealed
idigMn, but who held that " all religions are in their nature mild
ftnd benign " when not associated irith political systema. Inter-
mised with the coane unoeremonloua ridicule of what he oon-
aklered superstition and bad faith are many passages of earnest
and even lofty eloquence in favour of a pure morality founded on
natural religion. The work in short— ^ second part, written
during his ten months' imprisonment, was published after his
niease— repreaenu the ddsm of the rBth century in the hands
of a rough, ready, passionate controversialist.
At the downfall of Robespierre Paine was restored to his seat
In tha convention, and served until it adjourned in October
t79S. In 1796 hi published a long letter to Waahingtoa.
attacUng his militarx repuUtion and his presidential poUcy with
inexcusable bitterness. In 1803 Paino sailed for America, but
while his servkes in behalf of the oobnies were gratefuHy
remembered, hia Age of Reason and his attack on Washington
had alienated many of his friends. He died in New York on the
8th of June r8o9, and was buried at New Rochelle, but his
body was in 18x9 removed to Engbnd by William Cobbett.
See the biography by Moocure D. Conway (189a).
PAINESVILLi; a dty and the ooosty-seat of Lake county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on the Grand River, 3 m. S. of Lake Erie and about
30 m. N.E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1900) 5094, of whom 499 were
foreign-bom and 179 negroes; (X910) 5501. It is served by
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the New York, Chicago ft
St Louis and the Baltimore & Ohio raUways, and by electric
lines to Cleveland, Fairport and Ashtabula. It is the seat of
Lake Erie College (non-sectarian, for women), the successor of
WiUoughby Seminary (1847), whose buildings at WiUaughby,
Oliio, were burned m 1856; the college was opened as the Lake
Erie Female Seminary in 1859, and became Lake Erie College and
Seminary in 1898 and Lake Erie College in 1908. Painesville
is situated in a farming and fruit-growing country, and also has
some manufactures. Three miles north, on Lake Erie, is the
village of Fairport (pop. In 1900^ 2073), with a good harbour and
coal and ore docks. The municipality owns and operates its
waterworks and street-lighting plants. Painesville was founded
in x8oo-z8o3 by settlers from Connecticut and New Yoric,
conspicuous among whom was General Edward Paine (1746-
X841), an officer from Connectkut m the War of Independence;
it was incorporated asa village in 1832, and became a dty in 190a
imder the n ew Ohio munidpal code.
PAIIfTBR-WORK, in the building trade. When work is
painted one or both of two distinct ends is achieved, namdy
the preservation and the colomtion of the material painted.
The compounds used for paintinff-Haking the word as meaning
a thin protective or decorative coat— are very numerous, indu-
ding oil-paint of many kinds, distemper, whitewash, tar; but the
word " paint " is usually confined to a mixture of oil and pigment,
together with other materials which possess properties neccaaaiy
to enable the paint to dry hard and opaque. Oil paints are
made up of four patt»— the base, the vehicle, the solvent and
the driers. Pigment may be added to these to obtain a paint of
any desired colour.
There are several bases lor oil paint, those most commonly
used for building work being white lead, red lead, xinc white and
oxide of iron. White lead is by far the commonest of bases for
painL When pure it consists of about 75% carbonate of lead
and about 15% of lead hydrate. It is mixed with 6 or 7% by
weight of pure linseed oil, and in this form is supplied to the
painter. Sulphate of baryta is the chief adulterant used in the
manufacture of white lead. White lead has greater covering
properties and is more durable than the other bases. It should
therefore always be used in external painting. Paints having
white lead for a base darken with age, and become discoloured
when exposed to the fumes of sulphuretted hydrogen, which
exists to a greater or less extent in the air of all large towns.
Zinc white, an oxide of sine, is of a purer white ookwr than white
lead. It is lighter, and does not possess the same durability or
covering power. It is, however, useful in internal decoration,
as it retains its cotour well, even when subjected to the action of
gases. Red lead is a lead oxide. It is itted chiefly in the priming
coat and as a base for some red paints. Like white lead, it is in-
jured if exposed to adds or Impure air, which cause discoloratioa
and decay. Oxide of iron is used chiefly as a base in paints used
for covering iron-work, the tbeoiy being that no destructive
galvanic action can be set up, as might be the case with lead paint
when used on iron. A variety of red pigments are made from
oxide of iron, varying in hue from a pale to a deep brownsh-
red. They are quite permanent, and may be used under any
oondiliona.
The vehicle Is a liquid in which the partides of the base are
held in luspension, enabling a thin coat of paint to be formed,
uniform in ooloiir and ooosistency, and which on diying formi
460
PAINTING
(DEVELOPMENT
in the Nm Bn^^k DkUemry), from Lat. pint^r^ to paint
From the past participle pktm comes pictwa, picture, and from
the root pig, pigmenL The ultimate meaning of the root is
probably to decoiate, adom, and is seen iA Gr. ireucUos, many-
coloured, variegated.
In Part I. of thia artide, after a brief notice of the general
character of the art and an account of ita earliest manifestations,
a sketch is given of the course of its development from the
andent Egyptian period to modem times. (An account, by
countries, of recent schoob of palntiog will be found as an
appendix at the end of Part III.) The point of view chosen is
that of the relation of painting to nature, and it is shown how
the art, beginning with the delineation of contour, psascs on
through stages when the effort is to render the truth of solid form,
to the final period when, in the 17th century, the presentment of
space, or nature in all her extent and variety, becomes the subject
of representation. Certain special forms of painting charac-
teristic of modem times, such as portraiture, geue painting,
landscape, stUl-life, &c., are briefly discussed.
Part II. consists in tables of names and dates intended to afford
a conspectus of the different historical schools of painting from
the 12 th century aj>. downwards.
Part III. is devoted to a comprehensive treatment of the
different technical processes of painting in vogue in ancient and
modern times.
AuTHORiTiBS.— There is one elaborate general treatise on the
whole art of painting in all its branches and connexions. It is
by Patllot de Monubert. and was published in Paris (1820-1850).
It is entitled TraUi eompUt d$ la ptintwe, and is in nine sub-
stantial volumes, with an additional volume of plates. It bc^ns
with establishing the value of rules for the art. and giving a diction-
ary of terms, lists of anists and works of art, &c vols. ii. and iii.
give the history of the art in ancient, medieval and modern times.
Vols. iv.. v., VI. and vti. contain discossions on choice of subjects,
design, composition, Ac; on proportions, anatomy, expresdon,
drapery; on geometry, perspective, light and shade, and colour.
In vol. vill, pp. 1-285 deal with colour, aerial perspective and exe-
cution; pp. 28S*>S03 take up the different kinds of painting, history.
portrait, landscape, genre. &c: and |>p. 501-661 are devoted to
materials and processes, which subject is continued through vol. ix.
To encaustic painting 125 pages axe given, and 100 to painting in
oil. A long discussion on pamting grounds and pigments follows,
white other processes of painting, in tempera, water-colour, enamel,
moaaic. &c., are more briefly treated in about zoo pages, while the
work ends with a notice of various artistic impedimenta. Vol. L,
it should be said, contains on 70 pages a complete synopsis of the
contents of the successive volumes. The best general Uiilory of
PaiiUing is that by Woltmann and Wocrmann (Eng. trans..
London, 1880, Ac.), but it does not go beyond the l6th century a.d.
See also the separate articles on CuiNa Ulr/), Ja»am {Art), bO'
Ci4rO. Grxek Aar, Roman Art. &c
For the It
Cavaicaselle, History of Fainttng in Italy rand cd.. London, 1902,
Ac.). The original cditkra was pobltshed in London under the
. and History
Sloria ^dr
^For the tieman: lanitschek. GtsekickU Ur deutscheu BiaUrei
For the Italian schools of painting may be consulted: Crowe and
Cavaicaselle, History of Paintini in Italy (and cd.. London, 1902,
Jc.). The original cditkra was publtshed in London
titles History tf Paintint in Jtaiy (a vols.. 1864-1866). 1
of Painting in North ftaJy (3 vdis., 1871), Venturi.
art* tte/tana (Milan, 1901, uc).
For the German:
(Bcfttn, 1890).
For the Early Flemish: Crowe and Cavaicaselle. T%t Eariy
Ptemisk Painttrs (and ed., London, 187a): Wnrsboch, Niodtr*
IdndtKhos KunslUr-Lsxicon (Vienna and Ldpiig, 1906. &c.); Weak.
Bnbtrt and John son Byck (Undon. 1907).
For the Dutch: Wurzbach: Bode. Stmiien nr (kseheitt dor
HeUdniisikm Mahrei (Braunschweig. i88«) and Rtmbrandt und
seino Zeitgenossen (Leiprig. 1906); Havard. 77ke DuUk Sehool of
Painting (trans., London. 1885).
For the Franek: Lady Dilke. P^onch Painien af tht Bigkknth
Comtmry (London. 1899) ; D. C Thomson, The Barhiton SchooL
For the English: Redgrave. A Contmry qf Paitttors of Ih* BmgUsk
SttHf fl (London, 1890).
For the Soottlsh: W. D. M«Kay. R.S.A.. TU Scottish Sehnl of
Painting (London, J906).
For the American: J. C. Van Dyke (cd.). History of American Art
(New Voric 190J. Ae.>; & Isham, A History of Amoritam Paiatmg
(N. Y., 1905).
The modem schools generatly are treated fully, with copious
bibliographical references, by Richard Muther, Tho History of
Modtm PoimHstg (and cd.. Eag. trans.. London. 1907).
Pabt l.^A SKXTOf or m DavnoncrNT of thi Art
|i. ConsHiuenis and General Character. —If we trace back to
the pAcnt stock the various branches that support the luxuriant
medero growth of the gimphle art, we see that this pamt stodk
is in ita origin twofold. Painting begins on the one aide in outline
delineation and on theotber in the spreadingof a coloured eoatlag
over a surface. In both esses the motive is at first utflitailaii,
or, at any rate, non-artistic In the first the primary motive
b to convey information. It hn been noticed of certain savages
that if one of them wants to convey to a companion the in ipi e ssi o n
of a particular animal or ob|ect, he will draw with his finger in the
air the outline of some chaiacteristic feature by which it may be
known, and if this do not avail he wiU sketch the same wfth a
pointed stick upon the grtmnd. It is but a step from this to
delineation on some portable tahlet that retahis what la scratched
or drawn upon it, and in this act a monument of the graphifc ait
has come into bdag..
In the other case there are various motives e( a noo-acsthetk
kind thai lead to the covering of a surface with a ooat of aaetKcr
substance. The human body, the first object of interest «e
man, is tender and is sensitive to ooM. Wood,oneof theeariieat
building materials and the one material for any sort of boau
building, is subject, espedaUy when exposed to anoistufe, to
decay. Again, the car^ vessel of day, of neolithic date, becanat
imperfectly burned, is porous. Now the propertiea ot csertaia
substances suiuble for adhesive coatings on anything that ne e d e d
protection or reinforcement would soon be noticed. Uactaoim
and oily subsUnoes like animal fat, nuxed with ashes or some such
material, are smeared by seme savages on their bodies to keep
them warm in cold regions and to defend them a^sbiat insect
bites in the tropics. Wax and resin and pitch, liqudied by tke
heat of the sun or by fire, would lend themselves resdily for the
coating of wood with a substance impervkma to moiatiire.
Vitreous glases, first no doubt the result of aockient, fused over
the surface of the primitive clay vessel would give it tlie r eq ui rpd
impermeability. This is no more art than the mere driinratinn
which is the other source of painting, but it beglna to take osi
itself an aesthetic character when colour plays a part in it.
There are physiological reasons why the celour red exer ci ses aa
exciting influence, and strong colonxs gcaersUy, like gUtlcrii^
surfaces, make an aesthetic appeaL In prehistocic tioMS Ihe
flesh was sometimes suipped from the sketeton of a corpse and
the bones rubbed with red earth or ruddle, while the same eesily
procured cotouriqg substance is used to deoocaie the peaoo or
the implement of the savage. In this sensibility to cokxir wm
find a second and distinct origin of the art of painting.
What a pcrapeciive docs a glance back at the development of
painting afiordl Painting, an art that on a flat surface can
suggest to illusion the presence of solid forms with Ingth,
breadth and thickness; that on the area of a few square inches
can convey the impression of the vast spaces of the ouiverK, and
carry the eye from receding plane to plane till the persoaa or
objects that people them grow too minute for the eye to disoen;
painting that can deck the world in Elysian brightness or veil
it in the gloom of the Crucifixion, .that intoxicates the leoies with
its revelation of beauty, or magician^like withdiawa the veil froca
the mysterious complexity of nature; the act that can cxhihst
all this, and yet can suggest a hundredfold more than it can show,
and by a line, a shade, a touch, can stir within as ^ thou^iU that
do often lie too deep for team "-Hhis Pamting, ths most fasct-
nating, because most illusive in its nature, of all the arts of lerav
IS in its first origin at one time a mere display to attract attentioa»
as if one should cry out " See herel" and at another time a
prosaic answer to a prosaic question about some natursl otqecc,
" What is it like?" The coat or atreak or dab of ooleer, the
informing outline, are not in themselvea aesthetic pcoducta The
former becomes artistic when the element of arrangtmenl or
pattern is introduced. There is arrangement when the shape and
si2e of the mark or marks have a studied reUtion to those of the
^uriace on which they are displayed; there is pattern when they
are combined among themselves so that while distinct and
contrasted they yet prcKnt the appearance of a unity. Again,
the delineation, serving at first a purpose of use, is not in itself
artistic, and it is a difficuU question in aesthetic whether any
representation of nature that aims only at resemblance ceaUy
PAINTING
Plate I,
'■■■■^frv
^-irf**i-' ^-5^
'f^i ?
Figs. I, 2.— Heads of Chamois, &c., Engraved on the Tines of an Antler.
(From the dve of Gourdan, Uaute-Garonne, France.)
Fig. 3. — Stags and Salmon. The originals are engraved round an antler about an inch in diameter. (From the Grotto
of Lortet, Hautes-Pyr6n6es, France.) Prehistoric incised drawings of animaU.
Reproduced from Edouud nette't Vartptndant rSjct du rtunt (Purls. 1907). By permJstioa.
DEVCLOPMENtl
PAINTING
461
comes into tlie domafn of ait. It is of eoane adcrioWIedged tliat
A mere proaaicftUy literal Ukeness of a natural object is not a work
of art ; but when the representation is of such a kind as to bring out
the character of the object with discrimination and emphasis, to
give the soul of it, as it were, and not the merer lineaments, then,
logfcally or iHogically, art daims it as its child. In the strict
sense the delineation only becomes artistic when there is present
the dement of beauty in arrangement or composition. The insight
and sympathy Just referred to are qualities rather intellectual
than artistic, and the really artistic element would be the tasteful
fitting of the representation to the space within which it is dis-
played, and the harmonious relations of the lines or masses or
tones or colours that it presents to the eye. In other words, in
artistic delmeation there wOl be united dements drawn from both
the sources above indicated. The lepresenUtion of nature will
be present, and so will also a decorative effect produced by a
pleasing combination of forms and lines.
9 a. Limitaiians of the Meaning of the word Pa$nHng,-'li
delineation take on itself a decorative character, so too decora*
tion, rdying at first on a pleasing arrangement of mere lines or
patdies that have in themsdves no significance, soon goes on to
impart to these the similitude, more or less escact, of natural
objects. Here we arrive at a distinction which must be drawn
at the outset so as duly to limit the fidd which this survey of
painting has to cover. The distinction is that between orna-
mental or, in a narrow sense, decorative painting on the one aide,
and painting proper on the other. In the first, the forms em-
ployed have dther in themsdves no significance or have a
resemblance to nature that is only distant or conventional
In painting proper the imitation of nature is more advanced and
is of greater importance than the decorative effect to the eye.
It is not only present but preponderant, while in ornamental
work the representative dement is distinctly subordinate to the
decorative effect. In Greek vase decoration the conventional
floral forms, or the mannered animal figures that follow each
other monotonously round vases of the "Oriental" style, belong
to the domain of ornament, while the human forms, say, on the
earliest red-figured vases, whfle displayed in pleasing patterns
and in studied relation to the shape and structure of the vessel,
eadiibit so much variety and so great an effort on the part of the
artist to achieve shnilitude to nature, that they claim a place for
themsdves in the annals of the painter's art.
A further limitation is also necessary at the outset. Pictorial
designs may be produced without the equipment of the painter
proper; that is to say, without the use of pigments or coloured
substances in thin films rubbed on to or attached by a binding
material upon a surface. They may be executed by setting
together coloured pieces of some hard substance In the form of
Mosaic (9.9.); by interweaving dyed threads of wool, linen or
silk into a textile web to produce Tapestry {q.x.) or Embroidery
(g.o.); by inlaying into each other strips of wood of different
colours in the work called Tarsia or Marquetry {q.v.); by fusing
different coloured vitreous pastes into contiguous cavities, as in
EnamelUng (see Enamel); or by framing together variously
shaped pieces of transparent coloured glass into the stained
glass window (see Glass, Stainzo).
These special methods of producing pictorial effects, in so far
as the technical processes they involve are concerned, are exduded
from view in this artide and are dealt with under their own
headings. Only at those periods when pictorial design was
czdusivdy or especially represented by work in these forms will
the results of these decorative processes be brought in to Ulustrale
the general character of the painting of the time. For example,
b the 5th and 6lh Christian centuries the art of painting is
mainly represented by the mosaics in the churches at Rome and
Ravenna, and these must be indnded from the point of view of
design in any review of painting, though as examples of mosaic
technique and style they are treated in an artide apart. Creek
vase painting, again, is a special subject (see Greek Axt and
CzsAMics), yet the designs on early Greek vases are the only
fxtant monuments that illustrate for us the early stages of
the devdopment of dasiical painting as a whole. It win be
understood therefore that in tlm artide the word " painting '^
means the spreading of thin films of colouring matter over
surfaces to which they are made by different means to adhere,
and it will only be taken hi a wider sense in certain exceptiomd
cases just indicated.
t 3. Imporlanee i» the Art of the Representation of tfahare,^
If we regard painting as a whole, the imitation of nature may be
established as its most distinctive diaractetistic and the guiding
prindple of its devdopment. It must at the same time be under-
stood that in die advanced criticism of painting, as it is formuUited
in modem times, no distinction is allowed among the different
dements that go to make up a perfect production of the art: In
such a production the idea, the form, the execution, the dements
of representation and of beauty, and the individual expression
of the artist in his handiwork, are essentially one, and none of
them can be imagined as really existing without the others. It
is not the case of a thought, envisaged pictorially, and ddiber^
atdy dothed in an artistic dress, but of a thought that would have
no existence save in so far as it is expressible in paint This
is the modem troth of the art, and the importence of the principle
here involved will be illustrated in a later section, but it must be
borne in mind that the painting to which this principle applies
is a creation of comparativdy modem times. As in music so in
painting, it has been reserved for recent epochs to manifest the
full capabilities of the art. "Whereas the arts of architecture and
sculpture, though they have found in the modem era new fidds
to conquer, yet grew to thdr full stature in andent Hdlas, those
of music and painting remained almost in their infancy till the
Renaissance. It was only in the i6th and X7th centuries that
painters obtained such a mastery on the one hand over the forms
of nature, and on the other over an adequate technique, that they
were able to create works in which trath and beauty are one and
the artistic speech exactiy expresses the artistic idea. For this
the painter had to command the whole resources of the sdence
of perspective, linear and aerial, and aH the technical capabilities
of the many-sided processes of oil-paint. Till that stage in the
devdopment of the art was reached work was always on one side
or another tentative and imperfect, but all through these long
periods of endeavour there is one constant feature, and this is the
effort of the artist to attain to trath in the representation of
nature. No matter what was the charaaer of his task or the
material equipment of which he disposed, this ideal was for ever
before his eyes, and hence it is that in the relation of the painter's
work to nature we find that permanent feature which inakesthe
devdopment of the art from first to last a unity.
t 4. General Scheme of Ike Deoetopmenl of the Art.— From this
point of view, that of the relation of the work of the painter to
nature, we may make a rough division of the whole history of the
art into four main periods.
The first embraces the efforts of the older Oriental peoples, best
represented by the painting of the Egyptians; the second indudes
the classical and medieval epochs up to the beginning of the
X5th century; the third, the 15th and x6th centuries; and the
fourth the time from the beginning of the xyth century onwards.
In the first period the endeavour is after trath of contour, in
the second and third after trath of form, in the fourth after
trath of space.
The Egyptian artist was satisfied if he could render with
accuracy, and with proper emphasis on what is characteristic,
the silhouettes of things in nature regarded as little more than
flai objects cut out against a light background. The Greek and
the medieval artist realized that objects had three dimensions,
and that it was possible on a flat surface to give an indication
of the thickness of anything, that is of its depth away from the
spectator, as well as its length and breadth, but they cannot be
said to have fully succeeded in the difficult task they set them-
sdves. For this there was needful an effident knowledge of
perspective, and this the 15th century brought with it. During
the 15th century the painter fully succeeds in mastering the
representation of the third dimendon, and during the next he
exerdses the power thus acquired in perfect freedom, producing
some of the most convincing and masterly presentment^ of solid
4^2
PAINTING
CDEVEU>PMEMT
forms upon a flat surface that th« art haft to show. During this
period, however, and to a more partial extent even in the earlier
classical epoch, efforts nvere being made to widen the horizon of
the art and to embrace within the scope of its representations
not only solid objects in themselves, but such objects as a whole
in space, in due relation to each other and to the universe at
large. It was reserved, however, for the masters of the lyih
century perfectly to realize this ideal of the art, and in their hands
painting as an art of representation is widened out to its fullest
possible limits, and the whole of nature in aU its aspects becomes
for the first time the subject of the picture.
§ 5. The Place of Classical Painliug in the Dcvdopmcnl of the
Art. — This limitation of classical painting to the representation
of form may be challenged, for some hold that Creek artists not
only attempted but succeeded In the task of portraying objects
in space in due relation to each other and to the system of things
as a whole, and that the scope of their work was as extended as
that of the Italian painter of the i6th century. The view taken
in this article will presently be justified, but a word may be said
here as to Creek painting in general and its relation to sculpture.
The main arguments in favour of the more exalted view of this
phase of the art arc partly based on general cdiisidcrations, and
partly on the existence of some examples which seem to show the
artist grappling with the problems of space. The general
argunu;nt, that because Greek sculptors achieved so much we
must assume that the painters brought their art to the same level,
is of no weight, because it has been already pointed out that
painting and music are not in their development parallel to
sculpture and architecture. Nothing, moreover, is really proved
by the facts that painting was held by the ancients in higher
estimation than its sister art, and that the painters gained great
wealth and fame. Painting is* a more attractive, more popular
art than sculpture. It represents nature by a sort of trick or
illusion, whereas sculpture with its three dimensions is more a
matter of course. It is a puzzle how th^ object or scene, with its
colours as well as its forms, can be made to appear on a few square
inches of flat surface, and the artist who has the secret of the
illusion is at once a man of mark. In Greece this was specially
the case, because painting there made its appearance rather later
than sculpture and so was from the first more conspicuous.
Hence literary writers, when they refer to the arts generally, quote
a painter rather than a sculptor. The people observed the
painters, and these naturally made the most of themselves and
of their art. The stories of the wealth and ostentation of some
of these show that there was an atmosphere of riclame about the
painters that must have afl^ectcd the popular estimate, in an
aesthetic sense, of their work. Then, too, popular criticism of
painting has no standard. To the passer-by who watches the
pavement artist, the result of his operations seems nature itself.
*' Better than I saw not who saw the truth,'* writes Dante {Purg.
xii. 68) of incised outlines on a pavement, that cannot go very
far in natural similitude. Vasari, though a trained a^ist, writes
as if they " vied with nature " of certain works that, though ex-
cellent for their day, do not approach the modem type. We think
ourselves that Raphael's babies are like nature till we sec Correg-
gio's, and that V^cneiian Vcnu&es are *'rcal flesh and blood'* till
(hat of Velazquez comes to prove them paint. The fact is that
the expression " true tx> nature " is a relative one, and very little
weight should be given to a merely popular or h'terary judgment
on a question of the kind. Hence we must not assume that
because ancient painting was extravagantly praised by those
who knew no other, it therefore covered all the field of the art.
§ 6. The Earliest Representative Art. — Naturalistic design of a
very effective kind appears at a very early stage of human
development, and is practised among the most primitive races
of the actual world, such as the Australians, the Bushmen of
South Africa and the Eskimo. Of the existence of such art
diflcrcnl explanations have been offered, some finding for the
representations of natural objects motives of a religious
or magical kind, while others are content to see in them the
expression of a simple artistic delight in the imitation of objects
of interest. The extraordinary merit, within certain limits, of
this early naturalistic work can be accounted Cor on ywiological
lines. As Crosse has put it {The Beginningi of Art, p. iqS).
" Power of observation and skill with the hand are the (piaJitic*
demanded for primitive naturalistic pictorial art, and the
faculty of observation and handincss of execution are at the aajne
lime the two indispensable requisites for the primitive hunlcf
life. Primitive pictorial art, with its peculiar characteristics,
thus appears fully comprehensible to us as an aesthetic cxerds*
of two faculties which the struggle for existence has developed
and improved among the primitive peoples." So far as concerns
t he power of seizing and rendering the characteristics of natural
objects, some of the earliest examples of representative art in tke
world are among the best. The objects are animals, because
these were the only ones that interested the early hunter, but
tens of thousands of years ago the Palaeolithic cave-dwcUcrs of
western France drew and carved the mammoth, the reLndeer»
the antelope, and the horse, with astonishing skill and spirit.
Fig. 6, Plate III., shows the famous sketch of a mammothmade
by a prehistoric hunter and artist of western France. The tusks,
the trunk, the little eye, the forehead, and especially the shaggy
fell of the long-haired elephant, are all effectively rendered.
Figs. I, 2 and j, Plate L, show three examples of the marvelr
lous scries of prehistoric carvings and incised drawings, from
the caves of southern France, published by the late Edouard
Piettc. We note especiallv the remarkable effort to portray a
stag turning its head, and the dose observation displayed ia
the representation of the action of a rujining buck.
Even more striking arc the Palaeolithic paintings discovered
in the cave of Allamira at Saniillane, near Santander in Spain.
These are less ancient than the carvings and sketches mentioned
above, but they date from a time when what is now Great
Britain was not yet divided from .the continent by the Channel,
when the climate of southern Europe was still cold, and when
animab now extinct — such as the European bison — were still
coDunon. These paintings, boldly sketched in three coburs,
may be reckoned as some 50,000 years old. They display the
same power of correct observation and artistic skill as the earlier
carvings. Notice in the remarkable examples given on Plate II.
the black patches on the bison's winter coat and the rod colour
of the hide where, with the progress of the spring, he has got rid
of the long hair from the more prominent parts of his body by
rubbing himself against the rocks. The impressionist character
of some of these sketches is doubljess partly due to the action of
time; but note how, in the case of the great boar, the artist haa
represented the action of the legs in running as wdl as standing
in mi^ch the same way as might be done in a rapid sketch by a
modem painter. The mystery of these astounding paintings is
increased by the fact that they are found in a cave to which no
daylight has ever penetrated, sometimes in places almost
inaccessible to sight or reach, and that they are surrounded by
symbols of which none can read the meaning (see the. two
lozenges in fig. 3, Plate I.).
Palaeolithic art is, however, a phenomenon remote and
isolated, and in (he history of painting its main interest is to
show how ancient is the striving of man after the accurate and
spirited representation of nature. Modem savages on about the
same plane of civilization do the same work, though not with
equal artistic deftness, and Crosse reproduces(/oc.ct/., ch.vii.)soine
characteristic designs of Australians and Bushmen. Sonxe of
these arc of single figures, but there are also " large associated
groups of men and animals with the landscapes around them."
The pictures consist in outlines engraved or scratched on stone
Or wood or on previously blackened surfaces of hide, generally,
though not always, giving profile views, and are sometimes filled
in with flat tints of colour. There is no perspective, except to
this extent, that objects intended to appear distant arc sometimes
made smaller than near ones. In the extended scenes the figures
and objects are di.spcrsed over the field, without any arrangement
on planes or artistic composition, but each is delineated witli
spirit and in essential features with accuracy.
It is a remarkable fact, but one easily explained, that when man
advances from the hunter stage to a more scttledagricultural UJe
DEVELOPMEKn
PAINTING
4*3
Ihese sponttneous ntturtUstic drawings no kmger appear.
Neolithic man shows a marked advance on the capacity of his
Palaeolithic predecessors in all the useful arts of life.* his toola,
his pottery, his weapons; but as an artist he was beyond com-
parison inferior. His attempts to draw men and beasts resulted
fai no more than conventional symbols, such as an intelligent
child might scribble; of the Palaeolithic man's taste for design,
aa shown in the carved work of the caves, or of his power of
reproducing nature, there is not a sign. Keenness of observation
and deftness of hand are no longer developed because no longer
needed for the purposes of existence, and representative art
almost dies out, to be, however, revived at a further stage of
civilization. At this further stage the sociological motive of art
is commemoration. It is in connexion with the tomb, the temple
and the palace that in early but still fully organized communities
art finds its field of operations. Such communities we find in
ancient Egypt and Babylonia, while similar phenomenal showed
themselves in old Oriental lands, such as India and China.
§ 7. The Painting ef Contour: Egypt and Ba^yhnui.—Jn
ancient Egypt we find this graphic delineation of natural objects,
so spontaneous and free among the hunter tribes, reduced to a
system and carried out with certain well-established conventions.
The chief of these was the almost universal envisagement in
profile of the subject to be rep r ese n ted. Only in the case of
subsidiary figures might a front or a back view or a three-quarter
face be essayed. To bring the human figure into profile it was
conventionalized, as fig. 7, Plate III., will show. The subject is
an Egyptian of fai^ rank, accompanied by his wife and son,
fowling in the marshes of the Delta. It is part of a wall-painting
from a tomb at Thebes dating about 1500 B.C. The head, it will
be seen, is in profile, but the eye is drawn fuU-face. The shoulders
are shown in front view, though by the outline of the breast, with
its nipple, on the figure's right, and by the position far to the
right of the navel, an indication is given that the view here is
three-quarters. At the hips the figure is again in profile, and this
is the position also of the legs. It will be observed that the two
feet have the big toe on the same side, a device to escape the
necessity of drawing the four toes as seen in the outside view of a
foot. As a rule the action of these figures is made as dear as
possible, and they are grouped in such a way that each is clearly
seen, so that a crowd is shown eith'rr by a number of parallel
outlines each a little in advance of the other suggesting a row seen
hi slight obliquity, or else by parallel rows of figures on lines one
above the other. Animals are treated in the same way in profile,
save that oxen wOl show the two horns, asses the two ears, as In
front view, and the legs are arranged so that all are seen.
Within these narrow limits the Egyptian artist achieved extra-
ordinary success in the truthful rendering of nature as expressed
in the contours of figures and objects. If the human fonn be
always conventionalized to the required flatness, the draughts-
man is keen to seize every chance of securing variety. He fastens
on the distinctive traits of different races with thez<^ of a modern
ethnologist, and in the case of royal personages he achieves
success in individual portraiture. Though he could not render
varieties of facial expression, he made the action of the limbs
express all it could. The traditional Egyptian gravity did not
exclude humour, and some good caricatures have been preserved.
Egyptian drawing of anlmsls, especially birds (see fig. 7, Plate
III.), has in iu way never been surpassed, and the specific points
of beasts are as keenly noted as the racial characteristics of human
beings. Animals, domestic or wild, are given with their particu-
lar gait or pose or expression, and the accent is always laid on
those features that give the suggestion of strength or swiftness
or lithe agility which marks the species. The precision of draw-
ing is just as great in the case of lifeless objects, and any set of
early, carefully-executed, hieroglyphic signs will give evidence of
an eye and hand trained to perfection in the simpler tasks of the
graphic art.
The representation of scenes, as distinct from single figures or
groups, was not wholly beyond the Egyptian artist's horizon.
His most ambitious attempts are the great battle-scenes of the
period of the New Empire, when a Seti or a Rameses is seen
drivkig beforo fafan a host of routed foemen. The king in his
chariot with the rearing faonea is firmly rendered in the severe
conventional style, but the crowd of fugitives, on a oomparativdy
minute scale, are not arranged in the original dear fashion in
parallel rows, but aie tumbled about in extraordinary oonfusion
all over Che field, though always on the one flat plane. By another
convention obje<;ts that cannot be given in profile are sometimes
shown in ground plan. Thus a tank with trees round it will be
drawn square in plan and the trees will be exhibited as if laid out
fiat on the ground, pointing on each aide outwards from the
tank.
In Babylonia and Assyria the mud-brick walls of palaces
were coated with thin stucco, and this was in the interior some-
times painted, but few fragments of the work remain. On the
exterior considerable use was made of decorative bands and
paneb of enamdled tiles, in which figure subjects Were promi-
nent, as we learn by the passage from Esek. xxiii., about " men
pourtrayed upon the wall, the images of the Chaldeans pbur-
trayed with vermilion." The best idea of Assyrian graphic
design is gained from the slabs carved in very low relief, which
contain annalistic records of the acts of the king and his people
in war and peace. The human figure is treated here in a less
conventional scheme, but at the same time with less variety
and in a less spirited and interesting fashion than in Egypt.
Of animals far fewer spedes are shown, but in the portrayal of
the nobler beasts, notably the hone, the lion and the mastiff,
there is an element of true grandeur that we seldom find ih
Egyptian design. Furthermore, the carver of the reliefs had
a better idea of giving the impression of a scene than his brother
of the Nildand, and in his representations of armies marching and
fighting he introduces rivers, hills, trees, groups of buSdinga
and the like, all of course delineated without perspective, but
in far truer and more telling fashion than is the case with the
scenes from the campaigns of Egyptian Gonquerors.
§ 8. Painting in Pre-kistoric Greece. — ^A new chapter in the
history of andent painting was opened by the discovery of relics
of the art in the palaces and tombs of the Mycenaean period on
the coasts and islands of the Aegean. The charming naturalistic
representations of marine plants and animals on th^ painted
vases are quite unlike anything which later Gredc ait has to
offer, and exhibit a decorative taste that reminds us a little of
the Japanese. What we are concerned with, however, are
rather the examples of wall-painting in plaster found at Tiryns
and Mycenae and in Crete. Of the former the first to attract
notice was the well-known buH from Tiryns, represented in
profile and in action, and accompanied by a human figure; but
of far greater importance, because foreshadowing an advance in
the pictorial art, are certain wall-paintings discovered more
recently by Dr Evans at Cnossos in Crete. The question is
not of the single figures in the usual profile view, like the already
celebrated "Cup-bearer," however important these ntay be
from the historical side, but of the so-called " miniature " wall-
paintings that are now preserved in the museum at Candia, In
which figures on a small scale are represented not singly but in
crowds and in combination with buildings and landscape features
that seem to carry us forward to far more advanced stages of the
art of painting. To borrow a few sentences from Dr Arthur
Evans's account of them on their first discovery (Annual of
British School at Athens, vi. 46): "A spedal characteristic
of these designs is the outline drawing in fine dark lines. This
outline drawing is at the same time combined with a kind of
artistic shorthand brought about by the simple process of
introdudng patches of reddish brown or of white on whidi
groups bdonging to one or other sex are thus delineated. In ths
way the respective flesh-tfaits of a scries of men or women are
given with a single sweep of the brush, their limbs and features
being subsequently outlined on the background thus obtained.'*
There is here, it is true, no perspective, but there is a cBstinct
effort to give the general effect of objects in a mass, which cor-
responds curiously with the modem devdopment (^ the art o^
painting called " impressionism."
fi 9. The Painting of Form: Ancient Greece and Italy.^As
468
PAINTING
tDEVELOPMENT
'interest has been lacking. In ancient Egypt, for example,
and among the older Oriental peoples generally, schook of paint-
ing in the modern sense did not exist, for the arts were carried
on on traditional lines and owed little, so far as records tell, to
individual initiative.. In ancient Greece, on the contrary, we
find ourselves at once in an atmosphere of names and achieve^
ments which give all the glamour of personal and biographical
interest to the story of art. In the early Christian and early
medieval periods, we return again to a time when the arts were
practised in the same impersonal fashion as in the oldest days,
but with the later medieval epoch we emerge once more into an
era where the artist of genius, with his experiments and triumphs,
his rivab and followers, is in the forefront of interest; when
history is enlivened with anecdote, and takes light and shade
from the changing fortunes of individuals.
There is a danger lest the human interest of such a period
may lead us to forget the larger movements, impersonal and
almost cosmic, which are all the time carrying these individuals
and groups forward on their destined course. The history of
painting cannot be understood if it be reduced to a notice,
however full, of separate " adiools" or to a series of biographies,
fascinating as these may be made, of individual artists. Hence
in what follows it is stlU the main course Of the development of
the art in its relation to nature that will be kept in view, while the
information about names and dates and mutual relations of
artists and schools, whicli is in its own way equally important,
will be furnished in the tables constituting Part II. of this article.
What has just been said will prepare the reader for the fact
that the first schools of painting here mentioned are those
of Germany and Flanders, not those of Italy, though the
latter axe more important as well as actually prior in point
of time.
t 13. Tk$ Gothic iiamnent amd the Proto-Renaissonce^ in.
their Infiuenct on Painting north and south of the Alps.— The
revival of the arts of sculpture and painting in the Italy of the
last part of the 13th century was an event of capital importance,
not only for that country but for the west at large. Its impor-
tance has, however, been exaggerated, when it has been said
to imply the rediscovery of the arts alter a period in which they
had suffered an entire eclipse. So far as Italy is concerned, both
sculpture, and painting had in the previous period sunk to a
level so low that they could hardly be said to exist, but at the
same epoch in lands north of the Alps they were producing
works of considerable merit. Romanesque wall-painting of
the lath centuiy, as represented in some Rhineiand churches
and cloisters, is immeasurably better than anything of the same
period south of the Alps. In the arts of construction and
ornament the lead remained for a long time with the northern
peoples, and in every branch of decorative work with the except
tioA of mosaic the craftsmanship of Germany and France
surpassed anything that native Italian workmen could produce.
By the middle of the X2th century the intellectual and sodal
activity of the French people was accompanied by an artistic
movement that created the most complex and beuitiful archi-
tectural monuments that the wodd has seen. The adornment
of the great French Gothic cathedral was as artistically perfect
as ill fabric was noble. For one, at any rate, of the effects at
which the painter aims, that of growing and sumptuous colour,
jiothing can surp^ the stained-glass windows of the Gothic
churches, while the exteriors of the same buildings were enriched
with hundreds of statues of monumental dignity endowed with a
grace and expressiveness that reflect the spirit of the age.
The Gothic age in France was charactcriaed by humanity,
tenderness and the love of nature, and there are few epochs in
human history the spirit of which is to us more congenial. The
mh century, which witnessed the growth of the various elements
of culture that comfaaned to give tJie age its ultimate character,
saw also a movement of revival in another sphere. The reference
it to what has been aptly termed a " Proto-Renaissaace," the
characteristic of which waa a fresh interest to surviving remains
of classical aiith|uity. In more than one regka of the west,
vlMM these leaaiDS ware ipedally in evidence thb satcre^
manifested Itself, and the earliest sign of It was in Provence,
the highly Romanised part of southern Gaul known pOfoxcditMio
as the ** Provincia." To this is due the remarkable development
of decorative sculpture in the first decades of the lath centuiy,
which gave to that region the storied portals of St Cillet, and of
St Trophime at Aries. Somewhat later, in the early part of the
I jth, those portions of southern Italy under the direct rule of
the emperor Frederick II. presented a similar phenomenon that
has been fully discussed by M. Bertaux in his L*Art dans Vttaiit
miridiouale ( Paris, 1904). There were other centres of this same
movement, and a recent writer enumerates no fewer than seven.
The Gothic movement proper depended in no degree on the study
of the antique, and in art the ornamental forms which express
its spirit are naturalistic, not classical, while the fine figure
sculpture above referred to is quite independent of ancient
models, which hardly existed in the central regions of France
where the Gothic movement had its being. Still the proto*
Renaissance can be associated with it as another phase of the
same awakening of intellectual life that marked the i sth century.
Provence took the lead in the literary revival of the time, a&d
the artistic movement that followed on this was influenced by the
fact of the existence in those regions of abundant remains of
classical art.
The Gothic movement was essentially northern in its origm,
and its influence radiated from the Ik de France. What has
been described as the idyllic grace, the tenderness, that mark the
works of the eariy Cologne school, and to some extent those of
the early Flemings, were Gothic in their origin, while the feeling
for nature in landscape that characterizes van Eyck, and the
general tendency towards a realistic apprehension of the facta
of things, may also be put down to the quickening of both tfaooght
and sympathy due to the Gothic movement. Hence it is that
the northern schools of painting are noticed before the Italian
because they were nearer to the source of the common inspjimtioii.
All the lands of the West, however, exhibit, dkch in its owns
special forms, the same stir of a new intellectual, reUgioms and
artistic life. In Italy we meet with the same phenomena ss ia
France, a proto-Renaissance, first in southern Italy and thca,
as we shall presently see, at Rome and at Pisa, and a rdigiotts
and intellectual movement on Gothic lines that waa embodied
in the attractive personality of St Francis of Assisi. Francis was
as periect an embodiment of the Gothic temper as St Louis
birnself, and in his romantic cnthuaiasnv his tenderness, Ua
humanity is in spirit more Fkench than Italian.
1 14. The Riso of the Italian Schools of Pointingj^Tht revival
of the arts in Italy in the latter part of the 13th ccntoiy was the
outcome of the tivo movements just noticed. The ait of Niooola
Pisano is now recognised as a phase of the proto-RenaissaBCe
of southern luly, whence his family was derived. It represents
a distinct advance on the revived classical sculpture of Provence
or Campania because Niooola's artistic personality was a strong
one, and he gives to his work the impress of the individual ol
geniua. Throughout its history Italian ait depends for its
excellen6e on this personal element, and Niccola's achieveaent
is epoch-making because of bis personal vigour, not because he
reinvented a lost art. Towards the end of the 13th ceotuiy,
painting began to show the results of the same renewed study
of antique models, and here again the revival is connected with
the names of gifted individuals. Among these the most not^
worthy are the Roman Pietro Cavallini and Ducdo di Buooin-
segna of Siena. The condition of painting in Italy 4n late
medieval days has already been indicated. CavaUini and
Dijccio now produce, in two standard forms of the art, the mural
painting of the " Last Judgment '* and the enthroned Ifadonna
with angelft-*works characterized by good taste, by largeness
and suavity of treatment, and by an execution which, if stUl
somewhat primitive and laboured, at any rate aims at beauty of
form and colour. The recently uncovered fresco d the Last
Judgment by Cavallini, executed about 1103 on the western waO
of S. Cecilia in Trastevere at Rome, is classical in feeling and
lepresents an immense advance on the older rendering of the
ssme siibject in Sw Aogelo in Formis (see i xo). The- vaU
l-H
2
r
7.
o
o
o
2
2
z
<
<
z
z
<
o
z
O
■<
2
<
O
m
a
XXEVBtOntCNTI
PAINTING
469
enthmBBd Madanna in the RuecBai diapd of S. Mtfla NevcUa
at Fkieiice, aambed by Vaaari to Ciroabue, is now assigned
by taaiBy to Ducdo of Siena, and prcfents slraOar attractive
qnalitiea. Cinabue, a Floientine contemporary of Cavallini
and Ducdo, ia famed in story aa the chief rcpMsenUtive of the
IMinting of thia period, but we possess no certain works from his
band eioept hia mosaic at Pisa. Hia style would probably
coneapoad to that of the painters just mentioned. Hb chief
importance for oar purpose residca in the fact that he waa the
teacher of the Rorentine Giotto.
II tlie artisU just referred to represent a revived daaskisra
rather than a fresh and independent study of nature, Giotto is
essentially n creation of the Gothic movement and hs dose
aawcia t ioo with the Frandscan cycle of ideaa brings thia fact
into clearer relief. Giotto is in no way dependent on the study
of the antique, but relies on hia own steady and penetrating out-
look upon man and opoa nature. He is Gothic in his humanity,
hia empathy, his love of truth, and he incorporates in his
own person many of the au)st pleasing qualitiea of Gothic art as
it had already manifested itself in France, while by the force of
hb own individual genioa he raises these qualitiea to a higher
level of artistic eipression.
In the work of Giotto paintiag begina to enter on its modem
era. The demonstrative element permanently takes the pre>
eminence awr the more decorative element we have aJled
pattern-making. Though the pattern is always present, the
elements of it become of increasing value in themselves as
leprescntatioaa of nature, and the tendency henceforward for
ft couple of centuriea is to eiaggerate their importance so that
the general decorative effect becomea subordinate. Giotto's
gnataem depeads on the gift he possessed for holding the balance
even among opposed artistic qualities. If he was Interesting
and convincing as a namtor, he had a fine eye at the same time
for oompositlon and balanced his masses with unerring tact.
Neither be nor any of the Florentine frescoists had much sense
of colour, and at this stage of the development of painting
compositions of light and shade were not thought of, but in line
and mass he pleasca the tyt as much as he satisfies the mind by
his dear statement of the meaning and intentioa of his figures
andgfoupa.
In putting these together he Is careful above all things to
make them tell their storyi and primitive as he Is in technique
he is as accomplished in this art aa Raphael himself. Moreover,
he holds the balance between the tendency, always so strong
among his countrymen as among the Germans, to over-emphasis
of action and expression, and the grace and self-restraint wUch
are among the most predons of artistic qualitiea. He never
aterifices beauty to force, nor on the other hand docs he allow
his sense of grace of line to weaken the telUng effect of action or
grouping. A good example of his style, and one interesting also
from the comparative standpoint, is his fresoo of " Heiod*s
Birthday Feast " in S. Croce at Florence (fig. 13, Plate I Y.). We
contrast it with the earlier wall-painting of the same subject in
the cathedral at Brunswick (fig. 1 1 . Plate III.). Giottohas reduced
the number of actors to the minimum necessary for an effective
presenution of the Kene, but haa charged each figure with
meaning and presented the ensemble with a due regard for
space as well as merely for form. The flatness of the older work
haa already been exchanged for an effective, if not yet fully
correct, tendering of planes. The Justice of the actions and
expressiotts will at once strike the observer.
The Florentine school as a whole looks to Giotto aa its head,
because he embodies all the characterlstica that made it great;
but at the same time the artisU that came after him In most
casea failed by over-emphasis of the demonstrative element,
and sacrificed beauty and sentiment to vigour and realism.
The school as a whole is markedly intellectual, and aa a result
Is at times prosaic, from which fault Giotto himself wss saved
by his Gothic tenderness and romance. His penonality waa
so outstanding that it dominated the school for nearly a century.
The " Giotteschi " is a name given to ft number of Florentine
paioten whose labours cover the leit of the 14I'
among whom only one, Andrea di Gone, called Orragna, lifted
himself to any real eminence. ^
At Siena the Gothic movement made itself felt in the next
artistic generation after that of Ducdo. Its chief representative
was Simone Martini. With him Sienese art takes upon itself
a character contrasting markedly with the Florentine. It is
on the demonstrative side less intellectual, less vigorous, less
secular; and a dreamy melancholy, a tendemcsa that is a little
sentimental, Ufce the pfaux of the alertness and force whh
which the perMnages in Florentine frescoes are endued. On the
other hand, in decorative feeling, especially in regard to colour,
Sienese painting surpasses that of the Florentines. Simone was
foUowed by a number of artisU who answered to the Florentine
'* Giotteschi " and cany on the style through the century, but
as Florance produces an Orcagna, so at Siena about the middle
of the 14th century there appear in the brothen Lorensetti twq
artists of exceptional vigour, who carry art into new fields.
Ambrogio Lorensetti, the younger of the brothers, ia spedally.
represented by some frescoes in the Public Palace at Siena of a
symbolical and didactic kind, representing Good and Bad
Government, from which is selected a figure representing Peace
(fig. t4, Plate v.). Sienese sentiment is here vety apparent.
Simone Martini's masterpiece had been a great religious fresco
of an edifjring kind on the wall of the chapel, and now in the
rooms devoted to the secular business of the dty Lorensetti
coven the walls with four large compositions on the lubject
named.
The painters of the Sienese school were on the whole faithftd
to the style indicated, and later on in the century th^ extend
the boondariea of thdr school by spreading its influence into the
hill country of Umbria. In the cities of this region Taddeo dl
Bartoli, one of the best of the foUowera of Simone, worked about
the end of the century, and eady Umbrian art in consequence
exhibiu the same devotional character, the same dreaminess, the
same grace and decorative charm, that are at home in Siena.
Elsewhere in Italy the art of the X4th century represenu a
general advance beyond the old medieval standard, but no out-
standing personality made its appearance and there was nothing
that can be strictly termed a revival At Rome, where on the
foundation of the noble design of CavaUini there might have been
reared a promising artistic structtne, the removal early in the
14th century of the papal cottrt to Avignon in France led to a
cessation of all effort.
§ 15. r*e FifteeHlk Century^ arid itt In$imic$ m tke Dnehp-
nuni €f PaUUini ai Floretiet.-^Vit come now to what wu
indicated in ( 4 as the third of the main periods Into which the
history of painting may be divided. It is that in which, by the
aid of the new agency of perspective, truth of form was for the
firet time perfectly mastered, and an advanoe was made in th^
rendering of the truth of space.
The opening of the 15th century in Italy is the most important /
epoch in the whole history of painting, for it was the real begin-
ning of the modem era. Hera Florence, the first home of Renais-
sanoe culture, unmistakably assumes the lesd, and the new era is
again opened by the agency of an individual of genius. The
father of modem painting is the Florentine Masacdo. He not
only advanced the art in those qualities in wUch Giotto had
already made it great, but pointed the way towards the repre-
sentation of the thffd dimension of objects and of space ua whole
which had for so long been ahnost Ignored. Hta short life course,
for he died before he waa thirty, only allowed him to execute one
work of the first importance, the freaooea in the Braacaod ch^)el
of the Gamine at Floreooa. There In the ^ Tribute Money **
he told the story with an Giotto'fe force and dfrsctncss, but with
aa added power in the cieatfon of exalted types of hmnaa
character, and hi the presentation of solid shanea that seem to
live before us. In the "ExpuWoo from Eden*' he rose to greater
heights. In the whole range of demonstrative art no more
convincing, more moving, figures have ever been created than
thoae of our first parenta, Adam veiling his face In his hands,
Eve throwing back her head and wailing aloud in agony, while
in the foresho rtene d lom of the aagel that hoven above we
470
PAINTING
lUEVELOnnENT
discern the whole future development of the art Cor s eentwy to
come (sec fig. 15, Plate V.). Above all (vwiitiea iaMasacci0*fc
work we are impressed with the simplicity aod the ease of the
wock. The youthful artist possessed a reserve of power that,
had he lived, would have carried him at one boand to heights
that it took his actual successotB in the school well nigh a
century to dimb.
The 15th century at Florence presents to us the picture of a
progressive advance on the technical side of art, in the course
of which various problems were attacked and one by one van-
quished, till the form of painting in the style recognized in the
school was finally perfecteid, and was then handed on to the great
masters of expression, such as Raphael and Michelangelo, who
used it as the obedient instrument of their wills. The efforts
of the artists were inspired by a new intellectual and sodal
movement of which this century was the scene. If the Gothic
movement in the 14th century had inspired Giotto and Simone
Martini, now it was the revived study of the antique, the true
Kenaisaance, that was behind aU the technical struggles of the
artfsta. Paipting was not, however, directly and immediately
affected by the study of antique models. This was on^^ one
symptom of agenefal stir of intellectual life that is called by the
apt term " humanism." In the early Gothic epoch the move-
ment had been also in the direction of humanity, that is to say,
of softness in mannere and of the amenities and graces of life,
but it was also a strictly religious movement. Now, in the xsih
century, the inspiration of thought was rather pagan than
Cbristian, and men were going back to the ideas and institutions
of the antique world as a sul»titute for those which the Church
had provided for thirty generations. The direct influence of
these studies on art was chiefly felt in the case of architecture,
which they practically transformed. Sculpture iras influenced
to a lesser d^sree, and painting least of all. It was not till the
century was pretty far advanced that rlasslcal subjects of a
mythological kind were adopted by artists like Botticelli and
Piero di Cosimo, the first figures borrowed from the antique
world being those of republican worthies displayed for purposes
of public edification.
The elements which the humanistic movement contributed
to Florentine art are the following: (i) The scientific study of
perspective in all its branches, linear and aerial, Including the
Kience of shadows. (2) Anatomy, the stuc^y of the nude form
both at rest and in action. (3) Truth of fact in details in
animate and inanimate subjects. (4) The technique of oil
painting. It musA be observed that in this wock the Florentines
were joined by certain painUrs of Umbria, who were not satisfied
with the Umbro-Sienese tradition abready spoken of, but allied
theroselvea with the kaders of the advance who were fighting
under the banner of Masaccio.
Of the studies mentioned above by far the most important
. was that oC pcn|iectiYe« Anatomy aind realism in details only
represented o& advance along the lines painting had been
already following. The new technique of oil painting, though
of immense importance in connexion with the art as a whole,
affected the Florentines comparatively little. Their favourite
form of p^«»>'"g was the mural picture, not the self-contained
panel or canvas for which the oO medium was specially designed^
and for mural work fresco remained always supreme (see Part HI.,
I iS)' ^ ^^ muzDl work the introduction of scientific perspec-
tive effected something like a transformation. The essence of
the work from the decorative point of view had been its flatness.
It was primarily pattem'making, and nature had been represented
by oontoura vhich stood for objects without giving them their full
dimensions. Wfaea the artist began to introduce varying planes
of distance and to gain rdief by light and shade, there was at
once a change in the relation of the picture to the wall It no
kwger agreed in Its flatneas with the facU of the surface of which
it formed the enrichment, but opposed these by its suggestion
of depth and distance. Hence while painting as a whole
advanced cnonnously through this effort after the truth of space,
yet decorative quality in this particular foitn of the an psjopor-
tionately suffered.
The study of perSpedSve owed mAcfa to the a^chitact mad
scholar Brunelksco, one of the oldest as well as ablest of tlw nca
in whom the new movement of the isth century was eoabodied.
Branellesco taught all he knew to Masaccio, for whose geans
he felt strong adfl>iratiQ&; but the artist in whom the ittttlt of
the new study is most obvious is Paolo UoocUo, a painter of
much power, who was bom as eariy as 1397. UcceOOr as
extant works testify, sometimes composed pictures wudaky
with a view to tiie perspective effects for which they f»iwi«^»ii
the opportunity. See fig. 16, Plate V., where ift a frescao of a
cavalry skirmish ha htt drawn in f Qceahortcned view tbe figure
of a warrior prone on the ground, u wcU as vaiaoas licapou s
and other objects under the feet of the horses. A fresco of ** The
Flood " at Florence is even more naive in ita parade of the
painter's newly won skill in perspective science. The intarasts,
or workers in inlaid woods, who were very numeoous in Flofcacc,
also adopted perspective motives for their designs, and these
testify to the fascination of the study during all the last part of
the century and the beginning of the neat.
The advance in anatomical Undies may be lllnst rated in
the person of Antom'o PoUaiuolob Mstsaccio had been as greaA
in this department of the painter's craft as in any other; and iif
the Adam and Eve of the " Espulsfon," and the famooa nndcs
shown in the fresco of " Peter Baptising," he had given the
truth of action and expression as few have been able to reader it;
but in the matter of scientific accuracy in detail more anafomiral
study was needful, and to this men like PoUaiuolo now devoted
themselves. Pollaiuolo's " Martyrdom of St Sehastiaii," ia
the London National Gallery, is a very notable Blustfataoa of
the efforts which a conscientious aad able Floremlne of the
period would make to master these ptoUeflBS of tha arkntiif
side of art. (See fig. 17. Plate V.)
On the whole, however, of the men of this group it waa not a
Florentine but the Umbrian Piero de' Franeeschi that icpscseaU
the greatest achievement on the fonaal side of art^ His tliedie(i>
cal studies were profound. He wrote a treatise on pcfspectivc,
representing an advance on the previous treatment of tbe
science by Alberti; and to this study of linear petspei t ive Piero
united those of aerial perspective and the sdcace of shadows. A
fresco of his at Arczso entitled the " Dream of Constaatiae "
is epoch-making in presenting a night effect into the midst of
which a bolt of celestial radiance is hurled, the iaddeooe of whkk
on the objects of the various planes of the picture has beM caye>
fully observed and accurately reproduced. (See fig. 18, Plate V.)
Piero handed on his scientific accomptishmenta to a pupti,
also an Umbrian of Florentine sympathies, Luca SignorcUi of
Cortona. He achieved still greater success than PeUaioolo in
the rendering of the nude form in action, but more oonspkuoualy
than any others of this group he sacrificed beauty to truth, and
the nudes in his great series of frescoes on the Last Thhiga at
Orvieto are anatomised like Scankii, and are in colour and
texture positively repellent. Luca's work is, however, of hia-
torical importance as leading on to that of Michehu«elo.
A great power in the Florentine school of the isth centuxy
was Andrea del Castagno, an artist with much of the vigoor, tike
feeling for the monumental, of Masaccio, but without Masaccio's
saving gift of suavity of treatment. He is best represented by
some single figures representing Florentiae worthica^ whom he
has painted as if they were statues in niches. They formal
part of the decoration of a villa, and are aotewoitJiy as wholly
secular in subject. There Is a masfiivencss about the forms
which shows how thoroughly the 15th oentury Floieotiaea were
mastering the representation of solid objects in all thek three
dimensions. Other painters attracted attention at the tiaie for
their realistic treatment of details. Vasari singles out Akssao
Baldovinetti.
The importance for art Oi the Florentine school of the istli
century resides in these efforts for the perfecting of pjintir^g
on the fonnal side, which its representatives were themsdvca
making and were inspiring in others. The general historian
of the art will dwell rather on this aspect of the work of the
school thaa en the aumcvous attractive featufes-k a§tn to the
OBVttjOniENII
PAINTING
47 »
MperficitI observer. The Frt Angdlcos, the FfHppo Uppb,
the Eitoow Geesolia, th« Botticellis, the Filippino Lippis of
the century express pleasantly in thdr werk various phases of
feeling, devotiooal, idylNc or pensive, and enjoy a proportioiiate
popularity among the* loven of pictures. Exigencies of space
prechide anything more than a mention of their names, but a
sentence or two must he given to a painter of the lost half of the
century who represents better than any other the pedection
of the monumental style in fresco painting. This painter is
Ghirlandajo, to whom is ascribed a characteristic saying. When
dfetorfaed hi hours of woik about some domestic affair he
exdoimed: " Trouble me not about these household matters;
now that I begin to oomprebend the method of this art I would
fain they gave me to point the whole drcuit of the walls of
Florence with stories," Ghirlondajo was entering Into the
heritage of technical knowledge and skill that had been labor*
iously acquired by his countrymen ond-thcir Umbrlan comrades
since the beginning of the century, and he flpicod himself upon
the phutered walls of Tuscan churches with easy oopiouaaess,
in wovits whidi give us a better idea than any others of the time
of how much can be acoompllshed in a form of art of the kind
by sound tradition and a businiesslike system of operation.
The mura] pamting of Ghlrlanda jo represents in its perfection
one important phase of the art. It was still decorative in the
sense that lime cotour-washes were the iiatural finish of the lime
plaster on the wall, and that these washes were arranged in a
colour-pattern pleasing to the eye. The demonstrative element,
that is, the significance of these patches of eoloar as represent*
ations ol nature, was however in the eyes of both painter
and pabKc the matter of primary importance, end similKude
was now carried as far as knowledge of anatomy and linear
perspective rendered possible. Objects were rendered in their
three dimensions and were property set on their pbmes and
surrounded with suitable accessories, while aerial perspective
was only drawn on to give a general sense of space without the
eye being attracted too far into the distance. An a specimen of
the monumental style nothing can be better than Ghiriondajo^s
fresco of the ** Burial of S. Fhia " at S. Gfanfgnano in Tuscany
(see fig. 19, Phte V.). We note with what architectural feeKng
the comp(^tJon is balanced, how simple and monumental b the
effect.
f 16. Tke Fifteenth Century in the other Halian Schoelsr-lX has
been already, noticed that the painting of the t4th century in
the Umbri&n dties was inspired by that of Siena. Through
the X5th century the Umbrian school developed on the some
lines. Its artists were as a whole content to express the pladd
religious sentiment with which the Sienese hod inspired them,
and advanced in technical matters almost unconsciously, or at
any rate without making the pronounced efforts of the Floren*
tines. While Piero de' Franceschi and Luca ^gnorelli vied with
the most ardent spirits among the Florentines in grappling
with the formal problems of the art, their cotmtrymen generally
preserved the oM flatness of effect, the quiet poses, the devout
expressions of the older school. This Umbro-Sienese art pro-
duced in the latter part of the century the typical Umbrian
painter Perugino, whose chief importance in the history of his
art is the fact that he was the teacher of Raphael.
An Umbrian who united the suavity of style and feeling
for beauty of the Penigmesques with a daring and scientific
mastery that were Florentine was Piero de' Franceschi's pupil,
Mclo£zo da ForR. His historical Importance largely resides
in the fact that he was the first master of the so-called Roman
school As was noticed before in connexion with the early
Roman master, Pfclro Cavallini, the development of a native
Roman school was checked by the departure of the papal court
to Fmnce for the best part of a ccntuiy. After the return, when
affairs had been set in order, the popes began to gather round
them artists to carry out various extensive commissions, such
OS the decoration of the walls of the newly-erected pabice
chapel of the Vatican, called from its founder the Sistine. These
artists were not native Romans but Florentines and Umbrians,
•nd among them was Melozzo da Fori), who by taking up his \
lesidenca permanently at Rmne became the founder of the
Roman school, thit was afterwards adorned by names like
those of Raphael and MicbelangekK
In the story of the development of Italian pointing Mekaao
occupies an important place. He carried further the notion
of a perspective treatment of the figure that was started by
Masacdo*s angel of the " Expulsion," and preceded Coneggio
in the device of reiircsehting a oelestial event as it wouki appear
to a spectator who was looking up at it from below.
On the vbole, the three Umbiians, Piero de' Franceschi,
with his two pupils Luca Sigiiorelli and JKieHoixo, are the most
Important figures in the central Italian art of the formative
period. Thereisoneotheronistinanolhcrportof Italy whose
peneuaiity bulks mcue loigely than even thehs, and who^ like
them a disdple of the Florentines, excelled the Florentines in
sdeuce and power, and this is the Paduaa Mantcgno.
We ore introduced now to the paiuten of north Italy. Their
general chocooter differs from that of the Umbro-Sieneac school
in that their woric is somewhat hard and sombre, and wanting
in the neiOstf and tendemesa of the- masters who originally
drew their inspitatian from Simone MortinL Giotto had spent
some time and ocromplished aoose of Us best work at Padua in
the eodiest years of tlie X4th century, but his influence had not
lasted. Florentine art. In the nose advanced fonn it wore in
the first half of the 15th centmry, woe again brought to it by
DonoteUo and Paok> UcceUo, who were at work there shortly
before X450. At that time Andrea Jdantegna was receiving his
first education from a painter, or rather impreeorio, named
Francesco Squaidone, who directed his attention to antique
models. Montegna leamt from DonoteUo a statuesque feeling
for form, and from UccsUo a adentiiic interest in perspective,
while, acting 00 the stimulus of his first teacher, he devoted him*
self to pet8<Hua study of the remains of antique sculpture which
were common in the Roman dties of north ItMfy. MoaiegBa
built up his art oB a scientific basis, but he knew hew to inspire
the form with a aoul. His own penonality waa one of the
strongest that we meet with in the annals of Italian oit, and he
stamped thisoo oil he ocoomplisfaed. No figures stand BM>re firmly
than Montegno's, none hove a more pbstie fuUnass, ia none are
detaQs of accoutrement or folds of dmpery more dearly seen
and rendered. The study of antique remains supplied him with
o store of classical details, that be uses with extrooidinoxy
occuncy and effectiveness m. his icpresentations of a Roman
triumph, at Hampton Court. Andent art invested, too, with a
certofai austere beauty his forma.of -women or children, and ia
classical nudes there is a firmnesa of modelling, a suppleness in
movement, that we kxik for in vain among the Florentines.
Fig. so, Plate VI., which shows a dance of the Muses with Venus
and Vulcan, b typical. Montegna was not only o great penon-
ality, but he exerdsed o powoful ond wide-teod^ influence
upon oil the art of north Italy, indading thot of Venice. His
perspective studies led him in the some direction as Melosxo do
Forii, and in some decorative pointings ia the Camera dci^ Sposi
at Momuo he pointed out the way thot woo afterwards to be
followed by Correggio.
Mantegno's relations with the school of Venice introduce us
to the most importont and interesting of oil the Itolion schook
sove that of Fkncnce. Venetian painting occupies o posiUon
by itself that corresponds with the phux and history of the dty
thot gave it birth. The connexions of Venice were not with the
rest of Italy, but rather with the East and with Germany.
Commercially speaking, she was the emporium of trade with
both. Into her markeu streamed the wealth of the Orient,
and from her madceta this was transferred across the Alps to
dties hke Nuremberg. From Gennany hod oome o certoin
Gothic dement Into Venetian architecture in the X4th century,
and o little loter on influence of the some kind heg^ to affect
Venetian pointing. Up to that time Venice bad depended
for her painters on the East, and hod imported Byantine
Modonno pictures, and called in Byzantine mosoic-woiken
to odoin the waits and roof of her metropolitan church. The
tnl sign of notive activity is to beiooad at Mumaok wiieii^
47^
PAINTING
cwvEumiBifr
in the fittt half of the isth centuiy, e Gemea, Justus of
Allemagna, worked in partnership with « Muianeae family. A
little later a stranger from another quarter executes important
oommissioos in the dty of the lagoons. This was an Utebrian,
Gentile da Fabriano, who possessed the suavity and tenderness
of his school.
The natural tendency of Venetian taste, nourished for cen-
turies on opulent Oriental stuffs, on gold and gems, ran in the
direction of what was soft and pleasing to the sense. The
northern Gothic and the Umbrian influences corresponded with
this and flattered the natural tendency of the people. For the
proper development of Venetian painting some element of
Florentine strength and science was absolutely necessary, and
this was imparted to the Venetian school by Mantegna through
the medium of the BellinL
The Bellini were a Venetian famOy of painters, of whom the
father was originally an assbtant to Gentile da Fabriano, but
lived for a while at Padua, where his daughter Niook»aa became
the wife of Mantegna. With the two Bellini sons. Gentile and
Giovanni, Mantegna became very intimate, and a mutual
influence was exercised that was greatly to the benefit of all.
Mantegna softened a litik what has been termed his " iron style,"
through the assimilation of some of the suavity and feeling for
beauty and colour that were engrained in the Venetians, while
on the other hand Mantegna imparted some of his own stern-
ness and his Florentine science to his brothers-in-law, of whom
the younger, Giovanni, was the formative master of the later
Venetian scho<rf.
§ Z7. TM€ Painiing of Ike Sixteenth Century: the Mastery cf
Form.— If we examine a drawing of the human figure by Raphael,
Michelangelo, or Corxcggio, and compare it with the finest
examples (A Greek figure design on the vases, we note at once
that to the ancient artist the form presented itself as a sil'
houette, and he had to put constraint on himself to realize its
depth; whereas the moderns, so to say, think in the third dimen*
sion of space and ev«y touch of their pencil presupposes it.
The lovely " Aphrodite riding on a Swan," on the large Greek
kylix in the British Museum, is posed in an impossible position
between the wing of the creature and iu body, where there
would be.no space for her to sit. The lines of her figure are
exquisite, but she is pure contour, not form. In a Raphael
nude the strokes of the chalk come forward from the back,
bringing with them into relief the rounded limb which grows
into plastic fullness before our eyes. Whether the parts recede
or approach, or sway. from side to side, the impression on the
eye is equally dear and convindng. The lines do not merely
limit a surface but caress the shape and modd it by their very
direction and comparative force into relief. In other words,
these x6th-oentury masters for the first time perfectly realise
the aim which was before the eyes of the Greeks; and Raphael,
who in grace and truth and composition may have been only
the peer of Apelles, probably surpassed his great predecessor in
this easy and instinctive rendering of objects in their solidity.
In so far as the work of these masters of the culminating
period, in its relation to nature, is of this character it needs
WK> further analysis, and attention should rather be directed to
those elements in Italian design of the x6th-centuiy which have
a spedal interest for the after development of the art.
Not only was form mastered as a matter of drawing, but
rdief was indicated by a subtle treatment of light and shade.
Foreshortening as a matter of drawing requires to be acoom-
panied by correct modulation of tone and colour, for as the form
in question recedes from the eye, changes of the most delicate
kind in the illumination and hue of the parts present themadves
for record and reproduction. The artist who first achieved
mastery in these refinements of chiaroscuro was Leonardo da
Vind, while Correggio as a colourist added to Leonardesque
modelling an equally delicate rendering of the modulation of
local colour in rdatioa to the incidence of light, and the greater
or less distance of each part from the eye. This represented
a great advance in the rendering of natural truth, and prepared
the way far the mastea of the xjth century. It is not oa^ by
linear penpective, or Che progrssive diminyiioa in stoa «f
objects as they recede, that the eifect of space and dwtanor caa
be compassed. This depends more on what artists Imow as
" tone " or " values," that is, on the gradual degmdatioB of the
intensity of light and shadow, and the diminishing saturatioa
of ook>un, or, as we may express it in a word that is not however
quite adequate, aerial perspective. That which heooBsdo aad
Correggio had accomplished in the moddUng, Ugbtiag aad
tinting of the single form in space had to be applied by svccacdii^
artists to space as a whole, and this was the work not ol the s6ch
but of the 1 7th century, and not of Italians but of the maatcts of
the Netherlands and of Spain.
§ i8. The CMlribution ef Venia.—Bthn we enter upon this
fourth period of the development of tlie art, something must be
said of an all-important contiibution that painting owes lo the
naasters of Venice.
The rderence is not only to Venetian colouring. This was
partly, 95 we have seen, the result of the temperament and
drcumstaaces of the people, and we may ascribe also to the
peculiar position of the dty another Venetian chacacteristic.
There is at Venice a sense of openness and space, aad the aitisu
seem anxious on their canvases io convey the same in^pecasioa
of a large entourage. The landscape background, whi^ we
have already found on early Flenush panels, beoMaes a featoie
of the pictures of the Venetians, but these avoid the raeciciiloiis
detail of the Flemings and treat their spaces in a broader aad
simpler fashion. An indispensable conditioa however §ar the
rich and varied effects of colour shown on Venetian canvases was
the possession by the painters of an adequate technique. la
the third part of this article an account is given of the change
in technical methods due, not so much to the introdoctioa of the
oil medium by the Van Eycks, as to the exploitation at Venice cf
the unsuspected resources which that medium could be auwk
to afford. Giovanni Bdlini, not Hubert van Eyck, b really the
primal painter in oil, because he was the first to manipttlate
it with freedom, and to play off against eadi other, the vaikraa
effects of opaque and transparent pigment. His noble picture
at Murano, representing the Doge Barbarigo adoring the
Madonna, represents his art at its best (see fig. si, Plate VI.).
Bellini rendered possible the painters of the cuhainatiag
perifxl of Venetian art, Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto, with oibets
hardly less great. Giorgione was the first who auMle the ait,
as an art of paint not merely of design, speak to the souL Bis
melting outlines and the crisp dean touches that wake the piece
to life; his glowing hues and the pearly neutrals that give then
repose and quality; the intimate appeal of his dreamy faces,
his refined but voluptuous forms, and the large freedom of liis
spaces of sky and distance, all combine to impress us with a
sense of the poetry and mysuiy of creation that we derive from
the works of no other extant painter. The *' Concert " of tbc
Louvre, fig. aa, Plate VII. is typically Gioigionesque.
Tintoretto, more intellectually profound, nK>re passionate,
writes for us his message in his stormy brush-strokes, noiw
shaking us with terror, now hfting our souls on the wings of his
imagination; but with him as with the younger master it is
always the painter who speaks, and always in the terms of
colour and texture and handling. Lastly, between the two,
unapproachable in his majestic calm, stands Titian. Combining
the poetry of Giorgione with much o' Tintoretto's depth and
passion, he is the first, and still perhaps the greatest, of the
supreme masters of the painter's art. His mastcrpieoe is the
great "PresenUtion" of the Venice Academy, fig. sj, Hate
VII. Painting, it is true, has to advance in its development
beyond the ideals of Titian's century, but it loses on the ethical
side more than on the technical side it wins, and without the
Venetians the world would have never known the full possi*
bilities of the art that began so simply and at so eariy a stage of
human civilisation.
§ 19. The Fourth Perifii: the ReabxaHmmf the Truth •jSpau.
Changed Rttothn 0/ Painting to Nalure,^Jty the 17th century
the development of painting had passed through all iU stages^
and the pictare «ias ae lon^ a mere silhouette or a traascppc
OEVEtjOPMENTI
PAINTINO
473
of objects agafnsi a Hat backgroand, but rather an enchanted
mirror of the world, in which might be reflected ipaoe beyond
space in Infinite recession. With this transformation of the
picture there was connected a complete change in the relation
of the artist to nature. Throughout all the earlier epochs of
the art that painter had concerned himself not with nature as
a whole, but with certain selected aspects of nature that furnished
him with his recognized subjects. These subjects were selected
on account of their intrinsic beauty or importance, and as
representing intrinsic worth they claimed to be delineated
in the dearest and most substantial fashion. In the 17th
century, not only was the world as a whole brought within
the artist's view, but it presented itself as worthy in every
part of his most reverent attention. In other words the art
of the 17th century, and of the modem epoch in general, is
democratic, and refuses to acknowledge that difference in artistic
value among the aspects of nature which was at the ba^s of the
essentially aristocratic art of the Greeks and Italians. It does
not follow that selection is of any less importance in modem
painting than it was of old; the change is that the basis of selec-
tion is not now a fixed intrinsic gradation amongst objects, but
rather a variable difference dependent not on the object itself
but on certahi accidents of its position and lighting. The
artist still demands that nature shall inspire him with her
beauty, but he has learned that this beauty is so widely diffused
that he may find it anywhere. It was a profound saying of
John Constable that there is nothing ugly in nature, for, as he
explained it, let the actual form and character of an object be
what it would, the angle at which it might be viewed, and the
effect upon it of light and colour, could always make it beautiful.
It is when objects and groups of objects have taken on themselves
this pictorial beauty, which only the artistically trained eye
can discern, that the modem painter finds himself in the presence
of his '* subject," and he knows that this magical play of beauty
may appear in the most casual and unlikely places, in mean
and squalid corners, and upon the most ordinary objects of
daily life. Sometimes it will be a heap of litter, sometimes a
maiden's face, that will be touched with this pictorial charm.
Things to the common eye most beautiful maj be bantn of it,
while it may touch and glorify a clod.
The artist who was the first to demonstrate convhidngly
this prindple of modem painting was Rembrandt. With
Hcmbrandt the actual intrinsic character of the object before
him was of small concern. Beauty was with him a matter of
surface effect that depended on the combined influence of the
actual local colour and superfidal modelling of objects, with
the passing condition of their lighting, and the greater or
less clearness of the air through whidi they were seen. Behind
the effect produced In this fortuitous fashion the object in itsdf
vanished, so to 9ay, from view. It was appearance that was
important, not reality. Rembrandt's art was rdated essentially
not to things as they were but as they seemed. The artists
of the i5tb century, whose careful ddineation of objects gives
them the title of the earliest reallsu, portrayed these objects
in precise analytical fashion each for itself. More advanced
painters regarded them not only in themsdves but ia thdr
artistic relations as combinhig beanties of form and colour that
together made up a pictorial effect Rembrandt in his later work
attended to the pictorial effect alone and practically annulled
the objects, by redudng them to pure tone and colour. Things
are not there at all, but only the semblance or effect or " impres-
sion " of things. Breadth is in thb way combined with the
most delicate variety, and a new form of painting, now called
'* impressionism," has come into bdng.
To give back nature just as she is seen, iii a purely' pictorial
aspect, is the final achievement ci the painter's craft, but as the
differences of tone and colour on which pictorial beatfty depends
are extremely subtle, so it is only by a skill of touch that teems
like the most accomplished sleight of hand that the required
illusion can be produced, and in thb way the actual handling
of the brush assumes in modem painting an importance which
in the t4d days it never possessed. Hie effect is produced not by
definite statements of form and ealoor, hot by what Sir Charies
Eastlake termed " the judidous unfinish of a coDsnmmate
workman," through which " the flat surface is tnasformed into
space.*' Frans Hab of Haarlem, who was bom in 1580, was
perhaps the fint to reveal the artistic possibilities of a free
suggestive handling in oil paint, and Van Dytk la said to have
marvelled bow Hab was able to sketch in a portrait " with'
single strokes of the brush, each in the right place, withcut
altering them and without fusing them together." In the
wonderful late Veiazques at Vienna, the portrait of the Infant
Philipp Prosper as a child of two years oU, the white drapery,
the minute fingers, the delicate baby face from which look out
great eyes of darkest blue, an all indicated with touches so
loosely thrown upon the canvas that seen near by they are aM
confusion^-yet the life and truth are In them, and at the proper
focal distance nature herself b before as. The touches combine
to give the forms, the local ooioars, the depth, the solidity of
nature, while at the same time the chief impresdon they convey
b that of the opalescent pby of changing tones and hues which,
eluding the limitations of definite contours, make up to the
painter's eye the chief bemity of the exteraal world. Moreover
it will be understood that thb realisation of the truth of space,
which b the dbtinguishiag quality of modem painting, does
not mean that the artbt b always to be rendering large views of
sky and plain. The gift of setting objects in space, so that the
atmosphere plays about then, and their rdations of tone to their
surroundings are absolutely correct and convindng, b shown
jQst as well in a group of things dose at hand as In a wide knd-
scape. The t>ackgreunds in the plctmes by V e laaques of ** The
Surrender of Breda " and ** Don Balthazar Cailos " at Madrid
are magnificent in thdr limitless suggestion of the free spaces
of earth and sky, but the artist's power m thb respect b Just as
effeaively shown in the cresthm of space in the Interion of
" The Maids of Hogsour " and the'* Sphmers," and theskiU with
which he brings away the hand of the sitter from hb white robe,
in the " Innocent X." of the Doxia Palace at Rene. The faet
b that the scab on which the modem painter works, and the
nature of hb subjects, mske no differeooe in the essential chaf*
acter of the result. A very few sqaain feet of canvas were
suffident for Rnyadad to convey In hb " Haaikm from the
Danes " the most sublime impsessioii of infinity; and a Dutch
interior by De Hooch gives as just as much fccUng of air and
dbtance as one of the vast panoramif bndscapn of De Koningk
or Rubens.
§ so. /i«i^fes3soiibm.~The term " imprcssionbm," noch heard
in artistic discussions of to-day, b said to date from a certain
czhibitKin in Parb in 1671, Jn the catalogue of which the wonl
was often osed; a pictnre bdng called Impnttiou dt mom pe^
d/m, or Impnuiotk d'tm ekai ^ u fnmim, ftc An
influential critic summed up these impressions, and dabbed
the exhibition ** Salon dcs Impftasionbtes " (Muther, ir«l«ni
PainHng, 1896, iL 7xS>. It b a mbtake however to suppon
that the style of painting denoted by thb term b an iavcntioD
of the day, for, in so far as it b practised seiioasly sad with
adequate ftrtbtic powers, it b essentiallj the same styb as that
of some of the greatest X7th-centavy masters, such as Rembrandt
and Velazquez. Modem invtstigatioD into the reasons of things
has provided the system with a sdeotifie basb and justification,
and we can see that it really corresponds with the experimentally
determined facts of human vIsmmi. The act of *' seemg " may
mean one or two different things. We may (x) aUow our glance
to travel leisurely over the field of vision, viewing the objccu one
by one, and forming a dear picture to oursdves of each in tarn;
or (>) we may try to take in the whofe field of vision at a gUacSi
ignoring the spedal objects and trying to frame before oursdves
a sort of summary representation of the whob; or again, (5)
we may choose a singb point in the fidd of vision, and focus on
that our attention, allowing the surrounding objecu to group
themsdves in an indistinct general mass. We can look at nature
in any one of these three ways ; each b as legitimate as the othm;
bat since in most ordinary cases we look at things in order to
gain inf oraaatioik about (hem, our vision b usualfy of the fint or
*74
PAINTD4G
IDBVEUOPMEn
tiitl3rtical kind, ia-ivhicfa «e fix the objects successively, noting
cadi by each their individual chazactefistics. As the object-
of painting is to reproduce what is seen as we see it, so in the
majority of cases painting corresponds to this, our usual way,
of viewing nature. That is to say, all painters of the early
schools, and the majority of painters at all times, represent nature
in a way that answers to this analytical visbn. The treatment
of groups of objects in the mass, though, as we have seen,
occasionally essayed even in ancient times (see S§ 8, 9), does not
become the painter's ideal UH the Z7th century. We find then,
and we find here and there through-all the .later periods of the
art, efforts oa the part of the artist to reproduce the effect of
vision of the other two kinds, to show how objects look when
regarded all together and not one by one, or bow they look when
«e focus our attention on one of them but notice at the same
time how all the others that ate in the field of vision group them*
■elves round in a penumbra, in which they are seen and yet not
seen. The special developments ol impressionistic art in recent
times in France and England are dealt with in the article on
Imfsbsskonxsm (see also the appendix to this artkle on RuaU
Schools of Pointing), but it is mentioned here as a style of paint*
ing that Is the k>gical outcome of the evolution of the art which
has been traced from the earliest times to the X7th century. For
the particular pictorial beauty, on which the modem painter
traina his eye, is largely a bnuty of relation, and depends on
the mutual effect on each other of the elements in a group.
Unless these are looked at in the mass their piaorial quality will
be entirely missed. This word oa Impressionisoi, m» corre-
sponding to certain ways of looking at nature, is accordingly a
neoesaary adjunct to the critique of modern painting since
the 17th century.
§ at. Painting ta lAe Uodtm SckooU^—TU history of the art
has been presented here as an evolution, the ultimate outcome
of which was the impressionist painting t>f x7th-ceotuiy
masters such as Rembrandt and Velaxques. In this form of
painting the artbt is only concerned with those aspects of nature
which give him the sense of pictorial beauty in lone and oofeur,
and tiMse aspects he reproduces on his canvas, not as a mere
mirror would, but touched, pervaded, transfigured by bis own
artistic pccsonality. It does not follow however tbu these
particular ideals of the art have inspired modem painters as a
body. No one who visits the picture exhibitions of the day, or
even our galleries of older art, wfll fail to note that a good deal
of modem painting since the 17th century has been academic
and coBvcntieoal, or prosaiCaUy natural, or merely popular in
its appeal With week of this kind we are not concerned, and
accordingly, in the uble (VIII.) which follows in Part II. of the
artide, the nunes with fiow eaocptions are those of artisU
who embody the maturer pictorial aims that have been under
or the schools of the x7tfa cntuiy that of Spain, owing
much to the sn*adled Italian '* naturalistic" preduoed the
inoonparable Velaaqua with one or two notable ooatempor-
aiies, and later on in the xSth century the interesting figure
of Goya; while the influence of Vekaques on Whxstkr and other
paanten of to-day is a more important fact connected with the
school than the recent appeaiaaoe in it of brilliant trrhniral
esectttants audi as Fortuny.
The schools of Flandcn and of France are doedy oonpecied,
and both owe much to Italian fa&fluence; The land of Italy,
rather than any works of Italian paintets, has been the inspire.-
tion of the ao<aUed classical landsospists, among whom the
Lofiaiaer Claude and the French Poussin take the rank of
captains of a goodly band of fottowers. In figure painting the
Vcnetiaas inspire Rubens, and Rapharl stands at the head
of the academic drau^tsmca and oompesen of " historical "
pieces who have been especially numeroos in France. Rubens
and Raphad together fbtmed Le Brun in the days of Louis XIV.,
David and Ddasodie in the two succeeding centuries, and the
modem deoocative figure paintets, such as Baudry, whose works
adom the public buUdiii«» of Fraaoe. Fleaush influence is also
stnafaa the Ftencfa painUag in acallaat vein of thfrsSth century
fraas the serious and beautiful art ot Watfcesi (fig. 04* PUt»VlIL)
to the slighter productioos of a FragpnanL Van. Dycfc, anotber
Fleming of geaius, is laigdy responsible for the British poniait*
ure of the i8th centuxy, which im affiliated to him through Knellcr
and Sir Peter Ldy. There is something of the courtly Aegfuiat
of Van Dyck in the beautiful Gainsborough at Edinbufgh
representing the Hon. Mrs Graham (fig. J5, Plate VUL). On the
whole, though the lepresentative masten of these two scbqpb
are original, or at any rate personal, itt technique^ they are in
their attitude towards nature laigdy dependent oa the traditions
established in the great luUan schools of fieure^Mimtiug of the
16th century. The contrast when wo turn from France aud
Flanders to HoUand is extraordinary. This country produced
at the close of the t6th centuiy aqd in the first half of the 17th
a body of painters who owed no direct debt at ail to Italy, and,
so far as appears, would have been what they were had Titian and
Raphad and Michelangelo never existed. They took advantage,
it is true, of the mastery over nature and over the material
apparatus of painting which hfsd been won for the srarU by
the Italians of the 15th and i6th centuries^ but .there their
debt to the peninsula ended, and ia their outlookr upon nature
they were entirely origioaL
The Dutch school is indeed an epitome of the art in its modem
phase, and all that has been said of this applies with speoMl
force to the painting of HoUand. Democratic .in dtoice of
subject, subtle in observation of tone and atmosphere, refined in
colour, free and yet precise in execution, sensitive to every charm
of texture and handlings the. Dutch painter of the fiist half of
the 17th century represents the most varied and the most
finisheid accomplishment in paint that any school ca& show
Such work as he perfected could not fail to exercise a ppvcrful
effect on later art, and accordingly we find a current of influence
flowing from HoUand through the whole course of modem
painting, side by side with tbs more copious tide that had iu
fountain-head in Italy. Hogaith and Chardin and MorUnd
in the 18th century, the Norwich painters and Consuble in the
iQtb, with, the French Barbizon landscapists who look to the
last as their head, all owe an incalculable debt to the sincere
and simple but masterly art of the countrymen of Rembrandt.
(22. The Dijfereni Kinds 0/ Painting reprssenUd in the Modtrm
SchooU.—Tht fact that the Dutch painters have kit us master-
pieces in so many different walks of painting, makes it con-
venient that we should add here some brid notes oa characteristic
modern phases of the art on which th^ stamped the impress
of their genius. The normal subject for the artist, as we have
seeD» up to the 17th century, was the figure-subject, generally
in some coimexion with religion. The Egyptian portrayed tbe
men and women of his time, but the pictures, through their
connexion with the sepulchre, had a quasi-reli^ous signtficarux.
The Amyrian chronicled the acta of semi-divine kings. Greek
artists* whether sculptors or painters, were in the majority of
cases occupied with the doings of gods and heroes. Christian
art, up to the x6lh century, was almost cxdusivdy devoted to
reUgwus themes. In all this art, as well as in the more secular
figuce-paimingof the modem Khools, thcpersoiugcs represented,
with their doings and surroundings, were of intrinsic importance*
and the portrayal of them was in a measure an act of service
and of honour. Poftraiiyre is differentiated from this Uod of
subject-picture through stages which it would be interesting
to tnce, but the portrait, tLough secular, is always treated in
such a way as to exalt or dignify the sitter. Another kind ol
figure-piece, also differentiated by degrees from the subject-
picture of the loftier kind, is the so-called Genre Painting, in
which the human actors aod their goings-on are in thcmsdves
indifferent, trivial, or mean and even rc^Uent; and in which,
accordingly, intrinsic intcxcst of subject has disappeared to be
replaced by an artistic interest of a different kind. Landscape^
ia modem times so important a branch of painting, b also ad
outcome of the traditional figure-piece, lor at first it is nothing but
a background to a scene in which human figures are prominent.
liarin€ Pointing is a branch of landscape art differentiated from
this, but supplied at first in the same way with figure-interest.
DEVBLOPMSNTl
PAINTING
475
The origia of Animot Pa^Uiug !s to be sooght paitly in
figun-pteces, where, a^ in Egypt and Attyria, animals play
K put in scenes of bninan fife» and partly in landscapes, in
whkh cattk, &c., are kitfoduced to enUven the foreground. The
Sunting Fieturty oomMning a treatment of figure! and animals
in action with landscape of a pictarcs4^ character, gives an
artist like Rubens a welcome opportunity, and the picture of
Dwd Gam4 may be regarded as its ofishoot. This brin^ us to
the important cUus of Stitt^Ufe FtdtUlng, the relation of which
to the figure-piece can be traced through the genre picture and
the portrait. As a natural scene in the background, so on the
nearer pfames, a judiciously chosen group of accessory objects
adds life and interest to the representation of a personage or
scene from human life. Later on these objects, when regarded
with the eyes of an attist fully opened to the beauty of the
world, become in themselves fit for artistic, aye, even ideal,
' treatment; and a VoUob will by the magic of bis art make the
interior of a huge and polished copper caldron look as grand as if
it were the very vault of heaven Itself.
§ 95. /*^/raiitfre.-^Attention has already been railed in § 7
to the skUl of the Egyptian artist in maridng (Merenoes of
species and race in animals and men. In the case of ptesonages
of special dbtiaction, notably kings, individual lineaments
were portrayed with the same ftreshness, the same accent of
truth. There is less of this power among the artists of Assyria.
The natumlism of Cretan and Mycenaean art is so striking that
we should expect to find portraiture represented among its
remainsy and this term may be fairly applied to the gold masks
that covered the faces of bodies in the tombs opened by Dr
ScMieoKum. In early (historical) Greek art some archaic vases
diow i«pvesei}taiions of named personages of the day, such as
Kiikg Arkesilasof Cyrene, that may fall under the same headizig,
and portraiture was no doubt attempted in the early painted
tombstones. The ideal ^aracter of Groek art. however kept
portraiture in the backgroand till the Liter period after Alex-
ander the Great, whose effigy limned by ApeUcs was one of the
most famous pictuite in antiquty. Our collections of works
of classical art have been recently enriched by a aeries of actual
painted portraits of men and women of the late classical period,
executed on mummy cases in Egypt, and discovered in GraecO-
Egyptian cemeUries. An attempt has been made by comparison
with coins to identify some of the personages represented with
members of the Ptolemaic house, including the famous Cleopatra,
but it is safer to regard them, with Flinders Petrie, as portraits
of ordinary men and women of the earliest centuries a.o. Tech-
nically they are of the bighat interest, as will be noticed in ( 4a.
From the artistic point of view one notes their variety, their life*
like character, and the pleasing impression of the human peison-
siity which some of them afford. There are specimens in the
London National Gallery and British Museum.
During the early Christian and early medieval periods por-
traits always existed. The effigies of rulers appeared, for
example, on their coins, and there are some creditable
attempts at portraiture on Anglo^ason pieces of money. In
paindng we find the most continuous series in the illuminated
MSS. where they occur in the 80<alled dedieatory pictures,
in MSS. intended for royal or distinguished penons, where
the patron is shown seated in state and perhaps receiving the
volume. The object |Htre, as Wdtmann says, ' always appears
to be to gfve a true portrait of the exalted personage himself "
{Hi$i, 4^ Pamting, Eng; trans., I. axa). Julia Anida, grand-
daughter of Valentinut III., in the 6th century; the Carolingian
empiRoi; Lothafa*, in the 9th; the Byxantine emperors, Basil 11.
in the loth, and Nikcphoros Botaniates in the nth, &c.,
appKV in this fashion. Some famous mosaic pictures in
S. Vltale, Rayenna, contain efiSgics of Justinian, Theodora, and
the Ravennese bishop, Maximisn. In very many medieval
worics of art a small portrait of the donor or the artist makes its
appearance as an accessory.
With the rise of schoob of painting b the 14th and 15th
centuries, especially In the north, the portrait begitis to sssume
gnater prominence. The living personage of the day not only
figures as donor, but tafccs his place hi the pklnre Hsdf a^one
of the actors fn the sacred or historical scene which is portrayed.
A good deal of misplsced tngenuity has been expended In older
and more modem dajrs in identifying by guess-woric historical
figures in old pictures, but there is no doubt that such Were often
iotroduced. Dante and some of his famous contemporaries
make their appearance in a fresco ascribed to Giotto in the chapel
of the Bargello at Florence. One is willing to see the facer and
form of the great Masaccio fai the St Thomas with the rod cloak,
on the right of the group, in the fresco of the Tribute Money
<see ( r$). Dttrer certainly psints himself as one of the Magj in
his picture in the Uffixi. In Italy Ghirhmdafo (see § 1 5) carried
to an extreme this f ashisn, and thereby unduly secularised his
biblical represenUtions. Tbe-portrait proper, as an independent
artistic creation, comes into vogue in the course of the rsth
century both north and south of the Alps, and Jan van Eycfc,
Memlinc, and DOrer are in this department in advance of the
Florentines, for whereas the latter abnost confine themselves
to flat profiles, Van Eycfc introduces the thzee-quaxter face view,
which represents an improvement in the rendering of form.'
Mantegna and Antonello da Messina'portray with great finnnes%
and to Uccello is ascribed an interesting series of heads of hift
contemporaries. It Is Gentile and Giovanni Bellini however
who may be regarded as the fathers of nsodem portrait painting.
Venetmn art was always more secular In spirit than that oi the
rest of Italy, and Venetian portraits wcr abundant. Those by
Gentile Bellini of the Sultan Mahomet 11., and by Giovanni
of the Doge Loredano are specially fao^ous. VasaH in his
notice of the Bellini says that the Venetian palaces were full of
family portraits going back sometimes to the fonrth generation.
Some of the finest portraits in the world axe thO work of the
great Venetians of the 1 6th century, for they combine pictorial
quality with an air of easy greatness which later painters find
it hard to Impart to their creat&yAs. Though gieatly damaged,
Titian's equestrian portrait of Charles, V. at Madrid (fig. a6,
Hate VIII.) is one of the very finest of existing works of the kind.
It Is someida/t remarkable that of the other Italian painters
who' executed portraits the most successful was the idealist
Raphael, whose papsl portnuU of Julius II. and Leo X. are
masterpieoes of firm and accurate delineation. Leonardo's
" Monna Lisa " is a study rather than a portrsit pcoper.
The reab'stic vem, which, as we have seen, runs tfaroogh
northern paintmg, explains to some extent the extraordinary
merit in portraiture of Holbein, who rqxesents the culmination
of the efforts in this directipa of masten like Jan van Eyck
and Dfirer. Holbein is one of the greatest dclmeators that ever
lived, and In many of his portraits he not only presents his
sitter in life-like fashion, but he surrounds hhn with accessory
objects, painted in an analytical spirit, but with a truthfnlnesa
that has seldom been equaUed. Tbe portrait of Georg Gysis at
Berlin represents this side of Hdbeio's art at iu best (fig. 27,
Plate Vni.). Someihie portraits by Italianising Flemingssuchas
Antonio Moro (see Table I.) bring us to the notable masters in
portraiture of the r7th century. All the schoob of the period
were great in this phase of the art, but it flourished more espe-
cially in HoUand, where politioal events had developed in the
people self-reliance and a strong sense of individuality. Aa %
consequence the Dutch men and women of the period from about
1575 to 1675 were incessantly having their portraits painted,
either singly or in groups. The so-called " corporation picture "
was a feature of the times. This had for its subject some group
of individuals associated as members oi a company or board or
military mesa. Such works are almost incredttdy numerous
in HoUand, and their artistic evolution is interesting to tsBC&
The earlier ones of the i6th century are merely coUections of
single portraits each treated for itself, the link of oonnsxioa
between the various mcmbeis of the group being quite arbitrary*
Later on efforts, that were ultimately successful, weie UMde fb
group the portraits into a sin^ composition so that the picture
became an artistic whole. Frana Hals of Haaifan, one of the
most brilliant paintcn of the impressionist school that he did
much to found, achieved se rt a r ka bte success hi the artisliq
476
PAINTING
(DEVSLOPMEMT
groiaping of a namber of portraitt, to th&i cadi iboiild have the
desired prominence while yet the effect of the whole was that
of a unity. His masterpieces in this department in the town-
ball at Haarlenivhave never been equalled.
As portraitists the other great i7th<entuiy masters fall into
two sets, Rembrandt and Velasquez contrasting witb Rubens
and his pupil Van Dyck. The portraits of the two former are
individualised studies in which the sitter has been envisaged in
an artistic aspect, retaining his personality though sublimated
to a harmonious display of tone and colour. The Flemings are
more conventional, and representing rather the type than the
individual^ are disposed to sacrifice the individuality of the sitter
to their predetermined scheme of beauty. Both Velasquexand
Rubens have left portraits of Isabel de Bourbon, first wife of
Philip IV. of Spain, but whereas the Spaniard's version gives us
an uncomely face but one full of character, that of the Fleming
•hows us merdy the big-eyed buiom wench we are accustomed
to meet on all his canvases, Rembrandt was much less careful
than Velaaques or Holbein or Hab to pccserve the individuality
of the sitter. He did not however, Uke the Flemings, convention-
aliie to a type, but worked each piece into an artistic study of
tone; colour and texture, in the courw of which ha might deal
somewhat cavalierly with the actual fact^ of the pi^ of nature
before him. The result, though meomparable in iu artistic
strength, may sometimes, in comparison with a Velazquez, seem
laboured, but there is one Rembrandt portrait, that of Jan Six
at Amsterdam, that is pamted as directly as a Hals, and with
the subtilty of a VeUzquez, while it possesses a richness of
pictorial quality in which Rembrandt surpasses all his ancient
or modem compeers (see fig. 98, Plate DC.).
In the 18th century, though France produced some good
limners and Spain Goya, yet on the whole England was the
homo of the best -portraiture. Van Dyck had been in the
service of Charles L, and foreign representatives of his style
carried on afterwards the tradition of hb essentially courtly
art, but thete existed at the same time a line of native British
portraitists of whom the latest and best was Hogarth. One
spedal form of portraiture, the minialMrtr (^.v.), has been
characteristically English throughout. The greater En^ish
and Scottish portraitists of the latter part of the i8th century,
headed by Reynokls, owed much to Van Dyck, aad their work
was of a pronounced pictorial character. Every portrait,
that is to say, was before everything beautiful as a work of art.
Detail, either of features or dress, was not insisted on; and the
effort was rather to generalize than to accentuate characteristic
points. In a word, while the artist recognized the claims of the
facts before him to adequate portrayal, he endeavoured to fuse
all the dements of the piece into one tovely artistic unity, and in
so doing he secured in his work the predominant quality of
breadth. This style, handed on to painters of kss power, died
out in the first half of the x^th century in attenuated produc-
tions, in which harmony became emptiness. To this has suc-
ceeded in Britain, still the home of the best European portraiture,
a more modem style, the dominant notes of which have been
truth and force. While the older school was seen at its best
when dealing with the softer forms of the female sex and of
youth, these modems excelled in the delineation of character
in strongly-marked male heads, and some of them could hardly
succeed wth a woman's portrait. The fine appreciation of
character in portraiture shown by Sir John Watson Gordon
about the middle of the 19th century marked the beginning of
this forcible style of the later Victorian period, a style suited
to an age of keen intellectual activity, of science and of matter-
of4act. More recently still, with the rapid development in
certain circles of a taste for the life of fashion and pleasure,
the portrait of the showily-dressed lady has come again into
vogue, and if any special inffncnce is here to be discerned it
may be traced to Paris.
§ M- Gtnre Painting. The term ** genre" is elliptxcal— it
stands for genre bas, and means the " k>w style," or the style
In which there is no grandeur of subject or scale. A genre
piece is a picture of a scene of ordinary bumaa life without
any religious or historical slgnificaaet, and thotiah it makes
iu appearance earlier, it was in the Netherlaad soiools off tlie
first half of the 1 7 th century that it was established as a canonkal
fomi of the art. In Egypt we have seen that- the subjecu fraa
human life have almost always a quasi-religbus chaiactec;
and the earliest examples of genre may be certain design on
early black-figured vases of the 6th century B.C. in Greece.
Genre painting proper was introduced at a later period In Greco^
and attracted special attention because of its contrast to the
general spirit of classical art. It had a special name about
which there is some difficulty but which seems to denote the
sameasfenrvdoi. In early Christian and eariy medieval paintiog
genre can hardly be recognised, but it makes its appearaDce in
some of the later illuminated MS^. and becomes more coDimon,
especially north of the Alps, in the 15th century. It «eally
basins in the treatment in a secular spirit of scenes from the
sacred, stoiy. These scenesi in Italy, but still more among the
pros^ artists of the north, were made more life-like and inter-
esting when they were furnished with personages and aooemorics
drawn from the present world. Real people of the day w«se as
we have just seeft introduced as actors in the scriptural events^
and in the same way all the objects and accessories m the
picture were portmyed from exiting models. It was cuy
sometimes for the spectator Co forget that be was looking at
biblical characters and at saints and to take the scene from
the standpoint ci actuality. Rembrandt, one of whose chief
titles to fame is derived from his religious pictures, often treats
a Holy Family as if it were $. mere domestic group of his owb
day. It was a change sure to come when the reUgkna stgnafi-
cance was abandoned, and the persons and objects ndaetd
to the terms of ordinary life. This of course represented a
break with a very long established traditkm, and it was ooly
by degrees, and in Germany and Flanders rather than in Itafy,
that the change was brought about. Thus for example, Sc
Eloi, the patron of goldsmiths, might be portrayed as saint,
but also as artificer with the impedimenta of the craft about
him. The next stage, represented by a charming piduie bgr
Quintin Matsys at Paris, shows us a goldsmith, no longer a
saint, but busy with the same picturesque accessories (fig. S9^
Plate IX.). He has however his wife by his side and she is readias
a missal which preserves to the piece a faint religknis odour.
Afterwards all religious suggestion is dropped, and we have the
f amitiar goldsmith or money changer in hii eveiyday suRoand-
inip, of which northern painting has furnished us with so many
examples.
Genre pamthig, however, is something a Uttle mote special
than is here implied. The term must not be made to cover
all figureiMeocs from ordinary life. There are pictures by
the late Italian "naturalists" of this kind; Camvaggio*B
"Card Pktyers" at Dresden ^ a familiar example. These
are too large hi scale to come under this heading, and the same
applies to the bodegones or pictures of kitchens aad ahops
fuU of pots and pans and eatables, which, largely influenced
by the Italian pictures just noticed, were common In Spain ia
the early days of Vdaaques. Nor again are the large and showy
subject pictures, which constitute the popular items in the
catalogues of Burlington House and the Salon, to be dassed
as " genre." The genre picture, as represented by its ackaofw-
ledged roasters, is small in scale, as suiu the nature of iu
subject, but is studied in every part and finished with the most
fastidious care. The particukr incident or phase of life por-
trayed is as a mie of little intrinsic importance, and only s
to bring figures together with some variety of pose and c
and to motive their surroundings. It b rarely that thei
of genre charge their pictures with satiric or didactic putpoae.
Jan Steen in Holland and Hogarth in England are the excep-
tions that prove the rule. The interest is in the mala aa
artistic one, and depends on the nice observance of rdations of
tone and colour, and a free and yet at the same time previse
touch. All these qualities combine to lend to. the typical gcnoB
picture an inlimilf, a sympathetic charm, that gives the mastcxa
1 of the style a firm hold on our affections. Probably the most
DEVEU>PMENT}
PAINTING
477
excellent pawtcrt of feate are Terborcfa» MeUu and Brouwer.
Ihe two first punters of the life of the upper classes, the last of
peasant existence in some of its mos* unlovely aspects. The
pktuies of Brouwer are among the most instructive documents
of modern painting. They are all snail pictures and nearly
all exhibit nothing but two or three loors drinking, fighting,
or otherwise characteristically ciaployed, but the artist's feeling
for colour and tone, and above all his inimitable touch, has
raised each to the rank of a masterpiece. He is best represented
in the Munich Pinacotek, from which has been selected fig. 30,
Plate IX. Hardly leaa admirable are Tcniers m Flanders, De
Hooch, Ver Mcer of Delft, Jan Stecn, A. van Ostade, in Holland,
while in more modern times Hogarth, Chardin, Sir David Wilkie,
Meissonier, and a boat of otheia carry the tradition of the work
down to our own day (see Table VIII.). Creuzc may have the
doubtful honour of having invented the sentimcoul figure-
piece from ordinary life that delights the non-artistic specutor
in our modem exhibitions.
I as* Landscape and Marine Fainting, This is one of the
most important and interesthig of the forms of painting that
belong especially to modem times. It ia trae that there ia
sufficient landscape ia andent art to furnish matter for a sub-
stantial book (Woennann, Die Landsckajt in der Kunsidtr dkn
V9lker^ Munich) X&76), and the extant remains of Pompeian and
Roman wall-painting contain a very fair proportion of works
that may be brought under this heading. By far the most
Smporta^kt examples are the half-dozen or so of pictures forming
n series of illustrations of the Odyssey^ that were found on the
Esquillne at Rome in 1848, and are now in the Vatican library.
As we shall see it to be the case with the landscapes of the late
nedieval period, these have all figure subjects on the nearer
pUnea to which the landscape pmper forms a background,
but the latter is far more Important than the figures. In
tome of these Odyss^ landscapes there is a feefing after space
and atmospheric effect, and in a few cases an almost modem
ticatment of light and shade, which give the works a pocominent
place among andent prodactions which seem to prefigure the
later davekipmenu of the art. In the rendering of hmdscape
detail, espedally in the matter of trees, nothing in antiqae art
cquala tha pictures of a garden psunted on the four walls of a
room ia the villa of livia at Prima Porta near Rome. They
are repradnoed in Antike Denkmdler (BerUa, 1887, dec.). These
may be the actual work of a painter of the Augustan age named
Ludioa or Studios, who is praised by Pliny {HisL NaL xxxv.
116) for having introduced a style of wall dcooration in which
" villas, harbours, landscape, gardens, sacred groves, woods,
hiUs, fish-ponds, straits, streams and shores,, any scene in short
that took his fancy " were depicted in lively and fadle fashion.
Pompeian wall paintings exhibit mony pieces of the kind, and
we fiJMl the same style illustrated in the low reliefs in modelled
atucco, of which the specimens found near the Villa Famcsina,
and now in the Tcrme Musenm at Rome, are the best known.
In medieval painting landKSpe waa practically reduced to
a few typioLl objects, buildings, rocks, trees, dou(b, Ac, which
atood for natural scenery. Occasionally however in the MSS.
these objects are grouped in pictorial fashion, as in a Byxantine
Psalter of the loth century in the National Library at Paris.
The beginning of the xsth century may be reckoned as the time
when the modem development of landscape art had its origin,
and Maaacdo here, as in other walks of painting, takes the
lead. Throoghout the century the landscape background,
always in stria subordination to the figure interest, is a common
feature of Flemish and Italian pictures, bat, in the laUer
especially, the forms of natural objects are very oonventional,
and the improaiott produced on the dty-loving Tuscan or
Padnan of the time by mountain scenery is shown by the fact
that rocks are commonly shown not only as perpendicular but
overhangiog. Titian is the first painter who, as mountain-bred,
depicts the soaring peaks with real knowledge and affection
(set the distance in fig. 23, Plate VU.), and the Venetians are
the first to paint landscape with some breadth and sense of
spaciousness, while, as we have seen, the Flemings, from Hubert
van Eyck downwards, distingobh themsdves by Ibeir minuio
rendering of details, in which they were followed later on by
Darcr, who was fond of landscape, and by Altdorfcr. Of
Durer indeed it has been said that some of his landscape sketches
in water-colour are the first examples in which a natural scene
is painted for its own sake alone. Some of the northern artists
of the " Italianizing " acbool of the 16th century, such as
Patinir, whom Dttrer, about 1530^ calls "Joachim the good
landscape painter," Paul Bril ktear in the century, and Adam
Elsheimcr, who worked at Rome about 1600, with several of
their contemporaries, must not be omitted in any sketch of
the history of the art. South of the Alps, the late Italian
SalvaLor Rosa treau the wilder aspects of nature with some
imaginative power, and his work, as well as the scenery of his
native land, had an influence in the mpid development of land-
scape art in the 17th century, which was in part worked out
in the peninsula. What is known as " classical landscape "
was perfected in the i7tb century, and its most notable masters
were the Lorrainer Claude Gel£e and the French Poussin and
Dughet, while the Italianising Dutch painters Both and Berchem
modify the style in accordance with the greater naturalism of
their countrymen.
The landscapes of Gande axe characteristic productions of
the X7th century, beGaus6 they convey as their primary
impresaon that of space and atmosphere. The compositions, ia
which a few motives such as rounded masses of foliage are
constantly repeated, are oonventional; and there is little effort
after naturalism or variety in detail; but the pictures are full
of art, and reproduce in teUing fashion some of the larger and
grander aspects of the material creation. There are generally
figures in the foreground, and these are often taken from
classical fables or from scripture, but Instead of the landscape*
as in older Italian art, being a background t6 the figures, these,
last come in merely to enliven and give interest to the scenery.
The style, in spite of a ceitam conventionality which offends
some modem writers on art, haa lived on, and was represented
in our own country by Richard Wilson, the contemporary
of Reynolds; and in some of his work, notably in the IJher
Shtdiarum, by Turner. Even Corot, Uiough so individual a
painter, owes something to the tradition of cfamical landscape.
The prevailing tendency of modem landscape art, eapedaUy
in more recent times, has been in the direction of naturalism.
Here the mastea of the Dutch school have produced the
canonical works that exercise a prrwim'sl inihience, and they
were preceded by certain northern masters such as the elder
Breughel, whose "Autumn** at Vienna haa trae poetry;
Savary, Roghman, and Hercules Seghers. Several of the Dutch
masters, even before the time of Rembrandt, excelled in the
trathful rendering of the scenes and objects of their own
simple but eminently paintable country; but it waa Rembrandt,
with his pupil de Koningk and his rival in this department
Jacob Ruysdad, who were the first to show how a perfectly
natural and unconventional rcndcHng of a stretch of coontry
under a broad expanse of sky might be raised by poetry and
ideal feeling to the rank of one Of the world's masterpieces of
painting. Great as was Rembrandt in what Bode has ailed
" the landscape of feeling," the " Haariem from the Dunes "
of Ruysdael (fig. 31, Plate DC) with some others of this artist's
acknowledged soccessea, sorpasa even his achievement.
Nearer our own time Constable caught the apfiit of the best
Dutch landscapists, and in robust natundism, controlled by
art And elevated to the ideal repon by greatness of spirit, he
became a worthy successor of fhe masters just named, while
on the other side he famished inspiration to the French painters
of the so-caBcd Barbimn school, and through them to many of
the present-day painters in Holland and in Scotland.
To fix the place of J. M. W. Tiimcr m landscape art is not
easy, for the range of his powen was so vast that he covered-
the whole field of nature and united in his own person the
classical and naturalistic schools. The special merits of each
of these phases of the art are united in this artist's ** Crossing
the Brook " in the National Gallery, that is probably the most
47*
PAINTING
PEVEL0PIIE3>rr
perfect laiuUcape in the world (fig. 32. Plate IX.). In a good
deal of Turner's later work there was a certain theatrical strain,
and at times even a garisbnets in colour, while his intense
idealism led him to strive after effects beyond the reach of human
art. We may however put out of view everything in Turner's
awre to which reasonable exception may on these grounds be
Ukcn, and there will still remain a body of work which for
extent, variety, truth and artistic taste is Ukfe the British fleet
among the navies of the world.
Among Turner's chief titles to honour is the fact that he
portrayed the sea in all its moods with a knowledge and
sympathy that give him a place alone among painten of
marine. Marine painting began among the Greeks, who were
fond of the sea, and the " Odyssey " and other classical land-
scapes are stronger on this side than the landscapes of the
Tuscans or Umbrians, who cared as little for the ocean as lor
the mountains. The Venetians did less for the sea In their
paintings than might have been expected, and in northern
art not much was accomplished till the latter part of the i6th
century, when the long line of the marine painters of Holland
is opened by Hendrick Cornelius Vroom, who found » vrorthy
theme for his art in the defeat of the Spanish Armada. Simon
de Vlieger of Rotterdam, who was bom about the beginning of
the 17th century, was the master of W Vandevclde the younger
(1633-1707), who has never been equalled for his truthful repre-
sentation of calm seas and shipping. He painted innumerable
pictures of the sea-fights of the time between the Enghsb and
the Dutch, those representing the victories of the Dutch being
in Holland, while at Hampton Court the English are triumphant.
There are exquisite artistic qualities in the painting of Vande-
velde, who is reckoned the canonical master in this branch of
art; but the few sea-pieces by Ruysdacl, especially the " Dykes "
of the Louvre, and the " Stormy Sea " at Berlin, exhibit the
element under far more imaginative aspects. Besides Turner
there are many British artists of modern days who have won
fame in this bianch of art that is naturally attractive to
islanders.
% 26. Animal PaitUiHg.—-ln all early schools of representative
art from the time of the cave*dwellers downwards, the artist
has done better with animals than with the human figure,
and there i» no epoch of the art at which the portrayal of
animals has not flourished. (On Egyptian and Assyrian animals
see § 7.) In Greece the representations of animals on coins
are so vnried and so excellent that we may be sure that the
praise given to the pictures of the same creatures by contem-
porary artists is not overdrawn. In northern art animals have
always played an important part, and the motives of medieval
decoration are largely drawn from this source, while beast
symbolism brings them into vogue in connexion with religious
themes. In Italian and early Flemish and German art animals
are as a rale only accessories, though some artists in aU these
schools take spodal delij^t in them; and when, early in the 17th
century, they begin to Uke the chief pbce, the motive is often
found in Paradise, where Adam and Eve lord it over the animal
creation. If De Vlieger and Ruysdacl are the first to show the
Ka in agitation, Rubens may have the same credit for revealing
the passion and power of the animal nature in the violent
acttons of the combat or the chase. In this his contemporary
Frans Snydets (rS79-r*S7)i and after Snyders Jan Fyt,
specialized, and the first named is generally placed at the head
of animal painters proper.
In Holland, in the x 7th century, the animal nature presented
itself under the more contemplative aspect of the ruminants in
the Inah water-meadows. True to their principle of doing every*
thing they attempt in the best possible way, the Dutch paint
horses (Cuyp, Woowennan) and cattle (Cuyp. Adrian Vande-
veMe, Pianl Potter) with canonical perfection, while Uondekoeter
delmeates live cocks and hens, and Wccnix dead hares and
moor-fowl, in a way that makes us feel that the last word on
such themes has been spoken. There is a large while turkey by
Hondekoeter in which the truth of mass and of texture in the
full soft phimage is coasbined with a delicacy in the detail of
the aixy filanents, that is the despair of the most accomplished
modem executant
But animals have been treated more nobly than when diown
in Flemish agnation or m Dutch phlegmatk calm. Leonardo
da Vinci was specially famed for his horses, which he may have
treated with somethtng of the majesty of Phddias. Difttt has
a magnificent horse in the ** Kmght and Death/' but this is
studied from the CoUeom monument. Neater our own time
the painter of Napoleonic France, G^ricault, gave a fine reading
of the equine nature. Rembrandt's drawings of lions are
notable feaiuret in his work, and in our own day in France and
England the lion and other great beasU have been treated with
tme imaginative power.
I ij. SliU^Lifc Paitaing.^Ukt portraitiue and landscape,
the painting of objects on near planes, or as it is called stiU-hf e
painting, is gradually differentiated from the figun-pieoe which
was supreme in the eariy, and has been the st^ile product in all.
the scliools. Just as is the case with the other subsidiaTy
branches of painting, it appears, though only as a by-produa,
in the history of ancient classical painting, paiaca practically
out of existence in medieval times, b^nt to oome to a knowledge
of itself in the 15th and i6th centuries, and attaina canoaicity
in the Dutch school of the fint half of the lyth century. Still-
life may be called the chaiactcxistic form of painting of the
modem world, becaiise the intrinsic woith of the objecu
represented is a matter of complete indiffete&ce when eonpaied
with their artistic treatment in tone, colour and textwe. By
virtue of this treatment it has been noted ((t 19, 20) that a study
of a group of ordinary objocu, when seen and depicted by a
Rembrandt, may have all the essential qualities of the highest
manifestations of the art. There is no finer Renriwaiidt for
pictorial quality than the picture in the Louvre leprcscBtlqg
the carcase of a flayed ox in a flesber's booth. As iUustiuAiig
the principle of modem painting this foim of the giapkic art
has a vahie and importance which in itself it oould hardly
daim. It is needless to repeat in this ^■«w**^*^p»ft what haa
been said oq modem painting in general, and it will suffice
here to indicate briefly the history of this particular phase of
the art.
The way was prepared for it as has been noticed by the
minute and forcible rendering of acxcssory objects in the figure-
pieces and portraits of the early Flemish masters, of Ddicr, aad
above all of Holbetn. The painting of flower and frait pieces
without figure interest by Jan Breughel the younffer, who waa
bora in x6oi, icpresento a stage onward, and contemporaiy
with him were several other Dutch and Flemish T*t*^*l«T»i' in
this department, among whom Jan David de Heem, bom 1603,
and the rather older Willem Klaaaz Heda may be mentioned.
Their subjecU sometimes took the form of a luncheon taUe
with vesscb, plate, fruit and other eatables; at other times of
groups of costly vessels of gold, silver and glass, or of articles used
in art or science, such as musical instruments and the like; and
it is especially to be noted that the handling stops alwa>^
abort of any illusive reproduction of the actual textures of
the objects, -while at the same time the differing surfaces of
stuffs and metal and glass, of smooth-rinded iqifrfes and gnarled
lemons, are all most justly rendered. In some of these pieces
we realize the beauty of what Sir Charles Eastlake haa called
the "combination of solidity of execution with vivacity and
grace of handlmg, the elasticity of surface which depends on
the due balance of sharpness and softness, the vigocous touch
and the delicate marking— -all subservient to the tmth of model-
ling " In this fonn of painting the French iSth-centiiry artist
Chardin, whose impasto was fuller, whose colouring moee juicy
than those ol the Dutch, has achieved imperishable faoie (sec
fig. 33, Plate X.), and the modem French, who undernaad
better than others the technical business of p^intjuj^ have
carried on the fine tradition whkh has culminated in the work
of VoUon. The Germans have also painted still-life to good
result, but the comparative weakness in technique of British
painters has kept them in this department rather in the back*
ground.
SCHOOLS OP PAIMTINO)
PAINTING
Past II., SsS.— ScBOou or Paotiino
+79
(In the following Tables are included the nwkifeGte in the htitdryof Paintiniainoe about a.d. ioo(i« with theartiateof thefixat, second and
third rank in their schools and periods. The relative importance of the artists is shown by the sise of the c^>ital8 in which their
names are printed. Facts and names of minor importance have in the interest of clearness been exchuled. The names bib grvenaa
commonly used, and where they differ from the headingiof thenparate bJogCTphioal aitiolaa identiflaitioo flmbe made by the Index.
Wocda indicating localities are in italics.)
MEDIEVAL PAINTING ft ITS OFFSHOOTS NORTH OF THE ALPS.
(FfmthtGHdlBgkB period in fteXII(h«ntMyOef«Mylith*clMBiinBMBcraii« of ai^ Pran almtt 1190
UooFnymtoknilMkwl. UalybintbrtMavMudtillaboQt laja]
i Romanesque Wall and Panel Painting, ReuJunau^ Brauweiler, Brunsmickt HUdesheim, Soat, ftc
Romanesque Sculpture, HUdesheitHt Brunswick, Wecksdburi, Freibtri i. S., &c
I THE OOnUC MOVEMBNT IN CENTMAL FMANCS FBOM (190^
Gothic decorative Sculpture, Stained Glass, Ivories, MS. lUuminationa, ftc.
Qualities in the work : — Refinenaent, Tenderness of Feeling, Love of Nature.
iTAur,
(For CompvitaB.)
. AmrtU la ft
dioo.
Proto-Renaiasance,
& laoo-ijaok
GOTfHC INFUnSHCe ON- NORTHERN PAINTING.
Wall and Arnel Paintings at Xumersdorf, Cotognt, Westmnsttr, Ac
THE EARLIEST NORTHERN SCHOOLS.
QstUccteiwtaMoia
GIOTTO,
1167-1337-
GSMMANY.
Early Religious Schools (Gothic).
^MfM; frame tj4a.
CalfCM. MEtSTCR WILnSbM. & C tjfio.
HUBERT * JAN vMr BYCK. 1. c ijlo.t44a
HSRMAim WYNKICH. fl. C 1400.
STErMAN VOaWlK (Pombgd. c. 1440)
German Realism begins.
MARTIN SCHONGAUER (pthtar). c X45»-
1488. InfliitoKdhy VaadcrWcfdca.
BARTH. rerrsLOM {Vim}, e. l4SO-e- '*i'^
IIA.NSH0L8eJN TUB ELOBK Ul«ilwtf . d. <S*«
AdontioD of llic Lunbt CAmI, 14J*.
ROGER r*M on WEYDEN, t j09-t464 (*• My,
1440).
DIBUCS aoUTS (ff«a>fm), t4oe(f )-S47S- (P«fat|M Batbor «l tht
HASACaO. i4e*-t4>9.
Ai.«C]
I PETauscnnrca. c. i4se-t47i*
HANS MEMLINC. c 1430-UO4.
I HUGO TAM DuGOeSi c. I4JS->4Sj.
caitAJtn OAVID (OirfOTt*r), c Msv-isai-
ALBRECHT DORER
LUCAS CRANACB. i47t-«5S3-
HANS SURCKMAIK. 1473-tSJX.
MATHIAS GRUNEWALO, c ujfc isje.
BARTH. aatrm, e. t49J-«- isss-' rtiatv d
Poctnha.
HANS HOLBEIN. i4W->S4». £Nk<M
kbhflMhpiHicn. isfl6-iS4i-
AOAM BLSHSIMER. tsyi*l6aO. InflllcMkl •!
LUCAS vAir tCYDEN
JANSCHOREEU t4»S'*5^»
MttflMCr).
MABTSN VANHBEMSKBaX
QUINTIN MATSYS {Aiitwmph c 14M-ISJB.
JOACHIM M PATINIR. d. C tSl4.
BREUGHEL TMA SLOBR. C I5*S->S70.
Urn aaaucHBL Ftmfljr.
) Gm«
MABUsa OAN G0SSAa'n,Ct47>-CI
FRAM FLORIS (SB VRIBNDT) C
1570.
xsio- h
FirvM
ANTONIO UORO, c. ista-c 1575* Ponnitm.
PAUl. BRTL. i5S4-46sSw Laadnipc.
RAPHAEL, dxsaow
The High Renaissance.
TITlAN,d.is7«.
TINTORETTO.
>S«»-t9»4*
German painting properalniast dieaout
in the XVIlth and eariy XVIIIth
Forthe DutchScboolof
the XVIlth century.
seeTaUeVn.
PETER PAUL RUBENS, b. is77.
For the Flemish Sdwol as headed by
Rubens, see Table VIIL
For bter Italian Paint<
ing. see Table VI.
IL
THE PROTO-RENAISSANCE AND THE REVIVAL OF ART IN ITALY.
CONDITION OF THE ART OF PAJNTIXC IN ITALY BEFORE IHE REVIVAL.
WaR Paintings of poor style, with hard black outlines, dewrfd of any feeling for beauty or truth to nature.
Panel Paintings.chicflyinthe form of Enthroned MadonnasofByzantinetype.heavy but dignified ;and painted Crucifixes, repnlsivein
a»pect. with exaggeration of physical suffering, black outlines, green shadows, hatched Ughtsi
[ Baft taJha Sculriare. cf . by Aatdlami si ^oraM, e. i too, cmilr hfrrior to ooatcaipofaiy wurk te Fraoot.)
REVIVAL FIRST SEEN IN SCULPTURE.
NICCOLA PISANO tepiitd by the Prai*-RnAiMuce of StmUurm lUr, bis pulpt 11 PUm. li«a
REVIVAL OF PAINTING UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF THE PROTO>RENAISSA\CE.
MXOME, nSTRO CAVAtLlNl "Um JudfiTCfi^ai S.€erilk. XnK c ia«s: at SiENA. DUCCK) DI BUONINSEGNA. c. ttsi-c ijif.
tlSkm; M rU>K£NCK, CIMABUE. Icacbv of Gieaew
480
PAINTING
in.
GOTHIC INFLUENCE ON THE ITALIAN REVIVAL.
' {SCHOOLS or PAINTING
(Gothic NAtmmliim, EspcasivencB, ud Feding ib the SculpCun of Gbvuni Pnano and Aadm Pisatto.]
SnCONE MARTim. c itlj-il^
_ At 5i«M pdMcfs' comptny foaaded IJ55.
Sieaeie school preserves throughout its tender and
and decorative chann.
FLORENCE.
GIOTTO, 1*67-1^7,
of ■URdtbOMS.
Painting carried on oq traditiona] lines bjr the Giottcsques to the
end oC the centuty. At Flanaet paiDten* oooiiMAy looaded imo-
TADOCO OAODI. STSrAMO. MASO HI SAWeO, BCtMAtDO MSOI.
ANDREA ORCAGNA. aonolo oaooi. stinkuo autimo.
dOVAMNX OA MXLANO. *JIDUA 01 nUlOB, STAURNA. Ac
CONTEMPORARY PAINTmO IJt OTBEJt PARTS OP ITALY.
Revival hardly begins In XlVtb century, pcu work done by alliosktto di mouo of PAri*m nxui
FRA ANGEUCO DA FIESOLE, ulr-t4SS. Matt «P tba puRlir MUgleas fttt of tbe Gothic period.
StENA.
•xhibiu tbt ptuhr* tveelMM t
TAOOBO aACToif influences ait in VmkrU.
THE LORENZETTI. d. c lul^ Pkiaten of dnmstk p
of fin
IV.
ITALIAN SCHOOLS OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF THE RENAISSANCE.
Painting advances at Florence, dedincs at Sieita. Other Italian schools begin to develop.
PLORENCE.
^ . J- «i«i-<- «440
Teocbcrof
MASACC10, t4(»-MiO- Great u Gbtto. viA
•ddad kMwkdfo ond tiaiqiio mho of ttM
Baaoumcattlia pAiatins.
nOPM um. t4o6-f fOo. Idyllic chum.
SANDRO BOTTICELLI. i444-i5<o- ScolSment
and beauty. TreaU cUmkaI Mtbjects.
nurrmo um, 1440-150$. Ciace. daancal
Mzo oonou, u>4-i498- Cbploa io dctaO.
cosmo BORKLU, vicao m oomio.
Ill
HAT. M OIOVAIMI
itAN. M eaoaoo.
PAOLO tJCCEI.LO. 2ISZ. devotee of FenptcfTi
4MD. on. CArrAONO. C. l390-t4S7. VlSQUI
vcMtnAM), c. i4oe-(') I44i, tiin ofl-paiat?
no SALOoviNKTTi. i4>7-i490k rctUst.'
ANT. POLLAIUOLO ^. AoAtomy, oade. oO.
ANDREA DEL VERROCCHIO. t43S-i48S.
Great ia ■ctilptan. Teacher of Lconacdo.
DOM. DEL CRIRLANDAJO. t449-MM-
of Boauaieataf tt)^ io (rooo.
FRABART0UaiME0.ailv1p^^fc„^^^^lAi tbm for^f
hSX>. DEL SARTO.
i<8y r (ocnal tide.
ISQO
SIENA.
cany art ibMB^
the ctatuiy oa the
aanw liac* a* ia
the XlVcb ccBL
Decline of
Sienese Art.
greet muteit. i
VUBRJA.
c. tj7o-<- 1450^ VbiU
fmkt aad F ttrme t.
■aNBonro ooMncu.
a. CATORAU,
Ac.ftc.
Eihlbit XJiabriaa navfty «a
te. No peccrae.
tPIERO DE* FRANCESCm,
c. I4i4-i40a. tcecfacr of
MEIXBZO da FOUi. |ig.
aad of
LUCA SIGNORELLI. p^.
RaaBaa jef FTew atfao type.
Piminiivr.
envANiR BAmo. d. 1494.
Father of Raphael
PltTRO PERUCTNO,
r446-sst4- Kaphad'B naelar.
NORTBtTAVt.
TKROWA.
vfTToaa RSANo. d. r4sA.
Piaat ItaBaa
PADVA.
NaUve art bcfiae with the
BouAiaoNC, 1194-1474-
CUificAl renaiae etadM.
Ioomateujo a ooctuo
Work at PADUA, c. 1445I
FNsaB these puMdo
AND. MANTECNA, ^
Tiacaa Art and
PnUUMA,
eonto TDtA, d. c 1496.
LMXNto ooaxA, t4<o-rsjs>
aotaoPA.
FtANC FRANOA.
I4S»-I$I7.
Works at Vtmk4, c 444* 1
School of MVtumo,
navivAaiia Ihwiih.
c 1440-C. 1500.
CABiocuvnu,
d. C. I49>
aawmo da Misswa,
e.r4j»-t47».
IareiMer.r47S-«.
oap
CI47S-
THE GREAT ITALIAN MASTERS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
PLORSBCE
LEONARDO DA VINCI, fgj.
At Mtfea Mt-UOO- " LaU Sapper* i&hed
CI407*
rarnrj.
PERUCtNO.
c. 14*5
C. IS40
jroffPfr rr^ixF.
MILA.V.
BERNARDINO LUINI.
laduenced by Lfoaaido.
TEBKB.
GIOVANNI BELLINI
CIORGIONE. Sjjg2.
M ICHELANGELO BUONARROTI.
t47S-«5«4.
Sirtbe Chapel cciiiac paiatcd ijoS-isia.
" Last JudSBMBt." C IS40.
Doom of St Pctcr^ c t^bo.
I4SS-IS47.
RAFFAEL SANZIO,
t4t»-<5«>>
Umbriea period to tso4-
Flomtioe period, 1504-1 sol
RoouB petiod. isoA-iSMl
PAMMA.
CORREGGIO.fjg-
rAamciANo, 1904-1S40.
MMmdA.
MOSKiio, c lepltMi
PALMA VECCRI0.ci4lo-tsit.
TITIAN,
dM ts7«. beca M7« 0) or eeoM reaiB laiar m.
Flnl^lademk.«flet.
'Tribote UeMr.*'c isol (Daierat Veala. ijoft).
•pMcr Manyr," isjo. bioeaoed h, Mkhihi«rla
"Pfcecnlatioa b Toapie,'* 1540.
■sri-ll»4.
Wrote Hm of the aitfala.
The Michdaagelcsque ailecU Italian
design in general
». r«»*-iS4*.
WMM, c. tsio-rsTL
Age of the mannerists.
PAtn, VER0!fE9S. istS-isSS.
TINTORETTO, rjiS-ijse.
-PhndiM"b«n.isSi.
SCHOOLS OF PAINTING]
PAINTING
4S1
VI.
THE LATER PHASES OF ITALIAN PAINTING.
Edcctka. BOLOGNA SCHOOL.
THl CAKACCI, 1^ toDovico, agostino, ankualk.
NattiralUu.
CARAVAGGIO, 1369-1609.
VMOriCE (tataimti).
VAKtg BOKBOlfB, BCHJAVONB,
TM« SAStANI, THB BOHIPAXI,lec&C.,
■11 die brforc the end o( JCVIth ocniury.
rADOVANlNO, 1590-1650.
cuifiO KBNf, ij7S-i64>; DOkCBNlCHiNO, 15(1-1641. KIBr.RA (Spoiuard), 1588-1653- Strang light
■A8MMI CBDncmo), IS9S-I646: •AMOrBMATO. iaes-t68s. lALVATOa ROSA. i6ls-l67S«
C. B. TiBrObO, I69S-I769. DtcoratiTC ttvte.
CANALBTTO, 1«97-17«8. Vwtn of Vtmict.
lOmaUt a9ea-t963; cuABAi, i|»-i79i.
VII.
THE DUTCH SCHOOL OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
Artisu of native type. Italiaoizen.
Portiaitistt and Painters of Corporation Pictures. o. hontmobjt^ i59B-t65<.
MlXaaVKLT, I5A7-.I64I'. BAVBSTSYN, C lSy*-l6S7: OB KXTBBB. <S96-l66y. nitta lASTMAN. is8«-t6i>
„„ _, „ -—.nr'ikitTTP awiYT * -
I7M
1-
FRANSHAL& Jg:
4 y-aSaAlkO DOU, |A» TICTOB, OBBBBiWOT VAII SI
tf (Poetic)
1 U>B HOOCH; VCR MCER Of DeUT.>
(Aritfecntk.> (Rnaic) ^ j
Q, TERBOROt. A. VAN OSTADC ? 1.
G. MSTSU. L VAM OSTADB. | j
(Satiric) (CaTilicr.)
, JAN STEEN. P.WOUWERMAN.''
rSB MBBNl mOML CSliD ■«;)
bJ J M. DB MOMOBBOBTSB. (PooMnr^
V}AW VAN HQWM. (Flowtn.)
' JSSii VAN DCR HELST, iflu-l67«».
m BBCXHOOT, CABXL PABKITIOB, AABT SB OUBXB.
P. SB BONIIfCB.
(EariyiaadKBpivl*. bora More t6oo.) )
BSAJA5VAHDBVBI.DB.J.VAHCOYBK. f
(ailleiadUndacapc)
A. CVYP; A. VAN DB vblob: PAUL POTTER.
(M»iM|aiat««.)
SIMON St vubceb; W. VAN DE VELDE;
L. BACKHOVSBH.
(AftfailccClirC.)
;AN van BBB IIBVDBN.
FERD. BOL, GOVBBT VUNCR/
NICOLAS MAAB. ItiliaBtae dW
j6$* .
JAN BOTH i
NieOtABS BSBOBM ^
B. 00 lABSIl^
(PBiBtmoflheDKlkl*.)
VAN WIBBIS, C. KBT9CHBB.
ADRIAN VAN DBB WBBBF.
N
tm
jMHt
vin.
CONSPECTUS OF THE MODERN SCHOOLS SINCE 16001
ITALY.
iflo, HALS, f66«.
REMBRANDT, f^-
Dutch School of
Portrait, Landscape, Genre,
toTABLrvOBbora.
1
GEMMA 1
CHOfDOmncmt, iM6-iSei
BAPMABI, MBNCt,
cVl22?.
Ua, REYNOLDS. GAINSBOROUGH, SV
BOMNBV. BAK8URN,
1785. WILBIB. l»4t.
17*4. OOBNBUO^ tl«9.
Ites, BAVtaAOi, iS7«.
rBBTMBt, 1816-1859.
uitkista I XfcBuil.
Modem
Dutch,
t
FUNDEXS.
RUBENS, IgJ*
VAN DYCK, Jg.
TENIERS.
SNYDERS:
BROUWER.
HOGARTH. 1^. BXBLXJ(B.
Norwich School. 1714. wilson. 178*.
<r7a.COKslABLE.i*i7^ TURftsR,^.
Water Colour School.
PK-Raphaelites.
WATTS.
The Venetians.
Natoralists.
Landscaptsts.
The Florentines.
RAPHAEL.
Figure Painters.
1 FRA
PoossfN.im.
CLAUDE. Ig2.
SUGHBT. l«t3-l67S<
(GASPAH POUWtH).
Affof
LOUIS XIV.
LE BRUN.
1619-1690.
1684. W^TTEAU. 1711.
BOIKTHEB.
rATrJt. PBAOOHABO.
(HIARDIN.
1699-1 77«.
oBBVze. irtt-iSos.
BBBVZe. I7tr-
oR^:ip$.
1748. DAWD. lS«5-
INCBXBi
I
SBLABOCH.;.
1814. MILLBT. 1875I
Barbizon School.
DlAt.
MOKTICBLLI.
I
VELA2C
VELA2QUEZ.
1599-1060.
rt> r
1617. MUR
0OVA.iiS
MAjiis.ftc.: Glasgow School.
►E^CROlxl^
SeDtimcnul Genre. ImpressMiiista.
LLO. i6a».
AHBflCA,
Raa<
4-^
PAINTING
ITECHNIQUe
Past III.— The Technique of Painting
§ 29. The MaitruUs of Painting. — Painting begins, as we
have seen, on ihe one side in ouiUoe delineation, on the other
in the spreading of a coating of colour on a surface. For both
these the material apparatus is ready at hand. Drawing may
have begun merely with lines in the air, but lasting designs
were soon produced either by Indenting or marking any soft
substance by a hard point, or by rubbing away a comparatively
soft substance, such as a pointed piece of burnt wood, on a
rough surface of harder grain. Almost all the materials in use
for drawing arc of primitive origin. Charcoal, coloured earths
and soft stones are natural or easily procured. Our plumbago was
iinown to Pliny (zxxiv. 18) and to Ccnnino (ch. 34), but it was
not in common use till modem times. The black-lead pencil
b first described as a novelty in 1565 (QucUenschriften edition
of Cenmno, p. 143). A metal point of ordinary lead or tin
was used in medieval MSS. for drawing lines on parchment,
or on a wooden surface previously whitened with chalk (Theo-
philus, IL ch. zviL). Silver-point drawing is only a refinement
on this. The metal point is dragged over a surface of wood or
parchment that has been grounded with finely powdered bone-
dust, or, as in modem times, with a wash of Chinese white
(Cenmno, ch. 6 scq.; Church, 393), and through the actual
abrasion of the metal leaves a dark line in its track. Pliny
knows the technique (xxxiii. 98). When a coloured fluid was
at band a pointed stick might be used to draw lines with it,
but a primitive pen would soon be made from a split'^reed or
the wing-feather of a bird.
The coating of one substance by another of which the colour
is regarded from the aesthetic standpoint is the second source
of the art of painting. To manipulate the coating substance
so that it will lie evenly; to spread it by suitable mechanical
means; and to secure Its continued adherence when duty laid,
are by no means difficult. Nature provides coloured juices
of vegetable or of animal origin, and it has been suggested that
the blood of the slain quarry or foeman smeared by the victor
over his person was the first pigment. To imitate these by
mixing powdered earths or other tinted substances in water b a
veiy simple process. Certain reeda, the fibres of which spread
out in water, were use4 as paint-brushes in ancient Egypt.
A natural hare's-foot is still employed in theatrical circles to
lay on a certain kind of pigment, and no great ingenuity would
be required oa the part of the hunter ior the manufacture of
a brush from the hair or bristles of the slain beast. In the
matter of securing the adhesion of the coating thus spread,
nature would again be the guide. Many animal and vegetable
products are sticky and ultimately dry hard, while heat or
mobture thins them to convenient fluidity. Great heat makes
mineral substances liquid that harden when cold. Hence
binding materials offer themselves in considerable abundance,
and they are of so great importance in the painter's art that
they form the basb of current classifications of the different
kinds of painting.
§ 30. Tkt Surfaces covered by the PainUr.—Mkny important
questions connected with the technique of pointing depend on
the nature of surfaces; for the covering coat— though from the
present point of view only of interest aesthetically— may, as
we have seen, originally serve a utilitarian purpose. The
surface in question may be classed as foOows: the human
body; implements, vessels, weapons, artides of dress; objects
of furniture, ii|cluding books; boats and ships; walb and other
parts of buildings; paneb end other surfaces prepaied cqwcially
or entirely to be painted on.
: The differences among these from the present pobt of fvcw
are obvious. The body could not suitably be covered with a
aufafitance impervious to air and nooisturc; the coatings of a
clay vessel and of a boat should on the other hand make them
waterproof. The materiab used in building often require
protection from the weather. The painting on the prepared
panel needs to rtsbt time and any special inflaence due to
location or climate. All such considerations are prior to the
q;aestions of colour, design, or aesthetic effect generally, in these
coatings; and on them depend the binding materiab, or oirdia,
with which the colouring substances are applied. The case of
one particular surface much employed for pictorial dbplay
b exceptional. Thb b the wall-plaster so abundantly used
for clothing an unsightly, rough, or perishable building material^
like rubble or crude brick. Thb function it performs perfectly
when left of its liatural white or greyish hue, but its plain
unbroken suriace has seemed to demand some relief thxoogh
colouring or a pattern, and the recognition of thb led to one
of the most important branches of the art, mural painting
Now lime-plaster, if painted on while it is still wet, retains
upon its surface after it has dried the pigments used, although
these have not been mixed with any binding materiaL On all
other surfaces the pigments are mixed with some binding
material, and on the character of thb the kind of painting depends.
There b thus a primary dbtinction between the process ju&t
referred to and all others. In the former, pigments, mixed
only with water, are laid on while the plaster b wet, and from
thb " freshne^ " of the ground the process b called by aa Ilaliaa
Urm, painting " a fresco " or " on the fresh,'* though in ordinary
parUuice the word " fresco " has come to be used as a noun, as
when we speak of the "frescoes" of Giotto. Furthermore,
as " fresco " b the wall^painter's process ^ ejvcUence the word
is unfortunately often employed inaccurately for any mor^
picture, though thb may have been executed by quite a different
process. In contradistinction to painting " a fresco " all otlwr
processes are properly described by the Italian term ** a tem-
pera," meaning " with a mixture." The word b used as a
noun in the sense of a substance mixed with another; but it
b to be regarded as the imperative of the verb lem^err.
which both in Latin and Italian means " to divide or proportion
duly," " to qualify by mixing," and generally " to r«;gulate.'*
Tempera means strictly " mix," just as " recipe," also employed
as a substantive, b an imperative meaning " take.'* In ordi-
nary parlance, however, the word tempera b confined to a certain
class of binding materials to the exclusion of others, so that the
more general term " media " is the best to employ in the present
connexion. We go on, therefore, to consider these various
media in relation to different surfaces and conditions.
§ 31. Binding Materials or Media. — The fundamental dis-
tinction among media is their solubility or non-solubility in
water, though, as will be seen presently, some possess both
these qualities. The non-soluble media are (i) of mineral, (3)
of vegetable origin, (i) Of the former kind are all vitreous
pastes or pottery glazes, with which imperishable coloured
surfaces or designs are produced on glazed tiles used in the
decoration of buildings, on ceramic products, and in all procrascs
of enamelling. Silicate of potash, employed to fix pigments 00
to mural surfaces of plaster in the so-called " stereochromc **
or " water-glass " processes of wall painting (see § 37), b
another mineral medium, so too b paraffin was. In the
process called (unscientifically) "fresco sccco," in which Ibe
painting b on dry plaster, lime b used as a binding material
for the colours. Its action here b a chen^cal one (see t 36).
(3) Non-s(duble vegetable media axe drying oib, resins, waaes
(including paraffin wax, which b reaUy mineral). In ancient
times wax, and to some small extent also resins, were used as
a protection against mobture, as in shipbuilding and some forms
of wall-painting. Resins have always remained, but wax
gradually went out of use in the eariier Christian centuries,
and was replaced by the tiew medium, not used in dassicai
times, of drying oil. In northern lands the desire to protect
painted surfaces from the moisture of the air led to a more
extensive me of oib and tesins than in Italy^ and it was in tbe
Netherlands that in the 15th century oil media were for the
first time adopted in the regular practice of painting, which
they have dominated ever since.
The soluble media are of animal and vegetable orighl. EgS*
yolk or white, or both combined, fa the chief of the former.
Next In importance are size, gained by boilint down shreds of
parchment, and fish ^ue. Egg Is the chieff medium in what
tempera paintmg, while fof the pamtinf
XECHNIQtn)
PAINTING
4»a
cammpwly called distemper or *' gawtht" of wluch scene-
painting is typical, sjjse is used. Milk, ox-gall, casein and other
substances are aho empk>yed. Of soluble vegetable media
the most used are gums ol various kinds. These are common
** temperas " or tempem media, and, with glycerin or honey,
form the usual binding material in what is called "water-
colour " painting. Wine, vinegar, the milk of fig-shoots, &c.,
«lso occur in old redpes.
Attention must be drawn to the fact that substances can be
prepared for use. in painting that unite soluble and insoluble
media, but can be 'diluted with water. These substances are
known as '* emulsions." A wax emulsion, which is also called
" saponified wax," can be made by boiling wax in a solution
of potash (ia the proportions lOo bleached wax, lo potash,
350 distilled water (Berger, BtitrUge^ L 100)] till the wax is
melted. When the solution has cooled it can be diluted with
cold water. An admixture of all is also possible. This,, accord-
ing to Beiger, is what Pliny and Vitruvius (vii. 9, 3) call " Punic
wax," a material of importance in andent painting.
An oil emulsion can be made by mixing drying oil with water
through the intermediary of gum .or yolk of egg. An intimate
mechanical compound, not a chemical one, is thus eilected,
and the mixtore can be diluted with water. If gum arabic
be used the result is a " lean " emulsion of a milky-white colour,
if yoik ol egg a " fat " emulsion of a yellowish tint. When
these wax or oil emulsions are dry they have the waterproof
character of their noo^soluble constituents^
Lastly, it must be noticed that certain substances used in
the graphic arts — some of which possess in themselves a certain
unctuousnes»**-can be, as it were, rubbed into a suitably rough-
ened, and at the same time yielding, ground, to which they will
adhere, though loosely , without binding material. Thisisthe case
with charcoal, chalks and pcndL The same property is imparted
by a little gum or starch to soft coloured chalks, with which
is executed the kind of work called " pastel." These are now
aJso made up with an oleaginous medium and are known as " oil
pastels." Pictures can be carried out in ordinary or in oil
pastels, and the work should rank as a kind of painting. The
coloured films, rubbed off from the sticks of soft' chalk on a
suitably rough and sometimes tinted paper, are artistic in
their texture and capable of producing very beautiful effects of
Colour. Professor Church; notes also that tbe colours laid on
in this faahion seem peculiarly durable iChemutry^ p. 293).
% ja. The PrKesses cf Painiing: Prdiminarj ATorf*.— These
will be discussed from the point of view of the media employed,
but certain departures from strict logical arrangement will be
convenient. Thus, different processes of monumental painting
on walls may be brought together though distinct media are
employed. Tempeca and early oil practice cannot be separated.
Painting by tlK use of vitreous glazes fused by beat may be
noticed firsts as the process comes within the scope ol the artide,
thotigh it has generally been applied in a purely decorative
spirit, so as to be a branch of the art of ornament rather than
Btxktly speaking of painting (see f s).
In painting processes proper fresco takes the lead. It is
in its theory the simplest of all, and at tbe same time it has
produced some of the most splendid results recorded in the annals
of the art. With the fresco process may be grouped for the
sake of convenience other metitods of wall-painting, which share
with it at any, rate some of its characteristics.
One of these subsidiary methods of wall-painting is that known
as the wax process or " encaustic," used in ancient timea and
revived in our own. Pointing in wax, not specially on walls,
was an important technique among the ancient Greeks, and the
consideration of it introduces some difikult archaeological
questions, at which space will not allow more than a glance.
The wax used in the process, softened or melted by heat or driven
by fire into the painting ground — ^whence the name " encaustic "
or " burning in " — is really a tempera or binding material,
and we are brought here to the important subject of tempera
patBttng in general* It will have to be noticed in this connexion
what were the chief biading msteriate used ia the ao4iamed
technique in different lands at the various stages of tbe art, and
what conditions were imposed on the artist by the nature of
his materials. Lastly, there is the all-important process in which
the binding materials arc oils and varnishes, a process to which
attaches so much historical and artistic interest, while a forn^
of tempera painting that has been spedally developed in modem
times, that known as water-colouri may claim a condtuding
word.
( 33. Historical Use 0/ tbe Various Processes of Painting,'^
The extent and nature of the employment of these processes
at different periods may have here a brief notice.
Tempera painting has had a far longer history and more
extended use than any other. The Spaniard Pacheco, the
father-in-law and teacher ol Velazquez, remarks on the venera*
tion due to tempera because it had its birthday with art itself,
and was the process in which the famous andent artists accom-
plished such marvels. In the matter of antiquity, painting
with vitreous glazes is its only rival: glazed tiks formed, in
fact, the chief polychrome decoration for the exterion of the
palaces of Mesopotamia, and were used also in Egypt; but all
the wall-paintings in ancient Egypt and Babylonia and My-
cenaean Greece, all the mummy cases and papyrus rolls in
the first-named country are executed in tempera, and the
same is true of the wall-paint ihgs in Italian tombs. In Greece
Proper paintings on terra-cotta fixed by fire were very common
in the period before the Persian wars. When monumental
wall-painting came to the front just after that event it was
almost certainly in tempera rather than in fresco that Polygnotus
and his companions executed their masterpieces. It has been
doubted whether these artists painted directly on plaster or
on wooden panels fixed to tbe wall, but the discovery in Greece
of genuine mural paintings of the Mycenaean period has set
these doubts at rest. In Italy tomb-paintings actually on
plaster exist from tbe 6th century B.C. The earlier pand
painters of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. also used tempera
processes, though their exact media are not recorded. About
the time of Alexander there seems to have been felt a demand.
for a style of painting in which could be obtained greater deptk
and brilliancy of colouring, with corresponding force in relief,
than was possible in the traditional tempera; and this led to
painting in a wax medium with which abundance of " body "
could be secured. There are many puzzling questions con-'
nected with this andent encaustic, but the discovery in recent-
years of actual specimens of the work, in the form of portraits,
on the late Egyptian mummy cases of the fiitt centuries a.d.
have assisted the stuci^. Meanwhile a jicw technique to have
been ia process of evolution for use on walls, for the fresco process,
in a complete Or modified form, was certainly in use among the
Romans.
The history of the fresco process, as will presently be scen^
is somewhat puzzling. Yitruviua and Phny knew it, and it as.
mentioned in the Moutti Atkos Handbook^ which incorporates
the technical traditions of the art of the Eastern Emiure; it
appears also to have been in use in the Christian catacombs,
but was not practised by the wall painters who adorned the
early medieval churches south and north of the Alps. The
difficulties of the process, and another reason to be noticed
directly, may have led to its partial disuse in the West, but wo-
find it again coming into vogue in Italy in the ijih and
X4th centuries. In the early Christian centuries Its place
was taken in the monumental decoration of walls by marble
inlays, and cspedally by glass mosaic, which is in itself an
important form of wall-painting and may have put painting
on plaster, and with it the fresco process, into the shade; notice
will however presently be taken of a theory that seeks lo establish
a close technical connexion between mosaic work and the freico
painting, vhich, on the decline in the later medieval period of
mosaic, came forward again into prominence.
The tempera processes were accordingly ia vogue in early
medieval' times for Mall-paintings (except to some extent
in the East), for portable panels, and on parchment for
the decoration, and illustration of manuscripts. Meanwhile thet
484
PAINTING
rreeRNiQUE
nae of drying oils as painting media was coming to be known,
and both on plaster and on wood these were to some extent
employed through the later medieval period, though without
seriously challenging the supremacy of tempera. From the
beginning of the 15th century, however, ofl painting rose rapidly
in estimation, and from the end of that century to our own
time it has practically dominated the art. Wall-painting in
fresco continued to be practised till the last part of the 18th
century, and has been revived and supplemented by various
other monumental processes in the 19th, but even for mural
work the oil medium has proved itself a convenient substitute.
Water-colour painting in its present form is essentially an art
of the last hundred years. The old tempera processes have been
partly revived In our own time for picture-painting, but the
chief modem use of tempera is in scene-painting, where it is
more commonly called " distemper."
S 34. Pointing wlh Cdowed VHreous Pastes.— Thett is no
single work that deals with the whole subject ci this material
and its different uses in transparent or opaque form in the aru,
but details will be found in the special articles where these
uses are described. (See Cexamics; Mosaic; Enamel; Glass,
STAINED.) On the subject of the substances and processes
employed in the cc^ouring of the various vitreous pastes informa-
tion will be found in H. H. Cunynghame's Art Enamdling on
Uelals (2nd ed., London, 1906, ch. vi.), but the subject is a large
and highly technical one.
Coloured vitreous pastes are among the most valuable materials
at the command of the decorative artists, and are employed
in numerous techniques, as for example for the gUizes of ceramic
products Including wall or floor tiles; for painted glass windows;
for glass mosaic, and for all kinds of work in enamels. The
vitreous paste Is tinged in the mass with various metallic oxides,
one of the finest colours being a ruby red obtained from gold.
Silver gives yellow, copper a blue green, cobalt blue, chromium
green, nickel brown, manganese violet, and so on. Tin in any
form has the curious property of making the vitreous paste
opaque. It should be understood that though the vitreous
substance and the metallic oxides are essentially the same in
ail these processes, yet the preparation of the coloured pastes
has to be ^}cdally conditioned in accordance with the particular
technique in view. There are generally various ways of produc-
ing reds and blues and greens, &c., from oxides of different
metab. The material is generally lustrous, and it admits of
a great variety in colours, some of which axe highly saturated
and beautiful. It is on the lustre and colour of the substance,
rather than on the pictorial designs that can be produced by
iu aid, that its artistic value depends; but though this implies
that it comes imder the heading " Ornament " rather than
" Painting,*' yet in certain forms and at particular periods it
has been the diief medium for the production of pictorial results,
and mutt accordingly have here a brief notice
\ The diffcience between opaque and transparent coloured
glass is the basis of a division among the arts that employ the
material. If it be kept transparmi the finest possible effect
is obtaisad in the stained-glass window, where the colours arc
seen by transmitted Ught. The suined-glass window came
into general use in the eariy Gothic period, and was a substitute
for the wallopaintings which had been common in the Roman-
esque churches of the nth and 12th centuries. Hence it is a
form, and a very sumptuous and beautiful form, of the art of
nural painting, representing that art in the later medieval
building north of the Alps. In Italy, where the practice of
wall-painting continued without a break from eariy medieval
to Renaissance tiniM, the stained-glais window was not a national
form of art.
The most effective use of tf^o^w coloured vitreous pastes is
in ceramics (pottery) and in glass mosaic. The terra-cotta
plaque, or tile-painted with designs in glases of the kind was,
as we have seen (§ 7). one of the chief forms of exterior mural
decoration in andent Mesopoumia. The best existing cacamfiica
were found not long agoon the site of the ancient Susa (** Shoshan
the pakce " of Scripture) and are now In the X^ouvre. Huttaa
figures, animab, and ornaments, are repretenttd not enly ia
lively colours but also in relief; that is to say, each icparate
glaze brick had its surface, measuring about 1 2 in. by 9 in.,
modelled as well as painted for the exact place it had to occupy
in the design. On these bricks there are formed snail ridges
in relief intended to keep the different liquid glases apart bcloie
they were fixed by vitrlfaction in the kiln. Chemical analyHs
has shown that the yellow colour is an antimoniM of lead, the
white is oxide of tin, similar to the wdl-known opaque wUte
glaze used by the Delia Robbia in Italy, the blues and greens are
probably oxides of copper, the red a st^-oxide of coppet (Semper,
Der StUf I 533). This same region of the worid has Rmained
through all time a great centre for the production of coloured
glazed tiles, but the use of " Penian," " Moresque," aad odicr
decorated plaques has been more ornamental than pfetoriaL
Glazed pottery only comes occasionally within the survey
of the historian of painting. It does so in andent Gteeos,
because the earlier stages of the development of Greek painting
can only be followed in this material; it does so, too, in a sense,
in Italian faience and in some Oriental products, bvt these kardly
fall within our view. The Greek vase was covered with a lilack
glaze of extreme thinness and haxdneas, the compositkm of
which is not known. Figure designs were painted in this on
the natural cUy of the vessd (see fig. 3, PUte IV.), or it was
used for a background, the design being left the coloiir of the
clay. Other colours, cspedally a red (oxide of iron) awl iriute,
were also employed to divenify the design and emphasize drtaih,
and these were also fixed by firing. A spedal kind of Gveek
vase was the so-called " polychrome lekuthos,'* a small upri^
vessd, the day of which was covered with a white " slip " os
which figure designs were painted in livdy tints. The tedmiqiis
is not quite understood, but the colours wcrs certainly fired.
There is an artide on " The Technical History of White Lecythi **
In the Amsrican Jownd of ArckacoUfy for 1907; the p mr r iw i
are not, however, analysed.
In glass mosaic thin solid sbbt of coloured vitreom pastes
are broken up into little cubes of i in. to | in. in size and sd !■
some suiuble cement. The artist works from a coloured drawiag
and sdecu his cubes accordingly. Any number of shades of
all hues can be obtained, and the modem mosaic worfccss of
Italy boast that they dispose of some 25,000 different tints.
As it is of the essence of the work to be simple awl monumental
in effea, a limited palette is all that is needed; and the mosaics
recently executed in St Paul's in London are done in about
thirty colours. The worker should have at hand appliances to
cut to shape any particular cube wanted for a special detaiL
The andents used the art, and the finest ensting andent
picture is in a mosaic, not indeed of glass pastes, but of coloured
marbles. This is the famous "Battle of Issus" found at
Pompeii. Glass mosaic came in under the eariy Roman Empire,
but its chief use was in eariy Christian times, when it was the
chief material for mural decoration of a pictorial kind. Ravenna
is the pbce where this form of painting is most Instnictivcly
represented, and the 5th and 6th centuries a.d. are the timcn
of lu greatest glory. At Rome and ConstantinopJe tharv is
fine eariy work, while that at Venice and Palermo is later. In
the earliest and best examples the design is very sbnple, and a
few monumental forms of epic dignity, against a flat badcgreuiMl
commonly of dark blue, represents the persons and scenes of
the sacred narratives. The effea of colour is always sumptuous.
Gold, espcdaUy for the badcgrounds, is in later work freely
employed.
The subject of enamd work forms the theme of a separate
article. Here it need only be said that pictures can be produced
by painting on a ground, generally of metal, with coloured
vitreous pastes that are aifterwards fixed by fusing. limoges
in France has been the great centre of the art, but cnainclling
loses in artistic value when a too exdusivdy pictorial icsolt is
aimed at.
i 35- ^^^ Pota/iiif.— Vitnivhis {Do AfdiUodmn^ bk. vxL
chs. 2, 3;age of Augustus), UonM Atkos Handbook (Hnrntrntia,
da. S4««q-f^tennoertaia but based on •ariytiadltton);Cannia»
TBCHNIQUEI
PAINTING
485
Omuoi iTrattttt» 4€tta ^urm, dm. 67 wq., ciL BHUnai, i8s9;
Eag. trans, by Christiana J, Herringham, Lond., 1899); Lmd
Batlisu Albeni (Z% re atdijuataria, bk. vi. ch. 9; early and mid-
dle 15th century); Vasaii {Optrc, ed. Milancsi, i. j8i; middle of
i6ih century)— -all refer in general terms to the fresco proccia, aa
one generally understood in their times. Armenini (Dei veri
preceUi delta piUurai Ravenna, 1587), and Palomino {£1 liuseo
pUUrico; Madrid, 17 15-17 24), give more detailed accounts of
the actual technical procedure, of which they had preserved
the tradition. Much information of the highest value and
interest was collected at the time when, in the forties of the
19th century, the project for the decoration in frcKQ of the new
English Houses of Parliament was under discussion. This is
contained in various communications by Sir Charles Eastlake,
Mr Charles Heath Wilson, and others, printed with the suc-
cessive Rtparts cj Uu Commissioners on the Fine Arts from
184 a onwards. The experience obtained in the revived modem
work in fresco by Cornelius, Hess, and other German artists
encouraged by King Ludwig I. of Bavaria, which began at Rome
in the second decade of the 19th century, was also drawn upon
for the purpose of these Reports, A useful compendium was
issued at the time by W. B. Sarsfield Taylor, A lianwU of Fresco
and Encaustic Painting (Lond., 1843). F. G. Cremer's VoUstdndige
Anieitung tur Frcsco-Malorei (Dusseldorf, 1891), may also be
mentioned as a recent manuaL The chemistry of the process
is well explained by Professor Church in his CkesmsSry oj Faints
and Paintings,
The fresco process is generally regarded as a method for the
production of a picture. It is better to look upon it in the first
place as a colour-finish to plaster-work. What it produces
is a coloured surface of a certain quality of texture and a high
degree of permanence, and it is a secondary matter that ttds
coloured surface may be so diversified as to result in a pattern
or a picture.
We do not know among what people the discovery was first
made that a wash of liquid pigment over a freshly laid surface
of lime piaster remained permanently incorporated with it when
all was dry, and added to it great beauty of colour and texture.
The Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Phoenicians, the Mycenaean
and later Greeks, the ancient Italiansr^-all made extensive use
of plaster as a coating to brickwork or masonry, but when tiiey
coloured it this was done after it was dry and with the we of *
some binding material or tempera.
The earliest notice of the fresco technique that we have in
extant literature is contained in the third chapter of tlie seventh
book of Vitruvius, and it Is there treated as a familiar, well-
understood procedure, the last stage in the construction and
finish of a wall. Pliny also in several passages of his Natural
History treats the technique as a matter of common knowledge.
In Vitruvius the processes of plastering aibaria opera are first
described (vii. a, 3), and it is provided that after the rough
cast, truUissatio^ there are to follow three coats of plaster made
of lime and sand, each one laid on when the one bdow is begin-
ning to dry, and then three of phuter in which the place of the
sand b taken by marble dust, at fint coarse, then finer, and in
the uppermost coat of all in finest powder. It might now be
(i) finished with a plain face, but one brought up to such an
exquisite surface that it would shine like a mirror (chs. 3, 9); or
(a) with stamped omamenu in relief or figure designs modelled
up by hand; or (3) it might be completed with a coat of colour,
and this would be applied by the fresco process, for which Pliny
uses the formula udo Ulinere, " to paint upon the wet." The
reason why the pigments mixed with water only, without
any gum or binding material, adhere when dry to the plaster
is a chemical one. It was first cleariy formulated by Otto
Donner von Richter in connexion with researches he made on
the Pompeiaa waU-paintlnp and published in 1868 as an appendix
to Helbig's Campanistlie Wandgfrndlde. He demonstrated that
when limestone is burnt into lime all the carbonic add is driven
out of it. When this lime is " slaked " by being drenched with
water it drinks this in greedily and the rcsulunt paste becomes
ntorated with an aqueous solution of hydrate of lime. When
tUa piste it niaed with sand or maible daat and bJd on to the
wall in the form of plaster this hydrate of lime in solution rises
to the surface, and when the wet pigment is applied to this the
liquid hydrate of lime or lime water, to use PrSfessor Church's
phrasing, ** diffuses into the paint, soaks it through and through,
and gradually takes up carbonic add from tiie air, thus produdng
carbonate of lime, which acts as the binding material " (Church,
p. 378). It is a mistake to speak of the pigment " sinking into
the wet plaster." It remains as a fact upon the surface, but
it is fixed there in asort of crystalline skin of carbonate of lime —
the dement originally banished when the lime was burned-*
that has now re-formed on the surface of the plaster. This
crystalline skin gives a certain metallic lustre to the surface of a
fresco painting, and is sufficient to protect the colours from the
action of external moisture, though on the other hand the«
are many causes chemical and physical that may contribute
to their decay. If, liowever, proper care has been taken through-
out, and conditioDli remain favourable, the fresco painting is
quite permanent, and as Vitruvius says (vii. 3, 7), " the colours,
when they have been carefully laid upon the wet plaster, do
not lose their lustre but remain as they are an peipetuity ... so
that a plaster surface that has been property finished docs not
become rough through time, nor can the colours be rubbed off,
that is unless they have been carelessly applied or on a surface
that has lost iU moisture."
In the passage from which these words are taken Vitruvius
gives uaehil hints as to tlie aestlietics of the fresco technique.
Italian writers on the subject, such as Vasari, are generally
so taken op with the pictorial design represented on tlie wall
that the more esKntlal characteristiai of the process in itself
are lost sight of. To Vitruvius the work Is coloured plaster,
not a picture on plaater, and he shows how important it is that
the plaster should be finished with a fine surface of glea min g
white so as to light up the transparent film of colour that dothes
it. It is the result of such care in classical times that a surfsce
of Pompeian plastering, sdf-tinted "a fresco," is beautiful
without there being any question of pattern or design.
This beauty and polkh of Pompeian, and generally of andenl'
Roman plaster, has recently been floade the ground for calUqi
in question the view accepted for a generation past that it was
merely Ihne plaster painted on " a fresco," and for substitutisg-
a totally different technical hypothesis. The reference is to
the treatment of andent wall-painting generally in the first
part of Beiger's BeUrige (2nd ed., 1904, pp. $8 seq.). This writer
denies that the well-known dassical wall-paintings in questioB
are frescoes, and evolves with great ingenuity a wholly new
theory of this branch of ancient technique. It is his view that
the plaster was prepared by a special process hi which was
largely figured and which corresponds to, and indeed survives
in, the so-called " stucco-lustio " of the modern Italians.
The process m question is described by L. B. Alberti {De re
oetfi/Scoloria, vi. 9), who says that when the plaster wall surface
has been carefully smoothed it must be anointed with a mizturo
of wax, resin and oil, which is to be driven in by heat, and then
polished till the surface shines like a mirror. This is a classical
process referred to by Vitruvius under the nsne "ganosis,"
as applied to the nude parts of msrble statues, possibly to tone
down the cold whiteness of the material. Now >^tnivius,
and Pliny, who probably follows hun, do as a fact prescribe this
same process for use on plaster, but only in the one special
case of a wall painted " a fresco " with vermilioo, which was
not Supposed to resist the action of the light unkas " locked up,"
in this way with a coating of this ** Punic " or ssponlficd wax.
Neither writer gives any hint that the process wss applied to
plaster surfaces generally, or that the lustre of these wss depen-
dent on a wax polish, and Vitruvius's description is so dear that
if wax had been in use he would certainly have said sa
Vitruvius prescribes so many successive coats of plsster, each
one put on bdore the last was dry, and 00 the vd uppermost
coat the colouring b laid. How can we with any reason sub-
stitute for this a method in which the plaster has to be made
quite dry end then treated with quite a different saalcrial and
49^
PAINTING
rrecHNiouE
procett? fiitUeiftibr^ Berger holdi th« hkmM&Ag theory
chat on the self-«oioured surfaces of Pompebsi and Roman
plastered walls the cobur was not applied, as in the fresco process,
to the surface oflhe final coat, but was dilzed up with the actual
material of the intonaco so that this was a coat of coloured
plaster. This Is of course a matter susceptible of ocular proof,
but the actual fragments of andent coloured stucco referred
to by Berger afford a very slender support to the hypothesis,
whereas everyone who, like the present writer, possoses such
fragments can satisfy himself that in almost every esse the
colour coat is confined to the sorfaoe. The writer has a frag-
ment of such stucco from Rome, coloured irith vermilion, and
here there is dear evidence that some substance has soaked into
the plaster to the depth of an eighth of an inch, as would be the
case in the " ganosis *' of Vitruvhis. The part thus affected is
yellowish and harder than the rest of the plaster. A careful
chemical analysis, kindly made for the purpose of this article '
bjr Prindpel Laurie of Edinburgh shows that, although the small
quantity of the material available makes it impossible to attain
certainty, yet the substance may possibly be wax with the
slight admixture of some greasy substance. On the other hand
all the writer's other spedmeos show the colour laid on to all
appearance " a fresco." The evidence of the coloured plaster
in the house of about the and century B.C. on Delos is wholly
against Berger's view. The writer has many spedmens of this,
and they are all without exception coloured only on the surface.
It is true that Xhtn are certain difficulties connected with
Bompelan fresco practice, but the description of the process
as a imI process in Vitnivius and Pliny is so absolutely unmis-
takable that Bcrger's theory must without hesiution be
rejected.
The history of the fresco technique remains at the same
time obscure. Here again Berger offers an interesting sugges-
tion which cannot be passed over in silence. If the Pompeian
technique, as he believes, be a wax process on dry plaster,
foUowcd by some form of tempera, how did the fresco technique,
which is known both in East and West in the later medieval
period, take its rise? The early medieval age was not a time
wlien a difficult and monumental technique of the kind Is likely
to have been evolved, but Berger most ingenioasly connects it
with that of mosaic work. In mosaic the wall surface is at
first rough plastered and a seomd and comparatively thin coat
of cement b laid over it to receive and retain the cubes of
cbloured glass, only so much cement bdng laid eadi morning
OS the worker will cover with his tesserae before nij^t. It was
the practice sometimes to sketch in watercoloun on the freshly
laid patch of cement the design which was to be reproduced in
mosaic, and Berger poinU to the incontestable fact if this sketch
were allowed to remain without being covered with the cubes
it would really be a painting in fresco. This is the way he
thinks that the fresooe practice actually began, and the period
would be that of the decline of mosak work in the West as
the middle ages advanced.
In spite of the attractiveness of these suggestions, we must
reaffirm the view of this article that the testimony of Vitnivius
is condusivc for the knowledge by the Romans of the early
empire of the fresco technique. Why we do not find evidence
of it far eariier cannot be determined, but it Is worth noting
that the success of the process depends on the plaster holding
the moisture for a sufficient time, and this it can only do if
it be pretty thick. In andent Egypt and Mesopotamia, for
example, the plaster used as painting ground was very thin,
and cspedally in those hot climates would never have lent itself
to fresco treatment. On the other side, the decline, and perhaps
temporary extinction, of the technique in the eariy middle
ages may be reasonably explained by the general condition of
the arts after the break*upof the Roman Empire of the West.
To retiim now to the technical questions from which thb histori-
cal digression took its rise, it will be easily seen that the process
of painting In fresco must be a rapid one, for it must be completed
before the plaster has had time to dry. Hence only a certain
poitiOD of the work in hand Is undertaken at a time* and only
sb much o( the iinal ceat of plaMer, eaBed by the Itafians mUmu^
isUid by the plasterer as will correspond to the amount ihe
artist has lakl out for himself in the time aAowcd him by ihr
condition of the plaster. At the end of this time the plaster
not painted on is cut away round the outline of the work already
finished, and when operations are recommenced a fresh patch
is laid on and joined up as neatly as possible to the oM. In the
making of these Joints the ancient plasterer seems to have been
more expert than the Italians of the Renaissance, and the seams
are often pretty apparent' in frescoes of the 15th and i6th centu-
ries, so that they can be discerned in a good photograph. When
they can be followed, they furnish Information which it is often
interesting to possess as to the amount that has been executed
ia a single day's iork. Judging by this test, Mr Heath Wilson,
in his Life of AficMon^th, computed that on the vault of the
Sistine Michdangdo could paint a nude figure considerably
above life size In two working days, the workmanship being
perfect in every part. The colossal nude figures of young men
on the cornice <k the vault at most occupied four days each.
The *' Adam " (fig 34, Plate X.). was painted in four or perhaps
in three. A day was generally occupied by the head of sui.h
figures, which were about to ft. high. Raphael, or rather
his pupils, it is thus odcidated, painted the Incendie d^t
BorgOf containing about 350 sq. ft., in about forty da3rs, the
group of the young man carrying his father occupying three.
The group of the Three Graces in the Villa Famesina took five
days at most. Luini, a most accomplished executant, could
paint " more than an entire figure, the size of life, in one day *'
(Second Report, p. 37). It has been noticed as one of the difn-
cttlties about the Pompdan frescoes, that joints hardly occur, or
at any rate that larger surfaces of plaster were covered 'by th<-
painter at a single time than was the case ansong Rciiai&sarKc
artists, and a conjectural explanation has been offered bas(.«t
on the fact that the andent plaster ground, laid on In inan>
successive coats while in each case the previous one was still
humid, was thicker and would hold more moisture than the
more modern intonaco, and would accordingly allow the an i&t
longer time in which to dirry out hSs work. Albert!, Armentrt,
and Palomino only contemplate one or two thin coats over the
original rough cast, while Cornelius and his associates, siho
revived the process eariy in the 19th century, speak of an
fntonaco over the rough cast only about a quarter of an inch
thick. A piece of plaster ground from Raphad's Lo^gie in
the Vatican was found to be quite thin, and Donner calculated
that the ancient grounds were on an average 3 in. thick, the
modern only a little over t in. On such grounds work bad
necessarily to be finished within th^tAy. and Cennino expressly
sajrs (ch. 67): " Consider how much you can paint in a day;
for whatever you cover with plaster you must finish the same
day." Hence almost invariably in lulian fresco practice
every join means a new day's work. At Pompeii the plaster,
it is thought, might have remained damp over night. In the
Motmt Atkos Handbook tow was to be mixed with the plaster,
undoubtedly to retard its drying.
This necessarily rapid execution gives to well>handled f^e^coes
a simplicity and look of directness in technique that are of the
essence of the aesthetic effect of this form of the art. Hrcoe
Vasari is right when he extols the process in the words, " of all
the ways in which painters work, wall-painting Is the fincii
aad most masterly, ddce it consbts in doing upon a stngte
day that which in other methods may be accomplished io
several by gdng over again what has been done. • . • tbetv
are many of our craft t^ho do well enough in other kinds of work,
as for example in oil or tempera, but fall ia this, for this b in
truth the most manly, the safest, aad most solid of aH ways
of painting. Therefore let those who seek to work npoa the
wall, paint with a manly touch upon the fresh plaster, aad avoid
returning to it when it is dry " (Opere, ed. MUanesi, i. i8r).
The process gives the ariist another a<hrantage in that his
painting, bdng executed in the very material of the surface
itsdf, seems essentially a part of the wall. It is Dme paincinf
on a h'me ground, and fabric ahd enridnuftt are one. TIds
TECHNIQUE]
PAINTINO
487
can be noted in the Sah dd Constantly in the Vttkan
Bt Rome, one of the jtooe or suite of rooms decorated by
Raphael and his aBsodotes. There axe two figures hete pabtcd
on the waUs in oil, and though there is a certain depth and rich-
ness of effect secuxcd in this medium, they are too obviously
something added as an afterthought, while the figures in fresco
seem an integral part of the waU.
Work of this kind, finished in each part at a sitting. Is what
the Italians call buon fresco or '* true fresco," and it has always
been, as it was with Vitruvius, the ideal of the art, but at many
periods the painters have had to rely largely on retouches and
reinforcements after the plaster was dry. Cennino devotes
the 67th chapter of his TraUato to a description of the process,
and expressly tells us that the method he recommends is the
one traditional in the school of Giotto, of which he himself was
a direct scion. He i% fully alive to the importance of doing as
much as possible while the ground is wet, for " to paint on the
fresh — that is, a fixed portion on each day~is the best and most
permanent way of laying on the colour, and the pleasantest
method of painting "; but an ordinary artist of the early part
of the xsth century had not sufficient skill to do all that was
required at the one moment. Observations made on the Works
executed by various Italian masters from the X4th to the i6th
rcntury show great varieties in this matter of retouching, but
the subject need not be dwelt on as it involves no principle.
Every painter of worthy ambition, who had entered into the
spirit of his craft, would desire to do all he could "on the
fresh," and would be satisfied with, and indeed glory In, the
conditions and limitations of the nobte technique. Masaccio,
even at the beginning of the 15th century, is remarkable for the
amount of fine pictorial effect he secured without reh'ance on
retouching. It was second-rate artists, like Pinturicchio, who
delij^ted to fnrbish up their mural pictures with stucco reliefs
and gilding and to add touches of more brilliant pigments than
could be used in the wet process. Giotto, Masacdo, Ghirlandajo,
Michelangelo, Luini, are among the frescanH proper, who
fcproeat the true ideals of the craft.
The following notes upon the methods of the work are derived
partly from oUervation of extant works and partly from the okicr
trratiscs, but reference has also been made to modern practice in
Germany and Italy, as information derived from this last source
may be found useful by those who arc disposed to^ay to make
csaays in the process.
To avoid loss of time it is essential that the necessary drawing
should all be accomplisbed beforehand. Poazo, a painter and
writer of the end of the i^th century says, " everyone knows that
before beginning to paint it is necessary to prepare a drawing and
well-studied coloured sketch, both of which are to be kept at hand
in painting th« fresco, so as not to have any other thought than that
of the execution " (First Reptri, p. 35). In Ccnnino's time it seems
to have been the practice to square out the work fuU size from the
sketch on to the surface of the rough cast before the intonaco was
laid. This at any rate enabled the artbt to see how his work as
a whole would come in relation to the space (>rovided for it, but the
actual intonaco had to be laid pieoe by piece over this general
sketch and the drawing of each portion repeated on the new surface.
In the palmy days of Italian painting, however, as well as in modern
times, the design has been drawn out on a full-sized cartoon, and
this cartoon, or a tracing from it, has been tnsnsfcrred (iece by
piece to the freshly laid intonaco on which the painting is about
to be executed. The drawing may be nailed agamst the wall, and
the outlines passed over with a blunt-ix>Inted stylus of some hard
materia), that by dinting the paper impresses on the yielding
planter a line sufficient to guide tbc painter in his woric; or the
outlines of the cartoon may be pricked and "pounced " with a
little bag of red or black powder that will leave a dotted outline
on the wall. .
The preparation of the intonaco itself is however a matter for
much care. The lime should be prepared from a stone that is as
far as possible pure carbonate of lime — the travertine of Tivoli,
recommended by Vasan. is perfect for the purpose — and after it
is burnt should be slaked with water and thoroughly macerated so
that the lumps are all completely broken up. The slaked lime,
of the consistency of a stiff paste, or as it is termed "putty," must
be kept covered in from the air for a considerable period that varies,
according to di/Icrent authorities from eight to twelve months to
as many years. All experts, from Vitruvius downwards, are
agreed on the necessity for this, but the exact scwntific reason
therefor docs not seem to be quite clear. One advantage of the
kcepiug is that tbc lime hydrate may take up a certain amouat
of cafhonic add. tfaoogfa not too mucht fmm the air. Ouiech
says that. " not more than, one-third or at most two-fifths of the
lime should be converted into the cartxjnatc " (p. 10) : but Faraday
(Fifth Report, p. 25) was of opinion that through lapse of time
there was brought about a molecular change that divided the par-
ticles more thoroughly and gave the lime a finer texture so as to
mix better with the pigments. At any rate, when Cornelius and bis
associates started the modern fresco revival at Rome, in 1815, an
old workman who had been employed under Raphael Mengs directed
their attention to this tradition, and they used lime that had been
kept in a slaked condition, but still csustio— that is, still deprived
of most of its carbonic acid, for twelve yearsl For mixing the
plaster the proportions of lime to sand or marble dust vary; Cennino
gives two of sand to one of " rich " or caustic lime, but the Germans
used three of sand to one of time. Whatever its exact constitution,
the intonaco has to be carefully laid each morning over that part
of the rough cast, previously well wetted, that corresponds to the
amount laid out for the day s work. Contrary to the prescription
of Vitnrvius and Pompcian practice, which favours a polished
surface, the moderns prefer a slight roughness or "tooth '^ on the
intonaco. Painting should not tiegin, so Com^us advised (First
Reportj p. a4)i till " the surface is in such a state that it will bare^
receive the impression of the finger, but not so wet as to be in danger
of being stirred up by the brush."
The pigments are neady mixed in litflc pots, on a tin palette
tnth a rim round the edge, or on a ubie, and in old Italian practice
each colour was compounded in three shades— dark, middle and
light* The water should be boiled or distilled, or should be rei'ft-
water; for spring- water often contains carbonate of lime that would
derange the chemistry of the process. Again, on account of the
chemical actkm that takes place during the pnocas, the pigmettls
have to be carefully selected. The palette ot the freoco painter is
indeed a very restricted one, and this is another reason of the broad
and simple effect of the work. Practically speaking only the earth
colours, such as the ochres raw or burned, can be used with safety;
even the white has to be pore white lime (in Italian, Inane^ San-
Giovanni), since kad white used in oil ^nting (Italian, biacca) is
inadmissible. Vegetable and animal pigments are as a rule ex-
cluded, " very few colours of organic origin withstanding the de-
composing action of lime " (Church, p. 280). The brushes are of
hog-bristles or otter-hatr or sable, and have to be rather IcMig in
the hair. Round ones are recommended. Aooordioc to tariy
Italian practice, the painter would first outline the figures or
objects, already drawn on the plaster, with a long-haired brush
dipped in red ochre, and would then, e.g. in the case of the fares,
lay in broadly with terre verte the shadows under the brows,
bdow tbc nostrils, and round the chin, and bring down and fuse
into these shadows the darkest of the three flesh-tints, with a dexter-
ous blending of the wet pigments upon a surface that preserves
their dampness. On the other side these half-tones are now modelled
up into the lighter hues of the ficsh. White may then be used in
decided touches for the high lights, and the dctaib of the eyes,
mouth and other features put in without too much searching
after accidents of local colour. Modem frcscoists have found that
" the tints first applied sink in and look faint, so that it is necessary
sometimes to go over the surface repeatedly with the same colour
before the full effect is gained " (First Report pL 24). but it is well
to allow in each case some minutes to ebpse before touching any
spot a second time. For the hair the Italbns would make three
tints suffice, the high tights again following with white. The
draperies are broadly treated. After the whole has been laid in.
in monochrome, with the green pigment, the fokls would be marked
out with the deepest of the throe tints for shadow, and these shadows
united by the middle tint. Lastly the lighter parts are painted up
and finally reinforced with white. The ^-ork needs to be deftly
touched, for too much handling of one spot may destroy the fresh-
ness of the tints and even rub up the ground. It is not necessary
(as moderns have sometimes supposed) to put touch beside touch,
never going twice over the same ground, bo long as the pigments
and the suriace are wet the tints may be laid one over the other
or fused at will, and may be " kiodod in some parts and in othere
thinly spread, the one essential being that a fresh and crisp effect
shall not be k>st. The wetness of the ground will alwavs secure
ascertain softness in all touches, even those that give trie strong
high-lights, and so important is it that the plaster should not begin
to dry, that it should be sprinkkd if necessary with fresh water.
The characteristic softness of the touches laid 00 " a fresco " is
the more apparent when they arc compared with those strokes of
reinforcement which mav be put on " a tempera " after the work
is dry. Armenini says tfiat the shadows may be finidicd and deep-
ened by hatching, as in a drawing, with black and lake laid on
with a soft brush with a medium of gum, siae, or white and yolk
of egg diluted with vinegar. Such retouches are always hard and
" wiry," and are as much as possible to be avoided.
As examples of esecntion in fresco no works are better than
those of Luini. He painted rapidly and thinly, securing thereby
a transparency of eifect that did not however preclude lidmcas.
Heath Wilson indeed says of his punting that ** it woaj be
488
PAINTING
kii f**rr'«*« b E^jK atz>d gncriJ." So socoder ondei •
CDcSd be UkcB far sukn vert. The h^w^ia tsaik c4 |
-trqc B wan "MBJarikiubctttfat glfce^qy
noL CoBsadenE^tlBtBDoekBboyVoodWkadbadaopnctJcft]
f if ■**i* «f iBe ficHD pvocxa^ aad rcf -.acd t^ coaaissioa as
k«K m ht ccwU becnae be was aoc a paistcr bst a tciJpcor.
BiWMiiifri tnfr^'' MOCOK is tbe mtwirmlfitam cf tbe OiSadi
pcwaBBOil Moce astoadiBK tbn tbe acsibetk resoh cf tbe
vori M & aealJoa «f iHUfvativc seaiBS. He bid U> paist for
tbe Msat pwt IjriaK «■ kk baci ia a tort cf czadk. aad »nriiag
wnk m mwm above te bead, aad kal aa ikiaed ■■
ytt Cbeie B aa qeaBtj m tbe wait tbat strftes « bor tbaa ks
tiubum aad air of tasf mMUry, as ff tbe anitf avc v^yis^
arkb hii tJik. Tbe fcaioa of ibe bcfeu aad ibadoas tbrocgb
tbe Mat deikate biH-UMS is amwir^iihrrf ia
fMfcioa for abicb tbe. ItaJEaaa «Kd tbe ten
* waAj,'* «b3e at tbe aaae tiae tbe toocbcs are cxi^i and fira,
tbe acKcat beat aad tboe dedded, aad tbe artia'a acBBpaiaUe
■aoeryaf farm gives a BaaBvc aolkfty ta tbe abole (see if,
la aor o«a ijbms aad m Eegliib iprilim coda tbe frcxo
pPMoa baa beca ditcrrdifd owias to tbe iiiimiiatine fagarc
of tbe I | i • 't iiaaifitnl vriib tbe ffiiii dL FufiaaKBt.
Oa tbe fwaditina ol tbe Iwjums tbcae, a* vlI as aa tbat of tbe
pictGieB ia varioiB ctber aeiSa, a Kries ^ Mrmtrwuiw were
Made fay Fmitmor Cbcndk, aad a tdea committee d tbe Boose
of Lords look evideac e oa tbe sobfect as hie aa D cir oi lier 1906.
MaA of tbe bacas caacated ia tbe forties aad fifties of tbe
i9tb ceirtmy bad gat into a deplorabk state; hot Clnirdi's belirf
«as tbal tbe maia caose of tbe decay was tbe solpfanroos aod
wkk obicb, owias to tbe coBSbspuan of coal aad gas. tbe air
of Loadoa is a» bighiy cbar)gtd. Tbe artkm of tbis acid— o
■Jfioaioasof vbicbaretaid to be Ukbedoot iato tbe Loodcii
tl o MfJMrc is every year— toraa tbe carbonate of hae vhicb
forms tbe sariacc of tbe frcooo iato a salpbate, aad it ceases to
Rtaoi iU bdftdiag poaer over tbe pcgiaails. ** The cbrmiral
cbange.** be reports, " is arrmirpanied by a n»ecbaftica] fip a w< i on
vbicb camcs a disropcioa of tbe grouad aad n tbe Doin came
of tbe destnictioa of tbe poinf ing " It it a remarkabk fact,
hovrvcr. tbat oae of tbe frescoes ia <|oestioo. Sir John Teeniel's
** St Cmiii," oompleted in iS^, pai&ted very thinly aad on a
icootb sarface» Luted veil, aad oppoacd "a CDosiderable
a waiMf of OBOCorftil rrrirtinrr (or acariy bsH a ceatoxy oa tbe
part of a pare Cieaea to tbe bostile ittfluence of tbe Loadoa
ai awMp b er e " (Orarcb, Jfoaaroatfaa, it. i8<yS).
Abroad, fff **■*'* aras more IzrooniAc Tbe earliest
, of tbe amdcra revival — tboae by Coraeiha aad bis
i from tbe Cam Bartboldy at Rcmie--are ia a fairiy
ft»od state io the National CaCcry at B«rL'n. Such too is tbe
coadilioa of Comdius's large fresco ia tbe Lod*;;csjurche at
blonicb. Tbe best amdem frescoes, from tbe antvtic point of
view, ia aO Europe are those of aU^ct 1^50 by Alf'^ Retbd in
tbe tova-haU at Aix-la-Oapel!e, ax<d tbry are wtU preserw-cd.
Tbe esterictf frescoes on the Pinacoick at Munkb have oa tbe
other head mostly perished; but tbe climate of that city is
severe ia winter, and aochmg dse was rca£y to be expected.
We oitHt aol expect carboc^te of firae to resist ainxjspheric
(nffaciyw wfaicb aficd to a greater or km degree afl niinesal
f $L ^fcs(»5«r».— /See Charles Heath Wasoa, hi appemCx
to Seooad JCrfarf ef the C^wmUtimgrt om the Fime Arts, Loadoa,
i^3. P- 40; Cfaaid^ CheadOry tf fmaU ami PauUtMg, 190]. pi
t78).
The pracem caDed " frc9e»4eeoo " it a method of Gme painting
OB a plaster sorface that has been allowed to dry. It is described
by Tlxophll'js in tbe SckeitiU of about a j> 1 100; and Mr Charles
Heath Wihoa in 1S43 wroce of it as ** extensively osed ia Italy
at prcaeat aad with great aBocem.** It is of course obvious tbat
paaatiags anat oftea be execnted on wafis the piasUriag of wfaicb
Is already dry, aad oa which the trac fresco piocem is imprac>
or wiU a fetie slaked hme. If tbewalbecamataa^asyri^e
is ased la wet il. Tbe dmctioaa gpea by Tbeapb*B ijL 15)
with this modeia piacika. 'Wlca figarcs or
of other tba^" besayn "am la be ddmeated
oa adry waZ it most be fortbwiib rraifrard with water till
it is thonmgbiy wcf. Oto this wet pwai^ al tbe calavs m«i
be hid that are leqaised. aad they mmt be aa smaed with iae.
and wul dry with tbe wal so that they adhoe to iL." Mr C R
UThoB pnises the warh for its ooaveaieace, \
of cxecatiDa. aad aoics that ** for oraameel it is a I
tbaa real frmto, as in tbe latter ait 11 is ciaite i
tbe joixang^ at oi.ifiaes owiag to tbe oampficaiad imms of oraa-
ments," bat says tbat * it is ia every iaqjortaat lespad aa iafenot
art to real freaooL Fiii *iiig< 1 ■ 1 ia f his made arecver heavy
aad opaqoe, whereas fresco is bgbc aad tiim|iiiiai " Ha
dedaies also lor iu darabCity, bca Pi 1 if 1 ami Cb mib atotcs what
seems obvioos^ tbal "tbe fiaatiua of the jw^^anttx . . . is loa
Qaecpleie'* than ia real fresco tboqgh depending oa the aaam
cbrTa i ral copdit JOBS. SeenadJgffri, 1845, pL 40; Ch JMi#y, ^j7o).
i 37 Sltre9tkrvmy m WaUr-CUa Fmal»r— (See rWwiiii
Utkmud^ BJdi^dkk, Baad hzv^ Die Mimr^Mdati, voa
A. Keim. Ula, kc^ igSi; Rev J. A. iU%-i:«toa ia Jmraaf wf t^
S^dtij tf Aru^ Kol 1630. Feb is, 1SS4. birs Lea Mcniu aad
Prof caaor Robou Amtm ia Jamwd tj Ife 5«cidy «f ilrCr, Nok
2246. Dec 6. iSqs; F. G Cremer, IMMgr av recbasi d<r
MmmrnewJulMaitafdmrm, DnimWnrf. 189s)-
Akin to " fresc o mu p," ia thai a mraecal ageat is aaed to
secure the a rfhran a of the u d iwi ia ^g matter to tbe piaalcr. is
the process kr.o«n as stcreocbromy or watcr<^bm f ^"*^ It
is not a iradiLioiuJ process^ but aa oaicnme of fftmpaniriT*T
modem chrmkal research, aad is not yet a ccatary old. It is
based oa the properties of the sobstaace called water-^sm a
silicale of potassium or of sods, perfected by the Germaa
chemist Voa Fucbs about 1S25. A procea of p*««T™ig called
** sftereochromy " was aooa after o'ol^ed, in which p ^ gmeut s cf
the same kind m those o&.*d in fresco, mixed oaly with distiSed
water and Uid on a prrpared plaster grourd. were afterwards
fixed and securdy locked up by being dr en c h ed with this sub-
stance, which is equivalent to a sohiblegisss. Soeie of the mural
paintings in the Houses of Parfiamcr.t. x:c'.ably those by JdacU'^^,
were executed in this process. Impnn'enents were more recei;* '>
ejected ia the process wiih which the names of Kcara aad Rcck-
nagd of hlor.ich are connected, aad in this form it hm been used
a good deal in Germany in the last quarter of the 19th century
boih in interiors and in the open air. For rxsmplr, in iSSi
Professor Schraudolph of >lur.ich painted in this process the
front of the Hdtd Bellevoe in that city. Thb iwp to v ed water-
gUss painting was introdticed to notice in EAgtaad in a paper
read before the Society of .\ru by the Rev J A. Rlvii^oQ oa
the i3lh of February 1S&4. and printed ia the Jsaiasf of the
society. Na 1630 A more receat descriptioa is caataiaed la
F. G. Crenacr's BeHrige
Tbe redpe for the prrparation of the actual mtdiowi is as foBbv9*
IS parts poaaded quanxsand. IO parts rvftned potadh. 1 pan
pu o O fie d eflttrraal are nrixcd loertbcr aad fused for 6 to • hours
w a gUa» fwmace. The rcsuhant onss when coU b l ed u c w i to
powder and boikd for 3 or 4 hours tn an iron vcmel with disciCV i
water till it dtaaohrs and yiekh a heavy syrupy liqoor of stioncS
alkaline reactioo. This can be dUnted wah water, arid ia the proresi
isap^Kd hoc
The pound ■» wv carrfuDy paepaicd« and ever a tboro M g K W
sound and dry backinf a thin coat of niasier n Uid. T f pi ?^ i1 of
ontv I pan tune to 5 or 8 parts seWrted aand and po a nded marMe
with a slight adrntxtate of infMnrial earth The obfcct is to obtain
wuh the solatiou.
ponxM grtmnA thai can be thoroofhly pt iii natid
A. aad to help to secme this the tatoaaoo wbea dry
TECHNIQUEI PAINTING
b spraved with hydrefluo*anicic add to diMolvt away tlw cryitalline
skin of carbonate of lime formed on the surface and to "open the
pores " of the pbster. The surface of the painting sround, which
u left with a decided *' tooth " upon it. is then well soalced with
the solution, and when dry will be found " hard but perfectly
absorbent and ready for painting."
The pigments consist in the usual ochres and earths; chrome
reds, greens, and yellows; Naples yellow (antimoniate of lead);
cobalt blue and green; and artificial ultramarine; terre verte, &c..
with sine white or baryta white.
It » important however to note* that the pigments (which can
be supplied by Messrs Schirmer, late Faulstich. of Munich, and
many other firms) are mixed with various substances so as to render
uniform the action upon them of the fixing solution and neutralise
the action of its alkalies. The operatwns of painting, in which
only distilled water b used with the coloure, are easy and admit of
considerable freedom. " Every variety of treatment b possible,
and the method adapts itself to any individual style of painting."
The work can be left and resumed at will. After the painting b
dry there comes the all-important final process of fixing with the
water-glass solutwn. This is sprayed on in a hot state by means
of a special apparatus, and the process b repeated till the wall
can absorb no more, the idea being that the substance will pene-
trate right through to the wall, and when set will bind pigments,
intonaco. rough plastering and wall into one hard masa of silk:ate
that will be impervious to mobture or any injurious agencies.
The last paragraph of the ofiicbl account of tne Keim process
issued in 1883 for the guidance of those contemplating mural work
runs as folkiws: "The fixing of the picture is accomplished by
means of a hot solution of potash water-glass, thrown aeainst the
surface by means of a spray-producing machine in the form of a
very fine spray. This fixing done, by several repetitk>ns of the
process, a solution of carbonate of ammonia b finally applied to
the surface. The carbonate of potash, which is thus quicklyformed,
b removed by repeated washings with distilled water. Then the
picture b dried faV a moderate artificbl heat. Finally a solution
of paraffin in benttne may be used to enrich the colours and further
preserve the painting from adverse influences."
§ 38. SpirU Fraco or the " Gamhitr Parry ** Process, with
mediations by Professor Church. — (See SpirU Fresco Painling:
OH Account of the Process, by T. Gambier Parry, London, 1883;
Church, Chemistry of Paints and Painting, 288 seq.).
This process a also one of quite modem origin, but in Great
Britain, at any rate, it b now very popular. Mr Gambier Parry,
who invented and first put it into practice, claims for It that it
" b not the mere addition of one or more medium to the many
already known, but a system, complete from the first preparation
of a wall to the last touch of the artbt," and that the advantages
it offers are " (i) durability (the principal matcriab being all but
Imperishable); (3) power to resist external damp and changes of
temperature; (3) luminous effect; (4) a dead surface; (5) freedom
from all chemical action on colours."
The theory of the process is much the same as that of stereo-
chromy. the drenching of the ground with a solution that forms
at the same time the medium of the pigments, so that the whole
forms when dry a homogeneous mass. The solution or medium
is however not a mineral one, but a combination of oib, varnishes
and wax, the use of which makes the process nearly akin to that
of oil painting. The objection to the use of oil painting proper
on walb is the shinincss of effect characteristic of that system,
which b in mural work especially to be avoided, and " spirit
fresco " aims at the elimination of the oleaginous element and
the Bubttitution .of wax which gives the "matt " surface
desired.
Mr Gambier Parry directs a carefully laid intonaco of ordinary
plaster suitable for fresco on a dry backing, " the one primary
necessity " being that the intonaco ** shouM be left with its natural
suriacr, its porous <^uality being abaolutely essentiaL All smooth*
ins process or ' floating ' with pbster of Paris destroys thb Quality.
All cements must be avoided. When dry the surface of the wall
must be well saturated with the medium, for which the following
b the recipe: pure white wax 4 oc by weight: elemi resin 3 ox.
by weight dissolved In 3 ox. ol rectined turpentine; oil of spike
lavender 8 oa. by measure: copal varnish about ao 01. by measure.
These ingredients are melted and boiled together by a process
described in his paper, and when used for the wall the medium b
diluted in one and a half its bulk of good turpentine. With this
diluted solution the wall b well soaked, and the directions continue,
" after a few days left for evaporation, mix equal quantities of pure
white lead in powder and of gilder's whitening in the medium
slightly diluted with about a third of turpentine, and paint the
Bunaee thickly, and when suflicwntly evaporated to bear a second
coat, add it aa thiekly a» » bruab can by it. Thb wlna dry, lor
489
which two or diree weeka may be lequired. prsduces a perfect
surface " both white and absorbent.
The fngments, which are practically the same as those used in
oil pinting, must be ground in dry powder in the undiluted medium,
and when prepared can be kept in tubes like oil colours. Solid
painting with a good deal of body b recommended and pure oil of
spike b freely used as painting medium. Pure spike oil may also
be washed over the ground before painting " to melt the surface
(hence the name Spirit Fresco) and prepare it to incorporate the
cokwn painted into it." The spike oil b " the one common solvent
of all the materbis: ... the moment the painter's brush touches
the surface (already softened, if necessary, for the day's wocfc) it
opens to receive the coburs, and on the rapid evaporatk>n of the
spike oil it ck>8es them in, and thus the work is done." IThe oil of
spike bvender, it may be noticed, b an esaentbl oil prepared from
Professor Church has suggested improvement in the compositkm
of the medium by eliminating the *' doubtful constituents " demi
resin and bees' -wax and substituting oaraflSn wax. one of the safest
of materials, dissolved in non-resinifiable oil of turpentine. Thb
b mixed as before with copal varnish and used in the same way
and with the same or better resulu as Mr Gambier Pimry's mtdiiiai*
f 39. Oi< Processes of WaU Painimg.'-Tht um of the ofl
medium for painting on plaster in medieval days opens up ■
much debated subject on which a word will be said in conaexios
with oil painting in feneral. In the later Renaissance period in
Italy it came into limited use, and Leonardo essayed it io an
imperfect form and with disastrous result io ha " Last Sapper *'
at Milan. Other artbts, noUbly Sebastiano dd Piombo, were
more successful, and Vaaari, who experimented in the technlqoe,
gives hb readers recipes for the preparation of the plaster graand*
Thb with (>naino (ch. 90) had consisted in a coat of siae or
diluted egg-tempera mixed with milk of fig-shoots, bat later on
thece was substituted for thb several ooau of hot boiled linseed
oiL Thb was still in commoo use in the 16th century, but
Vasari himsdf had evolved a better recipe wUcli he gives us in
the 8th chapter of his " Introductloa " to PAinimg. Over
undercoatings of ordinary plaster he lays a stucco composed of
equal parU of lime, pounded brick, and scales of iron mixed with
white of egg and linseed oil. Thb b then grounded with white
oil toned down with a mixture of red and yellow easily drying
pigments, and on thb the painting b executed.
In Edinbttfgh and other pbces Mrs Traquair has recently carried
out wall paintings on dry plaster with oil odoure much thinned
with turpentine. The muod b prqMfed with aeveml coats of
white oil paint, and the bnished work b finally varnished with the
best copal carriage varnish.
In most cases oil painting intended for mural decoratk>n has
been executed on canvas, to be afterwards attached to the wall.
Thb b the case more especblly in France, and abo in Aoierfca at
the Boston public library and other places. The effort here b to
eet rid of the shiny effect of oil painting proper by eliminating as
far as practicable the oil. As thb however serves as the binding
material of the pigments the procedure b a risky ooe. To suppiws
the oil and to secure a " matt " surface Mr E. A. Abbey employed
at Boston and elsewhere, as a medium for painting wiui ordinary
oil colours, wax dissolved in spike oil and turpentine. In FVance
Povb de ChaMsnnes used some preparation to secure a matt effect
ia hb finedeoomtive oil painting on canvaa.
{ 40. Tempera Painting on WaUs.— This b a very andent and
widdy diffused technique, but the processes of It do not differ in
principle from those of panel painting in the same method. It is
accordingly dealt with under tempera painting in general
(§ 43).
§ 4 X- BneausHc Painting on IToffr.— (See Schultre-Naumburg,
Die Tecknik der Malerei, p. 122 seq.; Paillot de Montabert, Traiti
compiet de la peinture, vol. iz.)*
It has been already mentioned that wax is employed in modem
mural painting In order to secure a matt surface. Many pictures
have been carried out within the last century on walb in a regular
wax medium that may or may not represent an ancient process.
Hippolyte FUndrin executed his series of mural pictures In St
Vincent de Paul and St Germain des Pr^ in Paris in a process
worked out by Paillot de Montabert. Wax dissolved in turpen-
tine or oil of spike is the main constituent of the medium with
which the wall is saturated and the colours ground. Heat b used
to drive the wax into the plaster.
A German redpe prepared by Andreas MOHer in Dflssddorf has
been used for naral pointings in the National Gallerr ■*--^
490
PAINTING
rrecHNicuE
In this one pan vircia wax U 'dinolved in two partB tmpentiiie
inth a few dropa of ooUed linseed <ttl. The {Hgrnents are ground
in boiled linaeed oil wUh. the «dditioa of this medium. The plaster
ground, well dried, is soaked with hot boiled Unseed oil diluted with
an equal (Quantity of turpentine. It is then grounded with several
' oil ■ ' ■ * • • - •
coats of oil paint for, a priming and smoothed with pumice stone.
fainting can be executed in a thin water colour tocnniquc or with
body, and dries lighter than when wet and with a dead surface.
S 42. Encaustic Painting in gtneral in AnciqU and Uoiem
rimei.— (See Cros and Henry, VEncamtique d Us antres pfoddis
de la peintun ckea ies anciem, Paris, X8S4; Fh'nders-Petrie,
Howaraf 8tc, London, 1889; 0. Donner v. Kicbtcrj Vber Tech-
nisches in der UaUrei der Altent Munidi, 1885; Berger, BeitrAge
tur Entwickdungs-Gesckickte der Maltechnik, ii. 185 seq.; Munich,
1904)-
Akhou^ in modem mural painting wax is employed to secure
a matt surface, in andent times it appears to have been valued
rather from the depth and intensity it lent to colours when it was
polahed. It there represented an attempt to secure the same
force and pictorial quality which in modem times are gained by
the use of the oO medium. We are told of it by the andcnts that
it was a sbw and troublesome process, and the name of it,
BManing " bumuig in/' shows that the inconvenience of 1 heating
apparatus was inseparable from it; yet it seems at the same time
to have been a generally accepted technique, and Greek writers
from Anacrcon to Pcocopius treat "wax" as the standard
material for the painter. Nay more, hardly aday now passes with-
out every one of us bearing testimony in the words he uses to the
tmpoitance of the technique in antiquity. The Etymotcgicum
wiagnuni d the xath century makes the process stand for
painting generally (lY<»eau>tiinr4$anrpa^/j^), and the name
" encaustic *' came to be applied not only to painting but also
to sumptuous calligraphy. Then it was applied to writing in
general, and the name stiH survives in the Italian tnchiostro
and our own familiar *' ink " (Eastlake, Mai^Hats, i. 151).
The tedmiqtie of sncient encaustic has given rise to much
discussion which till recently was carried on chiefly on a literary
basis. Fresb material has been contributed by the discovery,
in the eighties of the 19th century, in Egypt of a series of portiuits
on mummy cases* executed for the most port in a wax process,
and dating probably from the first two or three centuries a.o.
Previous to this discovery there was little material of a monu-
mental kind, though what appears to be the painting apparatus
of a GaUo-Roman axtist in encaustic was found in 1847 at St
M£danl-des-Pr£s in La Vendfe, and has been often figured. It
should bo stated at the outset that the modem process of
dissolving wax in turpentine or an essential oil like ofl of spike
was not known to the ancients, who however knew bow to mix
resinous substances with it, as in the case of ship^ainting (Pliny
xi. t6', Dioscorides i. 98). They also saponified wax by boiling ft
with potash so as to form what was called " Punic wax " (PUny
xxi. 84 seq.), and this emulsion may be reduced with water,
and at the same time combines witli oil and with aixe, gum, egg
and other temperas. Wax, Pliny says, may be coloured and
used for painting— aif edendas timiiiludina (lac. cit.); but as
the name " encaustic " implies, and as wc gather from another of
Pliny's phrases, ceris pingere ac pictwam inwrerc (xxxv. laa),
heat was an essential part of the process. Hence the material
must have been employed as « rule in a more or less solid form
and liquefied each time for use, and not in the form of a diluted
solution or emulsion which could be made serviceable cold. It is
true that Punic wax mixed with a little oil is prescribed by
Vitruvius (vii. 9, 3) as a solution for covering and locking up
from the air a coat of the changeable pigment vermilion laid on a
wall (see \ 35), but the solution is used hot and dziven in by
application of a heating apparatus.
The accounts of the technique furm'sbed to us by PUny can
be brought into connexion with the actual remains, and Berger
and others have succeeded faic^ well in imitating theie by
processes evolved from the ancient notices. It is unfortunate
that the most important passage of Pliny (xxxv. 149) appeacs
corrupt. It runs in the received text as follows: Encausto
ping/atdi duo Jutrt aniiqidtus genera, cara 4 im abtra (CJir«, id td
perkulOt donet dasses pingi eotpere. Hoc tertium accessit restiu:is
igni ceris penicitto ulendit quae pictura ncvibus nee sole nrc SsJc
ventiste corrumpilur. Here three kinds of encaustic painting
are mentioned, two old and one new (the comparadve chronobgy
of the processes need not ootne into question), and in the tvit) last
cases the distinction is that between two instruments of painting,
the cestrum and the pemciUu$ or brush. It is natural to sug-
gest that instead of the word cera, which, as wax is the raatetial
common to all encaustic processes, need not have been introduced
and on manuscript authority may be suspected, some word
for a third instrument of painting should be restored. Beiger,
with some philological likelihood,
conjectures the word eauteno,
which means properly a "branding-
iron," but which he believes to be
a sort of hoUowed spatula or spoon
with a large and a small end by
which melted, waxes of different
colours might be uken up, laid on
a ground, such as a wtxxlen panel,
and manipulated in a soft sUte as
pictoiial effect required. Instru-
ments of the kind were found in
the Gallo>Romaa tomb in La
Vendue. The second kind of
painting with the cestrum or
vericulum was on ivory and
must have been on a minute
scale. The "cestrum" was certainly
a tool of corresponding size, and
some have seen in it a sort of point
or graver, such as that with which
the incised outlines were made on
the figured ivory plaques In the
Kertch room at St Petersburg
(see below); others a small lancet-
shaped spatula like the tools that
sculptors employ for working on
plaster. The brush, with which
melted waxes could be laid on in
washes, as was the case on ships,
needs no explanation.
An examination of the portraits
from the mummy cases (see fig. 35)
makes it quite clear that the brush
was used with coloured melted
waxes to paint in, in sketchy fashion,
the draperies and possibly to
underpaint the flesh and hair,
while the flesh was executed in a
more pastes style, with waxes in
a soft condition laid on and
manipulated with some spatula-
like instrument, which we may if (FraBapboto«rmphby w.a-i
vft like call "cauterium" or ^ *.*'^^ ,»
"cestram." T1»e marks of such P'S^^-Mummy^fAr^
a tool are on several of the heads iaicribcd 'NO Artei^donM!
unmistakably in evidence, and may Parcwell." About a.d. 200
be seen in specimens in the London (Grit. Mus.).
National Gallery. There is a
difference of opinion however as to the constitution of ih^
wax. Donner von Richlcr holds that the wax waa " Punic "
i.e. a kind ol emulsion, and was blended with oil and resinot..
balsams so as to be transformed into a soft paste which cmlk
be manipulated cold with the spatula. Heat for ** hvming
in " {picturam inurere) he thinks was afterwards applied, vsith ibc
effect of slightly fusing and blending the coloured waxes th3.t
had been in this way worked into a picture. Berger, on tiM other
hand, believes that the coloured wax pastes were m&nipiu-
latcd hot with the *' cauterium," which would be raaintairicd in *
heated condition, and that there was no subsequent process C
" burning in." Flinders Petric is of opimoa that» even Ib t^
TECHNIQUCI
PAINUNC
i49»
case of the washes laid on with the brash, pure mehed wax was
employed and not a compound or emulsion, such as is generally
assumed. Bergcr believes in a mixture of wax, oil and resin.
•It is interesting to note that the distinguished modern painter,
Arnold Bdcklin, executed bis picture of " Sappho " in coloured
pastes composed of copal resin, turpentine and wax, manipu-
lated with a curved spatula, and that he applied heat to fuse
slightly the impasto. He believed he obtained in this way a
brilliancy not to be compassed with oils.
The nature of the " ccslron " technique on ivory i$ not known.
The only existing artistic designs in ivoiy are executed by
engraved lines, and these are sometimes fUled in with coloured
pastes. Exquisite work in this style exists in the Hermitage
at St Petersburg, and there are examples in other museums, but
this can hardly be termed encaustic painting. A better idea of
the laboriously executed miniature portraits of which Pliny tells
us can be gained from the small medallion portraits modelled in
coloured wax that were common at the Renaissance period and
are still executed to-day. In these however the smaller details
are put in with the brush and pigment
It is known from the evidence of the Erechtheum inscription
that the encaustic process was employed for the painting of
ornamental patterns on architectural features of marble buildings,
but there is still considerable doubt as to the technique employed
in such forms of decorative painting as the colouring of the white
plaster that covered the surfaces of stonework on monumental
buildings in inferior materials. Polychrome ornament on terra-
cotta for architectural embellishment may have been fixed by the
glaze as in ordinary vase painting, but Ph'ny says that Agrippa
figulinum opus encausio pmxU in his Thermae (xxxvi. 189).
The technique of the polychrome lecuthi and of the polychrome
terra-cot ta sUtuary is not certain.
The later history of wax painting after the faD of the Western
Empire is of interest in connexion with the evolution of the
painter's technique as a whole. Its possible relation to oil
painting will be noticed later on. Here it is enough to note that
the so-called Lucca MS. of the 8th century mentions the mingling
of wax with colours, and the Byzantine Mount Alhos Handbook^
recording probably the practice of the zith century, gives a
recipe for an emulsion of partly saponified wax with size as
a painting medium. . A redpe of the rsth century quoted by
Mra Merrifield from the MSS. of Le Begue gives a similar compo-
sition that can be thinned with water and used to temper all
sorts of colours. . _
9 43. Tempera Pairttini. [Cehnino'srraif0/o,inthe£ng^sh
^tion with terminal essays by Mrs Herringham (London, 1899),
is the best work to consult on the subject. The Sodety of Painters
in Tempera published in 1907 a volume of Papers on the subject.
F. Lloyd's PracUcal Guide to Scene Painting and Painting in
Distemper (London, 1879), is chiefly about the paintbg of thea-
trical scenery, and this subject Is also dealt with in articles by
William Tclbin in the Magazine of Art (1889), pp. 92, 195.J
The binding substances used in the tempera processes may be.
classed as follows: (i) Sixe, preferably that made from bolUng
down cuttings of parchment. Fish-^ue, gum, especially gum
tragacanth and gnm arable (the Senegal gum of commerce);
glycerin, honey, milk, wine, beer, Ac. <a) Eggs^In the form of
(i) the yolk alone, (ii) the white alone, (iii) the whole contents of
the egg beaten up, (iv) the saitle with the addition of the milk or
sap of young shoots of the fig-tree, (v) the contents of the egg
with the addition of about the same quantity of vinegar [(iv) was
used in the south, (v) north of the AlpsJ. (j) Emulsions, in
which wax or oil is ming]ed with substances which bring about
the possibility of diluting the mixture with water. Thus oil
can be made to unite mechanicaUy (not chemically) with water
by the interposition either of gum or of the yolk of egg.
Of these materiah it may be noted that a size or gum tempera
is always soluble in water, and is moreover always of a rather
thin consistency.- The latter appb'cs also to white ol egg. On
the other hand the yolk of an egg makes a medium of greater
body, and modem artists, especially In Germany, have painted
in it with a f uH impasto. The yolk of egg or the whole egg slightJy
beaten up mfty be Med to temper powdered pigi«eBU.irith«ut
any dilution by means of water, and the sUffest body can in this
way be obtained. The medieval artists seem however always to
have painted with egg thinly, diluting the yolk with about an
equal quantity of water. Their panels show this, and we can
argue the same from the number of successive coats of paint
prescribed by Cennino and other writers. The former (ch. 165)
mentions seven or eight or ten coats of colours tempered with
yoUc alone, that must have been well thinned with water. This
point will be returned to later on. The yolk of egg' is really
itself an emulsion as it contains about 30% of oil or fatty matter,
though in its fluid state it combines readily with water. " EcB
yolk," writes Professor Church {Chemistry, p. 74), " must be
regarded at essentially an oil medium. Aa it dries the oil
hardens," and ultimately becomes a substance not unlike leather
that is quite impervious to moisture. Hence while size tempoot
when dry yields to water egg tempera will resist it. Sir William
Richmond gave a proof ol this in evidence before a conunittee
of the House of Lords in November 1906^ describing- how he had
exposed a piece of plastet painted with yoLk of egg medium to all
weathers for six months on the roof of a church and found it at the
end perfect^ intact. As to the miUc of young fig-shoots, it is
interesting to know from Principal Laurie ('^ Pigments and
Vehicles of the Old Masters," in Jonmal 0/ the Society of Arts,
Jan. IS, x89», p. 17a) that " fig-tree belongs to the same
family as the india-rubber tree, and its juice contains caout-
chouc." He says, "doubtless the mixture of albumen and
caoutchouc would make a very tough and protective medium."
With regard to the histonrical use of these different media, the
medieval Italians used almost exclusfvety the yolk of egg
medium, and this is also the favourite tempera of the moderns.
In fact in Italy the word " tempera," as used by Vaaari and other
writers, generally means the egg medium. On the other hand
size or gum was more common north of the Alps. It is in most
cases very difficult to decide what temperas were in vogue in
different regions and at the various epochs of the art, and the
following must not be taken for more than an approximate
statement of the facts. As far as it is known, the binding
material in andent Egypt was for the most part size, while
Greek influence from about 600 B.C: onwards may have led to the
use of wax emulsion (Punic wax). For paintings on mummy
cases, and on papyrus scrolls, the medium may hav<i been size
or gum. Professor Flinders Petrie says it was acacia gum. The
wall paintings of ancient Mesopotamia as well as those of India
and the farther East generally were all in tempera, and it Is
noteworthy that recipes and technical practices of the East and
of the West seem to be curiously alike. The exact media used
are doubtful. The same doubt exists with regard to tho exact
processes of wall and panel painting in tempera in ancient Greece
and Italy, in the East, in Byzantine times, and in the ear^
middle ages both north and south of the Alps. The materials
and processes mentioned by Pliny or in the various f*^>ipt<H^]
handbooks are on the whole clearly established, but it b very
difficult to say !n particular cases what was the actual technique
employed. Any certainty in this matter must be based on the
results not only of superficial ocamination but of analysis, and
the very small quantities of the materials that can be placed at
the disposal of the chemist make it often impossible to arrive at a
satisfactory diagnosis.
A story in Pliny (xxxv. toa) shows that the Greek panel
painters, when not "encaustae," used a water tempera, but
whether size or egg was its main constituent we do not know.
Apellcs is said to have covered his finished panels with a thin coat
of what Pliny calls " atramcntum," which may have been a white
of egg varnish, for spirit varnishes were not known in antiquity
(Bergcr i. and ii. 183), and the Greeks do not seem to have used
drying oils nor varnishes made with these. Byzantine panel
painting, according to the Mount Alhos Handbook, was executed
as a rule in an egg tempera (Berger iii. 75), and this technique
was followed later on in Italy. For Greek and Etruscan (Italian)
wall-paintings of the pagan period; for late Roman wall-paintings
north of the Alps, and for Romanesque and Gothic waU^patv*--"—
492
PAINTING
fTECHNlQUfi
we hftVe to dwoM ftttoagtt the tlicoriet of tiie or egg ttrnptn,
wtx tenpen (emuhion), aod the lime painting In '* fresco secco "
described by Theophilus. When we come to the panel painting
from the tith to the isth century we are on surer ground. For
the north we have the technical directions of Theophilus, for the
south those of Cennino. Theophilus (i. ch. zxvii.) prescribes a
tempera of gum from the cheny tree, and, with some pigments,
white of egg. The finished panel was to be oevered with an oil
varnish (vemition). Cennino prescribes a tempera of the yolk
of egg alone, half and half with the pigments, which have been
finely ground in water and are very liquid, so that there might
be in the ultimate compound about as much water as egg. A
tempera of the whole egg with the milk of fig-ahooU he recom-
mends, not for paneb, but for retouching fresco-work on the wall
when it is dry. Tempera panels painted with egg yolk are, like
the gum tempera panels of Theophilus, to be varnished with
Hmiee Uquida (ofl varnish). In these media were executed
an the fine tempera panels of the early Italian and aariy German
scho^ of the 15th centttiy, and these represent a limited, but
within iu bounds » very perfect and fnteicsting, form of the
painter's art
A word or tfitt may be said here ^Mat the various subsidiary
procewes eonnected with X4th and iSth century panel painting,
which are of great interest as showing the oonadentioiia, aad indeed
devotional spirit in which the opersuons were carried out. At the
outset of his Traitato Cennino gives a list of the processes the panel
painter has to go through, and in subsequent chapters he deKribcs
minutely each of these. The artist must " know how to grind
colours, to use glue, to fasten the linen on the panel, to prime with
gesso, to scrape and smooth the gesso, to make reliefs in gesso, to
put on bole, to gild, to burnish, to mix temperas, to lay on grounding^
colours, to transfer by pouncing throuKh pricked lines, to sharpen
lines with the stylus, to indent with little patterns, to carve, to
coloar. to ornament the panel, and finally to varnish it." The
prsUminary operations, before the artificer actually begins to
^' colour '* or paint, will take him six years to learn, and it requires
with Cennino half a hundred chapters to describe them. The
wooden panel b carefully compacted and linen Is glued down over
its face, and over this Is laid, in many successive coats, a gesso
ground of slaked plaster of Paris tobitA with siae, with which
oomposttioo nuta ornaments, such as the nimbi of saints, &c.,
can be modelled. Both these and the flat parts of the panel are
scraped and smoothed till they are like Ivory. The design of the
picture Is then drawn out on thejanel. and the outlines sharpened
up with the utmost precision* The gilding of the background and
01 the carved woodwork in which the panel u set now follows.
Armenian bole, ground finely with white of egg diluted with water,
b spread over the gesso and carefully burnished as a jtround for
water gikKng with white of egg. The gold b then burnished till it
appears almost dark (in the shadow) (rem its own refulgence,
liie delicate indented patterns which are so charming on the gilded
grounds of the painted paneb on East Angrian screens, such as that
at Southwold, are stamped with little punches, and Cennino says
thb b one of the most beautiful parts of the art. In the actual
painting, which b on the non-gikkd part of the panel, the utmost
attention b paid to the omamcnution of brocaded draperies, in
which gold Is used as a ground and b made to show in parts, while
gbaes of pigment mixed with drying oil are also used. Directions
for painting the flesh, which b to be done after the draperies and
background, are precise. There b an under-jMunting in a mono-
chrome of terra verte and white, and over this in successive coats
of great thinness the flesh-tints are spread, every tint being bid in
its right position on the face, the darkest flesh-tint being shaded
down to the terra verte and softened off in a tender ^uma^
manner. Many coats are superimposed, but the green ground, is
still to remain slightly visible. At the last the lightest flesh-tknt
b used to obtain the reliefs and the high lights are touched in in
white. The outlines are sharpened up with red mixed with black.
The varnishing proocss should be delayed for at least a year, and
the varaish. which was evidently thick, is to be spread by the fingers
over the painted surfaces, care being taken not to let the varnish
go over the gold ground. Thb should be done if possible in the
sun, but Cennino says that if the varnish be boiled it wOl dry
srithout b^ng placed in the sun. ....
The pTBOesa thus described b not what we should call, m the
modem sense, painting, for the precision and conventionality of
the work and the great importance given to subsidiary detaib are
quite opposed to the spirit of the art since the l6th century. Never-
theless, the naive nmplicity of the design and the exqubite delicacy
of the finbh have an unfailing charm. We feel, as Cennino aavs,
that the anbt has bvcd and deliKhted In hb work, and regarded
hb patient manlpuUtion as a religious act. A modern artist in
tempera specblly pmises the old work for its " breadth, trans-
parency and purity of cotoor,*' qoalitba " owing to the gcsdual
bringing forwara of the pictnra from a shntwe o u t l in e of cxtiene
beauty.y ^ " Thb outline is never kMt; its beautifully opposed and
harmonising Uncs and masses are retained to the end, even strength-
ened and accentuated, giving great distinctness at a distance, even
when not actually viiible. A perfectly moduteted m ooo ch nwne
of light and shade filb the outline, apparent through the overbid
gbry of colour, over which again b thrown a veil of atoaosphcre.
a refulgence 01 light, a suggestion of palpitating tpaux** (Mn
Herringham's CnmiiM, p. 318). A difficulty in the technique b
the rapid drving of the medium, that yeve ata the fming of tbe
ether in the impasco, which n ponible ia oil paantiag.
cokHirs togetl ^
Woltmann iHislory of PauUint^ _ ^__
in the north honey was mixed with tbe white of
prevent too rapid drying, and he wrote, "thb m
possibb a liquid and softly grsdated handling, and though tte
ItaUan variety of tempera albwcd greater depth in the shadowvp
Che northern gave on the whole greater brightness." In Italy,
owing to the rafiid drying of the egg-yolk, modelling was often
secured by hatching, which b not so (ueasins in its dfect as tbe
other method of superimposing thin coau of paint one over the
other till tbe proper effect ot shading b secured. One ir*^^**
quality of tempera b its transparency, which b r eferred to by
Cennino when he says that the ordinal under-painting of terra
verte is never to be wholly obliterated.
Tbe well-known group of the " Three Gnces," fromBottiodli^
large panel of the " Allegory of Spring," at Florence, gives the
quality of tempera painting very aptly (see fig. 36, Plate X.).
There b a Society of Painters in Tempera In London, and loine
artbts are enthusiastic in their admiration of the proceii for its
purity, sincerity and permanence.
Under the heading ** tempera *' should be noticed another er>'le
of painting with a water-medium that b executed as a rule on a
Urge scale and in a comparatively slight fasbton. Painting for
the purposes of temporary decoration on canvas or wood, so much
used in the Italian cities of the Renaissance period, b of thb kind.
Large cartoons in colour for mural pictures or tapestry, of which
Raphael's cartoons are the most famous exampin, are other ex-
amples; whife in modern times the technique b chiefly cmpfej-cd
in theatrical scene painting. The pigments are tempered with
sise or gum, and body b given to them by whitening, pipe-day or
rimibr substance. Work executed in thb medium dries much
lighter than when it b put on, and to execute it effectively, as m
the case of stage scenery* requires much skill and practice. " In
the study of the art o( distemper paintin|( a source of considerate
embarrassment to the inexperienced eye » that the colours wben
wet present such a different appearance to what they do when
dry.'' So writes F. Lloyds, but W. Telbin, though he raoognises
this difficulty, extob the process. "A splendid material di»-
temperl For atmosphere unequalled, and for streogth as powerful
as oil. in half an hour you can do with it that which in water or o«l
would take one or two days!" The English word "di s temper**
and the French " gouache '* are commonly aopUed to thb styie of
broad summary painting in body-colour. " Distemper** to Engluh
earssuggesu houae^decoratioo, tempera ** the work of the artist.
§ 44* Otf Patn/tfif .-~<See Eastlake, Materiaisjar o Hitt&ry «/
Oil Pttiulint (London, 1847); M^m^, De la pemiwt d rkuiU
(Paris, 1830); Berger, BtUrHgt mw EnhncUumts-CttckkkU 4§r
lidUduiikt tap. iii. 221 tqq., and iv. (Munich, 1S97), &c;
Dalbon» Let Oriiintt i* ia peiniure d VkuiU (Paris, 1904);
Ludwig, Oder die CrundsHtu der OdwtaUru (Leipajg. 1S76);
Leasing, Obtr das Alter der OtlmaUrei^ 1774.)
Oil painting b an art rather of the north than of the aoath and
east, for its, development was undoubtedly furthered by the
demand for mobture-reabting media in comparatively damp
dtnates, and, moreover, the drying oib on which the technique
depends were but sparingly prepared in lands where olive oil,
which does not dry, was a staple product.
Certain vcgcUble oib dry naturally in the air by a process of
o^ydisation, and thb drying or hardening is not accompanied by
any considerable shrinking, nor by any change of colour; so that
oil and substances mixed with it do not alter in volume nor in
appearance as a consequence of the drying process. There may
be a alow subsequent alteration in the direction of darkening or
becoming more yellow; but thb b another matter. Among xhcac
otb the most important b linseed oil extracted from the seeds
of the flax plant, poppy oil from tbe seeds of the opium poppy,
and nut oil from the kemeb of the common walnut. With these
oib, generally Unseed, ordinary tube colours used by painters in
oil are prepared, and oil vami^es, also used by artbts, are made
by dissolving in them certain resins. Their natural drying
qualities can be greatly aided by subjecting them to hcnt, and
tSCHNigVEl
PAINTING
493
«bo by mingling with them chemical sabstuncea knowfi as
*' diyen," of which certain salts of lead and tine are the most
familiar. How fat twick in antiquity such oils and their proper-
ties were known is doubtful. Certain varnbhes are used in
Egypi on mummy cases of the New Empire and on other surfaces,
and, though some of these are soluble in water, others resist it.
and 9uiy be made with drying oils or essential oals> though the
art of distilling these last cannot be traced back in Egypt earlier
than the Roman imperial period. (See Berthelot, La Ckimte av
tnayen dge, i. ij8 (Paris, iSqj). When Pliny tells us (xiv. 173)
that ail resins are soluble in oil, we might think he was contem-
plating a varnish of the modern kind. Elsewhere, however (xxi v.
34), he prescribes such a solulmn as a sort of emollient ointment
for wooJids, so it is clear that the oil he has in view is non-drying
olive oil that would not make a varnish. In two passages of his
Nniurol HiUary (xv. 24*32, xsiil. 79-96) Pliny discourses at
length on various oils, but does not refer to their drying properties.
There is really no direct evidence of the use among the Gneeks
and Romans of drying oib and oil varnishes, though a recent
writer (Cremer, Untertuckmnaen iiber den Beginn dor Odwtduti,
Dttss., 1899) has searched for it with desperate eagerness. ' The
chief purpose of painting for which such materials would have
been in demand is the painting of ships, but this we know was
carried out in the equally waterproof medium of wax, with which
resin or pilch was commingled by heat^ The earliest mention of
the use of a drying oil in a process connected wKh painting is in the
medical writer Aelius, of the beginning of the 6th century a.d.,
who says that nut oil dries and forms a protective varnish
over gilding or encaustic painting. From this time onwards the
use of drying oils and varnishes in painting -processes is well
established. The Utua MS. of the 8th or 9th century a.d.
gives a receipe for a transparent varnish composed of linseed
oil and resin. In the Mcuni Athos Handbook " peseti," or boiled
linseed oil, appears in common use, and with resin is made into a
varnish. In the same treatise also we find a clear description
of oil painting in the modem sense; but since the dates of the
various portions of the Handbook are uncertain, we may refer
rather to Theophilus (about A.D. tioo), who indicates the same
process with equal clearness. The passages in Theophilus (i.
chs. XX. and xxvl.^xxviii.) are of the first importance for the
history of oil painting. He directs the artificer to take the
colours he wishes to apply, to grind them carefully without
water in oil of linseed prepared as he describes in ch. xx., and to
paint therewith flesh and drapery, beasts or birds or foliage,
just as he pleases. All kinds of pigments can be ground in the
6tl and used on wooden panels, for Ike work must be puiontin
ike sun lo dry. It is noteworthy that Theophilus (ch. zxvii.)
MittiM to confine this method of painting to movable works
(on panel, in opere ligpea^ in his lantmm rebus quae soU siaari
possuni) that can be carried out into the sun, but in ch. xxv. of
the more or less contemporary third book of Heradius (Vienna
QueUensckri/UHt No. iv.) oil-paint may be dried either in the
sun or by artificial heat. HeracUus, moreover, knows how
to mix dryers (oxkie of lead) with his oil, a device with which
Theophilus is not acquainted. Hence to the latter the defect
of the medium was its slow drying, and Theophilus reconunends
as a quicker process the gum tempera already described. In
any case, whether the painting be in oil or tempera, the finished
panel must be varnished in the sun with " vemition " (ch. xxi.),
m varnish compounded by heat of linseed oil and a gum, which
is probably sandarac resin. The Mount Atkos Handbook, ( 53,
describes practically the same technique, but indicates it as
specially used for flesh, the inference being that the draperies
were painted in tempera or with wax. It is worth noting that
the well-known " bUck Madonnas," common in Italy as well
as in the lands of the Greek Church, may be thus explained.
They are Bysantine icons in which the flesh has been painted
In oil and the draperies in another technique. The oil has
darkened with age, while the tempera paru have remained in
contrast comparatively fresh. Some of them are probably the
earUest oil paintings extant.
Qii painting acoordiagly, though in an unsatisfaaory form,
is estabSshcd al least as early as aj>. iioo. What had been
iis previous history? Here it is necessary to take note of the
interesting suggestion of Berger, that it was gradually evolved
in the early Christian centuries from the then declining encaustic
technique of classical times. We learn from Dmscorides, who
dales rather Uter than the time of Augustus, that resin was
mixed with wax for the painting of ships, and when drying oils
came into use they would make with wax and resin a medium
requiring less heat to make it fluid than wax akme, and one
therefore more convenient for the brush^form of encaustic.
Berger suspects the presence of such a medium in some of tlie
mummy-case portraits, and points for confirmation to the
chemical analysis of some pigments found in the grave of a
painter at Heme St Hubert in Belgium of about the time of
Constantine the Great (i. and ii. 230 seq.). One part wax with
two to three parts drying (nut) oil he finds by experiment a
serviceable medium. Out of this changing wak-tecfaniquc he
thinks there proceeded the use of drying oils and resins as okedia
in independence of wax. If we hesitate in the meantime to
regard this as more than a hypothesis, it is yet worthy of atten-
tion, for any hypothesis that suggests a plausible connexion
between phenomena the origin and relations of which are so
ohscure deserves a friendly reception.
The Trattato ot Cennino Cennini represents two or three
centuries of advance on the Sckeduta of Theophilus^ and about
contemporary with it is the ao<alIed Strassburg MS., which
gives a view of German practice just as the Trattato does of
Italian. This MS., attentton to which was firat called by
Eastlake {Materials, i. 126 seq.), contains a remarkable redpe
for preparing " oil for the colours." Unseed or hempaeed or
old nut oil is to be boiled with certain dryers, of which white
copperas (sulphate of zinc) is one. This, when bleached in the
sun, " will acquire a thick cunststenr^, and also become «s
transparent as a line crystal. And this oil dries very fast, and
makes all colours beautifully dear and gtossy besides. AM
paintera are not acquainted with it: from its excellence it is
called oteum preciosum, since Ball an ounce is well worth a
shilling, and with this oil all colonra are to be ground. and
tempered," while as a final process a few drops of varnish
«re to be added. The MS. probaUy dates rather before than
after 1400.
Cennino's treatise, written a little later, gives avowedly
the recipes and processes traditional in the school ol Gk>tto
throughout the 14th century. He begins his account of oil
painting with the remark that it was an art much prsctised by
the " Germans," thus bearing out what was said at the com-
mencement of this section. He proceeds (chs. 90-94) to describe
an on technique for walls and for panels that aoun<b quito
efloctive and modem. Linseed oil is to be bleached in the sun
and mixed with liquid vamish in the proportion of an ounce
of vamish to a pound of oil, and in this medium all cokmn are
to be ground. " When you would paint a drapery "With the
three gradations," Cennino proceeds, "divide the tints and
place them each in its position with your brush of squirrd hair,
fusing one colour with another so that the pigments are thickly
laid. Then wait certain days, come again and see how the
paint coven, and repaint where needful. And In this way
paint flesh or anything you please, and likewise mountains,
trees and anything else." In other chapters Cennino recom-
mends cert^n portions of a painting in tempera to be put in in oil,
and nowhere does he give a hint that the work in oil gave
any trouble through its unwillingness to diy. His medium
appean, however, to have been thick, and perhaps somewhat
viscous (ch. 92). This combination of oil paint and tempera
on the same piece Is a matter, as we shall presently see» of some
significance.
In the De re aedijUatoria of L. B. Albert! (written about
1450), vi. 9, there is a mention of " a new discovery of laying
on colours with oil of linseed so that they resist for ever all-
injuries from weather and climate," whidi may have sonw
reference to so-called " German " practice.
The next Italian writer who says anything to the purpose a
496
PAINTING
(TECHNIQUE
the London National Oallery, caDed the "Consecration of St
Nicholaa/' the kneeling figure of the aaint is robed b green with
sleeves ol golden orange. Tliis latter colour is evidently carried
through as undcrpointing over the whole draped portions of
the figure, the green being then floated over and so manipulated
that the golden tint shows through in parts and gives the high
Ughts on the folds.
Again the relation of the two kinds of pigment may be reversed,
and the full-bodied ones mixed with white may be struck inio a
previously laid transparent tmt. The practice ol painting into a
wet glaxo or nibbing was especially characteristic of the later
Flemings, with Rubens at their head, and this again, though a
polar opposite to that of the Venetians, is also derived from the
earlier tempera, or modified tempera, techniques. The older
tempera panels, when finished, were, as we have seen, covered
with a coating of oil varnish geneAUy of a warm golden hue, and
in some parts they were, as Cennino tells us, glazed with trans-
parent oil paint. Now Van Mander tells us in the introduction to
his StkUderboek of 1604, verse 17, that the older Flemish and
German oil painters, Van Eyck, DUrer and others, were accus-
tomed, over a slightly painted monochrome of water-colour in
which the drawing was carefully made oat, to lay a thin coat of
semi transparent flesh tint in oil, through which the under-
painting was still visible, and to use this as the ground for their
subsequent operations. In the fully matured practice of Rubens
this thin glase became a complete painting of the shadows m
rubbings of deep rich transparent oily pigment, into which the
hatf-toaes and the lights were painted while It was still wet.
Descamps, in his VU det peinlrn flamands (Paris, i753).describ€8
Rubeas's method of laying in his shadows without any use of
white, which he called the poison of this part of the picture, and
then painting into them with solid pigment to secure modetltng
by touches laid boldly side by side, and afterwards tenderly
fused by the brush. Over this preparation the artist wouM
fetuni with the few decided strokes which are the distinctive
rigns-manual of the great master. The characteristic advantages
of this method of work are, first, breadth, and second, spc«d.
The under tint, often of a rich soft umber or brown, being spread
equally over the canvas makes its presence felt throughout,
although all sorts of colours and textures may be painted into
it. Hence the whole preserves a unity of effect that is highly
pictorial. Further, as the whole beauty of the work depends
on the Akill of hand by which the solid pigment is partly sunk
into the gUuse at the shadow side, while it comes out drier and
stronger in the lights, and as this must be done rightly at once or
not at all, the process under a hand like that of Rubens is a
singularly rapM one. Exquisite are the cfTccls thus gained when
the under tint is allowed to peep through here and there, blending
with the solid touches to produce the subtlest effects of tone and
colour.
Of these two distinct and indeed contrasted Ynethods of
handling oil pigment, with solid or with transparent under-
painting, that of the Flemings has had most efTect on later
practice. The technique dominated on the whole the French
school of the i8th century, and has had a good deal of influence
on the painting of Scotland. In general, however, the oil
painting of the X7th and succeeding centuries has not been
bound by any distinctive rules and methods. Artists have felt
themselves free, perhaps to an undue extent, in their choice of
media, and it must be admitted that very good results have been
achieved by the use of the simplest vehicles that have been known
throughout the whole history of the art. If Rembrandt begins
in the Flemish technique, Velazqoex uses at first solid under-
paintings of a somewhat heavy kind, but when these masters
attain to full command of their media they paint apparently
without any special system, obtaining the resuhs they desired,
now by one process and now again by another, but always
working in a free untrammelled spirit, and treating the materials
t& the spirit of a master rather than of a slave. In modem
painting generally we can no longer speak of established processes
And methods of woik, for every artist claims the right to experi
ment nt his will, and to produce his result in the way that suiU
his own individttality and the apcdal aitofe of the Usk bcioK
him.
I 45. WatwCcUm Faimitig'^(Co$tno Monkhoae, Tke
Boriin Engftsh Wdlef-Colmr FmmStrr, and «!., London, 1897;
Redgrave, A CmUuy of Pa»nUrsi and Hametton, The C^cpkU
ArtSy contain chapters on this subject.)
Water<colour painting, as has been aaSd, b only a paftkvlar
form of tempera, in which the pigmenu aic maei with gain
to make them adhere, and often with honey or glycerin to
prevent then drying too fast. The surface operated on is for
the most part paper, though " miniature " paintlDf is la water-
colour on ivory. The tedfrnique was in use for the Bhisttated
papyrus rolls in ancient Egypt, and the iUuminatcd MSS. ol
the medieval period. As a role the pigments used in the MSS.
were mued with white and were opaque or ** body " colours,
while water-cok>ur painting in the modem sense Is mostly trans^
parent, though the body*€oloar tedmiqne is aho employed.
There is no histoiteol connexion between the watcf^coloor
painting on the vellum of medieval MSS. and the fliodem
practice. Modem water-coloor painting is a development
rat her from the drawings, which the painters from the i stb to the
t7th century were constantly executing in the most varied aoedio.
Among the processes employod was the reiafefcement of an
outline dnwmg with the pen by means of a slight wash of the
same colour, generally a brown. In these so<alled pen-and*
wash drawings artists hke Rembrandt were fond of (wording
their impressions of nature, and the water-colour picture was
evolved through the gradual development in importance of the
Wash as distinct from the tine, and by the gradual addition to it
of colour It is true that we find tome of the old masters
Occasionally executing fully-tinted water-colour drawings quite
in a modem spirit. There are landscape studies in body-edlonr
of this kind by Dflrer and by Rubens. These are, hamevrr, of
the nature of accidents, and the real devdopmcnt of the tech-
nique did not begin till the x8th century, when it was worked
out, for the most part in England, by artists of whom the most
important were Paul Sandby and John Robert Cosens, who
fionrished during the latter half of the i8th century. Fhst the
wash, which had been originally quite flat, and a mere adjunct
to the pen outline, received a certain amount of noddling, and
the advance was quickly made to a complete monochrome in
which the firm outline still played an froponant part. The
element of colour wos first introduced in the form of neutral
tints, a transparent wash of cool grey being used for the sky
and distance, and a comparatively warm tint of brown for the
foreground. "The progress of English water-cokur," writes
Mr Monkhouse, *' was from monochrome through neutral tint
to full colour" Cozens produced some beautiful atmospheric
effects with these neutral tints, though the rendering of nature
was only conventional, but it was reserved for the second genem*
tion of English water-colour artists to develop the full resources
of the techaique. This generation is represented centrally by
Thomas Girtin (1775-1802) and J. M. W. Turner <t775-i85i>.
the latter of whom is by far the greatest represenutive of the
art that has hitherto appeared. To Girtin, who died young
and whose genius, like that of Ma^ccfo, developed early, is due
the distinction of creating water-colour painting as an on
dealing with the tones and colours of nature as they hod been
dealt with in the older media. W. K. Pyne, a contemporary
water-colour artist who also wrote on the art, says of Girtin that
he ** prepared his drawings on the same principle whidi had
hitherto been confined to painting in oil, namely, laying in the
object upon his paper with ibe local colour, and shading the same
with the individual tint of its own shadow. Pi e v iu us to the
practice of Tomer and Girtin, drawings «*ere shaded first
entirely through, whatever their component part»— homes,
cattle, trees, mountains, foregrounds, middle-ground and dis-
tances, all with black or grey, and these objects were after*
wards stained or tinted, enricheid or finished, as is now th^ rustom
to colour prints. It was the new practice, introduced by these
I distinguished artists, that acquired for designs in water<oloim
upon paper the title of paintings.**
suits I upon paper t
PAINTING
Plate III.
Fig. 6. — Prehistoric Drawing of a Mammoth.
Photo, fy. A. MansellGr Co.
Fig. 7. — Egyptian Fowling in the Delta.
Photo, jUinari.
Fig. 10. — Zeus and Hera. Pompeian Wall Painting.
Photo, Aiinari.
Fig. 8.— Francois Vase. Florence.
photo, IV, A. Mansetier Co.
Fig. II.— Herod's Birthday Feast.
Wall Painting in Cathedral at Brunswick.
Plate IV.
PAINTING
By permission of Braum, CUment Gr Cfc, Dornoch (jilsace) and Paris.
Fig. 12.— The Maries at the Sepulchre, Hubert Van Eyck (?).
(28x35.)
Photo, Alinari,
Fig. 13.— Herod's Birthday Feast, Giotto.
PAINTING
Plate V.
PkotOt Alinari.
Fig. 14. — Peace. Lorenzctti. Siena.
Photo, nanfstaengl.
Fig. 16 —Battle of S. Egidio, Ucccllo. (72x125.) National Gallciy, London.
Photo, nanfstaengl.
Fig. 17. — Martyrdom of S. Ssbastion,
PoIIaiuolo. (114X79K.) National
Gallery, London.
Photo, Alinari.
Fig. 18.*— The Dream of Con-
stantine, Piero Delia Fran*
cesca. Arezzo.
Photo, Alinari.
Fig. 25. — ^Xbe Ezpubion from Eden,
Masacdo.
Photo, Alinari.
Fig. 19.— Buiial of S. Fina, Ghiriandajo. S. Gcmignano.
Plate VI.
PAINTING
By permission of Braun, CUment 6* Co., Dornoch (Alsace) and Paris.
Fig. 20. — Dance of the Muses, Mantegna. (64 X 77.)
Louvre.
Photo, Anderson.
Fig. 21. — ^Altarpiece at Murano, BellinL Figures almost Life-size.
PAINTING
Plate VII.
Photo, Newdein.
Fig. 22. — The Concert, Giorgione (?). Louvre. (44 X 55.)
PhotOt Anderson.
Fig. 23. — The Presentation in the Temple, Titian. (138 X 310.) Academy, Venice.
Plate X.
PAINTING
Photo f AndtrsoH.
Fig. 36.— The Three Graces, Botticelli. Florence
By permistian 0/ BrauH, CUment & Co., Dcrnath {.Alsatr) and PtiHr.
Fig. 33.— Still Life, Chardin. (74 x 50.) Louvre.
Photo, Anderson.
Fig. 34. — ^Figure of Adam, Michelangelo. Rome.
IIECGNTSCH00t5|
PAINTING
497
Glrtin " opened the gates of tlie art " and Turner entered in.
If the palette of the former was still restricted, Turner exhausted
all the resources of the colour box, and moreover enriched the
art by adding to the traditional transparent washes the effects
to be gained from the use of body colour. Body colours, how-
ever, were not only laid on by Turner with the solid impasto of the
medieval illuminations. He was an adept at dn^^ing thin
films of them over a tinted ground so as to secure the subtle
colour effects which can also be won in pastel. It would be
useless to aturopt any account of the technical methods of
Turner or of the more modem practitioners in the art, for as in
tnodern oil painting so here, each artist feels at hberty to adopt
any media and processes which seem to promise the result he
has in view. The varieties of paper used in modern water-colour
practice are very numerous, and the idiosyncrasy of each artist
expresses itself in the way he will manipulate his ground;
superinduce one over the other his transparent washes; load with
solid body colour; sponge or scratch the paper, or adopt any of
the hundred devices in which modem practice of pointing is so
rife. fG Ti. Ti)
Cbnbial Authorities on Technique.— Hamerton. Th^ tr-^/fcic
Arts: A Treatise on the Varieties of Drawine, Painting .n. J ^: ■ivjr jujf
(London. 1882), a work combining technical and art^ ii Mii<,i.aa-
rion, is the best single book on this subject. -More ' cal
is Bcmsr, BeitrAge zur Entwickelunts-Geschiekte d» tik
(Munich, 1897-1904; partly in socond editions. Tfa is
yet to come). The scries QuellensckriUen jUr Kttnst ind
KuHSltecknik des MUtelaUers und der Renaissance {Vunut^ v.jrj.ms
dates from i8;ri) contains many publications of r<i...i, *. :,?ijc,
among them being, t., Cennino Ccnnini, Das Buck t-'n •.'^^ Khttsl,
German trans, of the Traltato, with note by Ilg; vii . 1 li>^<^[>hilus,
Sckedula diver sarum artium. Get. trans, by II,;. C uriijLo's
Tratlato has also been edited in English by Mrt E l.rrnij^im
(London, 1899). Mrs Merrifield, Ancient Practice "( i'csr.'ing
(2 vols., London. 1849), and Sir Charles Eastlakc, MuUrMts for a
History of Oil Painting (2 vols., 1849 and 1869}, are valuable
standard works. Information as to Byzantine processes is to be
found in the Mount Athos Handbook m -' Manuel d'iconographie
chr6tiennc grecque ct latine," by Pidron the elder (Paris, 1845).
Church, The Chemistry of Paints and Painting (jrded., London.1901),
is by far the best book on its subject. Vasari on Technique, trans, by
Miss Maclehose and edited with commentary by Baldwin Brown
(London, 1907), contains a good deal of informatbn. Paul Schukze-
Naumburg, Die Teeknik' der . Malerei (Leipzie, no date); Vibert,
La Science df la peitUure (Paris, 1 890), may also be mentioned.
Recent Schools op JPainting '
British.
At the beginning of the last quarter of the XQth centnry
British art was held to be in a vigorous and authoritative
position. During the years immediately preceding it had been
developing with regularity and had displayed a vitoh'ty which
seemed to be full of promise. It was supported by a large array
of capable workers; it had gained the widest rccognititm from the
public; and it was curiously free from Chose internal conflicts
which diminish the strength of an appeal for popalar apprecia-
tion. There were then few sharp divergences or subdivisions
of an important kind. The leadership of the Royal Academy
was generally conceded, and its relations with the mass of
outside artists were httle wanting in cordiality. One of the chief
reasons for this understanding was that at this time an ahnost
unprecedented approval was enjoyed by nearly all classes of
painters. Picture-collecting had become a general fashion,
and even the youngest workers received encouragement directly
they gave evidence of a reasonable share of capacity. The
demand was equal to the supply; and though the number of
men who were adopting the artistic profession was rapidly
increasing, there seemed little danger of over-production.
Pictorial art had established upon all sorts of people a hold too
strong, as it seemed, to be affected by change of fashion. All
pointed in the direction of a permanent prosperity.
Subsequent events provided a curious commentary on the
anticipations which were reasonable enough in 1875. That
year is now seen to have been, not the beginniag of an era
of unexampled success for British pictorial art, but rather the
culminating point of preceding activity. During the period
which has succeeded we have witnessed a rapid decline in the
AX9
popular interest in pktiire<iMdnting and a marked ilteiation in
the conditions imder which artists have had to work. In the
place of the former sympathy between the pubUc and the
producers, there grew up something which almost approached
indifference to their best and sincerest efforts. Simultaneously
there developed a great amount of internal dissension and of
antagonism between different sections of the art community.
As an effect of these two causes, a new set of circumstances
came into existence, and the aspect of the British school under-
went a radical change. Many art workers found other ways of
using their energies. The shickening of the popular demand
inclined them to experiment, and to test forms of practice which
formeriy were not accorded serious attention, and it led to the
formation of detached hostile groups of artists always ready
to contend over details of techm'cal procedure. Restlessness
became the dominant characteristic of the British school, along
with some intolerance of the popular lack of sympathy.
The first sign of the coming change appeared very soon after
1875. The right of the Royal Academy to define and direct the
policy of the British school was disputed in 1877,
when the Grosvenor Gallery was started " with the SStv^aor
intention of giving special advantages of exhibition ^J*^
to artists of established repuution, some of whom /usdemy.
have previously been imperfectly known to the
public." This exhibition gallery was designed not so much as a
rival to the Academy, as to provide a place where could be
collected the works of those men who did not care to make their
appeal to the public through the medium of a large and hetero-
geneous exhibition. As a rallying place for the few unusual
painters, standing apart from their fellows in conviction and
method, it had good reason for existence; and that it was not
regarded at Bur]tngton House as a rival was proved by the fact
that among the contributon to the first exhibition were included
Sir Francis Grant, the President of the Royal Academy, and such
artists as Letghlon, MiUais, C F. Watts, Ahna-Tadema, G. D.
Leslie and E. J. Poynter, who were at the time Academicians or
Associates. With them, however, appeared such men as
Bume-Jones, Holman Hunt, Walter Crane, W. B. Richmond
and J. McN. Whistler, who had not heretofore obtained the
publicity to which they were entitled by the exceptional quality
and intention of their work. There was doubtless some sugges-
tion that the Academy was not keeping touch with the more
important art movements, for shortly after the opening of the
Grosvenor Gallery there began that attack upon the oflkial art
leaders which has been one of the most noteworthy incidents id
recent art history in Great Britain. The initial stage of this
conflict ended alx>ut 1886, when the vehemence of the attack
had been weakened, partly by the withdrawal of some of the
more prominent " outsiders," who had meanwhile been elected
into the Academy, and partly by the formation of smaller
societies, which afforded the more " advanced " of the younger
men the opportunities which they desired for the exposition of
their views. In a modified form, however, the antagonism
between the Academy and the outsiders has continued. The
various protesting art association continues to work in most
matters independently of one another, with the common belief
that the dominant influence of Burlington House is not exercised
entirely as it should be for the promotion of the best interests
of British art, and that it maintains tradition as against the
development of individualism and a ** new style."
The agiution in all branches of art effort was not entirely
without result even inside Burlington House. Some of the
older academic views were modified, and changes seriously
discussed, which formeriy would have been rejected as opposed
to all the traditions of the society. Its calmness under attack,
and its ostenUtious disregard of the demands made upon it by
the younger and more strenuous outsiders, have vefled a great
deal of shrewd observation of passing events. It may be said
that the Academy has known when to break up an organization
in which it recognised a possible source of danger, by selecting
the ablest leaders of the opposition to fill vacancies in its own
ranks; it haa given places on its walls to the works of those
498
PAINTING
[BRinSR
Kefonncft wbo were not unwflltng to be represented m the aiunul
exhibitions; and it has, without aeeming to yield to clamour,
Rsponded perceptibly to the pressure of professional opinion.
In so doing, though it has not checked the progress of the
changing fashion by which the popular liking for pictorial art
has been diverted into other channels, it has kept its hold upon
the public, and h^ not to any appreciable extent weakened its
position of authority.
It is doubtful whether It more definite participation by the
Academy in the controversies of the period would have been of
^^ ^|. any use as a means of prolonging the former good
CoiMittmf relations between artists and the collectors of works
uiBHUBh of art. The change is the result of something more
^'^ than the failure of one art society to fulfil its entire
mission. The steady falling o£F in the demand for modem
pictures has been due to a combination of causes which have
been powerful enough to alter nearly all the conditions under
which British painters have to work. For example, the older
collectors, who had for some years anterior to- 1875 bought up
eagerly most of the more important canvases which came within
their reach, could find no more room in their galleries for further
additions;again, artist^ with the idea of profiting to the utmost
by the keenness of the competition among the buyers, had forced
up their prices to the highest limits. But the most active Qf all
causes was that the younger generation of collectors did not show
the same inclination that had swayed their predecessors to limit
their attention to modem pictorial art. They turned more and
more from pictures to other forms of artistic effort. They built
themselves houses in which the possibility of hanging large
canvases was not contemplated, and they began to call upon the
aaftsman and the decorator to supply them with what was
necessary for the adornment of their homes. At first this
modification in the popular ta^te was scarcely perceptible, but
with every successive year it became more marked in its
effecL
Latterly more money has oeen spent by one class of collectors
upon pictures than was available even in the best of the times
which have passed away; but this, lavish expenditure has been
devoted not to the acquisition of works by modem men, but to
the purchase of examples of the old masters. Herein may often
be recognized the. wish to become possessed of objects which
have a fictitious value in consequence of their rarity, or which
are " sound investments." Evidence of the existence of this
spirit among collectors is seen in the prevailing eagerness to
acquire works which inadequately represent some famous
master, or are even ascribed to him on grounds not always
credible. The productions of minor men, such as Henry
Morland, who had never been ranked among the masters,
have received an amount of attention quite out of proportion
to what menu they possess, ii only they can be proved to be
scarce examples, or historically notorious. AH this implies
in the creed of the art patron a change which has necessarily
reacted on living painters and on th« conditions of their art
production.
These, then, arc the conclusions to which we are led by a
comparison of the movements which affected the British school
^ between 1875 and the beginning of the 20th century.
^'^^^*To a wide appreciation of all types of pictorial
art succeeded a gradging and careless estimate of the
value of the bulk of artistic endeavour. Only a few branches
of production are still encouraged by anything approaching an
efficient demand. Portraiture is the mainstay of the majority
of the figure painters; it has never lost its popularity, and may be
said to have maintained satisfactorily its hold upon all cUsscs
of society, for the desire to possess personal records is very
general and is independent of any art fashion. It has persisted
through all the changes of view which have been increasingly
active in recent years. Episodical art, illustrating sentimental
motives or incidents with some touch of dramatic
j^' action, has remained popular, because it has some
degree of literary interest; but imaginative works and
pictures which have been produced chiefly as expressions of an
original regard for nature, or of some anosual convictidn as ta
tedhnical details, have found comparatively few admiren. The
designers, however, and the workers in the decorative arts have
found opportunities which formerly were denied to _^
them. They have had more scope for the di&fdny JJJjJ"
of their ingenuity and more inducement to exercise
their powers of invention. A vigorous and influential school of
design developed^ which promised to evolve work of originality
and excellence. British designers gained a hearing abroad, and
earned emphatic approval in countries where a sound decora-
tive tradition had been maintained for centuries.
The one dominant influence, that of the Pre-Raphaelite
Brotherhood, which in the 'fifties was altering the whole com-
plexion of British art, had begun to wane early in
the 'seventies, and it was rapidly being replaced
by another scarcely less distinctive. The younger
generation of artists had wearied, even before 1875, atZolT'
of the pre-Raphaelite precision, and were impatient Avm*
of the restrictions imposed upon their freedom of '"•'■■'*■
technical expression by a method of practice which required
laborious application and unquestioning obedience to a rather
formal code of regulations. They yearned for greater freedom
and boldness, and for a better chance of asserting their individual
capacities. So they gave way to a strong reaction against the
creed of their immediate predecessors, and cut themselves
deliberately adrift.
With the craving of young artists for new forms of technique
came also tbe idea that tbe "old-master traditions*' were
opposed to the exact interpretation of nature, and were based
too much upon convention to be adapted for the needs of men
who believed that absolute realism was the one thing worth
aiming at in picture-production. So Paris instead of Rome
became the educational centre. There was to British students,
dissatisfied with the half-hearted and imperfect systems of
teaching with which tbey were tantalized at home, a peculiarly
exhilarating atmosphere in the French studios— an amount c^
enthusiasm and a love of art for its own sake without parallel
elsewhere. They saw in operation principles which led by the
right sequence of stages to sure and certain results. In these
circumstances they allowed their sympathies with French
methods to become rather exaggerated, and were somewhat
reckless in their adoption of both the s^Dod and bad qualities
of so attractive a school.
At first the results of this breaking away from all the older
educational customs were not wholly satisfactory. British
students came back from France belter craftsmen, stronger and
sounder draughtsmen, more skilful manipulators, and with an
infinitely more correct appreciation of refinements of tone-
xnanagement than they had ever possessed before; but they
brought back also a disproportionate amount of French manner-
ism and a number of affectations which sat awkwardly upon
them. In the first flush of their conversion they went furthciir
than was wise or necessary, for they changed their motives as
well as their methods. The quietness of subject and reserve
of manner which had been hitherto eminently characteristic
of the British school were abandoned for foreign sensationalism
and exaggeration of effect. An affectation of extreme vivacity,
a liking for theatrical suggestion, even an Inclination towards
coarse presentation of unpleasant incidents from modem life
— aU of which could be found in the paintings of the Prmcfa
artists who were then recognized as leaders — ^must be noted as
importations from the Paris studios. They were the source of
a distinct degeneration in the artistic taste, and they introduced
into British pictorial practice certain unnatural tendencies.
Scarcely less evident was the depreciation in the instincti^ve
colour-sense of British painters, which was brought about by
the adoption of the French habit of regarding strict accuracy
of tonc-rclation as the one important thing to aim at. Before
this there had been a preference for rich and sumptuous bar*
monies and for chromatic effects which were rather compromises
with, than exact renderings of, nature; but as the foicJ|^
influence grew more active, these pleasant adaptations, inspired
BMnSHI
PAINTING
499
by a sensuous love of colour for !ts own sake, were abandoned
for more scientific statements. The colder and cruder tone-
stjudlcs of the modern Frenchman became the models upon
which the younger artists based themselves, and the standards
against which they measured their own success. " Actuality "
was gained, but much of the poetry, the delicacy, and the
subtle charm which had distinguished British oolourista were
lost.
' For some while there was a danger that the art of Great
Britain might become hybrid, with the French strain pxedoral-
Oamg&ft nating. So many students had succumbed to the
lit A«aa* fascination of a system of training which seemed to
*■*'■■" supply them with a perfect equipment on all points,
that they were inclined to despise not only the educational
methods of their own country, but also the inherent charac-
teristics of British taste. The result waa that the exhibitions
were full of pictures which presented English people and
English landscape in a purely arbitrary and artificial manner,
strictly in accordance with a French convention which was out
of sympathy with British instincts, and indeed, with British
facts. Ultimately a discreet middle course was found between
the extreme application of the science of the French art schools
and the comparative irresponsibility in technical matters which
had so long existed in the British Isles. In the careers of men
like Stanhope Forbes, H. S. Tuke, Frank Bramley, and other
prominent members of the school, many illustrations are pro-
vided of the way in which this readjustment has been effected.
Their pictures, if taken in a sufficiently long sequence, summarize
instructively the course of the movement which became active
about XS75. They prove how valuable the interposition of
France has been in the matter of artistic education, and bow
much Englishmen have improved in their undersunding of the
technique of painting.
One noteworthy outcome of the triumph of common sense
over fanaticism must be mentioned. Now that the exact
WmmkMmiag (elation which French teaching should bear to British
•tih» thought has been adjusted, an inclination to revive
the more typical of the forma of pictorial expression
which have had their vogue in the past is becoming
Increasingly evident. Picturesque domesticity is taking the
place of theatrical sensation, the desire to select and represent
what is more than ordinarily beautiful is ousting the former
preference for what was brutal and ugly, the effort to pkase
Is once again stronger than the intention to surprise or shock
the art lover. Even the Pre-Raphaelite theories and practices
are being reconstructed, and quite a considerable group of young
artists has sprung up who are avowed believers in the principles
which were advocated so strenuously In 1850.
To French intervention can be ascribed the rise and progress
of several movements , which have had resulu of more than
OroupM ordinary moment. There was a few years ago much
wHMmtif banding together of men who believed strongly in
■jjjjjj th« importance of asserting plainly their belief in
the doctrines to which they had been converted
abroad; and as a consequence of this desire for an offensive and
defensive association, many detached groups were formed within
the boundaries of the British school. Each of these groups
had some peculUr tenet, and each one had a small orbit of its
own in which it revolved, without concerning itself overmuch
about what might be going on outside. Roughly, there were
three classes Into which the more thoughtful British artists
could then be divided. One included those men who were in
the main French in sympathy and manner; another consisted
of those who were not insensible to the value of the foreign
training, but yet did not wish to surrender entirely their faith
in the British tradition; and the third, and smallest, was made up
of a few individuals who were independent of all assistance from
without, and had sufficient force of character to ignore what was
going on in the art worid. In this third class there was practi-
cally no common point of view: each man chose his own direction
and followed It as he thought best, and each one was prepared
to ttaiui or fall by the opinion which he had formed as to the true
function of the painter. Necessarily, in such a gathering there
were several noUble pexaonaUties who may fairly be reckoned
among the best of £n|^h modem masters.
Peraape the most conspicuous of the ktoud* was the gathering
of painters who eatablished themselves m the Cornish village w
Newlyn (^.».). Thia group—'* The Newlyn School," as •*- Abwi.,.
it was called— was afterwaixls much modified, and sSooL
many of its most cherished beliefs were considerably
altered. In its beginning it was essentially French in atmo*
sphere, and advocated not only strict adherence to realism in
choice and treatment of subject, but also the suborduiatba of
colour to toob-gradatlon, and the observance of certain technical
details, such as the exclusive use of flat brushes and the laying on
of pigments in square touches. The colony was formed, as it were,
in stages; and as the school is to be reckoned in the future history
of the British school, the order in which the adherents arrived may
here be set on record. Edwin Harris came first, and was ioined
by Walter Langley. Then, in the following order, came Ralph
Todd, L. Suthers. F'red Hall, Frank Bramley and T. C Gotch. and
Percy Craft and Stanhope Forbes together. H. Oetmold and
Chevallier Taylcr next arrived; then Misa Elizabeth Armstrong
(Mrs Stanhope Forbes), F. Bourdilion, W. Fortescue and Norman
Garstin. Aycrst Ingram, H. S. Tuke, H. Martin and P. Millard
were later visitors. Sunhope Forbes (b. 1857) was trained at the
Lambeth School and at the Royal Academy, and aftenrards in
Bonnat*s studio in Paris. His best known pictures are " A Fish
Sale on a Cornish Beach " (1885). " Soldiers and Sailors " (1891)*
" Forginsthe Anchor " (1892). and " The Smithy " (1895). He was
elected A.R.A. in 189a, and became full Member tn loio. Frank
Bramley (b. 1867) studied art in the Lincoln School or Art and at
Antwerp. He gained much popularity by his pictures, ** A Hopeless
Dawn ' (1888), " For of such is the Kingdom of Heaven " (1891X
and " After the Storm " (1896), and was elected an Assoctate in
1894. Of late years he had made a very definite departiire from
the technical methods which he followed in his earlier period.
T. C. Gotch n>. 1854) had a varied art training, for he worked at
the Stade School, then at Antwerp, and finally in Paris under
Jean Paul Laurens. He did not long remain faithful to the Newlyn
creed, but diverged about 1890 into a kind of decorative symbolism,
and for some years devoted himself entirely to pictures of^thu type.
The other men who must be ranked as supporters of the ecnool
adhered closely enough to the principles which were exemplified
in the works of the leaders of the movement. They were faithful
realists, sincere observers of the facts of the life with which they
were brought in contact, and quite earnest in their efforts to paint
what they saw, without modification or idealisation.
Another group which received its inspiration directly from
France was the Impressionist school (see iMPaESSiONiSM). This
gRMip never had any distinct organisation like that of jj^tm'
the French Soci6t6 des Impressionistes, but among the pf^nloaUi
members of it there was a general agreement on points ^oet
of procedure. They based themselves, more or less,
upon prominent French artists like Manet, Renoir, Pissarrx*. and
Claude Monet, and owed not a little to the example of J. A. M'N.
Whistler, whoae own art may be said to be in a great measure a
product of Paris. One of the fundamental principles of their
practke was the subdivision of colour nMsses into then- component
parts, and the rendering of gradated tints by the juxupoaitwn of
touches of pure colour upon the canvas, rather than by attempting
to match them by prevKMisly mixing them on the palette. In
pictures so painted greater luminosity and more subtlety of aerial
effects can be obtained. The works of the British ImpreasionisU
have been seen mostly In the exhibitions of the New English Art
Club. This society was founded in 1885 by a number ^^^ ff^^
of young artists who wished for facilities for exhibition ^uKtli
which tliey felt were denied to them in the other ^^ cuk,
galleries. It drew the greater number of its eariier
supporters from the men who had been trained in foreign schools,
and a compkte Kst of the contributors to its exhibitions includes
the names of many of the best known of the younger painters.
It was the meeting-place of numerous groups which advocated one
or other of the new creeds, for among its members or exhibiton
have been P. Wilson Steer, Fred Brown, J. S. Sargent (9.9.),
Solomon J. Solomon. Stanhope Forbes, T. C. Gotch, Frank Bramley,
Arthur Hacker, Francis Bate, Moffat Luidner, J. L. Henry, W. W.
Russell. George Thomson, Arthur Tomson, Henry Tonks, C. W.
Furse, R. Anning Bell, Walter Osborne. Laurence Housman.
J. J. Shannon, WT L. Wyllie, H. S. Tuke. Maurice Greiffenhagen,
G.P. Jacomb Hood. ANrcd Parsons, Alfred East, I. Buxton Knight,
C. H. Shannon. Mark Fisher, Walter Sickert. W. Strang, Frank
Short, Edward Stott, Mortimer Mcnpes, Alfred Hartlev. William
Stott, J. R. Reid. Mouat Loudan. T. B. Kennington. H. Muhrman,
A. D. Peppercorn, George Clausen and I. A. M'N. Whistler, and a
number of the Scottish artists, like J. Lavery. j. Guthrie, George
Henry, James Paterson, A. Roche, E. A. Walton, I. E. Christie and
E. A. Homel. A number of the men who have Been more or leas
actively identified with it have been elected membera of the Royal
Academy, so that it may fairiy claim to have exereised a definite
influence upon the tendencies of modem ait. It has ccttaloly
upoa the
500
done much to prove the extenc of the Ibr^n UtSm
BritiBh Khool.
In its wider sense the Imprettiontst school may be said to include
now all those students of nature who strive for the representation
€i bfoad effects rather than minute details, who look at the subject
before them largely and comprehensively, and ignore all minor
matters which .would be likely to interfere with the simplicity
of the pictorial rendering. To it can be assigned a number of
artbts who have never adopted, or have definitely abandoned,
the prismatic analysis of colour advocated bv the French Impre»>
Monista. These men were headed by J. A. M'N. Whistler (^Jf.), Dom
in America in 1834, and trained in Paris under Glcvre. Hts pktures
have always been remarkable for their beauty of colour combina-
tkm, and for their sensitive management of subtleties of tone.
They gained for the artist a place among the chief modem
executants, and have attracted to him a host of followers. Other
notable painters who have plans in the school are Mark Fisher,
an American landscape painter who studied for a while in Gleyre's
studio, one of the ablest interpretcn in England of effects of sun-
light and breezy atmosphere; A. D. Peppertom, a pupil of G£rOme.
MO makn landscape a medium for the expressbn of a dignified
sense of design and a carefully simplified appreciation of contrasts
of tone; and P. Wilson Steer, an artist who becan as a follower of
Monet, and based upon his training in the £cole des Beaux Arts a
9ty^ d! his own, which he diqilays effectively in both landscapes
wad figure pictures.
The International Society of Sculptors, Painters, and Gravers,
Inaugurated in iteS, although not by its nature confined to British
art ana artists, who compose little more than half of
'Z^J^'V^ the electorate, has its home in London. It succeeds in
221; *•• object of setting^ before the British publu: the most
^^*^''^* modem and eccentric expressbtts of the art of the chief
European countries. Its exhibitions are striking and the con-
tributions for the roost part serious and interesting; but while the
freedom of the artbt is insisted on it is doubtful if the more exag-
gerated displays by rri)dlious paintera and sculptors have had much
influence on the native school. The presidents have been J. A.
M'N. Whistler and Auguste Rodin, and the vice-presidents John
Lavery and William Strans: these personalities, considered along
with tlieir views and their vt^our, suudently indicate the spirit and
the politks oi the society.
Generally speaking, the
to a limited extent under the .,
most of the figure ana landscape men and practically
the whole of the portrait painters.^ In all sections of
figure painting inclividual workers in lropiT>vcd techni-
cal methods have appeared, but most of them have gradually lost
their distinguishing peculiarities of manner, and have year by
year assimilated themselves more closely to their less advanced
brethren. The section in which their energetic propagandism has
been most effective b certainly that of imaginative composition.
A definite mark has been made there by men like 8.>I. Solomon
(b. i860; A.R.A. 1896; R.A. ioo6ktrained at the Roval Academy,
the Munich Academy and the Ecele des Beaox Arts in Pans,
and widely known by such pictures as ** Samson " (1887), " The
Judgment of Parb*'^ (1890) and the "Birth of Love" (1895);
and Arthur Hacker (b. 1858; A.R.A. 1894; R.A. i^to), educated
at the Academy and in Bminat's studio, and the painter of a con-
siderable series of scmi-hUtorical and symbolical canvases. They
exercised a considerable influence upon their contemporaries, and
intrxiduced some new elements into the later practice of the school.
At the same time admirably effective work has been done in
thb section and othera by many painters who ha'/e kept much
more closely in touch with the older type of aesthetic belief, and
have not assodated themselves openly with any of the newer
movements. Among the more prominent of these figure painters
there are, or have been, some excelknt craftsmen, whose con-
tributions to the record of native British art can be accepted as
full of permanent interest. In the school of historical incident
good work was done by Sir John Gilbert (1817-1897: R.A. 1876),
a robust and ingenious illustrator of romantic motives, with a
never-failing capacity for picturesque invention; John Pcttie
(1839-1893: R.A. 187^). a fine colounst and a clever manipubtor,
whose scenes from the life of past centuries were full of rare
vitality: P. H. Calderon (1833-1898; ICA. 1867). a graceful and
sincere artist not wanting in originality: and H. Stacy Marks
(1820-1898; R.A. 1879), who treated medieval motives with a
touon of real humour. Besides these, there are Sir J. p. Linton
(b. 1840), who has produced noteworthy compositions in oil and
water colours; Frank Dkksee (b. 1853: A.R.A* 1881; R.A. 1891),
who has gained wide populanry by pictures in which romance
and sentiment are combined in equal proportions; A. C. Gow
(b. 1848: R.A. 1881), whose "Cromwell at Dunbar" (1886).
''Flight of James II. after the Battk of the Boyne " (1868),
PAINTING
fBRlTISH
r large dass of artiits who fell only
i spell oi French teaching includes
and Crossing the Bidassoa " (1896) may be noted as typical
plea of his performance: J. Seymour Lucas (b. 1849; A.ItA.
R.A. 1898), trained at the Royal Academy Sehoob, and a
exa mples of his 1
1886; ~ - -"
brilliant painter of what may be called the by-play of hbtory:
W. Dendy Sadler (b. 1854). trained partly in London and partly
tPflwlnnrf, and wdl known by hb quaintly humorous renderings
of the^ lighter skle of life in the olden tiiacs; G. H. Boughtoa
(born in England, but educated first in America and afterwards
in Paris; A.R.A. 1879: R.A. 1896). a specialist in paintings o<
old and modem Dutch subjects: the Hon. John Collier (b. 1850).
trained at the Slade School, at Munich, and in Paris, and a capo^l;
painter both of the nude figure and of costume; and Edwin
A. Abbey, an American (b. 1853), educated at the Pennsylvania
Academy of the Fine Arts. Abbey came to England in 1876
with a gjcftt reputation as an illustrator, and did not bcsin to
exhibit oil pictures until 1890; he was elected an Academician an
1898. Then there are to be noted daasicbu like Lord Lcighton,
Sir L. Alma-Tadema. and Sir E. J. Poynter's students of the
East like Frederick Goodall (b. 182a; A.R.A. 1853; RA. i86x;
d. 1004), and idealbts like Sir W. B. Rnhmond, K.C.B.: RJ^. ites
—all of whom have done much to uphold the reputation of tbe
British school for strength of accomplishment and variety of
moti\'e.
The painters 61 sentiment have in the mam adhered dosdy to
the tradition which has been handed down through successive
generations. Among these may be noted Mareua Stone ^_. . ^
(b.^ 1840), elected an Academician in 1887, an original V i-ii 1 ' r
artbt whose dainty fancies arc familiar to students of
modem art. His pictures nearly all appeared in the exhibitions of
the Royal Academy. Another popular artist is G. D. Leslie (b. 183s),
etected an Associate in 1868 and an Academician in 1876, who
has been responsible for a number of domestic old-world subject-
pictures remarkable for freshness of treatment and delicacy of
feeling. The list may also be held to include Henry V^'ooda
(b. 1846; A.R.A. l88a; R.A. 1893), and since 1877 a painter
of scenes from Venetian life; R. W. Macbeth (b. 1848: A-ItA.
1883; R.A. 1903), whose ele^nt treatment 01 rustK subjccta
dbplays a very attractive individuality. Amonir the painters of
sentiment should also be included Su* Luke Pildes (b. 1844).
educated at the South Kensington and Royal Academy Schools,
elected an Academfebn in 1887, the painter of such Camoua
pictures as " The Casual Ward " (1874), '* The Widower " (1876),
'* The Return of the Penitent " (1879), and " The Doctor " (1^2) ;
and Sir Hubert von Herkomer, C.V.O. (b. 1849; A.R.A. 1879: R.A.
1890; knighted 1907), famous not only by hb many memorable can-
vases and by hb extraordinary versatility in the arts, bat also as a
teacher and a leader in a number of educational movements.
Not many military pictures of high merit have been produced
during the period. The artists, indeed, who occupy themselves
with thb class of art are not numerous, and they ^^^
mostly devote their energies to illustrative pictures ^ry
rather than to large canvases. Lady Butler inJte ■■■■M
Elizabeth Thompson), whose "Roll Call,*' exhibited In 1874.
brought her instant popularity, continued to paint subjects oi
the same type, among which " Quatre Bras^' (1875). *' The
Defence of Rorke's Dnft" (1881). "The Camel Corps'* (1891)
and " The Dawn of Waterloo (1895) are perhaps the most worthy
of record. Ernest Crofts (b. 1847; A.K.A. 1878; R.A. 1^).
trained in London and Ddsseldorf, has taken a prominent poettioa
by such pictures as " Napoleon at Ligny " 6875), " Napokna
leaving Moscow " (1887), ^' The Capture of a French Battery by
the 53rd Regiment at Waterloo" (1896), and by many similar
representations of hUtorical battles. Occasional pictures have
come also from A. C. Gow, R. (jiton Woodvtlle, W. B. Wollen,
I. P. Beadle, John Charlton, and a few more men who are bctttr
known by their work in other directbns.
The number of artists who have devoted the greater part of
their energies to portraiture has been steadily on the increase.
Most of the men who have taken definite rank amonp-. ^ •
the fi|;iire paintera have made reputations by their ^
portraits also, but there are many others who nave kept almost
exclusively to this branch of practice. Into the first divi&io*
come such noted artists as Sir John Miltab, Sir E. J. Poynter,
G. F. Watts, Sir Lnke Fildes, Sir Hubert von Hertcomer. Sir
L. Alma-Tadema. Sir W. B. Richmond. Seymour Lucas, the Hon.
John Collier. S. J. Solomon, Arthur Hacker. Sir W. Q. Orchantsoo.
J. A. M'N. Whistler, Frank Dicksee, Stanhope Forbes. Frank
Bramley, H. S. Tukc, T. C. Gotch, P. W. Steer. John Bacon and
Frank Holl. In the second must be reckoned J. S. Sargent
(A.R.A. 1894; R.A. 1897). an American citiaen (b. 1856). a pooa
of Carolus Duran, who after 1885 was recognittd as one of the
most brilliant painters of the day; I. J. Shannon, also an American
(b. 1863), trained at the South Kensington School, and elected
an Associate in 1897, a graceful and aocomplbhed artist, with a
sound technical method and a delightful sense of style ; A. S. Cope
(b. 1857), trained in Paris, and elected an Associate in 1899. who
carries on soundly the better traditions of the British school:
Tames Sant (b. 1820), elected an Academician in 1870. a sinonw
favourite of the public throughout a king career; W. W.
Ouless (b. 1848: A.R.A. 1877; ^^ '^')* trained in the Royal
Academy Schools, an industrious and prolific worker: H. T. Wrila
(b. 1838; A.R.A. 1866: R-A. 1870). trained in London and I^rts«
who produced a Ions; series of portraits and portrait groups, and
many minbtdrrs: W. Llewellyn (b. f86o>, educated at the SoMtk
Kensington Sehoob and in Cormon's studio in Parb, an able
4r«Dghtscnaa and a thocQUsb CMCotanii C W. FuiK (i»>}|vU»if>e«l
Biunsiq
Urn in tlM Slade School ttiiider Vn t tuae tagnm and afte«wafds in
Pkris. whole eariy death removed a maater of bb art; aad odirin
like Walter Otborae. Richanl jack. Qya Philpot and GcnU Kelly,
la the cUm o< figure painterik who are indivMliial in their work,
and owe little or nothing to the suggestionB of foreign teachers, a
numher of artists can -be enumerated who have in common
Uttle besides a nnoere desire to expceas their personal convictwn
In their own way. Among them are sohk of the
roost (fistinguishca of modera artkts, who stand out
as the unquestioned chiefs of the school. Sir John Millais
occupies a place in this group by virtue of hts admiraUe
pjctorial work, and with him are W. Hobutn Hunt, Dante Ikibrid
Rossetti. G. F. Watta, Sir Edward Burne-Jones. Albert Moora and
Fofd Madox Brown, each one of whom may be retarded as a leader.
There are also L M. Stnidwick {b. 1849), R. Spencer Stanhope
Jd. 1908) and Evelyn de Moraan, foltowcri of Bume^Jones, and
. W. Waterhouse (A.R.A. tSSsi RJV. 189^), in many ways the
Bwst original and inspired of EngliA imaginative paiaten; and,
again, M. Creiffenhagen, F. Cayley Robinson and Mrs Swynncrton.
Into this class oomc also the decorative painters. Walter Crane
(b. 1845), a prolific illustrator and picture>painter and
' the producer of an extraonlinary amount of work in
all branches of decoratioa; Frank Bnuigwyn, whose
pictures and designs are marked by fine ooalities of execution
nod by much sumptuoosness of coloar; and 'several others, like
It U Draper, Harokl Speed, R. Anning Bell, Gerald Moin and
G. Spencer Watson. As a branch of the decorative school, a small
graup of artists v^o have revived the piactioe of tempen>painting
mnst alao be noted. It includes Mrs Adrian Stokes. J. D. Batten.
J. C. Southall, Arthur Gaskin, and a few othcn with weU>marlced
decorative tendencies.
During recent years a movement has begun which apparently
aims at the revival of Pre>Raphaelitism. it is headed by a few
TAaAfaar young artists, whose methods show a mingling
liZ, together of the precision of the 19th-century Pre-
"^ Raphaclites and a kind of decorative formality. The
most influential of the artists concerned in the formatwn
of this new school is j. Byam Shaw (b. 1872), whose
originality and quaintness of fancy give to his pictures a' more than
onunary degree of petsuasivencss. A strong colourict and an able
draughtsman, he possesses in a high degree the faculty of imaginative
expression, allied with humour that never degenerates Into farce.
His strongest preference is for symbolical subjecu which embody
some moral lesson. Other prominent members of the group are
P. Cadogan Cowper (A.R.A. 1907) and Miss Eleanor Fortescuc-
Brickdale, who is in manner much like Byam Shaw, but yet does
not sink her individuality in mere imitative effort.
The painters of bndscapes and sca-pktures have for the most
part been little affected by the unrest whkh has caused 10 many
new departures in figure-work. A^lpve of nature has
always been one 01 the best British characteristics,
"* and It has proved itself to be strong enough to keep
those artists who seek their inspiration out of doors firom falliiw
to any gvest extent under the conttol of pacticular technical
faAioOb Therefore there is in the school of '^opon-air " painting
little evidence of any change !n point of view, or of (nc growth of any
modern feeling at variance with that by which masters of landscape
were swayed a century or more ago. Impressionism has gained a
law Mlherents, and the Fretich Baihlxoo school-~itself created in
response 10 a suggestion from England—has reacted upon a section
9L the younger artists. But. on the whole, in this branch of art
Se British school has gained in power and confidence, without
surrendering that sturdy independence which in the past produced
iuch momentous results. The absence of any common convent km,
or of any act pattern of landscape which would lead to nniformity
of effort, has left the students of nature free to express themselves
in a personal way. The most devout believers in the value of French
training, and in the infallibility of the dogmas which emanate from
the Parts studios, have not, except in rare instances, demanded any
radical remodelltng of the British landscape achool on French lincst
as local conditions affecting the practice of this branch of art make
impossible all drastic alterations. Most workers in the front rank
can claim to be judged on Individual merits, and not as members
of a particular coterie. Still, it is convenient to dtvkfe the members
of the landscape school Into such classes aa realists, romantkasts
and subjective painters of landscape. •, ^ .
Among the most noubic of the first class are H. W. B. Davis
fb. 1883; A.R.A. 1873: R.A. 1877), the painter of a kwg scries of
tumumtii, dainty scenes whkh suggest happily the charm of
rJ^TZnm ""^> England: Peter Graham» ekxMd an Academician
I BiHMsjP*. .^ jggj^ ^jj^ ^^ alternated for the greater part of his
working life between Scottish moorland subjects, with cattle
wandenng on bare hillsides and pictures of coast scenery, with
sea-gulls perched on dark rocks: David Murray (b. 1849: A.R.A.
1891? R.A. 1905). »« artist whose career has been marked by
consistent effort to interpret nature's suggestkma with ditnlty and
intelligence; Sir Ernest A. Waterlow (b. 1850; A.R.A. 1890; R.A.
PAINTING
501
1903}, trained in the Royal Academy and afterwards Presitlcnt of
the Royal Society of Painte" '- '"' — ^* '-' -^'
with a tender colour IceUng
1 Society of Painters in Water-Coteurs. a graceful painter.
technical style; Yoend
King (b. 1891), trained partly in England, and partly in Paris imder
Bonnat and Cormon, a sound craftsman who made a rafnitation by
landacapea ia which are introduced gnwps of figures on a fairiy
imporUnt acale; Alfred Paraoos (b. 1847). elected an Associate in
1897, who painu rich river scenery with careful regard for actuality
and with much minuleoess and exquisiteness of detail, especially
in the rendering of flowers; and Frank Walton (b. 1840), who chooses,
as a rule, l a nd s rapi^ modwes which enable him to display unusual
powers of accurate draughtsmanship. To the same ckisa of realists
belonged Vkat Cole. R.A.; Birket Foster, J. W. Oakes. A.R.A. ;
Keel^ Halswelle, and perhaps Alfred W. Hunt, though in his case
realism was tempered by a delicate poetfc imaginatwn.
The romanticists nnd pastoral painten have ia many cases been
perceptibly affected by the example of the Barbison school, but they
owe much to such famous Engltshnien as Cedl Lawson, ^ ^.
John UnneU (both of whom died in i88a), George wj«««»
Mason (A.R.A. 1868; d. 187a) and Frederick Walker ^' ,
(A.R.A. 1871 ! d. 1875). the moat prominent later Zu^
member of the group is, perhaps, Str Alfred East '^^<"**
(b. 1849), trained first in the Gkiagow School of Art and after-
wards u Paris, dected an Associate in 1899, a painter endowed
with an exceptional faculty for suggesting the poetry of nature
and with an admirable sense of dboorative arrangement; but
there are, besides, Leslie Thomson (b. 1851), whose art is cwecially
soond and sincere; J. Aumonier, a pastoral painter with very
refined appreciation of subtleties of aerial colour; C. W. Wyllie,
a painter of delicate vision and charm of presentation; J. 9. Hill,
whose sombre landscapes are distinguished in de«gn and impressive
in their depth of tone; R. W. Allan (b. 1832), who uses a robust
technical method with equal skill in landscapes and coast sub-
jects; J. Buxton Knight (b. 1843; d. IQ08), a vigorous manipuhtor,
with a liking for rich harmonies and tow tones; Joseph Knight
(b. 1838; d. 1909), whoaa well drawn and broadly painted pictures
in oil and water<oloar have been for many years appreciated
by bven of unaffeaed nature; Lionel P. Smythe (A.R.A.
i8q8), a cotourist who handles exquisitely the most delicate atmo'
spheric effects and is unusually successful in his rendering of
(fiffused daylight; J. W. North fA.RA. in 1803). a painter of
fanciful landaospei in which definitmn of form is subordinated to
modulations of occorativc colour; Cbude Hayes, who studied in the
Royal Academy Schools, and carried on the tradition established
by Davkl Cox and his contemporaries; J. L. Pkkering, a k>ver of
dramatic light«nd*shade contrasts and a student of romantic moun-
tain scenery; A. D. Pcpperoom. who gives breadth and dignity
with sombre cobur and delicate eradation of tone; Adrian Stokes
(b. 1834; A.R.A. lOYo) and M. Ruiley Corbet (who died in 190*, only
a few months af ter hb election as an Associate of the Royal Academy),
a claasictet in landscape, in whose pictures can be perceived a definite
reflccthm of the teaching of Professor Cosu, the Italian master.
There must also be noted, as leaders among the pastoral painters,
Geoige Clausen (b. 1852), trained first in the South Kensington
School and afterwards in Paris under Bouguereau and Robert-i
Ficury, and elected an Assocwte in 1805 and R.A. in 1908, who
began as a strict reaUet and afterwards devctopcd into a rustic
kiealist; H. H. La Thangue. trained in the Royal Academy Schools
and in Paris, elected an Associate in 1898, an artist of amazing
technical vicour and an uncompromising interpreter of rural
subjects; Edward Stott (A.R.A. 1906), trained in Paris under
Carolus Duran and Cabanel, who paints delicately the more poetk:
aspects of the .Ufn of the fields; J. Amesby Brown (b. 1866:
.•\.R.A. 1903); Oliver HalU Albert Goodwin, A. Friedeoaon and
others.
The painten of landscape sabjectively considerad, who conven-
tiooalire nature with the kic* of giving to their pictures a kind
of sentimental as distinguished ttom emotional mis*.
Kion, are most strikingly represented by B. W.f
dcr (b. 1831), trained in the Worcester School
of Design and m tlic Royal Academy Schools, and elected an
Academician In 1898. He became a stroni{ favourite of the
publk. and his academic and precise technical methods were
widely admired by the many people who are not satisfied
with unaffected transcriptions of natural scenes and of the passion
of nature.
In marine painting no one has appeared to rival Heniv Moore,
perhaps the greatest student of wave-forms the worid has seen;
but good work has been done by the late Edwin
Hayes, an Irish painter, whose powera showed no sicn
of failure up to hb death in 1904. after sobc half*
century of continuous labour; W. L. Wyllie (b. 1851; A.R.A. 1889;
R.A. 1907), trained in the Royal Academy Schools, who paints sea
and shipping with intelligent underauadiiig;T. Somerscales. a self-
taught artist, with an intimate knowledge of the ocean derived from
long actual e xp erience as a saikir; and especially C. Napier Hemy
(b. 1841; A.R.A. 1898: R.A. 1910). trained at the Antwerp
Academy and in the studio of Baron Leys, a powerful manipulator,
with a pre f ere n c e for the dramatk aspects of his subject. J. C.
Hook (d. 1907). retained into old age the subtle qua\|ties which
made his pictures nouble among the best productioos of the British
school. Mentum must be made of John Brett (1830-1902; A.R.A.
1881), the one Pre*RaphaeUte soa pamter, and Hamilton Macalhim
502
PAINTING
TRENCH
(i84I*i8q6), wbo psiDted rippling water ta bright wolight with
detwhtfttldriicacy and charm of manner.
The school of animal painting it a tniall one. and includes only a
few of marked ability. The chief members include Briton Riviere,
(b. 1840: A.R.A. 1878; R.A. 1881), one of the most imaginative
and inventive of living artbts; J. M. Swan (1847-1910; A.R.A.
1894; RA. 1905). trained first at Lambeth, and afterwards in Paris
under G^r6me and Frimiet, a skilful manipulator and a
sensitive diaughtsman, and especially remarkable for his
intimate undctstanding of animal character, mainly* of
the/c/niac (see also Scitlptukb) ; J.T. Nettleship (1841-1901). trained
chiefly in the Slade School, whose studies of the greater beasts of
prey are admirably sincere and well painted: Miss Lucy Kcmp-
Wekh (b. 1869). trained in the Hcrkomcr School at Bushey, who
paints horses with unusual power; and John Charlton (b. 1849),
trained in the South Kensington School, also well known by his
pictures of horses and dogs.
There are kical schools whkh claim attention because of the
value of their contributions to the aggregation of British art.
rttf. The most active of these bek>iig to the Scottish school.
ffS Srff ^^ centres of Glasgow. Edinbufgh, and Aberdeen,
which have produced some of the most distinguished
British artists. The Royal Academy of London, indeed, ^nth
roost of the other leading art societies, has been Urgcly recnntcd
from Scotland. There have been added to iu modem roll the
names of \V. Q. Orchardson.- Peter Graham, J. MacWhirtcr,
tPettie. Erskine Nichol. T. Faed, David Murray. Colio Uuntcr.
W. Macbeth, D. FarquharM>n, }. Farquharson, George Henry:
all of them painters of well-established reputation: and there are
many other wcU'known Scottish artbts who have made London
their headouarters. like Arthur Melville, a portrait and subject-
painter anu a masterly watcr<ok>urist; E. A. Walton, who b
equally successful with portraits, Undacapes, and dccorstive com-
positions; J. Coutts-Michic. who alternates between portraiture
and landscapes of admirable quality: John Lorimcr, who has
exhibited a number of excellent subject-pictures and many fine
portraiu: T. Graham, an unaffected painter of sentiment, and
a good cokMirist; Grosvcnor Thomas, known best by his freely
handled and expressive landscapes; T. Austen Brown, who paints
seminlccorative pastorals with unusual vigour of statement: John
Lavcry. who has taken rank amongst the best of recent portrait
painters; and Robert Brough. anotiicr portrait painter of vigour,
with a subtle sense of cobur, whose early and tragic death cut short
a prombing career. The most notabW of the men who remained
in Scoibnd include Alexander Roche, whose remarkable capacity
has brought him many successes in portraiture, figure compoMtions,
and decorative paintings on a large scale; W. Y. NfacGregor, a leader
of the school of landscape painters, fine in styk and a master of
effect : D. Y. Cameron, an admirable oil-painter and a famous etcher;
and Sir James Guthrie, P.R.S.A. well known for hb excellent
C>rtraits: James Patcraon, R. B. Nisbet and Robert Noble, all
ndscape painters of marked originality and sound technical
method; W. McTaegart (d. 1910), the brilliant imprcssionUt ; E. A.
Horncl and W. Hole, decorative painters who have produced many
canvases remarkable for robust originality and rare l>rcadcn
of treatment; W. Mounccy, a hndscapc painter who united the
dignity of the Barbiion school with a typicallv Scottish freedom of
expression; and Sir Cksorge Rcid, cx-P.K.S.A., one of the ablest
and most disiiogubhcd of portrait painters.
The water<oh3ur paintcre can fairly be said to have kept
unchaivcd the esacntbl qualities of their partkrular form of practice.
They have departed scarcely at all from the executive
JHS^ methods which have been recognized as correct for
* nearly a century, but they have amplified them and have
adapted them to a greater ranee of accom/>liUinient, developing, it
may be added, the "blottesque^' or theaccidcnial manner suggestive
of summary decisk>n. Lattcriy water-cok>ur painting has come
to rival oik in its application to all sorts of subiects; and it is used
now with absolute freedom by a very brgc number of skilful artists.
Many of the men who have done the best work in thb medium
are known as oil paintcre of the highest rank; and among living
workers the same capacity to excel in either mode of exprcssbn b
by no means uncommon. There have been in recent times such
masters as Sir John Gilbert, Shr E. Bume>Jones, Ford Madox Brown,
Dante Gabriel Rossctti, A. W. Hunt, H. C. Hine, Henry Moore.
Albert Moore, C. E. HoUoway. and perhaps should be included
E. M. Wimperis, whose warer-cokNin are at least as worthy of
admiration as their oil pfeturca. As water-cokmrists, much credit
b due to Sir E. J. Poynter for hb landscapes, portraits, and
figure drawings: Sir L. Alnm-Tadema for hb minutdy detailed
classic subjects: Sir J. D. Linton for hb historical and romantic
compositions: Sir E. A. Wateriow for hb delicately expressive
landscapes; Sir Hubert von Herkomcr for hb admirably handled
figure scbjccts: George Clausen for pastorals charming in sentiment
and distinguished by fine qoalities of colour; I. Aumonkr. A. D.
I V ppere o r n . J. S. Hill. J. Vi. North, Leslie Thomson, Frank Walton
and R. W. AUan for bndscapes of special excellence; E. J.
Gregory (d. 1909)* and Cadogan Cowper, for figure compositk>ns
paiated with anuuiag surencss of toocn: Alfred Parsons (or bnd*
trapeaand iknrer stadias; J. R. Reid. W. U WyUb, £. lUycs and
C N. HeMT tot aea and ooatt pictoan? R. W. Macbeth, CsMoa
Hayes and Lionel Smythe for rustic somes with figares in the open
air; J. M. Swan for paintings of animab; and G. rl. Boughtoo for
oostunie subjects and delicately poetk fancies. Besides, there b
a long list of noteworthy paintcre whose reputations have beca
chiefly or entirely tnade by their successful management of water-
colour, and into thb list cooie Birket Foster, the head of the old-
fashk>ned school of dainty nisticity ; Cari Haag, a wonderful maniptn
blor, who occupied himself almost exclusively with Eastern subjects;
Thomas Collier, A. W. Wccdon, H. B. BrebanMi. G. A. Fripp. P- J.
NafteLG. P. Boyce, Albert Oxidwin, R. Thome* Waite.F.G.Coiman.
Harry Hine, Cbrenoe Whaite and Bernard Evans, whose bndacapca
show thorough understanding of nature and distinctive individuality
of method; Mre Allingham, an artist of exquisite refinement, whosa
" itions of country life have a more than ordinary de
Cbra Montalba. an able painter of impressions of ^
'^- ofchild^
idealizations of country life have a more than ordinary dMree of
tnerit; Cbra Montalba. an able painter of impressions of Vei
Kate Greenaway, unri\-alled as an interpreter of the grace
, le graces «
hood, and endowed with the rarest 'originality; Mn Stanhope
Forbes, an accomplbhcd executant of srell-imagined RMnantie
motives; and J. R. Wcguelin. one of the most facile and o^iressivc
painten of fantastic figure svbjecta. By the aid of these anists, and
many others of at kast equal ability, such as J. Crawhall. J . Pater-
son, R. Little. Edwin Alexander, Arthur Rackham and f. Walter
West, traditbns worthy of all respect have been mainuineci sincerely
and with intelligent discrimination : and to their efforts has beeai
accofdcd a brger measure of popubr support than b hcitowed
upon any other form of pictorial productbn.
See Richard Mother, HtMtory ef Uoderm Painiini (Eng. od.,
1895): R. de b Siacrannc, £nflffs* Contemporary Art (Eng. ed.,
1898); Ernest Chcsncau, The English School of Pointimg (and En^.
cd.. 1885): Cbment and Hutton, Artists of the tgtk Cemimry (Bosloa,
U.S.A., 1885): David Martin and F. Newbery. The Qasim Sckooi
of PaifUint (1897): W. D. McKay. R.S.A., The Scottitt Stkool of
Painting (London, 1906): E. Pinntngton. Geont Paml Chalmers antf
the Art of his TsW (1896); Glecaon White, The Master Painters of
Britain (1897): E. T. Cook, A Popular Handbooh to the Ifationai
Gallery, vol. ilOooi ) ; J. E. Hodgson. R.A., Fifty Years ef British A H
ment of Art (Liverpool, 1888: Edinburgh, 1889; and Birmingham.
1890); the magazines devoted to the arts; and the princip*!
reviews, such as " Englbh Art in the Victorian Age " {Qmarterty
Review, January 1898). The Year's Art (1879-1010; cd. A. C. R.
Carter) is an invaluable annual publication fully and accurately
chronicling the art institutions and aa movements in Great
Briuin. (M. H. S.)
Frakcc
The period between 1870 and the opening of the 30th centuxy
was singularly important In the hbtory of France, and come*
qucnily of her art. The internal life of the people dcvek>pcd oa
new lines with a vigour that left a deep nutrk on the outcome
of mental effort^ Literature was foremost in thb new movcnenu
The novels of Dalzac, 2^ta. Fbubert. the brothers de Concourt.
Daudci, Guy do Maupassant and the pbys of Alexandre Dumas
fits, filled as I hey are with the scientific apiril mod social atm»>
sphere of the time, opened the eyes of the young generatioB to
appreciation of the visible beauty and the spiritual poetry of
Ihc worid around them, and helped them to view it with more
attentive eyes, nH>rc insight and more emotion. The aim of art
was also to emancipate itself, by the growing efforts of IndepeA-
dent anists, from the slavery of tradition, and to devote itself
to a more personal contemplation and knowledge of contem-
porary life under «vcry aspect. Modern French art tends to
become more and more the art of the people— a mixture of
naturalism and poetry, deriving its inspiration, by preference,
from the wx>rld of the working man; no longer appealing only to
a restricted and more or less fastidious public, but, on the
contrary, adapting its aesthetic or moral teaching to popular
apprehension. The whole past was not, of ooucae, wiped out.
The younger generation had to learn and pro6t by the leasons
taught by their great precursors. To luderstand the true
character of this recent development of Freach art it is needful,
therefore, to glance at the past.
We need not dwell on the individual authorities who constitute
the official hierarchy of the contemporary French school; these
masters belong for the most part, by the date of their best «ork«
to a former generation. Starting in many cases fpom very
opposite points, but reconciled and united by time, they carried
on. during the lost quarter of the i9lh century, with more orless
the iocviuUe evelmiMi oi their pennnal (iftv
FRENCH)
PAINTING
503
We Mill see the works of tome of the staunch Roraanticists:
Jean Gigoux (d. 1893), Robert-Fleury (d. 1890), JuJes Dupr«
(d. 1889), Umi (d. X890), Cabat (d. 1893) and Isabey (d. 1886);
and with these, though they did not follow quite the same road,
niay be named Francais (d. 1897) and Charles Jacque (d. 1894).
Next to them, Meissonier (d. 1891) crowded into the last twenty
years of his life a mass of work which, for the most part, enhanced
bis fame; and Rosa Bonheur (d. 1899), working in retirement
up 10 the age of seventy-seven, went <m her accustomed way
unmoved by external changes. H6bert, Harpignies, Ziem and
Paul Flandxin survived. Among the generation whidi grew
up under the Second Empire we find men of great intelligence
and distinction; some, like Alexandre Cabanel (i834«i889), by
pictures of historical genre, in a somewhat bisipid and conven*
tiooal style, but more particularly by female portraits, firm In
flesh-painting and aristocratic in feeling; others, like Paul
Baudjy (1828-1886, q.v.), whose large decorative works, with
their pure and lofty elegance, secured him lasting fame, and whose
allegorical compositions were particularly remarkable; not less
so his portraits, at first vivid, glowing and golden, but at the end
of his life, under the influence of the new atmosphere, cooler in
tone, but more eager, nervous and restless in feeling. Lfon
G£r6me (b. 1824, q.v.) was the originator, during the Second
Empire, of the neo-Greek idea, an Orientalist and painter of
historic genre, whose somewhat arid instinct for archaeological
precision and finish developed to better ends in sculpture during
later years. William Bouguereau (b. 1 82 s, q.9,) painted symbolical
asd allegorical subjects in a sentimental style. Jules Lefebvre
(b. 1836) had a brilliant career as a portrait painter, combined,
in his earlier years, with admirable studies of the nude. These
were followed by Benjamin Constant (d. 1903), a clever painter
of past ages in the East and of modem Oriental life, who latterly
directed his powers of vigorous and rapid brushwork to portr«t-
painting; Femand Cormon, the inventive chronicler of primeval
Gaul, and a solid and learned portrait painter; Aim£ Morot, a
man of versatile gifts, a painter of portmits full of life and ease.
These formed the heart of the Institut. On the other hand,
we find a group who betray a close affinity with the realist
party— rejecting, like them, tradition at second-hand, though
fituming for direct teaching to some of the great masters: Lton
Bonnat (b. 1833), educated in Spain, and .preserving through a
long series of official porttaiu an evident worship of the great
realists of that nation; and again, under the same tnfloence,
Jean Paul Laurens (b. 1837), who has infused some return of
vitality into historical painting by his dear and individual
conceptions and realistic treatment. Jean Jacques Henner
(b. 1839, q.v.)t standing even more apart, lived in a Correggk>-
like dream of pale nude forms in dim landscape scenery; bis
love of exquisite texture, and his unvarying sense of beauty, with
his refined dilettantism, link him on each side to the great groups
of realisu and idealisu.
About the middle of the X9th centuiy, after the vehement
disputes between the partisans of line and the votaries of colour,
othrrwhe the Classic and the Romanric schools, when a younger
generation was resting from these follies, exhausted, weary,
devoid even otany fine technique, two groups slowly formed on
the opposite sides of the horizon-'-seers or dreamers, both
protesting in different ways against the collapse of the French
school, and against the alleged indifference and sceptical eclecti-
cism of the painters who were regarded as the leaders. This was
a revolt from the academic and conservative tradition. One
was the group of original and nature-loving painters, keen and
devoted observers of men and things, the realists, made illustrious
by the three great personalities of Corot (q.v.), Millet {q.v.) and
Coorbel (q.v.), the real originators of French contemporary art.
The other was the group of men of imagination, the idcahsts.
who, in the pursuit of perfect beauty and an ideal moral standard,
reverted to the dissimilar visions of Delacroix and Ingres, the
ideab of rhythm as opposed to harmony, of style versus passion,
which Thfodore Chass^riau had endeavoured to combine.
Round Puvis de Chavannes {q.v.) and Guslave Moreau {q.v.)
we find a group of artisu who, in spke of the fascination exarted
of their intelligence by the great works of the old masters,
especially the early Florentines and Venetians, would not accept
the old technique, but strove to record in splendid imagery the
wonders of the spiritual life, or claimed, by studying contem-
porary individuak, to reveal the psychology of modem minds.
Among them were Gustave Rkard (189X-1673), whose portraits,
suggesting the mystical charm sometimes of Leonardo and
sometimes of Rembrandt, are full of deep unuttered vitality;
Elie Delaunay (1828-1891), serious and expressive in his heroic
compositions, keen and striking in his portraits; Eugene
Fromentitt (1820-1876), acute but subtle and silvery, a man of
elegant mind, the writer of Les Mallres d*aulref^, of SaM and
of Le Sahara, the discovererr-artistlcally — of Algeria. And
round the loud and showy individuality of Courbet—healthy,
nevertheless, and inspiring~-a group was gathered of men less
judiciotts, but more stirring, more truculent, thoroughly original,
but not less reverent to the old masters than they were defiant
of contemporary authorities. They were even more ardent for
a strong technique, but the masters who attracted them were
the Dutch, the Flemish, the Venetians, who, like themselves,
had aimed at recording the life of their day. Among these was
Francois Bonvin (1817-1887), who, following Granet, carried
on the evolution of a subdivision of genre, the study of domestic
interiors. This Drolling, too, had done, early in the 19th century,
his predecessors in France being Chardin and Le Nain. This
class of subjects has not merely absorbed all genre-painting,
but has become a very Important factor in the presentment of
modem life. Bonvin painted asylums, convent-life, studios,
laboratories and schools. Alphonse Legros {q.v.), painter,'
sculptor and etcher, who settled in London, was of the same
school, though independent in his individuality, celebrating
with his brash and etching-needle the life of the poor and
humble, and even of the vagabond and beggar. There were
ahw Bracqueniond, the reviver of the craft of etching; Fantin-
Latour, the painter of highly romantic Wagnerian dreams,
figure compositions grouped after the Dutch manner, and flower-
pieces not surpassed in his day. Kibot, again, and Vollon,
daring and dashing in their handling of the brash; Guillaume
R^gamey, one of the few military painters gifted with the epic
sense; and even Carolus Duran, who, after painting ** ^f urdered "
(in the Lille Museum), combined With the professional duties
of an official teacher a brilliant career as a portrait painter. A
later member of this group, attracted to it by student friendship
in the little drawing-school which under Lecoq de Boisbaudran
competed in a modest way with the £coIe des Beaux Arts, was
J. C. (}azin, well known afterwards as a pronounced idealist.
Finally, there was Manet, a connecting link between the realists
and the impressionists. These two radiant focuses of imagina-
tk>n and of observation respectively were to be seen still intaa
during the later period, as represented by the moat energetic of
the masters who upheld them.
After the catastrophe of 1870, French art appealed to be
reawakened by the disasten of the country; and at the great
exhibition in Vienna in 1873 Count Andrassy exclaimed to Lfon
Bonnat, "After such a terrible crisis you are up again, and
victorious!" Immense energy prevailed in the studios, and
money poured into France in consequence. The output increased
rapidly, and at the same time study became more strenuous,
and ambition grew bolder and more manly. Renewed activity
stirred in the public academies, and*a crowd of foreign students
came to leara. Two great facts give a characteristic stamp to
this new revival of French art: I. In the class of ' imaginative
painting, the renewed impulse towards monumental or decorative
work. n. In the class of nature studies, the growth of land-
scape painting, which developed along two paraBd lines-^
Impressionism; and III. the ** Open-air *' school
I. Decoratwm,^ln decorative painting two men were the soul
of the movement: Puvis de Chavannes and Philippe de Cheane^
vieres Pointd. As we look back on the last years of the Second
Empire we see decorative painting sunk in profound lethargy.
After Delacroix, Chass^riau and Hippdyte Flandrin, and Ihe
completion of the gfeat works in the Palais Bourbon, the Senate
504
PAINTING
IFRCNCH
House, the Conr des Comptcs and a few churchet— St Sulpice,
St Vincent de Paul and St Germain dcsPr^— no serious attempts
had been made in this direction. Excepting in the il6tel de
Ville, where Cabaoei was winning his first laurels, and in the
Opera House, a work that was progressing in silence, a few
cbapels only were decorated with paintings in the manner of
easel pictures. But two famous exceptions led to a decorative
revival: Puvis de Chavanncs's splendid scheme of decoration at
Amiens (all, with the exception of the last composition, which is
dated 1882, executed without break between x86i and 1S67),
and his work at Marseilles and at Poitiers; Baudry, with his
ceiling in the Opera House, begun in 1866 but not shown to the
public till 1874. There was also a movement for reviving
French taste in the industrial arts by following the example of
systematic teaching set by some foreign countries, more particu*
larly by England. Decorative painting felt the same impulse.
Philippe de Cbennevieres, curator of the Luxembourg Gallery
and directeuf des Beaux Arts (from 1874 till 1879), determined
to encourage it by setting up a great rivalry between the most
distinguished painters, like that which had stimulated the zeal
of the artists of the Itah*an Renaissance. Taking up the .task
already attempted by Chcnavard under the Republic of 1848,
but abandoned in consequence of political changes, M. de
Chennevi^es commissioned a select number of artists to decorate
the walls of the Pantheon. The panels were to record certain
evenU in the history of France, with due regard to the sacred
character of the building. Twelve of the most noted painters
were named, with a liberal breadth of selection so as to include
the most dissimilar styles: Millet and Mcissonier, of whom one
refused and the other did not carry out the work; Cabanel and
Puvis de Chavannes. The last-named was the first to begin, in
1878, and he too was the painter who put the crowning end to
this great work in 1898. His pictures of the " Childhood of
Ste (jenevi^ve " (the patron saint of Pans), simple, full of feeling
and of innocent charm, appropriate to a popular legend, with
their airy Parisian landscape under a pallid sky, made a deep
impression. Thenceforward Puvis de Chavannes had a constantly
growing influence over younger men. His magnificent work at
Amiens, " Ludus pro Patria" (1881-1882), at Lyons and at
Rouen, in tlie Sorbonne and the H6tel de Ville, for the Public
Library at Boston, U.S.A., and on to his last composition, " The
Old Age of Ste Genevieve," upheld to the end of the 19th century
the sense of lofty purpose in decorative painting. Besides
the Panth^'on, which gave the first impetus to the movement,
Philippe de Chennevidres found other buildings to be decorated:
the Luxembourg, the Palace of the Legion of Honour and that
pf the Council of State. The paintings in the Palais de Justice,
the Sorbonne, the H6tel de Ville, the College of Pharmacy,
the Natural History Museum, the Opin, ComiQue, and many
more, bear witness to this grand revival of mural painting.
Every kind of talent was employed— historical painters, portrait
painters, painters of allegory, of fancy scenes, of real life and of
landscape. Among the most important were: J. P. Laurens
and Benjamin Constant, Bonnat and Carolus Duraa, Cormon
and Humbert, Joseph Blanc and L^ Olivier Merson, Roll and
Gervex, Besnardand Carri^re, HairpigniesandPointelin, Raphael
Collin and Henri Martin.
II. ImpressionUm. — In 1874 common cause was made by a
group of artists drawn together by sympathetic views and a
craving for iodepcndence. Various in their tastes, they concen-
trated from ever>- point of the coippass to protest, like their
precursors the realists, against the narrow views of academic
teaching. Some had romantic proclivities, as the Dutchman
Jongkindt, who played an important part in founding this
group; others were followers of Daubigny.of Corotorof Millet:
some came from the realistic party, whose influence and effort
this new set was to carry on. Among these. £douard Manrt
(i83>-i88j) holds a leading place; indeed, his influence, in spile of
^^x perhaps as a result of--much abuse, extended beyond his
circle even so far as to affect academic teaching itself. He was
first a pupil of Couture, and then, after Courbot, his real masters
were the Spaniards— Velasquea. El Greco and Goya— all of whom
he dosdy studied at the beginning of his career; but he sooa
felt the influence of Millet and of O»ot. With a keen power of
observation, he refined and lii^tened bis style, striving for •
subtle rendering of the exact relations of tone and values in
light and atmosphere. With him, forming the original group,
as represented by the CaiUebotte collection in the Luxcmboorg,
we find some landscape painters: Ckudc Monet, the painter of
pure daylight, and the artist who by the title of one of bis
pictures, " An Impression," gave rise to the designation accepted
by the group; Camilla Pissarro, who at one time carried to an
extreme the prindple of dotting with pure tints, known as
poiniiUisme:, or dotwork; Sislcy, C£zanne and others. Among
those who by preference studi^i the human figure were Edgard
Degas (^.f.) and Augusta Renoir. After long and violent
antagonism, such as had already greeted the earlier innovators,
these painters, in spite of many protests, were offidally recog-
nized both at the Luxembourg and at the great Exhibition of
1900. Their aims have been various, some painting Mao and
some Nature. In the former case they claim to have gone back
to the prindple of the greatest artists and tried to record the
life of their own time. Manet, Degas and Renoir have shown us
aspects of city or vulgar life which had been left to genre^painting
or caricature, but which they have represented with the charm
of pathm, or with the bitter irony of their own mood, frank
transcripts of life with a feeling for style. For those who painted
the scenery of nature there was an even wider field. They
brought to their work a new visual sense, released from the ding-
ing memories of past art; they endeavoured to fix the transient
effects of moving life, changing under the subtlest and most
fugitive effects of light and atmosphere, and theplay of what may
be called the dements of motion— sunshine, air and douda —
caring less for the exact transcript of motionless objects, wbidk
had hitherto been almost exclusively studied, such as the soil,
trees and rocks, the inanimate features of the landscape. They
introduced a fresh lightness of key, which had been too sub-
servient to the rdations of values; they discovered for their ends
a new dass of subjects essentially nwdem: towns, streets,
railway Stations, factories, coal-mines, ironworks and smoke,
which they represent with an intelligent adaptation of Japanese
art, taking new and audadous points of view, constantly
varying the position of their horizon. This is indeed the very
acme of naturalism, the last possible stage of modern landscape,
covering the whole field of observation, doubling back to che
starting-point of imagination. Notwithstanding— or because
of— the outcry, of these views, peculiarities and Undendea
soon penetrated schools and studios. Three artistain particular
became conspicuous among the most individttal and inoat
independent spirits: Besnard, who had taken the Grand Prix
de Ronw, and carried to the highest pitch his inexhaustible
and charming fancy in studies of the figure under the most
unexpected play of light; Carri^re, a pupil of Caband, who
sought and found in mysterious gloom the softened spirit of
the humble, the warm caress of motherhood; and RallaHli, a
pupil of G£r6me, who brought to light the unrecognised pic*
turesqueness of the lowest depths of humanity*
III. Tke " Pltin-air," cr Open-air, Sck$ol.'-The same causes
explain the rise of the particular class of work thus commonly
designated. Between Millet and Courbct. both redolent of the
romantic and naturalistic influences of their time, though apart
from them, stands an artist who had some share in establishing
the continuity of the line of painters who combined figure-
painting with landscape. This is Jules Breton (b. i8>7, q.t,)»
Mote supple than his fellows, less harsh and less wilfu), caring
more for form and charm, he found it easier to treat *' masses,'*
and contributed to diffuse a taste for the artistic presentment
and glorification of field labour. He was the chief Uok between
a past style and Jules Bastien-Lepage (1848-1 B84. ^.v.). who was
in fact the founder of the school of open-air painting, a com-
promise between the academic manner and the new revolutionary
ideas, a sort of academic continuation of the naturalisUc ev<olQ*
tion, which therefore eserted considerable influence on contem-
p^raiy art. As a pupil of. Caband and the Aicadenqr tcfaaoli^
PRENORI
PAINTING
50s
enamoured of rostic life, he abaorbed at an early stage, though
not without hesitation, the love of atmospheric effects charactcr-
Btic of Corot and of Manet. la his open-air heads and rural
scenes he is seen as a conscientious nature worshipper, accurate
and sincere, and, like Millet, imbued with a touch of mysticism
which becomes even more evident in his immediate pupib.
Round him there arose a little galaxy of paintets, some more
faithful to traditi<m, some followers of the best innovaton,
who firmly tread this path of light and modem lifeu These are
Butin, Duez and Renouf, Roll and Gervex, Dagnan-Bouveret,
Friant, Adolphe and Victor Binet and many more.
Immediately after the Exhibition of 1889 an event took pbce
which was not without effect on the progress of French art.
This was the schism in the Salon. The audacious work of the
Soci£t6 Nationale dcs Beaux Arts, which left anything that
the ImprcssioAists could do far behind, had accustomed the eyes
of the public to the most daring attempu, while the numerous
contributions of foreigners, especially from the north, where art
aimed solely at a direct presentment of daily life, was a fresh
encouragement to the study of modern conditions and of the
lower classes. But, at the same time, the encroachment on
space at the Exhibition (where no limit of number was imposed)
by mere studies, hastened the reaction against the extravagances
of the degenerate followers of Courbct, Manet and Bastien*
Lepage. Remonstrances arose against their perverse and
narrow-minded devotion to " truth," or rather to minute
exactitude, their pedantry and affectation of documentation;
sometimes derived from some old colourisU who had not re-
nounced their former ideal, sometimes from younger men
impelled unconsciously by literature, which had as usual pre«
ceded art in the revolt. The protest was seen, toe, in a modified
treatment of landscape, which took on the warmer odours of
sunset, and in a choice of religious subjects, such as a pardon,
or a funeral, or a ceremonial benediction, and generally of more
human and more pathetic scenes.
Basticn-Lepage, like his great precursor Millet, bore within him
the germs of a reaction against the movement he had helped to
promote. Dagnan-Bouvcret, who began by painting " Siltjng
for a Photograph " (now at Lyons) and " An Accident," after
painting "Le Pain b^nit," ended with " The Pilgrims to
Emmaus " and " The Last Supper." Friant, again, produced
scenes of woe, "All Saints' Day" and '* Grief"; and their
. younger successors, Henri Royer, Adler, Duvent and others,
who adhered to this tradition, accommodated it to a more
modem ideal, with more vivid colouring and more dramatic
composition.'
' Still, this normal development could have no perceptible
effect in modifying the purpose of painting. More was needed.
A strong craving for imaginative work was very generally felt,
and was revealing itself not merely in France but in Belgium,
Scotland, America and dermany. This tendency ere long
resulted in groups forming round certain well>known figures.
Thus a group of refined dreamers, of poetic dilettanti and
harnionious colourists, assembled under the leading of Henri
Martin (a strange but attractive visionary, a pupil of Jean Paul
Laurens and direct heir to Puvis de Chavannes, from whom he
had much sound teaching) and of Aman*Jean,who had appeared
at the same time, starting, but with more reserve, in the same
direction. Some of this younger group affected no specific
aim ; the others, the larger number, leant towards contemporary
life, which they endeavoured to depict, especially its aspirations
and— according .to the modem expression now in France of
common usage—its " state of soul " typified by melody of line
and the eloquent language of harmonies. Among them should
be named, as exhibitors in the salons and in the great Eidiibition
of 1900, Ernest Laurent, Ridel and Hippolyte Foumier, M. and
Mme H. Duhem, Le Sidaaer, Paul Steck, &c. On the other hand,
a second group had formed of sturdy and fervent naturalistic
painters, in some ways resembKng the school of 1855 of which
mention has been made; young and bold, sometimes over-bold,
enthusiastic and emotional, and bent on giving expression to
the life eC their owaday, especially among the people, not merely
leoopding iu exterior aspects but epitomifcing its meaning by
broad and strong synthetical compositions. At their head stood
Cottet, who combined in himself the romantic fire and the feeling
for orchestrated colour of Delacroix with the incisive realism and
bold handling of Courbet; next, and very near to him, but more
objective in his treatment, Lucien Simon, a manly painter and
rich colourist. Both by preference painted heroic or pathetic
scenes from the life of Breton mariners. After them came Rcn6
MMard, a more lyrical artist^ whose classical themes and land-
scape carried us back to Poussin and Dauches, Prinet, W£ry, &c.
Foreign influences had meanwhile proved stimulating to the
new tendencies in art. Sympathy with the populace derived
added impulse from the works of the Belgian painters Constanttn
Meunier, Ldoa Frid6ric and Struys; a taste for strong and
expressive colouring was diffused by certain American artists,
pupils of Whistler, and yet more by a busy group of young
Scotsmen favourably welcomed in Paris. But the most unfore*
seen result of this reactionary movement was a sudden reversion
to tradition. The cty of the realists of every shade had been for
" Nature 1 " The newcomers raised the opposition cry of " The
Old MastersI " And in their name a protest was made against
the narrowness of the documentary school of art, a demand for
some loftier scheme of conventionality, and for a fuller expression
of life, with its complex aspirations and visions. The spirit
of English Pre>Raphaelitism made its way in France by the
medium of translations from the English poets Shelley, Rosselti
and Swinburne, and the work of their foUowen Stephane
Mallarm6 and Le Sfir Peladan; it gave rise to a little artificial
impetus, which was furthered by the simultaneous but transient
rage for the works of Burne- Jones, which were exhibited with
his consent is some of the salons, and by the importation of
William Morris's principles of decoration. The outcome was a
few small groups of symbolists, the most famous being that of
the Rose 4* Croix, organized by Le Sir Peladan; then there was
Henri Martin, and the little coterie of exhibitors attracted by a
deakr, the late M. le Bare de Bouttiville, in which Cottet was
for a short time entangled. But few interesting names are to
be identified: Dubc (d. 1899), who became known chiefly for
his mystical lithographs in colour; Maurice Denis and Bonnard,
whose decorative compositions, with their refined and bar-
monious coloiu'ing, are not devoid of charm; VuiUard, &c But
it was in the school and studio of Gustave Moreau (i 836-1 898,
q.v.) that the fire of idealism burned most hotly. This excep-
tional man and rare painter, locked up in his solitude,
endeavoured, by a thorough and intelltgent assimilation of all
the traditions of the past, to find and create for himself a new
tongue— rich, nervous, eloquent, strong and resplendent— in
which to give utterance to the loftiest dreams that haunt the
modem soul. He revived every old myth and rejuvenated
every antique symbol, to represent in wonderful imagery all
the serene magnificence and all the terrible struggles 6i the
moral side of man, which he had explored to its lowest depths
and most heroic heights in man and woman, in poetry and in
death. Being appointed, towards the end of his life, to a
professorship in the £cole des Beaux Arts, he regarded hia
duties as a real apostleship, and his teaching soon spread from
his lecture-room and studio to those of the other masters. His
own work, though hardly known to his pupils at the time, at
first influenced their style; but, especially after his death, they
were quickly disgusted with their own detestable imitation oif
subjects on which the master had set the stamp of hia great
individuality; they deserted the fabulous world of the Greek
Olympus and the wonderful gardens of the Bible, to devote
them to a passionate expression of modem life. Desvalli^res,
indeed, remained conspicuous in his origiaal maaaer; SabattC,
Maxence, Birooneau, Beaaon and many more happily worked
out their way on other lines*
In trying to draw up the balance-sheet of French art at
the beginning of the ioth century, it were rain to try to enter
its work under the old-world headings of History, Genre, For-
tralu. Landscape. All the streams had botst their channels,
all the currents mingled- Historical palathig, telastated for •
5o6
PAINTING
[BBLGIUU
time by Puvis de Chftvanoes and J. P. Laurenst In which
Benjamin Constant and Connon also distinguished themselves,
had but a few adherents who tried to maintain its dignity, cither
in combination with Uindscape, like M. Tattegrain, or with the
ineffectual aid of archaeology, like M. Rochegrosse. At certain
times, especially just after 1870, the memory of the war gave
birth to a special genre of military subjects, under the distin*
guished guidance of Meissonier (q.v.), and the peculiar talents
of Alphonse de Neuville (9.9.), of Detaille (q.v.) and Protais.
This phase of contemporary history being exhausted, gave way
to pictures of military manoeuvres, or colonial wars and incidents
in reoent hutory; it latterly went through a revival under a
demand for subjects from the Empire and the Revolution, in
consequence of the publication of many memoirs of those times.
Side by side with " history," religious art formerly flourished
greatly; indeed, next to mythology, it was always dear to the
Academy. Apart from the subjects set for academical competi-
tions, there was only one little revival of any interest in this
kind. This was a sort of neo-evangelical offshoot, akin to the
literature and stress of religious discussion; and its leader, a man
of feeling rather than conviction, was J. C. Cazin <d. 1901).
Like Puvis de Chavannes, and under the influence of Corot and
Millet, of Hobbema, and yet more of Rembrandt, he attempted
to renew the vitality of history and legend by the added charm
of landscape and the introduction of more human, more living
and more modern, elements into the figures and accessories.
Following him, a little group developed this movement to
extravagance. The recognized leader at the beginning of the
aoth century was Dagnan-BouvereL
Through jnythology and allegory we are brought back to real
life. No one now thinks in France of seeking any pretext for
dispbying the nude beauty of woman. Henner, perhaps,
and Fantln-Latour, were the last to cherish a belief in Venus
and Artemis, in naiads and n3rmphs. Painters go direct to
the point nowadays; when they paint the nude, it is apart from
abstract fancies, and under realbtic a^iects. They are content
with the model. It is the living female. The whole motor
force of the time lies in the expression, under various aspects, of
real life. This it is which has given.such a soaring flight to the
two most primitive forms of the study of life, landscape and
portraiture. Portraits have in fact adopted every style that
can possibly be imagined: homely or fashionable, singly or in
groups, by the fire or out of doors, in some familiar attitude
and the surroundings of daily life, analytically predse, or
synthetically broad, a literal transcript or a bold epitome of
facts. As to Ukndscape, no dass of painting has been busier,
more alive or more productive. It has overflowed into every
other channel of art, giving them new spirit and a new life.
It has led the van in every struggle and won every victory.
Never was army more numerous or more various than that of
the landscape painters, nor more independent. All the traditioiis
find representatives among them, from Paul Flandrin to Ren£
M6nard. Naturalists, impressionists, open-air painters, learned
in analysis or potent in invention. We need only name
Harpignies, broadly decorative; Pointelin, thoughtful and
austere; and Caiin, grave and tender, to give a general idea
of the strength o< the school.
Every quarter of the land has its painters: the north and the
south, Provence and Auveigne, Brittany, dear to the young
generation of ookmxists, the East, Algeria, Tuna»-fl]l contribute
to form a French school of huulscape, very living and daring,
of which, as successors of Fiomentin and Guillaumet, must be
named Dinet, Marius Penet, Paul Leioy and Gizardot. But
it la more especially in the association of man and nature, in
painting ahapfe folk and their struggle for life amid their natural
tnrmndiDgi or by their homely hearth, in the glorification
of humble toil, that the latest French art finds its most
chanctciiitic ideal lift. (L. Bb.)
BCLGIUIC
Belginm fiBs a great place in the realm of ait; and while its
palntcn abow a p i af ewa ce for simple subjects, tbiir technique
Is broad, rich and sound, the outcome of a fine traditioa. Sinoe
1855 international critics have been struck by the unity of effect
produced by the works of the Belgian school, as exprnsed more
especially by similarities of handh'ng and colour. For the thin^
which dlninguish all Belgian painters, even in their most un«
pictorial divagations, are a strong sense of contrast or harmony
of colouring, a free, bold style of brushwork, and a preference
for rich and solid paintmg. It is the tradition of the old Flemish
school. It would be more correct, indeed, to say tradiUoos;
for the modifications of each tendency, inevitably reviving when
the success of another has exhausted itself, constantly show a
reversion either to the domestic " Primitives " (or, as we might
say, Pre-Raphaeliles) of the Bruges school, or to the " decora^
tive " painters of the later time at Antwerp, and no veneer of
modem taste will ever succeni in masking this traditional
perennial groundwork. In this way the prevailing authority
of the French painter Louis David may be accounted for; as
acknowledged at Brussels at the beginning of the X9th century,
it was a reaction in antagonism to the heavy and flabby work
of the late Antwerp school, an unconscious reversion perhaps
to the finish and minuteness of the early painters of Bruges.
Indeed, in France, Ingres, himself David's most devoted disciple,
was reproached with trjring to revive the Gothic art of Jean de
Bruges. Then, when David's foUowcis produced only cold and
feeble work, Wappers arose to restore the mrthods of another
tradition, for which he secured a conspicuous triumiA. Classacai
tinsel made way, indeed, for nwEUuitic tinsel. The new art
was as conventional as the old, but it had the advantage o(
being adaptable to the taste for show and splendour whidi
characterizes the nation, and it also admitted the presentment
of certain historical personages who survived in the memory
of the people. The inevitable reaction from this theatrical
art, with its affectation of noble sentiments, was to brutal realism.
Baron Henri Leys iq.v.) initiated it, and the civdity of hb style
gave rise to a belief in a systematic purpose of supplanting the
Latin tradition by Germanic sentimentality. Leys's archaic
realism was transformed at Bruaseb into a realism of obecrvatioa
and modem thought, in the painting of Charles de Grouz.
The influence of Leys on this artist was merely superficial;
for though he, too, affected painful subjects, it was because thty
appealed to his compassion. The principle represented by dc
Groux was destined to pioneer the school in a better way; at
the same time, from another side the authority of Courbet, the
French realist, who had been lor some time ifi Brussels, and that
of the great landscape painters of the Fontainebleau sdwol,
had suggested to artists a more attentive study of nature and a
remarkable reversion in technique to bolder and firmer handling.
At (his time, among other remarkahile men, Alfred Stevcaa
appeared on the scene, the finished artist of whom CaniDe
Lemonnler truly said that he was " of the race of great p^t«»»f— ^
and, like them, careful of finish "—that in him " the eye^ the
hand and the brain all co-operated for the mysterious dabotft-
lion" of impasto, colour and chiaraacuro, and "the least
touch was an operatk>n of the mind." A brief period earnied
during which the greater number of Belgian artista were carried
away by the material charms of brushwork and pafaxt. Tie
striving after briUiant efforts of cobur which had chaiactoiaed
the painters of the last generation then gave way to a devout
study of values; and at the same time it is to be noted thai in
Belgium, as in France, landwape paintes were the first ta
discover the possibility of giving new life to the interpreutioa
of nature by simplicity and sincerity of exprcasmi. They
tried to render their cxaa sensations; and we saw, as has beea
said, "an increasingly predominant reveUtion ci instinctive
feeling in all daases of painting." ArtisU took an ImpartJaJ
interest in all they saw, and the endeavour to pAint well
eliminated the hope of expressing a high ideal; they now sought
only to utter in a work of art the impfcask>n made on then by
an external fact; and, too often, the strength of the < ~
d ege n era ted into brutality.
These new influences, which, in spite of the <
s^ool, had by degrees modified the aspea of BdgiaB ait is
BELCtUMI
PAINTING
507
general, ted to the fonnatfon at Brasses of an association under
the name of the Free Society of Fine Arts. This group of palnten
had a marked influence on the developroent of the school, and
hand in hand with the pupils of Portaeb— a teacher of sober
methods, caring more for sound practice than for theories-
It encouraged not merely the expression of deep and domestic
leeling which we find m the works of Leys and de Croux; but
also the endeavour to paint nature in the broad light of open air.
The example of the Free Society found imitaton; various artistic
groups were formed to organize exhibitions where new works
couM be seen and studied Irrespective of the influence of dcalen,
or of the conservatism of the authorities which was increasingly
conspicuous in the official galleries; till what had at fiist been
regarded as a mere audadous and fantastic demonstration
assumed the dignity of respectable effort. The " Cerde des
Vingt " (" The Twenty Qub ") also exerted a marked influence.
By introducing into iu exhibitions works by the greatest foreign
artists it released Belgian art from the uniformity which some
too patriotic theorists would fain have imposed. The famous
" principle of individuality in art " was asserted there m a really
remarkable manner, for side by side with the experiments of
painters bent on producing certain effects of light hung the
works of men who clung to literary or abstract subjects. Other
groups, again, were formed on the same lines; but then came
the inevitable reaction from these elaborations of quivering
h'ght and subtle expression, pushed, as it seemed, to an extreme.
Tbe youngest generation of Brussels painters, in revolt against
the Ughu and ukra-reiinemenU of their immediate predecessors,
seem to take (Measure in a return to gums and bitumen, and to
seek the violent effects so dear to the romantic painters of a
past time.
Brussels Is the real centre of art In Belgfum. Antwerp, the
home of Rubens, is resting on the memory of past glories, after
vainly trying to uphold the ideal formerly held in honour by
Flemish painters. And yet, so great is the prestige of this
ancient reputation, that Antwerp even now attracts artists
from every land, and more especially the dealers who go thither
to buy pictures as a comnK>n form of merchandise. At Ghent
the wonderful energy of the authorities who get up the triennial
exhibitions makes these the most interesting provincial shows
of their kind; other towns, as Liige, Toumay, Namur, M(^ and
Spa also have periodical exhibittons.
From 1830, in the early days of the Belgian school of painting,
we may obttrve a tendency to nek for the fuUeat qualities of
colour, with delicaie gradations of light and shade. 1 n this Wappers
led the way. At a time when his teachers In the Antwerp Academy
would recogniae nothing bftt the heavy bfown tones of old paintings,
be was already representing the trannarent shadows of natural
daylight. But hcrok and sentimental romantkasro was already
making way for the serious expression of domestic and popular
feeling, and thenwforward the prominence assumed by gtnre, and
yet more by landscape, led to a deeper and more direct study of the
various aspects of nature. At the same time a soedal aenstf* Of
colour was the leading characteristic of the artists 01 the time, ami
it was truly said that the ambition to be a fine painter was stronger
than the desire for scrupulous exactitude." Arttsts evidently aimed,
in the first place, at a solid impasto and gk>wing cobur: an under-
tone, ruddy and golden, gleamed through the paler and more real
hues of the over-painting. In this way we may certainly recogniae
the influence of the French colourists of Courbet's time; just as we
may trace the influence of the grey tone prevalent in Manet's day
in the effort to paint with more simple truth and fewer tricks df
recipe, which became evident when the " Free Society " was.founded
at Brussels, and the pupils from Portads's studio came to the front.
Among the artisu who were then working the following must
be named (with their best «*orks in the Brussels Gallery): Alfred
Stevens (9.V.). an incompambly charming painter, characterised
by exquisite harmony of colour and marvclkMis dexterity with the
The
., ' The Lady in Fink."
"A Painter and his Model.''
dio." " The Widow," " A Painter and his Model." and '* The
y*Bird." Joseph Stevens, his brother, a master-painter of dogs,
id in his draughtamanship. and painting in strong touches
colour, is leoresented by " The Doc-Market." " Brussels-
brush. In the Brussels Gallery are his
Studio." "The Widow, " *
Lady-Bird.''
broad in
of colour, is reoresenL,_ _, _ _
Morning." "A Dog before a Mirror"; Henri de Braekelccr, the
nephew and pupil of Leys, a fine painter of interiors, in warm and
golden tones, by " The Gcograpner," " A Farm— Interior." " A
Shop"; Lievin de Winne. a portrait painter, sober in style and
refined in execution, by "Leopold I., King of the Belgians"!
Ftorent Willcms. archaic and elcgant« by " The Wedding Dress ";
Eugtae Smlts. a refined eelemiat. always woiMng with the thought
of Venice ia his mind, by " The Procession of the Seasons "; Louis
Dubois, a powerful cpUnirist with a full brush, striving to resemble
Cpurbet.by " Storks,"" Fish ": Alfred Verw«e, a fine animal painter,
with spedal k>ve for a sheeny silkiness of texture, by " The Estuary
^^•*^^K^'' ^^ """'^ ^»<1 «f Flanders." •* A Zeeland Team ";
i^S^ Verhaeren. a pupil of L. Dubois, by some " Interiors ";
'^*l"i*'! ."****?» «? extraordinary artist, precise in drawing, sensual
and inasive, by A PSiisienne"; F«ix tcr Linden, a restless, refined
nature, always trying new subtleties of the brush and palette-knife,
by •• Captlvw." Amongst other painters may be named Camille
\«n Camp. Gustave de Tonghe. Franx Veritas, and his brother Jan
Verhas, the oainter of the popular " School Feast " in the Brussels
Gallery; and Jan van Beers, the clever painter of female coquct-
tlshness. represented by pictures in the Antwerp Gallery.
As landscape painters, the chief are: Hippolyte Boulenger. a
refined drauffhtsnMn and a delicate colourist, represented in the
Bruaaeb Gallery by "Vfcw of Dinant," "The Avenue of Old
Hornbeams at Tervueren." "The Meuse at Hasti*re "; Alfred de
Knyff . noble and elegant, by "The Mari Pit," " A Heath— Campine " ;
Joseph Coosemans. by/'A Marsh— Campine "; Jules Montlgny,
by •'^Wet Weather "; Alph. Aaselbergs. by " A Marsh-Campine?
There are also Xavier and C^sar de Cock, painters In light gay
tones of colour; GusUve Den Duyts, a lover of melancholy twilight,
represented in the same gallery by "A Winter Evening"; Kime
Marie Collart. a seeker after the more melancholy and concentrated
impressions 01 nature, by " The Oki Orchard *'; and Baron Jules
Ga:thals.
Of the Antwerp ukodl, Francois Lamorinidre, archak and minute,
has In the Brussels Gallery hu " View from Edeghem,*' and there
is also Thfodore Verstraete, sentimental, or frenxied.
As marine painters: Paul Jean Clays, who delighu hi vivid
effects of cok>ur. is represented at Brussels by "The Antwerp
Roadstead," " Calm on the Scheldt "; Louis Artan, who prcfcre
dark and powerful effects, by " The North Sea," beeldcs Robert
Mols, A. Bouvicr, and Lemayeur.
As painters of town scenery may be named F. Stroobant. a
draughtsman rather than a painter, who is represented ia the
Brussels Gallery bv *' The Grande Place at Brussels." and J. B.
Van More, a colounst chiefly, by " The Cathedral at Bclem."
The flower painter. Jean Roble, has in the Brussels GaDery
" Ftowers and Fruit."
Jean Portaels, the painter of " A Box at the Theatre.** at Budapest,
is represented in the Brussels Gallery by " Tlic Daughter of Sion
Insulted "; Emile Wautcrs, a master of free and solid brushwork,
equally skilled in portraiture, historical composition and decorative
portrait painting, by "The Madness of Hugo van der Goes":
Edouard Agneeasens, a genuine painter, with breadth of vision and
facile execution, by portraits; Andr6 Hcnncbkq. a painter of his-
torical subjects, by 'Labourers in the Campagna, Rome "; Isidore
Verheydcn. a laindscaiHst and portrait painter, by " Woodcutters ";
EugAne Verdycn and Emile Ciiarlct should be mentioned, and the
landscape painter Henri van der Uocht, whcMe "On the Sand-
bills " is in the Brussels Gallery.
The principal landscape painters of what is known as the
" neutral tint " school {fEcoU 4u gris) are: Theodore Baron, faith-
ful to the sterner features of Belgian scenery, represented in the
Brussels Gallery by "A Winter Scene— Condroz '': Adrien Joseph
Heymans, a careful student of singular effects of lient, by " bpring-
time"; Jacques Rosscels, a painter of the cheerful brightness of
the Flemish country, by " A Heath," besides Isidore Meyers and
Florent Crabcels.
Some fiffure painters who may be added to this group are:
Charles Hermans, whose picture " "^ .. -« . ^ ..
' Dawn '
(Brussels Gallery).
exhibited In 187^, betrays the ascendancy of the principles upheld
by the Free Society of Fine Arts; Jean de la Hoesc. who has sinca
made portraits his special line; Emiie Sacr£; L£on Philippet, repre-
sented in the Brussels Gallery by " The Murdered Man : and Jan
Stobbaerta, a masteriy painter, powctful but coarse, by " A Farro^
Interior."
Three more artists were destined to greater fame: Constantin
Meunier, a highly respected artist, equally a painter and a sculptor,
known as the Millet of the Flemish workman, who has depicted
with noble feeling his admiration and pity for one contemporary
Atate of the hunnan race, and who is represented in the BrusKls
n^iu^ by "The Peasants' War"; Xavier Mellery, who tries to
in works of high artistic merit the inner life of men and
and personifications of thouwht. by "A Drawing"; and
Ire Struys, a strong and ckvcr painter, expressing his
Gallery by " The Peasants' War
express '
things, _
Alexandre Struys,
sympathy with poverty
ability.
strong and ckvcr painter, expressing his
ty and misfoetune in. works of remarkable
Besides these, ChaHes Verlat. a powerful and skilled artist,
painted a vast variety of subjects: hts tc»chlng was influemial ia
the Antwerp Academy. In the Brussels Gallery he is represented
by " Godfrey de Bouillon at the Siege of Jerusalem," " A Flock of
Sheep attacked by an Eagle"; Alfred Cluyscnaar. whose aim Is to
produce decorative work on an enormous scale, by " Canoasa ";
Albrecht de Vriendt. by " Homage dooe to Charles V. as a ChikI ";
JttUaaa de Vriendt. by " A Chnatroas Carol "; Victor Lagysi by
5o8
'* The Witch." Frau Vinck, Wilhebn Geets, Kari Ooms. «od P.
van dor Ouderaa, endeavour to perpetuate, while loftening down,
the style of historical painting so definitely formulated by Leys.
Finally, Joseph StalUert, a painter of classical subiects, is represented
in the Brussels Gallery by '' The Death of Dido.'^ Eugine Oevaux.
a remarkable drBughtsman, should also be named.
Works by all those artists were to be seen in the Historical
Exhibition of Belgian Art at Brussels, 1880. Camille LemonnieCi
in his History of the Fin* Arts in Belgium, discussed this Exhibition
very fully, pointing out three distinct periods in the histoiy of the
century. The first, romantic, literary and artificial, extended from
1830 tul ncariy i850: the second was a period of transitbn, domestic
in feeling, gradually developing to realism in the course of about
twenty years; the third began in the 'seventies, a time of careful
study, especially in landscape. This was folbwcd by the beginning
of a fourth period, characterized by a freer sense of light and
atmosphere.
Apart from the exclusive tendency, inevitable under bureaucratic
admmlstration, the mere arrangebient on an antiquated plan of
the great academic salons was unsuitcd to the display of works
intended to represent individual feeling or peculiarities of pictorial
treatment, tlence it was that a great many painters came to
prefer smaller and more eclectic shows, leaduig to the fashion,
which still Dcrsuts, of exhibitions by clubs or associations. The
Fine Arts Club at Brussels had long^ since afforded opportunities
for showing the pictures of the Soci^t6 Libre, founded in 1868,
which were condemned by the authorities as tending to " revolu-
tionize ** art. After this, two associations of young painters were
formed at Brussels with a view to organizing their own exhibitions.
The " ChryseUtde " Club was founded in 1 875. and the " Estor "
(the "Soaring") Club in 1876.^ In 1882, however, the Essor
obtained leave to open their exhibition in a room in the Palais
des Beaux Arts at Brussels. This tolerance was all the more
appreciated by the younger party because a new departure was
in course of development, again a modification in the effort to
represent light in painting. The " neutral tint *' school had given
way to the schoof of " whiteness": a luminous effect was to be
sought by a free use of brilliant colour with a very full brush. But
ere long this method proved unsatisfactory, and attention was
now turned towards a "sinccrer and acuter perception of local
values"; and again the influence of certain French painters was
brought to bear — ^those of the group headed by C. Monet, preparing
for that of the French painter G. Scurat, the first who carrira into
practice the systematic decomposition of colour by the process
known as pointiUisme (the intimate juxtaposition of dots of colour).
In 1884, in consequence of a division in the Essor Club, the " XX "
Club was founded, who, though thus limiting their number, reserved
the right of " issuing ycariy invitations, and thus testifying the
sympathy they felt witn the most independent artists of Belgium
and with those foreign painters with whom they had the most
pronounced affinity." For ten years the exhibitions of the " XX,"
whose careful and artistic arrangements were in themselves admir-
able, were the fount in Belgium of discussions on art. The limit
of its existence to ten years was determined when the club was
formed; but as it was desirable that the principle of liberty in art
ahould still be held in honour, M. Octave Maus, the secretary of the
•* XX " Club, orannized the exhibitions of the Ubre tsthHique in
and since 1894. Other clubs had been formed in Brussels: the Fine
Art Society in 1891 and the " Furrow " Ue Sillon) in 1893. In 1894
another breach in the Essor Club, whkh, growing very weak, was
soon to disappear— as the " Art Union " aodthe Voorwaerts Club had
done— ted to the formation of the Society " for Art " (four for/);
and in 1896 a party of that club established a salon of idealist art
which favoured an exaggeration of the intellectual tendency already
begun in the exhibitions of the "XX." Subsequently, in the
exhibitions of the Silion and of the Labeur Clubs (founded in 1898)
a reaction set in, in favour of heavy brown tones and ponderous
composition. At Antwerp the influence <rf the local 80cieties--the
** Als Ik Kan," the Independent Art Oab, and the " XIII "— waa
less sensibly felt ; It was, bowever, enough to oonfirm certain waverers
in the direction of purely disinterestedeffort.
It wouk) be hnponible to classify into definite groapa those
B (inters whose first distinctive appeaiaiMe was subsequent to the
istorical Exhibition in 188a. Only an approximate grouping
can be attempted by asngning each to the association m whose
exhibitions he made toe best display oC what he aimed at expressing.
Thus it was chiefly in the rooms of the Bssor Club that works were
shown by the following: L. FrM^ric, a remarkable painter, corabin-
ifig wonderful facility of execution with a sincerely simple sentiment
orhomely pathos, represented at the Bniasels (tilery by " Chalk
Sellers "; E. Hoeterlckx, a painter of crowds in the streets and parks;
F. Scghers, a pleasing colourist, who had made flower-jpainunr his
speciality: two animal painters, F. van Leemputten, " Return from
PAINTING mouAMD
dcstgncta may be named A. HeUia, a clever illustrator, and A. Lyaca,
of a thoroughly Brussels type, keenly observant and satirical.
At the exhibitions of the " XX " were pictures by the followtnrr
Femand Khnopff ("Memories," a pastel, in Brussels Gallery),
ao admirer of the refined domesticity of Ei^lish oontempocary ait*
and of mystical art, as represented by Gustave Motean; H. v»d
der Velde, a well-known exponent of the new methods in applied
art: J. Ensor, a whimsical nature, loving strange combinations of
cotour and inconsequent fancies (Brussels Gallery: "The Lamp
Man "); Th. van Ryssclbergbe, a clever painter, especially in the
techniciue oC dot painting (potniiUisnu) : W. Schk>bach, a remarkable
colourist of uncertain tendencies: Henry de Groux* son of Ch. de
Groux^ a seer of vi«ons represented in violent tones and workmats-
ship: G. Vogels. a painter of thaw and rain; G. van Strydoncck, R.
Wytsman, J. Del^n, F. Chariet, Mile A. Qoch, all of whom have
striven to bring light into their pictures; W. Finch and G. Lemrocn.
To the tricnnialsalons, to the exhibitions of the " Artistic " cluba»
to the House of Art {ktaison 4'art), at Brussels, and to the variooa
Antwerp clubs, the folkiwing have contributed : F. Coortens, Ro»-
aeels'a brilliant pupil, an astonishing painter with a heavy impastts
(Brussels Gallery: " Coming out of Courch ") ; J. de Lalaiog , fiill of
lofty aims, but showing in nis painting the qualities of a sculptor
(Brussels Gallery: " A Prehistoric Hunter "); E. Claus, a lover oC
bright colour, and a genuine landscape painter (Brussets Gallerr:
" A Flock on the Road "): A. Baertsoea, who deliKhta ia the auiet
comers of old Flemish towns; H. EvcnepocI, a fine artist whose
premature death deprived the Belgbn school of a highly distin-
guished personality ( Brussels Gallery : " Child at Play ") ; G. Vanaise.
a painter ot hu^ historical subjects: Ch. Mertcns, a refined artist;
speciality: two animal painters, F. van Leemputten,
Work " (Brussels Gallery), and E. van Damme-Sylva, as well as the
marine painter, A. Maroette. The landscape painters iaclude J. de
Greet, almost brutal in style, " The Pbol at Rouge-Cltiltie " (Brussels
Galkrry). C. WoUes, and Hamcase. L. Houyeux, F. Halkett, L.
Ilcrbo are known for their portraits. And there ate E. van Gekter,
j. Mayn4, A. Crespin, a laanied docorativejiainter and E. Duyck,
a gimful dmoghtsraan, "A Dream" (Bnassels Callery>. At
E. Motte, an interesting painter with a love of archak: mctliods
Brussels Gallery : " A Girl> Head ") ; A. LAvtaue. 1
^_ __. an acoompiisbed
draughtsman wuh a distinctive touch; L. Wolles, an admirable
draughtsman: J. Lccmpocis, elaborate and minute: H. Richir, a
rrtrait painter; I. van den Eeckhout, a clever pupil of Verlieyden;
Rosier, a skilful follower of Veriat; L. Abry, a painter of miliiarjr
subjects: E. Carpentier, E. Vanhove, Luyten and Oesmeth.
Essentially of the Antwerp School are F. van Kuyck, P. Verhaert,
de Jans, and Brunin of Ghent, Ch. Doadclet, C. Monuld and vaa
Biesbrocck.
There is a group of artists at Lifee whose sincerity and 1
technical qualities have been recognised: A. Donaay, A. Rassenfc
E. Bcrchmans, F. Marechal, Dewitte. Of lady painters: Mmes
E. Bcemacrt, L. Hdger and J. Wytsmaa paint landscape; Mmes
B. Art, A. Ronoer, G. Meunier and M. De Bi^re paiat Bowers*
Mmes A. d'Ancthan, Lambert de Rdthachiid, M. PhiUppaoa, H.
Calais and M. A. Maroottc paint figures and portraits.
The chief exhibitors at the SociM pour fari have been A.
Ciambcrlani, a painter of large decorative compositions in subdued
tones; H. Ottevacre, a painter of night or twilight landscapes;
O. Coppens, R. Janssens and A. Hannotiau, who study old liouseS|
deserted churches and dead cities; F. Baes, an excellent pupil of
pT6d6nc Fabry, O. and J. Dierickx, painters of decorative figures;
H. Meunier. an ingeniously decorative draughtsman; J» Ddville,
founder of the salons of idealist art.
Leading exhibitors at the Voorwurts Gub have been E. I
a strange artist, as it were a Daumicr with anchylose joints, but a
colourist (Brussels C^allery: " A Flemish Peasant "); V. Gilsoal. a
clever pupil of Courtens (Brussels Gallery: " The .Kennd "): J. da
lardin, the writer of L'Art ftamand, an Important critical wofk
Ulustrated by J. Mkldetecr.
Contributors to the exhibitions of the Sitt^m Club comprise G. M.
Stevens, P. Verdussen, P. Matthieu. J. Gouweloos, Basden, Blieck,
Wfl^iemans and Smcers ; and V. Mignot, ingenious in designing postenk
At the exhibitions of water-coloun nave been seen the works
of HubertI, F. Bingtf, V. Uytterschaut, Stacquet and H. Cassiera*
who work with light washes or a clever use of body coloiir ; Hagemana,
who paints with broad washes; Delaunois, the painter of mysterioot
interiors; Th. Lybaert, minute in Us brushwork; M. RomMrsand
Titz, correct draughumen.
Since 1870 several important works of decorative painting in
pttblic buildings have been carried out in Belgium. GuSen,
Swerts and Pauwels have succumbed to the Influences of German
art, often cold and stiff: A. apd J. Devriendt, V. Lagye, W. Geeta
and Van der Oudera? have followed more or less in the footsteps
of Leys. J. Stallaert has deverly revived a classic styfe. Erode
Wautcn and A. Hennebicq have adopted the tiaditions of Historical
Palndnft; and so too have L. Gallait, A. Ctuyseoaar, J. de Lalainf
and A. Bourland, though with a more decorative sense of conceptioo
and treatment. But of all these works, ccruinhr the most remark-
able in its artistk: and intelligent fitness is that oi M. Ddfaeke, ia the
market-hall at Yprcs<
See CamiUe LemomUor, Histoin des arU m JMgiqm; A. J.
Wauttca, La Peimtun iamaitdti J. du Jardin« VArt ftamand.
(F.ICn
Holland
The entira Impreasioiust movement of the end of the iQtb
centuiy failed to eserdae the slightest influence upon the Dutch.
Tbcor «ra oni^ nedam la id far as tbcy ■<ain reaoit to the
CeKMANY)
PAINTING
509
dawcs of theb' FtCbakncL For s whole genention Josef
Isncb WW at the head of Dutch art. Born in iS>7 at Groningen»
the SOD of a money-changer, he walked every day in fais early
yean, with a Unen money-bag under his arm, to the great banking
bouse of Mesdag, a son of which became later the famous marine
painter. During his student days in Amsterdam he lived
in the Ohcstto, in the house of a poor but orthodox Jewish
family. He hungered in Psaris, and was derided as a Jew in
the Ddaroche school there. Such were the experiences of
life that formed his character. In Zantvoort, the little fishing
Village dose to Haarlem, he made a similar discovery to that
Which MiUet had already made at BarUson. In the solitude
of the remote village he discovered that not only in the pages
of history, but also in everyday life, thei« are tragedies. Having
at first only painted historical subjects, he now began to depict
the hard struggle of the seafaring man, and the joys and griefs
of the poor. He commenced the long scries of pictures that for
4(urty yean and more occupied the place of honour in all Dutch
exhibitions. They do not contain a story that can be rendered
Into words; they only tdl the tale of everyday life. Old women,
ynth rough, toil-worn hands and good-natured wrinkled faces,
sit comfortably at tht stove. Weatherbeaten seamen- wade
through the i^ter, spfaished by the waves as they drag along
the heavy anchon. A peasant child learns how to walk by the
Aid of a Uttle cart. Again, the dawning light falls softly upon
a peaceful deathbed, on which an old woman has just breathed
her last. A sad and tcsipied mebncbofy characterises and
panics all his works. His toilen do not stand up straight;
they are broken, without hope, and humble, and accomplish
their appointed task without pleasure and without interest.
He painU human beingi upon whom the oppressions of centuries
are resting; eyes that neither gaae on the present nor into the
future, but back on to the loiig, painful past. A Jew, bearing
the Ghetto yet in his bosom, is talking to us; and in bis painting
of the lowly and oppressed he recounu the story of his own
youth and the history of his own raco.
The younger pamten have divided iRacIs' subjects among
them. Each has his own little fieM, which he tills and cultivates
with industry and good sense; and painu one picture, to be
nptMted again and again during his lifetime. Chtistoph
Bitschop, born in Friesiand, settled as an artist in the land of
his birth, wliere iht national costumes are so pictaresi|ue, with
golden chains, ku» caps and silver embroidered bodices. As in
de Hoogh's piaures, the golden light streams through the window
upon the floor, upon deep crimson Uble^oovcn; and upon a few
silcot human beings, whose lives are passed in dreamy moootooy.
Gerk Henkes paints the logs of the canals, with boaU gliding
peaceful^ along. Albert Neuhnys selects simple family scenes,
in cosy rooms- with the sunlight peeping stctltfaily through the
windows. AdoU Corta, a pupil of Iwsels, loves the pale vapour
of autumn, grey-gieen plains and dusty country roads, with
sihfcry thistles and pale yellow flowers. The landscape painters,
also, have more fan common with the old Dutch classic masten
than with the Fuisiaa Impicssionista. Therev on the hill,
Rembrandt's windmill slowly flapa Ito wings; there Potter'a
cows ruminate solemnly as they lie on the grass. There are
BO coruscation and daisling brightness, onfy the grey-brownish
mellowness that Van Goyen afifected. Anton Mauve, Jacob
Maris and Willem Maris (d. 1910), arc the best known hndscape
men. Othen are Mcsdag, de Hub, Apol, Khnkenberg. Bastert,
Blommen, de Kock, Boaboom, Ten Kate, du Chattel, Ter
Mculen, Sande-Bakhuyzen. They all pahit Dutch coast scenery,
Dutch fields, and Dutch cattle, in exoelleit keeping with the
old-master school, and with phlegmatic repose.
A few of the younger masten introduced a certain amount
of movement into this distinguished, thoui^ somewhat aomni-
ferous, excellence. Brdtner and Isaak Isnels seem to belong
rather to Manet's school than to that of HoUand. The " suburb "
pictures of W. Tholeo, the flat hmdscapes bathed in light by
I^ul Joseph Gabriel, and Jan Veth's and Havermann'k im-
presMonistic portraiu prove that, even among the Dutch, there
are artista who cqierimenC Jan Toorop hat even attained
the proud distinction of being the m/omI tenOte of modem
exhibitions, and his works appear to belong rather to the art
of the okl Assyrians than to the 19th century. But those who
will endeavour to enter into theu: artistic spirit will soon discover
that Toorop Is deserving of more than a mere shrug of the
shoulder; they wiU find that he is a great painter, who indepen-
dently pursues original anna. At the present time all criticism
of art is determined by the "line." AU caprices and whims
of the " line " are now ridden as much to death, and with the
same enthusiasm, as were formeriy those of ** light." Toorop
occupies one of the fint phuxs among «hose whose only aim
oonsisu in aUowing the " line " to talk and make music. His
astonishina power of physical expression may be noted. With
what simple means, for example, he renden in his picture of the
" Sphinx " all phases of hysterical desire; in that of '* The Three
Brides" nunlike resignation, chaste devotion and -unbridled
voluptuousness. If his mastery over gesture, the glance of the
ey^ be remarked— how each feature, each movement of the hand
and head, each raisfaig and closing of the eyelid, exactly expresses
what it is intended to express— Toorop's pictures wOl no mort
be scoffed at than those of Giotto, but he will be recognized as
one of the greatest masten of the ** line " that the 19th century
produced.
^See Max Rooscs, I)iifc» PainUrs of the NintUerUk Cni/iify (Eng.
ed., London, 1698-1901).
Gericany
The German school of painting, like that of France, entered
on a new phase after the Franoo<<yemiao War of 1870. An
empire had been built up of the agglomeration of separate
tea. Germany needed no longer to gaxe back admiringly
at older and greater epochs. The historical painter became
neglected. Not the heroic deeds of the past, but the political
glories of the new empire were to be immortalised. This
transition is partlculariy noticeable in the work of Adolf von
MenxeL At thit thne of political stagnation he had recorded
on his canvas the glories of Prussia in the past. Now that the
present had achieved an importance of its own, he painted
"The Coronation of King William at Kdnigsbcrg" and ''King
William's Departure for the Army "; and ultimately he became
the painter of pqwUr subjects. The motley throng in the
streets had a special fascination for him, and he loved to draw
the crowd pushing its eager way to listen to a band on the
promenade, in the market, at the doon of a theatre, or the
windows of a caf^ He discovered the poetry of the builder'b
yard and the workshop. In the ** Modeme Cyklopen " (iron-
works), painted in 1876, he left a monumental nuuk in the history
of German art; for in this picture he depicts a simple incident
in daily life, without any attempt at genre; and this was indeed
the characteristic of his work for the next few jrears. Humorous
anecdote, as represented by Knaus (U 1829), Vautler (1829-
189S), Defregger (b. 1835) and Crfiuner (b. 1846), found little
acceptance. Serious representations of modem life were required ;
ort waa made to all the expedients of the great painters,
and the 'seventies were yean of artistic study for Germany.
Every great oolourist in the past was thoroughly studied and
his sacreU discovered. In Germany, Wilhehn LeibI (b. 1844),
holds the same prominent place that Courbet does in France.
Lcibl, like Courbet, (f.s.), showed that the task of painting la
not to narrate, but to depict by the most convincing means
at ita disposaL He even went farther than Courbet in close
scratiny of nature. With k>ving patience he strove to translate
into colour everything that his keen eye observed: he studied
nature with the devorion of the medieval artist. No fedSng,
strictly ^Making, is discernible in his work. His greatest
pictures are only of quiet life, with human accessories, and hia
painful accuracy divesu his pictures of poetry. But when he
first appeared, he was necessary, ffis painting ol "Three
Peasant Women in Church" is a grand documentary work
of that period, whose first aim was to conquer the picturesque.
LeibI uught artisu to study detail, to master the secrets of
flower, leaf and stalk.
Sio
PAINTINO
VXHUKtrv
A great iiiimber of frapOs were enootiiaged by him to gain
such a thorough mastciy of every deUU of technique as to be
enabled to paint piaures that were thoroughly good in workman-
ship, irrespective of genre or anecdote. Among these, W.
Tmbner (b. 1851) stands pre-eminently as a painter. His works
during the 'seventies are among the best painting done at
Munich during that period; they are full and rich in colour,
broad and bold in their treatment of the subject. A contem-
porary of his was Bruno Piglhein (b. X84S), a German Chaplin
in this Courbet group, not heavy and matter-of-fact, but bold
and witty. He revived the art of pastel painting and pointed
the way to a new style in panoramic and decorative painting,
whilst infusing beauty and grace into all his works.
The movement in applied arts which began at this time is
also imporunt. The revival of the German Empire led to a
renaissance in German taste. The "old German dwelling-
rooms," which now became the fashion, could only be hung
with pictures in keeping with the style ol the old masters, and
this entailed a closer study and imitation of their works than
had hitherto been customary. Wilhelm Dies (b. 1839) at the
head of the group, was as well acquainted with.t^e epoch
from DUrer and Holbein to Ostade and Rembrandt as any art
historian. In Harburger (b. 1S46) Adrian Brouwer lived once
more; and in Loffu (b. 1845) Quintin Matsys. Claus Meyer
(b. 1846) imitated all the artistic tricks of Pieter de Hooch and
Van der Neer of Delft. Holbein's costume studies were at first
models for Fritx August Kaulbach (b. 1850). Later, he extended
his studies to Dold and Van Dyck, to Watteau and Gainsborough.
Adolf Licr (1827*1882) applied the beauty of tone beloved by
the old masters to landscape. Von Lenbach's works show the
aenith of old-master talent in Germany. He had educated
himself as a copyist of daswoil masterpieces, and passed through
a schooling in the study of old masters such as none of his contem-
poraries had enjoyed. The copies which, as a young man, he
made for Count Schack in Italy and Spain are among the best
the brush has ever accomplished. Titian and Rubens, Velasquez
and Giorgione, were imitated by him with equal success. In
like manner he gave to his own works their distinguished old-
master charm. More than all other painters of historical
subjects, Lenbach enjoys the distinction of having been the
historian of his epoch. He gave the great men of the era of
the emperor William I. the form in which they will live in
German history, and beauty of colour is blended in all these
pictures with their brilliant evidence of thought. The aqnrationa
of a whole generation to restore the technique of the old saastets
found their realization in Lenbach.
Such was the position of things when there was imported from
France the desire to paint light and sun. It was argued that
the views which the <^d masters held concerning colour were in
glaring contradiction to what the eye actually saw. The old
masters, it was said, paid particular attention to the conditions of
lif^t and shade under which they did their work. The golden
character of the Italian Renaissance was traceable to the old
cathedrals lighted by stained-glass windows. The Ught and shade
of the Netherlands were in keeping with the light and shadow of
the artists' studios lighted by little panes, and due partly to the
fact that their pictures were intended to hang in dreamy, brown
panelled chambcts. But was this golden or brown light tuitable
for the xgth. century? Were we not illogical, when for the sake
of reproducing the tones of the old masters, we darkened our
■tudios and shut out the dayli^t by coloured ^ass windows
and heavy curtains? Was not light one of the greatest acquisi-
tions of recent times? When the Dutch painted the world
used only little panes of glass. Now the daylight streamed
into our rooms through great white aheeu of cryttaL When
our pandfalhcrs lived there were only candles and oil lamps.
Now we had gas and electric lii^ Instead of tmiuting the old
masteis, kt as paint the colooristic charma that were unknown
to them. La us do honour to the new marveb of cobur.
With snch arguments as were advanced in France, did artists
in Germany adopt the pUinrck and abandon older methods;
and a devdopment like that which took place in France af tax
the days of Ifaset Maned fai -Gemaay aln. Daylight, ^
had so bng been kepi down, was now to be reprodiioHl as dear
and brighL After the art of painting strong effects full of day-
light had been grappled with, other and more difficolt problemft
of light effects were attempted. After the full blaze of fanabiiM
had been successfully reproduced, soch effects as the haae of
early morning, the sultry vaporous atmosphere of the thunder-
storm, the mysterious night, the bhie-grey dawn, the ddtcatc
colours of variegated Chinese lanterns, the srinrillarhm of ga*
and lamplight, and the dreamy twilight in the Interior were
dealt with.
Max Liebermann (b. 1849) was the fiiat to join the new de-
parture. In Paris he had learnt technique. HoOisnd, the covntzy
of fogs, inspired him with the love for atmospheric effects^
and iu scenes of simple life provided him with many si^joct^
Perhaps the "Net Menden" in the Hamburg KnnsthaUe in
most typical of Licbermann's art. Frank Skarbina (b. .1849),
who was the second to join the new movement in Berlin, pro*
ceeded to studies of twilight and artificial light effects.
Hans Hcnman (b. 1858), who settled himself on quays and
ports; Hugo Volgel, who endeavoured to utilize scenes from
contemporary life for decorative pictures; and the two Isndtfspe
painters, Ludwig Dettmann (b. 1865) and Walther Lcistikow
(b. 1865), are other representatives of modem Berlin art. Cail»>
ruhe, in the 'eighties, produced some modem pictures of great
merit, when Gustav Schdnleber (b. 1851) and Herrmann Baisch
(b. 1 846) showed daintily conceived pictures of Dutch landscapes.
In Uter years Count Leopold Kalckrenth (b. 1855), whoae
powerfully conceived representations of peasant fife belong to
the best productions of German realism, and Victor Wcishanpt
(b. 1848), the animal painter, removed thence to Stuttfut,
the residence also of Otto Rehuger (b. 1863), a Isndsrapf painter
of great originality. At Dresden we find Gotthard Kn^
(b. 1850) , long domiciled in Paris, who waa one of the first to accept
Manet's teaching. In North Germany, Worpswede becamo
a German Barbizon; Eode (b. i860), Vogeler, and Vinnea
(b. 1863) also worked there. In Weimar, two landscape painters
of great refinement most be mentiooed^Thoodor Hagea
(b. 1842) and Gleichcn-Russwurm G>. 1866). As far back as
the 'seventies they rendered pbughed fields, hills en v e l oped m
thin vapour at sunrise, waving fields of com, and apple trees
in full bbom trembling in the rays of the evening ^Ow with
a ddicate understanding of natural e&cts.
But Munich still remains the headquarters of German art,
which is there the first of all interests and pervades all didca.
Almost all those who are working in other German towns recdw
in that dty their inspirations and have indeed remained its
dtisens in heart. The international exhibitions have given
a great European tone and impulse to creative woric Amonc
the elders, Albert von Keller (b. 1841) has perhaps the greatest
originality. He is one of those who practised the ait of the
brush as long ago as the 'seventies, and p**"****^ not for th«
sake of historical subjects or for genre, but for the sole love of
bis art. He pamted everything, never restricted himself to
any fixed programme, and never became tziviaL He is perhaps
in Germany the only painter of female portraits who has canght
in his pictures a little of the charm that betrays ttsdf in the
expression and movements of the modem woman. In the works
of Freiherr von Habermann 0>. 1849) tiiis refinement of senti-
ment, as expressed in colour, b combined with a still moie
dedded shade of ecoentridty. Aheady in his " Child of Sonow,"
which hangs in the National Gallery at Berlin, he struck that
painful chord that always remained his favourite. However
different the subjects he has painted, a morbid noto pervades
them all.
In Hcinrich Zflgd (b. 1850), the Munich school posatsaes an
animal painter who rivals the great Frenchmen In original power.
Ludwig Dill (b. 1848), whom one must still count as " Dachaaer,**
in spite of hb migration to Carisruhe, had for some time past
been famous as a painter of Venice, the Ugoons and Chloggia,
when the impressionist movement became for him the starting-
point of a new development. He stiove foe still brighter ligh^
<SitMANY|
PAINTING
5"
tried to realise the moat sobtlc tiuudM of coloar« aad raised
himseli Ixom a painter of natural impressions to free and poetical
lyricism. Arthur Langhammer (b. 1855), Ludwig Herterich, Leo
Samberger (b. x&si), Hans von Bartels (b. 1856), Wilhelm Keller-
Reutlinger (b. 1854), Beno Becker, Louis Corinth (b. 1858),
Max Slevogt, are otfaen that may be mentioned among the
later Munich artists.
Friu von Uhde (b. 1848) occupies a peculiar position as being
the first to apply the principles of naturalism to reKgious art.
Immediately before him» Eduard von Gebbaidt (b. 18:18) had
gone back to the angular style of the old northern masters,
that of Roger van der Weyden and Albert Dttrer, believing
he oould draw the old Biblical events closer to present times
by relating them in Luther's language and representing them
as taking place in the most powerful epoch of German ecclesi-
astical history. Now that historical paintings had been dis-
possessed by modem and contemporary subjecU, it followed
also that scenes from the life of Christ had to be laid in modern
times. "I do not assert that only the comraonphKie occurrences
of everyday life can be painted. If the historical past be painted,
it should be represented in human garb corxesponding to the
life we see about us, in the surroundings of our own country,
peopled with the people moving before our very eyes, just as
if the drama had only been enacted the previous evening."
Thus wrote Bastien-Lepage in 1879, when creating his " Jeanne
d'Arc," and in this sense did Uhde paint. But besides the
charm of feeling expressed in the subtlest hues, there is also the
charm of the noble line.
At the time when, in England, Rossetti and Bume-Jones,
and, in France, Puvis de Chavannes and Gustave Moreau,
stepped into the foreground, in Germany Feuerbach (1829-1880),
Mar^ (1837-1887), Thoma (b. 1839), and B5cklin (1897-1901)
were discovered. Feuerbach's life was one series of privations
and disappointments. His " Banquet of Phtto," " Song of
Spring," "Iphigcnia" and " Pieti," and his "Medea" and
** Battle of the Amazons, " met with but scant recognition on
their appearance. To some they appeared to Uick sentiment,
to others they were " not sufficiently (merman." When he died
in Venice in x88o, he had become a stranger to his contemporaries.
But posterity accorded him the laurel that his own age had
denied him. Just those points in his pictures to which exception
had been taken during his lifetime, the great solemn restfulness
of his colouring and the calm dignity of his contours, made ham
appear contemporary.
Hans von Maries fulfilled a similar mission fai the sphere of
decorative art ; his, likewise, was a talent that was not discovered
until after his death. He is moat in touch with Puvis de
Chavannes. But fihe result was different. Puvis was recognized
on his first appearance. Maries never had a chance of revealing
his real strength. He was only a8 years of age when he first
went to Rome; theft in 1873, he was commissioned to paint some
pictures for the walls of the Zoological Station at Naples. After
that time, nothing more was heard of him until 1891, when four
years after his death the works he had left behind him were ex-
hibited and presented to the gallery of Schleisshcim. The value
of these works of art must not be sought in their technique. The
art of Puvis rests on a firm realistic foundation, bat Mar6es
had finished his studies of nature too prematurely for the correct-
ness of his drawing. In spite of this defect, they encourage
as wdl as exdte, owing to the principle which underiies them, and
which they share in equal degree with those of Puvis. Like
Puvis, Maries repudiated all illuminating efforts whereby forms
might be brought into relief. He only retained what was
Intrinsically essential, the large lines in nature, as well as those
of the human frame.
Next to these artiste stands Haoa Thoma, like one of the
greact masters of Oarer's time. In Maries and Feuerbach's
works there is the solemn grandeur of the fresco; in those of
Thoma there is nothing of Southern loveliness, but something
of the homeliness of the old German art of woodcut; nay,
something Philistine, rustic, patriarchal--the simplicity of heart
•ad cbfldUke innocence that eatrance us in German folklore,
in the paintings of Mdrits von Schwind (i8o4-«87r) and
Ludwig Richter (1803-1884). He had grown up at Bemao,
a small village of the Blaick Forest. Blossoming fruit-trees
and silver brooks, green meadows and soUtary peasants' cottages,
silent valleys and warm summer evenings, graxing cattle and
the cackle of the farmyard, all lived in Us memory when he
went to Weimar to study the painter's art. This pious faith<«
fulness to the home of his birth and touching affection for the
scenes of his childhood pervade all his art and are its leading
feature. Even when depicting classical subjects, the mytho-
logical marvels of the ocean and centaun, Thoma stiU remains
the siinple-heacted German, who, like Cranach, concetvcs
antiquity as a romantic fairy tale, as the legendary period of
chivalry.
Whether it be correct to place Bdddin {q.v.) in the same
category with these painters, or whether he has a right to a
separate pbce, posterity may decide. The great art of the old
masters has weighed heavily upon the development of that ot
our own age. Even the idealists, who have been mentioned,
trace their pedigree back to the old masters. However modem
in cooceptionr they are to all intents and purposes " old " as
regards the form they employed to express their modem ideas.
Bflcklin has no ancestor in the history of art; no stroke of his
brush reminds us of a leader. No one can think' of tracing him
back to the Academy of OOsseldorf, to LcssHig, or Schemer,
as his first teacher. Even less can he be called an imitator of
the old masters. His works are the result of nature in her
different aspocte; they have not their origin in literary or histori-
cal suggestion. The catalogue of his conceptions, oif landscape
in varying moods, is inexhaustible. But landscape does not
suffice to express his resources. Knights on the quest for
adventure, Saracens storming flaming citadels, Tritons chasing
the daughters of Neptune in the billowy waves; such were the
subjects which appealed to him. He endowed all fanciful
beings that people the atmosphere, that live in the trees, oti lonely
rocks, or that move and have their being in the slimy bottom
of the sea, with body and soul, and placed a second world at
the side of the world of actuality. Yet this universe of phantasy
was too narrow for the master mind. If it be asked who created
on the continent of Europe the most fervid religious paintings
of the 19th century; who alone exhausted the entire scale of
sensations, from the placidity of repose to the sublimity of hero-
ism, from the gayest laughter to tragedy; who possessed the
most solemn and most serious language of form and, at the same
time, the greatest poetry of colour^the name of BMklin will
most probably form the answer.
These masters were for their younger brethren the pioneers
into a new world of art. It was momentous for the painter's
art that in Germany, no Ins than in England and France, a
new movement at this time set In — the so-called " arts and
crafts." Hitherto the various branches of art had followed
different courses. The most beautiful paintings were often
hung in surroundings grievously lacking in taste. Now arose
the ambition to make the room itself a work of art. The picture,
as such, now no more stands in the foreground, but the different
arts strive together to form a single piece of art. The picture
is regarded as merdy a decorative accessory.
Among the jrounger painters still to be mentioned, Max
Klinger (b. 1857) is perhaps the most brilliant. He had begun
with the etching-needle, and by its aid gave us entire novels, crisp
little dramas of everyday life. But this realism was only a
preliminary phase enabling him to pass on to a great independent
art of form. His great picture, " Christ in Olympus," combines
beauty of form with deep philosophical meaning. Ibsen In
1873, in his Emperor and Galilean, talked of a " third realm,"
combining heathen beauty with Christian profundity. Klinger^
" Christ in Ol3rmpus" strikes the beholder as the realisation
of this idea. Stuck (b. 1863) shares with him the Hellenle
serenity of form, the classical simplicity. Apart from this,
his pictures are thoroughly different. It might almost be said
''Klinger is the Naxarcne who stepped into Olympus"; i\m
thoughtful, deep son of the North who carries profound physical
5"
PAINTING
tAUSTRIArHt;^N;ARY
probkms ioto the beauty-loving HeOcBic nortUp of the
senses. Stock's art is, also, almost flawiml in its insensi-
bility and petrified coldness. In bb first picture (1689) " The
Gttsidian oi Paradise " he painted a slim wiry angel, who, like
Donatello's " St George," in calm confidence and self-assurance
points the sword before him. And similar rigid figures standing
erect in steadiness— always portraits of himself— recur again
and again in his works. Even his religious pictures— tbe
"Pieti" and "The Crudfisdon "— are, in reality, antique.
One would seek in vain in them for the piety of the old masters
or the Germanic fervour of Uhde. Grand in style and line,
firm, solemn, serious in arrangement, they are yet hard and cold
In conception.
Ludwig von Hoffmann (b. x86i) Stands next to him, a gentle,
dreamy German. In Stuck's work everything is strong and
nigged: here all is soft and round. There the massiveness
of sculpture and stiff heraldic lines: here all dissolved into
variegated fairy tales, glowing harmonies. However classical
he may appear, yet it is only the old yearning of the Germani
for Hesperia— the song of Mignon — ^that rings throu^out
his works; the longing to emerge from Ibe mist and the fog
into tbe Ught, from the humdrum of everyday life into the
remote fabulous world of fairydom, the longing to escape from
sin and attain perfect innocence.
There are numerous others deserving of mention bendes those
already discussed. Josef Sattler (d. 1867), Melchior Lechter
(b. 187 1), and Otto Greiner (b. 1869), and likewise those who,
such as Von Berlepsch (b. 1853) and Otto Eckmann (b. 1865),
devoted their energies again to *' applied art."
See R. Mutbcr, The History of Modem Painting (London. 1895);
Deutsches KunstUr-Lexikon der Cegewwart in biographiuken Skitstn
(Leipsig, 1898); Mrs de la Maxcli^, La Peinlwt oUemande au
XlX^iide (Paris, 1900). (R. Ma.)
AUSTRU-HUNCASY
In Austria tbe influence of Makart (1840-2884) was predomi-
nant in the school of painting during the last quarter of the X9th
century. He personified the classical expression of an epoch,
when a bng period of colour-blindness was followed by an
intoxication of colour. Whilst Pilot/s ambition stopped short
at the presenUtion of correct historical pictures, his pupil, Makart
felt himself a real painter. He docs not interpret either deep
thought or historical events, nor does he group his pictures
together to suit the views of the art student. His work is
essentially that of a colourist. Whatever his subject may be,
whether he depicts " The Plague in Florence," " The Nuptials
of Catcrina Comaro," " The Triumphal Entry of Charies V.,"
" The Bark of Cleopatra," or " The Five Senses," " The Chase of
Diana," or "The Chase of the Amaaons," his pictures are
romances of brilliant dresses and human flesh. A few studies
of the nude and sketches of colour, in which he merely touched
the notes that were to be combined into chords, 'srere the sole
preliminaries he required for his historical paintings. Dnperics,
jewels, and voluptuous female forms, flowers, fruit, fishes and
marble — everything that is full of life and sensuous emotion,
and shines and glitters, he heaps together into gorgeous still-
Ufe. And because by this picturesque sensuousness he restored
to Austrian art a long-lost national peculiarity, his appearance
on the scene was as epoch-making as if some strong power had
shifted tbe centre of gravity of all current views and ideas.
In estimating Makart, however, we must not dwell on his
pictures alone. He did more than merely paint — he lived them.
Almost prematurely he dreamed the bosutiful dream which
in later days came nearer realization, that no art can exist
apart from life — that life itself roust be made an art. His
studio, not without reason, was called his most beautiful work
oTan. Whitbeiaoever his travels led him — to Granada, Algiers,
or Cairo— he made extensive purchases, and refreshed his eye
with the luscious splendour of rich silks and the soft lustrous
hues of velvets. He made collections of carved ivory and
Egyptian mummies. Gobelins, armour and weapons, old chests,
antique sculpture, golden brocades with glittering embroideries,
enccvsted coverlets and tbe predous testtttcs of the East,
columnf , picttttes, trophlet of all ages and all cHmca. Ht
scattered money broadcast in striving to realise bis dream oC
beauty— to pass one night, one hour, in the wodd of Rubeiia»
so bric(ht in ootour, so princely in splendour.
Uniting as he did these artistic qualities in his own person —
not only became he was a painter, but because in no other
besides did the great yearning for aesthetic culture find such
powerful utterance— Makart exercised an influence in Austria
far transcending the actual sphere of the painter's art. An
intense fasdnatkm went forth from the llttk man with the Mack
beard and penetrating glance. At that time Makart dominated
not merely Viennese art, but likewise the whole cultured life of
the capitaL Not only the hlakart hat and the Makart bouquet
made their pilgrimage through the world, be became also the
motive power in all intellectual sphcies. When Charlotte
Wolter acted Cleopatra or Mcssalina on the stage, she not only
wore dresses specially sketched for her by Makart. but she also
spoke in Makart's style, just as Hameriing wrote in it. A
veriuble Makart fever had, indeed, taken possession of Vienna.
No other painter of the 19th century was so popular, the life
of none other was surrounded by sudi princely suraptuoasness.
The scene when, during the festivals of 1879, he headed the
procession of artists past the imperial box, mounted on a white
steed glittering with gold, the Rubens hat with white feathers
on his head, amidst the boisterous acclamations of the populace,
is unique in the modem history of art. It is the greatest homage
that a Philistine century ever offered an artisL
The life of August von Pettenkofcn (1812-1889), who should,
after Makart, be accounted the greatest Austrian painter of
the last quarter of the 19th century, was passed much mere
modestly and serenely. He had grown up oo one of his father**
esutes in Galicia, and had been a cavalry officer before becoming
a painter. His place in Austria is that of Menael in Germany.
With Pettenkofen a new style appeared. The r ep r e s entation
of modem subjects now began to take the place of historical
painting, which had for so long a time been the ruling taste;
not in the sense of the old-fashiiDoed genre picture, but in that
of artistic refined painting. Here, again, the distinctive Austriam
note can be easily recof^iiied. Pettcnkofcn's people are la<y«
and yawn. All is contemplative and peaceful, full of dreamy
sleepy repose.
But neither Pettenkofen nor Makart has found foUowcra.
The great movement which, originating with Manet, took place
in other centres of art, passed Austria by without leaving a
trace. Hans Canon (b. 1829), who in his pictures transported
the characters of the " Grilnderzeit " to Venice of bygone days,
and reproduced them as Venetian nobles and ladies of quality,
is also a painter of note. So likewise is Rudolf Alt (b. iflis),
still active with the brush in 1901, a refined painter in water*
colours, who reproduces the beauties of Old Vienna in his subtle
architectural sketches. Leopold Karl MOller (1854-1899),
who had lived in Cairo with Makart, found his sphere of art in
the vari^ated worid of the Nile, and his ethnographical exact-
ness, combined with his delicate colouring, made him for a hms
while much in request as a painter of Oriental scenes, and n
popular illustrator of Egyptological works. EraH Schindler
was a great landscape painter, who often rose from faithful
interpreution of nature to an almost hcrak height. Heinrkh
von Angeli (b. 1840), again, furnished— as he continued to do —
the European courts with his lepresentative pictures, combinins
refined conception with smooth elegant technique. These
are the only artists who during the 'eighties rose above local
mediocrity. After Makart died in 1884, the sun of Austnan
art seemed to have set. StagnatioB reigned supreme.
Only since the " Secession " from the old Society of Artists
(KUnsOergenosstnsekaft), which took place in 1896, has the
former artistic Ufe recommenced in Vienna. Theodor voa
Hermann, long domiciled in Paris, was the gifted initiator of the
new movement, and succeeded in rousing a storm of discontent
among the rising school of Viennese artists. They found n
literary champion In their hero's father, who pleaded in eloquent
language for a new Austrian culture. In Novcaibcr i8g8 Om
AOSnitA-HUNCARY)
PAINTING
5*3
SecessioBtots opened their flnt exhibition In a building erected
by Josef OlbrUck on the WieneneiL At first the importance
of these exhibitions by almost exclusively m the fact that the
Viennese were thua given an opportunity of making acquamtance
with the famous foreign masters, Puvis de Chavannes, Segantim,
Besnard, Brangwyn, Meum'er, Khnopff, Henri Martha Vischer,
who had until then been practically unknown in Austria, so
that the public only then realized the inferiority of their country-
men's artistic work. - Thus while acquainting the Viennese public
with the strivings of European art, the Secession endeavoured
at the same time to produce, in rivalry with foreigners,
works of equal artistic merit. Leading foreign masters now
joined the movement, and Vienna, which had so long stood
aside, through inability to be represented worthily at interna-
tional exhibitions, became once more a factor in contemporary
European ait.
Among the painters of the Secession, Gustav KHnt possesses,
perhaps, the most powerful origmal talent. Refined portraits,
subtle landscapes and decorative pictures, pamted for the
Tumba Palace and for the Vienna Hof Museum, first brought
his name before the world. But he became famous in conse-
quence of the controversy which arose around his picture
" Philosophy.'' He had been commissioned to paint the large
ceOIng piece for the "aula" of the Vienna University, and
instead of selecting a classical subject he essayed an independent
work. The heavens open; golden and silvery stars twinkle;
sparks of light gleam; masses of green cloud and vapour form
clusters; naked human forms float about; a fiery head, crowned
with faiurd, gsixes on the scene with large, serious eyes. Science
climbs down to the sources of Truth: yet Truth always remains
the inscrutable Sphinx. Klint paid the penalty of his bold
originality by his work remaining dark and incomprehensible to
most people. It has, notwithstanding, an historical importance
for Austria corresponding to that which similar works of Besnard
have for Firance. It embodies the first attempt to place monu-
mental painting upon a purely oolouristic basts, and to portray
allegoriod subjects as pure visions of coh>ur. After Klint,
Josef Engelhart (b. 1864) is deserving of notice. He is the true
painter of Viennese He. On hb first appearance his art was
centred in his native place, and was strong in local colour, which
was hidung in refinement. To acquire subtlety, be studied
the great ford^ masters and became .a clever juggler with the
brush, showing as much dexterity as any of them. Yet this
virtuosity meant, in his case, <mly a good schooling, which
should enable him to return with improved means to those
subjecu best suited to his talent. His works are artistic, but
at the same time distmctly local.
Cferi MoQ (b. x86x) understands how to render with equal
skin the play of light in a room and that of the sunbeams upon
the fresh green grass. The rural pictures of Rist produce a
frnh, cool and sunny effect upon the eye; Kke a refreshing
dnu^t from a cool mountain spring->a piece of Norway on
Austrian soil. Zettd's landscapes are almost too markedly
Swiss in coknir and conception. Julius von KoDmann worked
a long time in Paris and London, and acquired, in intercourse
with the great foreign painters— noubly Carri^re and Watts—
an exquisitely refined taste, an almost hyperaesthetical sense
for discr«et]y toned-down colour and for the music of the line.
In Friedrich KOnig, M. von Schwind's romantic vein is revived.
Even the simplest scenes from nature appear under his hand
as enchanted groves whispering secrets. Everything is true
and, at the same time, dreamy and mysterious. The m3rthical
beings of old German legends— dragons and enchanted princesses
^peer through the forest thicket. Ernst Nowak (b. 1851)*
compared with him, is a sturdy painter, who knows his business
weU. He sings no delicate lyric. When one stands dose by,
his pictures appear like masonry— like reliefs. Seen from a
disunce, the bk>tches of colour unite into large powerful forms.
Bematsik undentands how to faiterpret with great subtlety
twilight moods— moonshine struggling with the h'gfat of street
lamps, or with the dawn. TIcky followed Henri Martin in
painting solemn forert pictoxes. Ferdinand Andr6 leans towards
the austere power of MiDet. He tdb us in his work of labour
m the fields, of bronxcd faces and hands callous with tofl; and
especially must his charcoal drawings be mentioned, in which
the colour overlays the forms like h'ght vapour, and which,
small as they are, have a sculptural effect. Auchenteliei^-
known for his female studies— and Hinisch and Ouo Friedrich
(b. 1862). refined and subtle as landscape painters, must also
be mentioned.
In rivalry with the Secession, the ** KQnstlergenossenschaft "
has taken a fresh upward ffigfat. Among figure painters,
Delug, Goltz (b. x8s7), HirschI and Vdth are conspicuous, but
still greater fascination is exercised by landscape painters such
as Amesadan, Chariemont, ftc., whose works show Austrian art
m its most amiable aspect. Apart from Austrians proper, there
are also representatives of the other nationalities which compose
" the monarchy of many tongues." Bohemia takes the lead
with a celebrity of European reputation — Gabriel Max (b. 1840),
who, although of Piloty's school and residing in Munich, never
repudiated his Bohemian origin. The days of his youth were
passed in Ptague; and Prague, the medieval, with its narrow
winding alleys, is the most mysterious of aU Austrian dties,
enveloped in the breath of old memories and bygone legends.
From this soil Max drew the mysterious fragrance that char-
acterizes Ms pictures. His earliest work, the ** Female Martyr
on the Cross " (1867), struck that sweetly painful, half-torment-
ing, half-enchanting keynote that has since remained 'distinc-
tively his. Conunonplace historical painting recdved at Max's
hands an entirety new nuance. The morbidness of the mortuary
and the lunatic asylum, interspersed with spectres^-something
perverse, unnatural and heartrending — this is the true note
of his art. His martyrs are never men— only ddicate girls and
helpless women. His colouring corresponds to his subjects. The
sensations his pictures produce are akin to those whidi the sight
of a beautiful girl lying in a mortuary, or the prison scene in
Foust enacted in real life, might be expected to exdte. He
even applies the results of hypnotism and spiritualism to
Biblical characters. In many of his pictures refinement in
the selection of effects is missing. By over-production Max
has himself vulgarised his art. Yet, despite his manner of
depicting the mysteries of the realms of shadows, and the
intrusion of the spirlt-worid into realism, he remains a
modern master. A new pRndnoe— the spectral— was opened
up by him to ut.
Hans Schwaiger is the real raconteur of Bohemian legends.
He, likewise, passed his youth In a small Bohemian viDage,
over which old memories stUl brooded. In Hradec, places
upon which the gallows had stood were stUl pointed out. The
londy corridors and passages of the ruuied- castle were bamted
by the shades of its old possessors. This is the mood that led
Schwaiger to legend-painting. But underlying his fairy tales
there are the gallows or the alchemy of Faust. The landscape
with iu gloomy skies, the wooden huts, turrets, dwarfed trees-
such are ever the accompaniments of his figures.
Of the younger generation of painters, Emil Oilick (b. 1870)
seems to be the most versatfle. Having acquired tedmlque
in Paris and Munich, he practically discovered Old Prague to
the worid of art. The dark little alleys of the andent town,
swarming with life compressed within thefr narrow compass,
fascinated him. In order to retain and convey all the impressions
that crowded in upon him in such superabundant plenitude,
he learned how to use the knife of the wood-carver, the needle
of the etcher, and the pencil of the lithographer. His studio more
resembles the workshop of a printer than the ateBer of a painter.
In the field of lithography he has attained remarkable results.
Orfick has also made his own everything that can bo feamed
from the Japanese. Besides these masters, Albert Hynals, the
creator of decorative pictures almost Parisian in conception,
must be mentioiied. The landscape painten WIckener, Jansa,
SUvicek, and Hudecek reUte, in gentle melancholy tones of colour,
the atmosphere and solitude of the wide plains of Bohemia.
In Poland, painting has its home at Cracow. Down to the
year 1893 Johann Matcjko was living there, in the capadty
5^4
PAINTING
PTALY
of director of the Academy. His pictoieft we remarkable for
their ongiaality and ahnost brutai force» and differ veiy vjdely
from the conventional productions of historical painters. At
the dose of the X9th century Axentowicz, Olga Hojnan^ai
Mehoffer, Stanislawski and Wyotkowski attracted attention.
Although apparently Uying much less stress on their Polish
nationality than their Russian countrymen, their works proclaim
the soul of the Polish nation, with its chivalrous gallantxy and
mute resided grief, in a much purer form.
Hungary in the spring of igoo lost him whom it revered at
the greatest of its painters^-Michael Munkacsy. I^ong before
his death his brush had become idle. To the younger generation,
which seeks different aims, his name has become almost synony-
mous with a wrongly-conceived old-masterly coloration, and with
sensation painting and bollowness. "The Last Day of the
Condemned Prisoner," his first youthful picture, contained
the programme of his art. Then came " llie Last Moments
of Mosart," and " MilLoiv^ dicUting ParodtM Li>a»* These
titles summon up before our eyes a period of all that is false
in eclectic art, dominated by Dclaroche and Piloty. Even the
simple subjects of the Gospel were treated by Munkacsy in
Piloty's meretricious style. "Christ before Pilate,'; "Ecce
Homo,'' " The Crudfiadon " — all these are gala representations,
costume get-up, and, to that extent, a pious lie. But when we
condemn the faults of his period, his pemnal merit must not
be forgotten. When he fint came to the fore, ostentation of
feeling was the fashion. Munkacsy is, in this respect, the
genuine ;on of the period. He was sot one of those who are
strong enough to swim against the stream. Instead of raising
others to his levd, he descended to theirs. But he has the merit
of having painted spectacular scenes, such as the period demanded,
with genuine artistic power. Like Rahl, Ribot, Roybet and
Makart, he was a mcUre^nirg, a bom genius with the brush.
Von Uhde and Liebermann were disdplM of his school. And
if these two painters have left that period behind them, and
H independent natural sight has followed upon the imiution
of the old masters, it is Munkacsy who enabled them to take
the leap. (R. Ms.)
Italy
Modem Italy has produced one artist who towers over all
the othersi Giovanni Scgantini (q.v.). Segantini owes as little
to his period of study in Milan as Millet did to his sojourn at
Delaroche's school Both derived from their teachers a complete
mastery of technique, and as soon as they were in possession of
an the aids to art, they discarded them in order to begin
afresh. Each painted what he had painted as a youth. They
dwdt far from the busy worid— Millet in Barbizon, Segantini
at Val d' Albola, 5000 feet above the sca-IeveL They are equally
closely allied in art. Millet, who rejected all the artifice of
embellishment and perceived only beauty in things as they
axe, leamed to see in the human body a heroic grandeur, in the
movements of peasants a majestic rhythm, which none before
him had discovered. Althou^ zqiresenting peasants, his works
resemble sacred pictures, so grand are they in thdr sublime
solemn simplidty. The same is true of Segantini's works. Like
Millet, he found his vocation in observing the life of poor,
humble pec^ile, and the rou^ grandeur of nature, at all seasons
and all hoars. As there is in Millet's, so also is there in Segan>
tini's work a primitive, almost classical, simplidty of execution
corresponding to the simplidty of the subjects treated. His
pictures, with their cold sihrery colouring, remind us of the
waa-painting of old times and of the mosaic style of the middle
ages. They are made up of small scintillating strokes; they
axe stony and look hard like steel. This technique alone, whidi
touches in prindple but not in effect, that of the poifUiUisteSf
permitted of his rendering what he wished to render, the stony
arags of Alpine scenery, the thin scintillating air, the firm sted>
like outlines. Finally, he passed from realistic subjects to
thoughtful. Biblical and symbolical works. His "Annunda*
tion," the *' Divine Youth," and the " Massacre of the Innocenu "
were products of an art that had abandoned the firm ground
of nafwrslhm and aimed at oonqaeiiag supematnal woddi.
This new aim he was unable to rea^. He left the *' Pknocama
of the Eagadiae," intended for the Paiu Exhibitioo, m an
unfinished state bchmd him. He died in his 4and year, bis
head fuU of plans for the future. Modem Italy lost ia
hira its ffnUtt artist, and the histoiy of art one of the lafc
Few words wiU suffice for the other Italian paintesk The
soil that had yielded down to Tiepolo's days such an abundant
harvest was apparently in need of rest during the 19th ocntuiy.
At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 About called Italy " the tomb
of art," and indeed until quite recent times Italian pamling
has had the character of mere pretty saleable goods. Francesco
Viiiea, Tito Conti, and Fedeiigo Andrcotti painted with tireless
activity sleek drapery piaures, with Renaisaance loids and
smiling Renaissance ladies in them. Apart from such subjects^
the comic, genre or anecdote ruled the fashion somfwhat
coarse in cofeur and of a memer tendency than b suitable for
pictures of good taste. It was not until nearly the end of the
19th century that there was an increase m the number of
painters who aim at real aduevemenL At the Paris Exhibttioa
of 1900 only Detti's " Chest " and Signorini's " Cardinal "
pictures reminded one of the comedy subjects fomferiy in vogoe.
The younger masters employ ndUier " drapeiy-^nummeiies **
nor qucy anecdote. They paint the Italian coontiy people
with refined artistic disoenunent, thoi^gh scarcely with th«
naturalism of northern lutions. Apparently the cadm, scxiaiii%
ascetic, austere art initiated by Millet is foreign to the nature ol
this volatile, colour-loving people. Southern fire and delig^
in brilliant hues are espedally dia ra cteristk of the Keapoliians.
A tangle of haldarrhinos, priests and choir boys, peasants
making ob ei sance and kneeling during the passing of the Host*
weddings, horse-races and country festivals, evcrytUog spark-
ling with colour and glowing in Neapolitan sunlight— such are
the contents of Paolo Michetti's, Yincenxo Capri's; and Edoardo
Dalbono's pictures. But Michetti, from being an adherent oC
this glittering art, has found his way to the monumental style.
The Venetians acknowledge and honour as their leader GiaoMno
Favretto, who died very young. He painted drapery pictures,
like most artists of the 'eighties, but they were never lacka-
daisical, never commonplaoe. The Venice of Canaletto and
GoJdoni, the magic dty surrounded by the glamour of bygoae
q>lendonr, rose again tinder Favretto's hands to faiiylilbe
radiance.
The older masters, Signorini, Tito Tommasi, Dall 'oca Branca,
who depict the Pledmontese landscape, the light on the lagoons,
and the colour charm of Venetian streets with so refined a touch,
have numerous followers, whose piaures likewise testify to
the seriousness that again took possession of Italian painteas
after a long period of purely commercial artistic industry.
Side by side with these native Italians two others must be
mentioned, who occupy an important place as interpreters o€
Parisian elegance and French art-history. Giuseppe de Niitis
(bom in Naples; died in Paris 1884) was prindpaJly known bj
his representations of French street life. The figures that
enlivened his pictures were as full of charm as his rendering of
atmospheric effects was refined. Giovanni Boldini, a Ferrarcse
living in Paris, also painted street scenes, full of throbbing life.
But he excelled, Ixsidcs, as a portrait-painter of ladies axul
children. He realized the aim of the Parisian Impressionists^
which was to render life^ and not merely mute repose. He
understood in a masterly fashion how to catch the rapid move-
ment of the head, the fleetest expression, the sparklLig of the
eye, a pretty gesture. From his pictures posterity wiU team
as much about the sensuous life of the Z9th century as Greuze
has told us about that of the 18th.
Among those who have been the leaders of modem Italian
art, not already mentioned, are Domenico Morelli, Giovanni
Costa, landscape painter; Sartorio, an Italian Pre-Raphaelite;
Pasini, painter of the East; Muzdoli, a follower of Alma*
Tadema; Barabino, historical painter; and roost striking and
original of all, Monticelli, whose ^ew of colours was often
SPAIMt KUemCALs-OENHAUq
PAINTING
S'5
obtained not only ^ paktt««k]iife iniatioCt but by aqoeeang
the ODkyOr rtniffat fioa the tubes oo to the caavw.
See Aahtoo R. Wilkfd, Bi$tary tj liodsm Jtalmm AH (London.
1898). (R. Mx.)
SbaIM and POXXTJGAI
Modem Sptnish painting began vdth Mariano Fortuny {q.v.y,
whoi dying aa long ago as XB74, neyertheleaB left his mark even
on the foUo^ring generation of artists. Diuing his residence
in Fhiia in 1866 he had been strongly influenced by Meiasonier,
and subsequently selected similar subjectA-^eenea in x8th*
centniy costume. In Fortuny, however, the FVencb painter's
elaborate finish is associated nith something more intense
knd vivid, indicntive of the southern Latin temperament. He
collected in his studio in Rome the most artistic ezamplea of
medieval industry. The objects among which he lived he also
painted with incUve spirit as n setting for elegant figurea from
the lenrki of Watteau and of Goya, v^ich are thrown Into his
pictuRa with amazhig dash and sparkle; aad this love of *t««»iing
talridoscopic variety has animated h&i suooesaois. Academic
teaching txica to enoourage historical painting. Hence, since
the 'seventies, the chief .paintings pioduosd in Spain have been
huge historical works, which have made the round of SuiopeaQ
exhibitions' and then been collected in the Gallery of Modem
Art at Madrid. There may be seen " The Mad Queen Juana,"
by Fndill&; " The Conversion of the Duke of GancUa," by
Moreno Carbonero; " The Bell of Huesca," by Casado; " The
Lut Day of Numantia," by Vera; " Jnea de Castro," by Ccbello.
It is possible, of cpuiBe, to discern in the love of the horrible
displayed in these pictures an element of the national character,
for in the land of buU-fights even painting turns to murder
and sudden deaths poison and the rope. However, at least
we must admit the great power revealed, and recognize the
audacious colouring. But in point of fact these works are
only variants on those executed in Fiance from the time of
Delaroche to Jean Paul Lauzcns, and tell their stoiy in the
style that was current in Parisian studios in the 'sixties. What
is called the national gub of §pain is mainly the cast-off fashion
of Paris. Alter all this magniloquent work Fortuny's rococo
became the rage. The same painters who had produced the
great historical picturea were now content to take up a brilliant
and dauling miniituxe style; either, like Fortuny himself, using
small and motley figures in baroque subjects, or adapting the
modem national life of Spain to the rococo style.
Here again we observe the acrobatic dexterity with which
the painters, Pradilla especially, use the brush. But here again
there is nothing essentially new— only a repetition of ^iiat
Fortuny had already done twenty years before. The Spanish
school, therefore, presented a very old-fashioned aspect at the
Plaris Exhibition of 1900. The pictures shown there were
moBtly wild or emotionaU Bedouins fighting, an antique
quadriga flying past, the inhabitants of Pompdi hastily en-
deavouring to escape from the lava torrent, Don Quixote's
Rostnante hanging to the sail of the windmili, and the terrors
of the Day of Judgment were the subjects, Alvarex Dumont,
Benlliure y Gil, Ulpiano Checa, Manuel Ramires Ibafies and
Moreno Ckrbonero were the pabiters. Among thehuge canvases,
a number of small picturea, things of no importance, were
scattered, which showed only a genre-like wit. Spain is a
somewhat barren land in modem art These painting, although
active^ is blind to life and to the treasucs of art wUch lie un**
heeded in the raad. Only one artist, Agrssot, during the
'seventies painted pictures of Spanish few life of gxeat sincerity,
and much later two young painters appeared who energctkally
threw themselves into the modem movemedt. OnewasSorolla
yBastida,by whom there is a huge fishing picture in the
Luxembourg, which in its stem gravity might be the work of
a Northern painter, the other was Ignado Zuloaga, in whom
Goya seems to live again. Old women, girls of the people, and
€ocUUs especially, he haa painted with admirable spirit and with
breadth. Spamj which has taken so little part in the great move*
ment since Manet's time, only repeating in old»fashioned guise
things which aie falsely regarded as national, seema at last to
possess in Zidoaga an artist at once modem and geaoinely
natiooaL
Portugal took an almost lower place in the Paris Exhibition.
For whereas the historical Spanish school has endeavoured
to be modem to some extent, at least in colour, the Portuguese
cling to the blue^plush and red-velvet splendours of Delaroche
in ail their crudity. Weak pictures of mooks and of visions are
produced m numbers, together with genre pictures depicting
the popular life of iVntu^, spiced to the taste of the tourist.
There are the younger men who aim at availing themselves of
the efforts of the open-air painters; but even as followers of the
Parisians they only say now wliat the French were saying long
years ago through Bastien-Lepage, Puvis de Chavannes and
Adrien Dumont. There is always a Frenchman behind the
Portuguese, who guides his brush and sets his model. The only
painter formed in the school is Carlos Rcis, whose vast canvas
" Sunset " hss much in common with the fim huge peasant
pictures painted in Germany by Count-Kalckreuth. One painter
there is, however,. who is quiu independent and wholly Portu-
guese, a worthy successor of the great old masters of his native
land, and this is Columbano, whose portraits of actors have a spark
of the genius which inspired the works of Velazques and Goya.
See A. O. Temple, Modem Spanish Painting (1908). (R. Mk.)
D£MMAUC
Denmark resembles HoUand in this: that in both, nature
presenu little luxury of emphasized colour or accentuated
majesty of form. Broad flats are everywhere to be seen*^
vsgue, ahnost indefinable, in outline. Danish art is as
demure and staid as the Danish landscape. As in Holland,
the painters make no bold experiments, attempt no pretentious
subjects, no rich colouring, nothing sportive or light. Like
the Dutch, the Danes are somewhat sluggishly tranquil, loving
dim twilight and the swirling mist. But Denmark is a leaner
land than Holland, less mobt and more thinly inhabited, so
that its art bcks the comfortable self-satisfied character of
Dutch art. It betrays rather a tremulous longing, a pleasing
meUncholy and delight in dreams, a trembling dieaid ol contact
with coarse and stem reality. It was only for a time, early in
the 'seventies, that a touch of cosmopolitanism affected Danish
art. The phase of grandiose hbtoricai painting and anecdotic
genre was experienced there, as in every other country. In
Karl Bloch (b. 1834), Denmark had a historical painter in some
respects parallel with the Gemian Piloty; in Axel Hdsted
(b. 1847) , a genre painter reminding us of Ludwig Knaua. The
two artists Laurits Tuxen (b. 1853) and Peter Krttyer (b« 1851),
who are roost nearly allied to Manet and 'fiastien-Lepage, have
a sort of elegance that Is almost Parisian. Kriiyer, especially*
has bold inventivenesa and amazing skilL 0|>en-air effecU
and twilight moods, the glare of sunshine and artificial light,
he has painted with eqmd mastery. In portraiture, too, he
stands alone. The two large pictures in whkh he recorded a
" Meeting of the Committee of the Copenhagen Exhibition,
1887," and a '^ Meeting of the Copenhagen Academy of Sciences,"
are modem works which in power of expression may almost
compare with those of Frans Hals. Such versatility uid facile
elegance are to be found in no other Danish pamter. At the
period of historic painting it was significant that next to Bloch,
tbeoosmopoUtan, came Kristian 21ahrtmann (b. 1843), who
painted scenes from the life of Eleonora Christina, a Danish
heroine (daughter of Christian IV.), with the utmost simplicity,
and without any emotional or theatrical pathos. This touching
feeling for home and country is the keynote of Danish art. The
Dane has now no sentiment but that of home-, his country, once
so powerful, has become but a small one, and has lost its political
importance. Hence be clings to the little that is left to him
with melandioly tenderness. Viggo Johansen (b. 1851), with
his gentle drearmncss, is the best representative of modem
Danish home-life. He shows us dark sittmg-rooms, where a
quiet party has met around the tea-table. *' An Evening at
Home," " The Christmas Tree." " Grandmother's Birthday."
are typical subjects, and all have the same fresh and fragrant
Si6
PAINTING
IISWEDBNs IKMLWAY
chann. Bb ii abo one of the best Danish landscape painters;
The silvery atmosphere and sad, mysterious stillness of the
islaAd-realm xest on Johansen's pictnxes. Not less satisfactory
In their little world are the rest: HolsOe (b. x866), LaUrits Ring
(b. x8s4)t Haalund» Syberg (b. x86a), Irminger (b. xSso)* and
listed paint the pleasant life of Qyrnhsgm. In Skagen, a
fishing town at the extreme end of Jutland, we find painters
of aea life: Michael Ancher (b. i849)> Anna Ancher (b. 1859),
and C Locher (b. 1851). The Undscape painters Viggo Pedersoa
(b. X854), Fhilipaen (b. X840), Julius Paulsen (b. i860), Johan
Rohde (b. X856) have made their home in the villages round
Copenhagen. Each has his own individuality and sees xiatsre
with his own eyes, and yet in all we find the same sober tone,
the same gentle, tearful melancholy. The new Idealism has,
however, been discernible in Denmark. Joakim Skovgaard
(b. X856), with his " Christ among the Dead " and '* Pool of
Bethesda," is trying to endow Denmark with a momunental
type of art. Harald Slott-MOUcr (b. 1864) and J. F. Wiliuxnsen
(b. X863) affect a highly symbolical style. But even more than
these painters, who aim at reproducing andent folk-taka
through the meditmi of modem mysticism, two others claim
our attention, by the infusion into the old tradirion of a Yexy
modem view of beauty approaching that of Whistler and of
Carridre: one is Ejnar Nielsoi, whose portraits have a peculiar,
refined strain of gentle Danish melancholy; the other, V. Ham-
mershdj, who has an eniuisite sense of tone, and paints the
magical effect of light in half-darkened rooms. Among the
more noteworthy portrait painters, Aug. Jemdorff and Otto
Bache should be included; and among the more decorative
artists, L. FrOlicb; while Hans Tegner may be considered the
greatest illustrator of his day. (R. Ma.)
SWEDZW
There is as great a difference between Danish and Swedish
an as between Copenhagen and Stockhblm. Copenhagen
is a homely provincial town and life is confined to home drdcs.
In Stockholm we find the whirl of life and all the elegance of
a capital It has been styled the Paris of the North, and iu art
abo wears thb cosmopolitan aspect. DOsseldorf , where in the
'sixties most painters studied their art, appeared to latter-day
artisu too provindaL Monich and, to a still greater extent,
Paris became their ** Alma Mater," Salitason (x843*z894) and
Hagborg (b. X852), who were first initiated into naturalism in
Paris, adopted this dty for a domicile. They paint the fishermen
of Brittany and the peasants of Picardy; and even when appar-
ently inUrpreting Sweden, they only dothe thdr Parisian modeb
in a Swedish gaib. Those who returned to Stockholm turned
their Parisian art into a Swedish art, bat they have remained
cosmopolitan until this day. Whilst there b something prosy
and homely about Danish art, that of Sweden displays nervous
elegance and cosmopolitan polish. Stmplidty b In her eyes
humdrum; she prefers light and brilliant notes. There, a natural-
ness and simplidty allows us to forget the difficulties of the
brush: here, we chiefly reodve the fanpression of a deverly
solved problem. There, the greatest moderation in colour, a
soft all-pervading grey: here, a cunning pUy with delicate
tones and gradations— a striving to render the most dlflicult
effects of light with obedient hand. Thb tendency b particnlariy
marked in the case of the landscape painters: Per £kstr6m
(b. 1S44), Nieb Kreuger (b. 1858), Kari Nordstr6in <b. 1865),
Prince Eugen of Sweden (b. x8s5), Axd Sj6befg WaUandcr
(b. 1863), and Wahlbers (b. 1864). Nature in Sweden has not
the idyllic softness, the veiled degiac character, it dispbys m
Denmark. It b more coquettish, soothen and French, and the
paintcis rc^rd it abo with French eyes.
As a painter of axiinab, Bruno Liljefocs Cb. x86o) created a
•ensaUon 1^ hb surprising pictures. Whatever bb subjects
•^qnaib, capercailxies, dog^ hares, magpies or thrashes— he
has caught the fleetest motions and the most transitory effects
of light with the deveraess of a Japanese. With thb exception,
the Swedish paxntcts candot be fla^^ififd according to *' subjects."
They are " virtuosi,*' calling every technical aspect of art thdr
ewn«-as wdl in fresco as in portrait painting Oscar B!j6rek
<b. x86o). Eraat Jcitphaim (b. i8sx)» Georg Paoli (b. sSss)*
Richard Bergh (b. x8s8),HannaHirsrh now Paoli (b. 1864) aft
the best-known names. Cari Larsson's (b. i9ss) deeontivc
pa$uieaax fasdnate by their easy Ughtness and coquettish grace
of execution. Ander Zom (b. x86o), with hb *<p»*i?"g virtaosityp
b as typical of Swedish as the prosaic amplidty of Johaaaea
b of Danish art. Hb marine pictures, with thdr imdabdag
waves and naked forms bathed in U^t, belong to the mattt
surprising exampbs of the ckvemesa with wfaidi modcn ait
can stereotype quivering motions; and the same hoidnria m
hMwHiing Ills subjects, which triumj^ over diffindties, mahci bb
" interiors," hb portraiu and etchings^ objecu of adndntkn
to every painter's ^e. In hb " Dance before the Window "
all bvivadty and motion. Hb portait of a" Peasant WonaA*
is a powerful harmony of qiarkling yellow-red tones of coboc
Besides these older masters, who deave t» the most **•— ""g
light effects, there are the younger artists of the adiool ol Cad
Larsson, who aspire more to decorative effects on ngraaderaak.
Xiustav Fjibtad (b. x866) exhibited a pictun ia the Pads
F.ihihitton of xgoo that stood out like mosaic amoog sU sar*
roondings. And great similarity in method baa Hefmaaa
Normann, who^ as a bndscape painter, abo iaitaies the daadc
style. OLHil)
Noai^AY
We eater a new world when in pictore-gallericswcpasB totbt
Norwegian from the Swedish section. From the great dty we
are transported to nature, soleiftn and soUtaiy, into a land of
snence, where a rude, sparse popubtion, a race of fbhefmea,
snatches a scanty sustcnaitoe from the sea. The Nonvcgiaiia
abo contributed for a time to the international muket in works
of art. They seat mahaly genre pictoxes ttUing of the nMaacia
and customs of their cooatxy, or landscapes depictfag the
phenomena of Northern scenery. Adolf Tidcmaad (X8X4-X876)
introduced hb oountxymen— the peasantt and fbhenaen of tbe
Northern coast— to the Earopean pobUc. We are i atr od a ccd
to Norwegian Christmas customs, acoompaay the Nonemaa
on hb nocturnal fishing expeditions, join the " Brudefaerd **
across the Hardanger fjord, sit as disciples at the feet of tbt
Norwegian sacrbtan. Ferdinand F)^(erlin (b. tSss) and Haiia
Dahl are two other painters who, educated at DOseddorf aad
settled in Germany, introduced the style of Kaaus and Vanticr
to Norwegian art drdes. Knud Badde ( 1808^x879), Haas Gada
(b. 1835), Nieb BJ6msen Mailer, Mottcn-MQUer (b. t8s8).
Ludvig Munthe (X843-X896), and Adebtco Noimann (b. XS48)
are known as excdlent landscape painters, whs have faitltfolly
portrayed the majestic mountain scenery and black pine fonau
of thdr native land, the diib that endosethe fjoitb, and tba
sparkling snowfields of the land of the midnight sun. Bat the
time when actuality had to be well seasoned, aad every picture
was bound to have a spice of genre or the attraction of som^hias
out of the common to make it palatable, b past and gone. As
terly' as the 'sixties BJdmson was president of a Norwegian
society which made it its chief business to wsge war against tbc
shallow conventionalities of the DOssddorf schooL Ibeea waa
vice-president. In the works of the more modem artisu tbera
b not a single trace of Dflssddorf inihience. Especially ia
the 'eighties, when naturshsm was at its senith, we find tlia
Norwegians its boldest devotees. They portrayed life as they
found it, without embdlishment; they did not trouble about
plastic degance, but painted the land of thdr home and iu peopla
in a direct, rough*>hewn style. Like the people we meet in the
North, gianu with stalwart iron frames, callous hands, and sun-
bunt faces, with their sou'«wcstera and bhie blouses, wbo
resemble sons of a bygone heroic age, have the painters them-
sdves— notably Nieb Gustav Wentxd (b. X859), Svcad J^egea-
sen (b. x86x), Kofatoe (b. x86a), Cbrbtbn Krohg— somcthxas
primitive in the directness, in, one might almost say, the bar-
barous brutality with which they approach their subjects. They
preferred the most glaring effects of pUin-oir; they rtvcUed sa
all the hues of the rainbow.
But these very uncouth fdlows, who treated the figurca ia
theb pictures with sudi roagh directness, painted even in tboag
ROGSU: BALKAN STATER
PAINTING
517
days kndactpes with gmt nfinement; not tlie midnigbt sun
and the precipitous cliffs of the fjords, by which forelgnen were
sought to be impressed, but austere, simple nature, as it lies in
deathlike and spectral repose— lonely meres, whose sudace is
unruffled by the keel of any boat, where no human being is
visible, where no sound is audible; the hour of twilight, when the
gun has disappeared behind the mountains, and all is chill and
drear; the winter, when an icy blast sweeps over the crisp snow-
fields; the spring, almost like winter, with its bare branches
and its thin yoong shoots. Such were their themes^ and
painters like Amaldus Nilsen (b. 1838), Eilif Petersen (b. 1853),
Christian Skredsvig (b. 1854), Friu Thaulow (b. 1848), and
Gerhard Munthe (b. 1849) arrested public attention 1^ their
exhibition of pictures of this character.
Latterly these painters have become mors ctviliaed, and
have emancipated themselves from their early uncouthness.
J6rgensen, Krohg, Kolstoe, Soot, Gustav Wentzel, no tooger
paint those herculean sailors and fishermen, those pictures of
giants that formerly gave to Norwegian exhibitions their peculiar
character. Elegance has taken possession of the Norwegiaa
palette. This transformation begsn with FriU Thaufew, and
indeed his art threatened to relapse somewhat into routine, and
even the ripples of his waters to sparkle somewhat coquettithly.
Borgen (b. 1853), Henn^ <b. 1871), HjerlAw (b. 1863), and
Stenexaen (b. 1862) were gif teid recruits of the ranks of Norwegian
painters, whilst Halfdan Strom (b. 1863), who depicts rays of
light issuing from silent windows and streaming and quivering
over solitary landscapes, dark blue streams and ponds, nocturnal
skies, variegated female dresses, contrasting as spots of coloaj
with dark green meadows, hss a delicacy in cok>uring . that
recalls Cazin. Gerhard Munthe, who, as we have seen, first
made a name by his delicate vernal scenery, has turned his
attention to the classical side of art; and, finally Erik Werensk-
jold (b. 1855), who was also first known by his landscapes and
scenes of countiy life, afterwards gained success as an iilustntor
of Norw^ian lolk-lore. ' (R. Mx.)
RlTSSIA'
Until late in the igth century modem Russian painting was
nnknown to western Europe. What had been seen of it in
international exhibitions sliowed the traditions of primitive
European art, with m distinct vein of barbarism. In the early
'fifties, paintosi were less bent on art than on political agiution;
they DMd the brush as a means of propaganda in favour of
some political idea. Feroff showed us the miserable condition
of* the serfs, the wastefulness and profligacy of the nobility.
Vcieschagin made himself the advocate of the soldier, painting
the horrocs of war long before the tsar's manifesto preached
universal disarmament« Art su£fered from this pr^seworthy
misapplication; many pictures were pamted, but very few rose
to the level of modem achievement in point of technique.
It was only by the St Petersburg art journal llir Jskustwa,
and by a small exhibition arranged at Munich in 189s by a group
of Russian landscape painters, that it was realised that a younger
Russian school bad arisen, fully equipped with the methods of
modem technique, and depicting Russian life with the stamp of
individuality. At the Paris Exhibition of 1900 the productions
of this young Russian school were seen with surprise. A
florescence similiar to that which literature displayed in Pushkin,
Dostoievsky and Tobtoy seemed to be beginning for Rnssian
painting. Some of these young painters rushed into art with
unbridled test, painting with primitive force and boldness.
They produced historical pictures, almost barbaric but of
striking force; representations of the life of the people full of
deep and hopeless gloom; the poor driven by the police and
huddled together in dull indifference; the popes tramping across
the bnely steppes, prayer-book in hand; peasants muttering
prayers before a cnidfix. There is great pathos in "The
Karamasow Brothers," or " The Power of Darkness." At the
same time we feel that a long-inherited tradition pervades all
Russia. We find a characteristic ecclesiastical art, far removed
fnmi the productions of the fin d$ sikie^ in which the rigid
.tradition of the Byzantines of the jrd century still survives.
And, finally, there are landscapes almost Danish in their bloodless,
dreamy tenderness. Among the historical painters Elias Rcpin
is the most impressive. In his piaures, "Ivan the Crael,"
" The Cossacks' Reply to the Sultan," and *' The Miracle of
Saint Nicholas," may be seen— what is so rare in historical
painting~~genuine purpose and style. Terror is rendered with
Shakespearean power; the boldness with which he has recon-
stituted the past, and the power of pictorial psychology which
has enabled him to give new life to his figures, are equally
striking in " Sowing on the Volga " and " The Village Pro-
cession." He was the first to paint subjects of oontemporaiy
life, and the work, while thoroughly Rnssian, has high technicsd
qualiticsr-"the sense of oppression, subjection and gloom is all-
pervading. But he does not " point the moral," as Peroff did;
he paints simply but sympathetically what he sees, and this lends
his pictures somethihg of the resigned meUncholy of Russian
songB. Even maw impressive than Repin is Philippe Maliavine.
He had rendered peasants, stalwart figures of powerful buHd; and,
in a picture called " Laughter," Macbeth-like women, wrapped
in rags of fiery red, an thrown on the canvas with astonishing
power. Among religious painters Victor Vasnezov, the powerivd
decorator of the dome in the church of St Vladimir at Kiev, is
the most distinguished figure. These paintings seem to have
been executed in the veiy spirit of the Russian church; Uazing
with gold, they depend for much of their effect upon barbaric
splendour. But Vaancxov has painted other thiiags: "The
Scythians," fighting with lance and battle-axe; horsemen making
their way across the pathless steppe; and woods and landscapes
pervaded by romantic charm, the home of the wgmXs of Russian
Iq^nd. Next to Vasnexov is Michael Nesterov, a painter also of
monks and saints, but as different from him as Zurbaran from
the mosaic workers of Venice; and Valentin Serov, powerful in
portraiture and fascinating in his landscape. It is to be remarked
that although these artists are austere and unpolished in their
iigure-pakting, they paint landscape with delicate refinement.
Schischkin and Vaasiliev were the first to paint their native
land in all simplicity, and it is in landscape that Russian art at
the present time still shows its most pleasing work. Savrassov
depicts tender spring effects; Kuindshi light birch-copses full of
quivering light; Sudkovski interprets the solemn majesty of the
sea; Albert Benois paints in water-colour delicate Finnish
scenery; Apollinaris Vasneaov has recorded the dismal wastes
of Siberia, its dark plains and endkss primeval forest, with
powerful simplicity.
A special province in Russian art must b^ assigned to the
Poles. It is difficult indeed to share to the full the admirarion
felt in Warsaw for the Polish painters. It is there firmly believed
that Poknd has a school of its own, owing nothing tx^ Russia,
Austria or Germany; an art which embodies all the diivalry and
all the suffering of that land. The accessories are Polish, and
so are the costumes. Jan Chdminski, Wojdiech Gerson^
Constantino Gorski, Apoloniua Kendxrienki, Joseph Rysskievics
and Roman Sxvoinicki are the principal artists. We see in
their pictures a great deal of fighting, a great deal of weeping;
but what there is peculiar to the Poles in the expression or
technique of their works it is hard to discover.
Finland, on the other hand, is thoroughly modem. Belonging
by descent to Sweden rather than to Russia, its painteis' views
of art also resemble those of the " Parisians of the North."
They display no ungovemed power, but rather supple elegance.
The play of light and the caprice of sunshine are rendered with
much subtkty. Albert Edelfeldt is the most versatile artist
of the group; Axd Gallen, at first naturalistic, developed into a
decorative artist of fine style; Eero Jaemefdt charms with his
airy studies and brilliant bndscapes. Magnus Eackell, Pekka
Hak>nen and Viaor Vesterholm sustain the school with work
remarkable for sober and tasteful feeling. (R. Mb.)
Balkan States
TJntn quite recent times the Balkan States had no part at
all in the histoiy of art. But at the Paris Exhibition of X900 it
was noted with surprise that even in south-eastern Europe
5i8
PAINTING
[UNITED STATES
there was « certain ptibaUon of new life. And there were also
signs that painting in the Ballcans, which hitherto had appeared
only as a reflex of Paris and Munich art, would ere long assume
a definite national character. At this Exhibition Bulgaria
seemed to be the most backward of all, its painters still represent-
ing the manners and customs of their country in the style of
the illustrated papers. Market-pkices are seen, where women
with golden chains, half-nude boys and old Jews are moving
about; or cemeteries, with orthodox clergy praying and women
sobbing; military pageants, wine harvests and horse fairs, old
men (wrforming the national dance, and topers jesting with
brown-eyed girls. Such are the subjects that Anton Mittoff,
Raymund Ulrich and Jaroslav Vesin paint. More original is
Mvkuicka. In his most important work he represented the late
princess of Bulgaria sitting on a throne, solemn and stately, in
the background mosaics rich in gild, tall slim lilies at het side.
In his other piaurea he painted Biblical landscapes, battlefields
wrapped in sulphurous smoke, and old Rabbis—all with a certain
uncouth barbaric power. The Bulgarian painters have not as
yet arrived at the aesthetic phase. One of the best among them,
who paints delicate pale green kmdacapes, is Charalampi IlieS;
and Nicholas Michailoff, at Munich, has executed pictures,
representing nymphs, that arrest attention by their delicate tone
and their beautiful colouring.
Quite modem was the effea of the small Croatian-Slavonie
Gallery in the Exhibition. Looking at the pictures there, the
viutor might imagine himself on the banks of the Seine rather
than In the East The French saying, " Pain des WkistUr,
fairs des,Dagnam, fain des Carritre" is eminently applicable to
their work. Vlaho Bukovak, Nicola ^lasic, Csiks and Medovic all
paint very modem pictures, and in excellent taste, only it is
surprising to find upon them Croatian and not Parisian signatures.
Precisely the same judgment must be passed with regard to
Rumania. Moat of the painters live in Paris or Muni^, have
sought their inspiration at the feet of the advanced masten
there, and paint, as pupils of these masters, pictures just as
9Dod in taste, just as cosmopolitan and equally devoid of char-
aaer. Irdne Deschly, a pupil of Carriire, illustrates the songa
of Francois Coppde; Verona Gargouromin is devoted to the pale
symbolism of Dagnan-Bouveret. Nicoks Grant paints bright
landscapes, with apple trees with their pink blossoms, like
Damoye. Nicolas Gropeano appears as the double of Aman-
Jean, with his female heads and [uctures from fairy tales* Olga
Koruca studied under Puvis de Chavannes, and painted Cleo-
patra quite in the tone of her master. A landscape by A. Segall
was the only work that appeared to be really Rumanian,
representing thatched huts.
I Servia is in striking contrast to Rumania. No trace of modem
influence has penetrated to her. There historical painthig,
such as was in vogue in France and Germany a generation ago.
Is the order of the day. Rlsto Voucanovitch paints his scenes
from Servian histoiy in brown; Paul Ivanovitch his in greyish
fUin^if. But in spite of this fati painting, the latter^s works
have no modem effect— as little as the shaiply-drawn small
landscapes of his brother Svatislav Ivanovitch. (R. Ma.)
Unttcd States
The history of painting In the United States practically
began with the 19th century. The earlier years of the nation
were devoted to establishing government, subduing the land
and the aborigines, building a commonweslth out of primeval
nature; and naturally enough the aesthetic things of life received
not too much consideration. In Colonial times the graphic
arts existed, to be sure, but in a feeble way. Fainting was made
up of portraits of prominent people; only an occasional artist
was disposed towards historical pictures; but the total result
added little to the Mun of art or to the tale of history. The first
artist of importance was J. S. Copley (lyjT-x^iS)! with itbom
painting in America really began. Benjamin West (1738-1820)
belongs in the same period, though he spent most of his life in
Enghiad, and finally became President of the Royal Academy.
As a painter he is not to be ranked so high as Copley. In the
aador pan of the xgth century two men, John Trumbull (1756-
2843), a historical painter of importance, and Gilbert Stuart
(x755~iS38)t s pre-eminent portrait painter, were the kadecs;
and after them came John Vanderlyn (1776-2852), Washington
Albton (X779-1843), Rembrandt Peale (r787-286o), J. W.
Jarvis (1780-2834), Thomas Sully (bora in England, 2783-2873)
—men of importance in their day. The style of aD this early
art was modelled upon that of the British school, and indeed
most of the men had studied in England under the mastership
of West, Lawrence and others. The middle or second period
of painting hi the United Sutes began with the landscape work
of Thomas Doughty (i793-'>8s6) and Thomas Cole (2802-2848).
It was not a rcfiined or cultivated work, for the men were in great
measure self-taught, but at least it was original and distmctly
American. In subject and in spirit it was perhaps too panoramic
and pompous; but in the hands of A. B. Durand (2796-2886),
J. F. Kensett (1828-287*) and F. E. Church (2826-1900), It was
modified in scale and improved in technique.
A group of painten called the Hudson River school finally
emerged. To this school some of the strongest laadscape
painters in the United States owe their inspiration, though in
almost every case there has been the modifying influence of
foreign study. Contemporary with Cole came the portrait
painters Chester Harding (2792-2866), C. L. EUiott (s82S-t868),
Henry Inman (2801-2846), William Page (28x2-2885), G. P. A.
Healy (2823-2894), Daniel Huntington and W. S. Mount (2807-
2868), 000 of the earliest genre painters. Foreign art had been
followed to good advantage by most of these painters, and as a
result some excellent portralu were produced. The ezcdience
of the work was not, however, appreciated by the public genenlly
because art knowledge was not at that time a public possession.
Little was required of the porteait painter beyond a reoognixable
likeness. A little later the teachings of the DUssddorf school
began to have an influence upon American art through Leutxe
(2826-2868), who was a German pupil of Lessing, and went to
America to paint historical scenes from the War of Independence.
But the foreign influence of the time to make the most irapreasioa
came from France in 2855 with two American pupib of Couture
— W. M. Hunt (1824-2879) and Thomas Hicks (2823-2890).
Hunt had also been a pupil of Millet at Barbison, and was the
real introducer of the Barbison painters to the Axnerican peoples
After his return lo Boston his teaching and fWiT^r'i^ had much
weight in moulding artistic opinioiL He, more than any other,
turned the rising generation of painters towards the Paris schools.
Contemporary with Hunt and fbUowing him were a number of
painters, some seU-uught and some schooled in Europe, who
brought American art to a high standard of csoeUence. George
Fuller (2822-2884), Eastman Johnson, Elihu Vedder, produced
work of much merit; and John La Farge and Winalow Homer
were unquestionably the foresiost painters in the United States
at the opening of the 20th century. In landscape the three
strongest men have passed away— A. H. Wyant, (kotge Inness,
and Homer Martin. Swain Gifford, Edward Gay, Thomas Moran,
Jervis McEntee, Albert Biexstadt, are other landscape painters
of note who belonged to the middle period and refleoed the
traditions of the Hudson River school to some extent. With
the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in 2876 a widespread
and momentous movement in American art began to shape
itself. The display of pictures at Philadelphia, the national
prosperity, and the sudden devcbpment of the wealth of the
United States had doubtless much to do with iu Many young
men from all parts of the country took up the study of art and
began going abroad for instruction in the scfaoob at Munich,
and, later, at Paris. Before 2880 some of them had returned
to the United States axui founded schoob and societies of art, Uke
the Art Students' League and the Sodety of American Artists.
The movement spread to the Western cities, and in a fiew years
museums and art schools began to appear in all the prominent
towns, and a national interest in ait was awakened. After
Z870 the predominant influenfr, as regards technical training,
was French. Many studenta still go to Paris to complete their
studies, though there is a laige body of aocooiplisbed painters
teaching lA the home 8chools» with satisfactory results as regards
PAISIELLO— PAISLEY
519
the work of tlieir pupSs. From their ^ench trainmg, many of
the Americaa artists have been charged with echoing Parisian
art; and the charge is partly true. They have accepted French
methods because they think them the best, but their subjects
and motives are sufficiently originaL
Under separate biographical headings a number of modem
American artists are noticed. Some of the greatest Americans
however can hardly be said to bebng to any American school.
James McNeill Whistleff though American-bom, is an example
of the modem man without a country. E. A. Abbey, John S.
Sargent, Mark Fisher and J. J. Shannon are American only by
birth. They became resident in London and must be regarded
as cosmopolitan in their methods and themes. This may be
said with equal trath of many painters resident in Paris and else-
where on the Continent. However good as art it may be, there
is nothing distinctively American about the work of W. T.
Dannat, Alexander Harrison, George Hitchcock, Gari Melchers,
C. S. Pearce, £. L. Weeks, J. L. Stewart and Walter Gay. If
they owe allegiance to any centre or dty, it is to Paris rather than
to New York.
During the last quarter of the 19th century much effort and
money were devoted to the establishment of institutions like the
Metropolitan Museum in New York, the Carnegie Museum at
Pittsburg, and the Art Institute in Chicago. Every dty of
importance in the United States now has its gallery of paintings.
Schools of technical training and sodeties of artists likewise
exist wherever there are important galleries. Exhibitions
during the winter season and at great national expositions give
abundant opportunity for rising talent to display itself; and, in
addition, there has been a growing public patronage of painting,
as shown by the extensive mural decorations in the Congressional
Library building at Washington, in the Boston Public Library,
in many colleges and churches, in courts of justice, in the recep-
tion-rooms of large hotels, in theatres and elsewhere.
0. C. van D.)
PAISIELLO (or Paxsieexo), OIOVANNI (1741-18x6), Italian
musical composer, was bom at Tarento on the 9th of May X741.
The beauty of his voice attracted so much attention that in
Z7S4 he was removed from the Jesuit college at Tarento to the
Onuervatorio di S. Onofrio at Naples, wh^e he studied under
Durante, and in process of time rose to the position of assistant
master. For the theatre of the Conservatorio, which he left
in 1763, be wrote some intermezsi, one of which attracted so
much notice that he was invited to write two operas. La PupUla
and H Hondo al RovesciOf for Bologna, and a third, // Marekeso
di Tidipanoj tot Rome. His reputation being now firmly
established, he settled for some yean at Naples, where, notwith-
standing the popularity of Picdni, Cimarosa and Guglielmi,
of whose triumphs he was bitterly jealous, he produced a series
of highly successful operas, one of which, Vldolo eineie, made
a deep impressioD upon the Neapolitan public. In 1 77 2 he began
to write church music, and composed a requiem for Gennara
Borbone. In the same year he nurried Cedlia PalHnI, with
whom he lived in continued happiness. In 1776 PaisieUo was
invited by the empress Cfttlierine 11. to St Petersburg, where he
remained for eight years, producing, among other charming
works, his masterpiece, // Barbiere di Siviglia^ which soon
attained a European reputation. The fate of this delightful
opera marks an epoch in the history of Italian art; for with it
the gentle suavity cultivated by the masters of the 18th century
died out to make room for the dazzling brilliancy-of a later period.
When, in 1816, Rossini set the same libretto to music, under the
title of Almarioa, it was hissed from the suge; but it made its
way, neverthdeas, and under its changed title, // Barbiirif Is now
acknowledged as Rossini's greatest work, while Palsiello's opera is
eonsigned to obltvionr-« strange instance of poetical vengeance,
since PaisieUo himself had many years previously endeavoured
to eclipse the fame of Peigolesi by resetting the libretto of his
famous Intermeszo, La Serva padrona.
PaisieUo quitted Russia in 1784, and, after prododng 11 Ro
Teodaro at Vienna, entered the service of Ferdinand IV. at
Naples, where he composed many of his best operas, indnding
Nina and La Mdinara.'^ Aitet many vicissitudes, resulting from
political and dynastic changes, he was invited to Paris (iSoa) by
Napoleon, whose favour he had won five yean previously by a
march composed for the funeral of General Hoche. Napoleon
treated him munificently, while cruelly neglecting two far greater
composers, Cherabini and Mibul, to whom the new favourite
transferred the hatred he had formerly borne to Cimarosa,
GugUdmi and Picdni PaisieUo conducted the music of the
court in the Tuileries with a stipend of xo^ooo francs and 4800
for lodging, but he entirdy failed to conciliate the Parisian
public, who recdved his opera Proserpine so coldly that, in 1803,'
he requested and with some difficulty obtained permission to
retum to Italy, upon the plea of his wife's iU health. On his
arrival at Naples PaisieUo was reinstated in his former appoint-
ments by Joseph Bonaparte and Murat, but he had taxed his
genius beyond its strength, and was unable to meef^the demands
now made upon it for new ideas. His prospects, too, were
precarious. The power of the Bonaparte fanuly was tottering
to its faU; and PaisieUo's fortunes feU with it. The death of his
wife in 181 5 tried him severdy. His health failed rapidly, and
constitutional jealousy of the popularity of othen was a source
of worry and vexation. He died on the 5th of June x8i6.
PaisieUo's operas (of which he is known to have composed 94)
abound with melodies, the graceful beauty of which is still
warmly appreciated. Perhaps the best known of these ain
is the famous *' Nd cor piii " from La Molinara, immortalised by
Beethoven's deUghtful variations. His church music was very
voluminous, comprising eight masses, besides many smaUer
works; he also . produced fifty-one mstrumcntal compontions
and many detached pieces. MS. scores of many of his operas were
presented to the library of the British Museum by DragonettL
The Ubrary of the Gerolamini at Naples possesses an interesting
MS. compilarion recording Paisidlo's opinions on contemporary
composers, and exhibiting htm as a aomewoat severe critic, especially
of the work of Pcigoled. His Life has been written by F. Schiue
(Milan, 1833).
PAISLEY, CLAUD HAHILTOlf, Loso {c. 1545-1631), Scot-
tish politician, was a younger son of the and earl of Arxan.
In 1553 he recdved the lands of the abbey of Paisley, and in
1568 he aided Mary Queen of Soots to escape from Lochleven
castle, afterwards fighting for her at the battle of Langside.
His estates having been f orf dted on account of these proceedings,
Hamilton was* concemed in the murder of the regent Murray
in 1570, and also in that of the regent Lennox in the following
year; but in 1573 he recovered his esUtes. Then in 1579 the
coundl dedded to arrest Claud and his brother John (afterwards
rst marquess of Hanulton) and to punish them for thdr past
misdeeds; but the brothers escaped to Engkmd, where Elisabeth
used them as pawns in the diplomatic game, and later CUud
lived for a short time in France. Returning to Scotland in
r$86 and mixing again in politics, HamOton sought to reoondle
James VI. with his mother; he was in communication with
Philip II. of Spain hi the interests of Mary and the Roman
Cathialic religion, and ndther the fiailure of Anthony Babington's
plot nor even the ddeat of the Spanish Armada put an end to
these intrigues. In 1589 some of his letters were seized and he
suffered a short imprisonment, after which he practically dis-
appeared from public life. Hamilton, who was created a
Scottish baron as Lord Paisley in 1587, was insane during his
conduding years. His ddest son James was created earl of
Abercora (f.v.) in 1606.
PAULBY, a municipal and police bui^gh of Renfrewshire,
SootUnd, on the White Cart, 3 m. from its function with the
Clyde, 7 m. W. by S. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western
and Caledonian railways. Pop. (x89i>, 66,425; (1901) 79»363-
In X79X the river, which bisects the town, was made navigable
for vessels of 50 tons and further deepened a century Uter. It
is crossed by several bridges— including the Abercom, St James's
and the Abbey Bridges— and two raUway viaducts. The old
town, on the west bank of the stream, contains most of the
prindpal warehouses and mills; the new town, begun towards
the end of the tSCh century, occupies much of the levd ground
S20
PAITA
that once formed tbe domidiis of the abbey. To the munificence
of its citizens the town owes many of iu finest public buildings.
Opposite to the abbey church (see bekm) stands the town hall
(1879-1882), which originated in a bequest by George Aitken
Clark (i833-z873)» and was completed by his relatives, the
thread manufacturen of Anchor Mills. The new county buikl>
ings (1891) possess a handsome council hall, and the castellated
municipal buildings (x8z8*x83i) were the former county
building; the shezifF court house (1885) in St James Street, and
the f tee library and museum (including a picture gallery) at the
head of High Sueet, were ereaed (1869-1873) by Sir Peter
Coats (1808-1890). In Oakshaw Street stands the observatory
(1883), the gift of Thomas Coats (1809-1883). Besides numerous
board schools, the educational establishments tndude the John
Neilson Endowed Institute (1853) on Oakshaw Hill, the grammar
school (founded, 1576; rebuilt, Z864), and the academy for
secondary education, and the technical college, in George Street.
Among charitable institutions are the Royal AJezandra Infirmary,
the Victoria Eye Infirmary (presented by Provost Mackenzie
in 1899), the burgh asylum at Riccartsbar, the Abbey Poorhouse
(including hospital and lunatic wards), Uie fever hospital arui
reception house, the Infectious Diseases Hospital and the
Gleniffer Home for Incurables. The Thomas Coats Memorial
Church, belonging to the Baptist body, erected by the Coats
family from designs by H. J. Blanc, R.S.A., is one of the finest
modern ecclesiastical structures in Scotland. It is an Early
English and Decorated crudform building of red sandstone,
with a tower surmounted by a beautiful open-work crown.
Of parks* and open spaces thete are in the south, Brodie Park
(23 acres), presented in 1871 by Robert Brodie; towards the
north Fountain Gardens (7} acres), the gift of Thomas Coats
and named from the handsome iron fountain standing in the
centre; in the north-west, St James Park (40 acres), with a race-
course (racing dates from 1620, when the earl of Abercom and
the Town Council gave silver beUs for.the prize); Dunn Square
and the old quarry grounds converted and adorned; and Moss
Plantation beyond the north-western boundary. There are
the cemeteries at Hawkhead and at the west side of the town.
Under the Reform Aa of 183a the burgh returns one member to
Parliament. The town is governed by a council, with provost
and bailies, and owns the gas and water supplies and the electric
lighting. In the abbey precincts are statues to the poet Robert
Tannahill (1774-18x0) and Alexander Wilson (x 766-1813), the
American ornithologist, both of whom were bom in Paisley, and,
elsewhere, to Robert Bums, George Aitkin Ckrki Thomas Coats
and Sir Peter Coats.
' Paisley has been an important manufacturing centre since
the beginning of the x8th century, but the earlier linen, lawn and
silk-gauze industries have become extinct, and even the famous
Paisley shawls (imitation cashmere), the sale of which at one
time exceeded £x, 000,000 yearly in value, have ceased to be
woven. The manufacture of linen thread, introduced about
1730 by Christian Shaw, daughter of the bird of Bargarran, gave
way an x8x3 to that of cotton thread, which has since grown
to be the leading industry of the town. The FergusUe mills
(J. & P. Coats) and Anchor mills (Clark & Company) are now
the dominant factors in the combination that controls the
greater part of the thread trade of the world and together empk>y
xo,ooo hands. ' Other thrivbg industries include bleaching,
dydng, calico-printing, weaving (carpets, shawls, tartans),
engineering, taxming, iron and brass founding, brewing, dis-
tilling, and the making of starch, cornfloor, soap, marmalade
and other preserves, besides some shipbuilding in the yards on
the left bank of the White Cart.
The abbey was founded in 1x63 ^ * Cloniac monastery by
Walter Fiualan, first Hi^ Steward of Scotland, the ancestor
of the Scottish royal family of Stuart, and dedicated to the
Virgin, St James, St Milburga of Much Wenkx:k in Shropshire
(whence came the first monks) and St Mirinus (St Mirren), the
patron-saint of Paisley, who is supposed to have been a con-
temporary of St Columba. The monastery became an abbey
b I3I9, was dcatioytd by the English uixler Aymcr de Valence,
earl of Pembroke, In 1367^ and leboilt in the laifcr half ~ol tho
X4th century, the Stuarts endowing it lavishly. At the
Reformation (1561) the fabric was greatly iujuied by the 5th
earl of Glencaim and the Protestants, who dismantled the
altar, stripped the church of images and reUcs, and are even
alleged to have burnt it. About the same date the eentral
spire, 300 ft. high, built during the abbacy of John w«*^a**»««
(x5rx-x57x), afterwards archbishop of St Andrews, collapsed,
demolishing the choir and north transept. In 1553 Lord Clauid
Hamilton, then a boy of ten, was made abbot, and the abbacy
and monastery were erected into a temporal lordship in his
favour in 1587. The abbey lands, after passing from his son
the eari of Abercom to the eail of Angus and then to Lord
Dundonald, were purchased in 1764 by the 8th earl of Abevconi,
who intended making the abb^r his residence, but let the
ground for building purposes. The abbey church origmally
consisted of a nave, choir without aisles, and tianscpts. The
nave, in the Transitional and Decorated styles, with a rich mid-
Pointed triforium of broad round arches, has been natotcd, and
used as the parish church since x863. The graceful west front
has a deeply recessed Early Pointed doorway, surmounted b^^
traceried windows and, above these, by a handsome Decorated
stained-glass window of fire lights. Of the duur only the
foundations remain to indicate its extent; at the east end stood
the high altar before which Robert IU. was interred in 1406.
Over his grave a monument to the memory of the Rc^al House
of Stuart was placed here by Queen Victoria (x888). The
restored north transept has a window of remaikable beauty.
The south transept contains St Mirren's chapd (founded in
M99)> which is also called the "Sounding Aisle" from its
echo. The chapel contains the tombe of abbot John Hamilton
and of the children of the xst lord Paisley, and the recumbent
effigy of Marjory, daughter of Robert Bruce, who married
Walter, the Steward, and was killed while hunting at Knock
Hill between Renfrew and Paisley (13x6).
About 3 m. S. of Paisl^ are the pleaaaat braes of Glenliler,
sung by Tannahill, and 2^ m. S.E., occupying a hill on the left
bank of the Leven, stand the ruins of Crookston Castle. The
castle is at least as old as the isth century and bdonged to
Robert de Croc, who witnessed the charter of the foundation
of Paisley Abbey. In the following century it passed into
the possession of a branch of the StewarU, who retained it
until the murder of Damley (1567). Afterwards it changed
hands several times, but was finally acquired from the Montrose
family by Sir John Maxwell of PoUok.
The Romans effected a settlement in Paisl^ in AJ>. 84, and
built a fort called Vanduara 00 the high ground (Oakshaw HiU)
to the west of the White Cart. The place seems to have been
first known as Paslet or Passdeth, and was assigned along with
certain lands in Renfrewshire to Walter Fitzalan, founder of
the abbey. The village grew up round the abbey, and by the
xsth ceatuxy had become sufiidently important to exdte the
jealousy of the neighbouring burgh of Renfrew. To protect it
from molestation Abbot Schaw (or Shaw) induced James IV.,
a frequent visitor, to erect it into a buxgh of barony in 1488, a
charter which gave it the tight to retum a member to the Scots
parliament.
See CkartiJary ef IU Ifonastery of Paisley, published by the Mait-
bnd Club (1833): J. Cameron Lee9, Thg Abbey of Paisley (1878):
Swan, Description of the Town and Abbey ef- Paisley (18^; and
Robert Brown, History of Paisley (x886).
PAITA, or Payta, a seaport of northern Pera, chief town oi
the province of Paita in the department of Piura. P<^. (1906
estimate), 3800. The town has one of the best natural harbouca
of the Peruvian coast, is a port of call for the regular mail
steamers between Valparaiso and Panama, and is the port o(
the departmental capital, Piura, with which it b connected by
a railway 60 m. long. It u also the Pacific terminus of the
railway across the Andes to Puerto Ltmon, on the Maraflon,
or upper Amaaon. Paita faces on the bay of Paita, and is
sheltered from southerly winds by a headland called Pnnt&
Paiu and by a large hill called the Silla de Fsita. The wstcK
PAJOL—PAKOKKU
mpfHy b breoght from the river CUn (17 m. distant). Tlie
tiporU indude cotton, tobtcco, petroleum, cattle, hides and
straw hats. Paita dates from the early yeais of the Spanish
C^qucst, and was a prosperous port in colonial times. It was
neariy destroyed by Lord Anson's fleet in 1741.
^ PAJOU CLAUOB PlKRRBp Comrr (X779-Z844), Fiench
avaliy general, was bom at Bcsancon. The son o£ an advocate,
he was intended to folfew his father's profession, but the events
of X789 tuned, his mind in another direction. Joining the
battalion of Bcsancon, he took port in the political events of
that year, and in 1791 went to the army of the Upper Rhine
with a volunteer battalion. He took part in the campaign
of 1702 and was one of the stormers at Hochhdm (i 793)' From
Custine*s staff he was transfened to that of K16ber, with whom
be- took part in the Sambro and Rhine Campaigns' (1794'^).
After serving with Hoche and Mass^na in Germany and Switzer-
huid (1797*^9), Psjol took a cavalry command under Moreau
for. the cainpaign on the upper Rhine. In the short years of
peace Pajol, now oolond, was successively envoy to the Batavian
Republic, and delegate at Napoleon's coronation. In 1805, the
emperor employed him with the light cavalry. He distin*
guished himself at Austetlitz, and, after serving for a short time
ii Italy, he rejoined the grandt artnte as a general of brigade,
in time to take part in the campaign of Friedland. Next year
(x8oS) he was made a bsron of the Empire. In 1809 he served
on the Danube, and in the Russian War of xSts led a divisbn,
and afterwards a corps, of cavalry. He survived the retreat,
but his health was so broken that he retired to his native town
of Besan^on for a time. He was back again in active service,
however, in time to be present at Dresden, at which battle he
played a conspicuous part. In 18x4 he commanded a corps of
ail arms in the Seine Valley. On the fall of Napoleon, Pajol
gave in his adhesion to the Restoration government, but he
rejoined his old master immediately upon his return to France.
His (I) corps of cavalry played a prominent part in the campaign
of 18x5, both at Ligny and in the advance on the Wavre under
Grouchy. On receiving the news of Waterloo, Pajol disengaged
his command, and by a skilful retreat brought it safe and unbeaten
to Paris. There he and his men played an active part in the
actions which ended the war. The-Bourbons, on their return,
dismissod him, though this treatment was not, compared to
that meted out to Ney and others, excessively harsh. In X830
he took part in the overthrow of Charles X. He suppressed,
sternly and vigorously, imeuta in Paris in 1831 and 1833, 1834
and X839. A general, and a peer of France, he was put on the
Ktired fot in.x84a, and died two years later.
His son. Count Charles PAtn. Victor Tajoi. (x82x^x89i),
entered the army and had readied the rank of general of division
when he was involved in the catastrophe of Mets (1870). ' He
retired in 1877. Besides being a good soldier, he was a sculptor
of some merit, who executed statues of his father and of Napoleon,
and he wrote a life of his father and a history of the wars under
Louis XV. (Paris x8ftx-i89i).
See Count C. P. V. Pajol; Pajol giniral m ekef (Pans. 1874):
Thomas, Lts Grands (ovalitrs du premier empire (F^s, 1892); and
Choppin, in the Journal des Ktences militaires (1890).
PAJOU. AUOUflTDi (1730^x809), French scuIpto^Vas bom in
Paris on the 19th of September 1730. At eighteen be wdn the
Frix de Rome; at thirty he exhibited his Plulon kncnt Cerhtrt
tnekdini (now in -the Louvre). His portrait busts of BuiTon
and of Madame Du Barry (1773), and his statuette of Bossuet
Call in the Louvre), are amongst his best works. When B.
Poyet constructed the FontjUne des Innocents from the earlier
edifice of P. Lcscot (see-GoujON) Pajou provided a number of
new figures for the work. Mention should ah» be made of his
bust of Caxlin Bertlnassi (X763) at the Com^e Fran^aise, and
tile monument of 'Marie Leczinska, queen of Poland (in the
Salon of X769). Pajou died in Paris on the 8th of May 1809.
PAKHOI, or Peibax, a dty and treaty port of China, in the
west of the province of Kwang-tung, situated on a bay of the
Gulf of Tong'Idng, formed by the. peninsula running south-west
from LieiMhdw, in sx" jqLN.» 109*. xo' £. Fop. about 2$,ooa
52«
Dating only from about i8>0"x630» and at first little better than
a nest of pirates, Pakhot rapidly grew into commercid import-
ance, owing partly to the oomplcle freedom which it enjoyed from
taxation, and partly to the diversion of trade produced by
the T'ai-p'ing rcbdlion. The eslabliihment of a Chinese custom*
house and the opening of the ports of Hanoi and Haiphong
for a time threatened to injure its prospects; but, foreign trade
bdng permitted in X876-X877, it began in 1879 to be regularly
visited by foreign steamers. The Chinese town stands on the
peninsula and faces due north. From the bluff, on which all
the foreign community lives, a partly cultivated plain extends.
Liquid indigo, sugar, aniseed and aniseed oil, cassia-iignea and
cassia oil, cuttle-fish and hides aro the chief exports. With
Macao especially an extensive junk trade is carried on. A large
number of the inhabitants engage in fishing and fish-curing.
The preparation of dried fish is a speciality of Pakboi, the fish
bdng exported to Hong Kong.^
PAKINGTON, the name of a famous English. Worcestershire
family, now represented by the barony of Hampton. Sir lohn
Pakington (d. 1560) was a successful lawyer and a favourite
at court, and Henry YIU. enriched him with estates, including
that of West wood in Worcestershire. His grand nephew and
hdr, Sir John Pakington (tS49~x635), was another prominent
courtier, Queen Elizabeth's " lusty Pakington," famous for his
magnificence of living. His son John (i6oo* 1624) was created
a baronet in 1620. His son. Sir John, the second baronet (x62o-
1680), played an active part on the royalist side in the troubles
of the Great Rebellion and the Commonwealth, and was taken
prisoner at Worcester in X65X; Lady Dorothy, his wife (d. x679)>
daughter of the lord keeper Thomas Coventry, was famous for
her learning, and was long credited with the authorship of The
Whole Duly of Man (X658), which has more reoentlv been
attributed to Richard AUestree (9.V.). Their grandson. Sir
John, the 4th baronet (x67t'-x727) was a pronounced high Tory
and was very prominent in political life; for long he was regarded
as the original of Addison's Sir Roger de Coverley, but the
reasons for this supposition are now regarded as inadequate.
The baronetcy became extinct with the death of Sir John
Pakington, the 8th baronet, in January 1830, but it was revived
In 1846 for his maternal nephew and hdr, John Somerset
Pakington (1799-1880), whose name was ori^nally RusseU.
Born on the ^oth of February 1799 and educated at Eton and
at Oriel College, Oxford, Pakington had a long career as an active
and industrious Conservative politician, being, member of parlia-
ment for Droitwich from 1837 to 1874. He was secretiry for
war and the colonies in X852; first lord of the admiralty in 1838*
1859 and again in 1866-1867; and seoretaxy of state for war in
1867^x868. In X874 he was created Baron Hampton, and he died
in London on the 9th of April x88a From X875 until his death
Hampton was chief dvil service commissioner. In X906 his
grandson Herbert Stuart (b. 1883) became 4th baron Hsiraptoik
It is interesting to note that in X529 Henry VIII. granted Sir
John Pakington the right of wearing his hat in the royal presence.
PAKOKKU* a district in the Minbu division of Upper Burma,
lying west of the Ixrawaddy river and south of Mandalay, with
the line of the Chin hills as a general bouxidary on the west. It
has an area of 62x0 sq. m. and a popuUtion (1901) of 356,489*
The part of the district along the Imwaddy and Chindwin
rivers is alluviaL Beyond this, however, the country rises
gradually to the low Shixunadaung and Tangyi ridges, wheie it
is very arid. To the westward there is a rapid drop to the well-
watered valley of the Yaw River, and then a rise over broken,
dry country before thevalli^s of the Myit-tha and M6n rivers
are reached. The prindpal products are millet, sesamum ai^
sugar prxxluced from toddy-polms in the riverain districts,
which also grow rice, grain, peas and beans. Tobacco and
vegetables are also produced in some quantity, and maixe is
grown brgely for the sake of the husk, which is used for native
cheroot-wrappers, under the name of yawpeL The Yenangyat
oil-fields, which produce quantities of petroleum, are in the
south of the district, and iron used to be worked in a small
way. ^Thece are... XX ji ^..m...Qf reserved foresu^ia. the
$23
PAL— PALAQO VALDfeS
district. A good deal of teak and cutch is worked ouL The
cutch of the Yaw country is particularly esteemed. The average
rainfall does not exceed 35 in. annually, and in many places
water has to be carted for miles. West of the P6ndaung ridge,
however, under the Chin hills, the rainfall exceeds 50 inches.
The heat in May and June is very great, and the thermometer
rises considerably above loo** F. in the shade.
The great majority of the population is Burmese, but in Yaw
there b a peculiar race called Taungthas, who claim to be quite
distinct from both Burmese and Chins. In 1901 the Taungthas
numbered 570a
The headquarters town, Pakokku, stands on the right bank of
the Irrawaddy, and has grown into importance since the British
occupation. It is the great boat-building centre of Upper
Burma. The population in 1901 was X9>456. It may be
described as the emporium of the trade of the Chindwin and
Yaw river valleys. The steamcn of the Irrawaddy Flotilla
Company caU here regularly, and it is the starting-point for the
vessels plying on the Chindwin.
PAL, KRISTO 0A8 (1839-1884), Indian publicist, was bom in
Calcutta in 1839, of the Teli or oil-man's caste, which ranks low
in the Hindu social hierarchy. He received an English education
at the Oriental Seminary and the Hmdu Metropolitan College,
and at an early age devoted himself to journalism. In i86x he was
appointed assisUnt secretary (and afterwards secretary) to the
British Indian Association, a board of Bengal landlords, which
numbered among iu members some of the most cultured men of
the day. At about the same time he became editor of the
Himdu Patriot^ originally started in 1853 and conducted with
ability and seal by Harish Chandra Mukerji until his death in
x86i. This journal having been transferred by a trust deed to
some members of the British Indian Association, it henceforth
became to some extent an organ of that body. Thus Kristo
Das Pal had rare opportunities for proving his abilities and
independence dtiring an eventful career of twcnty-two years.
In 1863 he was appointed justice of the peace and municipal
commissioner of Calcutta. In 1872 he was made a member of
the Bengal legislative council, where his practical good sense and
moderation were much appreciated by successive lieutenant-
governors. Kb opposition, however, to the Calcutta Municipal
Bill of 1876, which first recognised the elective system, was
attributed to his prejudice in favour of the " classes " against
the *' masses.*' In 1878 he received the decoration of CLE.
In 1883 he was appointed a member of the viceroy's legisktive
council. In the discussions on the Rent Bill, which came up for
Gonskleration before the council, Kristo Das Pal, as secretary
to the British Indian Association, necessarily took the side of
the landlords. He died on the S4th of July 1884. Speakhig
nfter bis death. Lord Ripon said: " By this melancholy event we
have k»t from among us a colleague of distinguished ability,
from whom we had on all occasions received assistance, of which
I readily acknowledge the value. ... Mr Kristo Das Pal owed
the honourable position to which he had attained to his own
exertions. His intellectual attainments were of a Ugh order,
his rhetorical gifts were acknowledged by all who heard him,
and were enhanced when addressing this council by his thorough
mastery over the English language." A full length sUtue of
him was unveiled by Lord Elgin at Calcutta in 1894.
See N. N. Chose. Kristo Das Pal, a Study (Calcutta, 1887).
PALACB (Lat. Palatinm, the name given by Augustus to his
residence on the Palatine HOI), primarily the residence of a
sovereign or prince, but in England, Spain and France esctended
to the residence of a bishop, and in the latter country to buildings
appropriated to the public service, such as courU of justice, ftc.
In Italy the name is g^ven to royal residences, to public buildings,
and to SQch large mansions' as in France are either known as
ekdteanx tf in the country, or kdUis if in Paris.
The earh'est palaces hi ^gypt arc those built in the rear of the
Temple of Kamak by Thothmes III. and near the Temple of
Medinet Habo, both in Thebes; the earliest ro Greece are those
at Chossus and Phacstus in Crete (r. isoo B.C.). and at Ttryns in
the dtadd («. taoo B.C.). The most remarkable aeries are tboae
erected by the Assyrians At Ninuoud, Kognmjfk and 1
(859-667 B.C.), which were followed by the Persian palaces at
Persepolis and Susa; the Parthian palaces at Al Hadhr and
Diarbekr; and the Sassanian palaces of Serbistan, Firucafaad
and Ctesiphon. The only palace known of the late Greek style
is that found at Palatitza in Macedonia. Of the Roman period
there are many examples, beginning with those on the Palatine
Hill commenced by Augustus, continued and added to by his
successors, Tiberius, Caligula, Domitian, Hadrian and Sq>timus
Scverus, which covered an area of over 1,000,000 sq. ft. The
villa of Hadrian was virtually an immense palace, the building»
of which extended over 7 m. in length; of more modest propor-
tions are the palace of Diocletian at Spalato and a fine example
at Treves in Germany. The palace' of the Hcbdomon at Con-
stantinople, and a fragment at Ravenna of Theodoric's work, are
all that remain of Bysantine palaces. Of Romanesque work the
only examples are those at Gelnhausen built by Barbarossa, and
the Wartburg in Germany. In the Gothic style in Italy, the
best known examples ara the ducal palace at Venice, and the
PalazzI Vecchio and del Podesta (BargeUo) at- Fbrence; in
France, the pabce of the popes at Avignon, and the eptsoopel
palaces of B«iuvais, Laon, Poitiers and Lisieux; in England, the
bishops' palaces of Welb, Norwich, Lincoln, portions of Edward
the Confessor's palace at Westminster, and Wobey's paUcc at
Hampton Court; while such great -country mansions as the
"castles" of Alnwick, KenUworth, Warwick, Rochester,
Raglan and Stokesay, or Haddon Hall, come in the same
category though the name b not employed. Belonging to the
Mahommedan style are the palaces of the Alhambn and the
Alcazar in Spain. Of the Renaissance period, numerous
palaces exbt in every country, the more important exampict
in Italy being those of the Vatican, the Quirinal and the
Canoeilaria, in Rome; the Caprarola near Rome; the palace of
CaserU near Naples; the Pitti at Florence; the Palaxeo del Te
at Mantua; the court and eastern portion of the ducal palace
of Venice, and the numerous examples of the Grand Canal;
In France, the Louvre, the Tuilcries (destroyed), and the
Lttxemboutig, in Paris; Versailles and St Germaln>en-Laye; and
the ch&teaux of la Rochefoucauld, Fontainebleau, Chambord,
Blob, Amboise, Chenonceaux and other palaces on the Loire;
in Germany, the castle of Heidelberg, and the Zwinger palace
at Dresden; hi Spain, the palace of Charics V. at Grenada, the
Esoorial and the palace ol Madrid; in England, the palace of
Whitehall by Inigo Jones, of which only the banqueting hall was
built, Windsor Castle. Blenheim, Chatsworth, Hampton Court |
and in Scotknd, the palaces of Holyrood and Linlithgow.
PALACIO VALDtS, ARHAJIDO (1853- ), Spanbh noveKst
and critic, was bom at Entralgo, m the province of Astvrias, on
the 4th of October 1853. Hb ftrst writings were printed in the
Rerisia Euroffax These were pongent essays, remarkable for
independent judgment and refined humour, and fbnnd so muc^
favour with the public that the young beginner was toon ap>
pointed editor of the Rerista. The best of hb critkal' work is
collected hi Los Oradoru dd Attneo (1878), Los Nctditias
espouses (1878), Nuevo vktje at Pemaso and La LUeralMra en j99i
(1882), this List being written in coUabontion with Leopoldo Alas.
In x88z he published a novel, JBf StUHto Odtnh, wbieh shows nn
uncommon power of observation, and the promise of bettei
things to come. In Marta y Maria (1883), a portrayal of tbe
struggle between religious vocation and earthly passion, some*
what m the manner of Valera, Palacfo Valdia achieved a very
popular triumph which placed him in the fast rank ofcontem-
potary Spanish nevclists. Bl IdiUa ds urn atfwma (1884)1 •
most interesting fragment of autobbgnphy, htt scarcely met
with the recognition which it deserves: perhaps becaoM the
pathos of the story b too unadorned. The pobttcatioa of
Pereda's Sotiiaa b doubtlcM responsible for the conctfUipn of
/Ml (1885), in which Palado Vakifs gives a icalbtic pidwe of
the mannen and customs of seafaring folk, creates tiie two
convincing diancten whom he names Joai and Leonards, and
embellishes the whole with passages of aninwfH disaipti oi i
barely inferior to the finest penned by Fereda hhaself . The
PALACKY— PALAEMON
523
CDMtioiuI iiittgiiuition of 'the writer expressed itself anew in
the charming story Riverita (1886), one of whose attractive
characters develops into the heroine of Maximina (18S7);
and from If aziwifki, in its turn, is taken the novice who figures
as' a professed nun among the penonages of La Hermana San
Sulpicio (1889), hi which the love-passages between Zefcrino
Sanjur jo and Gloria Bcrm&dez are set off with elaborate,
romantic descriptions of Seville. El Cwario fodtr (1888) is, as
its name implies, concerned with the details, not always edifying,
of journalistic life. Two novels Issued in 1892, La Espuma and
Za Ptf were enthusiastically praised in foreign countries, but
in Spain their reception was cold. The explanation is to be
found in the fact that the first of these books is an avowed satire
on the Spanish aristocracy, and that the second was construed
into an attack upon the Roman Catholic Church. During the
acrimonioQs discussion which followed the pubUcation of La
Eipuma, it was frequently asserted that the artist had improvised
a fantastic caricature of originals whom he had never seen; yet
as the characters in Cdoma's FcqueAeces are painted in darker
tones, and as the very .critics who were foremost in charging
Hlado Valdfe with incompetence and ignorance are almost
unanimous in praising Coloma's fidelity, it is manifest that the
indictment against La Espuma cannot be maintained. Subse-
quently Palado Val<fo returned to his eariier and better manner
In Lo$ Mfajos de COdtM (1896) and in £a Aigerta id Capildn Ribot
(1899). In these novels, and still more in Tristdn^ 6 d pesimismo
(1906), he frees himself from the reproach of undue submission
to French influences. In any case he takes a prominent place in
modem Spanish literature as a keen analyst of emotion and a
sympathetic, delicate, humorous observer. (J. F.-K.)
PALACKt, FRANTliEK (FranosI (1798-1876), Czech
historian and politician, was bom on the 14th of June 1798 at
Hodslavice (Hotzcndorif) in Moravia. His ancestors had been
members of the community of the Bohemian Brethren, and had
secretly maintained their Protestant belief throughout the
period of reh'gious persecution, eventually giving their adherence
to the Aupburg confession as approximate to theb- original
faith. Palack^*s father was a schoolmaster and a man of some
learning. The son was sent in 181 2 to the Protestant gymnasium
at Preasbuig, where he. came in contact with the philologist
Safafik and became a zeak)us student of the Slav languages.
After some years spent in private teaching Palack^ settled in
x8aj at Prague. Here he found a warm friend in Dobrovsk^.
whose good relations with the Austrian authorities shielded him
from the hostility shown by the government to students of Slav
subjects. Dobrovsk^ introduced him to Count Sternberg and
his brother Francis, both of whom took an enthusiastic interest
in Bohemian history. Count Frands was the principal founder
of the Society of the Bohemian Museum, devoted to the collection
of documents bearing on Bohemian history, with the object of
reawakening national sentiment by the study of the national
records. PubUc interest in the movement was stimulated in 1825
by the new Journal of tht Bohemian Museum (Casopis iakiho
jiusea) of which Palack^ was the first editor. The journal was
at fint published in Csech and German, and the Czech edition
survived to become the most, important literary oxgan of
Bohemia. Palack^ had received a modest appointment as archi-
vist to Grant Sternberg and in 1829 theBohcmian estates sought
to confer on him the title of historiographer of Bohemia, with a
small salary, but it was ten yeois before the consent of the Vien-
nese authorities was obtained. Meanwhile the estates, with the
tardy assent of Viezma, had undertaken to pay the expenses of
publishing Palack^'s capital work, The History of the Bohemian
People (5 vols., 1836-1867). This book, which comes down to the
year 1526 and the extinction of Czech independence, was founded
on laborious research in the local archives of Bohemia and in
the libraries of the chief dties of Europe, and remains the stan-
dard authority. The first volume was printed in German in
1836, and subsequently translated into Czech. The publication
of the work was hindered by the police-censorship, which was
especially active in criticizing his account of the Hussite move-
ment. Palack^, though entirely national and Protestant in
his sympathies, was careful. Co avoid aa uncritical approbation
of the Reformers' methods, but his statements were held by the
authorities to be dangerous to the Catholic faith. He was
therefore compelled to make excisions from his narrative and
to accept as integral parts of his wt>rk passages interpolated by
the censors. After the abolition of the police-censorship in
1848 he published a new edition, completed in 1876, restoring
the original form of the work. The fairest and most considerable
of Palack^'s antagonists in the controversy aroused by his
narrative of the early reformation in Bohemia was Baron
Helfert, who received a brief from Vienna to write his Hus und
Hieronymus (1853) to counteract the impression made by
Palack^'s History. K. A. K. Hdfler, a German professor of
history at Prague, edited the historical authorities for the
period in a simibur sense in his Ceschichte der hussUiseken
Bewegun% in Btfhmen. Pahick^ reph'cd in his Geschiehte des
HussUenthumes und Professor Ldffier (Prague, x868} and Zur
btthmisehen Geschichlsckreibtmg (Prague, r87i).
The revolution of 1848 forced the historian into practical
politics. He was deputed to the Reichstag which sat at
Kromefice (Krcmsier) in the autumn of that year, and was a
member of the Slav congress at Prague. He refused to take
part in the preliminary pariiament consisting of 500 former
deputies to the diet, -which met at Frankfort, on the ground that
as a Czech he had no interest in German affairs. He was at
this time in favour of a strong Austrian empire, which should
consist of a federation of the southern German and the Slav
states, allowing of the retention of their individoal rights.
These views met with some degree of consideration at Vienna,
and Palack^ was even offered a portfolio in the PUlersdorf
cabinet. The collapse of the federal idea and the defim'te
triumph of the party oT reaction in 1852 led to his retirement
from politics. After the liberal concessions of z86o and 1&61,
however, he became a life member of the Austrian senate. His
views met with small support from the assembly, and with the
exception of a short period after the decree of Si^tember 1871,
by which the emperor raised hopes for Bohemian self-govern-
ment, he ceased to appear in the senate from i86x onwards. In
the Bohemian L.indtag he became the adtnowledged leader of
the nationalist-federal party. He sought the establishment of
a Czech kingdom which should include Bohemia, Moravia and
Silesia, and in his zeal for Czech autonomy he even entered into
an alliance with the Conservative nobility and with the extreme
Catholics. He attended the Panslavist congress at Moscow in
1 867. He died at Prague on the ^th of May 1876.
Amoi^ his more important smaller historical works are: WSrdh
gunr der alien bdhmiseken GesekicfUschreiber (Prague, 1630), dealing
with authors of many of whose worics were then inaccoisible to
Ctcch students: ArckteUsky (6 vols., Prague. 1840-1872); Urkuad^
lieke Beitrage eur Cesekidiie da HussHenhriets (a vols.. Prague^
1871-1874); Doeumenta megistri Johannis Hus viiam^ deetrinam^
eausam . . . iUuilramSia (Prague. 1869). With Safarik he wroee
Anfdnge der bohmischen DieUkumst (Preasburg, 1818) and Die
dltesten Denkmaler der bihntischen Spraehe (Prague, 1840). Tbiea
volumes of his Csech articles and essays were published as Radhost
(3 vols., Prague, 187 1-1873). For acooonts of Pabick^ see an article
^ Saint Ren6 Taillandier in the Rene des deux mendes (April. 1855);
GMint Latzow, Lectures on the Historians of Bohemia (London, 1905).
PALADIN (Lat. pdlaiinus), strictly a courtier, a member of
a royal household, one connected with a palace. From being
applied to the famous twelve peen of Charlemagne, the word
became a general te rm in romance for knights of great pixywcsa.
PALABMOK, QUIRTUS REmiltJS, Roman grammarian, 4
naUve of Viccntia, lived in the reigns of Tiberius and CUudius.
From Suetonius (De grammatieis, 93) we learo that be was
originally a slave who obtained his freedom and taught grammar
at Rome. Though a man of profligate and arrogant character,
he enjoyed a great repuUtion as a teacher; (^uintilian and
Persius are said to have been his pupils. His k)st Ars (Juvenal,
vii. 215), a system of grammar mudi used in his own time and
largely drawn upon by later grammarians, contained rules for
correct diction, illustrative quotations and treated of ba r ba rism s
and solecisms (Juvenal v].'452)- An extant Ars ^ammoHea
(discovered by Jovianus Pontanus in the zsth century) and
526
PALAEOBOTANY
IPALAGOaUC
PrafoMT Seward, however, fias found a Zntsperitn m nta, tcnm»-
ating an apparently fungal ky pha : he miggctu a potabfe cxmipanaoa
trith the mould Mueor. Bodic& cloady rcacmbiinx the perithecia of
Sphacriaooous Fungi have often been observed oo impressions of
Palacocoicjilants, and may probably belong to the group indicated.
Prafcsaor F. E. Weias haa obuined interesting evidence that the
symbiotic association between roots and Fungi, known aa " Mya>>
rhiia," already occurred amo«v Cariwniferous plants. The few
and incomplete data which we at present poasess as to Palaeoioic
Fungi do not aa yet juatifv any inferences as to the evolution of
these plants. The writer is not aware of any evidence for the
occurrence of Palacocoic Lichena.
The important class of the Bryophyti, which,, oo theoretical
grounds, is commonly regarded as more primitive than the
Ptcridophyta, is as yet scarcely represented among
''^^*^^'**' known fossils of Palaeozoic age. In the Lower
Carboniferous of Scotland Mr Kidston has found several specie
mens of a large dichotomous thallus, with a very distinct midrib;
the specimens, referred to the provisional genus TkaUites, much
resemble the larger thalloid Liverworts. Similar fossib have
been described from still older rocks. In one or two cases
Palaeozoic plants, resembling the true Mosses in habit, have
been discovered; the best example Is the MuscUes pUytrkkauui
of Renault and Zctllcr, from the Coal Measures of Comroentry.
In the absence, however, both of reproductive organs and of
anatomical structure, it cannot be said that there is at present
conclusive evidence for the existence of cither Hepaticae or
Musci in Palaeozoic times.
Our knowledge of the Vascular Cryptograms of the Palaeozoic
period, though recent discoveries have somewhat reduced their
relative importance, is still more extensive than of any
other class of planU, and in fact it is here that the
evidence of Palaeontology first becomes of essential
importance to the botanist. They extend back through the
Devonian, possibly to the Silurian sysUm, but the systematic
summary now to be given is based primarily on the rich materials
afforded by the Carboniferous and Permian formations, from
which our detailed knowledge of Palaeozoic plants haa been
chiefly derived.
In addition to tKe three classes, Equisetales, Lyoopodiales and
Fili^es, under which recent Ptcridophytes naturally group
themselves, a fourth class, Sphenophylloies, existed in Palaeozoic
times, clearly related to the Horsetails and more remotely to
the Ferns and perhaps the Club-mosses, but with peculiarities
of its own demanding an independent position. We further find
that, whereas the Ferns of the present day form a well-defined
and even isolated class, this was not the case at the time when
the primary rocks were deposited. A great group of Palaeozoic
fossils, showing evident affinity to Ferns, hss proved to consist
of seed-bearing plants allied to Gymnosperms, espedally Cycads.
This important class of plants will be described at the beginning
of the Spermophyta under the name Pteridnspermeae. The
arrangement whidi wc shall adopt for the Palaeozoic Ptcrido-
phyu is therefore as follows:—
I. Equisdales. II. Spkenopkyllala.
m. Lycopodiates, IV. FUkaks.
We must bear in mind that throughout the Palaeozoic period,
and indeed far beyond it, vascular plants, so far as the existing
evidence shows, were represented only by the Ptcridophyta,
Pteridospcrms and Gymnosperms. Although the history of the
Angiosperms may probably go much further back than present
records show, there is no reason to suppose that they were
present, as such, amongst the Palaeozoic vegetation. Con-
sequently, the Ptcridophytes, Gymnosperms and their allies had
the field to themselves, so far as regards the higher plants, and
filled places in nature which have now for the most part been
seized on by families of more modem origin. Hence it Is not
surprising to find that the early Vascular Cryptograms were,
beyond comparison, more varied and more highly organized than
their dispbced and often degraded successors. It is among the
fossils of the Palaeozoic rocks that we first lean the possibilities
of Ptcridophytic organization.
I. EquiseUiles.-^Th\% class, represented in the recent flora
by the sitt^e genus BquistiMmt with about twenty tpttkii, was
one of the dominant groops of plaiits b Ctfboaifetous lines.
The Calamarieac, now known to have been tiie chiel Palaeoaoic
representatives of the llorsetaU stock, attained the dimensions
of trees, reaching, according to Grand' Eury, a height of from
JO to 60 metres, and showed in all respects a higher and mofe
varied organization than their recent iuoossson.
Their remains occftr in three principal forms of preaenralion.
(1) carbonaceous impressions of the Ickfy branches, the fnictife*
cations and other pajts; (s) easts of the stem; these are usually
internal, or wuitJIary casts, as described above. Aroond the cast
the organic tissues may be represented by a carbonaceous Uycr,
on the outer surface of which the extemal features, such as the
remains of kavca, can sometimes be traced. More usually, however.
the carbonaceous film is thin, and merely shows the impress of the
medullary cast wiihia; (j) petrified specimens of all parts— stem.
roots« leaves and fructification * s howing the internal structure,
more or less perfectly preserved. The correlation of these various
remains presents conaKlerable difficultiea. Casu auiroundrd by
wood, with its structure preserved, have aoniettnea been fouMi,
%nd have established their true rdations. The position of the
branches is shown both on caau and in petrified specimens, and has
helped in their identification, while the petrified remains some-
times show enough of the external characters to allow of their
oorrelatbtt with impressions. Fructificstkins have often been
found ifi connenon with leafy shoots, and the anatomical stmcturc
of the axb in sterile and fertile specimens has proved a valuable
moans of identification.
In habit the Calamarieac appear to have bomoi on tl^ whole,
a general resemblance to the recent Equisetaceae, in spite of ihrW
enormously greater bulk. The leaves were oonatantly in whorls,
and were usually of comparatively small size and of simple fomu
In the oldest known Calamanan, however, Arckae^Minnta
(Devonian and Lower Carboniferous), the leaves were repeatedly
forked. There is evidence that in somes, at least. 0^ the Cabmarieae
the leaves of each verticil were united at the base to form a sheath.
The free lamina, however, was always considerably more dcvclopigd
than in the recent family; in form it was usually linear or narrowly
lanceolate. Different genera have been founded on fesf-bearinc
branches of Calamarieae; apart from AnkatocaUmiles, already
mentioned, and Autephyiiites (Grand* Eurv), in both of which the
feaves were dichotomous, we have Annmaria, A$tarcpkyUiUs and
Calamodadms (in Grand' Eury's limited sense), with sim^Jc leaves.
In some apecics of AnniUaria the extremely delkate ultimate twica.
bearing whorls of small lanceolate ksaves. give a characteristic
habit, suncsting that they may have belonged to herbaceotis
plants: other Annuiariae. however, have been traced with certainty
into connexion with the ssems of Urge Calamitea. In AsUr^-
pkyttUes, the geneiic distinction of which from Annularia is not
always clear, the narrow linear leaves ara in crowded whork. and
the ultimate branches distichously arranged; in the Calaaudadm
of Grand' Eury— characteristic of the Upper Coal Measures— the
whorls are more remote, and the twigs polystichous in anai^e-
ment. In all these groups a leaf •sheath has been recognised.
The distribution of the branches oa the main stem shows
considerable variations, on which genera or sufaHgenera have been'
founded by C E. Weiss. In Arfluuoeahmiles, which certainly
deservea generic rank, the branches may occur on every pode.
but only m ccitaio parts of the stem; the ribs of successive inter-
nodes do not alternate, but are continuous, indicating that tlw
leaves were superposed. Using Catamittt as a generic name for
all those Calamarian stems in which the ribs alternate at the nodes,
we have, on Weiss's system, the following sub-genera: Siyiocalmm-
iUs» branches rare and irregularly arranged: Cstositlino, branches
in regular verticils, limited to certain nodes, which surmount
specially short intcmedcs; g nc a fssufrr , branches present 00 every
node. These distinaiona can be reeognized on petrified specimens,
as well as on the casts, but their taxonomic value Issomcwluut
doubtful. In many Caiamifees there is evidenoe that the aerial
stem sprang from a horisontai rhiaome, as in the common species
C. iStifhtalimHis) Smkawi; in other specimens the aerial stem has
an independent, rooting base.
The amUmkal sinulwe of all paru of the plant is now known,
in various Calamarieae, thanks more especially to the work of
Williamson in England and of Renault in France. The stem has a
•tfuctuee which may be briefiy characterised as that of an EfmtMttmm
with secondary gsowth in thickneaa (fig. 1, Plate). The usiiaUy
fiuular pith is surrounded by a ring of ODllatenl vascular bundle,
(see Anatomt or Plants, and PrBOioorHyTA), each el which,
with rare exceptions, has an intercellular canal at its inner edge.
ling the disorganiaed Spiral tracheae, just aa in the recent
. The cortcK is often preserved; In certain cases it was
strengthened by hypodermal strands of fibres, as in JEfnurlMi.
It Is only In the rave cases where a very young twig is preserved
that the primary structure of the stem ts lound unaltered. In all
the larger specimens a broad sone of wood, with iu elemenu in
radbl series, had been added.
Catamites {ArArobxtys,
parable to that of the i
I nroao sone 01 wood, witn lU eiemenu in
I added. This secondary wood, in the tme
[, Cocppert). has a simple structure com-
\ Simptrst Coniferous woods; it is made op
PALAEOZOICl
entirely of radial band* of tradieidca intenperaed with medullary
raya. The ptttine of the tracheidcs ia more or lest icalariform in
character, and ia limited to the radial walls. In favourable oaaea
remains of the cambium are found on the outer border of the wood,
and phloem ia also present in the normal position, though it
does not seem to have attained any considerable thicknesa. In the
old stems the primary cortex was reolaccd by periderm, giving
rise to a thick mass of bark. The aoove descnption applies to
the stems of Catamites in the narrower sense {Arlhropilys of the
French authors), to which the specimens from the British Coal
Measures mostly belong. ArckatocalamiUs appears to have had a
similar structure, but in some specimens from the Lower Carbon*
iferoua of Burntisland, proviuonally named ProlocalamiUs Petty-
eurensis, centripetal wood was present in the stem. In CalawudeU'
iron (Upper Coal Measures) the wood has a more complex structure
than in Calamitesi the principal rays including raoial tracts of
fibrous tissue, in addition to the usual parenchyma. Arlkrodendren
(Lower Coal Measures) aoproaches Calamodtndron in this respect.
The longitudinal course of the vascular bundles and their relation
to the leaves in Calamarieae generally followed the Egmsetmm type,
though more variable and sometimes more complex. The attach'
ment of the branches was immediately above the node, and usually
between two foliar traces, as in the recent genus. Where the
structure of the leaves is preserved it proves to oe of an extremely
simple type: the narrow lamina is traversed by a single vascular
bundle, separated by a sheath from the surrounding palisade-
Krenchyma. Stomata of the same structure as in Eq msaum have
en detected in the epidermis.
The roots ^formerly described aa a aeparate genus, Astrompdon)
were borne directly on the nodes, not on short lateral branches as
in Equiselum. They are of similar structure in all known Cala*
marieae, the main roots havinjg a large pith, while the rootlets had
little or none. The structure is in allrespects that typical of roots,
as shown by the centripetal primary wood, and the alternation of
xylem and phloem groups observable in exceptionally favourable
young specimens. A striking^ feature* is the presence of large,
radiating^intercellular cavities m the cortex, suggesting an aquatic
habit. The young roou show a double endodermb, just as in the
recent Equisetnm.
A considerable ninnber of Calamarian fnutiJUatiens are known,
p r es erv ed, some aa caibonafiseous impressions, others as petrified
specimens, exhibiting the internal structure. In many cases the cones
have been found in contiexion with branches bearing characteristic
Calamarian foliage. Almost all strobili of the Calamarieae are
constructed on the lame general lines as those of Equisttum, with
which some agree exactly; in most, however, the organization
was more complex, the complexity consistins in the intercalation
of whorls of sterile bracts, between those of the sporan^iophores.
In several cases hetcrospory, unknown among recent Equtsetaoeae,
has been demonstrated in their Palaeozoic represenUtives.
Four main types of structure may be distinguished among
Calamarian strobili.
I. Cdtamostackys, Schimper. Here the whorls of peltate spor-
angiophorcs alternate regularly with those of sterile bracts, the
I former being inserted on the axis
L^..' ISj i I midway between the latter (fig. 3).
■'' CI "^^ sporangiophores. which are
^ W Im usually half as numerous in each
r^ K "^ I verticil as the bracts, have the same
r ' S >|l form as in Equisetum, but each bears
iH . ^ four sporangia only. The spores
are frequently found to be still united
in tetrads. In some species, e.g. the
British C. Binneyana, numerous
specimens have been examined and
only one kind of spore observed;
here, then, there is a strong pre-
sumption that the species was
hqmosporous. In other cases, how-
ever, e.g. C. CaskeatM, Will., two
kinds of spore occur, in different
sporangia, but on the same rtrobilus
and even on the same sporangiophore.
^^ ^ The megaspores, of which there are
w. r. . - . t w many in the mega s porangium. have
Fica.-Cataiw^JtetAys. Dia- ^ dimeter about three times that of
^mraatic longitudinal sec- ^y^ microspores. The abortion of
tion of the cone, showing certain spores, which is known to
the axis («) beanng alter- |^ve uken place both in the homo-
nate whorls of bracts (ftr) .porous C. Binneyana and in the
and peltate sporangiophores mcgaspo«ngia of C. Caskeana, may
W ^l** ^^^^ sporangia ihrow some light on the origin of the
(im). The upturned tips of hctcrosporoos condition. The bracts
the bracts are only shown ^„ sometimes coherent in their
in every alternate vertldl. lower part (e.g. C. Binneyana). some-
times free {e.g. C. Lndwigi); in all
cases their free extremities formed a protection to the fertile
whori above, in some continental spcriex {e.g. C. GtomF Enryi,
Ken.) radial membranous plates hung down from each vrrfidl of
bracts formiog compartments in which the sobjacent apocanfio-
PALAEOBOTANY
527
phorea were enclosed. The anatomy of the axia is essentially
similar to that of a young Calamarian twig, with some variationa
in detail. Strobili oil the Calamostackys type occur in connexion
both with Annularia and Asterophytlites foliage.
3. Palaeoslackya, Weiss. Here, as in the previous genus, sterile
and fertile verticils are ranged alternately on the axia of the cone.
The main difference ia that in Palaeastackya the sporangiophores,
instead of standing midway between the whorls of bracts, are
inferted immediately above them, springing, as it were, from the
axil of the sterile verticil (fig. 3, A). This singular arrangement
has suggested doubts as to the correctness of the current inter*
pretation of the Equisetaccous q>oran^phore aa a modified leaf
A ax
(AftwUcuuk. SoAuhaiks.)
Fig. 3.
A, Palaeastackya. Diagrammatic longitudinal section of cone,
showing the axia (as) beanne the bracts (6r) with pelute sporai^gio-
phores (x^) springing from their axils; xm, sporangia.
B, A re k ae a c ai ami l et . Part of cone, showing the axis (as) bearing
peltate sporangiophores (sp) without bracts; xm, qwrangia.
(cf. Ckeirasirakus below). In moat other respects the two genera
agree; there is evidence for the occurrence of hetcrospory in some
strobili referred to PaUuostackya. The anatomy ot the axis is
that oi a young branch of a Catamite. According to Grand* Eury,
the Pataeostaekya fructification was most commonly associated with
AsieropkyUUes foliage. The external aspect of a Palaeastackya is
•hown in fig. 4 (PlaU).
3. Equtsdum type of strobilus. In certain casea the strobili of
Palaeozoic Calamarieae appear to have had essentially the same
organization as in the recent genus, the axis bearing sporangio-
phores only, without intercalated bracts. It is remarkable tliat
fructifications apparently of this kind have been found by Renault
in close association with the most ancient of the Calanuricac —
Arckaeoealamites. In these strobili the peltate scales, like the
vegetative leaves of the plant, are in superposed verticils; each
appears to have borne four sporangia (fig. 3, B). Other cones,
however, namely, those known as Fotkoctles, have also been at-
tributed on good grounds to the genus Arckaeoealamites ; they are
long strobili. constricted at intervals, and it is probable that the
succession of fertile sporangiophores waa interrupted here and
there by the intercalation 01 sterile bracts, which may also have
been present, at long intervals, in Renault's species. Cones from
the Middle Coal Measures, described by Kidston under the name of
Eqmsetnm Hemingwayi, but probaUy bdonging to one of the
" ■ external r '
Calamarieae. bear a striking external rcaerobIaiK« to those of a
recent Equisttuns,
4. Cingnlaria, Weiss. This form of strobilus, from the Coal
Meaittros of Germany, is imperfectly known, and its relation to
Calamarieae not beyvmd doubt. In the lax strobili the Hxirangio*
phorrs, which jire not pclute. but strap-shaped, were borne, aa
C. E. Weiss first showed, immediately below the verticils of bracts,
the position thus being the reverse of that in Palaeostackya.
The Palaeoaoic Calamarieae, though so far surpaasng recent
Equistftaceae. both in stature and complexity of organization,
dearly belonged to the same class of Vascular Cryptogams.
There is no tatiafactory evi^iioe for atlribuling PhAnerDfamic
528
PALAEOBOTANY
affinities to any memben of the group, and the view, of which
Williamson was the chief advocate, that they form a homo-
geneous Cryptogamic family, is now fully esUbUshcd.
II. SpkenophyUaUs.— The class of SpkenapkyUaks, aa known
to us at present, is of limited extent, embracing the two genera
Sphenoph^um and Ckeirostrobus, which may serve as types of
two families within the class. The characters of SpkencpkyUum
are known with some completeness, while our knowledge of
Cktifostrobus is confined to the fructification; the former will
therefore be described first.
I. SplunophyUum.—Thc genus Sphenopkyaim, of which a
number ol ^ecics have been described, ranging probably from
the Middle Devonian, through the Carboniferous, to the Permian
or even the Lower Triaasic, consisted of herbaceous plants of
moderate dimensions. The long, slender stems, somewhat tumid at
the nodes, were Hbbed, the ribs ruoning continuously through the
nodes, a fact correlated with the superposition of the whorkd leaves,
the number of which in each verticil was some multiple of 3. and
usually 6. In the species on which the genus was founded the
leaves, as the gcnenc name implies, are cuncate and entire, or
toothed on their anterior margin;* in other cases they are deeply
divided by dichotomy into narrow segments, or the whori Consists
of a larger number (up to 30) of apparently simple, linear leaves,
which may represent the segments of a smaller number. The
different forms of leaf may occur on the same plant, the deeply
divided foliage often characterizing the main stem, while the
cuneate leaves were borne on lateral shoots. A comparison,
formeriy suggested, with the two forms of leaf in Batrachian
Ranunculi has not proved to bold ^ood; the idea of an aquatic
habit is contradicted by the anatomical structure, and the nypo-
thesis that the plants were of scandent growth is more probable.
The species of Spkeno^ytlum have a graceful appearance, which
has been compared with that of the trailing Galiums of hedgerows.
Branches sprang from the nodes, though perhaps not truly axillary
in position. The concS. more or leas sharply dinerentiateo, termin-
ated certain of the branches.
The anatomy of the stem of S^kenobhyUum, investigated by
Renault, Williamson and .others, is highly characteristic (Jig. 5,
Plate). The stem is traversed Yxy a single stele, with solid wood,
without pith ; the primary xylem is triangular in section, the spiral
dements forming one or two groups at each angle, while the phfoem
occupied the bays, so that the structure leserables that of a triarch
root. Two leaf-trace bundles started from each anele of the stel^
and forked, in passing through tha cortex, to supply the veins of
. , the leaf, or its subdivisions. The
l» cortex was deeply furrowed on its
outer surface. The primary stnicture
is only found unaltered in the
youngest stems; secondary jgrowth
by means of a cambium set in very
eariy, xylem being formed internally
and phloem externally in a perfectly
normal manner. At the aame time
a deep-seated periderm arose, by
which the primaiy cortex was soon
entirely cut off. The secondary wood
in the Lower Carix>niferous Mienes,
iS. insigne^ has acalariform tracneides,
I and is traversed by regular medullary
" rays, but in the forms from later
horizons the tracheides are rcticu-
lately pitted, and the rays are for
the most part replaced by a network
of xylem-parenchyma. There are no
recent stems with a structure quite
like that of SphenepkyUum; so far
as the primary structure is concerned,
c,^ It 'vAiiH./»Ai^;«.i. the nearest approach is among the
T)IJ,^hL DLii^mTcin?^ Pni^>teae, with which other characters
ted^n^SS," " »"^^^^• i«me affinity; the base of the
■uiHi"iu«"«** "o-"" - ^^^ ,„ PsUotum forms some secon-
cx. Axis. jiary wood. The diarch roou of a
*'• S!!f?" • .. u SpkenopkyUum have been described
tp, Spofangiopliores, each by RcmuU, who has also investigated
bearing a sporanguim, xht leaves; they were -strongly con-
, . „•"•• . ,, , structed mechanically, and traversed
ftr*, Whori of bracts in surface by slender vaacuUr bundks branching
^fi^^' dichotomously.
fhnt>(eai(Mi.— Williamson thoroughly worked oat, in petrified
anecimens, the organization of a cone which he named Bammanites
Dawsoni; it was suhaequently demonstrated by Sailer that this
fructification betonged to a Spkeuopkyllum, the cones of the well-
known species 5. emmeifolium having a practkalty identical stnicture.
The type of fructification described by Wittiamsoo and now named
Spktnopk^/Uum Dawstmi consists of long cylindrical cones, in
external habit not unlike those of some Calamarieae. The axis,
(PALAEOSDIC
which in structure resembles the metative sfeeai ia iu priaary
condition, bears numerous verticils of bracts, those of each vertStd
being coherent in their k>wer part, so as to form a disc or cup, frocs
the maigin of which the free limbs of the bracts arise. The apor^
angia, whkh are about twice as numerous aa the bracts, are
seated singly on pedicels or s^orangiopbores springing from the
upper surface of the brsct-verticil. near its insertion on the axis
(fig. 6). As a rule two spore ngiophores belons to each bract. The
sporangiuro is attached to the enlarged distal end of its pedicel,
from which it hangs down, so as to sunest an anatropous ovule o«
its funiculus. Dehiscence appears to have Uken place at the free
end of the sporangium; the spores are numerous, aqd, so far as
observed, of one kind only. Each sporangiophore is traversed
throughout iu kngth by a vascular bundle connected with that
which supplies the subtending bract. This form jol fructificatioo
appears, from Zciller's researches, to have been common to several
sjpccies of SpheiupkyUum. but othere show imponant differences.
Thus B^mmamtts R6meru a fructification fully investigated by
Solms-Laubach, differa from S. Dawaoni in tfie fact that tmcu
sporangiophore bears t«n> sporan«a, attached to a distal expsnsso
spproaching the pelute scale of the EquiseUlek It is thus pra^v
that the spomngiophore is not a mere sporangial stalk, hut a di^
tinct organ, in all probability represenUng a ventral lobe of the
subtending bract. The recently discovered species, SPheu^pkyOt ~
ftriiU, while resembling Btwm a nites Rdtneri in its pelute. hspi
angiate spore ngiophores, is peculiar in the fact that both dor
* la ^. sfminam the leaves ia a whori were ef unequal «ie.
. . dorsal
and ventral lobes of the sporophyll were fertile, dividing ia a palmate
manner into several branches, each of which constinites a spor-
angiophore. Thus the sterile bracts of other species are here re-
placed by qwrai^um-bearing organs. Ia SpkemopkpUum wtaJMs^
where the conos are leas sharply defined, the forked brsct bcara
a group of four sporangia at the btfuicatioa% but their mode of
insertion has not yec bom made out.
2, Chnrostrobtae. — ^The family Obesroilroieas is only known from
the petrified fructification (Ckeiroatrobus peU^fcumuis) derived
from the Lower .Carboniferous of Burntisland in Scotland. The
excellence of the preservation of the specimens has icndered it
possible to investigate the complex structure ia detail. The cone
IS of large size — 3*5 cm. in diameter; the stout axis bean nomcroua
whoris of compound inorophylls, the membere of successive verticils
being supcrpoiaed. The sporophylls, of whkh there are clcv«a or
(%Dtt,SM(a.)
Fig. T.—Cktirottn^us. Diagram of cone, the upper part ia
transvecse^ the k>wer ia k>ngitudinal section. In the transverse
section sue sporophylls. each showing three aegmentiw •■«
represented.
SpM^ Sectnn thmigh sterile seg- /. Mtate expansions t>fipocaa>
ments. giophores.
Sp.ht Section through sponnglo* ««, Sporangia.
phores. «.&. Vascular bundles.
tt. Laminae of sterile segments, ey. Stele of axis (>lx).
In the longitudinal soctkm the corresponding parts are ihovn.
twelve in a whorl, are each co m p osed of six segments, three
being inferior or dorsal, and three saperior or vcntraL The
doThal segments are sterile, corresponding to the hncts of SpU-
%ophyUh.m Dawsoni, while the ventral scgmencs constitute pcK
uu aponngiophoras, each bearing lour sporangia, jiMl «a ill «
PALAEOBOTANY
Plate L
Fig. I. — Calamites, Part of transverse section of a young
stem, showing pith, vascular bundles with secondary wood,
and cortex. From a photograph (Scott, *' Studies").
Fig. 4. — Palaeostachya peduncu-
lata. Fertile shoot, bearing nu-
merous cones and a few
leaves. After Williamson {Scott,
''Studies'').
Fig. 5. — Sphenophyllnm insigne. Transverse section of stem, show-
ing triangular primary wood, secondary wood, remains of phloem,
and primary cortex. From a photograph (Scott, "Studies").
Vihit. II.
PALAKOBOTANY
%
^jmj^^
^■
/^•>i
in
M|{. J J. Lytlnodfttdron oldhamium. Transverse section of stem,
nliowltiK Int* pilli ( ontnininK f^roups of Hticrotir cells, the primary
xylrii) hlninilN, HiHoiidury wcmxI und phloem, pcricycle and cortex.
//•//*, Iniflraic'N, niimiHTi'd unordinK to the phyllotaxis, Ifi
hrliMiKiiiK !(' thr lowfHt leaf of the five; ^A, A group of primary
phltHMu; fnlt periderm, formed from pericycle.
B
Ma\-
.^-*
PALAEOZOiq
Calamarian fructification (dg. ^y. The great length and slender
proportions o( the segments give the cone a peculiar character,
but the relations of position appear to leave no doubt as to the
homok^es with the fructification of SphenophyUcae{ as regards
the sporangiophoret. Bountumties Rbmeri occupies exactly the
middle pbce between 5. Dawsoni and Ckeirostrobus. The axis ol
the cone in Ckeirostrobus contains a polyarch stele, with solid
wood, from the angles of which vascular bundles pass out, dividing
in the cortex, tO supply the various segments oi the sporophylls.
In the peduncle of the strobilus secondary tissues ar^ formed.
While tne anatomy has a somewhat Lycopodiaceous character,
the arrangement of the appendaces is altogether that of the Spheno-
phylleae; at the same time Calamarian affinities are indica t ed by
the characters of the sporangiophores and sporangia.
The Sphenophyllales as a whole are best regarded as a synthetic
group, combining certain characters of the Ferns and Lycopods
with those of the Equisetales, while showing marked peculiarities
of their own. Among existing plants their nearest affinities
would appear to be with Psiloteae, as indicated not merely by
the anatomy, but much more strongly by the way in which the
sporangia are borne. There is good reason to believe that the
ventral synangium of the Psiloteae corresponds to the ventral
sporangiophore with its sporangia in the Sphenopbjrilales.
Professor Thomas of Auckland, New Zealand, has brought
forward some interesting variations in Tmesipttris which appear
to afford additional support to this view.
Pseudobomia. — Professor Nathorst has described a remarkable
Devonian plant, Pseudcbornia ttrsina (from Bear Isbnd, in the
Arctic Ocean), which shows affinity both with the Equisetales
and Sphenophyllales.- The stem is articulated and branched,
atuining a diameter of about lo cm. The smaller branches bear
the whorled leaves, probably four in each verticil. The leaves
are highly compound, dividing dichbtomously into several leaflets,
each of which is deeply pinnatifid, with nne segments. When
found detached these leaves were taken for the fronds of a Fern.
The fructification consists of long, lax spikes, with whorled sponv
phylls: indications of megaspores have been detected in the
sporaneb. The discoverer makes this plant the type of a new
class, tne Pseudoborniales. At present only the external characters
are known.
III. LycopodiaUs.— In Palaeozoic ages the Lycopods formed
one of the dominant groups of plants, remarkable alike for (be
number of spedes and for the great stature which many of them
attained. The best known of the Palaeozoic Lycopods were
trees, reaching loo ft. or more in height, but side by side with
these gigantic representatives of the class, small herbaceous
Cub-mosses, resembUng those of the present day, also occurred.
Broadly speaking, the P^eozoic Lycopods, whatever their
dimensions, show a general agreement in habit and structure
with our living forms, though often attaining a much higher
grade of organization. We will first take the arborescent
Lycopods, as in every respect the more important group. They
may all be classed under the one family Lepidodeadreae, which
is here taken to include Sigillaria,
Lepidodendretu.— The genus Lefidodendron, #ith very numero us
species, ranging from the Devonun to the Permian, consisted of
trees, with a tall upright shaft, bearing a dente crown of dicho*
toroous branches; clothed with simple narrow leaves, ranged in
some complex spiral phyllotaxis. In
some cases the foliage is preserved
in situ\ more often, however, especially
in the main stem and larver branches,
the leaves had been shed, leaving
behind them their scats and persistent
bases, on which the characteristic
sculpturing of the Lepidodendroid
surface depends. The cones, often
of large size, were either terminal on
the smaller twigs, or. it is alleged, borne
bteralty on special branches of con-
siderable dimensions. At its base the
Fic 8. — Lcaf-baseof a Lepi- main stem terminated in dichotomous
dcdtudnm, roou or rhizophores. bearins mimer.
sx.. Scar Uft by the leaf. <>«• not\ti%. To these anderground
wJ,., Print of vaiuUr bundle. ^'^ ^^ name S/ifmono is applied;
fp Piirichnos. ^"^V *^ '^^ clearly distinguishable
Ligule '^"^ '^* corresponding parts of
«,«. Superfida! prints bdow SiiiUaria. The numerous described
^r "^ species of Ltpidcdtndron are founded
on the peculiarities of the leaf-
ctnhkx^ and scars, as shown on casts or impressions of the stem.
Tlie usually crowded leaf-cushions are spirally arranged, and present
XX 4*
PALAEOBOTAhfY
529
no obvious orthost fch we. tlius diflTering from thoK of Sipttana,
Each leaf-cushion is slightly prominent: towards its upper end i*
the diamond-shaped or triangular scar left by the fall of the actual
leaf (fig. 8). On the acar are three prints, the central one alone
representing the vascular bundle, whUe the lateral prinu (paricJbMt)
mark the position of merely parenchynutous strands. In the
median line, immediately above the leaf-scar, is a print repieeenting
the ligule, or rather the pit in which it was seatnL On the flaain
of the cushkMi, below the soar, are two superficial prints, perhaps
comparable to lenticels. In the genus L«psiopMotox tne leaf-cushions
are more pfpminent than in LapidodlmdroUt and their greatest
diameter is in the transverse direction; on the older stems the
leaf-scar lies towards the lower side of the cushkm. The genus
Bolhrodemdrou, ^oing back to the Upper Devonian, differa from
Ltpidedemdnm in its minute leaf-scan and Che absence of leaf-
cushions, the scars bang flush with the smooth surface of the sum.
In the Lower Carboniferous of central Russia beds of coal occur
consisting of the cuticles of a Bolhrodcndran, which are not fosttlizcd.
but retain the consistency and chemical composition of similar tissues
in recent plants.
The anatomy of Lepidodendron and its immediate alliea i* now
well known in a number of spedes; the Carbonifcroiw locks of
Great Briuin arc especially rich in petrified specimens, whidi
formed the subject of Williamson's extensive investigations. The
stem is in all cases oionostelic; in most of the foms the central
cylinder underwent secondary crowth, and the distinction between
primary and secondary wood^is very sharply marked. In L.
Harcaurtii, however, the spedes earliest investigated (by Witham*
1833. and Brofwniart, 1837), and in one or two other spedesi no
secondary wood has yet been found. The prinury %ood of
Lepidodendron forms a continuous cylinder, not broken up into
distinct bundles; its devdopment was clearly centripctalr the spiral
elements forming more or less prominent peripheral gyoupa. In
the larger stems of most species there was a central pith, but in
certain of the smaller branches, and throughout the stem in some
species (L. rko du mn u nse, L. sdagitundu), tne wood was solid. A
sinffle leaf-trace, usually collateral in structure, passed out into
each leaf. The primary structure of the stcta was thus of a simple
Lycopodiaceous type, resemblinff on a larger scale what we find
in the upright stem of SelapntUa spinosa. In most spedes («.f.
L. ufacMMdsi, L. Wunsckummm, L. Veltkeimnanum) secondary
growth ia thickness took place, and secondary wood was added*
Fig. 9.^Lepidod€ndrau VtttMmianmH Transverse sectk» of steoi.
p. Pith, almost destroyed. Pk, Phloem and pericyde.
X, Zone of primary wood. er. Stele of a bninch.
px, Protox>iein. m. Periderm.
jc*. Secondary wood. l^. Leaf-bases.
The primary cortex between stele and periderm has perished. (X4l-)
a ragolar radial a naug e u s t nt,
csortndieide8(fig.9). The
often attained a considerable thickness, ^While
in the centrifugal directkM.
with medullary rays bet w ee n the series
'us formed of
MO
PALAEOBOTANY
tPALAEOmC
ptitnaxy phloeni ctn be reoofnised with certainty in favourable
caiea. the question of the formation of secondary phloem by the
cambium is not yet fully cleared u^ In the Lepidodendron JtUi'
tinosum of Williamson, shown by its leaf-bases to have been a
LtpuhpUciost the secondary wood is very irregular, and consists
lankly of parenchyma. Tne same is the case in Lepidodendron
dbovatttm, one of the few species in which both external and internal
characters are known. The occurrence of secondary ^wth in
these plants, demonstrated by Williamson's researches, is a point
of great interest. Some analogy among recent Lycopods is afforded
by the stem of Isoetes, and by the base of the stem in SelapneUa
spituua; in the fosnis the process was of a more normal type, but
aome of its details need further investigation. The cortex, often
shaiply differentiated into sclerotic and parenchymatous sones, is
bordered externally by the persistent leaf-bases. The development
of periderm was a constant feature, and this tissue attained a ^reat
thickness, consisting chiefly of a phelloderm, produced on the mner
side of the formative layer, and no doubt subserving a mechanical
function.
The structure of a Botkrodendron has recently been invest^ted
and proves to be identkal whh that of the petrified stem which
Williamson named Lepidodendron mundum. The anatomy is of
the usual medullate LepModendrokl type; no secondary growth
hasyet been detected in the stem.
The most interestinc point in Che structure of the leaf-base is
the presence of a Hgule, like that of Isoiles or SetagineUct which
was seated in a deep pit, opening on the upper surface of the
cushion, just above the Insertion of the lamina. The 'latter
•hows marked xerophytic adaptations; the single vascular bundle
was surrounded by a sheath of short trachcides, and the slomata
were sheltered in two deep furrows of the lower surface.
' The eones of Lepidodendron and its immediate allies are for
the nKJK part grouped under the name Lepidoslrobms. These cones,
varying from an inch to a foot in length, according to the species,
were borne either on the ordinary tw^ or. as was conjectured,
on the soecial branches {Wodendron and Halonia) above referred
to. In Ulodendron the targe circular, distkrhously arranged prints
were supposed to have been formed bjr the pressure of the baises of
sessile cones, though this interpretation of the scars is open to
doubt, and it is now more probable that they bore deciduous
vegetative branches: in the Halontal branches characteristic of
the genus Lepidobhloios the tuberdcs may perhaps mark the points of
insertion of pedunculate strobili. The organixation of Lepido^
strt^us is essentially that of a Lycopodiaceous cone. The axis^
which in anatomical structure resembles a vegeutive twig, bears
numerous spintly arranged sporophyl!!^ each of which carries a
•iogle large sporamrium on
its upper surface (fig. lo).
The sporophyllf usually
almost horizontal in position,
has an upturned^ lamina
beyond the sporangium, and
a shorter dorsal lobe, so
tliat the form of the whole
b somewhat pdute. A
liguie is present immediately
below the lamina, its position
showing that the whole of
the elongated horirontal
pedu:el on which the spor-
angium is seated corresponds
to the short base of a
Fig. to.—Lepidostrobus, ptagram of vegeutive leaf. The spor-
cone, in longitudinal section. angia, usually of very large
ex. Axis, bearing the sporophylls (spk), siae compared with those of
on each of which a sporangium roost recent Lycopods, have
(sm) is seated. ' a palisade-like outer wall,
fgi Liguie. , ana contain either an im-
The upper sporangia contain nufner>niense number of minute
ous micnxpores; in each of the lower spores or a very small number
sporangia lour megaspores are shown, of exceedingly large spores
(fig. lo). It is very doubtful
whether any homosporous Lepidostrobi existed, but there is reason
to believe that here, as in the ck>sely allied Lepidocarpon, mkro-
sporan^ and megasporangia were in some cases borne on different
strobili. In other species {e.g. in the cone attributed to the Lower
Carboniferous Lepidodendron Vettkeimianum) the arrangement was
thAt usual in SetiagineUa, the mM:rosporangia occurring above and
the on^asporangia below in the same stxobilus (diagram, fig. lo).
The genus SpenceriUi (Lower Coal Measures) differs from JLepido-
ttrobus mainly in the insertion of the sporangium, which, instead
The genus 5i
ttrohus mainljr m inc tnac^iuvii \*\ luv •|m^i«ukiuiu, wiiH.ii, invicwu
of being attached along the whole upper surface of the sporophyll.
was connected with an outgrowt|i on its upper surface by a small
neck of tissue towards the distal end. The spores of thn genus
aes curiously winged, and intermediate in siae between the micro-
spores aod megaspores of Lepidoslrobms; the question of bomospory
or hfcteroapory is not yet decided. Tlie oonea of Boikroiendron and
another form named Mesotlrobms are in some respects intermediate
between Lepidoalrwbtu and SpeaiierHes. A more important devi-
ation from ordinary Lepidostroboid stnictare is shown by the
gen
Loi
;enus Lepidoearpon, from the English Coal Measurea
)wer Carboniferous of Scotland. In this f rixtification the
tion is at first altogether
that of a Leptdosuvbusi
in each mcgasporangium,
however, only a single
mcgaspore came to matu*
rity, occupying almost the
whole of the spora*>gial
cavity (see fig. 13), but
accompanied by the re-
mains of its three abortive
sister cells. An integu-
ment grew up from the
superior surface of the
sporophyll. completely en-
veloping the sporangium,
except for a narrow cre-
vice left open along the
top. In favourable cases
the prothallus is found
f> re served, within the
unctional megaspore or em*
bryo-sac, and the whole
appearance, especially as T^,it,^Upidocarpon
•"" *" "JSIm " '*?«'7i'*' gramraatk: section of^ s
the
LomaxiL pin<
to th« "f"*''!"' i* ij<n ungeniial to the parent suobUus.
remarkably seed-like (see ^.•c l «
diagram, fig. ii). The f(*. Sporophyll.
•eeS-like My was de- »*• j" vascular bundle,
tached as a whole from the *• Integument.
cone, and in this con- '
Micropylar crevice.
Base.
Wall of sporangium.
Membrane of functional wtt^
spore, whkh is filled by the
prothallus, pr,
Carruthcrs. .The analogies witb
dition was known for many '•
years under the name oif '"*•
Cardiocarpon anomaium^ "£•
having beien wrongly identi*
lied with a true Cymno-
spermous seed so named by .
n seed are obvious;, the chief difference ia in the micropyle.
which is not tubular, but forms a k>ng
crevice, running in a direction radial to
the strobilus. Lebidoccrpon affords a
striking instance oi homoplastic modifi-
cation, for there is no reason to suppose
that the Lycopods were on the line of
descent of any existing Spermophyta.
In a male coae. probably oelongtag to
Lepidocarpou Lomaxi, tne microspor*
angia are provided with incomplete
integuments.
Another case of a "seed-bearing"
Lyooppd has lately been discovered oy
Miss Benson in Mtadesmia membranacta^
a slender Selaginella-like plant from the
Lower Coal Measures of Lancashire. The
female fniaification is in the form of a
rather lax strobilus. Each sporophyll
bears a megasporangium, attached to its
upper surface at the proximal end, con-
taining a single lar^e megaspore (fig. 13).
The megasporangium is enclosed in an
integument, whicn completely envek>pes
it, waviiig only a narrow micropyle at
the distal end (fig. 13). The k>ng ten-
tacles of the integument may have
aerved to facilitate pollination. The
seed-like character of the or^n is even
more striking in iiiadesmta than in
Ltpidocatffn. There seems to be no
near affinity between these genera in
which the seed-habit must have arisen
independently. (Sca«t. StelJot)
^cgtUaris.— The great genus 5wf^rM. Fig. 12. —UpUocarpem
even richer in " species than Lepido- Lomaxii. Sporangioa and
dendron, ranges throughout the Carbon- sporophyll before deve>
iferous. but has not yet been detected lopmcnt of integument,
in earfier rocksi The S«illariae, like the (X about It.)
Lepidwkndra, were large trec», but must cu. Lateral . cudifaNM oa
have differed from those of the previoua JBotophyl.
group in habit^ for they appear to have «^, Vaacnkr bundle,
branched sparingly or not at all, the |^ Palisade kver of«por>
lofty upright shaft terminating, Uke "^ angium-inJL
some modem XonthorrhcM, in a great »,•, JonS- layer of wafl.
aheaf of k>ng. grass-like leaves. The «. Base of iponopum.
■trobUi were sulked, and borne on ««, Membrane olmega-
the main stem, among the leaves. The spore or embrmac
roots, or at least tbctr functional repre-
senutives. resembled those of Lepidodomdrm. Tliftchkr distioctivi
character of SitiUaria lies in the arrangement of the leaf-scan,
which form con^ucuoua vertical series on the surface of tlit steaa.
PALAEOZmg
PALAEOBOTANY
S3*
In on« «mt <|ivMion of the cesot— the Ettti|ilbriae— the steiM
are ribbed, each rib beannj; a vertical row of leaf-scars; the ribbed
SigiUariae were formerly divided into two sub-genera— /a>itd(pk^s,
Fig. ly-^icdesmia membranacea. Radial longitudinal tection
of seed-like organ. (X about 30.)
' /, Lamina of sporophytl. /(, Ugules.
f6, Vascular bundle. sm, Sporangium-wall.
V. Velum or integumentl m. Membrane of mcgatpore.
f. Tentacles.
with the scars on each rib' rather widely spaced, and Ftmdaria,
where they are approximated and separated by transverse furrows,
, . each rib thus consisting
I J \ n V 1 1 of a series of conriguous
' '^nn Icaf-bases. This dis-
tinction, however, has
proved to have no con-
stant taxonomic value,
for both arrangements
inay occur on different
parts of the same speci-
men. The species with-
out rib»— Subrigillariae
— were in like manner
. grouped under the two
vb sub-genera Qatkraria
^ and Leiodfrmaria; in
the former each scar is
seated on a prominent
cushion, while in the
latter the surface of the
stem (as in Bothroden-
dron) is perfectly smooth.
Here also the distinction
,««,*.*-«.**.)•- jsi.nr'SrU''?"
Fip. i^.-'SigtUarta Brardu Part of fur- example, showing both
face of ttem, showing five leaf-scan, conditions on the same
^ A . '*•/ . . .. «tem. All these names,
**• Print of vaacubr bundle. however, are stm in use
tat Parichnos. a, descriptive terms.
it, Ligule. Generally, the EusigiU
lariae are characteristic of the older Carboniferous strata, the
Subsigillariae of the Upper Coal Measures and Permian. The leaf-
scars throughout the genus show essentially the same prints as in
LrpidodendroH, differing only in details, and here also a ligule was
present (fig. 14)-
The anatomy of Sipttarta is not so well known as that of Lepido-
dendron, for specimens showing structure are compararively rare,
a fact which may be correlated with the infrequency of bmnchim;
in the genus. The structure of a Clathrarian SigtUaria (5. M*nttrd<),
from tne Permian of Autun. was accurately described by Brong-
niart as long ago as 1839. and a similar spedes, S. spinulosa
("S. Brardi) was investigated bv Renault in 1675, but it waa long
before we had any trustworthy oata for the anatomy of the ribbed
forma. This gap In our knowledge has now been filled op, owing
to Bertrand's investigation of a specimen referred by him to S.
thngala, followed by the detailed researches of Kidston and Arber
on SigUlaria dttaus, seutdlala and mamrUoris. The structure.
of the ribbed Sigfllariae. as at present known, essentially reaemblea
that of a medullate Lepidodtndron, though the riae of primary
wood is narrower. Its outer margin is crenulated. the leaf-traces
being elven off from the middle of each bay. Secondary wood was
formed in abundance, precisely as in most species of Lipidod^ndron.
In the Subslgillarian species 5 Uenardi the primary wood b broken
up into distinct bundles, while in 5. spimdosa their separation is
sometimes incomplete. The secondary cortex or periderm attained
a great development, and in some cases shows considerable differen-
tbtion. On the whole, the anatomy of SigiUaria is closely rebtcd to
that of the preceding group, and in fact a continuous series can be
traced from the anatomically, rimplest species of Lepidedendron to
the moat modified SigiUariat. The leaves of SigiUaria are in some
\ almost identical in structure with those of Lipidadendrm^
but m certam apeaes (5. tewkOaia and S, maauUans) there b
evidence that they were of the Sipttaricpsis type, the leaf being
traversed by two parallel vaacubr strands, derived from the btfurcap
tion of the leaf-trace.
The nature of the fnutiUaliau of SitiUaria was first satbfactorily
determined in 1884 by Zeiller. who found the characteristic SigU-
brian leaf-scars on the peduncles of certain large strobili (SigiUario-
strobus). The cones, of which several species have been described,
bear a strong general resemblance to Lepidastrofnu, differing some-
what in the form of the spofophylb and some other deuib. The
megauwrcs (reaching a mm. or more in diameter) were found
lying loose on the sporophylb by Zeiller; the sporangb containing
them were first observed 6y Kidston, in a species from the Coal
Measures of Yorkshire. That the cones were heterosporous there
can be no doubt, though littb b known as yet of the roicrosporangia.
The discovery of SipUariostro&us, which was the fructification of
Subsigilbriae as well as of the ribbed species, has finally determined
the question of the affinities of the genus, once keenly discussed;
SigiUaria b now ckarly proved to have been a genus of hetero-
sporous Lycopods, with the cloeest affinities to Uptdodtndran.
Siifmaria,— On present e\-ideiice there b no satisfactory dis>'
tinction to be drawn between the subterranean organs of Sigil'
laria and those of Lepidodendron and its immediate allies, though
some progress in the identification of special forms of Stigmaria
has recently been made. These organs, to which the name SUg'
maria wan given by Brooonbrt, have been found in connexion
with the upright stems both of SigiUaria and JJptdodtndron. In
the Coal Measures they commonly occur in the underclay beneath
the coal-seams. Complete specimens of the stumps show that
from the base of the aerial stem four Stigroarbn branches were
R'ven off, whkh took a horisontal or obliquely descending course,
•rkinjg at least twice. These main Stigmarian axes may be 3 to
3 ft. tn dbmeter at the base, and 30 or 40 ft. in length. Their
surface b studded with the characteristic scars of their appendaeea
or rootlets, which ladbted in all directions into the mud. Petri bed
specimens of the main Stigmaria are frequent, and those of its
TDOtleu extraordinarily abundant. The two i»rts are very different
in structure: in the main axb, as shown in the common Coal
Measure form Stigmaria ficoides, the centre was occupied by the
pith, which was surrounded by a aone of wood, centrifugatly
developed throuf^hout. In other species, however, the centripetal
primary scylcm u represented. Phloem, surrounding the wood.
IS recognisable in good specimens; in the cortex the main feature
is the great development of periderm. The rootlets, which branched
by dichotomy, contain a dendcr monarch stele exactly like that
In the roots of JsofUs and some Selagindlae at the present day;
they possessed, however, a com(rfex absorptive apparatus, consist-
ing of lateral strands of xylem, connecting the stele with trachea]
pbtes in the outer cortex. The morphology of Stigmaria has been
much discussed; possibly the main axes, which do not agree per-
fectly either with rhixoroes or roots, may best be regarded as
comparable with the rhixopbores of SdagineUae; they have also
been compared with the embryonic stem, or protocorm, of certain
species of LycoPodium; the homologies of the appendages with the
roots of recent Lycopods appear manifest. It has been maintained
by some palaeobotanists that the aerial stems of SigiUaria arose
as buds on a creeping rhizome, but the evidence for thu conclusion
b as yet unconvincing.
Lycopoditeae.—XJnOu thb name are included the fossil Lycopods
of herbaceous habit, which occur occarionally. from the Devonbn
onwards. One such pbnt, Miadesmia^ has already been referred
to. as one of the seed-bearing Lycopods. In some Lycopoditeae
the leaves were all of one kind, while others were heterophyllous,
like most species of Selagindla. The genus SdatineUiles, Zeiller.
b now used to include those forms in whkh the fructification has
proved to be heterosporous. In SeiagineUites Suissei there was a
definite strobilus bearing both micro- and megasporangb; in each
of the Utter from 16 to 24 megaspores were contained; in Selagind-
lita primaevus, however, the number of megaspores was only 4,
and the resembbnce to a recent Sdagindla was thus complete.
Selapndlites danfatys, another heterosporous spedes, b remarlable
for having no differentbted strobilus, a condition not known in
the recent genus. The antiquity of the Selagiitdla type indicates
that thb group had no direct connexion with the Lepidodendreae.
but sprang from a distinct and equally ancient herbaceous stock.
There is. however, some evidence that Jsoiies. which in several
respects agrees more neariy with the Lepidodendreae, may actually
represent their last degenerate survivors (see Plewomeia, in III..
Mesozoic). No homoeporoua Lycopoditeae have as yet been
recognixed.^
IV. Filicaks.'^l all Vascnlar Cryptogams the Ferns have
best maintained their position down to the present day. Until
recently it has been supposed that the class was well r epresen ted
in the Palaeosok period, and, indeed, that h was rdatively, and
perhaps absolutely far richer in spedes even than in the recent
flora. Within the last few years, however, the position has
completely changed, and the majority of the tupposcd Palteoaok
532
PALAEOBOTANY
Ferns are now conmooly regarded as more probably seed-bearing
pUnts, a conclusion for which, in certain cases, there is already
convincing evidence. The great majority of spedmena of fossil
fern-like plants are preserved in the form of carbonaceous
impressions of fronds, often of remarkable perfection and beauty.
The characters shown by such specimens, however, when, as is
usually the case, they are in the barren state, are notoriously
unstable, or of small taxonomlc value, among recent plants.
Hence palatebolanists have found it necessary to adopt a purely
artificial system of classification, based on form and venation
of the frond, in the absence of adequate data for a more natural
grouping. The well-known form-genera Peccpteris^ SpkemC'
ptcris, Odontopteris, &c., are of this provisional nature. The
majority of these fronds have now fallen under suspicion and
can no bnger be accepted as those of Ferns; the indications
often point to their having belonged to fern-like Spermophyta,
as will be shown below.
I It has thus become very difficult to dedde what Palaeozoic
plants should still be referred to the Filices. The fructifications
by themselves are not necessarily decisive, for i» certain cases
the supposed sporangia of Marattiaceous Ferns have turned out
to be in reality the microsporangia or poUen-sacs of seed-bearing
plants (Ptcridosperms). It is, however, probable that a con-
siderable group of true Ferns, allied to Marattiaceae, existed in
Palaeozoic times, side by side with simpler forms. In one respect
the fronds of many Palaeozoic Ferns and Pt endosperms were
peculiar, namdy, in the presence on their rachis, and at the base
of their pinnae, of anomalous leaflets, often totally different in
form and venation from the ordinary pinnules.. These curious
appendages {ApkUhuu), at first regarded as parasitic growths,
have been compared with the feathery outgrowths which occur
on the rachis in the Cyatheaceous genus UemiUlia, and with the
anomalous pinnules found in certain spedes of CUkkenia, at the
points of bifurcation of the frond.
It UaraUiaceag, — ^A considerable number of the Palaeozoic fern-like
planu show indications— more or leas decisive — of Marattiaceous
.affinities; tome account of this.eroup will first be given. The
reference of- these ferns to the famUy Marattiaceae, so restricted in
the recent flora, rests, of course, primarily on evidence drawn
from the fructifications. T^^pically Marattiaceous sori, consisting
of exannulate sporangia united to form synangia. are frequent,
and are almost always found on fronds with the character ol
PecotUris, large, repeatedly pinnate leaves, resembling those of
Cyatneaceae or some M)ecies of Nephrodium. In certain cases the
anatomical structure of these leaves is known, and found to ai^
generally with that of recent coriaceous fern-fronds. The petiole
was usually traversed by a single vascular bundle, hippocrepiforro
in section — a marked point of difference from the more complex
petioles of recent Marattiaceae. There is evidence that in many
cases these Pecopterotd fronds belonged to arborescent plants, the
stems on which they were borne reaching a height of as much as
60 ft. These stems, known as McMphytum when the leaves were
in two rows, and as Catdopteris in the case of polysdchous arrange-
ment, are frequent, especially in the Permian of the Continent:
when petrified, so that their internal structure is preserved, the
name Psaronius is employed. The structure is often a complex one,
the central region containing an elaborate system of numerous
anastomosing steles, accompanied by sderenchyma; the cortex b
permeated or coated by a multitude of adventitious roots, formine
a thick envelope to the stem. The whole structure bears a ^neral
resemblance to that of recent Marattiaceae. though diffcnna in
deuil. We will now describe some of the fructifications, which
are grouped under generic names of thdr own: these genera, as
having a more natural basis, tend to supersede the artifictal groups
founded on vegetative characters. The genus Asterotktca includes
a number of Ferns, chiefly of Gal Measure age. with fronds of the
Peccpieris type. The sori. or synangia. ranged in two series on
the under-«de of the fertile pinnules, are circular, each consisting
of 3 to 6 sporaneia, attached to a central receptacle and partly
united to each other (fig. 15. A); the sporangia separated when
mature, dehiscing by a ventral slit. Stur's genus HavUa (fig. 15. H),
characterized by the separation of the sporangiat may only re-
present an advanced stage of an AJkrHheea. ^ In Ptyckccarpus the
fusion of the sporangia to form the synangium was much more
complete: Saieeoptens resembles AsteriAeca, but each synangium
is stalked. In all these genera there is an obvious similarity to the
synangia of Kcw^ussia, while in some re^MCU Marattia ot Datuua
is approached. In another Pecopterotd genus, StuneDa, the
synangia resemble thooe of AtUroUieca, but each sporangium is
provided with a band of enlarged cells of the nature of an annuloa
<fic* iSt D). Aa a similar diffcrestlation, though less marked.
CPALACOZOIC
appears in the reeent genus Anif^pUns, the presumption Is la
favour of the Marattiaceous affinities of SturiMs, which also shows
some relation to the genus CorynepUris (see below, BoCfvopteridcae).
In the genus DanaetUs, from the Coal Measures of the Saar, the
synangia are much like those of the recent Dcnata, each sporangium
opening by an apical pore. In the Grand' Eurya o( Stur the spor-
angia appear to have been free from each other, as in Augi^pUrix.
On the whole there Is thus good evidence for the frequency of
Marattiaceae in the Palaeozoic period, thouch the poesibdity that
the fructifications may really represent the microsporangia of
fern-like spermophytes must always be borne in mind. In a certain
number of genera the reference to Marattiaceae is much mor^
doubtful. In Daayloth$ca^ for example (fig. 15. C). a T
(After vuious autkorv Scott. 5Mms.)
Fic. 15.— Croup of Palaeozoic fructifications cS Ferns or
Pieridosperms.
A, AsUrolkeca. i. Pinnule bearing 8 synangia. a. SynaagimB in
side view. 3, In section, magnified.
B, RenatuUa. 1, Fertile pinnule* nat. size, a, Spocao^m,
enlarged.
CDadyletkeca, as in B.
D. Sturiella. Seaion of pinnule and synangium. a, Vaacslar
bundle:^ c, hairs; b, d, annulus. magnified.
£, Oiiiocarpia. Sorus in surface-view, magnified.
F, CrossoUuca. Fertile pinnule, bearing several tufts of oucfo-
sporangia. magnified.
G. Senftenbertia. Group of annulate sponngia, magnified.
H. HawUa. ^nangium after dehiscenoe, magnified.
J, Urnalcpuru. 1. Part of fertile pinna, nat. size, a, Sporaj^ia^
shotring apical pores, rfiagnified.
Of the above. A, D. E, G and H. probably belong to true Ferns;
F is the male fructification of a Ptendosperm ULygiModemdrom): the
rest are of doubtful nature.
genus, Tsnging throughout the Carboniferous, the eloogated ipor^
angia individually resemble those of Marattiaceae, but they mn
completely isolated, the characteristic grouping in sori beii« atMent ;
the same remark applies to the Spheoopteroid Renaidlia of Zeillef
la many fern-like planu of this period the fronds were dimonlnc,
the fertile leaves or pinnae having a form quite diflereot iroos
that of the vcsetative portkms. This was the case in UfueU*ltris
(Kidston), with SphenopteroU sterile foUage; the sporaagm, borvc
on the filiform pinnules of the fenile rachis. appear so have dehisced
The magnibosot Dcvooiaa Fens
by an apical pore (fig 15. J)
. the fructification is still imiieifectly m
stood, but the presence of stipules, observed by Kidatoo, has
Archaeopleru Ihhemki,
special fertile pinnae
somewhat Adiaatifonn habit* bor«
the fructification is still imneifectly
adduced in support of Marattiaceous aflinitics. In yi these «
there is reason ro suspect that the plaau may have been Plcrid»»
sperms* lathcr than Fcma.
PALAEOZOIC}
OHer FaMi/ltf .— The M«imttIaeMe are tike Mty recent (Mnlly of
Ferns which can be tuppMd to have cxiited in anything like it*
present form in Palaeosoic times. 0( other xecent orders the
indications are meagre and' dubious, and there can be no doubt
that a targe proportion of Ferns from the older rocks (in so far as
they were Ferns at all) belonged to families auite distinct from any
which we recognixe in the flora of our own oay. Little or nothing
PALAEOBOTANY
533
is known of Palaeozoic Ophioglossaccae. Certain fructifications
have been referred to Gleichcniaceae {Oltgocarpia, fig. 15^ E),
Schizaeaceae (Senftenberiia, fig. 15, G). Hymcnophyt&ceae and
Osmundaceac, and on good grounds, so far as the external charactars
of the sporangia are concerned ; our knowledge of most of the Ferns
in question is, however, far too incomplete to justify us in asserting
that they actually belonged to the families indicated. In ^e case-
of the Osmundaceac there is good evidence, from anatomical char-
acters, for tracing the family back to the Palaeozoic; ihcir oldest
members show a distinct relationship to the fiotryopteridcae. de-
scribed in the next paragraph. Numerous more or less isolated
fern-sporangia occur m the petrified material of the Carboniferous
fornution; the presence of an annulus is a frequent character
among these specimens, while synangic sori are rare; h is thus
certain that families remote from the Marattiaceae were abundantly
represented during this period.
BotrvofHertdeae.—The family Botrvo^eriieae^ first discovered by
Renault, stands out with stnlcing clearness among the Palaeozoic
A Ferns, and differs widely from any
group now in existence. The Botry-
opundeae are chiefly known from
Mtrified specimens; in the genus
OvtryopUfu and certain species of
Zygopteris we have a fairly complete
knowledge of all parts of the plant.
The type-eenus BolryopUru, repre-
sented in the Permo-Carbonifcrous of
France and in both the Lower and
Upper Carboniferous of Great Britain,
haa a rhizome, with a very simple
monostelic structure, bearing spirally
arranged compound leaves, with lobcd
ginnuies, probably of a somewhat
eshy texture In the French
A, Group of sporangia, in species, B. fortnsis, the plant was
surface view. ^ covered with characteristic jointed
B, Single sporangium, in hairs, which have served to identify
transverse section, showing the various organs on which they
annulus on both sides, occur. The sporangia were large pyri-
magnified. form sacs, shortly stalked, and borne
in tufts on the branches of the fertile rachis, which developed no
lamina. Each sporangium had, on one side onlv, a longitudinal
or dightly oblique annulus, several cells in width; the numerous
spores were all of the same size; certain differences among them,
which have been interpreted as indicating heterospory. have now
proved to depend merely on the state ol preservation. The genus
Zytppteris, of which numerous Carboniferous and Permian species
are known, likewise had a monostelic stem, but the structure of
its vascular cylinder was somewhat complex, resembling that of
the most highly difTercntiated Hymcnophyilaccae, with which some
species of Zytopleris also agreed in the presence of axillary shoots.
There is evidence that the stem in some species was a climbing
one; the pinnate leaves, arranged on the stem in a two-fifths
spiral, were dimorphic, the sterile fronds resembling some forms of
(After Rcoault.)
Fic. 16.— Zygopteris pintu^a.
(FransdnviogbyMaD.aScott. $c«U, 5AiA4s.)
FiC. tj.—StauroMcris oUthamxa, Three sporangia borne on
branchleu of the rachis. In A the stomium (x/) or place of dehiscence
Is shown. B is cut tangentially. In C, ^ is the palisade tissue of
the rachis. (X about 35)
Spktnoplms. The petioles have a somewhat complex stntctufc,
the bundle often having, in transverse section, the form of an
Hi it haa been proposed to subdivide the genus on the dstaib of
the fKtiolar stni^tfre. It is characteristie of ZytafiUru and its
near allies that two rows of pinnae were borne on each side of the
rachis, at least in the fertile fronds. On the fertile rachis the
sporangia were borne in tufts, much as in the preceding genus;
they were still larger, reaching a*5 mm. in length, and had a multi-
seriate annulus. extending, however, to both sides of the sporangium
(see fig. 16, A and B). In SlauropUris. a geaus showing some
affinity with Zygopteris, the branched rachis of the fertile frond
terminates in fine branchlcts, each bearing a single, spherical
sporangium, without any diiferenfiated annulus <fig. 17}. The
spores in the sporangia have been found in a germinating
condition; the stages of germination correspond closely with
those observed in recent homosporous ferns (hg. 18). This faa
strongly confirms the conclusion, drawn from morphological and
anatomical characters, that the Botryopterideae were true Ferns.
The ^us Corynepleru of Baily is mteresting from the fact
that us sporangia, while individually similar to those of Zyf
pUris, were «x>uped in sori or synangb, resembling those of an
AsUrolkeca. The family Botryopterideae appears to have included
a number of other genera, though in most cases the evidence from
vegetative structure is alone available. The genus DipUtlabis of
Renault, shows much in common with Zygopteris as regards ana-
is of great interest, as presenting points of conuct with various
recent orders, especially Hymenophyllaceae, Osmnndaceae and
Ophioglossaccae : tne group appears to have been a synthetic t>ne,
belonging to a primitive stock (the Primofilices of Arber) from
which toe later Fern families may have sprung.
A number of genera of Palaeozoic *' fern-fronds " have been
described, of the fructification of which nothing is known. This
is the case, for example, with Diplolmema, a genus only differing
from Spkenopteris in the dichotomy of the primary pinnae, and
with MariopUris, which bears a similar relation to Pecopieris.
The same holds good of the Pecopteroid Ferns included under
Callipteris and CaUipteridium. In such cases, as will be
explained below, there is a strong presumption that the fronds
were not those of Ferns, but of seed-bearing plants of the new
class Ptcridospermeae.
On the present evidence ft appears that the chiss Filicates
was well represented in the Palaeozoic flora, though by no means
so dominant as was formerly supposed. The simpler Ferns
(Primofilices) of the period are for the most part referred to the
remarkable family Botryopterideae, a group very distinct from
— C
(Fnm s dnvioc by Ur L. A Boodle. Scou, 5Aidfai.)
FlO. iS.-^Siauropteris oldkamia. Four germinating s^res from
the interior of a sporangium. All four are putting out rhizolds. In
C lying horizontally, an additional cell has been cut off between
rhizoid and spore. (X 535.)
any of the more modem families, though showing analogies with
them in various directions. Qn the other hand there was the
far more complex MaraUiaceous type, suikingly tirailar in both
vegetative and reproductive characters to the recent piemben
of the family. Although doubts have lately been cast on the
authenticity of Palaeosoic Marattiaceae owing to the difficulty
in distinguishing between their fructifications and the pollen-
bearing organs of Pterido8pe^n^ the anatomical evidence (stem
of Psaranitu) strongly confirms the opinion that a considerable
group of these Ferns existed.
SpermopkyUt,'^Tht Ptcridospermeae, for which PotoniS*s
name Cycado1Uke$ Is still sometimes aaed, indnde ail the
feni"lika planu which, on the evfdenoe available, appear to
53+
PALAEOBOTANY
(PALAEOZOIC
have been reproduced by means of seeds. The cases In Which
such evidence is decisive arc but few, namely, Lyginodendrcn
oldhamium, Ncutopteris heterophyUa, Pecopteris Pluck-
eneli, AneimiUs ferliiis and AneimiUs tenmfolius. In
the first-named plant the structure, both of the vege-
tative and reproductive organs, b known, and the evidence, from
comparison and association, is sufTidently sUong. In the other
cases there is direct proof of continuity between seed and plant,
but only the external characters are known. In a great number
of forms, amounting to a majority of the Palaeozoic pbnts of
fern-like h^bit, the indirect evidence is in favour of their having
possessed seeds. We will begin with the Lyginodendreae, a
group in which the anatomical characters indicated a systematic
position between Ferns and Cycads, long before the reproductive
organs were discovered.
Lytinodendreae.— Of the genus Hderaneium, which still lUnds
very near the true Ferns, several species are known, the oldest
(After Wmumwn. Scott, Staiiti.)
Fig. 19. — Hdrrangium Grievii. Restoration of Stem, shown partly
in transverse and longitudinal section, partly in surface view.
X. Primary wood. ky, Hypodcrma.
x*. Secondary wood. U, U, Leaf-traces.
px. Phloem and pericycle. r. Adventitious n)ot. Several
c. Cortex. leaf'bascs are shown.
being H. Cruvii, of WHIiamson, from the Lower Carboniferous of
Scotland. This plant had a long, somewhat slender, ridged stem,
the ridges corresponding to the dccurrent bases of the spirally
arranged leaves (fig. 10). The specimens on ' which the genus
was founded are pctrined, showing structure rather than habit,
but conclusive eviaence has now b^n obtained that the foliage of
H. CHevii was of the type of SphenopUris {DtpUdmema) dedans
(fig. 30), and was thus in appearance altogether that of a Fern,
with somewhat the habit of an AtpUnium. The stem has a single
stele, resembling in general primary structure that of one of tne
simpler species of CUukenia; there is no pith, the wood extending
to the centre of the stde. The leaf-traces, where they traverse
the cortex, have the structure of the foliar bundles in C>xads, for
they are of the collateral type, and their xylem is mesarch, the
q>irai elemenu lying in the -interior of the ligneous strand. Tlie
leaf-traces can t>e distinguished as distinct strands at the periphery
of the stele, as shown in fig. 31. Most of the specimens had
formed a zone of secondary wood and phloem resembling^ the
corresponding tissues in a recent Cycad; the similarity extended
to minute histological deuils, as is shown especially in //. lUwoidcs,
a Coal Measures species, where the preservation is rcmarlcably
periecL The cortex was strongly constructed mechanically;- in
addition to the strands of fibres at the periphery, boriaontal pbtcs
of stone^ells were present in the inner cortex, giving both stem'
and petiole a transversely striated appearance, which has served
to identify the different parts of the plant, even in the carbonized
condition (cf. figs. 19 and 30). The single vascolar bundle which
traversed the petiole and its branches was concentric, the leaves
resembling those of Ferns in structure as well as in habit. HeUr-
mnpum shows, on the whole, a decided preponderance of Filicinean
vegetative characters, though in the leaf-traces and the secondary
tissues the Cycads are approached. The oivans of reproduction
ate not yet known, though there is a probabthty that an associated
seed allied to Laatnostoma (see bdow) belonrnd to HtUraniimm.
In the Coal Measure genus Uevdoxylon, of Seward, which in
scnietnre bears a geneial resemblanoe to Heienniium, the primary
' consists for the most part of short wkle trachciiks; probably.
my
\>^%
(After Stv. SceM.StadUt.)
Fic. 20.—Spkenopt€ris dtiatu (foliage of ffeterangimm Grievii),
Part of frond. (] nat size.)
as the secondary tissues increased, it had become superfluous for
conducting pui " ^ -» - ...
In the genus
conducting purposes, and was adapted rather for water-storage.
LytiHodemUoH, of which L, oUkamimm, from um
M'
(Seaa. Staikt.) , _
Fic. 21. ^Heterantitan Griini. Part of the stele of the stem in
transverse section, showing a primary xylem-strand and adjacent
tissues. (X 135.) ^^
px. Protoxylem of strand. e.p. Conjunctive tissue.
X, Centripetal. x«. Secondary wood.
x\ Centriionil primary wood. cb. Cambium.
MX. Part of the mtemal wood. />*•, Phfoem.
PALACMOiq
PALAEOBOTANY
535
Coal Meuoret, is now the bett-known of all Pabeo<oic plants, the
central wood hat diMppeared altogether and is replaced by pith;
the primary wood is onl^ represented in the leaf-trace strands,
which form a ring of distmct collateral bandies around the pith:
(Fnm s Bodtl after Ottvtr.)
Fig. 33. — Lagenostoma Lomaxii (the seed of LygtHodendroH).
Restoration of a seed, enclosed in the lobed cupule, which bears
numerous glands. (X about 15.)
thus the " medullate-monostelic " structure characteristic of the
higher plants was already attained. The individual bundles,
however, have the same structure as in HiUramgiumt and agree
(From a phoiO(nph. Scott. Studiet.)
Fio. 24. — Capitate gland on the cupule of Lagenostoma Lomaxiu
(X 70.)
closely with the foliar bundles of Cycads. The secondary tissues,
which are highly developed, are also of a Cycadcan character
(fig. 23. Pbte). The vegetative organs of the plant are very
completely known; the foliage has proved to be that of a SpkettO'
rnSt identical with the species long known under the name of
Haningkausu Apart from the important advance shown in the
anatomy^ of the stem, Lyginodendron agrees structurally with
HeUrangium, There b reason to believe that LygtHodendrom old'
kamtum was a climbing pbnt connparable in some respects to such
recent Ferns as DavaMia ocW^ola. The roots were at first like those of
Marattiaceae but grpw in thickness like the roots of Cymnosparms.
The iirrt definite evklenee of the mode of reproduction of
Lygitudtndfon oldhamimm was due to F. W. Oliyer, who In 1903
identified the seed, Lagenostoma Lomaxii, by means of the glands
on its cupule. whkh agree exactly with those on the associated leaves
and stems of the plant (cf. figs. 24 and 25). No similar glands are
known on any other Palaeozoic plant. Lagenostoma Lomaxii is a
small barrel-shaped seed (5*5 by 4-25 mm. when mature) enclosed in a
husk or cupule, which completely enveloped it when young, but was
ultimately open (figs. 23 and 26 and fig. 27 from another species).
The seed was stalked, and there is an exact agreement in structure
between the vaseular strands of the stalk and cupule of the seed,
and those of the rachis and leaflets of Lyginodendron, thus con-
firming the evidence from the glands. The seed itself is of a
Cycadcan type, and radially symmetrical. The single integument
is united to the nucellus. except at the top. and is traversed by
about nine vaacolai* strands. In the apex of the nucellus, as in
most Palaoosoic seeds and in recent Cycads, a pollen-chamber, for
the reception of the pollen-grains or microspores, is excavated
(fig. 26). In Lagenostoma the polIeo<hamber has a peculiar
(Ptaaapkouvmik Scott. 51«rfte4
Fig. 25.— Capiute Gland on the Petiole of Lyginodendron
oldhamium, (X 70.)
structure, a solid column of tissue ri»ng up in the middle, leaving
only a narrow annular crevice, in which pollen-grains are found.
The neck of the fla»k-&haped pollen-chamber projected a little
from the micropyle and no doubt received the pollen directly.
The seed, which need not be described in further detail, was a
highly organised structure, showing little trace of the crvptogamk
megasporangiura from which we must suppose it to have been
denved. From the structure of the seed-bearing stalk, and from
the analogy of the similar form Lagenostoma Snulairi (fig. 27) it
appears that the seed was borne 00 a leaf, or part of a leaf, reduced
to a branched rachis.
The male organs of Lyginodendron were discovered by Kidston,
a year or two alter the seras were identified. They are of the type
known as Crossotkeca. formcriy regarded as a Marattiaccous fructi-
fication. The genus is charactenxed bv the arrangement of the
sporangia, whicn hang down from the loik'er surface of the little
oval fertile leaflets, the whole resembling an epaulet with its fringe
(fig 15. F; fig. 28). In the case of Lyginodendron the Crosso-
theca occure in connexion with the vegetative parts of the frond.
Each fertile pinnule bore six. or rarely seven lusiforro microspore
angia. described as bilocular; not improbablv each may represent
a synangiura The microspores are trtrahedraL This is the first
case in which the pollen-bearing organs of a Ptsrido^>erm have
been identified with certainty
It will be seen that, while the seeds of Lyginodendron wcrt of aa
536
PALAEOBOTANY
(PALAECnOIC
advanced Cycadean type, the mksxMpocangiatc ofKant were more
like thote of a Fern, the reproductive organs thus showing the
«me combination of characten which appears ta the vegetative
A, Micropylar refion.
B, Body of seed.
C, ChaUsal region.
-.dD.SuIIc
c, Cupule, nirrounding
seed.
«6, Vascular bundles of
stalk, cupule and
integument.
tp, " Canopy^" or water-
^ reservoir, at top of
^^ integument.
pc, Cavity of pollen*
chamber.
fc. Central column,
ape. Aperture of potlea*
coamber.
(After OBm. SaoO, Simdia.)
Flc. 36. — Lag/tnostoma Lomaxii. Diagram of seed in median
longitudinal section,
structure. The family CalamobUyeat, allied anatomically to Lygino*
dendrcae, is of Devonian and Lower Carboniferous age.
CycadoxyUae, — A few Coal Measure and Permian stems {Cjcad-
oxyCom and Ptychox^on) resemble Lyginodendron in the general
character of their tissues, but show a marked reduction of the
primary wood, together with
an extensive development of
anomalous wood and bast
around the pith, a fiecuUarity
which appears as an individuju
variatk>n in some specimens
of Lyginodendron oldkamium.
It is probable that these stems
belonged 'to plants with the
fructification and foliage of
Cycads, taking that group in
the widest sense. It is only
quite at the close of the
Palaeozoic period that Cycads
begin to appear. The Lycino-
dendrcae type of struct urc.how-
evcr, appears to have formed
the transition not only to the
Cycadales. but also to the ex^
tinct family Cordaiteae^ the
characteristic Palaeozoic Cym-
oosperms (see p. 107).
Meduiloieae. — In some re-
spects the most remarkable
family of the Cycad-fern
alliance is that of the Medul-
loseac.sced-bearing plants oft en
of great size, with a fern-like
foliage, and a singtibrly com-
After Arti«r. SoM.in-UmM.i . . |4cxarutomical Structure with-
Fic. aj.—Laienoaoma Stnclatn, out parallclamongrec^nt plants.
Two seeds, enck»sed in lobed cupulcs Some of the Mcdullowae must
and bomeon branches of the racho. have had a habit not unlike
(X S) that of tree-ferns, with com-
pound leaves of enormous dimeiiMons, belonging to various frond-
cenera — especially, as has now been proved, to AtelkopUns and
yeuropuris; thne are among the most abundant of the Car-
boniferous fronds commonly attributed to Ferns, and extend
back to the Devonian. In habit some species of Altikopteris
resembled the recent AngicpUris, while the NntropUns foliage
may be compared with that of ^ an Osmunda. The Medullosa
stems have been found chiefly in the Permo-Carboniferous of
France and Germany, but a Coal Measures species (Af. an^ica)
has been discovered in Lancashire. The great anatomical charac'
teristic of the stem of the Modulloseae is its polystelic structure
with secondary developmem of «-ood and bast around each stele.
In A/, aaffica, the simplest species known, the stele* are uniforni.
and tttually only three in Bumber; the ftmctiire of the stem is
essentially that of a polystelic tfafsraagiaan. In the Permo-
Carboniferous speciea. such as ^*"
i#. suUata and M. LmckaHt, the
arrangementis morecomplicated,
the steles showing a differentia-
tion into a central and a peri-
pheral system: the aecondaiy
growth was extensive and un-
equal, usually attaininj{ its maxi-
mum on the outer side of the
peripheral steles. In certain
cases the structure was further
complicated bv the appearance
of extrafascicular zones exterior
to the whole stebr system.
The spirally arranged petioles
iiiydoxyUm) were 01 great size,
a nd t heir decurrent baMs clothed
the surface of the stern ; their (From a
structure isclosely similar to that -S*^*" > « /» .1. wr-
of recent Cycadean petioles: in ^ ^^^' ai.—Crossotheec Hontnf
fact, the leaves generally, like *o«"' J*>« «"*»« (£««.«fi«*i»n «^
those of Stanteria at the present ^yvnod€ndron. .tertUe leaflet v
day, while fern like in habit, }»»/«** •porangia,, and stenle
were Cycadean in structure. In fe?«^ °» \*»* "**» "* ^ "'^
the case of UeduUosa anilua we •***• ^^ 2)
have an almost complete knowledge of' the vegetative organs —
stem, leaf and root; Cycadean characters no doubt predominate,
but the primary organization of the stem was that of a polystrltc
Fern. In the new genus Suidiffia, also from the Coal Measurrs of
Lancashire, the stem had a single, large central stele, from which
smaller strands were given off, forming a kind of network, which
gave rise to the numerous concentric leaf-traces which entered the
FiO. ^^.—Neurobteris keUropkytU. Seed, attached to a braach ol
the rachis bearing two vegeutive leaflets. (X 3.)
petioles. This plant may be regarded as anatomically the ttumt
primitive of the Medulloseae
In one member of the Medulloseae, there is direct evidence of
reproductkni by seeds, for in NeurppUris kHefpkylim KidMoa has
demonstrated that large seeds, of the siae of a haael-nut, «rre
borne on the frond (fig 39). In this case the internal stntcture ia
not known, but another seed, Trigmoca^pus Parkinsoni, associated
with, and probably belonging to. the Alethopterid species, MeduUom
aniliui, occurs in the petrified condition and has been fully investi-
Kted. This is a brge seed, with a very long micropyle; it has a
aked pollen-chamber, and a complex integumeiit made up of
, hard and fleshy layers, closely resembling the sevd of a oioiltTik
i Cycad : the nucellus, bowevcr« w«s free from the intqpimcat. ««ch
PALAEOaNCI
having its own vaacolar syatem. Vanoof other «eds of tke wuut
type are known, and in a great number of inttanccs Grand' Eury
has found tbe fronds of Neuropcerideae (Medullotieae) in cloae um>-
ciation with definite specie* of seeds, so there can be little doubt
thaf tbe whole family was seed-bearing. Very little is known at
present of the male organs. Some authors nave been so much
impressed by the similarity ci this extinct family to the Cycads,
that they have regarded them as beine on the direct line of descent
of the latter group; it is more probable, however, that they formed
a short divergent phylum, dasitinct. though not remote, from the
Cycadean stock.
PecopkridtM. — It has now been esublished that the form-genus
Pecoptiris, once regarded as representing the typical Marattiaceoos
foliage, was in port made up of seed4>earing plants. In 1905
Grand' Eury discovered the seeds of PeeopUru Pluckeneti, an
Upper Coal Measure species, attached, in immense numbers, to
the fronds, which are but little modified as compared with the
ordinary vceetative foliageL The seeds are flat and winged, closely
resembling those of some Cordaiteae (see below). Another form of
fructification, compared to the son of Dtckscma, appears to represent
the male organs. There is reason to believe that other species of
PtcopUrii and similar genera, (CaUipferis and liariopteris) bore
seeds, though the artmdal group Pecopterideae probably also
includes the fronds of true Marattiaoeous Fems^
AneimiUae. — ^The genus AmHmiles, resembling the Maidenhair
Ferns in habit, has now been tFamrferred to the Pteridospenns,
PALAEOBOTANY
537
are borne terminally on the lateral pinnae of a frond, which else-
where bears the characteristic cuneiform leaflets. Continuity be-
tween seeds and frond was also demonstrated in another species,
A. temtifUittt, The allied genus BttmopterU occurs in association
with seeds of a similar platyspermic type.
The Pteridospenns, of which only a few examples have been
considered, evidently constituted a group of vast extent In
Palaeozoic times. In a large majority of the Fern-like fossils
of that period the evidence is in favour of reproduction by seeds,
rather than by the cryptogamic methods of the true Ferns.
The dass, though clearly allied to the typical Gymnosperms,
may be kept distinct for the present on account of the relatively
primitive characters shown in the anatomy and morphology, and
may be provisionally defined as follows: plants resembling Ferns
in habit and in many anatomical characters, but bearing seeds
of a Cycadean type; seeds and microsporangia borne on fronds
only slightly modified as compared with the vegeUtive leaves.
Gymnospermous remains are common in Palaeozoic strata
from the Devonian onwards. Tbe investigations of the last
garter of the 19th century established that these
2J^^ early representatives of the dass did not, as a rule,
belong to any of its existing families, but formed for
the most part a distinct group, that of the Cordaitales, which has
long since died out. Specimens of true Cycads or Conifers are rare
or doubtful until we come to the latest Palaeozoic rocks. Our
knowledge of the Cordaiteae (the typical family of the class Cordai-
tales) is chiefly dile to tbe French investigators, Grand' Eury and
Renault, who successfully brought into connexion the various
fragmentary remains, and made known their exact structure.
Cordaitaitt. — ^The discovery of the fossil trunks and of their
rooted bases has shown that the Cordaiteae were large trees, reaching
«> metres or more in height; the lofty shaft bore a dense crown <H
Branches, clothed with long simple leaves, spirally arranged. Fig. 30.
founded on one of Grand Eury's restorations, rives an idea c3 the
habit of a tree of the genus Dorycordaites, characterized by iu
lanceolate acute leaves; in the typical CordaiUs they were of a
blunter shape, while in PoacordaiUs they were narrow and grass-
like. The leaves as a rale far exceeded m size those of any of the
Coniferae, attaim'ng in lome species a length of a metre. (Jf living
genera. Aiotkis (to which the Kauri Pine of New Zealand belong*)
probably comes nearest to the extinct family in habit, though at
a long mtervaJ. The stem resembled that cit Cycads in having a
large pith, sometimes as much as 4 in. in diameter; the wood,
however, was dense, and had the structure of that of an Araucarian
Conifer; specimens of the wood have accordingly been commonly
referred to the genus AraucaricatjUni, and at one rime the idea
prevailed that wood of this type indicated actual affinity with
Araucarieae. Other characters, however, prove that the Cordaiteae
were remote from that family, and the name Araucarioxyton is
best limited to wood from later horizons, where a near relationship
to Araucarieae is more probable.* In some cases the external
tissues of the Conlalteao stem are wdl preserved: the cortex pos-
sessed a system of hypoder m al strands of fibres, comparable to
those found in the Lyginodendreae. In most cases the leaf-traces
passed out from the stem in pairs, as in the recent Ginkgo; dividing
up further as they entered the leaf-base. In many Coniaitcae the
pith was diuotd^ ix. fistular and partitioned by frequent diaphragms,
as in some species of Pinus and other plants at the present day.
The curious, transversdy-ribbed fossils known as Stemberria or
ArHria have proved to be casts of the mcduHary cavity of Cor-
daiteae; their true nature was first demonstrated by Will
in 185a In those stems which have been referred with certainty
to the Cordaiteae there is no centripetal wood ; the spiral elements
are adjacent to the pith, as in a recent Conifer or Cycad; certain
stems, however, are known which connect this type of structure
with that of the Lyginodendreae: this, for exampw, is the case in
the Permian genus Porvxyhn, invesrieated by Bertrand and Renault,
whkh in gerieral structure has mucn in common with Cordaiteae,
but p os sea i ci strands of primary wood, mainly centripetal, at the
* Endlichcr's name Dadoxylon is conveniently used for Palaeozoic
specimens of the kind in question when nothing beyond the wood-
structure is known.
(After GniKr Eorr. mkBSol Scott, Stmdia.)
Fig. 3a — Dorycordaites. Restoration, showing roots, trunk
and branches bearing long laocecdate leaves and fructiocations.
Tbe trunk is shown too short.
boundary of the pith, as in the case in Ly gh ud e n d fon, Sterna
{Mesoxyiou) intermediate in structure between Ponardo* and
CordaiUs have lately been discovered in the English Coal Measures^
Corresponding strands of primary xylem have been observed in
stems of the genus Pitys (Witham), of Lower Oulwniferous age,
whkh consisted of large trees, probably closely allied to CordaiUs,
There appears, in fact, so far as stem-structure is concerned, to
have been no sharp break between the typkal Palaeozok Gymno*
sperms and pronounced Pteridospenns such as Lyfinodendron.
The long, parallel-veined leaves of the Cordaiteae, which were
commonly rucrred to Monocotyledons before their structure or
connexion with other paru of the (Slant was known, have been
shown by Renault to have essentially the same anatomy as a
single leaflet of a Cycad such as Zamia. The vascular bundles,
in particular, show predsely the characteristk collateral mesarch
or exarch structure whkh is so constant in the recent family (see
Anatomy or Plants). In fact, if the foliage alone were uken into
account, the Cordaiteae might be described as simple-leaved Cycada.
The r^iroductive organs, however, show that the two groups were
538
PALAEOBOTANY
in reality very diittnct. Both male and female inHoreioencses
have frequently been found in connexion with Icaf-bcaring brandies
(see restoration, fig. y>). The inBorescencc is usually a spike
bearing lateral cones or catkins, arranged somcstimes distkhously,
sometimes in a spiral order. The investigation of silicified
specimens has, in the hands of Renault, yieklod striking results.
A longitudinal section of a male Cordaiantkus (the name iipplied to
isolated fructifications) is shown in fig. 31, A, Plate. The or]|an
figured is one of the catkins ifabout a centimetre ta length) which
were borne laterally on the spike. Some of the stamens are inserted
between the bracts, in an apparently axillary position, while others
are grouped about the apex of the aids. Each stamen consists
of a k>ng filament, bearing several erect, cylindrical poUen-sacs at
its summit (cf. fig. 31, B. Pbte). Some of the pollen-sacs had
dehisced, while others still rcuined thnr poUen. The stamens are
probably best compared with those of Ginkgo, but they have also
been interpreted as corresponding to the male " flowers " of the
Gnctaceae. In any case the morphology of the male Cordaitean
f ructificatbn is clearly very remote from that of any of the Cycads or
(AB after Reanilt) ^ ^ . . .
Fig. i2.—C<frdatantkus,
A, C. WiUiamsonL Part of longitudinal section of 9 catkin; a,
axis, showing V. bundles in tangential section ; 6f, bracts; J, short
axillary shoot, bearing a bractcole and a terminal ovule; », integu-
ment ; fi. nuccllus of ovule; 0v. anotlier ovule seen from the outside.
(X about 10.)
B. C. Cranio Enryi, Nucetlus of an ovute; px, polleu'chamber;
s, canal leading to px; p, poUen-grains in pxi p^, do. in canal
(X about 30.)
C. C. Crand^ Euryu Lower part of canal, enlarged: c, cavity of
canal, surrounded by a sheath of cells, dilated towards the bottom
of canal, in which a large pollen-grain is caught ; ex. exterior of pollen-
grain : in, internal group of prothallial or antheridial cells, f X 1 50.)
D, Cycadinocarpus augtutodun€nsis. Upper part of seed, m tengi-
tudtnal section; i, integument; mi, micropyle: n, remains of
nuccllus; p.c, poUen<hamber (containing pollen-grains), with its
canal extending up to the micropyle; pr, part of prothallus;
or, archegonia. All figures magnifica.
true Coniferae, though some resemblance to the stamens of Aran-
carieae may be traced. The female inflorescences vary considerably
in organization; in some species the axis of the spike bears solitary
ovules, each accompanied by a few bracts, while in others the laterau
appendages are catkins, eacn containing from two to several ovules.
In the catkin shown in longitudinal section in fig. 33, A, it appears
that each ovule was borne tcrmijiallY, on an extremely short axillary
shoot, as in Taxus among recent Cymnosperma. The ovule con-
sists of an integument (regarded by some writers as double) en-
closing the nuoellus. In the upper part of the nocellus is a cavity
or pollen-chamber, unth a narrow canal leading into it, precisely
as m the ovule* of SUmseria or other Cycads at the present day
(fig. 3a, B). Within the pollen<hamber. and in the canal, pollen-
grains are found, agreeing with those in the anthen. but usually
of larger aiae (fig. 32, C). It was in this case that Renault first
[PALABOZOtC
the .exceedingly intcrestnig OHOovcry that caoi pdlea giaui
contains a group of cells, presamably representing an anthendioa
(fig. 33, C). Recent obaenratioM have completely ooafermed
Renault's interpretation of the facts, on which soane doubt had been
ca-t. In the i«>Litcd scedi 1:4 Con^nitaW mrl Pteridospenns,
polk'n-ETjim* .ytv oUcn found ikithini ihv |«jUcn -^thimber, and lh«
plhjrii vjiutjr fttfueium dI these poUojt-^riiHis has l-een repeatedly
dennonstr.iic^- in the liieht ol our prrsrnt kno^Udge ol CinH*
and rhf- Cycodt^ thete can scarrely be a doubt that spermatoeoida
wtsc (arniiMl iji tbe crelU al the anthcridium ol the Cbrdaitcaa
pall-n-i^r^in and [tuit nrntticr Kpi1.iroMtic ^ncrnncpbv tt. the aotheri-
dill [II is mucti tnore developetl \haa in sny nxrnt Gymiiosperm.
an' J It ithtlv be doubt H whinht-r any polkn-tuW v,^% formed. The
nM V of the kitale ji>tlt"T«trnce ol CoTdaiitje has not yet
be I up^ but Taxus and Gtnltic arnong net en t plants appear
to <e neaiett ^Ckalo^ie*. MiKh liirther investigstkiia will
be tiCiL-Utd before the horrkologiei between Clcird^kain ooaes and
the fruclihcjtinns of the higher C^ptogani^ c^n be <
AnJtoiTiikL^aUy thtr cannexian ol the Jamily wiib tht Ptei
(and throuRh them, preiiumayyT with some piniitive groitp of
reros) Bceiiis cle^ir, but we have as yet no indication^ of the stages in
the evolution of their reproductive organs- The r^iss CordaitalcA
extends bock to the DevonLin, and it must U^ bornii in mind that
our knowledge of their InKtiEicainns i* pi^ciitijUy l^iited to
repreKnt^tivcii (rofn the latent Pala^corok honiJna.
Isolatrd lossil icrd^an; cnmniGn in iheCarbuniicnn
stx^iii; in jU cjiscs they arc ijf thr orrh'^iro^ious tvfi*", and r
the *eedi> of Cycads or ^m^fo irwre m-arly than tbo»te of aay other
living plants. Their internal stnieture is sometime* admirably
preserved, so that the endosperm with its archegonia is clearly
shown (fig. 3a, D). It is a curious fact that in no case has aa
embryo been found in any of these seeds; probably fertilixatioa
took j>bcc after they were shed, and was foUowed immediately by
germinatkm. There b good evidence that many of the seeds
bekmged to Cordaitales, especially those seeds which had a flattmed
form, such as Cardtocarpus, Cycadtnocarpus, Samaropsis, Ac
Seeds of this kind have been found in connexion with the Csrtfat-
onUksu inflorescences: the winged seeds of Samaropsis, borne on long
pedio^, are attributed by Grand' £ury to the genus i)M7cisrdasks.
Many other forms of seed, and especially those which show radial
symmetry, as for example Trigpnccarpus, Stepkanos^ermmm and
LaienosUma belonged, as we have seen, to some ol the plants
Srouped under Pteridospermeae, thouch other Pteridomerms had
attened seeds not as yet distinguishable from those of Cordaitales.
The abundance and variety of Palaeosok seeds, still so often of
undetermined nature, indkate the vast extent of the spermophytic
flora of that period.
The modem '^
representatives:
wul be found _.
Gymnosperms); their nearest Palaeotoic represenutivea '
probably mcmoen of the Cordaitales, an extinct stock with which
the Ginkgoaceae are closely connected " (Seward). Remaias
referable to Cvcadophyta, so extraordinarily abundant in the suc>
ceeding period, are scanty. ^ The curious genus Ddnopkyiitam
(Saporta) maj^ be mentioned in this connexion. This genus, from
the Pcrmo-CTarboniferous of Autun, is represented by l^rge, fleshy,
rcniform leaves or leaflets, with radiating dichotomoos vnution;
the vascular bundles have in all respects the structure of those in the
leaves of Cycads or Cordaiteae. The male spocophylls are simUar
in form to the vegetative leaves, but smaller; sunk m their paren-
chyma are numerous tubular loculi, containing large pollen-grains,
which are pluricritular like those of C&rdaiUs: the female fructifica-
tion had not yet been identified with certainty. The carious oiale
sporophylls msy perhaps be remotely comparable to those secesuly
discovered in Mesosoic CycadophyU, of the group Bennettncac
Some leaves of Cvcadean habit {ej. PUropkyUum, Sphemammiti t^
occur in the Coal Measures and Permian, and it is possible that
the obscure Coal Measure genus Noeatratkia may I
affinities. A fructification from the Permian of Antmi,' nanted
Cycadospadix miiieryetuis by Renault, appean to bebng to this
family.
Now that the nnmerous spec imen s of mood formerly icfcrred to
Coniferae are known to have bdongied to distinct onlers, bat few
true Palaeoaoic Conifers remain to be oonsidcRd. The most
imporunt are the upper Coal Measure or Permiaa genera IfafdUc,
Uumanuia and Pagi^yllum^ all of which resembled oertaia
Araucarieac in habit, in the case of Wakkia there is some evideooe
as to the fructifications, which in one species (W. /Uiaf0nmts)
appear to be comparable to female Anucarian cones. There
are also some anatomical points of agreement with tSmt
family. It is probable, however, that under the same ge n e ric
name very heterogeneous plants have been confounded, la
the case of UUmamnia the anatomical structure of the leaf,
investigated by Solnis-Laubach, proves at any rate that the tree
was Coniferous.
There is no proof of the existence of Gnctaceae In Palaeozoic tioiea.
The very remarkable plumose seeds described by Renault under the
name Gnetopsis are of uncertain affinity, but have much in oommott
with LagnMSfMM, the seed of Ly gin od indm i.
MESOZOiq
PALAEOBOTANY
S39
SuecesHoH cfFhrar.
Our knowledge of vegetation older than the Carboniferous
is still far too scanty for any satisfactory history of the Palaeoooic
Floras to be even attempted; a few, however, of the facts may
be advantageously recapitulated in chronological order.
No recognizable plant-remains, if we accept one or two
doubtful Algal specimens, have so far been yielded by the
Cambrian. From the Ordovidan and Silurian, however, a
certain number of authentic remains of Algae (among many more
that are questionable) have been investigated; they are for the
most part either vertidllate Siphonae, or the large— possibly
Laminariaceous — ^Algae named Nematopkycus, with the problem-
atical but perhaps alUcd Fachylhua. The evidence for terrestrial
Silurian vegetation is still dubious; apart from some obscure
North American spedmens, the true nature of which is not
established, Potoni6 has described well-characterized Pterido-
pbytes (such as the fern-like SphenopUridium and Bothrodendron
among Lycopods) from supposed Silurian strata in North
Germany; the horizon, however, appears to be open to much
doubt, and the specimens agree so nearly with some from the
Lower Carboniferous as to render their Silurian age difScuIt
of credence. The high development of the terrestrial flora in
Devonian times renders it protnble that land-plants existed far
back in the Silurian ages, or still earlier. Even in the Lower
Devonian, Ferns and Lepidodendreae have been recognized; the
Middle and Upper Devonian beds contain a flora in which all
the chief groups of Carboniferous plants are already represented.
Considering the comparative mcagreness of the Devonian record,
we can scarcely doubt that the vegetation of that period, if
adequately known, would prove to have been practically as
rich as that of the succeeding age. Among Devonian plants,
Equisetales, induding not only Archaeoealamiles, but forms
referred to AsUrophytUtes and Annularia, occur; SpltenophyUum
is known from Devonian strata in North America and Bear
Island, and Pseudoborma from the latter; Lycopods are repre-
sented by Bothrodendron and Lepidodendr&n; a typical Lepido-
itrobus, with structure preserved, has lately been found in the
Upper Devonian of Kentucky. Fcm-Uke plants such as
Sphenopterideae, Arekaeoptms and Annmitts, with occasional
arborescent Pecopterideae, are frequent; many of the genera,
Induding Aldhopieris, Neuropieris and Megalopteris, probably
belonged, not to true Ferns, but to Pteridosperms; although our
knowledge of internal structure is still comparativdy scanty,
there is evidence to prove that such plants were already present, as
for example, the genus Cahmopitys, The presence of Cordaitean
leaves indicates that Cymnoqperms of high organization
already existed* a striking fact, showing the immense anti-
qnity of this dass compared witlx the angiospermoos flowering
plants.
Any detailed account of the horizons of Carboniferous plants
would cany us much too far. For our present purpose we may
divide the formalion into Lower Carboniferous and Lower and
Upper Coal Measures. In the Lower Carboniferous (Culm of
Continental authors) many Devonian types survive — e.g.
ArckaeocaiamiUs, Bothrodendron^ Archaedpteris^ MegalopteriXf
&c. Among fern-like fronds Dipiolmema and Rhacopteris are
characteristic. Some of the Lepidodendreae appear to approach
SigtUariae in external charactexs. Sphenophylleae are still
rare; it is to this horizon that the isolated type Cheirostrobus
belongs. Many spedmens with structure preserved are known
from the Lower Carboniferous, and among them Pteridosperms
(^elerauginm, CalamopUys, Cladox^on^ ProtcpUys) are well
represented, if we may judge by the anatomical characters. Of
Gymnosperms we have Cordaitean leaves, and the stems known
as Pityst which probably belonged to the same family.
^ The Lower Coal Measures (Westphalian) have an enormously
rich flora, embracing most of tlse types referred to in our system-
atic description. Calamarieae with the ArthropUys type of
Stem-structure abound, and Sphenophylleae are now well
represented. Bothrodendron still survives* but Lepidodcndron^
Lepidophioufs, and the ribbed Sigillariae are the characteristic
Lycopods. The heterogeneous '* Ferns " grouped under Spheno-
pterideae are espectafly abimdant. Ferns of the genoa referred
to Marattiaceae are common, but arborescent stems of the
Psaronius type are still comparatively rare. Numerous fronds
soch as Akihopteris Newropteris, M^iriopteris, &€., bdonged to
Pteridosperms, of which spedniens showing structure are fre-
quent in certain beds. CordaiUs, Dorycdrdailes and many stems
of the Mesoxylon type represent Gynmosperms; the seeds of
Pleridoaperms and Cordaiteae b^in to be common. The
Upper Coal Measures (Stephanian) are characterized among the
Cftftunarieae, now more than ever abundant, by the prevalence
of the Calamodendreae; new spedes of Sphenopkyllum mzke
their appearance; among the Lycopods, Upidodendron and its
immediate aUies diminish, and smooth-barked Sigillariae are
the characteristic representatives. " Ferns " and Pteridosperms
axe even more strongly represented than before, and this Is the
age in which the supposed Marattiaceous tree-ferns reached their
maximum devdopment. Among Pteridosperms it b the family
Medulloseae which is espedaUy characteristic. Cordaiteae still
increase, and Gymnospermous seeds become extraordinarily
abundant. In the Upper Coal Measures the first Cycadophyta
and Coniferae make their appearance. The Permian, so far at
least as its lower beds are concerned, shows little change from
the Stephanian; Conifers of the Walchia type are especially
characteristic. The remarkable Permo-Carboniferous floni of
India and the southern hemisphere is described in the next
section of this article. During the earlier part of the Carboni-
ferous epoch the vegetation of the world appears to have been
remarkably uniform; while the deposition of the Coal Measures,
however, was in progress, a differentiation of floral regions began.
The sketch given above extends, for the later periods, to the
vegetation of the northern hemisphere only.
Authorities.— Potoni6, Lehrbuch der Pfianzenpaldoittohne
(Berlin, 1899); Renault, Cours de botanique fossiU, vols. L-iv.
(Paris, 1881-1885) *, Scott. Studies in Fossil Botany (2nd ed., London,
1908-1909) : " The present Position of Palaeozoic Botany," in Pro-
iressus ret hotanicae. Band I. (Jcoa, 1907); Seward. Fossil Plants
(in course of puUicatlon), vol. i. (Cambridire, 1398), vol*, ii. (1910);
Sohn»>Laubach, Introduction to Fossil Botany (Oxford. 189;;):
ZctUer, EUmentt de palMtolanifue (Paris, 1000). In these general
works references to all important memoirs will be found.
(D. H. S.)
n.— Mesozoxc
The period dealt with in this section does not strictly cotre-
spond with that which it is customary to include within the
limits of the Mesozoic system. The Mesosoic era, as defined
in geological textbooks, indudes the Triassic, Junsdc and
CreUceous epochs; but from the point of view of the evolution
of plants and the succession of floras, this division i& not the most
natural or most convenienL Our aim is not simply to give a
summary of the most striking botanical features of the several
floras that have left traces in the sedimentary rocks, but rather
to attempt to follow the different phases in the development of
the vegetation of the world, as expressed in the contrasts
exhibited by a comparison of the vegetation of the Coal period
forests with that of the succeeding Mesozoic era up to the dose
of the Wealden period.
Towards the dose of the Palaeozoic era, as represented by
the Upper Carboniferous and Permian pkuit-bearing strata,
the vegetation Of the northern hemisphere and that of several
regions in the southern hemisphere, consisted of numerous types
of Vascular Cryptogams, with some members of the Gymno-
spermae, and several genera referred to the Pteridospermae and
Cycadofiliccs (see section I. Palaeozoic). In the succeeding
Permian period the vegetation retained for the most part the
same general character; some of the Carboniferous genera died
out, and a few new types made their appearance. The Upper
Carboniferous and Permian plants may be grouped together as
constituting a Permo-Carboniferous flora characterized by an
abundance of arborescent Vascular Cryptogams and of an extinct
class of pUnts to which the luune Pteridosperms has recently
been assigned— plants exhibiting a combination of Cycadean
and filidnean characters and distinguished by the production
of true gymnospermous seeds of a complex type. This flora
had a wide distribittkw in North America, Ewope and partt of
54©
PALAEOBOTANY
Asia; it extended to China and to the Zambesi region of tropical
Africa (Map A. I. and II.).
On the other hand, the plant-beds of the Pcrmo-Corboniferous
age in South Africa, South America, India and Australia demon-
m^mmmmimttm ''"^^ ihccxistence of a widdy distributed vegetation
mMMftrrb ^hjcjingrcesinage with the Upper Carboniferous and
Permian vegeution of the north, but difiFers from
it to siich an extent as to constitute a distinct flora. We must
begin by briefly considering this southern Palaeozoic province
if we would trace the Mesosoic floras to their origin* and
obtain a connected view of the vegetation of the globe as it
existed in late Palaeozoic times and at the beginning of the
succeeding era.
In Australia, South America and South Africa a few plants have
been found which agree closely with Lower Carboniierous types of
the northern hemisphere. In New South Wales, for example, we
have such genera as RkacopUris and Lepidodendron represented
by ipecies very similar to those recorded from Lower Carboniferooa
or Culm rocks in Germanv, Austria, England. Spitzbergen, North
and South America and elsewhere. It is, in short, dear that the
Culm flora, as we know it in the northern hemisphere, existed in
the extreme south, and it is probable that during the eariier part
of the Carboniferous period the vegetation of the worid was uniform
in character. We may possibly ^ a step farther, and asaume that
the climatic conditions under which the Culm plants of the Arctic
regions flourished were not very different from those which prevailed
in Europe, Asia, Chile and South Australia. From strata in New
South Wales ovcriying Devonian and Lower Carboniferous rocks
certain planu were discovered in the eariy part of the 19th century
which were compared with European Jurassic genera, and for
several ^ears it was believed that tncse plant-beds belonged to the
Mesozoic period. These supposed McMxoic plants include certain
genera which are of special interest. Foremost among these is
the genus Clossopteris (fig. i). applied by Bronsniart in 1828 to
sub-Ianccolate or tongue-ihapcd leaves from IncQa and Australia.
IMESOZOIC
taceous genus Ctufufainfa from the Coal Measures of Gcnnaay.
Other genera characteristic of this southern flora are mentioned
later. The extraordinary abundance of Clms^fUns in Bermo-
Carfoootferons rocks of Australia, and in stiata of the same age in
India and South Africa, gave rise to the term " ClosK^teris flora **
for the assemblage of (Hants obtained from southern henii«>bero
rocks overlying beds containing Devonian and Lower Carbooiferoua
The Ciosaopterb flora of Australia occure in certain t
la occure m certain tecioiw
in aseodation with oieposits which are now recognised as true bouder*
beds, formed during widespread glacial conditions. In India the
same flora occure in a thick scries of fresh-water sediments, knom-n
as the Lower Gondwana system, including basal boulder-beda like
those of Australia. Similar glacial deposits occur also in Sooth
America, and membera of the Glos s optena flora have been d is coi vnre d
in Brazil and dsewbere. In South Africa, ChssopUris^ Com^bm^-
Pttris and other genera, identical with those from Australia and
India, are abundantly represented, and here again, as in India and
South America, the plants are found in association with ea te n ave
deposiu of undoubted glacial origin. To statt the case in a few
words: there is in South Africa, South America, Aurtrslia and
India an extensive series of sediments containing GcssapUris,
Gangamo^tais and other genera, and induding beds full 01 ice-
scratched boulden. These strata are horootaxial with Permo-
Carboniferous rocks in Europe and North America, aa dciemMned
by the order of succession of the rocks, and bv the occurrence at
typical Palaeozoic sbdis in assocbted marine oepodta. The most
Imr-^Ti^.t'tt cn'tfcnrt? <~n which this conclusion b based is affovdrd
by ih' I' I Ml. I I i.ropean forms of Carboniferous slielb in
nuirirLi ^r^iLA ijt Xlvv bu.uth Wales, which are intercalated between
C(< il Mtfaasun^ conLiiniritf members of the Closso pt er i a flora, and
by Lhif discovery of urniLjr shells, many of whkrh are identical with
thi AuMF^ILan ppcrioi, in strata in the north-west of India and in
AfiThariMfjin, forminR p;irt of a thk:k aeries of marine beds known
as the Sdt Ran^fe vroup. This group of sediments in the extra-
pe^jrtsul.ir ^ua oi InAui includes a basal boulder-bed, referred on
conviiii.iiig iivulcnce lu Uie same geological horizon as the glacial
depouts of the Indian peninsula (Taichir boulder-beds), south
Africa (Eeca boulder-beds), Australia and Tasmania (Bacchus Marsh
boulder-beds, Ac.), and South America, which are aaa»>
dated with Glossopteris-bearin^^ strata. We have a flora
of wide distribution in South Africa, South America, Bomcot
Australia, Tasmania and India which is deariy of Permo-
Carboniferous age, but which differe in its composition from
the flora of the same age in other parts of the world. Tlits
flora appeare to have abniptly succeeded an older flora in
Australia and elsewhere, which was prccisdy similar to that
of Lower Carboniferous aee in the northera hemisphere.
The frequent occurrence of ice-formed deposits at the base
of the beds in which GossopUriM and other |
Fig. t.—OcssopUris frond, with portwn enlarged to show the venatmn. their appearanc^ almost nccesutatcs the condui
• • ' ' ^Mn Lower Gondwana rocks of India. "» change m the character of the
CNatundsise«56 cm. in length.) Froml
which have generally been rei;arded as the fronds of ferns character-
ized by a central mklrib giving off lateral veins which repeatedly
anastomose and form a network, like that in the leaves of Autro-
tkymm^ an existing member of the Pdypodiaccae. The stems, long
known from Australia and India as VerUbraria, have in recent years
been proved to be the rhiaomes of ClossopUris. It n only recently
that undoubted sporanda have been found in dose association with
GotsopUris leaves, llie genus possessed small broadly oval or
triangular leaves in addition to the large fronds h'ke that shown in
fig. I; it was with the smaller leaves that Mr Arber discovered
sporangia exhibiting certain points of resemblance to the mkrro-
•porangia of modern Cycads. We cannot as yet say whether these
bodies represent a somewhat unusual type of fern sporangium or
whether they are microsporangia: if the latter supposition is
correct the plant must have been heterosporous; but we are still
without evidence on this point. Associated with ClossopUris occure
another fern, CoMtamopUns, usually recognized by the absence
of a wdl marked midnb, though this character docs not always
afford a satisfactory discinguisning feature. In view of recent
discoveries which have demonstrated the Pteridosperm nature of
many supposed ferns of Palaeozoic age, we mutt admit the possi-
bility that the term fern as applied to Clossopuris and CcmgamopUris
may be incorrect. An Eouisetnceous plant, whidi Brongniart
named PkyUctkeca in 1838, is another member of the same
flora; this tvpe bears a doee resemblance to E^uiutum in the
long tnteraodcs and the whoried leaves endrchng the nodes,
but differe in the looser leaf-sheaths and in the long spreading
filiform leaf-segments, as also in the strocture of the cones.
PkytUUuca has b(xn recoenized in Europe in strata of Palaeozoic
age, and Professor Zciller nas discovered a new species — P RaUii —
in Upper Carboniferous rocks in Asia Minor (Map A, VII ). which
nointff to a doee agreement between this germs and the wdl-known
Palaeoooic AnntiUria. PhyUctkecc occure also in Jurassic^ rocks
in Italy and in Siberian strau originally described as Jurassic, but
which ZcUIer has shown are no doubt of Permian age. Some
examples of this genus, described by Eiheridge from Permo-Carboni-
ferous beds in New South Wales, differ in some respects from the
^ vegetation was con-
nected with a lowering of temperature and the prevalence
of gjacial conditions over a wide area in India and the soothem
hemispheres There can be liule doubt that the Indian Lower
Gondwana rocks, in which the boulder-beds and the Glosaoptcris
flora occur, must be regarded as bdon^ing to a vast continental
area of which remnants are preserved in Australia. South Africa
and South America. This continental area has been described as
" Gondwana Land." a tract of enormous extent occupying an area
part of which has since given place to a southern ocean, while
detached masses persist as portions of more modern continents,
which have enabled us to read in their fossil plants and ice-scratched
bonfdere the records of a lort continent in which the Mesosoic
vegetation of the northern hemisphere had its birth. Of the rocks
of this southern continent those of the Indian Gondwana system
are the richest in fossil plants; the most prominent types recorded
from these Pcrmo-Carboniferaus strata are OossotUns, Gangami^
pteris, species referred to Spken&^eris, PtcopUris, MocrttatmopUrit
and other Ferns, Sckuonewa (fig. 2) and PhylMuca among the
Equisctales, Naegteraiktopsu and Eurypkyllum^ probably membera
of the Cordaitales {q.v. in section I. Palaeozoic); Chssoaamitea and
PteropkjUum among the Cycadalcs, and various vegetative ihoots
recalling those of the coniferous genus VcUtia, a wdl-known l^e^^uan
and Triassic plant of northern latitudes. The genera LfPtiodendrvu^
SigiUcna, Sttgmaria, or CalamiUs, which played so great a share in
the vegetation of the same age in the northern hemi^>here. have
not been recognized among the Palaeozoic forms of India, but
examples of SipUarta, Leptdodendrtn and Bdhf^dtndnm are kiiown
to have existed in South Africa in die Permo-Carboniferous era.
We may next inquire what types occur in the Glossopieris flora
agreeing more or less doscly with membera of the rich Permo-
Carboniferous veeetation of the north. The genus SpktnppkyUmm^
abundant in the Coal Measures and Permian rocks of Europe and
America, is represented by a single species recorded from India.
Spkenopkyllum spectosum (fig 3). and a doubtful species from South
Africa; Annularia, another common northern genus, is recorded
from Australia, and the closely allied PkyUotkeca constitutes another
link between the two Permo-Carboniferous floras. The genus
Cordaiics may be compared, and indeed b probably identicnl with,
ordinary form, aad bear a superficial resemhlanoe to the Equise- i certain forms recorded irom India, South Am e ri ca, South Africa
PALAEOBOTANY
UESOHCOCi
tad Australia. Whtle a fetr daikr or even identical types may
be recoenlxed in both floras, there can be no doubt that, during
a considerable period subsequent to that rcpresenred by the Lower
Carboniferous or Culm rocks, there existed two distinct floras, one
«f which bad its headquarters in the northern hembphere. while
the other flouridied in a vast -continental area in the south. Recent
discoveries have shown that representatives of the two floras
coexisted in certain regions ; there was, in fact, a dovetailing between
S4I
ftrata in Europe. In theTongldiig ana, therefore, a floraexistodduring
the Rhaetic period consisting in part of genera which are abundant
in the older Glossopccris beds of the south, and in part of well'
known constituents of European Rhaetic floras. A characteristic
member of the southern botanical province. Schizoneura gondwan-
ensis (fig. a) of India, is represented also by a closely allied if not
an identical species--5. paradota — in the Lower Trias JBunter)
sandstones of the Vosges MounUins, associated with European
i.n.
Upper Carboniferous plants of the northern
nerois^ore fades,
Map a.— Ci — Ci, Glossoptcris Flora.
VI. Permian (Pechora valley).
and ia China.
the Zambesi district
III. Rhaetic flora of Tongking (Chssopteris, &c.;
associated with northern types).
rV. Carboniferous plants (jprov. Kansu>.
V. ClossopUris, &c.. in Permian rocks in prov.
Vologda,
the nmth e iu and soathem botanical nravinocs. In 1895 Professor
Zciller described several nlanu from the province of Rio Grande do
Sul in South America (Map A, (3«). including a few typical members
of the Glossopteris flora associated with a European species, Leptdo-
phMos larieinus, one of the charactcristk types of the Coal period,
and with certain ferns resembling some
species from European Permian rocks. A
similar association was found also in
Argentine rocks by Kurtz (Map A^ Gi), and
from Sk>uth Africa Sigiilaria Brardx, Psygmo-
phyllum, Bothrodendron and other northern
types arc recorded in company with Closso-
pteris,ClangamopUris and Naegterathiopsis.
The Coal-bearing strata which occupy a
considerable area in China (Map A, il.),
contain abundant samples of a vegetation
which appears to have agreed in their main
features with the Permo-Carbonifcrous floras
of the northern hemisphere. In his account
of some plants from the Coal Measures of
Kansu (Map A, IV.) Dr Krasscr has drawn
attention to the apparent identity of certain
Icaf-fra^cnts witn those of Naegteralhiopsii
(After FefatauauL) Hislopt, a typical member of the Glossopteris
Fic. a.—SchitoH' flora; but tnis plant, so far as the evidence
eura gondwanensis, of vegetative leaves may be of value, differs
from Lower Gond- in no essential respects from certain species
wana rocks. India. of a European genus CordaiUs. A com-
paratively rich fossil flora was described in
l88a from Tongking (Map A.1 1 1, by Professor Zciller — and this author
hasrsoently made important additions to his original account — which
demonstrates an admixture of Glossopteris types with others which
were recognised as identical with plants characteristic of Rhaetic
VII. Upper Carboniferous (Herakleion).
VI IL Rhaetic (Honduras).
IX. Lower Jurassic, Upper Gondwana (Argentine).
X. Rhaetic (Persia).
XL Triassic— Cretaceous.
species which do not occur in the Glossopteris flora. Another plant
found in the Vosges sandstones — Nturoptcridium grandiMium — is
also closely allied to species of the same fern " recorded from the
(After Febtnaatd.)
A.
B.
Fic. 3. — SphenophyUum ipeciosum. From Lower Gondwana
rocks. India.
A. nat. size. B. leaflet enlarged.
Lower Gondwana strata of India (fi^4)< South America and South
Africa. These two instances — the Tongking beds of Rhaetk: age
and the Buoter sandstones of the Vosges — aflord e^'idcnce of a
542
PALAEOBOTANY
(After FdrtBuitcL)
northeni extensbn of Glotaopteris types and their association with
European species. In 1808 an impoitant discoveiy was made by
Professor Amalitzky, which carries us a step further in our search for
a connexion between the northern and
southern floras. Amaliulcy found in
beds of Upper Permian age in the pn>>
vince of Vologda (Russia) (Map A, V.)
spedes of ClosiopUris atid NaetntnUki-
opsis typical members of the Closaoptcris
fliora. associated with species of the ferns
TaeniopUris, CcUipteris and SphetwpUris,
a striking instance of a commingling in
the far north of the northern hemisphere
Permian species with migrants from
" Gondwana Land." This association of
types cleariy points to a pcnetratbn of
representatives of the Glossopteris flora
to the north of Europe towards the close
of the Permian period. Evidence ol the
same northern extension is supplied by
floras described by Schmalhauscn from
Permian rocks in the Pechora valley
(Map A, VI.), the Siberian genus Rkip-
knamiUs being very similar to, and pro-
bably {(encrically identical with, Naeuet'
athiopsis of the Glossopteris flora. The
Permo • Girboniferous beds of. South
f^C ^ Africa, India and Australia are' succeeded
\^' , ^ ? by other pbnt-bearing strata, containing
^ifc s^v^Jh . '" > numerous species agreeing closely with
members of the Rnaetic and Jurassic
floras of the northern hemisphere. These
post- Permian floras, as represented by
Pic 4 NeuropUri' the Upper Gondwana beds of India and
«fiiiin * vaiidum. From corresponding strata in Australia. South
Lower Gondwana rocks, A?™^. and South America, differ but
ln^\^, slightly from the northern floras, and
point to a uniformity in the Rhactic
and Jurassic vegetation which is in contrast to tne exbtencc of two
botanical provinces during the latter part of the Palaeozoic period.
A few pbnts described by Potoni6 from Orman and Portuguese
East Africa demonstrate the occurrence of ClossopUris and a few
other genera, referred to a Pcrmo<Triassic horizon, in a region slightly
to the north of Tete in the Zambesi district (Map A, I.), where
typical European plants agreeing with Upper Carboniferous types
were discovered several years aco, and described by Zcillcr in 1882
and i^i. The existence of Upper Gondwana plants, resembling
Jurassic species from the Rajmahal beds of India, has been demon-
atrated in the Argentine by Dr Kurtz.
Having seen how the Glossopteris flora of the south gradually
spread to the north in the Permian period, we may now take a
brief survey of the succession of floras in the northern
hemisphere, which have left traces in Mesozoic
rocks of North America, Europe and Asia. Our
knowledge of the Triassic vegetation is far from extensive; this
is no doubt due in part to the fact that the conditions under
which the Triassic rocks were deposited were not favourable
to the existence of a luxuriant vegetation. Moreover, the
Triassic rocks of southern Europe and other regions are typical
marine sediments. The Bunter sandstones of the Vosges have
afforded several spedes of Lower Triassic plants; these include
the Equisetaceous genus Schitoneura — a member also of the
Glossopteris flora — bipinnate fern fronds referred to the genus
Anomopteris, another fern, described originally as Nenropteris
irandifalia, which agrees very dosely with a southern hemisphere
type (NeuropUridium vdidum, fig. 4), some large Equisetaceous
stems apparently identical, except in size, with modem Horse-
tails. With these occur several Conifers, among others VoUtia
kcUrophylla and some twigs referred to the genus Alhfrtia,
bearing large leaves like those of Agathis austrdis and some of
the Araucarias, also a few reprcsenutives of the Cycadoles.
Among plants from Lower Triassic strata there are a few
which form connecting links with the older Permo-Carboniferous
flora; of these we have a spedes, described by Blanckenhon as
SigiUarvx oculina, which may be correctly referred to that genus,
although an inspection of a plaster-cast of the type-spcdmen in
the Berlin Bergakademie left some doubt as to the sufficiency
of the evidence for adopting the generic name Sigillaria. Another
Triassic genus, Flewromeia, is of interest as exhibiting, on the
one hand, a striking resemblance to the recent genus Isoctes,
from whidi it differs in its much larger stem, and on the other as
agredng fairly dosdy with the Palaeosoic genera LefidoienSron
and SigiUaria, There is, however, a marked difference, as
regards the floras as a whole, between the uppermost Palaeosoic
flora ol the northern hemisphere and such species as have been
recorded from Lower Triassic beds. There is evidence of a
distinct break in the succession of the northern floras which is
not apparent between the Permian and Trias floras of the south.
Passing over the few luiown spedes of plants from the middle
Trias (Muschelkalk) to the more abundant and more widely
spread Upper Triassic species as recorded from Germany,
Austria, Switzerland, North America and elsewhere^ we find a
vegetation characterized chiefly by an abundance of Ferns and
Cycads, exhibiting the same general fades as that of the suc-
ceeding Rhaetic and Lower Jurassic floras. Among Cycads
may be mentioned species of FUropkyUum (e.g. P. Jaegeri),
represented by large pinnate fronds not unlike those of existing
spedes of Zamia, some Equisetaceous plants and numerous
Ferns which may be referred to such families as Gleicheniaceae,
Dipteridinae and Matonincae. Representatives of the Gink-
goales constitute characteristic members of the later Triassic
floras, and these, with other types, carry us on without any break
in continuity to the Rhactic floras of Scania, Germany, Aua,
Chile, Tonkin and Honduras (Map A, VIIL), and to the Jurassic
and Wealden floras of many regions in both the north and
south hemispheres. A comparative view of the plaxits found in
various parts of the world, in beds ranging from the Upper
Trias to the top of the Jurassic system, rc\Tals a striking uni-
formity in the vegetation both in northern and southern lati-
tudes during this long succession of ages. The Palaeozoic types
are bardy represented; the arborescent Vascular Cryptogantt
have been replaced by Cycads, Ginkgoales and Conifers as
the dominant classes, while Ferns continue to bold their own.
No undoubted Angiospcrms have yet been found bdow the
Cretaceous system. From lh« close of the Permian period,
which marks the limit of the Upper Palaeozoic floras, to the
period immediately preceding the apparently sudden appearance
of Angiosperms, we have a succession of floras differing from one
another in certain minor details, but linked together by the
possession of many characters in common. It is impossible to
consider in detail this long period in the history of plant -evcrfu-
tion, but we may briefly pass in review the most striking features
of the vegetation as exhibited in the dominant types of the
various da&scs of plants. Fragments of a Jurassic flora have
recently been discovered by Dr Andersson, a member of Norden-
skiold's Antarctic expedition, in Louis Philippe Land in lat.
63* is' S. Among other well-known Jurassic genera Nalhont
has identified the following: BquisetUes^ CiadcpkUbhf Todiles,
Thinnfcldia^ OlozamitcSf W illiamsonia pcclen, Arauaxrites, The
discovery of this Antarctic flora is a further demonstration of the
world-wide distribution of a uniform Jurassic flora.
Under the head of Algae there b little of primary impoftance to
record, but it is of interest to notice the occurrence of certain fornu
which throw light on the antiquity of cxbting families A^ma.
of Algae. Species referred on good e\'idencc to the ^*^^
Charophyta arc represented bv a few casts of ofigonia and stem
fragments, found in Jurasi>ic ana Wealden beds, whicn bear a striking
resemblance to existing species. There b some evidence for the
occurrence, of simibr Ckara " fruits " in middle Triassic rocks;
some doubtful fossils from the much older Devonian rocks have abo
been quoted as possible examples of the Charophyta. The okfest
known Dbtoms are represented by some specimens found entangled
in the spicules cf a Liassic sponge, and identified by Rothpletz as
species of the recent genus Pyxxdutda. The calcareous Siphoneae
arc represented by several forms, identified as species of Dtplopora,
Triploporclla, Neomrris and other genera, from strata ranging from
the lower Trios limestones of Tirol to the Cretaceous rocks of Mexico
and elsewhere. It b probable that the Jurassic Goniolina, dcscribetl
from French localities, and other genera which need not be men-
tioned, may also be reckoned among the Mesozoic Siphoneae. A genus
ZonatrichiUs, compared with spedes of Cyanopnyceae. has ocea
described as a Calcareous alga from Uasslc limestones of Silesia.
The geolocical hbtory of Mosses and Liverworts b at preseac
very incomplete, and founded on few and generally unsatf
fragments. It is hardly too much to say that no
absolutely trustworthy examples of Mosses nave so far
been found in Mesozoic strata. Of Liverworts there are a icrm
species, such as ?aLuoiup<Uica Rostafifukii from the Lower Juraasie
HESozmq.
PALAEOBOTANY
543
nekt o( Cracow, MofekiutliUs tr^ehu from tlie Inferior Oolite rocks
o( Yorkshire, and M. ZeilUri from the Wealden beds of Sussex.
Thoe foMil HepBticae are unfortunately founded ooly on sterile
Aragments, and placed in the Liverworts on the strength of their
resemblanoe to the thallus of Marckantia and other recent genera.
The Palaeosoic Calamites were succeeded in the TriassK period
by Urge Bquisetites, differing, so far as we know, in no essential
, ._. respect from existing Ec|uisetums. The large stems
T^~~' represented by casts of Triassic age, Eqttisetites artuaceus
''°'*** and other species, probably possessed the power of
secondary growth in thickness; the cones were of the moaem type,
and the rhizomes occasionally formed large underground tubers
like thcMK frequently met with in Equiietum arvente, E, tyltaticum
and other species. EquiseliUs MuensUri is a characteristic and
fairly widely spread Rhaetic and Liassic species, having a com-
paratively slenocr stem, with leaf-sheaths consisting of a few broad
and short leaf-segments. EquisetiUs columnaris^ a common fossil
in the Jurassic plant-beds of tne Yorkshire coast, represents another
type with relatively stout and occasionally bmncbed vegetative
shoots, bearing Icaf-sheaths very like those of Equiutum maximuin
and other Horsetails. In the Wealden strata more slender forms
have been found — t.g. EquisetUts Burckardti and E. Lyelli—in
England, Germany, Portugal. Japan and elsewhere, differing still
less in dimensions from modem species. Of other Equiaetales
there are Schitoneura and Pkylhtkeca; the former first appears in
Lower Gondwana rocks as a member of the Glossoptens flora,
migrating; at a later epoch into Europe, where it is represented by
-a Triassic species. The tatter genus ranges from Upper Carbom-
ferous to Jurassic rocks; it occurs in India, Australia, and elsewhere
in the " Gondwana Land " vegetation, as well as in Palaeosoic rocks
of Asia Minor, in Permian rocks of Siberia, and in Jurassic plant-beds
of Italy. This genus, like the allied Calamiles, appears to have
possessed cones of more than one type; but we know little of the
structure of these Mesozoic Equisetaceous genera as compared with
our much more complete knowledge of Calamites and Arckae»'
caiamius. (Sec section I.. Palaeozoic.)
Reference has already been made to SipUaria oculina and to
the genus PUuromeia. Palacobotanical literature contains several
records of species of L^opoditea and SelagindliUs;
J^f*^*" neariy all of them are sterile fragments, bearing a more
tfis##s. ^ i^gg j.|j,jg resemblance to living Club-Mosses and
Selannellas, but lacking the more important reproductive organs.
Nathorst has recently described a new type of lycopodiaceous
cone, Lyeostrohus ScoUi, from Rhaetic rocks of Scania, from which
he obtained both megasporcs and microspores. An investigation by
Miss Sollaa of a plant long known from Rhaetic rocks in the Severn
valley as Naiadtla acumtnata has shown that this genus Is in all
probability a small lycopodiaceous plant, and neither a 'Moss nor
a Monocotyledon, as some writers have supposed. One of the best-
known European species is LycopodUes fakatus, orieinally described
by Lindtey and Hutton from the Inferior Oolite of Yorkshire.
Among the laige number of Mesosoic Ferns there^ are several
specks toiraded on sterile fronds which possess but little interest
_^^. from a botanical standpoint. Some plants, again, have
""*■*■• been referred by certain authors to Ferns, while others have
relegated them to the Cycads. As examples of these doubtful forms
may be mentioned Thinnfeldia, characteristic of Rhaetic and Lower
Jurassic rocks; DichopUais, represented by some exceptionally fine
Jurassic specimens, described by 2i^no,
from Italy; and Cienis, a senus chiefly
from Jurassic beds, founded on pinnate
fronds like those of Zamia and other
"^'^ Cycads, with linear pinnae characterised
: '^'' >f by anastomonng veins. Plants referred
C Jr to Schimper's genus LomatopUris and to
' — Cycadojpuris ofZigno afford instances of
the difficulty of distinguishing between the
foliage of Ferns and Cycads. The doie
resemblance between specimens from
Jurassic rocks placed in one or other of
the genera jhiunfddia, Dichopteris,
Cycadoptiris, &c.. illustrates the
unsatisfactory custom of founding new
names on imperfect fronds. It is of
interest to note that some leaf-fraements
recently found in Permian rocks of Kansas,
and placed in a new genus CUnopUris,
are hardly distinguishable from speamens
of Jurassic and Rhaetic age referred to
TXitnnfeldia and other Mesosoic genera.
The cfifficulty of distinguishing between
Ferns and Cycads is a necessary conse-
quence of the common origin of tncse two
classes; in Palaeozoic times the Cycado*
filicics and Ptcridospermae (see section I.,
Palaeozoic) played a prominent pairt,
and even among recent Cycads and Ferns
we still see a few indications of their dose
relationship. There is reason to believe
that compound or generalized types—iKirtly Fen» aod pKtIy
B
Fig. 5.
A, Olotamites Beanu
B. O. Bunhuryanus.
Inferior Oolite, England.
Cycads— twrdsted into the Mesosoic era; but without more ana^
tomical knowledije than we at present possess, it is impossiUe to do
more than to pomt to a few indications afforded by external, and
to a slight extent by internal structure, of the survival of Cycado-
fiUcinean types. The genus OtotamiUs, which it is customary and
probably correct to include in the Cycadales, is represented by
certain species, such as OlowamiUs Bcani (fig. 5. A), a characteristic
Yorkshire fossil of I urassic age, which in the form of the frond, bearing
brood and rebtively short pnnae, exhibits a striking agreement with
the sterile portions of the fronds of Atuimia raiiutdifMia, a member
of the fern family Schizacaoeae. Again, another species of the same
genus, O. Bunburyanus (fig. 5. B), suggests a comparison with fern
fronds like that of the recent species NephroUpis DuA. The scaly
ramenu which occur in abundance on the leal-stalk bases of fossU
Cycads constitute another fem<harecter surviving in Mesozoic Cyca-
dales. Without a fuller knowledge of internal structure and of the
reproductive organs, we are compelled to •peak of some of the
Miesozoic plants as possibly Ferns or possibly Cycads, and not refer*
able with certainty to one or other class. It has been found useful
in some cases to examine microscopically the thin film of coal that
often covers the pinnae of fossil fronds, in order to determine the
form of the epidermal cells which may be preserved in the carbon-
ized cuticle; rectilinear epidermal oeil-walls are usually considered
characteristic of Cycads, while cells with undulating walls are more
likdy to belong to Ferns. Thb distinction does not, however, afford
a safe guide; the epidermal cells of some ferns, e.g. Angiopuris,
have straight walls, mad occasionally the surface cells of a (Tycadean
leaf-segment exhibit a fern-like character. Leaving out of account
the numerous sterile fronds which cannot be certainly referred to
particular families of Ferns, there are several ccnera which bear
evidence in their sori, and to some extent in the lorm of the leaf, of
their rebtionship to existing types.
The abundance of Palaeozoic plants with sporangia and sori of
the Ntarattiaceous type is in striking contrast to the scarcity of
Mesosoic ferns which can be reasonably included in the mmrmi-
Marattiaceac. One of the few forms so far recorded j^nt^
is that known as Marattia MuensUri from Rhaetic ■■"»■*
localities in Europe and Asia. Some species included in the genus
Danaeites or Danaeopsts from Jurassic rocks of Poland, Austria and
Switzerland may possibly be closely allied to the recent tropical
genus Danaea. (A the Ophioglossaceae there are no satisfactory
examples; one of the few fossils compared with a recent species.
Ophiotlossum palmatum, was described several years ago from
Triassic rocks under the name Cheiropieris, but the resemblance is
one of external form only, and practically valueless as a taxonomic
criterion. It would appear that the eusporangiate Ferns suddenly
sank to very subordinate position after the Palaeozoic era.
The Osmundaceae, represented by a few forms of Palaeozoic age,
played a more prominent part in the Mesozoic floras. A species
described by Schenk from Rhaetic rocks of Franconia as (ua,„
Acr0$tichiles princepM is hardly distinguishable from ^.^^
TodiUs Wiaiamsom, a widely distributed species in
Inferior Oolite strata. This Jurassic species bore bipinnate fronds
not unlike those of the South African, Australian, and New Zealand
Fern Todea harhara, which were characterized by a stout rachis
and short broad pinnules bearing numerous larKe^Jorangia covering
the under surface of the lamina. Specimens of Todites have been
obtained from England. Pdand, and elsewhere, sufficiently well
preserved to affora good
evidence of a correspon-
dence in the structure of
their sporangia with those
of recent Osmundaceae.
This Jurassic and Rhaetic
type occurs in England,
Germanv. Poland. Italy.
East Greenland, North
Arscrica. Japan. China and
Persia (Map A, X.). Bi-
mnnatc sterile fronds of
TodiUs have in some
instances been described
under the designation
Pecopterii vhitbiensts. This
and other names, such as
AspUnium wkiMense, A,
nebbense, AspUniies Roes-
5fr/i^&c..have been given to
bipinnate fronds of a t>*pe
frequently met with in dif-
ferent genera and families
of recent Ferns, e.g. Onoclea
SlnUkioptetiSt species of
Cyalhea, Asptenium, Gym-
nogramme, Ac. In roost
cases the Rhaetic. Jurassic
andWeaklen Ferns included
under one or other of these
names are sterile, and can-
Bot be assigned to a porticaUr family, but some are undoubted^
Fig. 6.^CtadojMf>is denticulata.
Inferior (Jolite, England.
544
PALAEOBOTANY
jjuxsoaoK,
aekbew
the leave* of T^iks, a genus which may often be recoemxed by
the broad and relatively short bluntly-terminated pinnules. The
Juraasic species CladopkUtns denticulata (fig. 6), recorded from several
European localities, as well as from North America, Japan, China,
Australia, India and Persia, affords an instance of a common type
of bipinnatc frond similar to Todites WiUiamsomi, which has been
included in the Polypodiaceae; but such meagre evidence of the
■oral charactcre as we possess also points to a comparison with
the recent fern Todea Barbara, Our knowledge of the anatomy
of fossil Osmundaceae has recently been considerably extended
by Kidston and Gwynne-Vaughan. (For references, see Seward.
PossU Plants, vol. iL, loio.)
The Schizaeaceae include a widely spread species, onginally named
Pecot^eris exilis, and subsequently placed in a new genus, Klukta
(fig, 7), which is characterized by tripinnate fronds with
*^**"** short linear ultimate Kcments, bearing a single row of
*^*** sporangia with an apical annulus (" monangic sori " of
Prantl) on either side of the midrib. This type occurs in Rhaetic
and Lower Jurassic rocks of
England, the Airtk: regions,
Japan and elsewhere. Raffor-
iia Coepperti, a Wcaldcn type,
and probably a member of the
Schizaeaceae, has beeft^ re-
corded from England, Belgium,
and other European countries,
and Japan.
The Glcicheniaceae appear
to have been represented by
Triassic species in North
America and Europe, and more
abundantly in Jurassic, WeaU
den, or Lower Cretaceous rocks
in Eieleium, Greenland. Poland
and elsewhere. Some excep-
. Frt^^;fn;nna in Belgium; bulthcsc havc not
*• l^ES^ VvIlSL ¥;irb,n<l y« been f"'!y d«Kribed. The
Inferior OoUte, England. dichotoraously-branched fronds
of the type represented by scvenil recent species of CUichenia, e.g.
G, dickotcma, &c, are abundant in Lower Cretaceous
plant-beds of Greenland, and suggest that in the laRer
part of the Mesozoic period the Gleicheniaccae held a
position in the vegetation of the far north similar to that which
Uiey now occupy in the southern tropics of India and other regions.
The recent Malayan genus Malonia (Map B, Matonia), represented
by two species, M. pecliimia and M. sarmentosa, is clearly a survival
in southern latitudes of
a family whfch occupied
Matoah an important
m*am. place in the
vegeution of the Rhaetic
Jurassic and Wcaldcn
periods. The genera La-
copUris and MaUmidium
^1 ^"=%*3?'i" "■ the two most imporunt
types, both as regards
geographical and geo-
kwical range, of this
KUsozoic family; these
ferns are recorded from
England, France, Bel-
gium, Germany, Austria,
Portugal, Poland and
Italy (Map B, Mi), also
from Grccnhnd (Map B,
Mt). Spitsbergen (Map B,
M*), and Persia (Map B,
M*). From the southern
Hemisphere, on the other
hand, we know of one or
two fragments only which
can reasonably be referred
to the Matonineae (Map
B. M i). a fact whkh may
•point to a northern ori^n
for this family with its
two surviving species
almost confined to the
Malayan region.
The recent genus, Dipuris, with its four existing species, occurring
chiefly fai the Indo-Malayan region (Map B. Diptcns), is also a
modern sur\ival of several Mesozoic types represented
51?*'*' by such genera as Diflyopkyllum (fig. 9). HausmamnU
•■"^ and CamptopUris, which were abundant dunng the
Rhaetic and Jurssak periods in England, Gennaay, Sweden and
Fio. 8.— MaUmidium CoeppertL
A. Summit of petiole.
B, Fertile pinnules.
lnferk)r Oolite, England.
(After Scfacak.)
Fic. g. — DiOjophyllum. Rhacdc
rocks of Europe and Asia.
elsewhere in Europe (Map B, D). tmparttnt additaom to oc?
knowledge of the fertile kaves and rhizomes of ccrtaon Rkk^ <
species <3 DiUyopkyUum and other genera have recently been m»tt
by Professor Nathorst of Stockholm, and Professor Ridncr erf
Quedlinbure has made a thorough invesrigation of the vecetatT>«
organs of /TaiumofiMia, a genus possibly identical trith ProlOTlnp-^^
which is abundant in Lower Creuceous and other strata in ^ — ^
European localities. The Dip-
teridinae are represented also
by species from Mesozok rocks
of Persia (Map B, Ds). Grcen-
bnd (Map B, Di), North
America (D«), South Arrerica
(Di) and China (D«).
ThcCyatheaceae constitute
another family of leptospor-
angiate Ferns -. ^^ _
whfch had several ^Jj**^
r(M>resentatives in ^^
Klesozoic floras. The numer*'
ous species of fronds from
Jurassic and Wealdcn rocks
of North America and Europe
referred to ThyrsopUris, a
recent monotypic genus con-
fined to Juan Fernandez, are in
the majority of cases founded
on stenle leaves, and of little
or no botanical value. On
the other hand, there are
several fossil Ferns of Juras-
sic age possessing cup-like sori
like those of TTiyrsopteris and
other Cyathcaceous Ferns,
which indicate a wide Mesozoic distribution for thb family. Amocf
Jurassic species which should probably be classed as Cyathearcae.
Coniopterts hymenophyltoides is recorded from England, France,
Russia, Pobnd, Bornholm, Italy, the Arctic regions. North AiDcnca.
Japan, China, Australia and India. A few tree-ferns which mas t<
included in this family — such as Protopieris — have been described
from Wealdcn and Lower Cretaceous rocks of England, GemuTv
and Austria. It is by no means easy in dealing with fossil feras (o
distinguish between certain Polypodiaceae — such aa species of
DavaUia — and members of the Cyatheaceae.
It is a striking fact that among the numerous Mesocosc Fctts
there are comparatively few that can with good reason be r g ffe tr t d
to the Polypodiaceae, a family which plays so dominant -^j.
a rCIe at the present day. The frequent occurrence of ll2«^^
such names as AspUnium, Adiantum, DataUia, and '"**^
other Polypodiaceous genera in lists of fosMl ferns is tlN3roai;b?f
misleading. There are, indeed, a certain number of species wb« h.
show traces of sori like those of modem species of ilx^iCrsttnsi apd
other genera, but in most cases the names of recent ferns have bees
used on insufficient grounds. The Wcaldcn and Juraasic £e(i'-'>>
Onyckiopsis of England, Portugal, Belgium. Germany, Japan. Sck.-*^
Africa and Australia, bears a ck>se resembbnce to the rec r m
Onyckimm {Cryplotamwu). Other Jurassic Ferns described V«y
Raciborski from Poland suggest a comparison with DmacL-^
The resemblance of tlie sporocarp-like bodies — di s co v er e d bT
Nathorst in association with Rhaetic Sagenoptcris leaves, and n>c<re
recently figured by Halle under a new generic name (.Hydwwptd^
asj^iwrn)— 'to the sporocarps of MarsUia is an aiigumcnt in Ca\ccr
of including Sa^tnopUris in the Hydroptcrideoe. The majority of
the specimens included in the genus CladopkMntt the Mcsotcic
representative of the Palaeozoic PecopUris type d flood, are kxtovs
only in a sterile condition, and cannot be asugned to their faavh'
position. A Wealdcn plant, Weickselia Manlelli, is worthy of
mention as a species of very wide geographical distribution. aaJ
one of the most characteristic members of the Wcaldcn (V.n.
This type is distinguished by its brgc bipinnate fronds bcarj-x
long and narrow pinnae with close-set pinnules, characterised \r}
the anastomosing secondary veins. No traces of sori havc so iar
been found on the fronds. Similariy, the genus Sagtmrnf^rri:..
characterized by a habit like that of MarsUia, and represented bf
fronds consisting of a few spreading broadly oval or narrow arcixK-ntv
with anastomosing veins, borne on the apex of a comnxm pctioie.
is abundant in rocks ranging from the Rhaetic to the Wealdcn. La7
has not so far been satisfactorily placed. The evidence adducrd
by Nathorst and some other writers is, however, not con^ tort.':^.
until we find well-preserved sporocarps in connection with \Ttr-
tative fronds we prefer to keep an open nund as tcgards tte
position of Sagenoptcris.
The abundance of Cycadean plants is one of the most strDdag
features of Mesozoic floras. Iii most cases we havc only th« em i deaut
of sterile fronds, and this is necessarily unsatisfactory ; ^^^^^^^
but the occurrence of numerous stems and fertile shoots ^"'^^^^^
demonstrates the wealth of Cycadean plants in many psrts
of the world, more particularly during the Jurassic and WraVd^-*
periods. From Palaeozoic roclcs a fsw fronds have been dcscribrd.
such as PUrophyUwm FayoU, P. Cambrayi, FJagimmmitn aaA
MSQzoKi PALAEOBOTANY 54.5
Spktnctamilts, chiefly from Fratich localkiet. which are fcferrcd to I frondst which there Is good fcaeon to refer to the Cycadalet in
the Cycads becaOM of their amiUrhy to the pinnate fronds of I Upper Triaasic, Rhaetic, Jurassic and Wealdcn rocks in India.
nodem Cycada ceae . la the succeeding Tnassic system Cycadean I Australia. Japan. China and eisewhete in the southern hemisphere.
Map B<~Mk-M>. D. G, Distribution of the Matmincae, DipkriditiMtjCinkiiaUs.
Dr*^ IMstribution of the p»p<eratiiar. Gi gurasnc); On (Cretaceous-Tertiary);'
Gr-GfTi Distribution of the Cinkgoalts
during the Mesosoic and Tertiary
Periods.
Gi (Trias-Tertiary);
Gi. Gi (Rhaetic-Jorassic);
G4 (Tertiary, Sakhalin I.);
plants become much more abundant, especially in the Keuper period ,
from Rhaetic rocks a still greater number of types have been re-
corded, among which may oe mentioned NUssonta (fig. 10), Arumto-
wamites, PUrohkjUmm, Otoxamites, Cycadiies (fig. 11). The species
of Nilssonia shown in fig. 10 (JV. comfia) is a characteristic member
of the Jurassic flora, practically Identical with a form from Rhaetic
rocks described as Nilssonia polymorpka. The large frond of
CyeadiUs represented in fi|{. II {C. ScpmUu) is from the Wealden
strata of Sussex, and possibly identical wttn CyeadiUs tenviseclus
from Portugal. In addition to these genera there^are others, such
as Clenotamites, CteniSf and Podotamttes, the position of which is
less certain. CtenosamtUs occurs chiefly in the Rhaetic coal-bearinc
beds of Scania, and has been found also in the Liassic clays 01
Gf nurassac and Tertiary);
G} Qniassic);
Gi (Rhaetic-Jurassk);
G» (Triaa-Rfaaetic);
Gm (Rhaetic Chile):
G». (Trias);
ertiary, Alaska);
Cretaceous-Tertiary) ;
'urassic);
urassk:, Spitsbergen) ;
urassk:. Franz jMef Land).
Fig. 10. — Nilistmia compia. Inferior Oolite* England.
Dorsetshire and in the Inferior Oolite beds of Yorkshire, aa well
as in Rhaetic strata in Per^a and elsewhere : it is characterized by
its bipinnate fronds, and may be compared with the recent Australian
genus Botoenia — peculiar among tivmg Cycads in having bipinnate
fronds. CUnis has been incorrectly placea among the ferns by some
authors, on account of the occurrence of supposed sporangia on its
I»nnae: but there is reason to believe that these so-called sporangia
are probably nothing mote than prominent papillose cells of the
epidermis. PodotamUes (6g. 12) is usually considered to be a Cycad.
but the broad pinnae (or leaves) and their arrangement on the axis
suggests a possible relationship with the southern coniferous genus
Aealhis, represented by the Kauri pine and other recent species.
The considerable variation in the sice of the pinnae of PodoaamiUSt
as represented by species from the Jurasoc rocks in the Arctic regions
and various European localities, recalls the variatkm in length and
breadth of the leaves of i4{alM». With regard to the distinguishing
features and the distribution of the numerous Cycadean leaves
of Mesosoic age* the most strikittf fact b the abundance of
as well hi North America* Greenland, and other Arctic lands and
throughout Europe. It is
noteworthy that Tertiary
plant-beds have yielded
hardly any specimens that
can be recognized as
Cycads.
A more important qucs-
tU>n n. What knowledge
have we of the repro-
ductive organs and sterna
of these fossO Cycads?
Cycadean stems have re-
cently been found
in great abund-
ance In Jurassic
and possibly higher
in Wyoming. South Dakota,
and other parts of the U'li^^
States. Cycadean stenu biv«
been found also In the upper-
most Jurassic, Wealdcn ^nd
Lower Cretaceous rocks of Eni^tand^
India and other parts of kW lAOrld.
An example of an Indian Cycii^n
stem from Upper Omdwana fwljk jt
re p resen ted in 6g 11; the ■kiK.iee of
the trunk is covered with rt-otBit-nt
bases (fig. 13, A) of the frondu Lnuwn
as PHhhhyuuM cukkense, i^Ukh at^:
prscticaliy the same as the European
species WiUiamsonia pecten (fig. 17). In
a section of the stem (fig. 13, B) a large
pith is seen to occupy the axial region,
and this is surrounded by a zone 01
secondary wood, whkh appears to differ
from the characteristic wood of modem
Cycads (see GvHXOsrsiuis) in having
a more compact structure. It is in- Fic.lf — CycodtterSa^.
tctesdng to find that G. R. Wieland of lot. Wealden* England.
544
PALAEOBOTANY
the Icavet of T^iks^ a genus which may often be recoenued by
the broad and relatively short bluntly-terminated pinnules. The
Jurassic species Cladopktebis denttcutata (fisr. 6). recorded from several
European localities, as well as from North America, Japan, China,
Australia, India and Persia, affords an instance of a common type
of bipinnatc frond similar to Todiles WiUiamsoni, which has been
included in the Polypodiaceae; but such meagre evidence of the
■oral characters as we possess also points to a comparison with
the recent fern Todea barbara. Our knowledge of the anatomy
of fossil Osmundaceae has recently been considerably extended
by Kidston and Cwynne-Vaughan. (For references, see Seward.
Fossil Plants, vol. it, loio.)
The Schizaeaccae include a widely spread species, onginally named
Ptcopteris exilis, and subsequently pibced in a new genus, Klukta
^,^ . (fig. 7), which is cbaracterixcd by tripinnalc fronds with
212*** short linear ultimate segments, bearing a single row of
""*' sporangia with an apical annulus (*' monangic son " of
Prantl) on either side of the midrib. This type occurs in Rhaetic
and Lower Jurassic rocks of
Englaad. the Arctic regions,
Japan and elsewhere. Ruffor-
dia Goepperti, a Wealdcn type,
and probably a member of the
Schizaeaccae. has beeft re-
corded from England, Belgium,
and other European countries,
and Japan.
The Glcichcniaceae appear
to have been represented bv
Triassic species in North
America and Europe, and more
abundantly in Jurassic, WeaU
den. or Lower Cretaceous rocks
in Eielgium. Greenland, Poland
and elsewhere. Some excep-
tionally perfect fragments of
rhizomes have been found by Dr
C. Bommer of Brussels in some
Fig. T.—Klukia exilis.
1-3. Sporangia enlarged.
^ ^'"*L ±r^' P^""**^ '**^'^^ Wi^dTrdeposits at Hainaut
. FJ!"„2^;f«:„„a in Belgium; but these have not
^ i^ESn? fv[i:?i pAirl.n^ y^ been '""x d«cribcd. The
Inferior OoUte, England. aichotomouslV-branched fronds
of the type represented bv several recent species of Cleickenia, e.g.
^ .. G. dichotoma, &c., are abundant in Lower Cretaceous
r™*"" plant-beds of Grcenbnd, and suggest that in the latter
part <rf the Mesozoic period the Gleicheniaccae held a
position in the vegetation of the far north similar to that which
they now occupy in the southern tropics of India and other regions.
The recent Malayan genus Matonia (Map B, Matonia), represented
by two species, M. peclinata and M. sarmentosa, is clearly a survival
in southern Latitudes of
a family which occupied
Matomh an important
meam. place in the
vegetation of the Rhaetic
■ ^^rpn /■ «F (f- V Jurassic and Wcalden
^ S inF / V^Jmh periods. The genera La-
D]L9 *v Xii mMBw capUris and Matonidium
^SS ^^i ^ iSaff^'-^'-! **** *'**> ™**^ important
Tr* '^'1-^ ^ JBsS '' n *yP«» both as regards
...1. r npjw 'y^ i pec^raphical and geo-
logical range, of thb
Mesozoic family; these
ferns are recorded from
England, France, Bel-
fium. Germany, Austria.
*ortugal, Poland and
Italy (Map B. Mi), also
from Grecnbnd (Map R,
Ml). Spitsbergen (Map D,
M*), and Persia (Map B.
M*). From the southern
Hemisphere, on the other
hand, we know of one or
two fragments only which
can reasonably be referred
to the Matonincae (Map
B, M 1). a fact which may
•6oint to a northern ori{^in
for this family with its
two surviving species
almost confimxl to the
Malayan region.
The recent genus, Dipteris. with its four existing species, occurring
chiefly in the Indo-Malayan region (Map B, Dipteris). is also a
modern sur\-ival of several Mesozoic types represented
by such genera as DictyopkyUum (fig. 9). HamsmmmmA
and Camptopteris, which were abundant during the
Rhaetk and Jmmsaic periods in England. Gennany. Sweden and
Fig. 8.— i/o/o»iirfi«m CoepperlL
A, Summit of petiole.
B, Fertile ninnuks.
Inferior Oolite, Engtaod.
. picsoioc
elsewhere in Europe (Map B. D). tmpMtant addhioas to xr
knowledge of the fertile teaves and rhizomes ci certain Rlurc
species (N DieiycphyUum and other genera have recently beeo nuor
by Professor Nathorst of Stockhdm, and Profesaor Ridnsr <•
Qucdiinbure has made a thorough investigation of the vefttatr^t
organs of nausmannia, a genus possibly identical with PrUrt"
wmch is abundant in Lower Cretaceous and other strata in vanca
European localities. The Dip-
teridmae are represented also
by species from Mesozoic rocks
of Persia (Man B, Dt). Green-
land (Map B, D«), North
America (DO, South Airerica
(DO and China (D«).
ThcCyatheaceae constitute
another family of leptospor-
an^iate Ferns
which had several
Cymthf^
(After Schenk.)
FlG. ^.—DictyopkyUum. Rhaede
rocks of Europe and Asia.
representatives m
Klesozoic floras. The numer*'
ous species of fronds from
Jurassic and Wealdcn rocks
of North America and Europe
referred to Thyrsopleris, a
recent monotypic genus con- ^
fined to Juan Fernandez, are in
the majority of cases founded
on stenle leaves, and of little
or no botanical value. On
the other hand, there are
several fossil Ferns of Juras-
sic age possessing cup-like sori
like those of Thyrsopteris and
other Cyatheaceous Ferns,
which indicate a wide Mesozoic distribution for this family. Aracft
Jurassic species which should probably be classed as Cyathnce^e.
Coniopterts kymenophyltoides is recorded from Engbnd. Frx-cu
Russia, Poland, Bornholm, Italy, the Arctic regions. North Amcrwi,
Japan, China, Australia and India. A few trce-fcms which nu;. w
included in this family — such as Protopieris — have been devr;t»-i
from Wealdcn and Lower Cretaceous rocks of England. Gcmz^^T
and Austria. It is by no means easy in dcalii^ with fossil itrai xa
distinguish between certain Polypodiaceae — such as species d
Davouia — and members of the Cyatheaceae.
It is a striking fact that among the numerous Mesozoic Fcr-i
there are comparatively few that can with good reason be rrfemd
to the Polypooiaceae, a family which plays so dominant j.^
a rftle at the present day. The frequent occurrence of l^L^
such names as AspUnium, Adiantum, DovaUia, and '■^■^
other Poly pod iaceous genera in lists of fosril ferns is tboronr^H
misleading. There are, indeed, a certain number of species *i> b
show traces of sori like those of modem species of AspUwmm zr-^
other genera, but in most cases the names of recent ferns ha\T trcs
used on ini^ufficient grounds. The Wcalden and Jurasic grr^v
Onyckiopsis of England, Portugal, Belgium. Germany, Japan. Sc.'^
Africa and Australia, bears a close resemblance to the rrcr«t
Onyckium (CrypiOMmwu). Other Jurassic Ferns described ^7
Raciborski from Pobnd suggest a comparison with Dnei>a.
The resemblance of the sporocarp-like bodies — discovered bf
Nathorst in association with Rhaetic Sagenopteris leaves, and nvr:
recently figured by Halle under a new generic name {Hydr^yr-
anj^iunt) — to the sporocarps of Marsiiia is an argument in U\zrr
of including Sagenopteris in the Hydroptcridcoc. The majority V
the specimens included in the genus CtadopUebis, the iAtv^zrk
representative of the Palaeozoic Pecopieris type d frond, are kikrvs
only in a sterile condition, and cannot be assigned to their Unit
position. A Wealdcn plant, Weichsdia Ifantetli, is wxirtb) d
mention as a species of very wide geographical distribution, i^
one of the^ most characteristic members of the Wcalden iv.-x
This type is distinguished by its large bipinnate fronds bear 3(
long and rurrow pinnae with close-set pinnules, characterized I)
the anastomosing secondary veins. No traces of aori have fo '.3t
been found on the fronds. Similariy, the genus Saimtfai-:^
characterized by a habit like that of MarsHia, and reprcsemt-d \y
fronds consisting of a few spreading broadly oval or narrow acgm<-n-v
with anastomosing veins, borne on the apex of a common prtiuJr.
is abundant in rocks ranging from the Rhaetic to the WeaUcn. La
has not so far been satisfactorily placed. The evidence addurd
by Nathorst and some other writers is, however, not conx-iokir;:
until we find well-preserved sporocarps in cormection with \y^
tative fronds we prefer to keep an open mind as regards tSt
position of Sagenopteris.
The abundance of Cycadcan plants is one of the roost stnkiiii
features of Mesozoic floras. I n most cases we have only the evidcace
of sterile fronds, and this is necessarily unsatisfactory; ^^,4^^^
but the occurrence of numerous stems and fertile shoots *''*^^^
demonstrates the wealth of Cycadean plants in many pvts
of the world, more particularly during the Jurassic af>d Wcaitil^
periods. From Palaeozoic rocks a imt fronds have been dcseribrd.
■uch as Ptgrophyllum FayoU, P. Combroyi, Ptcgwrnrntta ud
iLAEOBOTANY
54-i
b: Ifcndi or J Lij.p.-r Tru^c, Rh:.ciK. jijra,Mc aw) WtaUci rock* io Inaia.
AosifJlidj Japan, Lhiiui and clsewh^rt td Lbe wuihcm htmiaphere.
Cii (Cretaceous ■ Ttrt iary ) ;
Gil rTerrwry. AJaskjl;
Cii {Ctetaccoua-TtTiijury);
Cii Qurasaic);
Cm numnAlt, SpitibcTffrn);
Gi, (jur43iicp FfflHi jo«( Land)*
Gi (juniirtk);
Ct nwrasaic and Ttrt iary)^
Ci iRhiietic-Juraisjc);
G, (Tri4^R*»cnc):
GwtRhactic, Cliik)^
Cji (TfiA»)t
a? T*U in North America, GnccnTimin anrl oilitf ^.^nctic Ufldt and
thrctithoul Europe. It a ^
rvitK^warthy that Tirttary
pLani-befU hav^? yielded]
hjTdly afly ^Tycimcn* that
can bt rccojnijcd as
Cycadi.
A mon? impoftant quct
ti£)n is. What Icnowlcditc
h-ive *c cf lilt iTpro
of tbrse fas&il Cytiad^?
Cycadcafi stem.^ have ft-
wmiy bfcii Tail n J
in tmt abund-
anrc 1ti JuTav<tr
and pc««ibly bigTier
in Wyomiflgr S*™th Dakota,
and otlacf parts of the Umtcd
State*. C™dpin «cms have
bvrii fouttd jiao iti ih« upper-
iTiEMt JuraAjic, Weatdrn and
Lower Cretareotii mclci t?f England,
Iridia 8nd othvT partf of the world.
An tiiirnple of an Fnttian Cycnde^Ln
utt-m frcni Cpprr GamJ^-ana rocki U
repreBerLT*tl in fiff U; the mrfact dI
the trunk \* tovcred *hh pcr>i!*tent
basti (fig IV A) of the fr«nd» kntjvut
a^ PtilahkyUum cmkhmfe, which are
practicaliif the tame ^t the Eoropcian
Bpcda H^iitiattsimfa pfcten (fijt W)- In
a aeftJon of the rtetn (fir t^, R^ a large
pith 14 M*n to occupy tne uxidl ntgion,
and this ii •f^nrrounded hy a ione of
terondary wood, which appe&rs to diffnr
ffnm the characttrist tc ivood of iwtjjtrn
Cyc;u!* [5« Cvu>:iJ4r9»K^> in ln^init
a mufx: CL^mjBft structure. It [j ut- ]
terrating ti> find that G. IL Wicbad of Uu. Weataea. Eagjiaad.
^ufitt fJ^ricd,
ihjive b«n nc-
The Apecin
Stic memhcf
!,Tom R hectic
rjfc frond ol
Cthe AVea]den
(o»» of Tthith ii
ti*: taAl-t>rarint
i^sic tUye «
r,nslt»nd,
W^hire, aa »e11
^Tacterlied by
'pi Autlralian
^inK bipinnale
^ fern* by wme
[*poranK"a en ita
^Icd vporaTij;ia
^ac cells of the
^1 to Uf a Cyciid,
l**ont nn the a*is
" tt-r'i'nt Tpecies.
^«: Arctk: TVKiunt
™" in ienifth and
^'- (distinguishing
V^'c^dfnn l<avn
*« &t>uodaE»c« t4
WeaJdea. r ' ^
548
PALAEOBOTANY
IMESOaOlC
by Rnonfiriart. The flowera, or tome of them, were oriKinafly
described by Nathorst at WiUiamsonia anguUifdia. This form of
stem, of a habit entirely differctit from that of recent Cycads and
extinct BenntUiUs, points to the existence in the Mesosoic en of
another type of Gymnosperm allied to the Bennettitalea
of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods by its flowers,
but possessing a distinctive character in its vegetative
organs. There is no doubt that the Cycadophyta, using
the term suggested by Nathorst in 190a, was repre-
sented in theMesozoic period by several distinct fomiliea
or classes which played a dominant part in the floras
of the world before the advent of the Angiosperms. In
addition to the bisporangiate reproductive shoots of
BenneUites, distinguished by many inuwrunt features
from the flowers of recent Cycads, a few specimens of
flowers have been discovered exhibiting a much closer
resemblance* to those of existing Cycads, t.g. Amdros'
lfo6aur Baiduini from Bathonian rocks of France; Zamites
familiaris, described many years ago by Corda. from
Lower Cretaceous rocks of Bohemia, and Attdrosirobus
NaikorsH, from Wealden beds in Sussex. The majority
of the species were, however, characterized by flowers of
a different type known as Benm^ttiUs and WiUiamsonia,
The living Maidenhair-tree {Ginkgo biloba) ^see Gym-
NOSPBRMs) remains, like Matonia and DipUru, among
the ferns, as an isolated relic tn the midst
bof recent vcgeution. In Rhaetic, Jurassic
and Wealden floras, the Giokgoales were
exceedingly abundant (Map B, Gi-Git) : in addition to
leaves agreeing almost exactly with those of the recent
species Uig> 18). there are others separated as a distinct
genus. Battra (fig. 18, G). characterized by the greater
number and narrower form of the segments, which may
be best compared with such leaves as those of the
recent fern A ctiniopUris and of certain species of Sckisata,
Male flowers, like those of Ginkgo btloba^ but usually
characterized by a rather larger number of oval pollen-«acs on the
stamens, have been found m England, Germany, Siberia and
elsewhere in association with Cinkto and Baiora foliage. The
occasional occurrence of three or even Tour pollen-sacs oa the stamens
of the recent species affords a still closer a gr ee men t between the
extinct and living types. Seeds like those of Ginkgo Moba have
also been recorded as fossils in Jurassic rocks, and it is possible
that the type of flower known as Btania, from the Inferior Oolite
rocks of Yorkshire, may have been borne by Ginkgo or Baitra,
and Wealden age, bat an abnodance df faatf I wood (AtammHrnty^mm)
from Jurassic and Cretaceous strata in Europe,
Madagascar and elsewhere agreeing with that of recent /
ia addition to several well-preserved female flowers^ C A. HoBirir
Fig. 18.— Leaves of Ginkgoalet.
A. Cinkgodium, Japan (Jurassic).
B. C, D, E, F. h7g-'
. Ginkgo leaves. — B, from Franz Josef Land (Ji
C. Greenland (Lower Cretaceous) ; D, Siberia (Jurassic) ; " "
-. - - ^ ... _ .. Et Germany
(Wealden) ; F, England (Jurassic) : H, China (Rhaetic).
G, Baiera leaf, Infenor Oolite, England.
(A, afUr Yokoynma-, B, afUr Nathorst; C, D, afUr Beeri E. afkr Sekenk:
H. after Krasser. All the figures ) nat. size.)
and E. C Jeffrey have recently shown that some Lower Cretaoeoaa
specimens of the well-known genus BrackyfkjUum obtained froai
Staten Island, N.Y., possess wood of the Araucarian type. Thia genus
has bng beca known as a common and widely spread Joraasic
and Cretaceous conifer, but owing to the absence of petrified speci-
mens and of well-prreserved cones, it has been iropossi bk to refer
it to a definite position in the Omiiexales. It is now dear that some
at least of the species of BrackypkyUnm must be referred to the
Araucarieae. In a recently publiuied paper Seward and Ford
' account 01 the Araucaneae, 1
Fig. 17.— Fronds of WiUiamsonia pedon.
The regions from which satisfactory examples of Ginbpiales (Baiora
or Ginkgo) have been recorded are shown in Map B (Gi-Gir). Both
Tertiary and Mesozoic kxalilies are indicated in the map.
An adequate account of fossil Meaoaoic C^ifers u impossible
within the limits of this article. Coniferous twigs are very common
in Mesozoic strata, but in most cases we are compelled
f^ffcisfcs to refer them to provisional genera, af the evidence of
vegetative shoots alone is not suffioent to enable us to
determine their position within the Coniferaa. There are, however,
several forms which it is reasonable to include in the Araucarieae;
that this family was to the fore in the vegeution of the Jurassic
period is unqueaionable. We have not merely the stribng
resemblaaoe of vegetative shoou to those of recent species of
Aramcaria and Agatkis, «.e. species of Nageiopsis, abundantly
lepreseoted in the Upper Jurassic beds of the Potomac area in
North America, spcdcs ef PagiopkyUum and other genera of Jurassic
1 extinct.
have given a general account of the Araucarieae, recent 1
to which reference may be made for further deuils as to the
geological history of this ancient section of the Coniferales. Some
of the fossils referred to the genus Kaidocarpom, and originally
described aa moooootyledooous infloreaoences, are undoubted
Araucarian cones; other cooes of the same type have been placed
in the genus Cjcadoostnbus and referred to Cycads. Ammnriias
UndUstoni, described by Mr Carruthers from the fy*>«ii;ii> Oolite
rocks of Malton in Yorkshire; Arancaritos spkaerocarpa from the
Inferior Oolite of Somerset; also another cone found in the North*
ampton Sands, which is probably spedfically kkntical with A»
HndUstoni, and named by Carrvthers Kaidocarpom ooUliemm, affoni
good illustrations of British Araucarian flowers. A flower of a
rather different type. Ps on da r a ue aria major, exhibiting ia the
occurrence of two seeds in each scale an approach to the coaes ai
Abietineae, has been described by Professor Fliche from Lower
Cretaceous rocks of Argonne. The weU-known Whitby jet ol
Upper Liaasic age appears to have been formed to a lai|e extent
from Araucarian wood. Among the more abundant Conifen of
Jurassic age may be mentioned such genera as Tkujitss and Ca^re*.
sit4S, whidi agree in their vegetative characters with members of
the C^ipressineae, but our knowledge of the conea is far from satia-
factory. Many of the small female flowers borne on dioou with
foliage of the Cupr$uus type consist of spirally dispoaed and ooc
vertidllate scales, t.^. Thnytes oxfansus, a oonunoa Jurassic speden.
Fossil wood, described under the name CnpnsuMOkyian, haa beeo
recorded from several Meaoaoic horizons in Eunqie isA elsewho^
but this term has been employed in a' wide sense as a dcrignatioa
for a type of structure met with not only in the Cupccsstnaae. hue
in members of other families of Conifeme. The Abietineae do not
appear to have played a prominent part before the Wealden period ;
various okler speacs, e^. Rhaetic spedmena from Soama, am
recorded, but it is not until we come to the Upper luiasac aztd
Wealden periods that this modem family was aounoaotly r
sented. FossU wood of the Pinitu type (PityoxyUm) has
described from England. France, Germany, Sweden. Sp'-^
North America and cisewbero; some of the best Britid ^
have been obuined from the so-called P'me-raft. the reanaiaa ef
water-logged and petrified wood of Lower Greensand a
\am water near Brook Point in the Isle of Wisht. WeL ,
Abietineous female flowers have been obtained from the Wa
rocks of England and Belgium, e.g Piniles Dunktri, P 5s ^
&c.; nedmeas of seeds and vegetative shoots are recorded also
from Spitsbersen and other regions. HoUick and Jeffrey have
recently added to our knowledge of the anatomy oc Crrtaceous
HBS(»OICr
PALAEOBOTANY
549
ipeoM of Pmus,»ad Mtm Slopes and Dr Fujii have made In*
portaot contributiofu on the structure of Cretaceous pbnts (roni
Japan. Cooes of Lower Cretaceous age have been described by
Fliche from Argonne, which bear a close resemblance to the female
flowers of recent species of Cednu. The two surviving species of
Seouoia afford an illustration of the persistence of an old type, but
unfortunately most of the Mesozoic species referred to this genus
do not possess sufficiently perfect cones to confirm thdr identifica-
tion as examples of Semtota. Some of the best examples of cones
and twigs referred to Segtuna. are those described by Heer from
Cretaceous rocks of Greenland, and Professor D. P. Peahallow of
Montreal has described the anatomical structure of the stem of
Sequoia Lang/tdorfii, a Tertiary species occurring in Europe and
North America.
There arc- a few points suggested by a general stirvey of .the
Mesozoic floras, which may be briefly touched on in conclusion.
In following the progress of plant-life through those periods in
the history of the earth of which records are left in ancient sedi-
ments, seams of coal or old land-surfaces, we recognize at certain
stages a want of continuity between the floras of successive ages.
The imperfection of the geological record, considered from the
point of view of evolution, has been rendered familiar by Darwin's
lemarkable chapter in the Origin of Species. Breaks in the chiiin
of life, as represented by gaps in the blurred and incomplete
documents afi^orded by fragmentary fossils, are a necessary
consequence of the general plan of geological evolution, they
mark missing chapters rather than sudden breaks in an cvolu^
tionary series. On the other hand, a study of the plant-Ufc of
past ages tends to the conviction that too much stress may be
laid on the imperfection of the geological record as a factor in
the interpretation of palaeontological data. The doctrine of
Uniformitarianism, as propounded by Lycll, served to establish
geology on a firmer and more rational basis than it had previously
pofiSMsed; but latterly the tendency has been to modify the
Lyellian view by an admission of the probability of a more
intense action of groups of forces at certain stages of the earth's
history. As a definite instance a short review may be given of
the evidence of palaeobotanical records as regards their bearing
on plant-evolution. Starting with the Ferroo-Carboniferons
vegetation, and omitting for the moment the Glossopteris flora,
wcfind a comparatively homogeneous flora of wide geographical
range, consisting to a large extent of arborescent lycopoda,
calamites, and other vascular cryptogams, plants which occupied
a place comparable with that of Gymnospcrms and An^osperms
in our modern forests; with these were other types of the greatest
phylogenetic importance, which serve as finger-posts pointing
to lines of evolution of which we have but the faintest signs
among existing plants. Other types, a^ain, which may be
referred to the Gymnosperms, played a not unimportant part in
the Palaeozoic ve|;etatiQn. No conclusive proof has so far been
adduced of the existence in those days of the Cycads, nor is there
more than partial evidence of the occurrence of genera which
can be placed with confidence in any of the existing families of
Conifers. There are, moreover, no facts furnished by fossil
plants in support of the view that Aqgiosperms were represented
cither in the low-lying forests or on the dopes of the mountains
of the Coal period. Passing higher up the geological series, wc
find but scanty records of the vegetation that existed during the
closing ages of the Permian period, and of the plants which
witnessed the beginning of the Triassic period we have to be
content with the most fragmentary relics. It is in rocks of
Upper Triassic and Rhaetic age that abundant remains of ridi
floras are met with, and an examination of the general features
of the vegetation reveals a striking contrast between the Lower
Mesozoic plants and those of the Palaeozoic period. Arbonsscenl
Fteridophytes are barely represented, and such dominant
types as Lefidodendron, Sigiliatia, Calamlet and Spken^phyUum
have practically ceascid to exist; Cycads and Conifers have
assumed the leading r61e» and the still luximant fern vegetation
has put on a different aspect. This description applies almost
equally to the floras of the succeeding Jurassic and Wealden
periods. The change to this newer type of vegetation was no
doubt loss sudden than it appears as read from palaeobotanical
records, but the transition period between the Palaeosoic tjrpe
of vegetation aod tkas which fl o a ri sbad ia tiia Lowar M«Mok
era, and eontinned to the dose of the Wealden age, was probably
characterized by rapid or almost sudden changes. In the
southern hemisphere the Glossopteris flora succeeded a Lower
Carboniferous vegetation with a rapidity similar to that which
marked the passage in the north from Palaeozoic to Mesozoic
floras. This apparently rapid alteration in the -character of the
^uthem vcgeuiioo took place at an earlier period than thai
which witnessed the transformation in the northern hemisphero.
The appearance of a new type of vegetation in India and the
southern hemisphere was probably connected with a widespread
lowering of temperature, to which reference has abready been
made. It was from this Glossopteris flora that several types
gradually migrated across the equator, where they formed part
of the vegetation of more northern regions. The difference
between the Glossopteris flora and those which have left traces
in the Upper Gondwana rocks of India, in the Wianamatta and
Hawkcsbury beds of Australia, and in the Stonnberg series of
South Africa is much less marked than that between the Peimo'-
Carboniferous flora of the northern hemisphere and the succeed-
ing Mesozoic vegetation. In other words, the change took phicc
at an earlier period in the south than in the north. To return to
the northern hemisphere, it is clear that the Wealden flora, as
represented by plants recorded from England, France, Belgium,
Portugal, Russia, Germany and other Eiuropean regions, as also
from Japan and elsewhere, carries on, with minor differeneea,
the fades of the older Jurassic floras. It was at the close of the
Wealden period that a second evolutionary wave swept over the
vegetation of the world. This change is most strikingly illus-
trated by the hirush of Angiospernis, in the equally marked
decrease in the Cycads, and in the altered character of the ferns.
It would appear that in this case the new influence, supplied by
the advent^of Angiospetms, had its origin ia the north. Unfor-
tunately, our knowkdge of the later floras in the southern hemi-
sphere is very incomplete, but a similar txansformation apfiean
to httve chatacteriied the vegeution south of the equator.
As to the nature of the chief factors ooaoemed hi the two revohi-
tions ia the vegetable kingdom, if it uadmissible to use so strong
a term, only a guess can be hazarded. Physical coaditioas no
doubt plajred an important part, but whatever cause may have
had the greatest share in disturbing the equilibrium of evoluo
Uoaaiy forces, it would seem that the apparently sadden
appea r a n ce of Cycads and other tjrpes at the close of the Palaeo-
soic period made a widespread and sudden impression on the
whole character of the vegeution. At a later stage— in post-
Wealden days— it was the appearance of Ang^perros, probably
in northern latitudes, that formed the chief motive power in
accelerating the transition in the factes of plant-life from that
whidi marked what we have called the Mesozoic floras, to the
vegetation of |he Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary periods.
With the advent of Angiosperms began, as the late marquis of
Saporta expresaed it, " Une nfrvohition, ainsi rapide dans sa
marche qu'universelle dans ses effets." From the floras of the
Tertiary age we pass by gradual stagea to those whidi charac-
teriae the present phase of evolutionary progress. Among
modem floras we find here and there isolated types, such as
Ginkgo^ SeguoiOt Uatama^ DxpUris and the Cycads, persisting
V more successful survivals which have held their own through
the oouise of ages; these planu remain as vestiges from a remote
past, and as links ooaaecting the vegetation of to^y with that
of theMeaoaoicera.
AuTROarrias.-<;fp»opicrlt fkm\ Blanford. H. F., "On the
Eind correlation of the Plant'^bearing Series of India, fie..**
erly Journal Ceol. Soc xxxi. (l87S): Fcistroantel, "Fossil
01 the Gondwana System. Mem. Ceol. Surv. India, vols. lii.,
&c. (1879. &c) ; Seward. Foud Plants as Tests of ClimaU (Cambridge.
»893), with bibliography; ** The Glossopteris Flora," Science PtO'
S'ess, with bibliography; "On the Association of Sigdlaria and
lossoptcTts in South Africa." Q.J.C.S,, vol. Hit (1897): E. A. N.
Arber. Catatonu of the Fossil Plants of the ClossoUeris Flora in the
Department of Geology (British Maseum. Nat. Hist., Brit. Mus.
Catalogme (London, 1905). with full bibliography: Medlieott and
BUnford. J/Miid/ of the Geoiofy of India (and ed.. Oldham. R. D«
Calcutta. 1893): David. " Evidences of Glacial Action in Australia
in Pcrmo-Carooniferous time," QJ/i,S., vol. lii. (1896); Zeiller,
ilMiiMalf dt^iMakftM^w (Parish 1900); Potoai4b"F« " ^'
S50
PALAEOBOTANY
rrERnARY
Aus deutsch nod portugiesiach OiU^rika," Dmis€lh(>skifnka, viL
(Berlin. 1900), with biblioffraphy. General : Potonii, Lekrbuck der
Pflanxenpaiaeontoloiie (Benin. 1899): Scott. Studies im Fossil Botany
(1900) : Seward. Fossil Plants (Cambridge: vol. i.. iteS) ; vol. ii. 1910.
with biblionaphy: ZciUcr. " Revue <ks travaux de palfontologie
v^geule." R£0. gjtn. hot. (1903) et wa. Catalogue oi the Meaoaoic
Plants in the Bntish Museum, (a) " Wealdcn Flora." pts. i. and ii.;
{b) " Jurassic Flora." pt. i. (189^-1901), pt. ii. (i9<M). with biblto-
Kaphy; " On the Structure and AAmtics of Matowia bectinota, with
oces on the Oological History of the Matommeae, Phil. Tmns,
cxci. (1899): " On tM Structure. &c, of Dipttris" ibtd.cxciv. (1901,
with bibliography; Seward and Ford, " The Araucarieae, recent and
extinct/' Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (London. 1906); G. R. Wicland,
"American Fossil Cycads," Publication Carnegie Instit. (Washington,
1906) : Nathorst. " PaliLobottntache MitteiL,K. Soemsk, Vetenskaps.
A had. Hand. xlii.. No. ^ (1907); The Nonvetian North-Polar Expedi-
tion, ill (1893-1896); •'^Fossil PlanU from Franz Joacf Land;" L F.
Ward, "Status of the Mtsoioic Floras of the United States,"
Twentieth Ann. Rep. Geol. Survey (Washington. IQOO); Solms-
Laubach, " Ucber das Genus PUuromna," BoL ZeiL (1899); Newton
and Teall. " Notes on a (ToUection of Rocks and Fossils from Fran<
Josef Land." Q.J.G.S. liii. (1897): Hollick and JciTrey, "Studies of
Cretaceous Coniferous remains. Mem. New York Botanical Garden,
vol. ill. (1909); Stopcs and Fuiii. "Structure and Affinities of
Cretaceous Plants." Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (iQio). References to im-
portant papers on Mesozoic botany will be found in the btblio>
graphics mentioned in the above list. (A. C. SB.}
III.— Terhaiiy
After the Wcalden period, and before the deposit ion of the
lowest strata of the Chalk, so remarkable a chaikge takes place
in the character of the vegetation that this break
Cnrfitrrffgr '""^^ ^ taken as, botanically, the transition point
from a Secondary to a Tertiary flora. A flora
consisting entirely, with a single doubtful exception, of
Gymnosperms and Cryptogams gives place to one containing
many flowering plants; and these increase so rapidly that before
long they seem to have crowded out many of the earlier types,
and to have themselves become the dominant forms. Not only
do Angiosperms suddenly become dominant in all known plant-
bearing deposits of Upper Cretaceous age, but strangely enough
the earliest fotmd seem to belong to living orders, and commonly
have been referred to existing genera. From Cretaceous times
onwards local distribution may change; yet the successive floras
can be analysed in the same way as, and compared with, the
living floras of different regions. World-wide floras, such as seem
to characterize some of the ddcr periods, have ceased to be, and
plants are distributed more markedly according to geographical
provinces and in climatic zones. This being the case, it will be
most convenient to discuss the Tertiary floras in successive
order of appearance, since the main interest no longer lies in
the occurrence of strange extinct plants or of transitional forms
connecting ordera now completely isolated.
The accurate correlation in time of the various scattered plant-
bearing deposits is a matter of considerable difficulty, for plant-
remains are preserved prindpally in lacustrine strata laid down
in separate basins of small extent. This it is obvious must
commonly be the case, as most leaves and fruits are not calcu-
lated to drift far in the sea without injury or in abundance; nor
are they likely as a rule to be associated with marine organisms.
Deposits containing nurine fossils can be compared even when
widely separated, for the ocean is continuous and many marine
q>cdcs are world-wide. Plants, on the other hand, like land
and fresh-water animals, occupied areas which may or may not
have been continuous. Therefore, withoia a knowledge of the
physical geography of any particular period, we cannot know
whether like or unlike floras im'ghl be expected in neighbouring
areas during that period. If, however, we discover plant-
bearing strata interst ratified with deposits containing marine
fossils, we can fix the period to which the plants belong, and may
be able to correUte them in distinct areas, even though the
floras be unlike. This clear stratigraphical evidence is, however,
so rarely found that much uncertainty siill remains as to the
true age of several of the floras now to be described.
In rocks apptoximatdy equivalent to the Lower Greensand
of England, or slightly earlier, Angiosperms make their first
appearance; but as the only strata of this age in Britain are of
marine origin, we have to turn to other countries for the evidence.
The earliest Angiosperm yet fotind in fiarope is a single 1
cotylcdonous leaf of doubtful affinities, named by Saporta
Alisnuuiles primaevus (fig. 1), and found in the
strata of Portugal. These deposits seem
to be equivalent to British Wealden rocks,
though in the latter, even in their upper
part, no trace of Angiosperms has been
discovenxL No other undoubted Angio-
sperm has yet been discovered in Europe
in strau of this age, but Heer records a
poplar-like leaf from Urgonian straU, a
stage newer than the Valenginian, in
Greenland, and Saporta has described from
strata of the same date in Portugal a
Euphorbiaceous plant ^pareoily dosdy
allied to the living Pkytlanlkus and named
by him Ckofatia Francheti (fig. a). We |^^
must turn to North America for a fuller
knowledge of the earlist fk>wering-plants.
In S. Dakota a remarkable series has been discovered, lyiac
unmistakably between marine Upper Juraiaic rocks below and
Upper Cretaceous above. There has been a certain < ,^
amount of confusion as to the exact strata in which ^^^^^^^^^
the plants occur, but this has now been cleared up
by the researches of Lester F. Ward, who has shown bow tbc
Secondary flora gives place to one of Tertiary character.
The lower strata— ^*.«. those most allied to the Juraasic— contain
only Gymnosperms and Cryptogams. The next division (Dakott
No. 3 of Meek and Haydcn)
contains Gymnosperms and Ferns
of Neocomlan types, or even of
Ncocomian species; but mingled
with these qccur a few dicotvle-
donous leaves belonging to lour
genera. The specimens are very
fragmentary, and all that can be
said b that one of the forms may
be allied to oak. another to fig. a
third to Sapindus, and the fourth
mav perhaps be near to elm. The
" Potomac Formation " of Virginia
and Maryland is doubtless also
mainly of Neocomian age, for
though it rests unconformably on
much older strata, the succc&sive
floras found in it are so allied to
those of S. Dakota as to leave little
doubt as to the general bomotaxis
of the series. Lester Ward re-
cords no fewer than 737 dUtinct
forms, consisting chleny of Ferns,
Cycads. Conifers and Dicotyledons,
the Ferns and Cycads being con- _ ^ • . «
fined mainly to t he Older Potomac, "C- ^-—Ckofaha F)rameheH.
while the Dicotvlcdons are principally represented in the Newer
Potomac, though occurring more rarely even down to the base of
the acnes. Six auccessive stages have Seen defined in the Potomac
formation. The Mount Vernon beds, which occur about the nuddl*
of the aeries, have as yet yielded only a small number of species
though these include the most interesting early Angiomerms.
Among them are recorded a Casuarina, a leaf of Sapttaria (which
howe\'er. as observed by Zeiller. nuiy belong to Smilax), two apecica
of poplar-like leaves wtih remarkably cordate bases. Uenispermiats
(possibly a m-ater-IUv) and Olastropkyltum (perhaps allied to
Cclastrus). Proteoph^um, found in the same bed. and also in the
Infra-Cretaceous of Portugal, seems to have belonged to a Proiea-
ocons plant, thouj^h only leaves without fruiu have yet bcm
discovered in deposits ol this eariy date. Whatever doubt may be
left as to the exact bounical position of these early Lower Cretaccoua
Angiosperms, it is clear that both Monocotyledons and Dicotvledooa
are represented by several tVTXss of leaves, and that the fCon. ex-
tended over wide arena in North America and Greenland, and la
found again at a few |M>ints in Europe. These b yet no dcnr
evidence either of climatic zones or of the existence of geogfapbacal
provinces during this period.
The next strata, the Aquila Creek aeries, contain a well-marled
dicotyledonoas flora, in which both the form and nervation o( the
leaves be^ to approximate to those of recent times. The lenduis
characteristic of this Middle Potomac flora b the pmportJoa of
Dicotyledons. Notwithstanding this apparent passage-bed. there
h a marked difference between the Older and the Newer Potomac
floras, very few species passing from the one to the other. Only
15 out of 40s pUusca in the older aeries occur to the bods aborw
TBRTMRY]
PALAEOBOTANY
55"
though already mocv than 350 ipeckf have baco ((ctcrintned from
this newer lenea. The |>lants from the Amboy Clays, which form
the most important division of the Newer Potomac series and were
monographed in 1895 by J. S. Newberry, teem to belong to the com>
mencement of the Upper Cretaceous period. It is remarkable
that nearly 80% of the species are Dicotyledons, and that no
Monocotyledons have been found. The mere enumeration of the
genera will indicate how close tha flowering plants are to living
forms. Newberry records Jutlans, Myrica (7 species), Populus,
Saiix (5 species). Quercus, PUmera, Puus (3 spades). Persocma
and anothi^ extinct Proteaceoua genua oamcd ProUmdet, Maptotia
(7 species). Liriodendron (4 species). MenispermiUs, Laurtu and
allied plants, Sassafras (% species), Cinnamomum, Prunus, Hymcnaea,
Dal^ria, Baukiina, Caesai^Hta, Poutatnea, Caiutea and other
I ji^^ CeUuUus, CeUutrophyilum (10 species). Aur,
AMHmHfu. Pttliurus^ CissiUSj TUiaephmum, Passifiorat EuaiiyptHS
(5 qiecies), HederOt Aralia (8 species). Cornophyllum, Andromeda
(4 species). Myrsime, SapotaeiUs, Diospyros, ActraUs, Vtburnum
and various genera ot uncertain affinities. The poinu that suggest
themselves with regard to this flora are, that it includes a fair
representation of the existing orders of warm-temperate deciduous
trees; that the more primitive types'— such as the Amentaceae-^o
not appear to preponderate to a greater extent than they do in the
existing temperate flora: thai the ascembla|e somewhat suggests
American alBnitics; and that when we take into account deficient
ccrflecting. focal conditions, and the non-preaervatioo of succnlenl
plants, there is no reason for saying that certain other orders mnsC
nave been absent. The great nnty of Monocotyledons is a common
characteiistic of fossil floras known only, as thia one is» from leaves
principally belonging to deciduous trees. With regard to suggested
American affinities, it must be borne in mind that the Neocomian
Angioaperms are little known except in America and in Greenland,
and that we therefore cannot yet say whether families now mainly
American were not formerly of world-wide distribution. We
know that this wa* the case with some, such as Idriodtndron; and
in Em^yptus we see the converse, where a genus formerly American
ia now confined to a far disunt renon. The Neocomian flora has
been collected from an area extending over about y>* of btitude*.
but there is little evidence of any corresponding climatic change.
We cannot yet say, however, that the deposits are exactly con-
temporancous, and the great climatic variations that have taken
place in the northern hemisphere during the existence of our living
Bora should make us hesiute to cocrelate too minutely from the
evidence of plants alone.
The hiflfhest diviswn of the Dakou seriea (known as Dakota
No. 1) which lies immediately beneath Upper Cretaceous strata
with marine fossils, contains a flora so like that of the Tertiary
deposits that only the dearest geological evidence has been con-
eidered sufficient to prove that Hcer was wrong when he spoke of
the planu as Miocene. Theae highest plant-bearing strata rest,
according to Lester Ward, somewhat unconformable on the Dakota
No. a; tBey show also a marked difference in the included plants.
The genei^ of Dicotyledons represented are Qyerau, Sassafras,
Platamu, Ceiatlropkyuum, CissUes, Vibumilts,
In the central parts of North America the lacustrine plant*bearinff
deposits are of enormous thickness, the Dakota series beingfollowcd
by marine Cretaceous strata known as the Colorado and Montana
groups, and these being succeeded conformably by a thousand feet
or moie of lacustrine shales, sandstonea and coal-seams, belonging
to the Laramie seriea. This alao containa oocamonal marine Upper
Cretaceous fossils, aa well aa svptiles of Cretaceous types. An
extensive literature haa grown up rdating to these Laramie strata.
for owing to the Tertjary aspect of the contained pbnts, gcok)gists
were sh>w to recognize that they could be truly contemporaneous
with others yielding Cretaceous animals. In
addition to this, the earlier writen induded in the Laramie series
many deposits now known to be of later date and truly Tertiary,
and the process of separation is even now only partially completed.
■ '" ' ' ^ in these * "*
It will be safest in these circumstances to accept as our guide to
the true Laramie flora the carefully compiled " Catalogue " of
F. H. Kaowkon. According to thia caubgue, the true Laramie
flora includes about 390 species, more than half of which are
deciduous forest trees, herbaceous Dicotyledons, Monocotyledons
and Cryptogams, all being bat poorly represented. Among the
few Monocotyledons are leaves and fruits of palms, and traces of
grasses and sedges. The Dicotyledons include several water-lilies,
a aomcwhat doubtful 7>b^. and many genera of forest trees still
conunoo in America. The genera best represented are Ficiu
(at Bpeciea), Oiureus fi6 species), Populus (il species). Rkamuus
10 Bpeciea), PlaSanus (8 species). Viburnum (7 species). Maptolia
(6 spcdes), Consnr (5 species), Cinnamomum (5 species). Juglans
U species), A€or (4 species). Salix (4 species), Aralia (3 species).
lUua (3 species). Sejuma (3 species). Of trees now extinct in
America, enea/ypftif and ankgo are perhaps the most notKcable.
So la^ a proportion of the trees still bekings to the flora of North
America that one is apt to overiook the fact that among the more
aparjaliied plants some of the largest American ordcre. such as the
C»mposHa€, arc still missing from strau bekmging to the Cfctaocous
p«iod.
England.
Wanting
Upper Chalk
Middle Chalk
Lower Chalk
Upper Green-sand >
Cault
The imperfection and want of continuity of the records in
Europe have made it necessary in dealing with the Cretaceous
floras for us to give the fixst place to America. But
it is now advisable to return to Europe, where SwjSoIm.
Upper Cretaceous plants are not tincomuMMi, and
the position of the deposits in the Cretaceous series can often
be fixed accurately by their close association with marine strata
belonging to definite subdivisions. As these divisions of
Cretaceous time will have to be referred to more than once, it
will be useful to tabulate them, thus showing which plant -beds
seem to be referable to each, and what are the British strata
of like age. It haa not yet been found possible so closely to
correlate the strata of Europe with those of America, where
distance has allowed geographical differences in both fauna
and flora to come into play; therefore, beyond the references to
Lower or Upper Cretaceous, no classification of the American
Cretaceous strata has here been given. In Europe the meat
commonly accepted divisions of the Cretaceous period are at
follows: —
France. &c
Daman
Senonian
Turonian
t Cenomanian
Albian
Aptian
Lower Green-sand Valenginian
Urgonian
Wcaldcn Neocomian
In the continental classification the deposits from the Gault
downwards are grouped as Lower Cretaceous; but in Great
Britain there is a strong break below the Gault and none above;
and the Gault is therefore classed as Upper Cretaceous. The
limits of the divisions in other places do not correspond, the
British apd continental strata often being so unlike that it is
almost impossible to compare them. The doubt as to the exact
British equivalent of the Valenginian strata of Portugal, which
yield the earliest Dicotyledon, has already been alluded to.
The phint-bearing deposiu next in age, which have yielded
Angiosperms, appear to belong to the Cenomanian, though from
Westphalia a few species belonging to the Ciyptogams and
Gymnospcrms, found in deposits correlated with the Gault,
have been described by Hoaius and von der March.
In Great Britain the whole of the Upper Cretaceous straU are
of marine origin, and have yielded no und-plants beyond a few
fir-cones, drift-wood and rare Dicotyledonous leaves in the Lower
Chalk. Most of the deposits which have yielded Angiosperms of
Cretaceous age in central Europe comspond in a^ with the English
Upper Chalk (Senonian). but a small Cenomanun flora has been
collected from the Unter Quadcr in Moravia. Hcer described
from this deposit at Moletein 13 genera, of which 7 are still living,
containing 18 species, viz.: i fern. 4 Conifera. 1 palm, 9 figs, 1 Cred-
neria, 2 laureb. 1 Aralia, 1 Ckondropkyllum (of uncertain aflinities),
a m^nolias, 2 species of Myrtaceae and a species of walnut. Saxony
yields from strata of this period at Nicdcrschocna 43 species, de-
scribed bv Ettingshauscn.
This small flora is most
remarkable, for no fewer
than 6 genera, conuining
8 species, are referred to
the Proteaceae. The Cen-
omanian flora of Bohemia
is larger and equally pecu-
liar, .^mong the Dicotyle-
dons descrilxd by Velenov-
sky arc the following: Cred-
noria (5 species), Araliauao
(17 species). PraUaceot (8
spcdes). Myriea (2 smrica).
fi€ms (s^ spedes). Qmercus
(a species). Mat "
I
species). Laurineao
[2 species). Ebenaetao
(a species), Vtrbtnaetao^
Cmnbretaceat, Sapindactao
(2 species), CamelUauag,
Ampdideae, Himo^eat,
Canalpimieao {$ species), , ^, «i - .>.
Eueotyptm (a spedes), Pisoma, PksUyrm, Km, Frmmu, AgwMfl.
Fig. 3. — Crodneria
S5«
PALAEOBOTANY
imttiutr
lannu, SaUx, BaiAaima, To thb Btt Bayer adds ArisioUckia.
The CenonuDian flora of central Europe appears to be a sub-
tropical one. with marked approaches to the livinf^ flora of Australia.
The maiority of its Dicotyledons belong to existing gcoera. but
one of the most prolific and characteristic Cretaceous lorma is Cred*
turta (Fig. 3), a genus of doubtful affinities, which has been compared
by diflereot authors to the popbrs. planes, limes and other orders.
The Cretaceous plant-beds of Westphalia include both Upper
and Lower Senontan. the two floras being very distinct. Hosius
and voo der Marclc describe, for instance, la species of oak from
the Upper and 6 from the Lower strau. but no species is common
to the twa The same occurs with the figs, with 3 wccics above
and 8 bdow. The 6 species of Crednena arc all confined to the older
deposits. In fact, not a single Dicotyledon is common to these
two closely allied divisions of the Cretaceous aeries; a circumstance
not easy to explain, when we see how wdl the oaks and figs are
represented in each. Four species of Devsalqtua, a ranunculacoous
gnus allied to the hellebore, make their appearance in the Upper
nonian of Westphalia, other species occurring at Aix>Ia-Chapelle
in depoaits of about the same age. The Senonian flora of the last>
aam^ place, and that of Maestricht. are still only imperfectly
known. It ts unnecessary to trace the variations of the Upper
Cretaceous flora from point to point: but the discoveries within
the Arctic circle have been so surprising that attention must again
be called to them. Besides the Lower Creuceous plants already
mentioned, Heer has described from Greenland a Bora of Ceno-
manian age, and another belonging to the Senonian. The Ceno-
manian strata have yielded already i;[7 species, the dilTercnt
groups being represented in thestf proportions: Cryptogams, 37. 30
of which areFcms ; Cycads, 8 : Conifers, 97 ; Monocotyledons, 8; Ape-
talous Dicotyledons, 31 : other Dicotyledons, 66. The SelMmian stra u
have yielded 118 species. 31 of which are Cryptogams. 11 Conifers,
5 Monocotyledons, 7s Dicotykdons. Forest trees, especially oaks,
are Dientif ul. and many of the species are identical with those found
in Cretaceous deposits in more southern htitudes. Both of these
floras suggest, however, that the climate of Greenland was some-
what colder than that of Westphalia, though scarcely colder than
warm-temperate.
The Cretaceous depoaits just described are foHowed by a series
of Tertiary formations, but in Europe the contiouity between
Cretaceous and Tertiary is not quite complete.^ The Tertiary
formations have been assigned to six periods; these are termed —
Paleocene, Eocene, OUgocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene,
and each has its own botanical peculiarities.
During the Paleocene period the plants were not markedly
different from those of the Upper Cretaceous. lu flora is still
^, but imperfectly known, for we are dependent on two
SSfc** ^^ ^^^^ localities for the plants. There is found at
Suzanne, about 60 m. east of Paris, an isolated
deport of calcareous tufa full of leaves, which gives a curious
inMght into the vegetation which flourished in Paleocene times
around a waterfall. Suzanne yields Ferns in profusion, mingled
with other shade-loving planu such as would grow under the
trees in a moist ravine; its vegetation is comparable to that of
an island in the tropical seas. Monocotyledons are rare, the
only ones of much interest being some ftagments of pandanaccous
leaves. The absence of Gymnosperms is noticeable. The
Proteaceae are also missing; but other Dicotjriedons occur in
profusion, many of them being remarkable for the large size
of their deciduous leaves. Among the flowering plants are
Devalquea, a ranuncubceous genus already mentioned as
occurring in the Upper Creuceous, and numerous living genera
of forest-trees, such as occur throughout the Tertiary period,
and are readily comparable with living forms, Saporta has
described about seventy Dicotyledons, most of which are peculiar
to this locality.
The plant-bearing marls of Gelinden, near Li^, contain the
d^ris of a Paleocene forest. The trees seemed to have flourished
on neighbouring chalky heights. The most abundant spacies of
this forest were the oaks and chestnuts, of which a down have
been collected : laurels, Vthmrtmm, ivy, several Aralaas, Dtwdtptta.
a Thuja and several Ferns may be added. This flora b compared
by Saporta and Marion with that of southern Japan. Other de-
posits xA this a}ce in France have furnished pbnts of a more varied
aspect, including myrtles, araucarias, a bamboo and several fan-
leaved palms, baporta points out the presence in these Paleocene
deposits of certain types common, on the one hand, to the American
Tertiary strata between the Missouri and the Rocky Mounuins,
and 00 the other, to the Tertiary flora of Grct-nland. The Paleocene
deposits of Great Britain are of marine origin, and only yield pine-
oooea nad f lagoseau of Osmmmda,
The British Eocene tod OHtooeBe stAite yidd to luge • Bon,
and contain plant-beds belonging to so many different stages,
that it is unfortunate we have still no inonogxaph
on the subject, the one coaaenccd by EttingihauBen 'ffy ■■ — d
and Gardner in 1879 having reached no farther than"j^y
the Ferns and Gymnosperms. This deficiency a*^^
makes it impossible to deal adeqtutely with the
Britiah Eocene plants, most of the material bcins citLcr
tanpoblished or needing re-caanoBation.
In the earliest Eocene plant-beds. In the Woolwich and Reading
aeries, a small but interesting flora is found, which wggesta a tem<
perate climate less warm than that of earlier or of btcr periods.
Leaves of planes are abundant, and amoi^ the pbnts wtcuMtA arc
two figs, a uurel, a Robinia, a CrevtIUa and a palm. Ferns are icarce.
Ettingshausen and Gardner recording only Aneimia subcrO&etm and
Puns (?) PnstwUkii. The only Cymnosperms determiiwd f
Lihocednu adfresui» which b close to L. ietmrtuM of the Yoscosite.
and roxmfuMi euretaeum. A few pbnts have been foond in the
next BUge. the Oidhavcn beds, and among these are Hg and
cinnamon. Gardner considers the pbnts to point to subtt ops ca l
conditions. The London Cby has yiekkd a brae number of pUnia«
but most of the apeciea are represented by unita alone, not by
leaves. Thb circumstance makes it difficult to oompare the Bora
with that of other formations, for not only b it uncertain whkt
leaves and fruits bekmg to the same pbnt, but there b the addkioswl
source of doubt, that different elements of the same flora any he
represe n t e d at different localities. Of some pfanu only the d^
ciduoas leaves are likely to be preserved, wlulst other snccnbt-
leaved forms will only be known from thctr woody fruits* Amoog
the aoo pbnts of the London Cby are no Ferns, but 6 genera of
Gymnospcrmt-^viz. CaUitris (i apocies). Seguoia, AtkrmtMis (?)
Ctnkpf, Podoearpus, Pinusi and several genera of palma, of which
the tropical ffipa is the most abundant and moat chanetcrintic,
amoiqp the others being fan-palms of the genera SsAal and Chamta^
rops. The Du»tyledoas need further study. Among the fruits
Ettingshausen records Oarresir, LtemdemMr. Irasarwr, Nyiss,
Dinpyros, Symf>lo€09, MapteUa, Victvna^ Bigklem, Sapimdus,
Cmpamia, Euienta, Bvealyptms, Amyf^alm: he suggests that the
fruits of the London Cby of Shemy may belong to the aai^
pbnts as the leaves found at Alum Bay in the Isb 01 Wight.
The next stage is represented by the Lower Bagshoc lenf-bcda
of Ahim Bay. These pipccbys yield a varied flora, Ettingshairw
recording 274 species, belonging to 116 genera and 63 famtlksL
Gardner, however, b unaUe to reconctb thb estinatra richness
with our knowledge of the lion, and sarniises that foasU pbnti
from other localities must have been inadvertently indodeo. He
considers the flora to be the roost tropical of any that has ao far
been studied in the northern hemisphere. Its OMMt ooospsoMMBs
pbnts are Fkut Bamtrbankiit Anlm piimitemia, C^mptomim
aCMtihba, Dryandn BurAwp, Cauia Ui^jeri and the fruits of
Caesalpinia, The floras which it chiefly rcseia b les are first, that
of Monte Boica, and second, that of theGres dn Soisswiais, whsch
btter Caidner thinks may be of the same age, and not earlier, aa
b generally supposed. The toul number of spedcs foond at Ahaai
Bay. according to this author, b only about «> or 6a
To the Bagshot Sand succeeds the thick masa of sanda with
tnterrabted pbnt-beds seen in Boornenooth cfiffs. Each bad
yields peculiar format the total number of specits amoaatii^ to
many hundred, most of them differing from those occurring in the
strau below. The plants suggest a eompanson of the cttmaee
and forests with those of the Maby Arcoipebm and ty op i ta i
America. At one pbce we find drifted fruits of ivtfo. at aaockcr
Hiihtea and Antma. Other beds yi^ priadpally pahas, wfllow«»
bureb. EneaiyMus or Fens; but there are no Cyouls. As siMratag
the richness of thb flora, we mav mention that in the oaly erdera
which have yet been monographed. Ferns are repicaentea by 17
species and Gymnonperms by 10. though these are not the gfoofw
best re prese n ted. Gardner speaks of the Bournemouth flora as
appearing to consist principally of trees or hard'Wooded shiaha.
compare ively few lemains of the herbaceous vmtatkiB beu^
preserved. The higher Eocene strata of Eogbnd— ^hose above th«
Bournemouth Beds— are of marine origin, and ^ekl oidy drifted
fruits, principally fir-cones.
In the volcanic districts of the south-west of Scotbnd aad the
north-east of Irebnd pbnt^bcds arc found intereabtcd h etmwa
the bva-flows. These also, like the lignites of Bovev Tracey,
have been referred to the Mbcene period, on the aipposeo evideoca
of the pbnts; but more recent aiscoveries by Gardner tessd to
throw doubt on this alkxationt and suggest that, though of v
tifc%, the first-formed of these deposits may date back to early i
times. The flora found in Mull points distinctly to t e m p erate
oondittons: but it U not yet clear whether this indicates a dWceeat
period from the subtropical flora of the south of Engbnd, or wfcethcr
the difference depends on btitude or local conditiooa. The plaata
include a Fern. Om^cka kebrtdiea, close to a living Americaa lorm:
four Gymno^wrms bekMging to the genera Crypi^mtna, Cimigp^
TdOIAM)
PALAEOBOTANY
553
Taxus and Podecarpnsi Di6otyledoiM-<^ about 30 »pecie«. tevenl
of which have been figured. Among the Dicotvlcdonc may be
mentioned PtatanuSt Aur (?)» Quercus (?),
tVi^rHum, Alnus^ Maindia, CorMtu (?).
Castanea (?), Zuypkus, Poputus and the nettle-
like Boehmeria 0nliama. The abtencc cf the
lo-callcd cinnamon'kavet and the SmiUueae,
which always enter into the compotition of
Middle Eocene and Oligocenc floras, is notice-
able. The Irish strata yield two ferns; 7
Cymnosperms, CupnssnSt Crypimneria, Taxus,
Pcdacarpus, Pinus (2 ■pccica), Tsuia; and
leaves of about 25 Dicotyledons. Tne most
abundant leaf, ac(»rding to Gardner, docs not
seem distinct from Cetaslropkyllum Benedeni,
of the Paloooene strata o( Qcttnden; a water-
lily, NduwUnitm Buckiu occurs also in CHi^o-
cene beds on the Continent; the species of
MacClintockia (fig. 4) is found both in the
Arctic floras and at Cclinden. Among the
other plants are an alder, aa oak and a
doubtful cinnamon.
Leavins these Scottish and Irish deposits
of doubtiul age, we find in the Hampshire
Basin a thick series of fluviatile, lacunrine
and marine deposits undoubtedly of Lower
and Mkldle Oligooene cbte. Their flora n
still a singularly poor one.^though plants have
been obtained at many different levels; they
perhaps indicate a somewhat cooler climate
than that of the Bournemouth series. Among
the more abundant plants are nucules cf
several species of Ckatat and drifted fruits
and seeds of water-lilies, of FoUieulites (now
'generally referred to StralioUs) and of Limno-
carpus (allied to Potamoteton); there is little
else mixed with these. Other seams are full
of the twigs and cones of Alkrolaxis, a Conifer
now confined to Tasmania. Ferns are repre-
and a feather-palm, as well as by the two aquatic genera above
mentioned; Cymnosperms. by the extinct araucarian genus Dolio-
alrobus, by rare pine-cones, and by Alkntaxis. Dicotyledonous
leaves are not plentiful, the cenera recorded being Andromedat
Cinnamomum, Zwypkus, Rhus, Viburnum,
The lignite deposits and pipe-clays of Bovey Tracev in Devon,
leferred iiy Hcer and Penselly to the Miocene period, were con-
sidered by Gardner to be ofthe same age as the Bournemouth beds
(Middle Eocene). Recent researches sh<yw. however, that Hcer's
view was more neariy correct. The flora of Bovey is like that of
the lignite of the Wettereu, ti^ich is either highest Oligocene or
lowest Miocene. Several species of Nyssa are common to the
two districts, as are a climbing palm, two vines, a magnolia, &c.
The common tree at Bovey i:t Se&uoia CtnMsiae, which prubably
grew in profusion in the snelterea valleys of Dartmoor, close to
the lake. Above these strata in Great Britain there is a complete
break, no species of plant ranging upwards into the next fossiliferous
division.
Space win not aDow us to deal ivitb the numeroos lettered
deposits which have yielded Tertiary plants. It will be more to
the ptixpoae to take distant areas, where the order of the strata
is dear, and compare the succession of the floras with
ScwSiImIi*^^***' met with in other geographical rcgbns and in
Fnat». Other . latitudes. For thjs study it will be most
convenient to take next south and central France,
for in that area can be found a series of plant-bearing strata in
which is preserved a nearly continuous history of the vegeUlion
from Upper Eocene down to Pliocene. The account is taken
mainly from the writings of SaportA.
The gypsum-deposit of Upper Eocene date at Alx in Provence
commences this series, and is remarkable for the variety and perfect
preservation of its organk: remains. Among its Cymnosperms are
numerous Cupnssiiuae of African affinity belonging to the genera
Callitris and Widdrinitonia, and a juniper dose to one indigenous
In Greece. Fan-palms, several species of dragon-tree and a banana,
like one living in Abyssinia, represent the more peculiar Mono-
cotyledons. Among the noticeable Dicotyledons are the Myncactat,
ProUaceae, Lauriruae, Bombax, the Juoas-tree. ifcoftn. Ailanikus,
while the most plentiful forms are the Araliaceae. Willows and
poplars, with a lew other plants of more temperate regions, are
found rarely at Aix, and seemingly point to casual introduction
from surrounding mountains. In a general way, spiny plants,
vhh stitf braochii and dry and cor^ ' '' *- •"'^
1 ooriaoeout leaves, donmate the
flora, as they now do in Central Africa, to which region on the whole
Sapona conMrlcrs the flora to be most allied.
The succeeding Oligocene flora appears to be more charaaerizcd
by a gradual replacement of the Koccne species by allied forms,
than by any marked change in the assemblage or in the climatic
conditions. It forms a periectly grtdual transition to the still nevi'er
Miocene period, the newer species slowly appearing and increasing
m number. Saporta considers that in central and southern
Europe the alternate dry and moist heat of the Eocene period
gave place to a climate more equally and niore universally humid.
and that these conditions continued without material change into
the succeeding Miocene suge. Among the types of vegetation
which make their appearance in Europe during the Oligocene
period may be mentioned the Conifers Libocedrus salkornioides,
several species of Chamaecyparis and Sequoia, Taxodium disliehum
and Clyptostrobus eurojHuus, The palms include Sabai haeringiana,
5. ma;>rand Flabettana. Among the Myrieaceae several species of
Comptonia are common. ,.These new-comers are all of American
type. Aquatic plants, especially water-lilies, are abundant and
varied; the soil-dry Callitris and widdrinitonia become scarce.
Though we do not propose to deal with the other Europeai^
localities for Eocene and Oligocenc plants, there is one district
to which attention should be drawn, on account of
the exceptional sute of preservation of the specimens. " ^^^
On the Baltic shores of Prussia there is found a'
quantity of amber, containing remains of insects and plants.
This is derived from strata of Oligocene age, and is particularly
valuable because it preserves perfectly various soft parts of the
pbnts, which are usually lost in fossil specimens. The tksues,
in fact, are preserved jtist as they would be in Canada balsam.
The amber yields such things as fallen flowers, perfect catkins
of oak, pollen grains and fungi. It enables us to determine
acoirately orders and genera which otherwise are unknown In
the fossil state, and it thus aids us in forming a truer idea of the
flora of the period than can be formed at any locality where the
harder parts alone axe recogni2able. No doubt this amber
flora is still imperfectly known, but it is valuable as giving a
good idea of the vegetation, during Oligocene times, of a mixed
wood of pine and oak, in which there is a mixture of herbaceous
and woody plants, such as would now be found under simikir
conditions.
The plants of which the floral organs or perfect fruits are pre-
served include the amber-bearing Pinus succinifera, SmtlaXt,
Phoenix, the spike of an aroid, ti species of oak. 2 of chestnut,
a beech. Urttcaceae, 2 dnnamons and Trianthera amon^ the
Lauraceae, representatives of the Cistaceae, Ternsiroemuueae.
DitUniaceae (3 species of Hibbertia), Ceraniaceae {Geranium and
Erodium), Oxalidaceae, Acer, Celastraceae, Olacaceae, Pittosporaceaei
Ilex (2 species), Euphorbiaceae, Umbelliferae iCkaeropkyOum),
Saxifragaceae (1 genera), Hamamdidaceae, Rosaeeae, Connaraceae,
Ericaceae {Andromeda and Cletkra), Myrsinaceae (3 species)^
Rubiaceae, Sambvcus (3 species), SanuUaceae, Loranthaceat (3
species). We here discover for the first time various living families
and genera, but there is still a noticeable absence of many of our
most prolific existing groups. Whether this deficiency is acddental
or real time will show.
The Miocene flora, which succeeds to that just described, is
well represented in Europe; but till recently there has been an
unfortunate tendency to refer Tertiary floras of all
dates to the Miocene period, unlets the geological
position of the straU was so dear as obviously to forbid this
assignment. Thus plant-beds in the basalt of Scotland and
Ireland were called Miocene; and in the Arctic regions and in
North America even plant-beds of Upper Cretaceous age were
fcferrod to the same period. The reason for this was that some
of the first Tertiary floras to be examined were certainly Miocene,
and, when these plants had been studied, it was considered that
somewhat similar assemblages found elsewhere in deposits of
doubtful geological age must also be Miocene. For a long time:
it was not recognized that changes in the marine fauna, on which
our geological cUssification mainly depends, correspond scared/
at all with changes in the land plants. It was not suq)ected,
or the fact was ignored, that the break between Cretaceous and
Tertiary— made so conspicuous by striking changes in the
aquatic animals— had little or no ' importance in botanical
history. It was not realized that an Upper Cretaceous flora,
needed critical examination to distinguish it fr»m one of Miocene
age, and that the two periods were not chniftcterised by a
55+
PALAEOBOTANY
ITERTIARy
sweeping change of generic type, such as took place among the
marine invertebrates. It may appear absurd to a geologist ihat
any one could mistake a Cretaceous flora for one of Miocene
date, since the marine animals are completely different and the
differences are striking. In the case of the plants, however, the
Tertiary generic types in large part appeared in Upper Cretaceous
times. Few or no extinct types are to be found in these older
strata — there is nothing among the plants equivalent to the
unmistakably extinct AmmonUes, BclemniUs, and a hundred
other groups, and we only meet with constant variations in the
same genus or family, these y^atioos having seldom any obvious
relation to phylogeny.
The Miocene period is unrepresented by any deposits in Great
Britain, unless the Bovey lignite should belong to its earliest stage;
we will therefore commence with the best known region — that of
central Europe and especially of Switzerland, whence a prolific
flora has been collected and described by Oswald Hccr. The Miocene
lacustrine deposits are contained in a number of siltcd>ap lake-
basins, which were successively formed and obliterated dunng the
uprise of the Alps and the continuous folding and bending of the
earth's crust which was so striking a feature of the period. These
undulations tended to transform valleys into chains of lakes, into
which the plants and animals of the surroundins ^rca feli or were
washed. We thus find preserved in the Upper Miocene lacustrine
deposits of Switrcrland a larger flora than is known Irom any
other period of simiLnr length; tn fact, an analysis of its composition
suggests that the Miocene flora of Switzerland must have been
both larger and more varied than that now living in the same
country. The best known locality for the Upper Miocene plants
is Oenmgen, on the Lake of Constance, where tiave been collected
nearly 500 species of plants, the total number of Miocene plants
found in Switzerland being stated to be now over 900. Among
the characteristi<-s of this Miocene flora are the \zr^ number of
families represented, the marked increase in the dcciduous-lcayvd
plants, the gradual decrease in the number of palms and of tropical
plants, and the replacement of these latter by Mediterranean or
North American forms. According to Hccr, the tropical forms
in the Swiss MioceiAt agree rather with Asiatk types, while the
subtropical and temperate pLinis are allied to forms now living in
the temperate zone in North America. Of the 920 species descnocd
by Heer, 114 are Cryptogams and 806 flowering plants. Mosses
are extremely rare, Heer only describing 3 species. Vascular
Cryptogams still include one or two brgc horsetails with stems
over an inch thick, and also 37 species of Fern; araonjpt the most
interesting of which are 5 species belonging to the climbing Lygo-
dium, a genus now living In Java. The number of Ferns is just
equal to that now found in Switzerland. Cycads are only repre-
sented by fragments of two specks, and this seems to be the last
appearance of Cycads in Europe. The Coniferae include no fewer
than 04 species of Cupresiineae and I7 of Abietineat, including
several species of Sequoia. Monocotyledons form one-sixth of the
known Miocene flora, 25 of them being grasses and 39 sedges; but
most of these need further study, and are very insufficiently char-
acterized. Heer records one species of rice and four of millet.
Most of the other Monocotykidons call for little remark, though
among tlwm is ^n JriSf a Bronulia and a ginger. Smiiax, as in
earlier times, was common. Palms, referred to il species, are
found, though they seem to have decreased in abundance; of them
7 are fan-palms, the others including PhoeniciUs — a form allied
to the date— and a trailinK palm, CatamepsiSt allied to the canes
and rattansi Among the Dicotyledons, the LefumiitDsae take the
first place with 131 species, including Acacia^ Caesalpinia and
Cassia, each represented by several forms. The occurrence of 90
species of AmenUueae shows that, as the climate became less
tropical, the relative proportion of this group to the total flor^
increased. Evergreen oaks are^ a marked characteristic of the
period, mone than half the Swiss species beinj{ allied to living
American forms. Fig-trees referred to 17 roecies occur» all with
aadivided leathery leaves; one is close to the banyan, another to
the indiarubber-tree. The Lauritua* were plentiful, and include
various true hurels, camphor-trees, cinnamon, Persta and Sassafras.
The Proteaeeae, according to Hccr, ar* still common^ the Australian
genera Hakea, Dryandra, CrniiUa and Sanksia, bein^ represented.
Amoi^t gamopetalous plants several of our largest living families,
including Campanuiaceag. LabiaiM, S0t*xiiaceae and Prtmuiaceat,
are still missing: and of Borapneaej Scrophularineaet Centiantae
and Caprifoliauag there are only faint and doubtful indications.
The CompDsitae are represented by isolated fruits of various species.
Twining lianas are met with in a species of Bignonia; UmheUiftrae
Ranmmcutauat and Cruciferaet are represented by a few fruits.
These families, however, do not appear to have had anything like
their present importance in the temperate flora, though, as they
are mainly herlnceoos plants with fruits of moderate hardness,
they may nave docajned and left no trace. The American Liriodendron
still flourished in Europe. Water-lilies of the genera Nywtpkaea
And NtiumbiuM occur. Maples were still plentiful, ao species
having been described. R^saeeae are rare, Cralaegus, Pnmms and
Amyi^atus, being the only genera recorded. It is obvkMS that
many of these Swiss Miocene plants will need more close acudy
before their specific characters, or even their generic positiofli. can
be accepted as thoroughly nude out : still, this will not affect tbe
general composition of the flora, with its laree proportion ol de-
ciduous trees and evergreens, and its noticeable deficiency in nany
of our largest living families.
From Europe it will be convenient to pass to a distant regioa
of similar latitude, so that we may see to what extent botanical
provinces existed in Eocene and Oligocene tines. It T^vsIht
so happens that the interior of temperate North ^^JJjTf*
America is almost the only region outside Europe ia ^^***
which a series of plant-bearing strata give a connected history
of these periods, and in which the plants have been collected
and studied. It is unfortunately still very difficult to correiaic
even approximately tbe strata on the two sides of tbe Atlantic,
and there is great doubt as to what strata belong to each division
of the Tertiary period even in different parts of North America.
This difficulty will disappear as the strata become better known;
but at present each of the silted-up lakes has to be studied separ*
aiely, for we cannot expect so close a correspondence in their
faunas and floras as is found in the more crowded and smaller
basins in central Europe.
Perhaps the most striking characteristic of the Tertiary lions
of Nortn America, as diMinguished from those of Europe, is the
greater continuity in their history and greater connexion with the
existing flora of the same regk>ns. This difference b readily ex-
plained when we remember that in Europe the main barriers wbich
stop migration, such as the Alps and the Mediterranean, ran east
and west, while in America the only barriers of any importance
run north and south. In consequence of this peculiarity, dimattc
or orographic changes in Europe tend to drive aniraab and plants
into dk cut d* sac, from which there b do escape; but in America
similar climatic waves merely cause the species alternately to retreat
and advance. This difficulty in migration b probably the reasoa
why the existing European flora is so poor in large-fruited trees
compared with what it was in Miocene tiroes or with the essting
flora of North America. In America the contrast between the
Eocene forests and those now living is much leas striking, and this
fact has led to the wrong assumption that tbe present American
flora had its origin In tlie American continent. Such a conclusion
is by no means warranted by the facts, for in Tertiary times, as ««
have seen, the European flora had a distinctly " American " faciei
Therefore the so<alk!d Apicricaa forms may have originated in
the Old World, or more probably, as Saporta suggests, in tbe poUr
regions, whence they were driven by the increase m cold southwards
into Europe and into America. The American Tertiary flora is
so large, and the geology of the deposits is so intricate, that it U out
of the question to discuss them more fully within the limits of this
.nrticlc. We may point out, however, that the early Tertiary floras
seem to indicate a much closer connexion and a greater community
of species than is found between the existing plants of Europe and
America. Or, rather, we sliould perhaps say that ancient Aoras
suggest recent dispersal from the pUce of origin, and leas time ta
which to vary and become modified by the loss of different groups
in the two continents. Geographical provinces are certainly
indicated by the Eocene flora of Europe and America, but these are
Icn marked than those now esmting.
If we turn to a more isolated region, like Australia, we find
a Lower Eocene flora disthictly related to the existing flora ol
Australia and not to that of other continents. ^^^
Australasia had then as now a pccub'ar flora of its
own, though the former wide dispersal of the Proteaeeae and
Myrtaceae, and also the large mmiber of Amentaceae then found
in Australia, make the Eocene phtnts of Europe and Australia
much less unlike than are the present floras.
Within the Arctic circle a Urge number of Tertiaiy plants
have been collected. These were described by Heer, svlra
referred them ta'the Miocene period; he rccogniaed,
in fact, two periods during which Angi osp ein a
flourished within the Arctic regions, the one Upper
Cretaceous, the other Miocene. To this view of the Mioccoe
age of the plant-bearing strata in Greenland and Spitsbergen
there are serious objections, which we will again cefer to when
the flora has been described.
The Tertbry flora of Greenland is of great interest, from the
extremely high latitude at which the pUnts flourished, thirty of
the species having been collected so far north as lat. 81 . Taking
first this most northerly kxality, in CrinaeU Landt we find the flora
TERTIARy]
PALABOBOTANY
to compriae a hdnotaSb, ii Conlfefs (iiieliidine tlie living' Pmm
Abies), 1 giuifi, A •edge* a PoplvB, a willow, a birches, 2 haxds,
an elm, a Vibttmumt a vater^iUy* and a lime. Such an afltemblage
at the present da^ would suggest a latitude quite 25* farther south ;
but it shows decidedly colder conditions than any of the European
Eocene, Otisocene, or Mioocne strata. Fromlat. jS* in Spitsbnrgen
Heer records 136 species of fossil plants. More to the south, at
Disco Island in lat. 70*, the Tertiary wood seem to have been
principally composed of planes and Sequoias; but a large number
of other genera occur, the total number of plants already recorded
being 137. From various paru of Greenland tbey now amount
to at least a8o. Amons the plants from Disco, more than a quarter
are also found in the Miocene of central Europe. The plants of
Disco include, besides the plane and Sequoia, such wam-tempeiate
trees as CinkiQ, oak, beech, poplar, maple, walnut, lime and
magnolia. If these difTcrent deposits are contemporaneous, as is
not improbable, there is a distinct change in the Aom as we move
farther from the pole, which suggests that dtfTcrchcc of latitude then
as now was accompanied by a difFcrence in the flora. But if this
process is continuous from latitude to latitude, then we ought not
to look for a flora of equivalent age in the warm«temperate Miocene
deposits of central Europe, but should rather expect to find that the
temperate plants of Greenland were contemporaneous with a tropical
flora in central Europe. As Mr Starkic Gardner has pointed out, it
does not seem reasonable to assume that the same flora could have
ranged then throueh 40* of latitude; it is more probable that an
Eocene temperate flora found in the Arctic rnions travelled south-
wards as the climate became cooler, till it became the Miocene
temperate flora of central Europe. Mr Gardner suggests, therefore,
that the plant-beds of Greenbnd and Spiisbenrcn represent the
period <^ greatest heat, and are therefore wrongly referred to the
Miocene. At present the evidei^ is scarcely sumcient to decide
the question, for if this view b n^ht, we ougnt to find within the
Arctic circle truly Arctic floras equivalent to the cool Lower Eocene
and Mracene periods; but the»e have not yet been met with.
A steady decrease of temperature marked the Pliocene period
throughout Europe, and gradually brought the climatic con-
0fi^^g^ ditions into correspondence with those now existing,
till towards the end of the period neither climate
nor physical geogtaphy differed greatly from those now existing.
Concunently with this change, the tropical and extinct forms
disappeared, and the flora approached more and more nearly
to that now existing in the districts where the fossil plants are
found, though in the older deposits, at any rate, the geographical
distribution still dilTercd considerably from that now met with.
At last, in the blest Pliocene strata (often called " pre-Glacial ")
we find a flora consisting almost entirely of existing species
belonging to the Palaearctic regions, and nearly all sliU living
in the country where the fossils are found. This flora, however,
b associated with a fauna of large mammals, the majority of
which are extinct.
The plants of the Older Pliocene period are unknown in Great
Britain, and little known throughout Europe except in central
France and the Mediterranean region. The forests of central France
during this epoch showed, according to Sapona, a singular admixture
of living European species, with trees now characteristic of the
Canary isles and of North America. For instance, of the living
species found at Mcximieux. near Lyons, one is Anwrican, eight
at least belong to the Canaries (six bcii^j characteristic of those
islands), two are Asiatic, and ten still live in Europe. Taking into
account, however, the closest living allies of the fossil plants, wc
find about equal affinities with the floras of Europe. America, and
Asia. There is also a decided resemblance to the earlier Miocene
flora. Among the more interesting plants of this deposit may be
mcntioricd Torreyo nucifera, now Japaticsc; an evergreen oak close
to the common Querem lUx\ Laurus canariensis, ApoUonias
eaiMrietisii, Persea <arcliiunris, and Ilex canariensis: Daphne pontiea
(a plant of Asia Minor); a species of box. scarcely differing from the
English, and a bamboo. To this epoch, or perhaps to a stage
slightly later, and not to the Newer Pliocene period, as is generally
supposed, should probobly be referred the lignite deposits of the
Val d'Arno. This lignite and the accompanying kaf-txnring clays
underlie and are apparently older than the strata with Newer Pliocene
mammals and roolluaca. The only mammal actually associated
with the plants appears to be a species of tapir, a ocnus which in
Europe seems to Se characteristically Miocene and Older Pliocene.
The plants of the Val d'Arno have been described by Ri^tori; they
consist mainly of deciduous trees, a kirge proportion of which are
known Miocene and early Pliocene forms, neariy all of them being
extinct. A markedly upland character is given to the flora of this
valley through the abundance of pines (9 species) and oaks (16
species) whicn it contains: but this peculiarity is readily accoun*ed
for by the steep stopes of the Apennines, which everywhere surround
and dominate the okl lake-bosio. Among the other noticcabb
plhiits may be mentiooed AfMs {3 species), Alkut (a\
Carpinpt, /bf««i.(4 specKs), Salix (4 species), Papulus (a l^
Phtanus, Liauidambart Planera, Ulmus (3 species), Ficus (a species),
Persoonia, Laurus ($ species), Persea, Sassafras, Cinnamomum
(% species), Oreodapkne, Diospyros (a species). Andromeda, MafnaUat
Acer (3 species), Sapindtu, Ceiasints (a species), Itex (4 species),
Rhamntu (3 species), Juffam (^ species), Carya (a species), Rhus^
Myrtus, Crataegus, Prunus, Cassia (3 species). These plants suggest
a colder climate than that indlcatra by the plants of Meximieux —
they might, therefore, be thought to belong to a later period. The
difference, however, is probab^ fuUy aooounted for when wc take
into consideration the biting winds still felt an spring in the valley
oC the Amo, and the probable large admixture of plants washed
down from the mountains above. Somewhat later Pkocene deposits
in the Val d'Arno, as well as the tuffs associated with the Pliocene
volcanoes in central France, viekl plants of a more familiar type, a
American and Austnilbn types having disappeared.
A somewhat later Pliocene floia is represented by the plants
found at Tegclen, near Venloo, on the borders of the Netherlands
and Germany. This deposit is of especial interest for the light it
throws on the origin of the existing flora of Britain. The Tegelen
plants are mainly north European; out there occur others of central
and south Europe, and various exotic and extinct forms, neariy all
of which, however, bebog to the Palaearctic region* though some
may now be confined to widely separated parts 01 it. For instance,
Pterocarya caucasica does not grow nearer than the Caucasus,
where it b associated with the wild vine — also found at Tegclen;
Mantoiia Kobus is confined to the north island of Japan; another
„ . 'ulichiuM
vespiforme, belongs to a genus only living in America, though the
only living species once flourished also in Denmark; an extinct
species of water-aloe {Stratides elegans) makes a third genus, repre-
sented only by a single living species, whkh was .evidently better
represented in Pliocene times. A large proportion of the plants. '
however, may still be found living in Holland and Britain; but there
is a singular scarcity of Composites, though this order is fairly well
represented in British strata of slightly bter date.
The latest Pliocene, or pre-Glacial, flora of northern Europe is
best known from the Cromer Forest-bed of Norfolk and. Suffolk, a
fluvio-marine deposit which lies beneath the whole of the Glacial
deposits of these counties, and passes downwards into the Crag, roan^
of the animals actually associated with the plants being characteristic
Pliocene species whidi seem immediately afterwards to have been
exterminated by the Increasing cokl. The plants contained in the
Cromer Forest-bed, of which about 150 species have now been
determined, fall mainly into two groups— the forest-trees, and
marsh and aquatic pbnts. We know little or nothing at present
of the upland plants, or of those of dry or chalky soils. Forest trees
are well represented; they are. in fact, better known than in any of
the later English deposits. We find the living British species of
Rkamnus, maple, sloe, hawthorn, apple, white-beam, guelder-rose,
cornel, elm. birch, alder, hornbeam, hazel, oak, beech, willow, yew
and pine, and also the spruce. This is an assemblage that could not
well be found under conditions differing greatly from those now
holding in Norfolk: there is an absence of both Arctic and south
European plants. The variety of ta'cs shows that the climate was
mild and moist. Amons the herbaceous plants we find, mingled
with a number that siifl live in Norfolk, Hypecaum procumbenst
the water-chestnut {7>apa nalans), and Najas minor, none of whkh
is now British.
On the Norfolk coast another thin plant-bod occurs locally above
the Forcst-bcd and immediately beneath the Boulder Clay. This
deposit shows no trace of forcst-trcc*. but it is full of remains of
Arctic mosses, and of the dwarf willow and birch; in short, it yklds
the flora now. found within the Arctic circle.
The incoming of the Gladal epoch does not appear to have
been accompanied by any acclimatization of the olants— the
species belonging to temperate Europe were locally ^^^^^^^^^^
exterminated, and Arctic forms took their places.
The same Arctic flora reappears in deposits immcdialcly
above the highest Boulder Clay, deposits formed after the ice
had passed away. These fossil Arctic plants have now been
found as far south as Bovey Tracey in Devonshire, where PcngeUy
and Heer discovered the bear berry and dwarf birch; London,
where also BeltUa nana occurs; and at Deuben in Saxony,
which lies nearly as far south as lat. 50*, but has yielded to
Professor Naihorsl's researches several Arctic species of willow
and saxifrage. The cold period, however, was not continuous,
for both in Great Britain and on the continent of Europe, as
wcU as ia Canada, it waa broken by the lecuneace of a mildec
«6
PAUAEOGRAPHY
dimate and ihk mppeannce of a flora afmo^ identical with
that now Kving in the same regions. This -** inter-Gladal "
flora, though so like that now found in the disuict, has inter-
ttting peoUiarities. In England, for instance, it includes Acer
moHspesstUanum, a southern maple which does not now extend
nearer than central Europe, and Cotoneastar Pyracantha\ also
Najas gtaminea and N. mtitor, both southern forms not now
native of Britain. Brassenia peltatat a water-lily found in the
warmer regions almost throughout the world, except in Europe,
occurs 'abundantly in north Germany, but not in Great Britain.
Similar inter- Glacial deposits in Tirol contain leaves of Rhodo-
dendron ponUcwH,
Space will not permit us to enter into any full discusden of
the recurrence of Gladal and inter-Gladal periods and the
influence they may have had on the flora. It is evident, how-
ever, that iJE climatic alternations, such as those just described,
are part of the normal routine that has gone on through all
geological periods, and are not merefy confined to the btest,
then such changes must evidently have had great influence on
the evolution and geographical distribution both of species and
of floras. Whether this was so is a question still to be decided,
for in dealing with extinct floras it is diflicult to.dedde, except
in the most general way, to what climatic conditions they poinL
We seem to find indications of long-period climatic oscillationa
in Tertiary times, but none of the sudden invasion of an Arctic
flora, like that which occurred during more recent times. It
should not be forgotten, however, that an Arctic flora is mainly
distinguishable from a temperate one by its poverty and dwarfed
vegetation, jts dedduous leaves and small fruits, rather than
by the occurrence of any characteristic genera or families.
Careful and long-continued study would therefore be needed
before wc could say of any extinct dwarfed flora that it included
only plants which could withstand Arctic oonditioos.
[ Authorities.— H. Conwenta. Monotraphu der haltiuken Bem^
steinbduwte (Danzig. 1890), Di* Fhra des BernsUins, vol. iL (1886):
Sir W. Dawson, Papers on the Cretaceous Plants of British North
America, Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada {iSSjrii^); C. von Ettingft-
hauscn, " Die Kreldeflora von Nicderachdna ia Sachsen," Sit*, k.
Akad. Wiss. Wien. math.-nat. CI., vol. Iv.. Abth. i. (1867): *' Report
on . « . Fossil Flora of Sheppy," Proc, Roy. Soc. xxix. 388 (1879);
•• Report on . . . Fossil Flora of Alum Bay." ibid. xxx. 228 (1880):
C. von Ettingshauscn and J. S. Gardner, " Eocene Flora," vols. i.
and il., PaUuont. Soc. (1879-1886); W. M. Fontaine, " The Potomac
or Youncer Mcsozoic Flora," U.S. CeoloiwU Sunev, Monograph xv.
(1889) ; J. S. Gardner, Flora of Alum Bay, in " Geology of the Isle of
Wicht.'^ Afem. Ccol. Survfj (2nd ed., 1889); H. R. Goeppert and
A. Menge, Die Flora des Bernsleins und ii^e Banehungen tur Flora
der Tertidrformalion und der Cetenwart, vol. i. (Danzig, 1883):
O. Heer, Flora tertiaria f{dvetiae u vols.. Wintcrthur, 1855-1859);
Flora JossUis arclica^iy vols., ZOrich. 1868-1883), " Bcitrftge zur
KreideBora. — (1) Flora von Moletcin in Mahren," Neue Denkukr,
oUtem. sckweit. CestU. Naiunoiss., vol. xxiiL m6ai. 22 (ZOrich,
1869-1872); Primaeval World in Svilserland (2 vols., 1876): F. H.
Knowlton, "Catalogue of the Cretaceous and Tertiary Pbnts of
North America," Bull. U.S. Ctol. Swvcy (Na 152. 1898). " Flora
of the Montana Formation," ibid.. No. 163 (1000) ; Krasser, ** Die
fossile Krcideflora von Kunstadt in Msihrcn.' B«/. paleont. Cetd.
Oesterreick-Ungams, Bd. v. Hft. 3 (1896): Leo. Lesquereux.
" Contributions to the Fossil Flora of the Western Territories,*'
Rep. U.S. Ctol. Survey of the Territories, vols, vi., vii., viii. (1877-
1883), "The. Flora of the DakoU Croup," U.S. Ceolojical Survey,
Monograph xvii. (1801): Mcschinelti and Squtnabol, nora ter(iana
italica (1892); this book contains a full bibliography relating to
the Fossil Flora of Italy; J. S. Newberry, "The Flora of Amboy
Clays," U.S. Ceolotieat Survey, Monograph xxvi, (189^); Hosius and
von der Marck, "Die Flora der wcstphalischen Kreideformation."
Potaeonlograpkica, voL xxvi. (1880), and supplement in ibid. vol.
xxxi. (1883) ; A. G. Nathorst, " Glacialflora in Sachsen, am iiusserstea
Rande des nordischen Diluviums." KontL Vetenskebs-Akad. Fork.,
p. 519 (1894); Clement Reid, " Pliocene Deposits of Britain.*' Mem.
Ceol. Survey (1890). Oripn oftke Britiak Flora (1899): C. and E. M.
Reid, " The Fossil Flora of Tegeien-aur-Meuse. near Vcnioo, in the
Province of Limburg," Verk. Kon, Akad. Weteuuk. Amsterdam,
ic Sect. DI. xiii. No. 6 (1907) ; " On the Pre-Glactal Flora of Britain."
Journ. Linn. Soe. {Botany), xxxviii. 206-227 (1908); G. deSaporta,
" Prodrome d'une flore fossile dct Tiavertins anciens de Suzanne."
Mim. soc. iiol. France, 2nd series, voL viti. p. 280 (1868): " Re>
cherchcs sur les v^etaux fossiles de Meximteux. ' Arckiv. Mus.
kiil not. Lyon, 1. 131 (1676); Monde des plantes avant rapparition
de I nomme (1 879) ; " Etudes sur la vegetation du sud-est de fa France
k r^poque tertiaret" Anm* wcu moL (1862-1888); FUr* jostiU dm
Portuial (Lisbon. tS^); Crde Saporta ami A. F. Maffon.
sur I'ctat de la v^etation a I'^poquc' des marncs hceniennea de
Gcllnden." Mim. cour. acad. ray. belgigue, vol. xxxvii. No. 6 (167^),
and vol. xli. No. 3 (1878) ; J. Vcfenovsky. " Dw Flora der b6hifU9chW«
Kreideformation." in Beiirdge zur Paleontotogie Oesterrtiek't/niams
und des Orients, vols, ii.-v. (1 881-1885); Lester F. Ward, " Synopses
of the Flora of the Laramie Group,'* 6tk Report U.S. CeOogttM
Suney, pp. 399-558 (1885): "The Geographical Dittributioa ol
Fmail Planto/'^tfM Report US. Geological Survey, pp. 663-960 fi 889/ :
" The Potomac Formation," Xftk Report U.S. -^ • • • ^
~ ' "" - • ' 'the Loiw
4ofjual Survey, Pi
1(6^542 (1896); " The Cretaceous Fonnaiion of the Bbck Hilb'
is^sr^ffiisg;;
indicated by the Foaail Plants,"
Suney, Pt. ft., pp. ^X-^^ (1899)..
Some Analogies in the Lower Cretaceous of
m6A Report US. Geeiogual Survey, Pc. 1., pp-
GeoUgiaU
wer Cretaii
(18
Sm
19a Report VS, CeoUvca
(C. R.)
PALAEOORAPHT (Gr. iraXai6t.'andeot;'and yp64Hif, to
write), the science of ancient handwriting acqtiired from study
of surviving examples. ■ While epigraphy is the sckBoa «duck
deals with inscriptions (^.v.) engraved on stone or metal or other
enduring material as memorials for future ages, palaeography
'takes cognisance of writings of a literary, economic, or legal
nature written generally with stile, reed or pen, 00 tablets, voUs
or codices. The boundary, however, between the two sdenccs
is not always to be exactly defined. The fact that an inscription
occurs upon a hard material in a fixed position docs not neces-
sarily bring it under the head of epigraphy. Such spedioens of
writing as the graffiti or wall-scribblingi of Pompeii and ancient
Rome belong as much to the one science as to the other; for
they neither occupy the position of inscriptions set up with
special design as epigraphical monuments, nor are tliey the
movable written documents with which we connect the idea
of palaeography. But such exceptions only slightly affect the
broad distinction just specified.
The-scope of this article is to trace tbe histoiy of Greek mmd
Larin palaeography from the earliest written documents in
those languages which have survived. In Greek palaeography
we have a subject which is self-contained. The. Greek charac-
ter, in its pure form, was used' for one language only; but the
universal study of that language throughout Europe and the
wide diffusion of its literature have been the cause of the
accumulation of Greek MSS. in every centre of learning. The
field of Latin palaeography is much wider, for the Roman
alphabet has made its way into every country of western
Europe, and the study of its various developments and changes
is essential for a proper understanding of the character which
we write.
Handwriting, like every other art, has its different phases
of growth, perifcction and decay. A particular fonn of writing
b gradually devebped, then takes a finished or calligraphic
style and becomes the hand of its period, then deteriorates,
breaks up and disappears, or only drags on an artificial exis-
tence, being meanwhile superseded by another style which, either
developed from the older hand or introduced independently,
runs the same course, and in its turn is displaced by a younger
rival. Thus in the history of Greek writing we see the literary
uncial hand passing from early forms into the calligraphic stage,
and then driven out by the minuscule, which again goes through
a series of important changes. In Latin, the literary capital
and uncial hands give pbce to the smaller character; and this,
after nmning its course and developing national characteristics
in the different countries of the West, deteriorates and is super-
seded almost universally by the Italian hand of the Renaissance.
Bearing in mind these natural changes, it is evident that a
style of writing, once developed, is best at the period when it
is in general use, and that the oldest examples of that period
are the simplest, in which vigour and naturalness of handu^tinK
are predominant. On the other hand, the fine execution of a
MS. after the best period of the style has passed cannot conceal
deterioration. The imitative nature of the calligraphy is
detected both by the general impression on the eye, and by
uncertainty and inconsistendes in the forms of fetters. It is
from a faOure to keep in mind the natural laws of de\'dop-
ment and change that cariy dates, to which they have m
title, have bees given to imiutiv« MSS.J udj otf tht OtlKr
ORBEK Mmtq
PALAEOGRAPHY
557
htnd, CYcn very ucknt fTiiinriai have bam pMinlAUd in an
Down to the time of the introduction of printing* writing
lan in two lines— the nntunl conive, and the set book-hand
which was evolved from it. Cnnive writing waa caaential for
theoidinacybuainesaoflife. MSS. written in tbe set bookrhand
fiUed the place now occupied by printed books* the writing
being regular, the Unea gencraUy kept even by ruling or other
guides, and the tesU provided wiUi regular maigina. The set
book-hand disappeared before tho printing pttss; cursive
writing necessarily remains.
In the study of handwriting it Is difficult to exaggerate
the great and enduring influence which the character of the
material employed for receiving the script has had upon the
formation of the written lettcis. The original use of clay by
the Babylonians and Assyrians as their writing material was
the primary cause of the wedgo^haped symbols which were
produced ky the natural process of puncturing so stiff and
sluggish a substance. The clinging waxen surface of the Ublets
of the Greeks and Romans saperinduced a broken and discon-
nected style of writing. The comparatively frail surface of
papyrus caUed for a light touch and slenderly boJit charac-
Un, With the introduction of the smooth and bard-surfaced
vellum, firmer and heavier letters, with marked contrasU of
fine and thick strokes, became possible, and thence became the
fashion. In the task which lies before us we shall have to deal
mainly with MSS. written on the two veiy different materials,
papyrus and vellum, and we shall find to how great an extent
the general chaiacter and the detailed development of Greek
and Latin writing, particularly for Uteraiy puiposes^ has been
affected by the two materials*
The history of the andent papyrus rail and of its successor,
the medieval vellum codex, and the particulars of the mechanical
arrangement of texts and other details appertaining to the
evolution of the written book are described in the aitide
MANUscnm. In the present article our attention is confined
to the histoiy of the script.
The papyrus period of our subject, as regards literary works,
ranges generally from the end of the 4th century B.C to the 4th
century of our era, when the papyrus roll as the vehicle for
literature was superseded by the vellum codex. The vellum
period extends from the 4th century to the 15th century, when
the rise of the art of printing was the doom of the written book.
Yet it must not be imagined that there is a hard and fast line
separating the papyrus period from the vellum period. In the
early centuries of our era there was a transitional period when
the use of the two materials overlapped. The employment
of vellum for literary purposes began tentatively quite at the
beginning of that era; nor did the use of papjrrus absolutely
cease with the 4tJi century. But that century marks definitely
the period when the change had become generally accepted.
In the case of non-Utcraiy documenu, written in cursive
hands, the papyrus period covers a still wider field. These docu-
ments range from the yd century b.c. down to the 7th century,
and a certain number of examples even extend into the 8th
century. The survival of cursive papyrus documents in large
numbers is due to (he fact that they are chiefly written in
Egypt* where papyrus was the common writing material and
where climatic conditions ensured their preservation. On
the other hand, early cuvrive documents on vellum are scarce,
for it must be borne in mind that, even allowing for the loss
of such documents attributable to the perishable nature of
that material in the humid dinuites of Europe, papyrus and
waxen tablets were also the usual writing materiaU of the
Greeks and Romans. The importance of the sxirvival of Greek
cursive papyri to so late a period is very great, for it enables
us to trace the development of the Greek literary minusciile
handwriting of the 9th century in a direct line from the cursive
scriptof the papyri centuries earlier.
GsEBx Wktinc. I.— The Patysx
In no branch of our subject has so great a development been
effected since nbout 187$ as in that of the palaeography ol
Greek papjrrL Before that time our knowledge was very
limited. The material was comparatively meagre; and, though
its increase was certainly only a matter of time, yet the most
sanguine would hardly have dared to foretell the remarkable
abundance of documents which the excavatkuis of a few years
would bring to light.
The history of Greek writing on papyrus can now be followed
with mere or kss fullness of naaterial for a thousand years.
Actual dated examples range from the late years of the 4th
century b.c* to the 7th century aj>. We have a fair knowledge
of the leading features of the writing of the 3rd and 2nd centuries
n.G.; a less perfect acquaintance with those of the ist century
S.C. For the first four centuries of the Christian era there is
a fairJiy continuous series of documenU; of the 5th century
only a few examples have as yet been recovered, but there b
an abundance of material for the 6th and early 7th centuries.
Thus it will be seen that, while for some periods we may be
justified in drawing certain conclusions and laying down certain
rules, for others we are still in an imperfect state of knowledge
But our knofiledge will no doubt ahnost yearly become more
esaet, as fresh material is brought to light from the excavations
which are now continually proceeding; and those periods in
which the lack of papyri breaks the chain of evidence will sooner
or later be as fully represented as the rest. The material
certainly Ilea buried in riio sands; it is our misfortune that the
exact sites have not yet been struck.
The first discovery of Greek papyri was made in Europe in
175a, when the excavations on the site of Herculaneum yielded
a number of chaired rolls, which proved to be of a literaiy
character. All subsequent disooveries we owe to Egypt; and
it is to be observed that the papyri which are found m that
country have oome down to ul under different conditions.
Some, generally of a literary nature, were carefully deposited
with the bodies of their owners in the tomb with the express
intention of being preserved; hence such MSS. in several
instances have come to our hands in fsiriy perfect condition.
On the other hand, by far the larger number of those recently
brought to light have been' found on the sites of towns and
villages, particalariy in the district of the Fayilm, where they
had been either accidentaUy k>st or purposely thrown aside
as of no value, or had even been used up as material for other
purposes besides their original one. Thoe are consequently for
the most part In an imperfect and even fragmentary condition,
although not a few of them have proved to be of the highest
palaec^phical and literary importance.
The date of the first find of Greek papyri in Egypt was in
1778, when some forty or fifty rolls were discovered by some
native diggers, who, however, kept only one of them. After
this scarcely anything appeared until the 'year 1820^ when was
found on the site of the Serapeum at Memphis, as it wss
reported, a group of documents of the and century B.C. Then
followed a fruitful period, when several important literary
papyri were secured: in iStt, the Bankes Homer, containing
the last book of the liiadi in i847» the roll containing the
Lycophron and other orations of Hypereides; in 1849 and
1850, the Harris Homer, bk. xviii. of the Iliad, and a MS. of
bks. ii.-iv.; and, in 1856, the Funeral Oration of Hypereides.
But the great bulk of the Greek papyri from Egypt is the result
of excavations undertaken during the last quarter of the ipth
century and down to the present day. Within this time four
very important discoveries of documents in large quantities
have taken place. In 1877 a great mass of pap3rri was found
on the site of AtstnoS in the FayAm, being chiefly of a non-
literary nature, and unfortunately in a very fragmentary state;
they are also late in date, being of the Byxantine period. The
greater number passed into the possession of the Archduke
Raincr, and are now at Vieima; the rest are divided between
London, Oxford, Paris and Berlin. After an .interval this
find was followed by the recovery in 1892, in the same neigh-
bourhood, and chiefly on the site of a village named Socnopad
Nesus. of an extensive series of documents of the Roman periodL.
558
PALAEOGRAPHY
IGRESK FAPm
nm^ng bom the tit oentury to the middle of the 3rd oentttry.
These pepyri, being of an eartier date end in better condition
then the Aninoite collection, are consequently of greater
pabeographical value. Most of them are now in Berlin; many
are in the British Museum; and some are at Vienna, Geneva
and elsewhere. The third and fourth great finds, and the most
important of all, were made by Messrs Grenfell and Hunt when
excavating, in the seasons 1896-1897 and 1905-1906, for the
Egypt Ezi^ration Fund, at Behnesa,theandent Ozyrhynchus.
Thousands of papyri were here recovered, including, among the
non-literary material, a number of rolls in good condition, and
comprising also a great store of fragments of literary works,
among which occur the now well-known ** Logia," or " Sayings
of Our Lord," and fragments of the Scriptures, and in some
instances of not inconsiderable portions of the writings of
various classical authors. This great collection ranges in date
from the and century B.C. to the 7th century a.d.; but in what
proportion the documents fall to the several centuries cannot
be determined until the series of volumes in which they are
to be described for the Graeco-Roman branch of the Egypt
Exploration Fund shall have made some substantial progress.
These four great collections of miscellaneous documents have
been supplemented by finds of other groups, which fit into
them and serve to make more complete the chronological
series. Such are the correspondence of a Roman officer named
Abinnaeus, of the middle of the 4th century, shared between
the British Museum and the library of Geneva in the year 189a;
a miscellaneous collection, ranging from the and century B.C.
to the 3rd or 4th century aj>., acquired for the Egypt Explora-
tion Fund and published by that society {FayUm Tvwtu and
Ikeir Papyri, 1900); another collection obtained for the same
society from the cartonnage of mummy-cases dating back to
the 3rd century B.C. (The Hibek Papyri^ 1906); and a series
recovered from excavations at Tebtunis for the University
of CaUfomia {Tht TeUunis Papyri, 190a, 1906), generally of
the and century B.C. But of these leaser groups by far the
most interesting is that which Mr Flinders Petrie extracted, in
1689-1890, from a set of mummy-cases found in the necropolis
of the village of Gurob in the FayAm. In the manufacture of
these coffins numbers of inscribed papyri hod been' employed.
The fngments thus recovered proved to be some of the most
valuable documents for the history of Greek palaeography
hitherto found, supplying us with examples of writing of the
3rd century B.a in fairly ample numbers, and thus carrying
back our fuller knowledge of the subject to a period which up
to that time had remained almost a blank. Besides miscel-
laneous documents, there are included the remains of registers
of wills entered up from time to time by different scribes, and
thus affording a variety of handwritings for study; and, further,
the value of the collection is enhanced by the presence of
fragments of the Pkaedo and Laekes of Plato, and of the lost
AniUpt of Euripides and of other classical -works.
The last decade of the x9th century was also distlngi^shed
by the recovery of several literary works of the first importance,
iiucribed on pap)rri which had been deposited with the dead,
and had thus remained in a fairiy perfect condition. In 1889
the trustees of the British Museum acquired a copy of the lost
'AArMkir OoXircIa of Aristotle^-« papyrus of the mimea
of the poet Herodas, and a portion of the oration of Hypereides
agamst PhOippides; and in 1896 they had the further good
fortune to secure a papyrus containing considerable portions
of the odes of Bacchylides, the contemporary of Pindar. And
to the series of the orations of Hypereides the Louvre was enabled
to add, in 1893, a MS. of the greater part of the oration against
Athenogenes.
But the most valuable discovery, from a palaeographical
point of view, took plaoe In the present century. In 190a a
papjrna roD containing the greater portion of the Persae, a
lyrkal composition of Hmotheus of Miletus, was found at
Abosir, near Memphis, and is now at Berlin. It is written in
a large hand of a style which had hitherto been known from a
dodUBBBt at Vienna entitled the " Curse of Artemisia,'' and
assigned to the etity part of the sid eenttiiy B.C; tad fmm
one or two other insignificant scraps. The new papyrus, faov>
ever, appears to be even older, and may certainly be placed
in the later years of the 4th century B.C.: the most andcnt
extant literary MS. fai the Greek tongue. The aacription of
this papyrus to the 4th century B.C. has received confirmntjon
from the welcome discovery, in r906, at Elephantine, of a
document (a marriage contract) of the year 311-310 ax.,
which is written in the same style of book-hand chatmctcfa
(Aegypi. Urkimdtnd, kgf. Musemim BeHm, EUpkantUu Pcpjn^
1907). Of quite recent date also is the recovery of a cca-
siderable part of a commentary on the Tht a t kh u of Flato,
written in a fine uncial hand of the and century, now an Bcefin.
Co*'siderablefragment8alao of the Pamns of Pindar of the tM or
and century; a papyrus containing an historical work attributed
to Theopompus or Cratippus, perhaps of the early 3rd ceotury;
a copy of Plato's Symposium d the same period; and a portiofl
of the Panegyricus of laocrates, written in an undal hand of
the and century, are printed in Part V. of the Oxyrkyncims
Papyri. Further, many leaves of a papyrus codex containing
fragments of four comedies of Menander were found in 1905
at Kom Ishkaou, the ancient Apbroditopolia. The recovery
of so many great classical works within a few years may be
accepted as an earnest of further finds of the same nature, now
that excavations are being carried on systematically in Egy^.
From a study of the material thus placed at our disposal
certain conclusions hai^ been arrived at which satisfy us that
the periodical changes which passed over the character of
Greek writing as practised in Egypt coincide pretty nearly
with the changes in the political administration of the country.
The period of the rule of the Ptolemies inm 3^3 to 30 B.C. has,
in general, its own style of writing, which we recognise as tbe
PtoUmaic't the period of Roman supremacy, be^nning with
the conquest of Augustus and ending with the icorganicatioa
of the empire by Diocletian in a.d. 384, is accompanied by a
characteristic Roman hand; and with the change of administra*
lion which placed Egypt under tbe Byxantine divisioa of the
empire, and lasted down to the time of the Arab conquest in
A.O. 640, there is a corresponding change to the Byaan^ma dasa
of writing. These changes must obviously be attributed to the
influence of the official handwritings of the time. A change
of government naturally led to a change of the officials employed*
and with tbe change of officials would naturally follow a change
in the style of production of official documents. In illustratioa
of this view, it is enough to call to mind the insunces of such
variations to be met with in the history of the palaeography of
medieval Europe, due in tbe same way to political causes. It
is interesting, too, to observe that in our own time the teacfains
in schools of a particular type of handwriting which finds favour
in clerical examinations for the public service has not been
without its influence on the general handwriting of the people.
Classif3ring, then, the writing of the papyri into the three
groups—ihe Ptolemaic, the Roman, and the Byxantine— the next
step is to determine, by a closer examination of the documents,
the changes which characterize the several centuries traversed
by those groups. In doing this, we cannot apply the exact
terms which are employed in describing the MSS. of the middle
ages. We havtf to do with writing which has not yet been cast
into the formal literary moulds of the later times; and it has
therefore been found necessary, as well as convenient, £0 divide
the pap3rri simply into two series, representative of thdr contents
and not of their style of production — namely literary papyri
and non-literary papyri. Neither aeries, however, ft is to be
remembered, has a style of writing peculiar to itself. While
the extant literary works are, as a rule, written with more or
less formality, no doubt by professiona] scribes for the book-
market, not a few of even the more valuable of them are copies
in the ordinary cuisive hands of the day. Conversely, while
we find non-literary documents generally written in ordirary
cursive hands, whether by official scribes or by private individuals,
yet occasionally we meet with one produced in the formal style
more proper to literary examples. Again, while applying to
CSEEiCPAFniq
particuJar letters in pftpyri sacli tcdudal terms as capitals,
or undals, or mlnusciiks, ne cannot convey by-those terms the
exact ideas which we convey when thus describing the
individual letters of medieval manuscripts. For the letters
of the papyrus period were sot cast in finished moulds, while
the uncial writing and the minuscule writing of the middle
ages were settled literary hands. As wiU presently be sieen,
the early medieval undal hand of the velhmi codices de«
vebped directly from the literaiy writing of the papyri; the
minuscule book-hand of the 9th century was a new type moulded
from the cursive into n fixed literary style.
Necessarily, the non^literary papyri are much more numerous
than the literary documents, and present n much greater
variety of handwriting, being in fact the result of the daily trans-
actions of ordinary life; and how very widespread was the know-
ledge of writing among the Cceek-spMking population of £g3fpt is
sufficiently testified by the surviving examples, coming as they
do from the hands of all sorts and conditions of men. We will
first examine these specimens of the current handwriting of the
day before passing to the review of the more or less artificial
book-writing of the Uterary pap3rrL
Non-IMenry, Cursive, Hands, — ^As already stated, the oldest
material for the study of Greek cursive writing is chiefly con-
tributed by the papyri discovered at Gurob. Among them are
not only the fragments of official registers, which have been
mentioned, but also a variety of miscellaneous documents
relating to private affairs, and in various bands of the 3rd
century and eariy and century b.c The non-Utcrazy cursive
papyri bear actual dates tanging from 370 to x86 BX:: But
the discovery (1906) of papyri at Elephantine takes our dated
series of cundve documents back to 285-284 bx.; and in this
collection also » the oldest dated Greek document yet found —
the marriage contract of the year 3 1 1'!>3 10 b.c., already mentioned.
In this instance, however, the writing is not cursive, but of the
literary type.
The leading characteristic of Greek cursive writing of the 3rd
centttiy b.C. is its strength and facility. While it may not
compare with some later styles in the precise formation of
particular letters, yet its freedom and sponUneous air lend it
a particular charm and please the eye, very much in the same
way that a scholar's practised and unconscious handwriting
of a good type is more attractive than the more exact formality
ol a clerk's hand. The letters generally are widely spread and
shallow, and, particularly in the official hands, they are linked
together with horizontal connecting strokes to such an extent that
the text has almost the appearance of depending from a continuous
horiaontal ]in& The extreme shallowness or flatness of many
of the fetters is very striking. A sigiiificant imUcation of the
antiquity of Greek cursive writing is fotmd in connexion with
the letter alpka^ which is, even at this eariy period, in one of
its forms reduced to a mere angle or we<^
A few Hnes from an official order (fig. i) of the year 250 B.C.
will serve to convey an idea of the tnined cursive style of tUs
*ccniuryf—
T-c-T-Ji^^^eiK-oc-Trcc
Cfi^c -p icorrc/^«]C€ri*
Fic. I -MXRcial Onkr, ajo i-c.
PALAEOGRAPHY
559
0Uf TOIS 9lllP0Op0IS €■*"•
*--c^fiaytautii&nis osnc—)
As a contrast to this excellent hAnd, we give a facnmite of a
section from a roughly written letter from a land steward to
his employer, of about the same date.^—
Fig. 3.— Letter of a Land Steward, 3rd century B.C.
hi KOL wapa Swtufafna
fias i KpiBoKvpam avnu
ara77«Xo|icrou mu ^tXortfiov
crrot ytpvcn & icai ert
viufi txacTOt Tuv cfiuif npr
«im\ar ^vrwoiienii^ vponpoif)
Here (here is none of the linking of the letters which is seen ia
the other example: every letter stands distinct. But while
the individual letters are clumsily written, the same laws
govern their formation as in the other document. The shallow,
wide-spread mm, the cursive fw, the small tketa^ amikron, and
rho, are rq)eated. Here also is seen the tarn, with its horizontal
stroke <k>nfincd to the left of the vertical instead of crossing it,
and the undeveloped cmegOt which has the appearance of being
clipped— both forms being characteristic of the 3rd century b c.
The trained clerical hands of the and century B.C. (fig. 3)
differ generally from those of the earlier century in a more
periect and kss cursive formation, the older shallow type
gradually disappearing, and the linking of letters by horizontal
strokes being less continuous. But the Pt6lemaic character
marks the handwriting well through the century; and it is
on\y towards the close of that period and as the next century
is entered, that the hand begins to give way and to lose altogether
its linked style and the peculiar criapness of the strokes which
give it its distinctive appearance. The cursive hand in its
best style (#.f. N^ st Extr. pis. xxviii., xxix.) is very graceful
and exact: —
Flc. 3.-*Petltion. 163-161 B.C.
ctfXa/Scuv wpoopuitmof qpcdv Sc)
Towards the end of the Ptolemaic period materia! greatly
fails. There are very few extant cursive documents between
the years 80 and 30 B.C. But marks of decadence already
appear in the examples of the beginning of the ist century
B.C. The general character of the writing becomes slacker,
and the forms of individual letters are less exact. These imper-
fections prepare us for the great change which was to follow.
With the Roman period comes roundness of style, in
strong contrast to the stiffness and rigid linking of the Ptolemaic
band. Curves Uke the place of straight strokes in the mdivldual
letters, and even ligatures are formed in pliant sweeps of the
pen. This transition from the stiff to the flexible finds some-
thing of a parallel in the development of the curving and flcxibfe
English charterhand of the i4lh century from the rigid hand
of the 13th century; foUowiag, it would seem, the natural law
S6;8
PALAEOGRAPHY
{GREEK PAPYSJ
Many of them, the texts of which tie of a pMlosophfcal nature,
are written in literary hands, and are cnnjectured to have
possibly formed part oC the library o( their author, the philo-
aophcr Philodemus; they are therefore placed about the middle
of the ocatury. To the same time are assigned the remains
of a roll OQBUining the oration of Hypertldes against Philtppidei
and the third Epistle of Demosthenes (Brit. Mus. papp. cuudii.,
csudvO. But the most important addition to the period b
the handsomely written papynia oontaining the poems of
Bacd^lades (fig. 8), which retains in the forms of the letters
much of the chaimcter of the Ptolemaic style, although for other
icnsotts it caa hardly be placed csrlier than aboat the middle
of the century:—
f n n •^K H c>i>i«T
F^c. 8.— BacchyUdea, 1st century b,c.
|(«ipas airrtufbty rpos airyat
vrtwuct acXiou
rcKyo 6virra»oio Xv<r<rat
dwM 6* rot wuxn fiwt
•jVyos ^otnKorpcxat)
With thelatter half of the ist century B.C. we quk the Ptolemaic
period and pass to the consideration of the literary papyri of
the Roman period; and it is especially in this Utter period that
our extended knowledge, acquired from recent discoTcries, has
led to the modification of views formerly held with regard to
the dates to be attributed to certain important Kterary MSS.
As in the case of non-literary documents, the Uterary writing of
the Roman period differs from that of the Ptolemaic in adopting
rounded forms and greater uniformity in tbe size of the letters.
Just on the threshold of the Roman period, near the end of
the ist century B.C., stands a fragmentary papyrus of the last
two books of the Iliad, now In the British Museum (pap.cxxviii.),
which is of sufficient extent to be noted. Then, emerging on
the Christian era, we come upon a fine surviving specimen of
literary writing, which we have satisfactory reason (or placing
near the beginning of the ist century. It is a fragment of the
third book of the O/yMty (fig. 9)> the writing of which closely
Ksemblcs that oC on official document (Brit. Mus. pap. ccdiv.)
which happens to be written in a formal liteiaiy hand, and which
from internal evidence can be datod within a few years of the
dose of tbe ist century b.c There can be no hesiution, there-
fore, in grouping the OdysMy with that document. The contrast
between the round Roman style and the stifi and finn Ptolemaic
hands is here well shown in the facsimiles from this papyrus
(fig. 9) and the Pkaedo and Bacchylides.*—
CDce^jiO iA;.fATOYJUxxijaeNi
AMAenrNhTXUlUClTOMK^I
O|ATe0lAeA.07C(2k| OTTC(|^e
An Aw^TtixcAixxocnepiKJj.
TTXf 2jif AM ecTo p r An en eic f c
ec^^fON^ANjCBAINCJCAmN
n& 9m— The Oijf$at% bcginniag of ist century.
(iraiM <M0( «7« njX^^xw —
f«v(a5 v^ apttar a7orret cw—
wf c^ai9 OC i apa rwt /mXa fiv —
npmakittat i tffv^ v^ np^
ay 5c TiSTj ro^uif atror xoi —
«^ Tt oca Awci iwrpe^^
ay 6 opa nyXcfmxot v^xaX —
rap i opa vt<noptirf% m<nff
« it^potf S ar^aiyt «u lyr— ,
In a similar style of writing are two fragments of Hesiodic
poems recently publishc(t with facsimiles, in the SUxungsbcrichu
(1900, p. 839) of the Berlin Academy. The cartlest of the
two, now at Strassburg. may be assigned to the first half of th«
ist century; the other, at Berlin, appears to be of the 20J
century.
At this point two MSS. come Into the series, in regard to which
there is now held to be reason for revising views formerly
entertained. The papyrus known as the Harris Homer (Br.u
Mus. pap. cvii.), containing portions of the eighteenth book
of the Iliad, which was formerly placed in the xst century b.c .
it is thought should be now brought down to a later date, ar.d
should be rather assigned to the ist century of the Christian
era. The great papyrus, too, of H>'pcrcidcs, containing his
orations against Demosthenes and for Lycopbron and Eurenip-
pus, which has been commonly placed also in the ist century
B.C., and by some even earUcr, is now adjudged to belong to
the latter part of the ist century a.o.
Within the xst century also is placed a papyrus of great
literary interest, containing the mimes of the Alexandrian
writer Herodas, which was discovered a few years ago and is
now in the British Museum. The writing of this MS. differs
from the usual type of literary hand, being a rough and ill-
formed tiBcial, inscribed on narrow, and therefore inespcnsiw,
papyrus; and if tbe roll were written for the marka. it was a
cheap copy, if Indeed it was not made for private use: Of the
same period is a papyrus of Isocrates, De fact (BriL Mus. pap.
cxxxii.), written in two hands, the one more clerical than the
other; and two papyri of Homer, liiod, iii.-iv. (Brit. Mua. pop.
cxxxvi.), and Iliad, xiii.-xiv. (Brit. Mus. pap. dccxsxil.), the
first in a rough uneducated hand, but the latter a fine ipedmcn
of uncial writing. To about this period also is the Oxyrhynchus
Pindar to be attributed, that is to the dose of the ist or beginning
of the 3nd century. Then follows another famous papyrus,
the Bankes Homer, containing the last book of the Iliad, which
belongs to the 2nd century and is also written in a careful siyk
of uncial writing. To these is to be added the beautiful papyrus
at Berlin, containing a commentary on the TheatUtus of Plato,
written in delicately formed uncials of excellent type of the
snd century; and of the same age is ihe Panegyric us of Isocraies
from Oxyrhynchus, in a round uncial hand. Three imporunt
papyri of the Iliad, written in large round uncials, of the and
century, are noticed below.
With regard to the later h'terary works on papyrus that have
been recovered, the period which they occupy b somewhat
uncertain. The following are, however, placed in the 3rd
century, during which a sloping literary hand seems to have
been developed, curiously anticipating a similar change which
took place in the course of development of the uncial writirg
of the vellum MSS., the upright hand of the 4th to 6th centuries
being followed by a sloping hand in the 7th and 8ih centuries:
a MS., now in the British Museum, of portions of bks. ii.-iv. of
the Iliad, written on eighteen leaves of papyrus, put together
In book-form, but inscribed on only one side; on the verso of
some of the leaves is a short grammatical treatise attributed to
Tryphon: portion of Iliad v., among the Oxyrhynchus papyri
(No. ccxxiii.): a fragment of Plato's Laws (Ox. pap. xxiii):
a papyrus of Isocratcs. in Nicoclem, now at Marseilles: a frag*
ment of Kzekid, in book-form, in the Bodleian Library: a
fragment of the *' Shepherd " of Hermas at Berlin: and a
fragment of Julius .\fricanus, the Hdlenica of Theopompus
or Cratippus, and the Symposium of Plato, all found at
Oxyrhynchos.
VELLUM CODICES
PALAEOGRAPHY
5^3
Of the 3rd ceotuiy also are some fxttgowiits which are pakeo-
graphically of interest, as they are written neither in the
recognised literary hand nor in simple cursive, but in cursive
characters moulded and adapted in a set form for literary use-^
thus anticipating the early stages of the development of the
minuscule book-hand of the 9ih century from the cursive
writing of that time.
With the 3rd century the literary hand on pap3rrus appears
to lose most of Its importance. We are within measurable
distance of the age of vellum, and of the formal uncial writing
of the vellum MSS. which is found in some existing examples
of the 4th century and in more abundant numbers of the 5th
century. We have now to see how the connexion can be estab-
lished between the literary handwriting of the papyri and the
firmer and heavier literary uncial writing of the vellum codices.
The literaiy hands on papyrus which have been reviewed above
are distinctly of the style inscribed with a light touch most
suitable to the comparatively frail material of papyrus. In
the Bankes Homer, however, one may detect some indication
of the luUness that characterizes the vellum uncial writing.
But it now appears that a larger and rounder hand was also
employed on papyrus at least as early as the xst century. In
proof of this we are able to cite a non-literary document (fig. 10)
bearing an actual date, which happens to be written in characters
thaty exclusive of certain less formally-made letters, are of a
large uncial literary type. This writing, though not actually
of. the finished style familiar to us in the early vellum MSS.,
yet resembles it so generally that it may be assumed, almost
as a certainty, that there was in the ist century a full literary
uncial hand formed on this pattern, which was the direct ancestor
of the vellum uncial. The tendency to employ at this period
a calligraphic style, as seen in the fragments of the Odyssey
and one of the Hesiodic poems mentioned above, supports this
assumpriun. The document now referred to is a deed of sale
written in the seventh year of Domitian, a.o. S3 (Brit. Mus.
pap. czli.). The letters still retaining a cursive element are
alpkOt upsUoHt and in some instances epsUon,
^ MrTToxeNiJj^^ e-ref ne
2JC01 <?.iKrotroTrtAi
xToTn eespcoc cjo cercu
erem rr^upit m A-noTtrc
JLTTornee-e*. ^aj^icom
Ftc. 10.— I>rd of Sale. a.d» 88.
(^€V r,'o^€fiai6% «vcpY« — .
— ((«t icai i| To'TOw yw —
— w TOU xtdtut i t CT« —
— €mn'ypa<^r}v an njs —
— atrt'ov ire^ta cXcuuy — )
As evidence in fupport of this view that the uncial hand of the
vellum MSS. is to be traced back to the period of the document
just quoted, we have the important papyrus found by Mr Flinders
Petrie at Hawara in Egypt, and now in the Bodleian Library,
which contains a portion of the second book of the Iliad. The
writing is of the large undal type under consideration; and there
is now full reason for assigning it to the 2nd century at latest.
Before the discovery of the document of the year 88 there was
nothing to give a clue to the real period of the Homer; and
now the diite which has been suggested is corroborated by a
fragment of papyrus from Oxyrhynchus inscribed with some
lines from the same book of the Iliad (fig. 11) in the same large
uncial type {Ox. Pap. vol. i. no. 20, pi. v.). In this latter instance
there can be no question of the cariy date of the writing as on
the verso of the papyrus accounts of the end of the 2nd century
or of the beginning of the 3rd century have been subsequently
added. Yet a third example of the same character has more
recently been found at Teblunis (Tebt. Pap, vol. ii. no. 365,
pi. i.): again a consideiable fragment of the lecond book of the
llicd.
Thus, then, in the ist and and centuries there was in use a
large unchii hand which was evidently the forerunner of the
literary uncial hand of the early vellum codices. It b also to
be noted that the literary examples jtiat mentioned are MSS.
of Homer; and hence one is tempted to suggest that, as in the
production of sumptuous copies on papyrus of a work of such
universal popularity and veneration as the Iliad this large and
handsome uncial was specially employed, so also the use of a
cujsj rAO^ccxnoAycTTcr
OCAK4 Hf CHUAlKeTCOO
eiCecoKOCUMCAJJLGNO
Fig. II,— Tlic Iliad, and century.
(— cjv yXucaa. vokvartp —
— OS a»y\fi arm wtnt o —
— ciaflw Koafoiaaiuvo — )
similar type' for the early vellum copies of the sacred text of
the Scriplnrcs naturally followed.
Greek Writing. II.— The Velium Codices
Undal Writing.— It has been shown above how a round
uncial hand had been developing in Greek writing on papyrus
during the early centuries of the Christian era, and how even
as early as the and century a well-formed uncial script was in
use, at least for sumptuous copies of so great and popular an
author as Homer. We have now to describe the uncial hand
as it appears in Greek MSS. written on vellum. This hardcr
and firmer and smoother material afforded to the scribes belter
scope for a caUigraphJc style hardly possible on papyrus. With
the ascendancy of the vellum codex as the vehicle for literature,
the characters received the fixed and settled forms to which the
name of uncial is more exactly attached than to the fluctuating
letters of the early papyri. The term uncial has been borrowed
from the nomenclature of Latin palaeography* and applied to
Greek writing of the larger type, to distinguish it from the
minuscule or smaller character which succeeded it in vellum
MSS. of the 9th century. In Latin majuscule writing there
exist both capitals and uncials, each class dislincL In Greek
MSS. pure capital-letter writing was never employed (except
occasionally for ornamcnul titles at a late time). As distin-
guished from the square capitals of inscriptions, Greek uncial
writing has ceruin rounded letters, as a, c, c, a, modifica-
tions in others, and some letters extending above or below the
line.
It is not probable that vellum codices were in ordinary use
earlier than the 4th century; and it is in codices of that 4ge that
the handsome calligraphic undal above referred to was developed.
A few years ago the 4th century was the earliest limit to which
palaeographers had dared to carry back any ancient vellum
codex inscribed in uncials. But the recovery of the Homeric
papyri written in the large uncials of the and century has led
to a revision of former views on the date of one early vellum
MS. in particular. This MS. is the fragmentary Homer of the
Ambrosian Library at Milan, consisting of some fifty pieces of
vellum cut out of the original codex for the sake of Ihe pictures
which they contain; and all of the text that has survived is
that which happened to be on the back of the pictures. The
.•\mbrosian Homer has hitherto been generally placed in the sth
century, and the diilercnce of the style of the wriUng from that
of the usual calligraphic type of uncial ^ISS. of that time, which
had b^cn remarked, was thought rather to indicate inferiority
in .Tge. But the similarity of the character of the writing (taller
and more slender than is usual in vellum codices) to that of the
large undals of the papyrus Homers of the and century from
Hawara and Oxyrhynchus and Tebtunis is so striking that the
> St Jerome • often quoted words. " uncialibus, ut vwlgo atunt,
llttcris in his preface to the book of Job, have never been explained
satisfactorily. Of the character referred to as " undal there is
no quesciop : but the derivation of the term is not sKtted.
S64
PALAEOGRAPHY
(VEIXVM CODICES
AmbraiUa Homer nftiat be classed with them. Hence it b now
held that tluit MS. may certainly be asearly as the 3rd century.
But, as that century was still within the period when papyrus
was the general vehicle for Greek literature, it may be asked
why that material should not in this instance also have been
used. The answer may fairly be ventured that vellum was
certainly a better material to receive the illustrative paintings,
and on that account was employed. The Ambrosian Homer
may therefore be regarded as a most interesting link between
the papyrus uncial of the and century and the vellum uncial of
the 4th and 5th centuries.
With the introduction, then, of vellum as the general writing
material, the undal characters entered on a new phase. The
light touch and delicate forms so characteristic of calligraphy
on papynis gave place to a rounder and stronger hand, in which
the contrast of fine hair-lines and thickened down-strokes adds
so conspicuously to the beauty of the writing of early MSS.
on vellum. And here it may be remarked, with respect to the
attribution to particular periods of these early examples, that
we are not altogether on firm ground. Internal evidence, such,
for example, as the presence of the Eusebian Canons in a MS.
of the Gospel, assisu us in fixing a limit of age, but when there
it no such support the dating of these early MSS. must be more
or less conjectural. It is not till the beginning of the 6th century
that we meet with an uncial MS. which can be approximately
dated ; and, taking this as a standard of comparison, we are enabled
to distinguish thoM which undoubtedly have the appearance
of greater age and to arrange them in some sort of chronological
order. But these codices are too few in number to afford material
in sufficient quantity for training the eye by familiarity with
a variety of hands of any one period — the only method which can
give entirely trustworthy results.
Among the earh'est examples of vellum uncial MSS. are the
three famous codices of the Bible. Of these, the most ancient,
the Codex Vaticanus, is probably of the 4th century. The
writing must, in its original condition, have been very perfect
as a specimen of penmanship; but nearly the whole of the text
has been traced over by a later band, perhaps in the loth or
I ith century, and only such words or letters as were rejected as
readings have been left untouched. Written in triple columns,
in letten of uniform siae, without enlarged initial letters to mark
even the beginnings of books, the MS. has all, the simplicity
of extreme antiquity {Pai, Soe. pi. X04). The Codex Sinaiticus
(Pa/. Soc. pL 105) has also the same marks of age, and is judged
by its discoverer, Tischendorf, to be even more ancient than
the Vaticmn MS. In this, however, a comparison of the writing
of the two MSS. leads to the conclusion that he was mistaken.
The writing of the Codex Sinaiticus is not so pure as that of the
other MS., and, if that is a criterion of age, the Vatican MS.
h<rids the first place. In one particular the Codex Sinaiticus
has been thought to approach in form to ifs possible archetype
on papyrus. It is written with four cdumns to a page, the open
book thus presenting eight columns In sequence, and recalling
the long linie of columns on an open rolL With regard to such
general outward resemblances between the later papyrus literary
rolb and the early vellum uncial MSS., we may cite such papyri
as the Berlin commentary on the TkeaeUtus of Plato of the
snd century and the Oxyrhynchus fragment of Julius Africanus
of the 3rd century as forerunners of the style in which the two
great codices here mentioned were cast.
The Codex Alexandrinus (fig. 12) is placed in the middle
of the 5th century. Here we have an advance on the style
of the other two codices. The MS. is written in double columns
only, and enlarged letters stand at the beginning of paragraphs.
But yet the writing is generally more elegant than that of the
Codex Sinaiticus. Examining these MSS. with a view to
ascertain the rules which guided the scribes in their work, we
find simplicity and regularity the leading features; the round
letters formed in symmetrical curves; C and C, &c., finishing
off in a hair-line sometimes thirkencd at the end into a dot;
horizontal strokes fine, those of € , H, and O being either In the
middle or Ugh in the letter; the bate of A and the cross-stroke
of II also fine, and, as a rule, kept within the limits of the Icttcn
and not projecting beyond. Here abo may be nocioed the
occurrence in the Codex Alexandrinus of Coptic forms of letters
('•f* ^ iJUL'^^Ao and mil) inthetitlesofbooks,&c.,coBfiniiator)r
of the tradition of the Egyptian origin of the MS.
nreKMUOMCOVTrerrrr^TOvaN*
Fig. 12.— The Bible (Cod. Alex.), 5th century.
(tcouv 090 wpnrwouif
ras ar akififia, jcoAm oto
Xi|r Oiofioita airo rov ir[ar]p[olt).— s John 4.
To the sth century may also belong the palimpsest MS. of
the Bible, known from the upper text as the Codex Ephxaemi,
at Paris (cd. Tischendorf, 1845), and the Octateuch (Codex
Sarravianus), whose extant leaves are divided between Paris,
Leiden and St Petersburg— both of which MSS. are probably
of Egyptian origin. Perhaps of the end of the 5th or beginnix^
of the 6th century is the illustrated Genesis of the Cottonian
Library, now unfortunately reduced to fragments by fire, but
once the finest example of its kind (Col. Anc. MSS. L pi. 8).
And to about the same time belong the Dio Cassius of the
Vatican (Silvestre, pL 60) and the PenUteuch of the Biblioth^ue
Nationalc (ibid. pi. 61).
In the writing of uncial MSS. of the 6th century there b a
marked degeneration. The letters, though stQl round, are
generally of a larger character, more heavily formed, and not
so compactly written as in the preceding century. Horixoctal
strokes («.;. in A, II, T) are lengthened and finbhed off^ mtth
heavy points or finiab. The earliest example of thb period
which has to be noticed b the Dioscorides of Vienna (fig. 13),
which is of particular value for the study of the palaoagraphy
of early vellum MSS. It b the first uncial example to whidi
an approximate date can be given. There b good evidence
to show that it was written early in the 6th century for Joliaaa
Anicia, daughter of Flavius Anidus Olybrius, emperor of the
West in 473. Here we already notice the diaiacterblics of
undal writings of the 6th century, to which reference baa been
I ATTpO M H KH XP a>MXB
YTtDNSNTeTM HTM
eXO N TTAITOA A ACe^XiT
eNTtotrepi^opei
Fig. i3.~Dioscorides, eariy 6th century.
( — la irpo^i}ia| xf^t^on
— [aivrhn; mTiaum
— (xa)ra9ov hitJiten m
— cxorra ToXXas c^ w[v]
made. To thb century also belong the palimpsest Homer
under a Syrbc text in the British Museum {Cat. Anc. MSS.,
i. pi. 9); its companion volume, used by the same Syrian scribe,
in which are fragments of St Luke*s Gospd (ibid., pL 10); the
Dublin palimpsest fragmenU of St Matthew and Isaiah (T. K.
Abbot, Par Palimpsesl, DubL), written in Egypt; the fragments
of the Pauline Epbtles from Mount Athos, some of which are
at Paris and others at Moscow (Silvestre, pb. 6j, 64; Sabas«
pL A), of which, however, the writing has been disfigured by
retracing at a Uter period; the Gospels (Cod. N) written m
silver and gold on purple vellum, whose leaves are scattered ia
London (Cott. MS., Titus C. xv.), Rome, Vienna, St PetersburK.
and iu native home, Patmos; the fragmentary Eusebian Canons
written on gilt vellum and highly ornamented, the aok remains
VELLUM CODICEq
PALAEOGRAPHY
565
of Bome siUBptuoui volame (Cal. Ane, MSS. i pL 11), the
CoialiA Ocuteuch (SUvestre, pi. 65)^ the Genesis of Vienna,
and the Codei Rossanensis, and the recently recovered Codex
Sinopensis oC the Gospels, instances of the very few early
illustrated MSS. which have survived. 0£ the same period
is the Codex Marchalianus of the Prophets, which, written in
Egypt, follows in iu style the Coptic form of undaL
Reference may here be made to certain early bilingual
Graoco-Latin uncial MSS.» written in the 6th and 7th centuries,
which, however, have rather to be studied apart, or in connexion
with Latin palaeography; for the Greek letters of these MSS.
run more or less upon the lines of the Latin forms. The best
known of these examples are the Codcx-Bexae of the New
Testament, at Cambridge (Fai, S0C. pis. 14, 15), and the Codex
Claromonunus of the Pauline ^istles, at Paris (Pal. Sac» pis.
63, 64), attributed to the 6th or 7th century; and the Laudian
MS. of the Acts of the Apostles {Pal. Soc. pi. 80) of the 7th century.
To these may be added the Harlcian Glossary {Cai. Ane. MSS.
i. pi. 13), also of the 7th century. A later example, of the 8th
century, is the Graeco-Latin Psalter, at Paris, MS. Coblin x86
(Omont, Pacs. des plus atuUns iiSS. trees, pL vii.).
An offshoot of early Greek uncial writing on vellum is leen in
the Mocso-Gothic alphabet which Ulfilas constructed for the
use of his countrymen in the 4th century, mainly from the
Greek letters Of the few extant remains of Gothic MSS.
the oldest and most perfect is the Codex Argenteus of the Gospels,
at Upsala, of the 6th century {Pat. Soc. pi. xiS), written in
characters which compare with purely written Greek MSS.
of the same period. Other Gothic fragments appear in the sloping
uncial hand seen in Greek MSS. of the 7th and following centuries.
About the year 600 Greek undal writing passes into a new
stage. We leave the period of the round and enter on that of
the oval character. The letters € , 0> 0» 0> instead of being
symmetrically formed on the lines of a circle, are made oval;
and other letters are laterally compressed into a narrow shape.
In the 7th century also the writing begins to slope to the right,
and accents are introduced and afterwards systematically
applied. This slanting style of uncials continues in use throuj^
the 8th and gth and into the loth centuries, becoming heavier
as time goes on. In this class of writing there b again the same
dearth of dated MSS. as in the round undal, to serve as standards
for the assignment of dates. We have to reach the gth century
before finding a single dated MS. in this kind of writing. It is
true that sloping Greek undal writing is found in a few scattered
notes and grosses in Syriac MSS. which bear actual dates in
the 7th century, and they are so far useful as showing that this
hand was firmly established at that time; but they do not afford
tuffident material in quantity to be of really practical use for
comparison (see the tables of alphabets in Gardthausen's Crieck.
Paliog.). Of more value are a few palimpsest fragments of the
EUmetUs of Euclid and of Gospel Lectionaries which occur
also in the Syriac collection in the British Museum, and are
written in the 7th and 8th centuries. There is also in the
Vatican a MS. (Reg. 886) of the Theodosian code, which can
be assigned with fair accuracy to th6 close of the 7th century
(Gardth..Crtr. Pal, p. 158), which, however, bdng calligraphically
written, retains some of the earlier rounder forms. This MS.
may be taken as an example of transitional style. In the
fragment of a mathematical treatise (fig. 14) from Bobio, form-
ing part of a MS. rewritten in the 8th century and assignable
to the previous century, the slanting writing is fully developed.
The formation of the letters is good, and conveys the impression
that the scribe was writing a hand quite natural to him: —
Fxo. 14.— Mathemat. Treatise. 7th century.
)
It should be also noticed that in this MS.— ft tecnlar
there are numerous abbreviations (Wattenbaoh, ScHpt. gr.
8p€(im. tab. 8). An important document of this time is also
the fragment of pspyrus in the Imperial Library at Vienna,
which bears the signatures of bishops and others to the acts
of the Council of Constantinople of 68a Some of the signatures
are in slanting uncials (Wattenb., Script, gr. specim^ ubb.
19, 13; Gardth., O. Pal. tab. x). Of the 8th century is the
collection of hymns (Brit. Mus., Add. MS. a6, z 13) written without
breathings or accenU (Cat, Ane.'MSS. i. pi. 14). To the same
century belongs the Codex Mardanus, the Venetian MS. of the
Old Testament, which is marked with breathings and accents.
The plate reproduced from this MS. (Wattenb., Script, gr,
specim:, tab. 9) oontaina hi the second column a few lines written
in round uncials, but in such a laboured style that nothing could
more dearty prove the discontinuance of that form of writing
as an ordinary hand. In the middle of the 9th century at
length we find a MS. with a date In the Psalter of Bishof}
Uspensky of the year 86s (Wattenb. Script, gr. spccim., tab.
to). A little later in date is the MS. of Gregory of Naxianxua,
written between 867 and 886 (Silvcstre, i^. 71); and at the end
of the 9th or beginning of the toth century stands a lectionary
In the Harleian collection {Cat. Ane. MSS. l pi. 17). A valuable
series of examples is also given by Omont {Facsimiles des plus ane,
M^S. frecf . de la BiU. Nat.). But by this time minuscule writing
was well established, and the use of the more inconvenient
undal was henceforth almost entirely confined to church-service
books. Owing to this limitation, undal writing now underwent
a further calligraphic change. As the 10th century advances
the sloping characters by degrees become more upright, and
with this resumption of their old position they begin in the
next century to cast off the compressed formation and again
become rounder. All this Is simply the result of calligraphJc
imftation. Bibles and service-books have always been the MSS.
in particular on which findy formed writing has been lavished;
and it was but natural that, when a style of writing fell into
general dbuse, its continuance, where it did continue, should
become more and more traditional, and a work of copying rather
than of writing. In the xoth century there are a few examples
bearing dates. There are facsimiles from three of them, vis.
a copy of the Gospels (fig. 15), in the Vatican, of 949 {Nem
Pal. Sec. pL 105), the Curaon Lectionary of 980, and the Harieiaa
Lectionary of 995 {Pal. Soc. pis. 154, 26, 37). The Bodleian
commentary on the Psalter (D. 4, x) b likewise of great palaeo-
graphic value, being written partly in uncials and partly in
minuscules of the middle of the toth century (Ganlth., Gr,
Pal. p. X59, Ub. s, coL 4). This late form of undal writing
appears to have lasted to about the middle of the tath century.
(Omont. Facs. pL xxii.). From it waa formed the Slavonic
writing in use at the present day: —
hyHKCklJJfK^^X
fl(klHWHiTfmK(
WttH^lfKii^KTi
\^/p§\ffic\frwn
Flo. 15.— The Gospeb (Vatkan), A.l>. 949^
ibmonl Its mBa
piMU + ni kKTsbm$
T^ x«»A»* Www
•brtQ6tbiaeujfMr^)
Under the head of late undal writing must be daased a few
bflingtial Graeco-Latin MSS. which have survived, written in a
566
PALAEOGRAPHY
bastard kind of uncial in th« west of Europe. This writing
follows, wherever Llie shapes of the letters permit, the formation
of corresponding Latin characters — the purely Creek forms
being inu'tated in a clumsy fashion. Such MSS. are the Codex
Augiensis of Trinity College, Cambridge, of the end of the
9th century (Pal. Soc, pi. 137) and the Psalter of St Nicholas
of Cusa (pi. 128) and the Codex Sangallensis and Bocrnerianus
of the loth century (pi. 179). The same imitative characters
are used in quotations of Greek words in Latin MSS. of the
same periods.
UinuKuU Writing.'^'VYk^ beautifully farmed minuscule book-
hand, which practically superseded the uncial book-hand in
the 9th century, did not spring into existence all at once. lis
formation had been the work of centuries. It was the direct
descendant of the cursive Greek writing of the papyri. It has
been shown above, in tracing the progress of the non-Iiteraiy,
cursive writing on papyms, how the original forms of the letleis
of the Greek alphabet went through various modifications,
always tending towards the creation of the forms which eventu-
ally settled down into the recognized minuscules or small letters
of the middle ages and modern times. The development of these
modifications is apparent from the first; but it was in the Byzan-
tine period especially that the changes became more marked
and more rapid. All the minuscule forms, as we know them in
medieval literature, had been practically evolved by the end
of the 5lh century, and in the course of the next two hundred
years those forms became m9re and more confu-med. In the
lacgc formal cursive writing of the documents of the 6lh and
7th centuries we can pick out the minuscule alphabet in the
rough. It only needed to be cast in a calligraphic mould to
become the book-hand minuscule, the later development of
which we have now to trace. This calligraphic mould seems
to have been found in the imperial chancery, from whence
issued documents written in a fine round minuscule hand on
an ample scale, as appears from one or two rare surviving ex-
amples attributed to the Sth and 9th centuries (see the facsimile
of an imperial letter, dated variously a.d. 756 or S39, in Wat ten-
bach, Script, graec, specim., pis. xiv., xv., and in Omont, Facs.
du plus ane, JdSS. grtcs. pis. xxvi., xxvii. ; and Brit. Mus. papyrus
xxxii.). Hie fine hand only needed to be reduced in scale to
become the caligraphic minuscide book-hand of the vellum
MSS.
Thus, then, in the 9th century, the minuscule book-hand
came into general use for literature, and, with the finely prepared
vellum of the time ready to receive it, it assumed under the
pens of expert calligraphcrs the requisite cost, upright, regular
and symmetrical, which renders it in its earliest stages one of
the most beautiful lorms of writing ever created.
Greek MSS. written in minuscules have been classed as follow:
(i) codices vetustissimi, of the 9th century and to the middle
of the loth century; (2) vetusti, from the middle of the loth
to the middle of the 13th century; (5) reccntiores, from the
middle of the 13th century to the fall of Constantinople, 1453; (4)
luneUi, all after that date.
Of dated minuscule MSS. there is a not inconsiderable number
scattered among the different libraries of Europe. Gardthausen
(Cr. Pal. 344 seq.) gives a list of some thousand, ending at a.d.
1500. But, as might be expected, the majority belong to the
later classes.* Of the 9th century there are not ten which
actually bear dattts and of these all but one belong to the latter
half of the century. In the xoth century, however, the number
rises to nearly fifty, in the zith to more than a hundred.
In the period of codius velustisiimi the mlnusexJe hand b
distinguished by its simplicity and purity. The pniod has been
well described as the cUissic age of minuscules. The letters arc
symmetrically formed; the writing is compact and upright, or
has even a slight tendency to slope to the left. In a word, the
beauty of this class of minuscule writing is unsurpassed. But
in addition to these general characteristics there are special
^ In Oraont't Facs. des MSS. grecs datis de la Bibl. Nai. will be
found a a«ef ul Km o( upwards of 300 facsimiles of dated Greek MSS.
(including uncLiU).
p^ELLUM CODICES
distinctions which belong to it. The roinoscuie dianctrr is
maintained intact, without intrusion of larger or unciaMormcd
letters. With its cessation as the ordinary Utoary hand the
uncial. character had not died out. We have seen thai it vis
still used for liturgical books. It likewise continued to siirvi\e
in a modified or haif-uncial form for scholia, rubrics, titles, and
special purposes—as, for example, in the Bodleian £ucbd
(fig. 16) — in minuscule written MSS. of the 9th and loth ccntttric&.
These uses of the older character sufficed to keep it in rcmciz>-
brance, and it is therefore not a matter for surprise that some
of its forms should reappear and commingle with the simple
minuscule. This afterwards actually look place. Bat in the
period now under consideration, when the minuscule had been
cast into a new mould, and was, so to say, in the fuU vigour of
youth, extraneous forms were rigorously excluded.
•ih^f ;crT> v}4K g-poj ^ rt^jwyio>Ar
Fig. 16.— Euclid (Oxford), a.d. 83S.
(dvoTM' OMN Zrt rptrimai^ m—
^01' la who f n ta n ra rpi9pa[n\ —
li &uatTa Agr WZ rpfTtMU. a —
TttOMN ZTt Start \u\ra, arepcan^—
ra diro rCnf aprittbxav rpiaiiLT[o}v] —
va icov4ni nryxoyoi^a' vpos AXX^Xa]— )
Tlie breathings also of this class are rectangular, in tuisoa
wiib the careful and deliberate character of die writing; and
there h but slight, if any, separation of the words. In addition, as
far as h;is hitherto been observed, the letters run above, or stand
upon, the ruled lines, and do not depend from them as at a later
period. The exact time at which this latter mechanical change
took place cannot be named; like other changes it would natur-
ally establish iisclf by usage. But at least in the middle of
the loth century it seems to have been in use. In the Bodleian
MS- of Basil's hpmilics of 953 a.d. (Pal. Sac. pL 82) the new
method is followed; and if we are to accept the date of the 9th
century ascribed to a MS. in the Ambrosian Library at Milan
(Wattenb., Script, gr. spccim.^ ub. 17), in which the ruled
lines run above the writing, the practice was yet earlier. Certain
scribal peculiarities, however, about the MS. make us hesitate
to place it so early. In the Laurcntian Herodotus (W and V.,
Exempla, tab. 31), which belongs to the lolh century, sometimes
the one, sometimes the other system is followed in diflcicnt
parts of the volume; and the same peculiarity happens in the
MS. of Gregory of Naxianzus of a.d. 972 in the British Museum
{Pal. Soc. pi. 25; Kxempla, tab. 7)- The second half of the xoth
century therefore appears to be a period of transition in this
respect.
The earliest dated example of codices veiustissimi is the copy
of the Gospels belonging to Bishop Uspensky, written in the
year 835. A facsimile is given by Gardthausen (Bcitrltge) and
repeated in the Excmpla (tab. x). Better specimens have been
photographed from the Oxford Euclid of a.d. 888 {Pal. Sve.
pis. 6s, 66; Exempla, tab. 2) from a MS. of Saints' Lives at Paris
of A^. 890 (Omont, Facs. des USS, gr. daUs^ pi. 1), and from
the Oxford Plato (fig. 17) of a.d. 895 [Pal. Soc. pi. 81 ; ExempU^
Ub. 3). Sabas {Spccim. Palaeograph.), has also given two
facsimiles from MSS. of 880 and S99.
Of dated examples of the first half of the xoth century aboot a
dozen facsimiles are available.
After the middle of the loth century we enter on tlie period
of the codices veiusH, in wliich the writing becomes gradually
ROMAN CUKSIVQ
PALAEOGRAPHY
567
less compact. The letters, so to uy, open their lunkr, and,
from this circumstance alone, MSS. of the second half of the
century may generally be distinguished from those fifty years
earlier. But alterations also take place in the shapes of the
letters. Side by side with the purely minuscule forms those of
the uncial begin to reappear, the cause of which innovation
has already been explained. These uncial forms first show
Fig. 17.— Plato (Oxford), a.d. 895.
(— [MiXIXf if «apd ^iffiw Hx^vOcn nwl
— lan4>]ioPriT%iP. idy jtif aw. mxf d jwv rjt
— {airifu^\iu}avi>fit0a UiiTtpoifiv&w^M'^ otfvi
— [eZImt ili:r\ai. r6 xo/peu' ira<ri ^finon.
— {5]ffa ToO ^iKow \<nl To(/rw evn<t>um
— itfrt m4 ravra. &Kkd rb 4tp»tiv. icol t6
— [rii] TouTuv aS ^vyyuni' Uf^Sa^ re dp)
themselves at the end of the line, the point at which most
changes first gained a footing, but by degrees they work back
into the text, and at length become recognized members of the
minuscule characters. In the nth and X2th centuries they are
well established, and become more and more prominent by the
large or stilted forms which they assume. The change, however,
in the general character of the writing of this class of codices
telusti is very gradual, uniformity and evenness being well main-
tained, especially in church bool^. On the other hand, a Ughter
and more cursive kind of minuscule is found contemporaneously
in MSS. generally of a secular nature. In this hand many of
the classical MSS. of the xoth or nth centuries arc written, as
the MS. of Aeschylus and Sophocles, the Odyssey and the
ApoUonius Rhodius of the Laurentian Library at Florence, the
Anthologia Palatina of Heidelberg and Paris, the Hippocrates
of Venice {Exempla, tabb. 32-36, 38, 40), the Aristophanes of
Ravenna (Wattenb., Script, gr. specim., tab. 26), the Strabo of
Paris (Omont, Facs. des plus anc. MSS. grecs, pi 40), a Demos-
thenes (fig. x8) at Florence {Pal. Soc. ii. pi. 88, 89), &c. In a
facsimile from a Plutarch at Venice {Exempla, tab. 44), the
scribe is seen to change from the formal to the more cursive
hand. This style of writing is distinguishable by its light and
graceful character from the current writing into which the
minuscule degenerated at a later time.
FJC. 18.— Demosthenes (Florence), early nth century.
(ircXcIy 5ft y^bvTXiw rlvdv ld[k\up] —
%fAxtipas \brfo%. in &pa koI wp'—
'X'iToM. dfinfaaiibtci rwh. oij6[ep6s]—
X&yainfTus ifirfpiLfiitaros ky —
TouO' bfiuf i»ayvuiOVTU, t6 iiri[7pa/4fia]—
The gradual roundhig of the rectangular breathings takes
place in this period. In the nth century the smooth breathing,
which would most readily lend itself to this modification, fint
appears in the new form. In the course of the i»th century
both breathings have lost the dd square shape; and about the
same time oontiactions become more numerous, having been
at first confined to the end of the Hne.
When the period of codices reeeniiorts commenced, the Greek
Fig. 19.— The Odyssey, 13th century,
(fl &X^» tn Ipov Mkiicos rdv iiK^iTTjv
UK ipa ^viiaM <r^Xas IXXo/Sev o^rAp Uvaa^
Aii<piv6ixw vpds 7oOva uM^tro flouXixi^ot)
minuscule hand undergoes exttnsive changes. The coninit
between MSS. of the xjih century tad these of a hundred ye«si
earlier is very marked. In the later examples the hand is generally
more straggling, there is a greater number of exaggerated forms
of letters, and marks of contraction and accents are dashed on
more freely. There is altogether a sense of greater activity
and haste. The increasing demand for books created a larger
supply. Greater freedom and more vttfiety appear in the
examples of this class, together with an increasing use of liga-
tures and contractions. The general introduction of paper
likewise assisted to break up the formal minycscule hand. To
this rougher material a rougher etyle of writing wa3 suited*
ThnMigh the X4th and' xsth centuries the decline «f the sel
minuscule rapidly advances. The writing becomes even mote
involved and intricate, marks of oontoction and tccenu art
combined with the letters in a single action of the pen, and the
general result is the production of a thoroughly corsive band*
In some respects, however, the change was not so rapid. Church
books were still ordinarily written on vellum, which, as it became
scarcer in the market (owing to the injuxy done to the trade by
the competition of paper), was supplied from ancient codices
which lay ready to hand on the shelves of lifanries; and in
these liturgical MSS. the more formal' style of the minuscute WM
Still maintained. In the X4th century there even appears a
partial renaissance in the writing of Church MSS., modelled
to some extent on the lines of the writing of the 12th ccntuy.
The resemblance, however, is ofily superficial; for i^ writer can
entixc^y disguise the character of the writing of his own time*
And lastly there was yet another check upon the absolute
disintegration of the minuscule book-hand in the xsth century
exercised by the professional scribes who worked in Italy, and
who in their calligraphical productions reverted again to the
older style. The influence of the Renaissance is evident In
many of the MSS. of the Italian Greeks, which served as models
for the first Greek printing types.
The Greek minuscule book-hand had, then, by the. end of the
iSth century, become a cursive hand, from which the modem
current hand is directly derived. We bst saw the andeat
cursive in use in the documents prior to the formation of the set
minuscule book-hand, and no doubt it continued in use concur-
rently with the book-hand. But, as the htter passed through
the transformations which have been traced, and gradually
assumed a more current style, it may not unreasonably be sup>
posed that it absorbed the curave hand of the period, and with
it whatever elements may have survived of the old cursive
hand.
Latih WwnNC. I.— The Roium Cumivr
The course of Latin palaeography runs on the same lines as
that of Greek palaeography. In regard to the former, 4s in
regard to the latter, the documents fall into two main diviskms
those which are written in the ordinary cursive hand of everyday
life, and those which are written in the formal book-hand of
literature. But Latin palaeography covers a wider gnrand than
Greek. Greek IrriUng being limited to the expression of the ont
S68
PALAEOGRAPHY
(ROMAN CURSIVE
laagua^ of 4 single people has a compantivdy narrow and
simple career. On the other hand, the Latin alphabet, having
been adopted by the nations of western Europe, underwent many
transformations in the course of development of the national
handwritings of the different peoples, and consequently had a
wide and varied career. But in one respea Latin palaeography
is at a disadvantage as compared with the sister branch. As we
have seen, Greek documents are extant dating back to the 4th
century B.C., and the development of Greek writing can be
fairly well illustrated by a series of examples of the succeeding
centuries. There is no such series of Latin documents available
to afford us the means of tracing the growth of Latin writing
to the same remote period. No Latii» document, either of a
literary or of a non-literary character, has yet been recovered
which can be placed with certainty earlier than the Christian
era. Egypt, while giving up hundreds and thousands of docu-
ments in Greek, has hithMo yielded but little in Latin, even of
the ist century, and little too of the next following centuries.
Indeed, for our knowledge of Latin writing of the ist century
we still have to depend chiefly upon the results of excavations at
Pompeii and Herculaoeum and in the Roman catacombs, upon
the waU-scribblings which have been laid bare, and upon the
waxen tablets and the few papyri which have thence been
recovered.
At the time when we oome into touch with the first extant
examples of Roman writing, we find a few instances of a literary
or book-hand as wdl as a fairly extensive variety of cursive hands.
It will be convenient in the first place to examine the Roman
cursive writing during the early centuries of our era. Then, for
the moment suspending further research in this branch of our
subject, we shall proceed to describe the literary script and to
trace the dcvebpment of the large form of book-hand, or majus-
cule writing, in its two divisions of capitals and uncials, and of the
intermediate styles composed of a mixture of large and small
letters, or consisting of a blend of the two classes of letters
which has received the name of half-undal. Then we shall
turn to follow the development of the national hands, when it
will be necessary to come Into touch again with the Roman
cursive, whence the western continental scripts were derived;
and so we shall proceed to the formation of the minuscule writing
of the middle ages.
The materials for the study of the eariy Roman cursive hand
have been found in the waU-scribblings, or graffiti, of Pompeii
and Herculaoeum and Rome (collected in the Corf, inscr. tal.
vol. iv.); in the series of 127 libeUi or waxen tablets, con-
sisting of perscnpihnes and other deeds connected with sales
by auction and Ux receipU discovered in the house of the
banker L. Caecilius Jucundus at Pompeii, and bearing dates
of A.D. IS, >7, and si-^^ (published in CJ.L. iv., supplement);
in a few scattered papyri from Egypt; and in a set of four-and-
twenty waxen Ubkts bearing dates ranging from a.d. 231 to
167, which were found in ancient mining works in the neigh-
bourhood of Albumus Major (the modem Vcrespatak) in Dada
iC: I. L iii.).
It will have been observed that in the case of the above
documenU there are three different kinds of material on which
they have been inscribed: the plaster surface of walls, the waxen
coatings of Ublets, and the smooth surface of papyrus. The
two former may be classed together as being of a nature which
would offer a certain resistance to the free movement of the
stilus; while in the case of papyrus the writing-reed or pen
would run without impediment. Hence, in writing on the
former materials there was a natural tendency to form the
letters in disconnected strokes, to make them upright or even
inclined to the left, and to employ vertical strokes m preference.
The three following spedmens from the graffiti and the two sets
of tablets will demonstrate the conservative character of this
kind of writing, coyering as they do about a century and a half.
This conservativencss may suggest the probability that the hand
seen in the graffiti and the Pompeian tableU had not changed
vciy materially from that practised a century or more earlier, and
that it ia pnictically the hand in which the Roman classical
writers composed their works. When exammlng the a l p habet
of this eariy Roman cursive hand, we find (as we found in the
early Greek cursive) the first beginnings of the minuscule writing
of the middle ages. The slurring of the strokes, wbcrebsr tbe
bows of the capital letteis were lost and thdr more exact fonn
.>v.
Fig. 20.— Wall Inscription, lat oentuiy.
(cendo est nam noster
magna habet pecuni [amD.
Ov^A\f^cs^^CvHCrbj.N.vi.vv.vLU^^ lAVLULaiajLU
FtC. 31
Tablet, a.d. 59.
(quit.^ — ,
llbdias quinque ex reliquis
ob fulk>nica . . . anni L. Veiani
Hupsaei et Albuci Justi d.vijd. aoiut.)
Fig. as.^Dadan Tablet, a.d. 167.
(descriptum et recognitum factum ex Ubello-^
erat Albfurno] maiori ad ttatione ReacuU in quo scri—
id quod i[nffa] s(criptamj est)
modified, led the way to the gradual development of the small
letters. With regard to the particular forms of letters employed
in the waxen tableu, compare the tables in Corp. inscr. lal^
vols, iii., iv. The letter A is formed by a main stroke supporting
an oblique stroke above it and the cross bar is either omitted,
or is indicated by a small vertical stroke dropping, as it were,
out of tbe letter.
The main stroke of B dwindles to a sUght curve, and the two
bows are transformed into a long bent stroke so that the letter
takes the shape of a stilled a or of a d. The D is chiefly like the
uncial 6; the E is generally represented by the old form U found
in inscriptions and in the Faliscan alphabet. In the modified
form of G the first outline of the flat-headed z of later times
appears; H, by losing half of iu second upright limb in the haste
of writing, comes near to being the small A. In the Pompeiaa
tableu M has the four-stroke form )|||. as ia the graffiti; in the
Dadan tablets it is a rustic capital, sometimes almost an vndal
<^- The hastily written O is formed by two strokes both eonvex,
ahnost like a. As to the general character of the writing, it ia
dose and compressed, and has an inclination to the left. Tbexe
is also much combination or linking together of letters {Cmp.
inscr, lai. iii. tab. A). These peculiarities may, ia some measne,
be ascribed to the material and to the confined space at the
command of the writer. The same character of cunive writli^
has also been found on a few tiles and potsherds inscribed witk
alphabeu or short sentences— the cierriset of diildicn at adwol
{Corp. inscr. lat. iii. 962).
In writing with the pen upon the smooth and nnreastias
suriace of papyrus, the scribe would naturally write a iDoee
fluent hand. The disjointed writing of the graffiti and the
tablets was changed for one which gradually became more
consecutive and which naturally tended in course of time t«
KCNMAN CURSIVE)
PALAEOGRAPHY
569
slope to the right in the effort to be more current and to write
letters in connexion without lifting the pen. One of the earliest
available examples of Latin writing on papyrus to which an
approximate date can be assigned is a fragment at Beriin con-
taining portions of speeches delivered in the senate, said to be
of the reign of Claudius, a.d. 41-54 (Steffens, Lot. Pal. taf. xoi).
The writing, though still somewhat restrained and admitting
but little linking of the letters, is yet of a more flowing character
than that of the contemporary tablets and graffiti.
We have to pass into the second century before finding the
most perfect Latin document on papyrus as yet discovered
(fig- 33)* This is now in the British Museum, and records the
Fig. 33.— Sale of a slave. A.a 166.
(— «t si 9uis eum puenim
^cerit ■implam pecuniam
— ^te dare stipulatus est Fabul
— Julius Priacus id fide sua
— C. Julius Antiochus mani— j
purchase of a slave-boy by an officer in the Roman fleet of
Miscnum stationed on the Syrian coast, a.d. 166 (PaL Soc, i.
190; Arckaeologia liv. p. 453). The writing of the body of the
document is in a formal cursive, generally of the same formation
as the inscriptions on the Dacian waxen tablets of the snd
century, as will be seen from the accompanying facsimile of a
few lines (fig. 33).
With this example of legal handwriting of the and century
it is interesting to compare two specimens of more ordinary
cursive in different styles found in private letters of about the
same time. The first (fig. 24) is taken from a fragmentary
letter of the year 167 (GrenfeU and Hunt, Creek Papyri^
and scries, cviii.) and is a typical cxamplf? of a hurried style.
Fic. 24.— Letter, a.d. 167.
(Octobrium ad Pululnos ad —
intcnienicnte Minucium —
et Apuleium nepotem acribam-—
nonis Octobris imp. Uero ter^)
The second (fig. 25) is from a letter written by one Aurdius
Archelaus to Julius Domitius, irihvmut militum, recommending a
friend named Theon, of the and century {Oxyrkynchus Papyri,
i., zxxii.), an instance apparently of slow and imperfect penman-
ship, every letter painfully and separately formed, yet not in the
detached strokes characteristic of the writing of the graffiti and
the tablets.
In the examples above we recognixe practically the same
alphabet as in the graffiti and Ubiets, but with certain excep-
tions, particularly in the shape of the letter E, which is either
normal or written very cursively as an acute-angled tick, and in
the reversion of other letters to the more normal capital forms.
There is not sufficient material to trace step by step the de-
velopment of the Roman cursive hand between the snd and the
5th centuries; but still, with the few scattered examples at hand,
there seems to be reason for conjecture that Latin writing on
papyrus passed through phases not very dissimilar to those of
Greek writing on the same material For, when we emerge
from the 3rd century, we find an enlarged flowing hand, as in
the Latin translation of the fables of Babrius in a fragmenUry
papyrus of the Amherst collection (No. xxvi.), ascribed to the
3rd or 4th century, and in a letter of recommendation irom. an
jjs.yvi^trj^j^ ^ "l''>^ /*- ro
/.r/-
Fio. 35.— Letter, and oentuiy.
Qam tibt et prittioe commen
daueimm Theooem amicum
meuro et modfo <|u]oque puto
domine ut eum ant ocutos
habeas tanquam me est e
nim tales omo ut ametnr
ate)
Egyptian official of the 4th century, now at Strassbnig (>f rcftiv.
/Br Papyrusfcrsckung, uL a. |68); the handwriting of the latter
recalling the large style of the Greek cunive of the Byxantine
period (fig. a6). That there shook! be an affinity between the
writing of Gredk and that of Latin popyri emanating from Eg3rpt
is naturally to be expeacd.
Fxc 36.— Letter of recommendation, 4th century.
(Cum in omnibus bonis bentgni(tasl —
etiam acholastkoa ct OMudme qui —
jhonolrificentiae tuae traduntur quod~)
This example shows what an immense advance had by this time
been made in the formation of the minuscule hand, and but
little more is required for its completion. It is to be noted,
Jiowever, that the peculiar old form of letter B with the loop
on the left still persists. But only a short time was now needed
to bring this letter also in a new shape into line with the other
members of the growing minuscule alphabet.
At this point must be noticed a very interesting and important
dass of the Roman cursive hand which stands apart from the
general line of development. This is the official hand of the
Roman Chancery, which is unfortunately, represented by only
two fragmentary papyri of the 5th century (fig. 27), and proves
to be a curious moulding of the cursive in a calligraphic style,
in which; however, the same characters appear as in other
Roman cursive documents, if somewhat disguised. The papsrri
contain portions of two rescripts addressed to Egyptian officials,
and are said to have been found at Phile and Elephantine.
Both documents are in the same hand; and the fragments are
divided between the libraries of Paris and Leiden. For a time
the writing remained undeciphered, and ChampoHion-Figeac,
whfle publishing a facsimile {Charles et MSS. sur papyrus, 1840,
pL 14) , had to confess that he was unable to read it. Massmann,
however, with the experience gained in his work upon the
waxed tablets, succeeded without much difficulty in reading
the fragment at Leiden {Libeaus aurarius, p. 147)1 «»<> ^^
570
PALAEOGRAPHY
(UTERARY HANDS
followed by M. de Wailly, who pubUsbed the whole of tho
fragments (ilim. de PInsiitut (184?), xv. 399). Later, Momm-
sen and Jaff£ have dealt with the text of the documents Uokrbuch
des. gem. deut. Ruhts (1863), vi. 398), and compared in a Uble
the forms of the letters with those of the Dadan tablets*
Bnm^JrJftff^rM^
Fic. «7.— Deed of the Imperial Chancery, 5th century,
(portioncm ipsi dcbltam rcsarth-c
nee uHum prccatorcm ex irfttrumento)
The characters are large, the line of writing being about
three-fourths of an inch deep, and the heads and tails of the
long letters are flourished; but the even slope of (he strokes
imparts to the writing a certain uniform and graceful appearance.
As to the actual shape of the letters, as will be seen from the
reduced facsimile here given, there may be recognized in many of
them only a more current form of those which have been de-
scribed above. The A and R may be distinguished by noticing
the different angle at which the top strokes are applied; the B,
to suit the requirements of the more current style, is no longer
the closed d-shaped letter of the tablets, but is open at the buw
«nd more nearly resembles a reversed h\ the tall letters /, A, /,
and long i have devdoprd loops; O and v-shaped U are very
small, and written high in the line. The letters which seem to
differ essentially from those of the tableU are E, M, N. The
first of these is probably explained correctly by Jaff£ as a develop-
ment of the earlier || quickly written and looped, and may be
compared with the tick-shaped letter noticed above. The M
and N have been compared with the minuscule forms of the
Greek mu and rk, as though the latter had been adc^tcd; but
they may with better reason be explained as merely cursive
forms of the Latin capital^ M and N. That thli hand should
have retained so much of the oMer formation of the Roman
cursive b no doubt to be attributed to the fact of its being an
ofhcial style of writing which would conform to iradition.
To continue the development which we saw att lined in the
letter of the 4th century above (fig. 26) we turn to the docu-
ments on papyrus from Ravenna, Naples, and other places in
Italy, which date from the sth century and are written in a
iooser and more straggling hand (fig. 28). Examples of this
hand will be found in largest numbers in Marini's work specially
treating of these documents (/ pa^ri diphmctki), and also in
the publications of MabiUon (De re diplomatica) ChampoUion-
Figeac {CharUs et USS. sw papyrus), Mossmann (Urkunden
in Neapd und Arerzo)^ Gloria {PaUo%raJia)t as well as in Fees,
ai Anctent Charters in the British Ifuseum, pt. iv., 1878, Not.
4S, 46, and in the Faaimiies of the Palaoographical Society.
Fig. 38.— Deed of Sale (Ravenna), a.d. $73.
(httiuf splendediaiimae urbis)
The letter a has now lost all trace of the capital; it b the open
fl(-staaped minuscule, developed from the looped uncial C6v ^);
the b, throwing off the loop or curve on the left which gave it
the appearance of d, has at length developed one on the right,
and appears in the form familiar in modem writing; minuscule
Iff, fi, and u are fully formed (the last never Joining a following
letter, and thus always distingubhable from a); p, q, and r
approach to the long minuscules, and j, having acquired an
incipient tag, has taken the form 7 which it keeps long after.
lliis form of writing was widely used, and was not confined
to legal documents. It is found in grammatical works, as in
the second hand of the palimpsest MS. of Liciniaaus {CaL Amc.
USS. J pt. ii., pis. I, 2} of the 6th century, and in such volumes
as the joscphus of the Ambrosian Library of the 7th century
(Pal. Soc. pi. 59), and in the St Avitus of the 6th century and
other MSS. written in France. It is indeed only natural to
suppose that this, the most convenient, because cursive, haitd,
should have been employed for ordinary working MSS. which
were in daily use. That so few of such MSS. should have sur«
vivcd is no doubt owing to the destruction of the greater number
by the wear and tear to which they were subjected.
Latin Writing. IL— Literary Hands
We have now to return to the ist century, the date from
which we started in the mvcstjgation of the Roman cursive
writing, and take up the thread of the history of the book -hand
of literature, a few rare examples of which have survived from
the ruins of Hemihuieum. That a Roman book^hand existed
at a still earlier period is quite certain. The analogy of the
survival of very ancient examples oi a Greek literary hand
is a sufficient proof; and it is a mere truism to say that as soon
as there was a h'teratuiv, there wis likewise a book-hand for
its vehicle. No work could be submitted for sale in the market
that was not written in a style legible to all. Neatly written
copies were essential, and the creation of a formal kind of
writing fitted for the purpose natarally resulted. Such formal
script must, however, be always more or less artificial as com-
pared with the natural current hand of the time, and there
must always be an antagonism between the two styles of script;
and, as we have seen in Greek palaeography, the book-hand is
always subject to the invading, influence of the natural hand.
Capital Writing. — Among the Herculancum fragmentary
papyri, then, we find our earliest examples of the Roman liter*
ary hand, which must be earh'er than A.D. 79, the year of the
destruction of the city; and those examples prove to us that the
usual literary hand was written in capital letters. Of these
letters there are two kinds— the square and the rustic. Square
capitals may be defined as those which have their horizontal
lines at right angles with the vertical strokes; rustic letters are
not less accurately formed, nor, as their title would seem to
imply, are they rough in character, but, being without the exact
finish of the square letters, and being more readily written, they
have the appearance of greater simplicity. In capital writinc
the letters are not all of equal height; F and L, and in tlw rustic
sometimes others, as B and R, overtop the rest. In the rustic
alphabet the forms arc. generally lighter and more slender, with
short horizontal strokes more or less oblique and wavy. Both
styles of capital writing were obviously borrowed from the
bpidary alphabeU employed under the empire. Both styles
were used for public notices inscribed on the walls of Pompeii and
other places. But it has been observed that scribes with a
natural conservatism would perpetuate a style some time
kinger in hooks than it might be used in inscriptions. We
should therefore be prepared to allow for this in ascribing a
date to a capital written MS., which might resemble an inscrip-
tion older by a century or more. Rustic capitals, on account
of their knore convenient shape, came into more general use;
and the greater number of the early MSS. in capitals which have
survived are consequently found to be in this character. In the
Exetnpla codium latinorum of Zangemeister and Wattenbach
are collected specimens of capital writing.
The literary fragments of papyrus from Herculaneum are
written generally in rustic capitals, cither of the firm, solid
character used in inscriptions, or of the lighter style empfoyed
in the fragments of a poem on the battle of Actium (fig. ^).
As this poem is the earliest literary work in Latin, of any extent,
written in the book-hand, a specimen of the writing is here
given, lis period must necessarily lie between the year 31 »,c
the date of the battle and A.a 79; and therefore we may place
it at least early in the ist century.
That the rustic capital hand was generally adopted for finely
written Utcrary MSS. from the period of our earliest examples
onwards through the centuries immediately following mv ^
UTERARY HAND^
PALAEOGRAPHY
57*
assumed fxom the fact of that character being found so widely in
favour when we come down to the period of the vellum MSS.
Unfortunately no examples have survived to fill the gap between
the first ceatuxy and the oldest of the vellum codices written in
rustic capitals of the 4th centiiry. Of the three great MSS. of
Virgil preserved in the Vatican Library, which are written in
fix. ;A<i:U-rr;^v)iJALocl
Fxc. ag. — Poem on the Battle of Actium, early 1st century.
(pracbcretque suae —
c^ualis ad instantis —
signa tubae classesq —
est fades ca visa loci—)
this character, the first in date is that known as the Schedae
Vaticanae {Exmph, tab. 13; Pal. Soc. pi. xx6, 117), a MS.
famous for its scries of well-finished illustrative paintings in
classical style; it is ascribed to the 4th century. The other two
MSS. are known as the Codex Romanus and the Codex Palatinus
(Exempla, tab. xi, 12; Pal. Soc, pL 113-xis), and are now
generally assigned to the 5th century. AH three MSS. no doubt
must always have been regarded as choice works; and the large
scale of the writing employed, particularly in the case of the
Romanus and the Palatinus, and the consequently magnificent
size of the MSS. when complete, must indicate an unusual
importance attaching to them. They ware idilions de luxe of
the great Roman poet. The writing of the Codex Palatinus
(Fig. 30) especially is most exact, and is manifestly inodclled
on the best type of the rustic hand as seen in the inscriptions.
IlilATVAQVIDrOflTimWIAWHOUUCOGl
l>131AMlULQ5t(Q5UitCUtJaUUlOtOIU
Fic. jo.—Virgil (Cod. Palatinus) 5th century.
(Tcstaturquc dcos itcrum sc ad procHa cogi
Bis iam Italos hostis haec altera focdera)
In assigning dates to the earliest MSS. of capital-writing, one
feels the greatest hesitation, none of them bearing any internal
evidence to assist the process. It is not indeed until the dose
of the sth centuiy that we reach firm ground— the Mcdiccan
Virgtt of Florence having in it suffident proof of having been
written before the year 494. The writing is in ddicatcly-
formed letters, rather more spaced out than in the earlier exam-
ples (ExemplCj tab. xo; Pal, Soc. pi. 86). Another ancient
MS. in rustic capitals is the Codex Bembinus of Terence of the
4th or sth century {Exempla, tab. 8, 9; Pal. Soc., pi. 135), a
volume which is also of particular interest on account of its
marginal annotations, written in an early form of small hand.
Among palimpsests the most notable is that of the Cicero In
Vcrrem of the Vatican {Exempla, tab. 4).
Of vellum MSS. in square capitals the examples are not so
early as those in the rustic character. Portions of a MS. of
Virgil in the square letter are preserved in the Vatican, and other
leaves of the same are at Berlin (Exempla, tab. 14) Eadi page,
however, begins with a hirge coloured initial, a style of ornament-
ation which is never found in the very earliest MSS. The date
assigned to this MS. is therefore the end of the 4th century. In
very similar writing, but not quite so exact, are some fragments
of another MS. of Virgil in the library of St Gall, probably of a
rather later time {Exempla, tab. 14a; Pal. Soc., pi. 908).
In the 6th century capital-writing enters on its period of
decadence, and the examples of it become imitative. Of this
period is the Paris Prudentius {Exempla, tab. 15; Pal. Soc. pb.
39, 30) in rustic letters modelled on the old pattern of early
inscriptions,, but with a very different result from that obtained
by the early scribes. A comparison of this volume with such
MSS. as the Codex Romanus and the Codex Palatinus shows the
later date of the Prudentius in its wide^read writing and la
certain inconsistendes in forms. Of the 7th century is the
Turin Sedulius {Exempht tab. x6), a MS. in which undal writing
also appears— the rough and misshapen letters being evidences
of the cessation of capital writing as a hand in common use.
The latest imitative' example of an entire MS. in rustic capitals
is in the Utrecht Psalter, written in triple columns and copied,
to all appearance, from an andent example, and illustrated with
pen drawings. This MS. may be assigned to the beginning
of the 9th century. If there were no other internal evidence
of late date in the MS. the mixture of undal letters with the
capitals would dedde it. In the Psalter of St Augustine's
Canterbury, in the Cottonian Library {Pal. Soc. pi. X9; Cat.
Arte. MSS. n. pis. it, 13), some leaves at the beginning are
written in this imitative style early in the 8th ceatuzy; and again
it is found in the Benedictional of Bishop Aethelwold {Pal. Soc.
pi. X43) of the xoth oentury. In the sumptuous MSS. of the
Carlovingian school it was continually used; aiKi it survived for
such purposes as titles and colophons for some centuxIeSi usually
in a degenerate form of the rustic letters^
Uncial Writing. — ^There was also another majuscule form of
writing, besides capitahi, employed as a literary book-hand
at an early date, but not coeval with the early period of capital
writing. This second book-hand was the so-called Undal hand,/
a modification of the capital form of writing; in which the
square angles of the original letters were rounded off and certain
new curved shapes were introduced, the characteristic letters
of the uncial alphabet being a, b, €, b, m. The origin of some
of these rounded letters may be traced in certain forms of the
Roman cursive letters of the grafiliti and the tablets. But a
considerable length of time ehipsed before the fully developed
uncial alphabet was evolved from these indpicnt forms. In-fact
it is only in the vellum MSS. that we first find the firmly written
literary undal hand in perfect form. No doubt the new material, .
vellum, with its smooth hard surface, immediately afforded the
means for the calligraphic perfection with which wo find the
uncial writing inscribed in these codices.
From the occurrence of isolated undal forms in inscriptions,
the actual period of growth of the finished literary hand has been
determined to lie between the later part of the 2nd oentury and
the 4th centuiy. Undal letters are espedally prevalent aft
Rmnan-African inscriptions of the- 3rd century; but oertaift
letten of the uncial alphabet are not as yet therein matured;
minuscule forms of a few letters, particulariy k and d, areemploye<L
The discovery also, at Oxyrhynchus, of a fragmentary papyrus
of the 3rd century, containing a portion of an epitome of Livy,
presents us with an example of the undal hand in progress of
formation for literary purposes, the text being composed mainly
of letters of the undal type, but induding a certain proportioa
of letters, as b, J, m, r, of the minuscule or small character. At
length in the 4th century, as ahneady suted, the perfected undal
Uteiary alphabet is found in the vellum codices.
There are still extant a very large number of Latin undal
MSS., a proof of the wide use of this form of literary writing in
the early middle agea.
The Exempla of Zaogemeister and Wattcnbach, to often
quoted above, contains a series of facsimiles which illustrate
its progress through its career. The letter rn has been adopted
by the editors as a test letter, in the earlier forms of which the
last limb is not curved or tuned in. The letter € also in its
earlier and purer form has the cross stroke placed hi^. But,
as in every style of writing, when once developed, the earliest
examples axe the best, being written with a free hand and natural
stroke. The Gospds of VercelU {Exempla, Ub. so), said to have
been written by the hand of Eusebius himself, and which oiay
indeed be of his time, is one of the moat andent undal MSS.
Its narrow cdumns and pure forms of letten have the stanq^ of
antiquity. To the 4th century also is assigned the pallnpsett
Qcero Dt repttUica in the Vatican {Exempla, Ub. 17; Pel- Sac
57^
PALAEOGRAPHY
[NATIONAL HANDS
pi. i6o), & MS. written In fine large diinctenof the best type;
and a very andent fragment of a commcntaiy on an ante-Hiero-
nymian test, in three columns, has also survived at Fulda
{Exempla, tab. 3x). Among the unda) MSS. of the 5th centuiy
of whidi good photographic facsimiles are available arc the two
famous oodioes of Livy, at Vienna (fig. 31) and Paris {Extmpla,
Ub. iS, 19; Pal. Soe, pL 31, 39, 183)
IxnrvnBiiUAciiiAfiCNO
K^ANIlASXeOJlAltlSBO
NAOriNXIUfMSfCNZur
Fio. 31.— Livy (Vienna MS.), 5th century.
(lam tiU ilia quae igno
rantia laccularu bo
na opioatur ortewdaw)
To distinguish between uncial MSS. of the 5th lad 6th centuries
b not very easy, for the character of the writing changes but
little, and is free from sign of weakness or wavering. It may,
however, be noticed that in MSS. which are assigned to the latur
century there is rather ksa compactness, and occasionally, as
the century advances, there is a slight tendency to artificiality.
When the 7th century is reached there is every evidence that
uncial writing has entered on a new stage. The letters are more
roughly and carelessly formed, and the compactness of the
earlier style is altogether wanting. From this time down to
the age of Charlemagne there is a continual deterioration, the
writing of the 8th century being altogether misshapen. A more
exact but imitative hand was, however, at the same time em-
^oyed, when occasion required, for the production of calli-
graphic MSS., such as Biblical and liturgical books. Under the
encouragement given by Chariemagne to such woiks, sploidid
nodal volumes were written in ornamental st^ often in gold,
several of which have survived to this day.
iiixed and Half-uncial WrUiMg.--lL is obvious that the majus-
cule styles of literary writing, vk. the square capital, the rustic
capital and the uncial, were of too elaborate and too statdy
« character to serve all the many requirements of literature.
The capital hands, as we have seen, appear to have been
employed, at least in many instances, for codices produced on
« grand scale, and presumably for special occasions; and if the
iindal hand had a longer and wider career, yet in this case also
there must often have been a sense that the employment of
this fine character gave a special importance and value to the
MS. It b not improbable that the survival of so large a number
of uncial MSS. b due to the special care that they received at
the hands of their owners. Other more manageable styles of
writing were necessary, and concurrently with the majuscule
hands other forms were developing. The hand which bears the
name of Half-undal was finally evolved, and had itself an
important career as a book-hand as well as exerdsing a large
influence on the medieval minuscule hand of lileratuie.
From the first, as we have seen in the case of the graffiti and
the tablets, a mingling of capital forms and minuscule forms
was prevalent fin the non-literary style of writing. There are
indications that the same mingling of the two streams was
allowed in writing of a literary character. It appears in a
ndimctttary state in a papyrus fragment from Herculaneum
{Esemflat tab. 2 b); and it appears in the epitome of Livy of the
3rd century found at Oxyrhynchus, in which minuscule letters
are Interspersed among the uncial text. From the regularity
and ease with which this MS. b written, it b to be assumed
that the mlxod hand was ordinarily practised at that time It
b often employed for marginal notes in the earty vellum codices.
It b used for the text of the Verona Gaios {Esempla, Ub. 94)
of the 5th century, in which, besides the ordinary undal shapes,
4 b also found as a minuscule, r as the transitional r, and s
as the tall letter v. Again, In the undal Florentine Pandects
of the 6th century appears a Jiand whidt contains a large admix-
ture of minuscule forms (Exm^, tab. 54). From these and
other instances it b seen that in undal MSS. of a secular nature.
as in works relating to law lad grammar, the scribe did not led
himself restricted to a uniform use of the larger Icttcia, as be
would be in producing a church book or calligraphic MS.
But the mixed hand, although partaking something of the
nature of the Half-undal hand, was not actually that loraa of
writing. The Half-undal hand was not only a mingling of
uncial and minuscule forms, but also a blending of than, the
uncial dement yidding more or less to the minuscule influence,
while the minuscule element was reacted upon by the undal
sentiment of roundness and sweeping curves. In its full devdop-
ment the Half-undal, or Roman Half-undal as It b abo calcd,
were it not for a few lingering pure uncial forms, mtg^t equally
well be described as a large-type minuscule hand. It hns, in
fact, been sometimes styled the pre-CaroKngian miniisfuir
An early form of Ihb writing b found in the papyrus fragment
of Sallust's Catiline, perhaps of the eariy 5th century, recently
recovered at Oxyrhynchus. In vellum codices of the sth, 6th
and 7th centuries Half-undal writing of a very fine type b -not
uncommon. It b used for the marginal scholia of the Bcn&bine
Terence, of the 5th century. The MS. of the Fasti consuUrcs,
at Verona, brought down to 494 aj>. {Bsempla, tab. 30), b «bo
in tius hand. But the earliest MS. of ihb class to which a nooic
approximate date can be given b the HiUry of St Peter's at
Rome (fig. 3a), which was written in or before the yeax 509 or
510 (Exempla, tab. 52; Pal, Sac, pL 136); the next b the Sul-
pidus SevOTis of Verona, of 517 (Exempla, tab. 32); and of the
year 569 is a beautifully written MS. at Monte (^aaiino containing
a Biblical commentary {Exempla, Ub. 3).
Fig. 32.~6t Hilary. a.d. 509-510^
(episoopi manum innocente[ml—
pinlguam non ad falsiloquium coeg Hsti)^
natioaem aaterioris ienteiiti(aej~)
Other examples, of which good facsimiles may be consulted,
are the Corbie MS. of Canons, at Paris {Exempia, tab, 41. 43),
the St Severianus at Milan (Pal. Sac. pi. 161, i6a), the Asbbum-
ham St Augustine {Pal. Soc. ii. 9), and the Paris St Augustine
{New. Pal. Soc. pi. 80), of the 6th century; and the Cologne MS.
of Canons {Exem^, tab. 44), and the Josephus {Pal. Sac pL
138) and St Ambrose {Pal. Soc. pL 137) of Milan, of the 6ch or
7th century.
The influence which the Half-undal litersiy hand e x e t ds eJ
upon the minuscule book-writing of the 7th and 8th centuries
may be traced in greater or less degree in the continental MSS.
of that period. We shall find that it fbrmed the besb for tlie
beautiful national handwritings of Ireland and Britain; and it
played an important part in the Carolingian reform of the book*
hand of the Prankish Empire.
Latin Weitimc. IIL— Tee National Hands
We have now to follow the rise and development of the
national handwritings of western Europe, all of which were
derived from the Roman hand, but from different phases of
it. While the Roman Emoire was the central power controlling
iu ootonies and conquests, the Roman handwriting, howe vti
far apart might be the several countries in which it was cnncnt«
remained practically one and the same. But, when the enopire
was broken up and when independent nationalities arose upon
its ruins and advanced upon independent paths of dvilixation,
the handwriting inherited from Rome gradually assumed dis-
tinctive characters and took the complexions of the several
countries, unless from some acddent the continuity of the effects
ot the Roman occupation was disturbed, as it was in Britain
by the Saxon invasion. On the continent of western Europe,
in Italy, in Spain, in Gaul, the Roman cursive hand had beooine
the common form of writing, and it remained the framework on
which the national hands of those countries developed. Thus
NATIWAL tUNOq
PALAEOGRAPHY
573
grew the Lombardic hand of Italy, the Vbigothic hand of Spain,
and the Merovingian and, later, the CaroUngian hand of the
Frankisb Empire. The earliest charters of the three national
divisions, written in cursive hands directly descending from
the Roman cursive, and dating generally from the 7th century,
still remained related in their general style. It was in the
book-hands, elaborated from the cursive character, that the
lines of national demarcation became mora clearly defined,
although naturally there occur also many exampka in mixed
styles which it is difficult to assign to one or another country.
Lombardic WrilUtg. — ^The national handwriting of Italy did
not follow one and the same lines of development throughout
the peninsula. In ordinary documents the cursive hand which
is seen in the Ravenna deeds, the direct descendant of the
Roman cursive, continued in use, growing, in course of .time,
more and more Intricate and difficult to read, the earliest
examples, down to the middle of the 9th century, being in the
large straggling character .of their prototype. The illegible
scrawl into which the. hand finally degenerated in notarial
instruments of southern Italy was at length suppressed by order
oC Frederick II. (a.o. iaxo-1350). But at an early date the
Lombardic book-hand was being formed out of this material.
In northern Italy new influences were brought into action by
Charlemagne's conquest, the independent growth of the native
band was checked, and a mixed style in which the Merovingian
type was interwoven with the Itidian was produced, to which
the name of Franco-Lombardic has been given (see below,
fig. 39). But in the Lombardic duchies of the south the native
Lombardic book-hand had an unimpeded growth. In such
centres as the monasteries of Monte Caasino near Naples and
La Cava near Salerno, it took in the 9th century a very exact
Fig. 33.-~Exultat roll (Lombardic, lath century).
QHlec nox est de qua acriptum est £t
nox ut dies illuminabitur)
and uniform shape. From this date the attention which it
received as a calligraphic form of writing, accompanied with
accessory ornamentation of initial letters, brought it to a high
state of perfection in the nth century, when by the peculiar
treatment of the letters, they assume that strong contrast of
light and heavy strokes which when exaggerated, as it finally
became, received the name of broken Lombardic. This style
of hand lasted to the 13th century.
Papal DocumenU.—h word must be said in this place regard-
ing the independent devck>pment of the hands used in the papal
i|*PB«<n'^
Fig. 34.— Bun of Pope John VIIL (mudi reduced, A.D. 876).
(Dei genctrids niariac fiUI>—
haec Jgitur omnia quae hulus praeocpti)
chanoefy, that great centre which had so wide an influence by
setting the pattern for the hsndsomc round-hand writing which
became so characteristic of the Italian script. Specimens of a
special style of writing, founded on the Lombardic and called
Utkra romama (fig. 34) are to be seen in the early papal docu-
ments on papyrus dating from the latter part of the 8th century.
In the earliest cxamploi it appears on a Urge scale, and has
founded forms and sweeping strokes of a very bold character.
Derived from the official Roman hand, it has certain letters
peculiar to itself, such as the letter a made almoBt like a Greek
u, t in the form of a loop, and e as a drde with a knot at the top.
This hand may be followed in examples from a.d. 788 through
the 9th century (Pacs. de (harks H diplomes, zS66; Ch. Figeac,
Ckarta a doc. sur papyrus, i-xii.; Lctronne, Diphm, nurtm, ate/.,
pL 48. In a bull of Silvester II., dated in 999 (BtU. FBc
des ckartes, vol xxxvii.), we find the hand becoming leas round;
and at the end of the next century, under Urban II., in 1097
(MabiUon, De re dipt. suppL p. its) and 109S (Sickd, i/ra.
troph. V. 4), it is in a curious angular style, which, however, then
disappears. During the nth and 12th centuries the imperial
chancery hand was also used for papal docuoaents, and was in
turn displaced by the exact and calliisraphic papal Italian hand
of the later middle ages.
VisizaUnc IFrdmg.— The >nsagothic writing of Spain ran a
course of development not unlike that of the Lombardic. In
the cursive hand attributed to the 7th century the Roman
cursive has undergone little change in form; but another century
devdoped a most distinctive character. In the Sth century
appears the set book-hand in an even and not diflkult character,
marked by breadth of style and a good firm stroke. This style
is maintained through the 9th century with little change, except
that there is a growing tendency to calligraphy. In the xoth
century the writing deteriorates; the letten are not so uniform,
and, when caUigraphically written, are generally thinner in
stroke. The same changes which are discernible in all the band-
writings of western Europe in the nth century are also to be
traced in the Visigothic hand^particularly as regards the
rather rigid character which it assumes. It contini^ in use
down to the beginning of the lath century. Perhaps the most
characteristic letter of the book-hand is the f-shaped g. The
following specimens (fi^i. 35, 36) illustrate the Visigothic as
written in a large hMvy hand of the 9tk century (Cat. jine.
USS. ii. Plate 37), and in a calligraphic example of 1x09 (Pal.
Soc. Ptete 48).
Fio. 3S— Prayers, 9th century,
(tibi duloedinc praid
morum ct dignita
te opcrum perf eaorusi)
9a«fii» 4rf^Uum t'f&nf>ft«fflaf>
Imkua^taltaiitejo frticiBa faloonM^
Fic. 3d.— Beattts 00 the Apocalypse, A.01 1109.
(pistntm et profetenim et tamJorum ct aipotkknum
QUO ^mitibus ct tormcnta dcsiderii lui
nabuit usquequo f ructusi ex plebe sua)
Jderoringian. — ^The early writing of the Prankish Empire, to
which the title of Merovingian has been applied, had a wider
range than the other two national hands already described. It
had a long career both for diplomatic and literary purposes.
In this writing, as it appean in documents, we see that the
Roman cursive b subjected to a lateral pressure, so that the
letters recdved a curiously cramped appearance, while the beads
and tails are exaggerated to inordinate length.
Facsimiles of this hand, as used in the royal and nnpeiial chan-
ceries, are to be found scattered in various works; bat aeomplete
course of Merovingian diplomatic writing may be beat studied
in Letronne's DipUmata, and in the Kaisemrktmdm of P to l cao n
Sybel and Sickd. In the earliest documents, aMDmendng
in the 7 th century and continuing to the middle of the 8cb
574
PALAEOGRAPHY
[NATIONAL HANDS
century, the chumeter is Urge and at fast not so intricate as it
becomes later in this period. The writing then grows into a
more regular form, and in the 9th century a small band is estab-
lished, which, however, still retains ihe exaggerated heads and
taib cif letters. The direct course of this chancery hand may
then be followed in the imperial documents, which from the
Fig. 37. — Merovingian diploma. A.D. 679-<>8o.
(dcdit in rcspunsts co quod ipsa —
de annus triginta ct uno inter ipso —
•~ondain ncmpcr tcnucrant ct po«iiderant si — )
second half of the gth century are written in a hand more set
and evidently influenced by the Carolingian minuscule. This
form of writing, still accompanied by the lengthened strokes
already referred to, continued in force, subject, however, to
the varying changes which affected it in common with other
hands, into the isth century. Its influence Was felt as well in
France as in Germany and Italy; and certain of its charac-
teristics aho appear in the court-hand which the Normans
brought with them Into Engbnd.
The book-hand immediately derived from the early Mero-
vingian diplomatic hand is seen in MSS. of the 7th and 8th
centuries in a very neatly written but not very easy hand
{Cai. AfK. MSS. ii. Pblcs 29, 30; Arndt, Schrifttaf. 28).
S^j^ui^k^^^
Fig. 38.— St Gn^gory's Moralia, 7th ecmury.
Mcruvingian \\ i itin^, 7th century.
(—dam intra bin urn sanr/.ie ccloiac quasi uicinos ad—
positos incrcfiant. Satpc uca) arrogantcs —
— dcm quam icncnt arrogantum se f ugirc 09ten — )
But Other varieties of the literary hand as written in France
are seen to be more closely allied to the Roman cursive. The
earliest example is found in the papyrus fragments of writings
of St Avitua and St AiiRuSltuc of the 6th century {Aiudes paliogr.
sur d€$ papyrus du V/»* siidt, Geneva, 1866); and other later
MSS. by their diversity of writing show a development indepen-
dent of the cursive hand of the Merovingi^in charters. It is
among these MSS. th.it those examples already referred to occur
which more nearly resemble the Lombardic tyj>c.
Jjanftihinu tixbaciij|tc QnuAifi^rcC jaflbuc:
hicmfCiliiTiQm fiiiKlfln |iliufli\fotcmnqfn
Fro. 39. — Ecclesiastical Canons (Pranco-Lombardic), 8th century,
(propter unltatcm saUia propri.ietatc na —
fion sub una substantia conucnicntes, ncqoe—
*-4twn sod unum eundem filium. Unicura dmm)
flM imcki md half-imdal hands bad ako their influence in
the evohition of these Mefxyvingian book-hands; and the mfxture
of to many different forms accounts for the variety to be found
in the otamplcs -«f the Ttb and 8th centuries. In the Notice
fir im MS, Mirodmgim d'Emgyppiu (1875) and the Notice sur
m MS. Mirtniugieu 4e la BiU. d*itpinai (1878), Deliale has
given many valuable facsimiles In itlttstration of the different
hands in these two MSS. of the early part of the 8th centary.
See also Exempia Codd. Lai. (tab. 57), and autotypes in Cat.
anc. MSS. ii. There was, however, through all this period a
general progress towards a settled minuscule writing which only
required a master-hand to fix it in a purified and calligraphkr
form. How this was effected will be described below, after
disposing of the early national writing of our own islands.
Irish Writittg.—Thc early history of the palaeography of the
British Isles stands apart from that of the continental schools.
As was noticed above, the Roman handwriting which was used
by the Roman settlers in Britain and was imparted by them to
the native Britons was swept out of exbtence when the Saxon
invasion abruptly destroyed the continuity of Roman civiliza-
tion in these ishinds. Britain had to wait a long time for the
reappearance of Roman writing in the country; but it was
destined to reappear, though in a different phase, in book -form,
not in cursive form; and not directly, but through another
channel. That channel was Ireland.
It is evident that the civilization and learning which accom-
panied the establishment of an ancient Church in Ireland could
not exist without a written literature.^ The Roman mission-
aries would certainly in the first place have imported copies of
the Gospels and other books, and ft cannot be doubted that
through intercouise with England the Irish, would obtain coe-
tincntal MSS. in sufficient numbers to serve as modeb for their
scribes. From geographical and political conditions, howe\*eT,
no continuous intimacy with foreign countries was possible;
and ^ we are consequently prepared to find a form of wrttieg
borrowed in the first instance from a foreign school, but developed
under an independent national system. In Ireland we have an
instance how conservative writing may become, and how it will
hand on old forms of letters from one generation to another
when there is no exterior influence to act upon it. After once
obtaining its models, the Irish school of writing was left to work
out its own ideas, and continued to follow one direct line for
centuries. The subsequent English conquest had no effect upon
the national handwriting. Both peoples in the island pursued
their own course. In MSS. in the Irish language the Irish
character of writing was naturally employed; and the liturgical
books produced in Irish monasteries by Irish monks were written
in the same way. The grants and other deeds of the Englibh
settlcis were, on the other hand, drawn up by English scribes
in their then national writing. The Irish handwriting went 00
in its even uninterrupted course; and its consequent imchangtng
form makes it so difficult a matter to assign fccurate dates to
Irish MSS.
The eariy Irish handwriting is of two clas8e»->the round an J
the pointed. The round hand b found in the earliest examples;
the pointed hand, which also was developed at an eariy period
became the general hand of the country, and survives in the
native writing of the present day. Of the earliest surviving
MSS. written in Ireland none are found to be in pure uncial letters.
That uncial MSS. were introduced into the country by the early
missionaries can hardly be doubted, if we consider that Uiat
character was so commonly employed as a bookhand, and
especially for sacred texts. Nor b it impossible that Irish
scribes may have practised thb hand. The copy of the Gospels
in uncials, found in the tomb of St Kilian, and p r es er v ed at
Wilrzburg, has been quoted as an instance of Irish undaL The
writing, however, b the ordinary uncial, and bean no marls
of Irish nationality {Exempia, tab. 58). The most ancient
examples are in half-uncial letters, so similar In character to the
continental half-uncial MSS. of Roman type noticed above, ihax
there can be no hesitation in deriving the Irish from the Roman
writing. We have only to compare the Irish MSS. of the round
type with the continental MSS. to be convinced of the identify
of their styles of writing. There are unfortunately no ]Dem:?s
of ascertaining the exact period when thb style of hand was lust
adopted in Ireland. Among the very earliest surviving exam'
pics none bears a fixed date; and it b impossible to accept the
traditional ascription of certain of them to particulu- taiala of
HATIONAL HAND8I
Irctand, as St Patrick tad St Colfimba. Sttcfa tuditioDS ere
notoriously unsUble ground upon which to take up a position.
But an examinatk>n of certain r»ainpica will enable the palaeo-
grapher to arrive at certain oonduaions. In Trinity College,
Dublin, ia preserved a fragmentary copy of the Gospels (Nat,
MSS. Irdand, i. pi. ii.) vaguely assigned to a period from the
5th to the 7th century, and written in a round half-uncial hand
closely resembling the continental hand, but bearing the general
impress of its Irish origin. This MS.. may perhaps be of the
early part of the 7th century.
hxtwhtwoldrxiivecc^ \amant
eft <(i'|;»iiemtM<^bicut0iii«<eiutf
Fig. 40. — Gospels, 7th century,
(ad ille deintus respondens [dicit» NoIU mihi molestus eaae. iam
osti[um clausum] est et pucri in cubiculo mecum [sunt])
Again, the F^ter {Nat, MSS. Irdand, I pis. iii., iv.) tradi-
tionalty ascribed to St Columba (d. 597), and perhaps of the 7th
century, is a calligraphic tpcdmen of the same kind of writing:
The earliest ezampks of the continental half-uncial date back,
as has been seen above, to the sth century. Now the likeness
between the earliest foreign and Irish MSS. forbids us to assume
anything like collateral descent from a common and remote
stock. Two different national hands, although derived from
the same source, would not independently develop in the same
way, and it may accordingly be granted that the point of contaa,
or the period at which the Irish scribes copied and adopted the
Roman half-uncial, was not very long, comparatively, before
the date of the now earliest surviving examples. This would
take us back at least to the 6tb century, in which period there
is sufficient evidence of literary activity in Ireland. The beauti-
ful Irish calligraphy, ornamented with designs of marvellous
intricacy and br^liant colouring, which is seen In full vigour
at the end of the 7th century, indicates no small amount of
labour bestowed upon the cultivation of writing as an ornamental
art. It is indeed surprising that such excellence was so quickly
developed. The Book of Kells has been justly acknowledged
as the culminating example of Irish caltigrapby {Not. MSS. Irt*
iamd, i. pis. vii.-xvii.; Pal. Soc. pis. 55, 56). The text is written
in the large soUd half-undal hand which is again seen in the
Gospels of St Chad at Lichfield {PoL Sac^ pis. 90, 21, 35), and,
in a smaller form, in the English-written Lindisfarne Gospels
(see bdow). Having arrived at the calligraphic excellence just
referred to, the round hand appears to have been soon afterwards
superseded, for general use, by the pointed; for the character
of the large hall-undal writing of the Gospels of MacRcgol, of
about the year 800 {Nai, MSS. Ireland, i. pis. xxii.-xxiv.;
Pal. Soe. pis. 90, 91), shows a very great deterioration from
the vigorous writing of the Book of Kelts, indicative of want
of practice.
Traces of the existence of the pointed hand are eariy. It
is found in a fully developed stage in the Book of Kells itself
{Pal. Soc. pi. 88). This form of writing, which may be termed
the cursive hand of Ireland, differs in its origin from the national
cursive hands of the Continent. In the latter the old Roman
cursive has been shown to be the foundation. The Irish pointed
hand, on the contrary, bad nothing to do with the Roman
cuT^ve, but was simply a modification of the round hand, usng
the same forms of letters, but subjecting them to a lateral
compression and drawing their limbs into points or hair-lines.
As this process is found developed in the Book of Kells, its
beginning may be fairly assigned to as early a time as the first
half of the 7th cenlur>'; but for positive date ihrre is the same
uncertainty as in regard to the first beginning of the round hand.
The Book of Dimma {Nai. MSS. Ireland, \. pis. xviii., xix.)
has been attributed to a scribe of about a.d. 650; but it appears
rather to be of the Sth century, if we may judge by the analogy
of English MSS. written in a similar hand. It is not in fact until
we reach the period of the Book of Armagh (Nat. MSS. Ireland,
pis. xxv.-xxix), a MS. containing books of the New Testament
PALAEOGRAPHY
575
and other matter, and written fay Feidonnach, a scribe who died
in the year 844, that we are on safe ground. Heoe is clearly
a pointed hand of the eariy part of the 9th century, very similar
to the Ettgliah pofaited hand of Mercian charters of the same
time. The MS. of the Qospda of MacDuman, in the Lambeth
Library (Nat, MSS. Ireland, i pb. xxx., xzxi.) is an emmple of
wriUng iA the end of the pth or beginning of the loih century,
showing a tendency to become more narrow and cramped. But
coming down to the MSS. of the nth or irth centuries we find
a change. The pointed hand by this time has become moulded
into the angular and stereotyped form peculiar to Irish MSS. of
the later middle ages. From the lath to the 15th centuries
there is a very gradual change. Indeed, a carefuHy written MS.
of late date may very well pass lor an example oMer by a century
or more. A book of hymns of the izth or xsth century (Nat.
MSS. Ireland, i. pis. xxxii.-xxxvi.) may be referred to as a
good typical specimen of the Irish hand of that period; and the
Gospels of Maelbrighte, of A J). irjS (Not. MSS. Ireland, I
pb. xl.-xlii.; Pal. Soc. pi. 212), as a callignphic one.
In Irish MSS. of the later period, the ink is black, and the
vellum, as a general rule, is coarse and discoloiured, a defect
which may be attributed to inexperience in the art of preparing
the skins and to the effects of climate.
When a school of writing attained to the perfection wUch
marked that of Ireland at an early date, so far In advance of
other countries, it naturally followed that its JnHwrncf ahonld
be felt beyond it own borders. How the iniluenoc of the Irish
school asserted itself in England will be presently discussed.
But on the Continent also Irish monks cairied their dvilixing
power into different conntries, and continued their native style
of writing in the monasteries which they fmmded. At such
centres as Luxeuil in France, Wfirsburg in Cermaay, St Gall in
Switzeriand, and Bobbio in Italy, they were as basy in the pro*
ductien of MSS. as they had been at home. At first such MSS.
were no doubt as distlnOly Irish in their character as if written in
Itt;1and itself; but, after a time, as the bonds of connexion with
that coimtry were weakened, the form of writing would become
mther traditional, and lose the elasticity of a native hand. As
the national styles also which were practised around them
became more perfected, the writing of the Irish houses would
in turn be reacted on; and it is thus that the later MSS. produced
in those houses can be distingufehed. Archaic forms are tradi*
tionally retained, but the spirit of the hand dies and the writing
becomes merely imitative.
English Writingj—ln England there were two sources whence'
a national hand could he derived. From St Cotoraba's founds*
tion in lona the Irish monks established monasteries is the
northern parts of Britain; and in the year 635 the Irish mis-
sionary Aidan founded the see of Lindisfarne or Hdfy Ide, when
there was csublishod a school of writing destined to become
famous. In the south of England the Roman oiiasloiiarieB had
also brought Into the country their own style of writing direct
from Rome, and taught it in the newly founded mooasterics.
But their writing never became a national hand. &ich a M&
as the Canterbury Psalter in the Cottonian Library (Pal. Sac
pi. 18) shows what could be done by English scribes in imitatiea
of Roman undab; and the eadstcnce of so few eariy charters in
the same letters (Pacs. of Anc. Charters, pt. i, Nos. t, a, 7)*
among the large number which have survived, goes to prove
how limited was the influence of that form of wriring. The
famous MS. of the Bible known as the Codex Amiarinm, now
at Florence, which was written in ondab at Jarrow in Northiun-
bria, about the year 700, was almost certainly the work of foreign
scribea. On the other hand, the Irish stylo made pngnm
throughout England, and was adopted as the national hand,
developing in couiaeof time certain local peculiarities, and lasting
as a distinct form of writing down to the time of the Norvan
Conquest. But, while English aoribea at first copied their Irish
modeb with faithful exactness, they soon learned to give to their
writing the stamp of a national character, and imported to it the
elegance and strength which individualised the Em^ hand for
many centuries to c
576
PALAEOGRAPHY
Asia Iidud, to here we have to Idlow the course of the rouiid
band at distioct from the pointed charaaer. The earliest
and most beautiful MS. of the former class is the Lindisfame
Gospeb (fig. 4x) or " Durham Book " in the Cottonian Libraiy
(Pal. Soc pis. 3-d, aa; Cat. Ane. MSS. pt. ii. pis. a-ii),
said to have been written by Eadfrith, bishop of Undisfarae,
about the year 700. The text is in very eacactly formed half-
uncials, differing but slightly from the same characters in Iri^
MSS., and is glossed in the Northumbrian dialect by Aldxed, a
writer of the loth century.
SS^&^ mi^qaoincon
ip8i pomDebanc-
Fig. 41.— Lindisfame Gospels, e. a.d. 700.
(re|nam cadorura. BeatI nUtes quoniam ipsi
posidcbunt.
ric heof na cadge bidon da milde fcrdon d^
agnegad.)
MSS. in the same solid half-undal hand are still to be seen
fa the Chapter Library of Durham, this style of writing having
been practised more especially in the north of England. But
in addition to this calligraphic boodi-writing, there was also a
lighter form of the round letters which was used for less sump-
tuous MSS. or for more ordinary occasions. Specimens of thk
hand are found in the Durham Cassiodorus {Pal. Soc. pL 164),
in the Canterbury Gospeb {Pal. Soc, pi. 7; Cat, Anc. MSS.
pt. S., pb. 17, 18), the Epinal Glossary {E. fug. Text Soe.)t
and in a few charters {Pacs. Ane. Charters, pt. i., 15; ii., 3, 3;
Pal. Soc. ro), one of which, of aj>. 778, written in Weasex,
is interesting as showing the extension of the round hand to the
southern parts of En^and. The examples here enumerated
are of the 8th and 9th centuries — the earlier ones being written
in a free natural hand, and those of later date bearing evidence
of decadence. Indeed the round hand was being rapidly dis-
phced by the more convenient pointed hand, which was in full
use in England in the middle of the •8th century. How Ute,
however, the more calligraphic round hand could be continued
under favouring drcumstanccs is seen in the Liber Vitae or list
of benefactors of Durham {Cat. Anc. USS. pt. ii., pi. as; Pal,
Soc. pi. 138), the writing of which would, from its bwutiful
execution, be taken for that of the 8th century^ did not internal
evidence prove it to be of about the year 840.
The pointed hand ran its course through the 8th, 9th, and loth
centuries, until English writing came under the influence of the
foreign minuscule. The leading characteristics of this hand in
the 8th century are regularity and breadth in the formation of
the letters and a calligraphic contrast of heavy and light strokes
— the hand being then at its best. In the 9th century there is
greater lateral compression, although regularity and correct
formation are maintained. But in the loth century there are
signs of decadence. New fonns are introduced, and there b a
disposition to be imitative. A test letter of thb Utter century
b found in the letter a with obliquely cut top, Q.
Tht count of the progressive changes in the pointed hand may
be followed in the PacsiwuUs of Ancient Charters in the BriOsk
Mmsmm and in the PaesmUcs rf An^o^axon MSS. of the
RoDs Series. The chartcis reproduced in these works have
survived in sufficient numbers to enable us not only to form a
fairly accurate knowledge of the criteria of their age, but also
to recognise local peculiarities of writing. The Mercian scribes
appear to have been very excellent penmen, writing a very
gracdul hand wHh raudi delicate pby in the strokes. On the
other Iwnd the writing of Wessex was heavier and more straggling
and b in such strong contrast to the Merdsn hand that iu
examples may be easily detected with a little practice. Turning
to books in which the pointed hand was employed, a very beauti-
ful specimen, of the 8th century, b a copy of Bede's E t ek t ia t tkal
INATIONAL HANDS
History (fig. 43) fa the tfafversity Libiaiy at Canibridge (Pmi.
Soc. pb. 139, 140), which has fa a marked decree that
breadth of style which has been referred to. Not much fatcr b
another copy of the same work fa the Cottonian Library (Pal
Soe. pi. 141; Cat. Ane. MSS. pt. IL, pL 19), from which tbe
following facsimile b taken.
PJC. 43.— Bcde. 8th century.
81
[tus sul temjDora nrebat.
Utr uencrabuu otdiiuuald, qui multb
annU m monastcrio quod dtcitnr Inhry }
For an example of the beginning of the 9th century, a MS. ol
miscellanea, of A.a 811-814, also fa the Cottonian Libimiy, asay
be referred to {Pal. Soc. pi. 165; Cat. Ane. MSS. pt. m.
Pbte 34); and a very fateresting MS. written fa the Wcssea
style b the Digby MS. 63 of the middle of the ccatary (PnL
Soc. pi. 168). As seen fa the charters, the pofated writli^
of the loth century asfiimrs generally a larger size, and b rather
more artificial and calligraphic. A very beautiful example of
the book-hand of thb period b found fa the volume known as
the Durham Ritual {Pal. Soe. pL 940), which, owing to the
care bestowed on the writing and the archaism of the style,
might at first sight pass for a MS. of higher antiquity.
In the fatter part of the loth century the foreign set mimiscide
hand began to make iu way fato England, coosequeot am
facreased fatercoune with the Continent and political rhsngui
which fqUowed. In the charters we find the foreign and native
hands on the same page: the body of the document, fa Latfa, fa
Carolingian mfauscules; the boundaries of the land conveyed, m
the English hand. The same practice was followed fa booJm.
Tbe charter (fa book form) of King Eadgar to New Miaatcr,
Winchester, aj>. 966 {Pal. Soc. pb. 46, 47), the Bcaedic-
tional of Bbhop iEthelwold of Winchester (pb. 14*, 144)
before AJ>. 984, and the MS. of the Office of the Cross,
AJ». ioia*io3o (pi. 60), also written fa Winchester, are afl
examples of the use of the foreign mfauscule for Latfa. The
change also which the national hand underwent at thb period
may certainly be attributed to this foreign linfluence. Tbe
pointed hand, strictly so<al]ed, b' replaced by a rounder or
rather square character, with lengthened strokes above aad
below the line.
iHrtimn nfpBB' tl l| ' tHflBMiAl l M M tf PMPlB M I^ r
n^lw OnpNCftCS^ DAuif^ iCtltiy •"Hill I lilfl
IMitf -otivalliope puiQiiiii |8|^|uiiocii*
Fig. 43.— <nuoiikle, iith century,
(nanan he waes his nuega. sceaid freonda ge
f ylled on fokstcde beslcgcn vt secge. and his sunu
foriaet. on waiatowe wundura forgrunden.)
Thb style of writing becomes the ordfaary English hand dowb
to the time of the Norman Conquest. That event eztfaguishcd
the national hand for official purposes— it disappears from
charters; and the already establ^hed use of the Cardingiaa
minuscule fa Latfa MSS. completed its exclusion as the hand-
writing of the learned. It cannot, however, be doubted that it
still lingered fa those parts of the country where foreign
fafluence did not at once penetrate, and -that Englishmen still
oootfaued to write their own language fa their own style of
writing. But that the earlier dbtinctivb national band was
soon overpowered by foreign teaching b evident fa English
MSS. of the r3th century, the writing of which b of the foreign
type, although the English letter thorn, )^, survived and contmucd
fa use down to the isth century, when it was transformed to y.
CAROLINCIAN REFORM]
PALAEOGRAPHY
577
Latin Wuniio. IV.— TBe Cabounoian Reiorm and ths
Medieval Minuscule Hand
It has been stated above that in the Merovingian MSS. of the
8th century there was evident progreaa towards a settled minu-
scule book-hand which only required a^ master hand to fix it in
a purified and calligraphic form. This was effected under
Charlemagne, In whose reign the revival of learning naturally
led to a reform in handwriting. An ordinance of the year 789
required the revision of Churdi books; and a more correct
orthography and style of writing was the consequence. The
abbey of St Martin of Tours was one of the principal centres
from whence the reformation of the book-hand spread. Here,
from the year 796 to 804, Alcuin of York presided as abbot;
and it was specially under his direction that the Carolingian
minuscule writing took the simple and graceful form which was
gradually adopted to the exclusion of all other hands. In
carrying out this reformation we may well assume that Alcuin
brought to bear the results of the training which he had received
in his youth in the English school of writing, which had attained
to such proficiency, and that he was also beneficially influenced
by the fine examines of the Lombard school which he had seen
in Italy In the new Carolingian minuscule all the uncouthness
of the later Merovingian band disappears, and the simpler forms
of many of the letters found in the old Roman half-uncial and
minuscule hands are adopted. The character of Carolingian
writing through the 9th and early pait of the loth century
is one of general uniformity, with a contrast of light and
heavy strokes, the limbs of tall letters being clubbed or
thickened at the head by pressure on the pen. As to charac-
teristic letters (fig. 44) the a, following the old type, is, in the
9th century, still frequently open, in the form of «; the bows
of f are open, the letter somewhat resembling the numeral 3;
and there is little turning of the ends of letters, as m and n.
%C/c»pcr^ wn^rtvum coniu^vrn 'cuujtw jquoa
JLUtem^Uum ersMOCAfciA*omcnc«urifim
FlO. 44.— Gospels, 9th century.
'lacclpere mariam coniugem tuam quod
cttim ex ea nascetur de tpiriht tancto est. Pariet
autem filium et uocabis nomcn eius Ici«m)
In the loth century the dubbing of the tall letters becomes
less pronounced, and the writing generally assumes, so to say, a
thinner appearance. But a great change is noticeable in the
writing of the nth century. By this time the Carolingian
minuscule may be said to have put off its archaic form and to
develop into the more modem character of small letter. It
takes a more finished and accurate and more upright form, the
individual letters being drawn with much exactness, and gener-
ally on a rather larger scale than before. This style continues to
improve, and is reduced to a still more exact form of calligraphy
in the 12th century, which for absolute beauty of writing is
unsurpassed. In England especially (fig. 45) the writing of
th^ century is particularly fine.
ct4df cAMttntuUffuiCaddlca^ iiiyw
Fig. 45.~Levitk:ua, a.D. 1176.
(— cutoB cum aruinulis suts adoleuit super
alcarc uituluin cum pelle et camibus et
fimo ciemans extra castra sicai pf<cep«rat domrnKs)
As, however, the demand for written works increased, the fine
round-hand of the lath century could not be maintained.
Economy of material became necessary, and a smaller hand
with more frequent contractions was the result. The larger and
more distinct writing of* the nth and isth cmtwies is now
replaced by a more cramped though still distinct band, in which
the letters are more linked together by c»nnecting strokes,
and are more laterally couprened. This style of writing is
characteristic of the 13th century. But, while the book^hand
of this period is a great advance upon that of a hundred years
earlier, there is no tendency to a ciicsive style. Every letter is
clearly formed, and generally on the old shapes. The particular
letters which show weakness are those made of a succession of
verti(^ strokes, as m, if, «. The new method of connecting
these strokes, by turning the ends and running on, made the
distinction of such letters difikult, as, for example, in such a
word as minimi. The ambiguity thus arising was partly
obviated by the use of a small oblique stroke over the letter «,
which, to mark the double letter, had been introduced as early
as the nth century. The dot on the letter came into fashion in
the 14th century.
snffrai
Fic. 46.-->Bible, 13th century.
(Eligite hodie quod placet cut seruire potissimuM
debeatis. Ucrum diit quibiif aeruienifi^ pa/res uciiri in
meaopotamia, an diit amoreonun in quorum tora
ho^itatis. Ego autem et domiu mea seruiemur domtno Rcspon-
ditqiM populm et ait, Absit a nobw ut reltnqKamttx domin»m)
In MSS. of the X4th century minuscule writing becomes slacker,
and the consistency of formation of letters falters. There is a
tendency to write more cursively and without raising the pen,
as may be seen in the form of the letter a, of which the character-
istic shape at this time is 8.1 with both bows closed, in contrast
with the earlier a. In this century, however, the hand still
remains fairly stiff and upright. In the xsth century it becomes
very angular and more and more cursive, but is at first kept
within bounds. In the course of the century, however, it grows
more slack and deformed, and the letters become continually
more cursive and misshapen. An exception, however, to this
disintegration of minuscule writing in the later centuries is to
be observed in church books. In these the old set hand of the
X3th and 13th centuries was imitated and continued to be the
liturgical Style of writing.
It is impossible to describe within Umxted space, nd without
the aid of plentiful illustrations, all tho varieties of handwriting
which were developed in the di0crent countries of western
Europe, where the Carolingian minuscule was finally adopted
to the exclusion of the earlier national hands. In each country,
however, it acquired, in a greater or less degree, an individual
national stamp which can generally be recognized and which
serves to distinguish MSS. written in different localities. A
broad line of distinction may be drawn between the writing of
northern and southern Europe from the i3th to the 15th century.
In the earlier part of this period the MSS. of England, northern
France and the Netherlands are closely connected. Indeed, in
the 1 2th and X3th centuries it is not always easy to decide as to
which of the three countries a particular MS. may belong. As
a rule, perhaps, English MSS. are written with more sense of
gracefulness; those of the Netherlands in darker ink. From the
latter part of the X3th century, however, national character
begins to assert itself more distinctly. In southern Europe the
influence of the Italian school of writing is manifest in the MSS.
of the south of France in the 13th and X4th centuries, and also,
though later, in those of Spain. That elegant roundness of
letter which the Italian scribes seem to have inherited from the
bold characters of the early papal chancery, and more recently
from Lombardic models, was generally adopted in the book-hand
of those districts. It is especially noticeable in calligraphic
specimens, as in church books— the writing of Spanish MSS. in
this style being distingubhed by the blackness of the ink.
The medieval minuscule writing of Germany stands apart. It
never attained to the beauty of the hands of cither the north or
578
PALAEOGRAPHY
the south which have been just noticed, and from its ruggedness
and slow development Geiman MSS. have the appearance of
being older than they really arc. The writing has also very
commonly a certain slope in the letters which compares unfavour-
ably with the upright and elegant hands of other countries. In
western Europe generally the minuscule hand thus nationalized
ran its course down to the time of the invention of printing,
when the so-called black letter, or set hand of the 15th century
in Germany and other countries, furnished modds for the types.
But in Italy, with the revival of learning, a more refined taste
set in in the produaion of MSS., and scribes went back to an
earlier time in search of a better standard of writing. Hence,
in the first quarter of the isth century, MSS. written on the lines
of the Itah'an hand of the early 12th century begin to appear,
and become continually more numerous. This revived band was
brought to perfection soon after the middle of the century, just
at the right moment to be adopted by the eariy Italian printers,
and to be perpetuated by them in their types.
Engiisk Cursive Charter-Hands. — It must also not be forgotten
that by the side of the book-hand of the later middle ages there
was the cursive hand of everyday use This is represented in
abundance in the large mass of charters and legal or domestic
documents which remains. Sonte notice has already been taken
of the development of the national cursive hands in the earliest
times. From the latb century downwards these hands settled
into well defined and distinct styles peculiar to different countries,
and passed through systematic changes which can be recognized
as characteristic of particular periods. But, while the cursive
hand thus followed out its own course, it was still subject to the
same laws of change which governed the book-band; and the
letters of the two styles did not differ at any period in their
organic formation. Confining our attention to the charter-
hand, or court hand, practised in England, a few ^)ecimens may
be taken to show the principal changes which it developed. In
the lath century the official hand which had been introduced
after the Norman Conquest is characterized by exaggeration
in the strokes above and below the line, a legacy of the old
Roman cursive, as already noted. There is also a tendency to
form the tops of tall vertical strokes, as in 6, A, /, with a notch or
cleft. The letters are well made and vigorous, though ofteo
cugg^
Fic. 47.— Charter of Stephen, a.d. i 136-1139.
(jU mihistru et omoibau fidetibiM suis Francu e i
Kc^ine uxoHs mee el Eustachii filit
met dedi et concessi eccUsie Bcate Marie)
As the century advances, the long limbs are brought into
better proportion; and early in the 13th century a very delicate
fine-stroked band comes into use, the cleaving of the tops being
now a regular system, and the branches formed by the cleft
falling in a curve on either side. This style remains the writing
of the reigns of John and Henry IIL
Fig. .48.— Charter of Henry III., a.d. 1259.
(uniuiTsisprrscntcf littrras inspecturis %a\utan. Nouerltis ^^oA —
—ford et bssexiV et Con<nabularium Anglie et WilWiNHm de Fortibiu
— ad hirandum in animara noUnm in pmencia n^ifra de pace)
Towards the latter part of the 13th century the letters grow
rounder; there is generally more contrast of light and heavy
strokes; and the deft tops begin, as it were, to shed the branch
on the left.
Fio. 49.— Charter of Edward I.,
MOM CUM Mm nimoiH 4llfti
ien/lvnemSnieHr '
Rhft m^vmumwB Mian
A.O. 1303.
(More cum pcrtio(iilii« in mora que vocatur Inkdesmore coatiaeiilem
— se in longitudine per medium more ilUus ab uoo capite —
Abbas et Conucntus aliquando tenueruMt et quam prnatus Co — )
In the 14th century the changes thus introduced make further
progress, and the round letters and single-branched vertical
strokes become normal through the first half of the century.
Then, however, the regular formation begins to give way and
angxilarity sets in. Thus in the reign of Richard U. we have a
hand presenting a mixture of round and angular elemenU —
the letters retain their breadth but lose their curves. Hence, by
further decadence, results !the angular hand of the xsth century,
at first compact, but afterwards straggling and ill-formed.
^^JijWir m ^ 9^ ^^ ijW 1^ ^
Fio. 50.— English Charter, a.d. 1457.
(and fully to be endid. payingc yerely the seid—
■uccessours in hand halic yere aiore that is —
next suyioge xiiij. s. iiij. d. by even« potdouiM.)
In conchiding these remariui on the medieval cursive PngiiA
writing, it is only necessary to remind the reader that the modem
English cursive hand owes its origin to the general introduction
into the west of the fine round Italian cursive hand of the x6th
century— one of the notable legacies bequeathed to us by the
wonderful age of the Renaissance.
BiBUOCRA PHY.— General {Greek and Laiin): J, Astle, TV
OrtfiH and Progress of WrUing (iSot); E. M. Thompson. Hnndbcck
of Gruk and Roman PaUuopapky (3rd edj^ 1906): J. B. StlwaCR.
PaUo^athie unhersette (1839-1841; and Eng. ed.. 1850); Palaco-
graphical Society, Facstmilet of MSS, and Insaiptitns (two aerica,
1873-1S8J. I«8i-i8a4); New Palaeottraphical Sodety. FacHntiUs
of Anctent IfSS., 6ec. (1903, At.)} VudU and PaoH. CatUncne
ficrenttna di facnnili paUografiti greci latini (1884-1897);
We<twood, Palaeographia sacra Victoria (1843-1845): F. G. Keaytm.
Facsimiles of BtUtcat MSS. in the British Museum (1900).
Greek Palaeotrapky: B. dc >iontfaiicon. Paiaeopapkia grmetn
(1708): V. (^rdchauaen, Crischiscke Paiaeograpku (1879); W.
Wattenbpch, Anlettung tttr grieckiscken Palaeograpkie U89S}:
F. G. Keayon. Tke Palaeograpky of Creek Papyri (1809): N. Schow.
Ckarta papyracea graece scripta musei Botgiam vditris (178S):
A. Pieyron, Papyn graeci regH taur. mus. Aegypti (i826-l8ia7h
J. Forahall. Creek Papyrt in tke Britisk Museum (1839) ; C Lermaaa.
Papyn Craect Mus. Lugd. Bat. (1843. 1885): CTBabingtor, TU
Orations of Hypertdes for Lycopkron and for Euxenippus (1853).
and The Funeral Oration of llyperides oner Leostkenes (1838);
\V. Brunet de Presle, " Nodces et tcxtes Oes papyms arcca du Muate
du Louvre." &c. (com. xviiL of Notices et extrails aes MSS. dt la
Bibl. Imp.] (1865}: J. Karabacek. Mtttheiluneen aus der Sammlumg
der Papyrns Ertkerspg Rnir-^ ( 1 886). and Fiikrer durck die Aus-
stclluKg \\^.\)\ C* W*5«lv \ rpHS papyrorum Raineri (1895. &c >:
T. P. Mabtffv. On Hk ' t:^-ti«rs-PetrU PapyH (iS^i-tM); U.
WJ:ken, TafftA inr o/^croi grieckiscken Palaeography ^th^i).
Gti^hitiAf Vriui^fn U^s, iic), Gricckiscke Ostraka (1895}. and
Ar'f'.io fAr P&Mrm^/enfktif^ (tgoo, Ac.)r F. G. Ken^vn. Crrtk
PtJf.ri i» tke BriHih Mii^m-n (1893-1906), Greek Ctassieai TexU
fnm F^Pyf, in iki flnOi^'j jr««ii« (1891, 1892), AristotU «■ Urn
Ci r b/ifflftp« ef A tkmt {iS^i J J ind The Poems of BitcMidee (|«98) ;
E. r^^vmoirt, I* rUiy^'^y^f iHyphide contrt Alhim& (1892):
GrvnIcU and ^tibiitf^^ J/^r K.-venue Laws of Ptolemy Pkiladeiphus
(i-^V'j; J. Kitc-le. U4 Futn^i-^ de Genkte (1896. &c.): Gienfell and
ti'jnx. fht OrjrhjnchMS A; ,-i (1898. &c.), FayUm Temns (1900).
7^ Amitrrit Papyri (I900, t»l). and Tke Tebtunis Papyri (190a.
ftch C- W:»Hly, Pdrfrvf (»r .. r.^ scripturae graecae specimtna (1900);
U. ^-oTi \\Mjino«hf'M'>lll » ! fff, Der Ttmolkeus-Papyrus (loot):
H t>,;.u. M; :,.,.. K' ,■.,.■,• J' -:.Kte (1904, 4c.); G. VitelU. PapiH
fi^*nt*ai U^ti, dec;; i. Kdnach. Papyrus pecs el dtm a h t i^
(1905); Saba*. Specim. palneofr. codd, graec. et sUn. (1863); W.
Watccnbach. Sckrifttafeln tur CeschickU der grieck. Scknfl 1876).
PALAEOLITHIC— PALAEONTOLOGY
579
(1880), EtutUs fKUiographiques, &c. (1886), Mimoire iur ri
ealligrapkique de Tours (1885); W. Wattcnbach, Anleitung
kUin. Falaeowaphie (1686); A. Gloria. C&mfxndio di paleogra
and Seriplurat inecM specimina (1883); Wattenbach and von
Velsen. Exempla codd. traec. liU. mmusc. scriptorum
H. Omont, Pacsim. des XtSS. trees datis dt la btbl. not.
Faesim, des plus atu*ens MSS. h la bibL not. (1893), and . „
dts MSS* gr«cs des X9. €i xn. siicles (1887); A. Martin, Facsim,
des MSS. grecs d'Espaane (1891)]; O. Uhniami, Die taehytr, Abkw-
tungen dergriech. Ilandschriften.; T, W. Allen, Noles on Abbrenations
m Creek Af^S. (1889).
Lati» Palaeograpky: J. Mabflbn, De re diphmaiiea (1709);
Taaein and Tousuin, Nataeau traiti de diplomatique (1750*1765);
T. Madox, Formulare anglicanum (170a): G. Hickes, IA1u^arum
sepUnt. thesaurus 0703-* 705); F. S Maffct, Istoria diUomatica
(1737): G. Marini, I Papirt dtfdomatici (1605); G. Bcssel, Ckronicon
gotmceuse (1732); A. FumagalU, Date Isiituziont di^omatuhe
)i U. F. Kppp, Palaeognpkia critica (1817-1849) :T. Sickei,
.^.. » . (1817— *o«V/i - r
kri/Uaf. aus dem NacUasse von U. F. von Kopp (1870); C. T. G.
hdnemann, Vcrsuch eines voUstind. Systems der dft. Diplomatik
1818); T. Stckel, Lekre von den Urkunden der ersten Karolinger
'1867); T. Fkkcr, Beitrdge 9ur Urkundenlehre (1877-1888); N. de
iVaiUv. EUmenIs de paUograpkie (1838); A. Chasaant. PaUogrupkie
des chartes, dec (1885); L. Xklide, MOanges de paUographte, &c.
sur
-. . . paleografia,
Ac. (1870); C. Paoli, Programma di paleografia loL e di diplo-
(1888-1900); H. Brcasbu, Hondbuth der Urkundenlehre
M. Prou, Manuel de paUographte (1891); A. Giry. Manuel
-. dtptomatioue (1894); F. Leist,VrkundfnUhre (1803); E. H. J.
Rcuiens, Elements de paUographie (1807-1899); W. Arndt, Sckrifi'>
te^eln tuf Erlemung der latesn, Palaeopapkie (1887-1888); C.
Wessely, ScArifttaf. eur Slteren latein, Palaeoffaphie (1898); F.
Steffens, Latein, Palaeographie'TaJeln (1903, &cj; C. ZanEcmeUter,
Inscriptiones pompeianae JC.I.L. iv.j (1871), and Tabulae ceratae
Pompiis repertae]C.l.L, iv.j (1898); Nicole and Morel, Archives
mUitaires da premier sikde (1900) ; j. F. Maasmannt Libellus aurarius
site tabulae ceratae (1841): T. Mommsen, Instrumenta daeiea in
tab, ceroi. conscripla \C.LU u\.\ (1873;; A. ChampoUion-Figeac.
Charles et MSS. sur pappus (1840); J. A. Letronne, Dipldmes et
ekartes de Vipoque minmngienne (1845-1866); J. Tardif, Faesim.
de ekartes et £pl6mes mirooingien* et eariovingiens (1866); von
$ybel and Sickel, Kaiserurkunden in AiibUdunten (1880-1891);
J. PAugk-Harttung» Speeim. select, chart, pontiff, roman, iibSy-
1887); Zanj;emcister and Wattenbach, Exempla codd. tat. Ittt.
maiuse. urtptorum (1876-18TO); E. Chatclain, Uncialis scriptura
read, tat, (1901-1903); A. Champqllion-Fiffcac, Paliograpkie des
etassifues lal$ns (i8ao); E Chatciain, Paleagrapkie des aassiques
latins (1884-1900); Musie des archives nationales (1872); Mus4e des
archives dipartementales (1878); L. Delislc, Album paUographique
(1887); T. Sickel, Monumenla erajbhica ex archtv. et btbl. imp.
auitriaei eoUecta (i 859-1883); W. Schum, Exempla Codd. cmplon.
erfurtensium (1883); A. Chroust, Denkmdler der Sehriflkunst des
MittdaUers (1890, &c); Monaci and Paoli, Archivio paleopr, itaUano
(1882-1800); M. Monaci, Facsimili di antichi manoscrtUi (1881-
1883): Ni. Morcaldi, Codes dlplom. cavensis ^1873, &c.); L. Tosti,
Bibtiotkeca casinensis ' ' -•-•
eassino (1876-1 881)
1873-1880); Paleografia afiislicd di Monte-
and Loevre, Exempla scripturae visu
dipiomtUica espaHola (1^90), and Chrestomathia pataeographtca
(1890); E. A. Bond. Faesim. of Ancient Charters tn the Britisk
Museum (1873*1878) ; VV. B. Sanders, Faesim. of Anglo-Saxon MSS.
(charters) (1878-1884). and Faesim. of National AfSS. of England
(1865-1868): Warner and Ellis, Faesim. of Royal and other Charters
tn the Britisk Museum (1903); C. Innes, Facstm. of Nationa! MSS.
Hf Scotland (1867-1871); J. Anderson, Sdectus diptomatum et
numismatum Seottae thesaurus (i739): J* T. Gilbert, Faesim. of
National MSS. of Ireland ^1874-1884); E. Chatciain, Introduction a
la lecture des notes tirontennes (1900); J. L. Walthcr, Lexicon
Diplomatieum (1747); A. Chassant, Diciionnaire des abrhiations
lauues et f/an^aises (1884); A. CappelU. Dixionario di abreuiature
laHne ed italiche (1889) ; L. Treube, Nomina sacra (1907): A. Wright,
Court^Hand. Tutored (1879); C. T. Martin, The Record Interpreter
The application of photographic processes to the reproduction
of entire MSS. has received great impetus during the last few years,
and will certainly be widely extended in the future. Many of the
most ancient biblical and other MSS. have been thus reproduced .
the librarians of the university of Leiden arc issuing a great series
comprising several of the oldest classical MSS.; and under the
auspices of the pope and the Italian government famous MSS. in
the Vatican and other libraries in Italy are being published by this
method; notito mention the issue of varioua individual MSS. by
other corporate bodies or private persons. (£. M. T.)
PAIiAC0LlTIII€(Gr.iraXai6s,old, and Uht^ stone), in anthro-
pology, the characteristic epithet of the Drift or early Stone Age
when Man shared the possession of Europe with the mammoth,
the cave-bear, the woolly-haired rhinoceros and other extinct
animals. The epoch is chancteriaed by flint implemeoU of
the nidest type and never polished. The fuUy authenticated
remains of palaeoUtliic man are iew, and discoveries sre confined
to certain areas. e.g. France and north Ita^. The reason is
that interment appeals not to have been practised by the
river-drilt hunters, and the only bones likely to be found would
be those accidentally preserved in caves or rock-shelters. The
first actual find of a palaeolithic implement was that of a rudely
fashioned flint in a sandbank at Mencheoourt in 1841 by Boucher
de Perthes. Further discoveries have resulted in the division
of the Palaeolithic Age into various epochs or sequences according
to the faunas associated with the implements or the localities
wheze found. One classification makes three divisions for the
epoch, characterized respectively by the existence of the cave-
bear, the mammoth and reindeer; another, two, marked by
the prevalence of the mammoth and reindeer respectively.
These divisions are, however, unsatisfactory, as the fauna relied
on as characteristic must have existed synchronously. The
four epochs or culture-sequences of G. de Mortilkt have met
with the most general acccpUnce. They are called from the
places in France where the most typical finds of palaeolithic
remains have been made — Chellian from Chelles, a few miles east
of Paris; Mousterisa from the cave of Moustier on the river
V^re» Dordogne; Solutrian from the cave at Solutr^ near
Macon; and Msdetenian from the rocky shelter ol La Madeleine,
Dordogne.
PAIJtBOLOGUS, a Byzantine family name which first appears
in history about the middle of the nth century, when George
Palaeologus is mentioned among the prominent supporters of
Nicephorus Botaniates, and afterwards as having helped to
raise Alexius L Comnenus to the throne in loSx ; he is also noted
for his brave defence of Duraazo against the Nonnans in that
year. Michael Palaeologus, probably his son, was sent by
Manuel II. Comnenus into Italy as ambassador to the court of
Frederid^ I. in Z154; in the foUowittg year he took part in the
campaign against William of Sicily, and died at Ban in 115^
A son or brother of Michael, named (korge, received from this
emperor Manuel the title of Sebaslas, and was entrusted with
several important missions; it is uncertain whether he ought
to be identified with the Geoige Palaeologus who took part ia
the conspiracy which dethroned Isaac Angelus in favour of
Aleadus Angelus in X195. Andronicus Palaeologus Comnenus
was Great Domestic under Theodore Lascaris and John Vatatses;
his ddcst son by Iiene Palacologlna, Michael {g.%), became the
eighth emperor of that name in zs6o^ and was in turn followed
by his son Andronicus II. (1283-1328). Michael, the son of
Andronicus, and associated with him in the empire, died in 1320^
but left a son, Andronicus III., who reigned from i3>8 to 1341;
John VI. (i355-x39»). Manuel II. (i39t-X495) and John VII.
(x4aS~X448) then followed in lineal succession; Constantine XI.
or XII., the last emperor of the East (1448*1453), was the younger
brother of John VII. Other brothers were Demetrius, prince of
the Morea until 1460, and Thomas, prince of Achaia, who died at
Rome in 1465. A daughter of Thomas, Zoe by name, married
Ivan III. of Russia. A younger branch of the Palaeokgi
held the principality of Monfemt from 1305 to 1533, when it
became extinct.
See Roman Empikb, Latbe, and articles on the separate rulers.
PALABONTOLOOT (Gr. «iiXaa6(, ancient, neut. pi. ftro,
t)(pings, and Xoyla, discourse, science), the science of extinct forms
of life. Like many other natural sciences, this study dawned
among the Creeks. It was retarded and took false direction^
until the revival of learning in Italy. It became established as
a distinct branch in the beginning of the xgth century, and some-
what later received the appellation ''palaeontology,'* which
was given independently by De BlainviOe snd by Fischer von
Waldheim about 1834. In recent years the science of vegetable
palaeontology has been given the distinct name of Pala i obot a ny
iq.v.), so that " palaeontology " among biologists mainly refexs
to zoology; but historically the two cannot be disconnected.
Palaeontology both borrows from and sheds light tlpon
geology and other branches of the physical history of the earthy
580
PALAEONTOLOGY
each of whkb, tucli as ptUeogeognphy or palaeometeorology,
IS the more fasdnating because of the large etement of the un>
known, the need for constructive imagination, the appeal to
other branches of biological and physical investigation for
supplementaty evidence, and the necessity of constant compari-
son with the present aspects of nature. The task of the paJae*
ontologist thus begins with the appearance of life on the globe,
and ends In ck)se relation to the studies of the archaeologist and
historian as well as of the zoologist and botanist. That wealth
of evidence which the soologist enjoys, including environment
in all its aspects and anatomy In its perfection of organs and
tissues, the palaeontologist finds partially or wholly destroyed,
and his highest art is that of complete restoration of both the
past forms and past environments of life (see Plates I. and II.;
figs. I, 3, 3, 4, s). The degree of accuracy in such anatomical
and physiographic restorations from relatively imperfect
evidence will always represent the state of the science and the
degree of its approach toward being exact or complete.
P r ogre ss in the science also depends upon the pursuit of palae-
ontology as soology and not as geology, because it was a mere
accident of birth which connected palaeontology iodosdy with
geology.
In order to illustnte the grateful services which palaeontology
through restoration may render to the related earth sciences
let us imagine a vast continent of the past wholly unknown in
its physical features, elevation, climate, configuration, but richly
represented by fossil remains. All the fossil plants and animals
of every kind are brought from this continent into a great
museuv; the latitude, longitude and relative elevation of each
specimen are precisely receded; a corps of investigators, having
the most exact and thorough training in soology and botany,
and gifted with imagination, will soon begin to restore the
geographic and phyriographlc outlines of the continent, hs
fresh, brackish and Mlt-water confines, its seas, riven and lakes,
its forests, uplands, plains, meadows and swamps, also to a
certain extent the cosmic relations of this continent, the amount
and duration of its sunshine, as well as something of the chemical
constitution of iu atmosphere and the waters of its riven and
seas; they will trace the progressive changes which took place in
the outlines of the continent and its surrounding oceans, f oDowing
the invasions of the land by the sea and the re-emergence of the
land and retreatol of the seashore; they will outline the shoals
and deeps of in border seas, and trace the baniers which pre-
vented intermingling of the inhabitants of the various provinces
of the continent and the surrounding seas. From a study of
remains of the moUusca, brachiopoda and other marine organisms
they will determine the shallow water (littoral) and deep water
(abyssal) regions of the surrounding oceans, and the dear or
muddy, salt, brackish or fresh character of iU inland and
marginal seas; and even the physical conditions of the open sea
at the time wJU be ascertained.
In snch manner Johannes Walther (Die Fauna der Sdniktfemet
PlaUen Kalk§ Biouomuck httrackUl. Festschrift sum Toten
Geburtstoge too Ernst Haeckd, 2904) has restored the condi-
tions existing in the lagoons and aloU reefs of the Jurassic sea
of Solnhofen in Bavaria; he has traced the process of gradual
accumulation of the coral mud now constituting the fine litho-
graphic stones in the inter-reef region, and has recognised the
periodic laying bare of the mud surfaces thus formed; be has
determined the winds which carried the dust paitides from the
not far distant land and brought the insects from the adjacent
Juassie forests. Finally the presence of the flying lizards
{Plerydaeiyim, Rkamphorkynekus) and the ancient birds
iArekatopteryx) is determined from remains in a most wonderful
sute of preservation in these andent deposits.
Still another example of restoration, relating to the surface of
a continent, may be dted. It has been discovered that at the
beginning of the Eocene the lake of RUly occupied a vast area
cast of the present site of Pans, a wstcr-course fell there in
cascades, and Municr-Chalmas has rcconstnictcd all the details
nf that singular k>cality, plants which loved moist places, such
nMoftkaiUia, AtpleiMum, the covered banks overshadowed by
lindens, laurels, magnolias and palms; there also were fovad
the vine and the ivy; mosses {FontinalU) and Ckara sheltered
the crayfish {Attacns)\ insects and even flowen have left tbcfr
delicate impressions in the travertine which formed the borders
of this lake. The OUgooene lake basin of Florissant, Cohxado.
has been reconstructed similarly by Samuel Hubbard Scuddcr
and T. D. A. Cockerel], hidudtog the planU of iu shores, the
insects which lived upon them, the fluctuations of its levd, and
many other characteristics of this extinct water body, now in the
heart of the arid region of the Rocky Mountains.
Such restorations are possible because of the intinute fitness
of animals and plants to their environment, and because soch
fitness has distinguished certain forms of life from the Cambriaa
to the present time; the spedes have sltogether changed, but
the laws governing the life of certain kinds of organisms have
remamed exactly the same for the whole period of time asaigoed
to the duration of life; in fact, we read the conditions of the past
In a mirror of adaptation, often sadly tarnished and incomplete
owii»g to breaks in the palaoontological record, but constanUy
becoming moie polished by discoveries which fncresse the
undentanding of life and its all-pervading relations to the
non-life. Therefore o^^/o/iM is the central prindple of modem
palaeontology in its most comprehensive sense.
This conception of the science and iU possibilities is the resuk
of very gradual advances since the beginning of the tpth century
in what is known as the method of faiaeonSdogy, The history
of this sdcnce, like that of all physical sdenccs, coven two
parallel lines of development which have acted and reacted opoa
each other— namdy, progress in exploration, research and
discovery, and progress in philosophic interpretation. Progress
in these two lines is by no means uniform; while, for *«-*iwpi^^
palaeontology enjoyed a sudden advance eariy in the 19th
century through the discoveries and researches of Cuvier. guided
by his genius ss a comparative anatomist, it was checked by his
failure as a natural philosopher. The great philosofdiical
impulse was that given by Darwin In 1859 through his deman-
stration of the theory of descent, which gave tremeadoos sent
to the search for pedigrees (phylogeny) of the existing and
extinct types of animal and plant life. In future the phSosophic
method of palaeontology must continue to advance stop by
step with exploration; It would be a reproadi to later genentioas
if they did not progress as far beyond the philosophic status
of Cuvier, Owen and even of Huxley and Cope, as the new
materials represent an advance upon the material opportunities
which came to them through exploration.
To set forth how best to do our thinking, rather than to
follow the triumphs achieved in any particular line of exploration,
and to present the point we have now reached In the method
or prindplcs of palaeontology, is the chief purpose of thb artide.
The niustnUons will be drawn both from vertebrate and
invertebrate palaeontology. In the Utter branch the author
b wholly indebted to Professor Amadeus W. Crabau of Cofaimbia
University. The subject will be treated in its biological aspects,
because the rdations of palaeontology to historical and strati-
graphic geology are more appropriatdy considered under the
artide Geology. See also, for boUny, the artide PAUk£o>
BOTANY. We may'first trace in outline the history of the hirth
of palaeontological ideas, from the time of their first adum-
bration. But for fall details reference must be made to the
treatises on the history of the sdence dted in the bibliography
at the end of the artide.
L—FissT HiSTOiic Peizqo
The tcitniific rtcognUhn iff JoisiU as conntcUd with Iht fftif
kistary of thd earth, from AriUatU (384-332 b.c) U the irftwMJvc
0/ the xgih cemiury^ in ctmnexwm with the rise of e em pe ratim.
anatomy and fMfoxy.— The dawn of the sdence coven the first
observation of facts and the rudiments of true interpretataoo.
Among the Greeks, Aristotle (i^U^ast ax.) Xenophos (410-557
B c ) and Sirabo (63 B.c-a.0. 34) knew of the existence of fossils
and surmised in a crude way their relation to earth Ustoiy.
Sunilar prophetic views are found among r*ri».\f^ P^"»«««
PALAEONTOLOGY
581
writat. Tlie pi<ineen of Uw acknoe in the i6th and 17th cen-
turies put forth anticipations oi some of the well-known nuxkni
principles, often followed by recantations, through deference
to prevailing religious or traditional beliefs. There were the
retarding influences of the Mosaic account of sudden creation,
and the belief that fossils represented relics of a universal deluge.
There were crude medieval notions that fossns were " freaks "
or " sports " of nature {Iusms nalurae)^ or that they represented
failures of a creative force within the earth (a notion of Greek
and Arabic origin), or that larger and smaller fossils represented
the lemains of traces of giants or of pygmies (the mythical
idea).
As eariy as the middle of the 15th century Leonardo da Vinci
(1453-X5X9) recognized in seashells as well as in the teeth of
marine fishes pcoofs of ancient sea-levels on what are now the
summits of the Apennines. Successive observers in Italy,
notably Ftacastoro (X4S3~X555), Fabio Colonna (1567-1640 or
1650) and Nicolaus Steno {i6sSnc. 1687), a Danish anatomist,
professor in Padua, advanced the still embryonic science and
set forth the principle of comparison of fossil with living forms.
Near the end of the X7th century Martin Lister (x63&-x7xa),
examining the Mesozoic shell types of England, recognized the
great sixnilarity as well as the differences between these and
modem spedcs, and insisted on the need of dose comparison
of foani and living shells, yet he dung to the old view that
fossils were sports of nature. In Italy, where shells of the sub-
Apennine formations were discovered in the extensive quarrying
for the fortifications of dties, the dose similarity between these
Tertiary and the modem spcdes soon led to the established
recognition of their organic origin. In England Robert Hooke
(1635-1703) hdd to the theory of extinction of fossil forms, and
advanced the two most fertile ideas of deriving from fossils a
chronology, or series of time intervab in the earth's history, and
of primary changes of climate, to account for the former existence
of tropical spedes in England.
The x8tb century witnessed the development of the&e sugges-
tions and the birth of many additional theories. Sir A. Geikie
assigns high rank to Jean £tienne Guettard (171 5^x786) for
his treatises on fossils, although admitting that he bad no dear
idea of the sequence of formations. The theory of successive
formations was soundly developing in the treatises of John
Woodward (i665>x738) hi England, of Antonio Vallianieri
(x66x-i73o) in Italy, and of Johann Gottlob Lehmann (d. 1767)
in Germany, who distinguished between the primaxy, or unfos-
^iferous, and secondary or fossillferons, formations. The begin-
nings of palaeogeography followed those of palaeometeorology.
The Italian geologist Soldani distinguished (1758) between the
fossil fauna of the deep sea and^f the shore-lines. In the same
year Johann Gesner (X709-X790) set forth the theory of a great
period of time, which he estimated at 80,000 years, for the deva-
tion of the shell-bearing levels of the Apennines to their present
height above the sea. The brilliant French naturalist Georges
Louis Lederc, comte de Buffon (1707^x788), in Les £poques de
la nature f indudcd in his vast speculations the theory of alternate
submergence and emergence of the continents. Abraham
Gottlob Werner (x 750-18x7), the famous exponent of the aqueous
theory of earth formation, observed in successive geological
formations the gradual approach to the forms of existing species.
n.— Second Historic Period
Imert^ale palaeonioiogy J<mndtd by Lamarck^ tertcbraU
palaiontohgy by Cmier, PalaeotUohty connected wUh compara-
tite anatomy by Ctnier, Invertebrate fossils employed for the
definite division of all the great periods of time. — Although pre-
cvolutionary, this was the heroic period of the sdence, extending
from the close of the x8th century to the publication of Darwin's
Origin of Species in 1859. Among the pioneers of this period
were the vertebrate zoologists and comparative anatomists
Peter Simon Pallas, Pieter Camper and Johann Fricdrich
Blumenbach. Pallas (t74t-x8ix) inhisgreat jourocy (1768-1774)
through Siberia discovered the vast deposits of extinct mammoths
and rhinoceroses. Camper (i73»-i789) contrasted (1777) the
Pldstocene and recent specif of dephants and Blumenbach
(1752-X840) separated (1780) the mammoth from the existing
species as Elephas primigenius. In X793 Thomas Pennant
(1736^x798) distinguished the American mastodon as Elephas
americanus.
Political troubles and the dominating influence of Werner's
speculations checked palaeontology in Germany, while under the
leadership of Lamarck and Cuvier France came to the fore.
J. B. Lamarck (1744-X829) was the founder of invertebrate
palaeontology. The treatise which laid the foundation for all
subsequent invertebrate palaeontology was his memoir, Sur
les fossUes des environs de Paris . . . (1802-1806). Beginning
in 1793 he boldly advocated evolution, and further elaborated
five great principles— namely, the method of comparison of
extinct and existing forms, the broad sequence of formations
and succession of epochs, the correlation of geological horizons
by means of fossils, the climatic or environmental changes as
influendng the development of spedcs, the inheritance of the
bodily modifications caused by change of habit and habitat.
As a natural philosopher he radically opposed Cuvier and was
distinctly a precursor of uniformitarianism, advocating the
h3rpothesis of slow changes and variations, both in living forms
and in their environment. His speculations on phylogeny,
or the descent of invertebrates and vertebrates, were, however,
most fantastic and bore no relation to palaeontological evidence.
It is most interesting to note that William Smith (i 769-1839),
now known as the " father of historical geology," was bora in
the same year as Cuvier. Observing for himself (1794-1800)
the stratigrapbic value of fossils, he began to distinguish the
great Mesozoic formations of England (1801). Cuvier (1769-
X833) is famous as the founder of vertebrate palaeontology,
and with Alexandre Brongniart (X770-1847) as the author of the
first exact contribution to stratigraphic geology. Early trained
as a comparative anatomist, the discovery of Upper Eocene
mammals in the gypsum quarries of Montmartre found him
fully prepared (1798), and in x8x2 appeared his Reeherches sur
les ossemens fossUes, brilliantly written and constituting the
foundation of the modem study of the extinct vertebrates.
Invulnerable in exact anatomical description and comparison,
he failed in all his philosophical ^neralizations, even in those
strictly within the domain of anatomy. His famous " law of
correlation/' which by its apparent brilliancy added enormously
to his prestige, is not supported by modem philosophical ana-
tomy, and his services to stratigraphy were diminished by his
generalizations as to a succession of sudden extinctions and
renovations of life. His joint memoirs with Brongniart, Essai
sur la giographie miniralogique des environs de Paris ovee une carte
giognostique et des coupes de terrain (x8o8) and Descri^ion gio'
logique des environs de Paris (1835) were based on the wonderful
succession of Tertiary faunas in the rocks of the Paris basin.
In Cuvier's defence Charles Dcp^ret maintains that the extreme
theory of successive extinctions followed by a succession of
creations is attributable to Cuvier's followers rather than to the
master himself. Dep^ret points also that we owe to Cuvfer the
first dear expression of the idea of the increasing organic per-
fection of all forms of life from the lower to the higher horizons,
and that, while he believed that extinctions were due to sudden
revolutions on the surface of the earth, he also set forth the
pregnant ideas that the renewals of animal life were by migration
from other regions unknown, and that these migrations were
favoured by altemate elevations and depressions which formed
various land routes between great continents and islands.
Thus Cuvier, following Buffon, dearly antidpated the modem
doctrine of faunal migrations. His reactionary and retarding
ideas as a special creationist and his advocacy of the catadysmic
theory of change exerted a baneful influence until overthrown by
the uniformitarianism of James Hutton (X726-X797) and Charies
Lyell (1797-1875) and the evolutionism of Darwin.
The chief contributions of Cuvier's great philosophical
opponent, £tienne Geoffroy St Hilaire (1773-1844), are to be
found in his maintenance with Lamarck of the doctrine of the
mutability of species. In this connexion he developed his
5^2
PALAEONTOLOGY
•pedal theory of saltations, or of sudden modifications of
structure through changes ol environment, especially through the
direct influences of temperature and atmosphere. He clearly set
forth also the phenomena of analogous or parallel adaptation.
It was Alcide Dcssalincs d'Orbigny (1802-1857) who pushed
to an extreme Cuvier's ideas of the fixity of species and of
successive extinctions, and finally developed the wild hypothesis
of twenty-seven distinct creations. While these views were
current in France, exaggerating and surpa^ing the thought of
Cuvier, they were strongly opposed in Germany by such authors
as Ernst Fricdrich von Scblotheim (1764-1833) and Heinrich
Gcorg Bronn (1800-1862); and the latter demonstrated that
certain spedcs actually pass from one formation to another.
In the meantime the foundations of palaeobotaay were being
laid (1804) by Ernst Friedrich von Schlotheim (17^-1853)1
(zSii) by Kaspar Maria Sternberg (1761-1838) and ii&s^) by
Th£ophile Brongniart<i8ox-i876).
Following Cuvier's Rtchercket sur let ^tsemens f«MtUes, the
rich succession of Tertiary mammalian life 'was gradually
revealed to France through the explorations and descriptions
of such authors as Croizct, Jobert, de Christol, Eymar, Pomel
and Lartet, during a period of rather dry, systematic work,
which included, however, the broader genenlizations of Henri
Marie DucroUy dc Blainville (1778-1850), and culminated in
the comprehensive treatises on Tertiary palaeontology of Paul
Ccrvais (1816-1879). Extending the knowledge of the extinct
mammals of Germany, the principal contributors were Cfoorg
August Goldfuss (1782-1848), Georg Friedrich von Jaegar
(1785-1866), Felix F. Plieninger (1807-1873) and Johann Jacob
Kaup (1803-1873). As Cuvier founded the palaeontology of
mammals and reptiles, so Louis Agassiz's epoch-making works
Rcckerckes sur Us poissons JossUts (1833-1845) laid the secure
foundations of palaeichthyology, and were followed by Christian
Heinrich Pander's (1794-1865) classic memoirs oa the fossil
iUhcs of Russia. In philosophy Agassix was disUnctJy a disciple
of Cuvier and supporter of the doctrine of special creation, and
to a more limited extent of cataclysmic extinctions. Animals
of the next higher order, the amphibians of the coal measures
and the Permian, were fint comprehensively treated in the
masterly memoirs of Christian Erich Hermann von Meytf
(1801-1869) beginning in 1829, especially in his BeUrUge twr
PetreJacUukunde (1829-1830) and his Zur Fauna der Vorwdt
(4 vols., 1845-1860). Successive discoveries gntdually revealed
the world of extinct Reptilia ; in 1821 Chades K5nig (i 784-1851),
the first keeper of the mincralogical collection in the British
Museum, described Icklkyosaurti* from the Jurassic; in the
same year William Daniel Conybeare (1787-1857) described
Ptesiosaurus; and a year later (1822) jiosasatirtui in 1824
William Buckland described the great carnivorous dinosaur
Meiolosaurus'f while Gideon Algernon Blantell (1790-1852) in
1848 announced the discovery of Iguanodon. Some of the fossil
Reptilia of France were made known through St Hilaire's
researches on the Crocodilia (1831), and those of J. A. Deslong-
champs (1794-1367) and his son on the telcosauxs, or long-
snouted crocodiles. Materials accumulated far more rapidly,
however, than the power of generalization and classification.
Able as von Meyer was, his classification of the Reptilia failed
because based upon the single adaptive characters of foot
structure. The reptiles awaiud a great cbssificr, and such a
one appeared in England in the person of Sir Richard Owen
11804-1892), the direct successor of Cuvier and a comparative
anatomist of the first rank. Non-committal as regards evolu*
tioB, he vastly broadened the field of vertebrate palaeontology
by his descriptions of the extinct fauna of England, of South
America (including especially the great edentates revealed by
the voyage of the " Beagle "), of Australia (the andent and
modem marsupials) and of New Zealand (the great struthious
birds). His contributions on the Mesoioic reptiles of Great
Britain culminated in his complete rearrangement and classifi-
cation of this group, one of his greatest services to palaeontology.
Meanwhile the researches of Hugh Falconer (1808- 1865) and of
Proby Thomas Cautley (1802-1871) in the sub-Himalayas
brought td light the marvelloiia fauna of the Siwalik UBa of
India, published in Fauna aniiqua Sittimtis (Loado^ SS45)
and in the vohunes of Falconer's individttal reaearcfaca» The
andent life of the Atlantic bevder of North America was also
becoming knorwn through the work of the pioneer vertebrate
palaeootoJogiaU Thomas JefferMo (1743-1826), Richard Harlaa
(1796-1843), Jeffries Wymaa (1814^1874) and Joseph Letdy
(1823-X891). Thb was followed by the revelation of the \'ast
andent life of the western half of the American continent, which
was destined to revelutioQize the sdence. The masUr works
of Joseph Leidy began with the first-fruits of western exploiatloa
in 1847 and extended through a series of grand memoirs, ciilmina^
ting in 1874. Leidy adhered strictly to Cuvier's exact descriptive
methods, and while an evolutionist and recognising dnxly the
genetic reUtioosbips of the hones and other gpcoupa, he never
indulged in speculation.
The history of invertebrate palaeontology during the second
period is more doiely connected with the rise of historic geology
and stratigraphy, especially with the settlement of the great
and minor time divisions of the earth's history. The patb»
breaking works of Ijunaick were soon followed by the noois-
niental treatise of Gerard Paul Dcshsjres (1795-1S75) entitled
Descriptiotu da eoquiiUs fotsiUi det timrona <fe ParU (xt34«>
1 837), the first of a acriea of great coattibutiona by this and otbei
authors. These and other eariy monographs on the Tettlary
shells of the Paris baan, of the environs of Boideaax, and of the
sub-Apennine formations of Italy, bronght oat the striking
distinctness of these faunas from each other and from other
moUuscan faunas. Recognition of this threefold character
led Deshayes to establish a threefold division of the Tertiary
based on the percentage of molluscs belonging to types now
living found in each. To these divisions Lyell gave in X833 t^
names Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene.
James Hutton (X726-X797) had set forth (1788) the principle
that during all geological time there has been no essential
change in the character of events, and that uniformity of law is
perfectly consistent with mutability in the results. LycU
marshalled all the obicrvations he could collect in svpport of
this prindple^ teaching that the present is the key to the past,
and arraying all obtainable evidence agahut the caUdysmic
theories of Cuvier. He thus exerted a potent influence oa
palaeontology through his pecristent advocacy of onifoimi-
tarianism, a doctrine with which Lamarck should also be credited.
As among the vertebrates, matetiais were accumulating rapidly
for the great genersiisations which were to follow in the third
period. Dc Blainville added to the knowledge of the shells
of the Paris basin; Giovanni BattisU Brocdu (1773-1836) ta
1814* and Luigi Bellardi (i8x&«i869) and Giovanni Michelotti
(born 1812) in 1840^ described the Pliocene molluscs of the sub-
Apennine formation of Italy; from Germany and Austria
appeared the epoch-making works of Hdnrich Ernst Beyxkh
(1815-1896) and of Morita Hoemes (1815-1868).
We shall pass over hero the labours of Adam Sedgwick
(1785-1873) and .Sir Roderick Murchison (i79>*>67i) ia the
Palaeozoic of England, which because of their close rdatkn to
stratigraphy more properly concern geology; but must mentioa
the grand contributions of Joachim Barrande (i799-x683)«
published in his Syslimt nlurien du etntre de la Bohtme, the fiiat
volume of which appeared in 1852. While esjablishing the
historic divisions of the Silurian in Bohemia, Barrande also
propounded his famous theory of "colonies," by ivhich he
attempted to explain the aberrant occurrence of straU cob>
taining animals of a moro advanced stage among atrau
containing earlier and more primitive faanas; his asnimpUoa
was that the second fauna had migrated from an unknown
neighbouring region. . It is proved tiiat the specific inttaacca
on which Barrande's generalixatioDS were founded were doe to
his misinterpretatioa of the overturned and faulted strata, but
his conception of the simultaneous existence of two fauoas, ooe
of more andent and one of moie modem type, and of their
alternation in a givea areai wsa based on sound philosophical
principles and has been confirmed by more recent work.
PALAEONTOLOGY
583
The greatest genetalitttlon of this second period, however,
was that partly prepared for by d'Orbigny, as will be more fully
explained later in this article, and clearly expressed by Agassix
— namely, the law of repetition of ancestral stages of life in the
course of the successive stages of individual development. This
law of recapitulation, subsequently termed the "biogenetic
law *' by Ernest Haeckel, was the greatest philosophic contri>
bution of this period, and proved to be not only one of the
bul^rks of the evolution theory but one of the most
important principles in the method of palaeontology.
On the whole, as in the case of vertebrate paUeontology,
the prc-Darwinian period of invertebrate palaeontology was one
of rather dry systematic description, in which, however, the
applications of the science gradually extended to many regions
of the world and to all divisions of the kingdom of invertebrates.
m.— Thibd Hzstoric Peszod
Begtnning with the puNicalion of Darwin's greai works,
" Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of H.M.S. 'Adventure * and
' Beagle ' " (1839), and " On the Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Seieetion " (1859). — A review Of the two first dassic
works of Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1883) and of their
influence proves that he was the founder of modem palaeon-
tology. Principles of descent and other applications of uniform!-
tarianism which had been struggling for expression in the
writings of Lamarck, St Hilaire and de Blainville here found
their true interpretation, because the geological succession, the
rise, the migrations, the extinctions, were all connected with
Ihe grand central idea of evolution from primordial forms.
A close study of the exact modes of evolution and of the
phflosophy of evolution b the distinguishing feature of this
period. It appears from comparison of the work in the two
great divisions of vertebrate and invertebrate palaeontology
made for the first time In this article that in accuracy of observa-
tion and in close philosophical analysis of facts the students of
invertebrate palaeontology led the way. This was due to the
much greater completeness and abundance of material afforded
among invertebrate fossils, and it was manifested in the demon-
stration of two great principles or laws: first, the kw of recapitu-
lation, which is found in its most ideal expression in the shells
of invertebrates; second, in the law of direct genetic succession
through very gradual modification. It is singular that the second
law is still ignored by many zoologists. Both laws were of
paramount importance, as direct evidence of Darwin's theory
of descent, which, it will be remembered, was at the time
regarded merely as an hypothesis. Nevertheless, the tracing
of phylogeny, or direct lines of descent, suddenly began to
attract far more interest than the naming and description of
species.
The Law of Recapitulation. Acceleration. Retardation.'-tha
law, that in the stages of growth of individual development
(ontogeny), an animal repeats the stages of its ancestral evolution
(phytogeny) was, as we have stated, anticipated by d^Orbigny.
lie recognized the fact that the shclb of molluscs, which grow by
successive additions, preserve unchanged the whole series of
stages of their individual development, so that each shell of a
Cretaceous ammonite, for example, represents five stages of
progressive modification as follows: the first is the pfriode
embryonnaire, during which the shell Is smooth; the second and
third represent periods of elaboration and ornamentation; the
fourth is a period of initial degeneration; the fifth and last a
period of degeneration when ornamentation becomes obsolete
«nd the exterior smooth again, as in the young. D'Orbigny,
being a special creationist, failed to recognize the bearing of
these individual stages on evolution. Alpheus Hyatt (1838-
1903) was the first to discover (x866) that these changes in the
form of the ammonite shell agreed closely with those which had
been passed through in the ancestral history of the ammonites.
In an epoch-making essay, On the Parallelism between the Different
slagfs of Life in the 4ndividuai and those in tlte entire group of the
MeUuxous Order Telrabranchiata (1866), and in a number of
•nbsequent memoirs, among which Genesis of the Arietidoe (1889)
and Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic (1894) should be
mentioned, he laid the foundations, by methods of the most
exact analysis, for all future recapituilation work of invertebrate
palaeontologists. He showed that from each individual shell
of an ammonite the entire ancestral series may be reconstructed,
and that, while the eariier shell-whorls retain the characters of
the adults of preceding members of the series, a shell in its own
adult stage adds a new character, which in turn becomes the
pre-adult character of the types which will succeed it; finally,
that this comparison between the revolutions of the life of an
individual and the life of the entire order of ammonites is wonder-
fully harmonious and precise. Moreover, the last stages of
individual Hfe are prophetic not only of future rising and
progressing derivatives, but in the case of senile Individuals of
future declining and degradational series.
Thus the recapitulation law, which had been built up indepen-
dently from the observations and speculations on vertebrates by
Lorenz Ofen (1779-1851), Johann Friedrich Meckel (1781-1833),
St Hilaire, Kari Ernst von Baer (1792-1876) and others, and had
been applied (1842-1843) by Kari Vogt (1817-1895) and Agassiz,
in their respective fields of observation, to comparison of indi-
vidual stages with the adults of the same group II preceding
geological periods, furnished the key to the determination of the
ancestry of the invertebrates generally.
Hyatt went further and demonstrated that ancestral characters
are passed through by successive descendants at a more and more
accelerated rate in each generation, thus giving time for the
appearance of new characters in the adult. His "law of
acceleration " together with the complementary " law of
retardation," or the slowing up in the development of certain
characters (first propounded by £. D. Cope), was also a philo*
(From the Amtrkut NctimiiM.)
Fig. 6.
sophic contribution of the first importance (see fig. 6 and
PUtelII.,fig. 7).
In the same year, 1866, Franz Martin Hilgendorf (1839* )
studied the shells of Planorbis from the Miocene lake basin
underlying the present village of Steinheim in WUrttembcrg,
and introduced the method of examination of large numbers of
individual specimens, a method which has becmne of prime
importance in the science. He discovered the actual transma-
tations in direct genetic series of species on the successive
deposition levels 6f the old hke basin. This study of direct
genetic series marked another great advance, and became possible
in invertebrate palaeontology long before it was introduced
among the vertebrates. Hyatt, in a re-examination of the
Steinheim deposits, proved that successive modification^ occur
at the same level as well as in vertical succession. Melchior
Neumayr (1845-1890) and C. M. Paul similarly demonstrated
genetic series of Paludina {Vivipara) in the Pliocene lakes of
Slavonia (1875).
The Mutations of Waagen. Orthogenesis.— In 1869 Wilhelm
Heinrich Waagen (1841- 1900) entered the field with the study
of A mmonitcs subradiatus. He proposed the term " mutations "
for the minute progressive changes of single characters in
definite directions as observed in successive stratigraphic levels.
Even when seen in minute features only he recogniaed them as
constant progressive characters or " chronologic virietics " ia
58+
PALAEONTOLOGY
contrast with contcmponuieous or "ceograpbk varieties,"
which he considered inconstant and of slight systematic value.
More recent analysis has shown, however, that certain modifica-
tions observed within the same stratigraphic level are really
grades of mutations which show divergences comparable to
those found in successive levels. The collective term " muta-
tion," at now employed by palaeontologists, signifies a type
modified to a slight degree in one or more of its characters along
a progressive or definite line of phyletic development. The
term " mutation " also applies to a single new character and for
distinction* may be known as " the mutation of Waagen."
This definitely directed evolution, or development in a few
determinable directions, has since been termed " orthogenetic
evolution," and is recognized by all workers in invertebrate
palaeontology and phyk)geny as fundamental because the facts
of invertebrate palaeontology admit of no other interpretation.
Among the many who foUowed the method of attack first
outlined by Hyatt, or who independently discovered his
method, only a few can be mentioned here — namely, Waagea
(1869), Ncumayr (1871), Wttrttemberger (i8&>), Branco (1880),
Mojsisovics (1882), Buckman (1887), Karpinsky (1889), Jackson
(1890), Beecbcr (1890), Perrin-Smith (1897), Clarke (1898)
and Grabau (1904). Melchior Neunuiyr, the great Austrian
palaeontologist, especially extended the philosophic foundatiojis
of modem invertebrate palaeontology, and traced a number of
continuous genetic series (formenreiJk) in successive horizons.
He also demonstrated that mutations have this special or
distinctive character, that they repeat in the same direction
without oscillation or retrogression. He expressed great reserve
as to the causes of these mutations. He was the fiist to attempt
a comprehensive treatment of all invertebrates from the genetic
point of view; but unfortunately his great work, entitled
Die Stdmme its TkiemUks (Vienna and Prague, 1889), was
uncompleted.
The absolute agreement in the results independently obtained
by these various investigators, the interpretation of individual
development as the guide to phyletic devdopment, the
demonstration of continuous genetic series, each mutation
falling into its proper place and all showing a definite direction,
constitute contributions to biological philosophy of the first
Importance, which have been little known or appreciated by
soologists because of their publication in monogrlphs of very
spedal character.
VerkhraU Pdatonklogy afitr Darwin.—lhic Impulse which
Darwin gave to vertebrate palaeontology was immediate and
unbounded, finding expression especially in the writings of
Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895) in England, of Jean Albert
Gaudiy (b. 1827) in France, in America of Edward Drinker
Cope (i84»-i897) and Othniel Charles Maish (1831^1899).
Fine examples of the spirit of the period as applied to extinct
Mammalia are Caudry's Auimaux fossiUs et gifUogie de VAUiqug
(i86a) 00 the Upper Miocene fauna of Pikermi near Athens, and
the remarkable memotra of Vkdimir Onufrievich Kowalevsky
(1842-1883), published in 1875. These works swept aside the dry
traditional fossil lore which had been accumulating in France and
Germany. They breathed the new spirit of the recognition of
adaptation and descent. In 1867-1872 Milne Edwards published
his memoirs on the Miocene birds of central France. Huxley's
development of the method of palaeontology should be studied
in his collected memoirs (Sdentific Memoirs cf Thomas Henry
Huxley, 4 vols., 1898). In Kowalevsky 's Versuch einer uatiir'
Ucken Classi/iectioH der Fossilen Hufthiere (1873) we &"<! & model
union of detailed inductive study ynth theory and working
hypothesis. All these writers attacked the problem of descent,
and published preliminary phylogenies of such animab as the
bone, rhinoceros and elephant, which time has proved to be
of only general value and not at all comparable to the exact
phytogenetk series which were being established by invertebrate
palaeontologists. Phyletic gaps began to be filled in this general
way, however, by discovery, especially through remarkable
■ The Dutch botanist. De Vries, hat employed the term la another
•tnte, to mean a slight jump or saliatioo.
discoveries in North AmeiicA by Lddy, Cope tad Manh, aad th»
ensuing phytogenies jave enonnous preMige to palaeontology.
Cope's philosophic contributions to palaeontology bc^n w
x868 (see essays in The Origin e^f ike FUlett, New Yofk, 1887, and
Tlu Primary FactarM oj Organic BeoUUion, Chicago^ 1896) wiU
the independent discovery and demonstntioa amoag verte-
brates of the laws of aooekration and retardatioa. To the law
of "recapitulation" he unfortunately applied Hyatt's term
" parallelism," a term which is used now ia aaother sense. He
especially pointed out the laws of the "extinction of the
specialized " and " survival of the noa^pedalixed " fonas of
life, and challenged Darwin's principle of selection as aa explaaa-
tioo of the origia of adaptations by sayiog that the " survival
of the fittest " does not cxplaia the " origia of the fittest." He
personally sought to demonstrate such origia, 6nt, ia the
existeace- of a specific internal growth force, which he termed
batkmic farce, and second ia the direct inheritaaoe of acquired
mechanical modifications of the teeth aad feet. He thus re-
vived Lamaqrk's views and helped to found the so-called aeo-
Lamarckiaa school in America. To this school A. Hyatt, W. H.
Dall and many other invertebrate palaeontologisU subscribed.
History of Discenry, Veriebrates.—ln dlscoveiy the thealse
of interest has shifted from oontinent to continent, often in a
sensational manner. After a long period of gradual revelation of
the ancient life of Europe, extending eastward to Greece, eastcro
Asia and to Australia, attention became centred on North
America, especially on Rocky Mountain exploration. New and
unheard«of orders of amphibians, reptiles and mammals came to
the surface of knowledge, revolutionizing thought, demoostratiaf
the evohition theory, and solving some of the OMSt ixnportaiit
problems of descent. Especially noteworthy was the discoveiy
of birds with teeth both in Europe (Arckaeopierys) and in North
America (Heeperomis), of Eocene stages in the history of the
hoise, and of the giant dinosauria of the Jurassic and Cretaceooa
ia North America. Then the stage of novelty suddenly shifted
to South America, wherj after the pioneer labours of Darwia,
Owen and Burmebter, the field of our knowledge was suddenly
and vastly extended by explozations by the brothesa Amcghiao
(Carlos and Florentino). We were in the midst of note thorough
examination of the ancient world of Patagonia, of the Pampeaa
region and of iu submerged sister oontinent Antarctica, when the
scene shifted to North Africa through the discoveries of Hugh
J. L. Beadnell and Charles W. Andrews. These latter discoveoea
supply us with the ancestry of the elephants and many other
forms. They round out our knowledge of Tertiary history, but
leave the problems of the Cretaceous mammab and of th4|r
relations to Tertiary mammals still unsolved. Similarly, the
Mesosoic reptiles have been traced successively to various parta
of the world from France, Germany, England, to North Aflseiica
and South America, to Australia and New Zealand and to
northern Russia, from Cretaceous times back into the Fmniaa.
and by latest reports into the Carboniferous.
Diseatery of Imeertebraies. — ^The most striking featore of
exploration for invertebrates, next to the world-wide extent to
which exploration has been carried on and results applied, is
the early appearance of life. Until comparatively recent Urocs
the molluscs were considered as appearing on the limits of the
Cambrian and Ordovidan; but Charles D. Walcott has described
a tiny lamcUibranch (Hodioloides) from the inferior Cambrian,
and he reports the gastropod (?) genus Chuaria from the pee>
Cambrian. Ccphalopod molluscs have been traced back lo the
straight-shelled nautiloids of the genus Volbortkdia, while troe
ammonites have been found in the inferior Permian of the Cooti-
nent and by American palaeontologists in the true coal measures.
Similarly, eariy forms of the crustacean subclass Mcrostotaata
have been traced to the pre-Cambiian of North America.
Recent discoveries of vertebrates are of the same significance,
the most primitive fishes being traced to the Ordovidan or
base of the Silurian,* which proves that we shall discover more
* Profcasor Bashford Dean doubts the fish characters of thew
Ordovic Rocky klountain forms. Freeh admits their fish dttiafCter
but considers the rocks infaulted Devooic
PALAEONTOLOGY
Plate I.
Fig. z.— An icbthyosaur (/. guadriscissus) containing in the body cavity the partially preserved skeletons of seven
young, proving that the young of the animal developed within the maternal body and were brought forth alive;
t. e. that the ichthyosaur was a viviparous animal. (Specimen presented to the American Museum of Natural
History by the Royal Museum of StuUgart through Professor Eberhard Proas.)
Fig. 2. — A hvpothetical pictorial res-
toration of the mother ichthyosaur
accompanied by five of its newly
born young, from the information
furnished by actual fossils.
{From a draiving by Charles R.
Knight made under the direction of
Professor Osborn.)
~ ^ H^^^^^^^^ J
mUUxfiii <i^£riAmiditit Ji^SSxS-lC^ ^- " "^^^^^Sfes
,/ ^j*^"
Fig. 3- — One of the most perfect of the many specimens discovered and prepared by Herr Bernard Hauff, and showing the extra*
ordinary preservation of the epidermis of the ichthyosaur, which gives the complete contour of the body in silhouette, the
outlines of the paddles, of the remarkably fish-like tail, into the lower lobe of which the vertebral column extends, and the
great integumentary dorsal fin.
Materials for the Restoration of Fchthyosaurs. — This plate i11ustrate<; the exceptional opportunity afforded the palaeontologist
through the remarkably preserved remains of Ichthyosaurs in the quarries of Holzmaden near Stuttgart.WUrttemberg. excavated
for many years by Herr Bernard Hauff. (Illustrations reproduced by permission from specimens in the American Museum of
Natural nistory, New Yorh.)
Plate II.
PALAEONTOLOGY
Fig. 4.— Skeleton of Allosaurus.
Fig. s. — Restoration of Allosaurus.
Materials for the Restoration of Dinosaurs. — Tamivorous dinosaur {AUosaurus) of the Upper Jurassic period of North Araerica.
an animal closely related to the Megalosaurus type of England. The skeleton (fig. 4) was found nearly complete in the beds 01
the Morrison formation^ Upper Jurassic of central Wyoming, U. S. A. Near it was discovered the posterior portion of the
skeleton of a giant herbivorous dinosaur (Brontosaurus Marsh). It was observed that ten of the caudal vertebne of the latter
skeleton bore tooth marks and grooves corresponding exactly with the sharp pointed teeth in the jaw of the carnivorous dinosaur.
This proved that the great herbivorous dinosaur had been preyed upon by its smaller carnivorous contemporary. Teeth of the
carnivorous dinosaur scattered among the bones of the herbivorous dinosaur completed the line of circumstantial evidence.
I'poQ this testimony the restoration (fig. 5) of the Megalo&aur has been drawn by Charles R. Knight under the direction ol
Professor Qsbom.
( Orifimait rtfrodiutd by fermisti^n 0/ the Ameritmn Museum «/ Natural Hittery^
PALAEONTOLOGY
Plate III.
Thi-H 5eri« of feet r^iprcscnti the rvolutbtiary
lutccKiian from tbe Eocene flypuhip^Hr it) to ibe
moijem Eijuus (6) seen in front and in iidir vi*w.
The top bone i* the pj rakis, or hnct bcmc, to which
tlw tettdoH Arkilks h aHiicJ«Ml. The l:?oUrtiii \mnc
ii the tufrminAl phAimx whicb U insfTteJ it\ tha
h&rt oJ the hiKit
Equus
cahaUus,
Meryckippus
sp.
Meryckippus
tHsignis
(milk molar).
Parakippus
pawniensis.
Mesokip^us
I intermedtus.
Mesohippus
bairdit
Mesohippus
bairai.
Orohippus
sp.
Eokippus
Eokippus
sp-
Modern
hone.
Miocene.
Upper
OUgocene
(White
river for-
mation).
Oligocene
(White
river for-
mation).
Middle
Kocene
(Bridger
for-
mation).
Lower
Eocene
(Wind
river for-
mation) .
(Wasatch
for-
mation).
Fig. 7. — Iaw of Acceleration and Retardation Illustrated in the Evolution of
the Hind Feet of the Horse.
(From photos lent by the American Museum of Natural History.)
Fig. 8. — Ten stages in the evolution of the second
upper molar tooth of the right side, arranged
according to geoWgical level.
(Xos, i-gfrom "American Equidae **)
Plate IV.
PALAEONTOLOGY
PALAEONTOLOGY
585
•ncieat chordates in the CambrkB or even pie-Cunbrlan. Thus
all recent discqvery tends to cany the* centres of origin and of
dispenal of all animal types farther and farther back in feological
time.
IV.—RELATIONS of pALAEONTOtOGY TO QlBES PBYSZCAL
Earth Soences
Geology and Palaeopkysiography.—Tossiis are not absolute
timekeepers, because we have little idea of the rate of evolution;
they are only relative timekeepers, which enable us to check off
the period of deposition of one formation with that of another.
Huxley questioned the time value of fossils, but recent research
has tended to show that identity of species and of mutations is,
on the whole, a guide to synchroneity, though the general range
of vertebrate and invertebrate life as well as of plant life is
genetaily necessary for the establishment of approximate
synchronism. Since fossils afford an immediate and generally
a decisive doe to the mode of deposition of rocks, whether
Marine, lacustrine, fluviatile, flood plain or aeoUan, they lead
IB naturally into palaeophysiography. Instances of marine
and lacustrine analysis have been cited above. The analysis
of continental faunas into those inhabiting rivers, lowlands,
forests, plains or uplands, affords a key to physiographic con-
ditions all through the Tertiary. For example, the famous
bone-beds of the Oligocene.of South Dakota have been analysed
by W. D. Matthew, and are shown to contain fluviatile or channel
beds with water and river-living forms, and neighbouring
flood-plain sediments containing remains of plains-living forms.
Thus we may complete the former physiographic picture of a
vast flood plain east of the Rocky Mountains, traversed by slowly
meandering streams.
As alread^ intimated, our knowledge of palaeomttecreloiy,
or of past climates, is derivable chiefly from fossils. Suggested
, two centuries ago by Robert Hooke, this use of fossils has in the
hands of Barrande, Neum&yt, the marquis de Saporta (1895),
Oswald Hcer (1809-1883), and an army of followers developed
into a sub-science of vast importance and interest. It is true
that a great variety of evidence is afforded by the composition
of the rocks, that glaciers have left their traces in glacial scratch-
IngB and transported boulders, also that proofs of arid or semi-
arid conditions ate found in the reddish colour of rocks in certain
portions of the Palaeoaoic, Trias and Eocene; but fossils afford
the most precise and conclusive evidence as to the past history
of climate, because of the fact that adaptations to temperature
have remained constant for millions of years. All conclusions
derived from the various forms of animal and plant life should
be scrutinized <losely and compared. The brilliant theories
of the palaeobotanist, Oswald Heer, as to the extension of a
sub-tropical climate to Europe and even to extreme northern
latitudes in Tertiary lime, which have appealed to the imagina-
tion and found their way so widely into literature, are now
' challenged by J. W. Gregory (Climatic Variations, their Extent
and Causes, International Geological Congress, Mexico, 1906),
who holds that the extent of climatic changes in past times has
been greatly exaggerated.
It b to palaeogeography and zoogeography in their reciprocal
relations that palaeontology has rendered the most unique
services. Geographets are practically helpless as historians,
and problems of the former elevation and distribution of the
land and sea masses depend for their solution chiefly upon the
palaeontologist. With good reason geographers have given
reluctant consent to some of the bold restorations of ancient
continental outlines by palaeontologists; yet some of the greatest
achievemeilts of recent science have been in this field. The
'concurrence of botanical (Hooker, z847)i zoological, and finally
of pAlaeontological evidence for the reconstruction of the
continent of Antarctica, is one of the greatest triumphs of
biological investigation. To the evidence advanced by a great
number of authors comes the dinthing teslimony of the existence
of a number of varieties of Australian marsupials in Patagonia,
as originally discovered by Ameghino and more exactly described
by members of the Princeton Patagonian expedition staff; while
the foflsil shells of the Eocene of Patagonia 48 analysed by
Ortmann give evidence of the eiistenoe of a continuous shore*
line, or at least of shaUow>water areas, between Australia, New
Zealand and South America. This line off hypotbttis and
demonstration is typical of the palaeogeographic methods
generally—namely, that Vertebrate palaeontologists, impressed
by the sudden appearance of extinct forms of continental Ufe,
demand land connexion or migration tracts from oonunoo
centres of origin and dispersal, while the invertebrate palaeon-
tologist alone is able to restore ancient coast4ines and determine
the extent and width of these tracts. Thus has been built up a
distinct and most important branch. The great contributors
to the palaeogeognphy of Europe are Neumayr and Eduard
Suess (b. 1 831), foHowed by Freeh, Canu, de Lapparent and
others. Neumayr was the fiist to attempt to restore the
grander earth outlines of the earth as a whole in Jurassic times.
Suess outlined the ancient relations of Africa and Asia through
his " Gondwana Land," a land mass, practically identical with
the " Lemuria " of zoologists. South ^erican palaeogeography
has been traced by von Ihring into a northern land mass,
" Archclenis," and. a southern mass, " ArchipIaU," the latter at
times united with an antarctic continent. Following the pioneer
studies of Dana, the American palaeontologists and strato-
graphers Bailey Willis, John M. Qarke, Charles Schuchert and
othen have re-entered the study of the Palaeozoic geography
of. the North American continent with work of astonishing
precision.
Zoogeography. — Closely connected with palaeogeography b
aoogeography, the animal distribution of past periods. The
science of zoogeography, founded by Humboldt, Edward Forbes,
Huxley, P. L. Sdater, Alfred Russd Wallace and others, largely
upon the present distribution of animal life, is now encountering
through palaeontology a new and fasdnating aeries of problems.
In brief, it must connect living distribution with distribution in
past time, and develop a system which will be in harmony witli
the main facts of zoology and palaeontology. The theory of
past migrations from continent to continent, suggested by
Cuvier to explain the repUcement of the animaJ life which had
become extinct through sudden geologic changes, was prophetic
of one of the chief features of modem method-'namdy, the
tradng of migrations. With this has been connected the theory
of " centres of origin " or of the geographic regions where the
chief characters of great groups have been established. Among
invertebrates Barrandc's doctrine of centres of origin was applied
by Hyatt to the genesis of the Arietidae (1889); after studying
thousands of individiuils from the principal deposits of Europe
he decided that the cradles of the various branches of this family
were the basins of the Cdte d'Or and southern Germany.
Ortmann has traced the centre of dispersal of the fresh-water
Crawfish genera Ccmbarus, PUamobius and Cambaroides to
eastern Asia, where their common ancestors lived in Cretaceous
time. Similarly, among vertebrates the method of restoring past
centres of origin, brgcly originating with Edward Forbes, has
developed into a most distinct and important branch of historical
work. This branch of the science has reached the highest
development in its application to the history of the extinct
mammalia of the Tertiary through the original work of Cope and
Henri Filhol, which has been brought to a much higher degree
of exactness recently through the studies of H. F. Osbom,
Charles Dep£ret, W. D. Matthew and H. G. Stehlin.
v.— Relations of Palaeontology to oniEx
Zoological Methods
Systematic Zoology.— It is obvious that the Linnaean binomial
terminology and its subsequent trinomial refinement for spedcs,
sub-spedes, and varieties was adapted to express the differences
between animals as they exist to-day, distributed contemporane-
ously over the surface of the earth, and that it is wholly inadaptcd
to express either the minute gradations of successive generic
series or the branchings of a genetically connected chun of
life. Such gradations, termed " mutations '* by Waagen, are
distinguished, as observed, in single characters; they are the
S86
PALAEONTOLOGY
nuances, OT grades of difference, which are the more gradual
the more finely we dissect the geologic column, while the terms
species, sub-species and variety are generally based upon a sum
of changes in several cUnraders. Thus palaeontology has brought
to light an entirely new nomenclatural problem, which can only
be solved by resolutely adopting an entirely different principle.
which is esaentially based on a theory of intemipt«l cr dfa^
continuous characters, is inapplicable.
Embryology and Ontogtny.-^la following the discovery of tbe
law of recapitulation among palaeontologists we have dearly
stated the chief contribution of palaeontology to the science of
ontogeny— namely, the correspondences and differences bctii
Fig. 9.
This revolution may be accomplished by adding the term
" mutation ascending " or " mutation descending " for the
minute steps of transformation, and the term phylum, as employed
in Germany, for the minor and major branches of genetic series.
Bit by bit mutations are added to each other in different single
characters until a sum or degree of mutations is reached which
no zoologist would hesitate to place in a separate species or in a
separate genus.
The minute gradations observed by Hyatt, Waagen and all
invertebrate palaeontologists, in the hard parts (shells) of
molluscs, &c., are analogous to the equally minute gradations
observed by vertebrate palaeontologists in the hard parts of rep-
tiles and mammals. The mutations of Waagen may possibly,
in fact, prove to be identical with the " definite variations " or
*' rectigradations "observed by Osbom in the teeth of mammals.
For example, in the grinders of Eocene horses (sec Pbte III., fig.
8; also fig. q) in a lower horizon a cusp is adumbrated in shadowy
form, in a slightly higher horizon it is visible, in a still higher
horizon it is full-grown; and we honour this final stage by assign-
ing to the animal which bears it a new specific name. When a
number of such characters accumulate, we further honour them
by assigning a new generic name. This is exactly the nomen-
clature system laid down by Owen, Cope, Marsh and others,
although established without any understanding of the law of
mutation. But besides the innumerable characters which are
visible and measurable, there are probably thousands which
we cannot measure or which have not been discovered, since
every part of the organism enjoys its gradual and independent
evolution. In the face of the continuous series of characters
and types revealed by palaeontology, the Linnaean terminology,
the individual order of development and the ancestral order of
evolution. The mutual relations of palaeontology and eihbryo-
logy and comparative anatomy as means of determining the
ancestry of am'mals are most interesting. In tradng the
phylogeny, or ancestral history of organs, palaeontology affords
the only absolute criterion on the successive evolution of organs
in lime as well as of (progressive) evolution in form. From
comparative anatomy alone it b possible to arrange a series of
living forms which, although structurally a convincing array
because placed in a graded series, may be, nevertheless, in an
order inverse to that of the actual historical succession. The
most marked case of such inversion in comparative anatomy b
that of Carl Gegenbaur (183&-1903), who in arranging the fins
of fiishes in support of his theory that the fin of the AustraliaA
lung-fish {Ceratodus) was the most primitive (or Arckipterygimm),
placed as the primordial type a fin which palaeontology hu
proved to be one of the latest types if not the lasL It is
equally true that palaeontological evidence has frequently failed
where we most sorely needed it. The student must therefore
resort to what may be called a tripod of evidence, derived from
the available facts of embryology, comparative anatomy and
palaeontology.
VI.— Tbe Palaeomtolocist as Histouan
The modes of change among animals, and methods of amiysimg
Ikem. — As historian the palaeontologist always has before him
as one of his most fascinating problems phylogeny, or the
restoration of the great tree of animal descent. Were the
geologic record complete he would be able to trace the ancestry
of man and of all other animals back to their very beginningi
PALAEONTOLOGY
587
b the pnraoitlial protoplasm. Dealing with intemiptcd
evidence, however, It becomes necessanr to exercise the cIoMSt
analysis and synthesis as part of his genera] art as a restorer.
The most fundamental distinction in analysis is that which
must be made between homogeny, or true kendUary resemblance,
and those multiple forma of adapiite resembktnee which are
vanously known as cases of " analogy/' '* parallelisra," " con-
vergence " and *' homoplasy/* Of these two kinds of genetic
and adaptive resemblance, homogeny is the warp conpoKKd of
the vertical, hcredlUry strands, which connect animals with
their ancestors and their successors, while analogy is the woof,
composed of the horizontal strands which tie animals together
by their superfidal resemblances. This wide distinction between
simiUrity of descent and similarity of adaptation applies to
every organ, to all groups of organs, to animals as a whole, and
to all groups of animals. It is the old distinclion between
homology and analogy on a grand scale.
Analogy, in Its power of transforming unlike and unrelated
animals or unlike and unrelated parts of animals into L'keness,
has done such miracles that the inference of kinship is often
almost irresistible. During the past century it was and even
now is the very " will-o'-the-wisp " ol evolution, always tending
to lead the phylogenist astray. It is the first characteristic of
analogy that it is superficial. Thus the shark, the ichihyosaur.
(Alter & dnwias by OimIo R. Kaicht, n«fc uwfcr the <tiiGCtiao ol PrrfoMt Oklwn.)
Fic. I o.-~ Analogous or convergent evolutioa in Fish, Reptile
and Mammal.
The external stmUarity in the fore paddle and back fin of these
three marine animaU is absolute, althoup^h they are totally unrelated
to each other, and have a totally; ditferent internal or skeletal
structure. It is one of the most striking cases known of the law of
analagons evolution.
At Shark (Lamna ccrnvlica), with long lobe of tail upturned.
B, Ichthyosaur (Ichthyosaurus guadncissus), with fin-like paddica,
long lobe of tail down-turned.
C, Dolphin {Sotatia ftwiatUis), with horiaooul tail, fin or fluke.
and the dolphin (fig. to) superficially resemble e^ch other, but
if the outer form be removed this resemblance proves to be a
mere veneer of adaptation, because their internal skeletal parts
are as radically difTcrcnt as are their genetic relations, founded 00
heredity. Analogy also produces equally remarkable internal
or skeletal transformations. The ingenuity of nature, however,
in adapting animals is not infinite, because the same devices arc
repeatedly employed by her to accomplish the same adaptive ends
whether in fishes, reptiles, birds or mammals; thus she has
repeated herself at least twenty-four times in the evolution of
long-snouted rapacious swimnu'ng types of animals. The
grandest application of analogy is that observed in the adapta-
tions of groups of animals evolving on difTcrent continents, by
which their various divisions tend to mimic those on other
continents. Thus the collective fauna of ancient South America
mlmlct t£e independently evolved collective lattoa of North
America, the. collective fauna of modem Australia mimics
the collective fauna of the Lower Eocene of North America.
Exactly the same principles have developed on even a vaster
scale among the Invcrtebrata. Among the ammonites of tiie
Jurassic and Cretaceoua periods types occur which in their
external appearance so closely resemble each other that they
could be taken for members of a single series, and not infrequently
have been taken for spedes of the same genus and even for the
same species; but their early stages of development and, in fact,
their entire individual history prove them to be distinct and
not infrequently to belong to widely separated genetic series.
Homogeny, In contrast, the " special homology *' of Owen, is
the supreme test of kinship or of hereditary relationship, and thus
the basis of all sound reasoning in phylogeny. The two joints
of the thumb, for example, are homogenous throughout the whole
series of the pentadactylate, or five-fingered animals, from the
most primitive amphibian to man.
The conclusion is that the som of homogenous parts, which
may be similar or dissimilar in external form according to their
similarity or diversity of function, and the recognition of former
similarities of adaptation (see below) are the true bases for the
critical determination of kinship and phylogeny.
Adaptation and ike Independent Eoolution oj JParts.—Sttp by
step there have been established in pclacontology a number of
laws relating to the evolution of the parts of animals which
closely coincide with similar laws discovered by zoologists. All
are contained in the broad generalization that every part of an
animal, however minute, has its separate and independent basis
in- the hereditary substance of the germ cells from which it is
derived and may enjoy consequently a separate and independent
history. The consequences of this principle when applied to the
adaptations of animals bring us to the very antithesis of Cuvier's
supposed 'Maw of correlation," for we find that, while the end
results of adaptation are such that all parts of an animal conspire
to make the whole adaptive, there is no fixed correlatkm either
in the form or rate of development of part9,and that it is there-
fore impossible for the palaeontologist to predict the anatomy of
an unknown animal from one of its parts only, unless the animal
happens to belong to a type generally familiar. For example,
among the land vertebrates the feet (associated with the structure
of the limbs and trunk) may take one of many lines of adaptation
to different media or habitat, either aquatic, terrestrial, arboreal
or aerial; while the teeth (associated with the structure of the
skuU and jaws) also may take one of many lines of adaptation to
different kinds of food, whether herbivorous, insectivorous or
carnivorous. Through this independent adaptation of different
parts to their specific ends there have arisen among vertebrates
an almost unlimited number of combinations of foot and tooth
structure, the possibilities of which are illustrated in the accom-
panying diagram (see fig. i x ; also Plate III., fig. 8). As instances
of such combinations, some of the (probably herbivorous) Eocene
monkeys with arboreal limbs have teeth so difficult to distinguish
from those of the herbivorous ground-living Eocene horses with
cursorial limbs that at first in France and also in America they
were both classed with the hoofed aniniab. Again, directly
opposed to. Cuvier's principle, we have discovered carmvores
with hoofs, such as Mesonyx, and herbivores with sloth-Hke
claws, such as ChoHcothnium. This latter animal is dosely
related to one which Cuvier termed Pangt^in gt'gantesque^ and
had he restored it according to his " law of correlation ** he would
have pictured a giant " scaly antcater," a type as wide as the
poles from the actual form of Ckalicolherium, which in body,
limbs and teeth is a modified ungulate herbivore, related remotely
to the tapirs. In its daws alone does it resemble the giant
sloths.
This independence of adaptation applies to every detail of
structure; the six cusps of a grinding tooth may all evolve alike,
or each may evolve independently and differently. Independent
evolution of parts is well shown among invertebrates, where the
shell of an ammonite, for example, may change markedly in
form without a corresponding change in suture, or vice versa.
S88
PALAEONTOLOGY
Similti|)r» thtoeiino oondation in the nte of evohitioD either
of adjoining or of aqMrtied puU;.the middfe digit of the foot
of the three-toed horse ie accelerated in development, while the
lateral digits on either aide are retarded. Many eia m plca might
be dted among invertebrates also.
ADAPTIVE TTPBS OP LIMBS AND PBBT
VOLANT
FOSSORIAL
ARBOREAL
Sbort-Umbcd, plantignde,] AMBULATORY
pentadactyi, unguicu-h oa
UteStem /TERRESTRIAL
NATATORIAL
Amphibious
CURSORIAL
Digitignde
Aquatic Ui
ADAPTIVB TYPES OP TEETH
OMNIVOROUS
CARNIVOROl
HERBIVOROl
MYRMECOPHAGOUS
Stem INSECTIVOROUS
Law op the Imdbpbndbnt Aoaptivb Evoluhon or Paits.
FtG. It.— Diagram demonatrating that there are an. indefinite
number of combinations of various adaptive tvpes of limbs and feet
with various adaptive types of teeth, and that there is no fixed
law of correlation between the two series of adaputions.
An these principles are consistent with Francis Galton's
law of pnrticulato inheritance in heredity, and with the modem
doctrine of " onity of characten " held by students of Mendelian
phenomena.
Sudden versus Cradml Evdutian of Parts.— thttt is a broad
and most interesting analogy between the evolution of parts of
fiptiwU and of groups of animsU studied as a whole. Thus we
observe persistent organs and persistent types of animals,
analogous organs and analogous types of animals, and this
analogy applies still further to the rival and more or less contra-
dictory hypotheses of the sudden as distinguished from the
gradual appearance of new parts or organs of animals, and the
sudden appearance of new types of animals. The first exponent
of the theory of sudden appearance of new parts and new
types, to our knowledge, was Geoffroy St Hilaire, who suggested
saltatory evolution through the direct action of the environ-
ment on development, as explaining the abrupt transitions in the
Mesosoic Crooodilia sind the origin of the birds from the reptiles.
Waagen's law of mutation, or the appearance of new parts
or organs so gradually that they can be perceived only by
following them through successive geologic time stages, appears
to be directly contradictory to the saltation principle; it is cer-
tainly one of the iiMXt firmly established principles of palae-
ontology, and it ooostitutcs the contribution par euHUnce of this
branch of soology to the law of evolution, since it is obvious that
^ Gould sot possibly have been deduced from comparison of
Bving animals hot only thmogh the Jong penpective gained fay
comparison of animals succeeding each other in Ume. The
essence of Waagen's kw is orthogenesis, or evohition in a definUe
direction, and, if there does exist an internal hezeditaiy pcindple
controlling such orthogenetic evohition, there does not appear to
be any fmtial contradiction between iu gradual opentios b
the " mutations of Waagen *' and ita occasional hurried operation
in the " mutations of de Vries,'* which are by their drfinitiffli
discontinuous or saltatory (Osboni, 1907).
Vn.— Modes or Cfeaiccs nr kmuoA as a Wiokb ok m
Gsoun or Ammaij, amd Msmoos or Ahalv
I. Origin from JVjfMftve sr SUm Forms.— M already observed,
the same principles apply to groups of animals as to organs and
groups of orgaiu'; an organ originates in a primitive and nn-
spedalized stage, a group of animals originates in a primitive
or stem form. It was early perceived by Huxley, Cope and many
others that Cuvier's broad belief in a universal progression was
erroneous, and there developed the distinction between " per-
sistent primitive types " (Huxley) and " progressive types.**
The theoretical existence of primitive or stem forms was ckady
perceived by Darwin, but the steps by which the stem fobs might
be restored were first clearly enundMed by Huxley in 1880
{** On the Application of Evohition to the Arrangement of the
Vertebratn and more particularly of the Mammslis," SdemL
Ment, iv. 457) namely, by sharp separation of the primaixor
stem characters from the secondary or adaptive rharscters in
all the known descendants or branches of a theoretical oiipnal
fornL The sum of the primitive characten appcoximatdy
restores the primitive form; and the gaps in palaeontological
evidence are supplied by analysis of the available aoolq^ca],
embryological and anatomical evidence. Thus Huxley, with trae
prophetic instinct, found that the sum of primitive diameters
of all the higher placental mammals pobts to a stem fons of a
generalized insectivore type, a prophecy which has been fully
confirmed by the latest xcseaidi. On the other hand, Hudcy'a
summation of the primitive chancters of aU the fim^u
led him to an amphibian atem type, a prophecy which has proved
faulty because based on erroneous analyab and oompniisoB.
More or less independently, Huxley, Kowalevsky and Cope
restored the stem ancestor of the hoofed animab, or ungulates,
a restoration which has been nearly fulfilled by the discovery,
in 1875, of the generalized type Pkenacodus of northern Wyoming.
Simikr antidpaiions and verifications among the bveitd»aies
have been made by Hyatt, Beecher, Jackson and otheia.
In certain cases the character stem forms actually sanrire
in unspedalized types. Thus the analysb of George Banr of the
ancestral form of the lizards, mosasaurs, diixnaura, ciooodflrs
and phytosaurs led both to the generalized PaUuokatttria of the
Permian and indirectly to the surviving Tuatera lisaid of New
a. Adaptationt to Alternations of Habitat. Lam of tffotenU
bitity of Evolution.-^ln the long vicissitudes of time and proces-
sion of continental changes, animals have been subjected to
alternations of habitat either through their own migration or
through the " migration of the environment itsdf," to employ
Van den Broeck's epigrammatic description of the profound and
sometimes sudden environmental changes which may take place
in a single locality. The traces of alternations of adapUtions
corresponding to these alternations of habiut are recorded both
in palaeontology and anatomy, althou^ often after the obscure
analogy of the earlier and later writings of a palimpsest. Huxley
in 1880 briefly suggested the arboreal origin, or primordial tree-
habitat of an the marsupials, a suggestion abundantly oonfinned
by the detailed studies of Dollo and of Bensley, accnrding to
which we may imagine the marsupials to have passed through
(r) a former terrestrial phase, fotk>wcd by (3) a primary arboreal
phase— illustrated in the tree phalangers— foUowed by (j) a
secondary terrestrial phase— illustrated in the kangaroos and
wallabies— foDowed by (4) a secondary arboreal phase— iDus-
tratcd hk the txte kangaroos. Louis DoUo especially has
PALAEONTOLOGY
589
contributed most brilliant diicustionA of the theory o£ «iter>
oalioDft of habiut as applied to the interpretation of the anatomy
of the marBupials, of many kinds of fishes, of such reptiles as
.the herbivQrous dinosaurs oi the Upper Cretaceous. He has
applie4 the theory with especial ingenuity to the interpretation
of the circular bony plates in the carapace of the aberrant
leather-back sea-turtlet (Sphaigidae) by prefacing an initial
land phase, in which the typical armature of land tortoises was
acquired, a first marine or pelagic phase, in which this armature
was lost, a third littoral or seashore phase, in which a new poly*
gonal armature was acquired, and a fourth resumed or secondary
marine phase, in which this polygonal armature began to
degenerate.
Each of these alternate life phases may leave some profound
modification, which is partially obscured but seldom wholly lost;
thus the tracing of the evidences ol former adaptations is of great
importance in phylogenetic study.
A very important evolutionary principle is that in such
secondary returns to primary phases lost organs are never
recovered, but new organs are acquired; hence the force of
Dollo's dictum that evolution is irreversible from the point of
view of structure, while frequently reversible, or recurrent, in
point of view of the conditions of environment and adaptation.
3. Adaptive Radiatums qJ Groups^ ConlinenUd and Local. —
Starting with the stem forms the descendants of which have
passed through either persistent or changed habitats, we reach
the underlying idea of the branching law of Lamarck or the law
of divergence of Darwin, and find it perhaps most clearly ex-
pressed in the words "adaptive radiation" (Osbom), which convey
the idea of radii in many directions. Among extinct Tertiary
mammals we can actually trace the giving o£f of these radii in
all directions, for taking advantage of every possibility to secure
food, to escape enemies and to reproduce kind; further, among
such well-known quadrupeds as the horses, rhinoceroses and
titanothercs, the modifications involved in these radiations can
be clearly traced. Thus the history of continental life presents
a picture of contemporaneous radiations in different parts of the
world and of a succession of radiations in the same parts. We
observe the contemporaneous and largely independent radiations
of the hoofed animals in South America, in Africa and in the
great ancient continent comprising Europe, Asia and North
America; we observe the Cretaceous radiation of hoofed animals
in the northern hemisphere, followed by a second radiation of
hoofed animals in the same region, in some cases one surviving
spur of an old radiation becoming the centre of a new one. As
a rule, the larger the geographic theatre the grander the radia-
tion. Successive discoveries have revealed certain grand centres,
such as (i) the marsupial radiation of Australia, (2) the little-
known Cretaceous radiation of placental mammals in the northern
hemisphere, which was probably connected in part with the
peopling of South America, (3) the Tertiary placental radiation
in the northern hemisphere, partly connected with Africa, (4) the
main Tertiary radiation in South America. Each of these
radiations produced a greater or leas number of analogous
groups, and while originally independent the animals thus
evolving as autochthonous types finally mingled together as
migrant or invading types. We are thus working out gradually
the separate contributions of the land masses of North America,
South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and of Australia to the
mammalian fauna of the world, a result which can be obtained
through palaeontology only.
4. Adaptive Local Radiation,— On a smaller scale are the local
adaptive radiations which occur through segregation of habit and
local isolatk>n in the same general geographic region wherever
physiographic and climatic differences are sufficient to produce
local differences in food supply or other local factors of change.
This local divergence may proceed as rapidly as through wide
geographical segregation or isolation. This principle has been
demonstrated recently among Tertiary rhinoceroses and titano-
theres, in which remains of four or five genetic series in the same
;;eologic deposits have been discovered. We have proof that in
the Upper Miocene of Colorado there cxi&ted a forest -living horse,
or more persistent primitive type, which was contemporaneous
with and is found in the same deposiu with the plains-living
horse (Neokipparion) of the most advanced or spedaliaed desert
type (see Plate XV., figs. X2, 13, 14, 1$), In times of drooi^t
these animals undoubtedly resorted to the same water-courses
for drink, and thus their f<»silized remains are fotmd associated.
5. The Law of PolyphyUHc EMlniion, The ooquenee of Phyla
or Genetic Series. — ^Tbere results from convinental and local
adaptive radiations the presence in the same geographical region
of numerous distinct lines in a given group of animals. The
polyphyletic law was early demonstrated among invertebrates
by Neumayr (1889) when be showed that the ammonite genus
PkyUoceras follows not one but five distinct lines of evolu-
tion of unequal duration. The brachiopods, generally classed
collectively as Spirifer mucronatust follow at least five- distina
lines of evolution in tht Middle Devonian of North America,
while more than twenty divergent lines have been observed by
Crebau among the species of the gastropod genus Pusus in
Tertiary and recent times. Vcrtebnte palaeontologists were
slow to gra^ this principle; while the early speculative phylo-
genies of the horse of Hujdey and Marsh, for example, were
mostly displasred monophyletically, or in single lines of descent,
it is now recognized that the horses which were placed by Marsh
in a single series are reaUy to be ranged in a great number of
contemporaneous but separate series, each but partially known,
and that the direct phylum which leads to the modem horse has
become a matter of far more difficult search. As early as i86a
Gaudry set forth this very fwlyphyletic principle in his tabuhv
phylogenica, but failed to carry it to its logical application. It
is now applied throughout the Vertebnta of both Mesoooic and
Cenozoic times. Among marine Mesosoic reptiles, each of the
groups broadly known as ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, mosasaurs
and crocodiles were polyphyletic in a marked degree. Among
land animals striking illustrations of this local polyphyletic law
are found in the existence of seven or eight contemporary series
of rhinoceroses, five or six contemporary scries of horses, and
an equally numerous contemporary series of American Miocene
and Pliocene camels; in short, the polyphyletic condition is
the rule rather than the exception. It is displayed to-day among
the antelopes and to a limited degree among the sebras and
rhinoceroses of Africa, a continent which exhibits a survival
of the Miocene and Pliocene conditions of the nartbem
hemisphere.
6. Development of AnahgoHS Progressive and Retrogressivo
Groups.— Bocivae of the repetition of analogous physiographic
and climatic conditions in regions widely separated both fn time
and in space, we discover that continental and local adaptive
radiations result In the creation of analogous groups of radii
among all the vertebrates and invertebrates. Illustrations ol
this law were set forth by Cope as early as 1861 (see " Origin of
Genera," reprinted in the Origin of the Fitlesi, pp. 95-106) in
pointing out the extraordinary parallelisms between unrelated
groups of amphibians, reptiles and mammals. In the Jurassic
period there were no less than six ordere of reptiles which
independently abandoned terrestrial life and acquired more or
less perfect adapution to sea life. Natare, timHed in her
resources for adaptation, fashioned so many of these animals in
like form that we have learned only recently to distinguish
similarities of analogous habit from the similitudes of real klnshipw
From whatever order of Mammalia or Reptilia an animal may
be derived, prolonged aquatic adaptation will model its outer,
and finally its inner, structure according to certain advantageous
designs. The requirements of an elongate body moving through
the resistant medium of water are met by the evolution of similar
entrant and exit curves, and the bodies of most swiftly moving
aquatic animals evolve into forms resembling the hulls of modern
sailing yachts (Bashford Dean). We owe especially to Willy
KQkenthal, Eberhard Fraas, S.W. Willislon and R. C. Osburn
a summary of those modifications of iorm to which aquatic life
invariably leads.
The law of analogy also operates in retrogression. . A. Smith
Woodward has observed that the decline of many groups of
590
PALAEONTOLOGY
fiihcs ii henlded by the tendency to luume elongate and finally
Mi-ahaped fonna, aa seen independently, for example, among
the declining Acanthodiana or palacozok aharks, among the
modem crosaopterygian Folypierus and CaUmeuhtkyt of the Nile,
in the modem dipneuatan Lepidcnren and ProtopterMS, in the
Triasaic chondioatean BdoturhynekMs, aa well aa in the bow-fin
{Amia) and the nzpike (LepidosteHs),
Among invertel ratea limilar analogoua groupa also develop.
Thia ia eapedally marked in retrogrcaaive, though alio well-
known in progreaive leriea. The loaa of the power to cofl,
observed in the terminala of many declining acriea of gaatropoda
from the Cambrian to the present time, and the aimilar km of
power among NatUoidea and Ammonoidca of many genetic
seriea, ak well aa the ostraean form assumed by vaiioua declining
aeriea of pekcypoda and by some brachiopoda, may be dted aa
examples.
7. Pmcds of Gradual EtoluHoH ef Cnups.-^lt is certainly a
very striking fact that wherever we have been able to trace
genetic series, either of invertebrates or vertebrates, in closely
sequent geological hoiiaons, or life aones, we find strong proof
of evolution through extremely gradual mutation simuluneously
affecting many parts of each organism, aa set foith abbve. This
proof baa been reached quite independently by a very large
number of observers studying a still greater variety of animala.
Such dveiae organisma aa brachiopoda, amroonitca, honea and
rhinoceroses absolutely conform to this law in all those rare
localities where we have been able to observe closely sequent
stages. The inference is almost irresistible that the bw of gradual
transformation through minute continuous change b by far the
anost univerul; but many palaeontologists aa well aa soologbts
and botanists hold a contrary opinion.
S. Peritds of Rapid Bvoimlicn of Groups.-^Tht above law of
gradual evolution is perfectly consistent «dth a second principle,
namely, that at certain times evolution is much more rapid
than at others, and that organisms are accelerated or retarded in
development in a manner broadly analogoua to the acceleration
or reUrdalion of separate organa. Thus H. S. Williams observes
(Ceolcgieai Biology^ p. s68) that the evolution of those funda-
mental characteia whkh mark differences between separate
daases, otdcis, sub-ordcis, and even families of organisms, took
place in relatively short periods of time. Among the bnchiopods
the chief expansion of each type is at a relatively eariy period in
their life-history. Hyatt (18^3) observed of the ammonites that
each group originated auddenly and spread out with great
rapidity. Dep^ret notes that the genus Neumayria^ an ammonite
of the Kimmeridgian, suddenly branches out into an "explosion"
of forms. Depfret also observes the contrast between periods
of quiescence and limited variability and periods of sudden
elRofcscenoe. A. Smith Woodward (" Relations of Palaeontok>gy
to Biology," Annals and Mag. Natural HisL^ 1Q06, p. 317) notes
that the fundamental advances in the growth of fish life have
always been sudden, beginning with excessive vigour at the end
of k>ng perioda of apparent stagnation; while each advance haa
been mvked by the fixed and definite acquisition of some new
anatomical character or *' expression point," a term first used
by Cope. One of the causea of these sudden advances ia un-
doubtedly to be found in the acquisition of a new and extremely
useful character. Thus the perfect jaw and the perfect pair of
lateral fins when first acquired among the fishea favoured a very
rapid and for a time unchecked development. It by no meana
follows, however, from this incontrovertible evidence that the
acquisition either of the jaw or of the lateral fins had not been in
itself an extremely gradual process.
Thus both invertebrate and vertebrate palaeontologists have
reached Independently the conclusion that the evolution of
groupa is not continuously at a uniform rate, but that there are,
especially in the beginnings of new phyla or at the time of
acquisition of new organs, sadden variations in the rate of evolu-
tion which have been termed variously '* rhythmic." ''pulsating,"
•* efflorescent," "intermiltcnl " and even " explosive " (Dep^ret).
• TWa varying rate of evolution has (fllogicany, we believe) been
compared with and advanced in support of the "mutation law
of De Vries,-'or the theory of laiutory evolution, whtdi we Ba>
next consider.
9. Hypalkefit of Iko SuddoH Appoaranu of Norn Parts or
Organs. — ^The rarity of really oontinuoua series haa naturally
led palaeontologbta to aupport the hypothesis of brusque tran-
sitions of structure. As we have seen, thb hypothesis was
fathered by Geoflroy St Hilaire in 1830 from hia studies of Meso-
aolc Crocodilia, was sustained by HaUemann, and quite recently
has been revived by such eminent palaeontologista aa Loub
DoUo and A. Smith Woodward. The evidence for it is not to be
confused with that for the law of rapid efflorescence of groufit
just considered. It should be remembered that palaeontology
is the most unfavourable field of all for observation and demon-
stration of sudden saltations or mutations of character, because
of the limited materials available for comparison and the rarity
of genetic seriea. It ahouM be home In mind, first, that w hq tf v e i
a new animal suddenly appeaza or a new character suddenly
arises in a fossil horiaon we must consider whether such appear-
ance maybe due to the non-discovery of transitional links with
older fbtms, or to the sudden invasion of a new type or new organ
which haa gradually evolved elsewhere. The rapid variation of
certain groups of anlmab or the acceleration of certain organs ta
also not evidence of the sudden appearance of new adaptive
characters. Such sudden appearances may be demonstrated
possibly in zoology and embryology but never can be demon-
strated by palaeontology, because of the incompleteness of the
geological record.
10. Decline or Senescence ef Groups. — ^Periods of gradual
evolution and of eflferescence may be followed by stationary or
senescent conditions. In his history of the Arieiidae Hyatt
poinu out that toward the cfose of the Cretaceous this entire
group of ammonites appean to have been affected with some
malaidy; the unrolled forms multiply, the septa are simplified,
the ornamentation beconas heavy, thick, and finally disappears
in the adult; the entire group ends by dying out and leaving no
descendants. This is not due to environmental conditions
solely, because senescent branches of normal progressive groups
are found in all geologic horiaona, beginning, for gastropods, ia
the Lower Cambrian. Among the ammonites the loss of power
to coil the shell is one feature of racial old age, and Ih others old
age h accompanied by closer coiling and loss of surface oma-
menution, such as spines, ribs, spirals; while in other forms aa
arresting of variability precedes extinction. Thus Williams has
observed that if we find a species breeding perfectly true we caa
conceive It to have reached the end of its racial life period.
Brocchi and Daniel Rosa (1899) have developed the hypothesis
of the progressive reduction of variability. Such decline b by no
means a universal law of life, however, because among many
of the continental vertebrates at least we observe extinctions
repeatedly occurring during the expres^ton of maximum varia-
bility. Whereas among many ammonites and gastropods smooth
ness of the shell, following upon an ornamental yonthfol
condition, is generally a symptom of decline, among many other
invertebrates and vertebrates, as C. E. Beecher (1856-1905) haa
pointed out (1898), many animals possessing hard paru tend
toward the doee of their racial history to produce a superfluity
of dead matter, which accumulates in the form of spines among
invertebrates, and of horns among the land vertebrates, reaching
a maximum when the animals are really on the down-grade of
development.
XI. The Extinction of Groups.— We have seen that different
lines vary In vitality and in longevity, that from the earliest
times senescent branches are given off. that different lines vary
In the rate of evolution, that extinction » often heralded by
symptoms of radal old age. which, however, vary widely in
different groups. In general we. find an analogy between the
development of groups and of organs; we discover that each
phyletic branch of certain organisms traverses a geologic career
comparable to the life of an individual, that we may often
distinguish, espedally among Invertebrates, a phase of yooth, a
phase of maturity, a phase of senility or degeneration fore-
shadowing the extinction of a type.
PALAEOSPONDYLUS
591
lotenial ctuiet of extinction ure to be found in exagferation
of body suet in the hypertrophy or over-specUIimion of certain
orgnni, in the inevenibility of evolution, and possibly, although
thto has not been demonstrated, in a progressive reduction of
variability. In a full analysis of this problem of internal and
external causes in rekttion to the. Tertiary Mammalia, H. F.
Osborn (" Causes of Extinction of the Mammalia," Amgr. Natur-
alist, 1906, pp. 7<kr79S> 839-859) finds that foremost in the long
series of causes which lead to extinction are the grander environ-
mental changes, such as physiographic changes, diminished or
contracted land areas, substitution of insular for continental
conditions; changes of dimaU and secular lowering of temperature
accompanied by defoiesution and checking of the food supply;
changes influencing the mating period as weU as fertility; changes
causing increased humidity^ which in turn favours enemies
among insect life. Similarly secular elevations of temperature,
either accompanied by moisture or desiccation, by increasing
droughts or by disturbance of the balance of nature, have been
followed by great waves of extinction of the Mammalia. In
the sphere of living environment, the varied evolution of plant
life, the periods of f orestation and deforestation, the introduction
of deleterious plants simultaneously with harsh conditions of life
and enforced migration, as well as of mechanically dangerous
plants, are among the well-ascertained causes of diminution and
extinction. The evolution of insect life in driving animals from
feeding ranges and in the spread of disease probably has been a
prime cause of extinction. Food competition among mammals,
especially intensified on islands, and the introduction of Camivora
constitute another class of causes. Great waves of extinction
have followed the long periods of the slow evolution of relatively
inadaptive types of tooth and foot structure, as first demon-
strated by WaJdemar Kowalevsky; thus mammals are repeatedly
observed in a ctd-de-sae of structure from which there is no escape
in an adaptive direction. Among still other causes are great
bulk, which proves. fatal under certain new conditions; rela-
tively slow breeding; extreme q)eciali2ation and development of
dominant organs, such as horns and tusks, on which for a time
selection centres to the detriment of more useful characters.
Uttle proof is afforded among the mammals of extinction
through arrested evolution or through the limiting of variation,
although such laws undoubtedly exist. One of the chief
deductions is that there are special dangers in numerical diminu-
tion of herds, which may arise from a chief or original cause
and be followed by a conspiracy of other causes which are cumu-
lative in effect. This survey of the phenomena of extinction in
one great class of animals certainly establishes the existence of an
almost infinite variety of causes, some of which are internal, some
external in origin, operating on animals of different kinds.
VIII.-
-XJnderlving Biological Principles as they
APPEAR TO THE PaLAEOKTOLOCIST
It follows from the above brief summary that palaeontology
affords a distinct and highly suggestive field of purely biological
research ; that is, of the causes of evolutton underlying the observ-
able modes which we have been describing. The net result
of observation is not favourable to the essentially Darwinian
view that the adaptive arises out of the fortuitous by selection,
but is rather favourable to the hypothesis of the existence of
some quite unknown intrinsic law of life which we are at present
totally unable to comprehend or even conceive. We have shown
that the direct observation of the origin of new characters in
palaeontology brings them within that domain of natural law
and order to which the evolution of the physical universe con-
forms. The nature of this law, which, upon the whole, appears
to be purposive or teleological in its operations, is altogether a
mystery which may or may not be illumined by future research.
In other words, the origin, or first appearance of new characters,
which is the essence of evolution, is an orderly process so far as
the vertebrate and invertebrate palaeontologist observes it.
The selection of organisms through the crucial test of fitness and
the 'Shaping of the organic world is an orderly process when
contemplated on a gr^ Kale, but of another kind; here the
test of fitness is sopreme. The only inkling of possible underlying
principles in this orderly process is that there i^pears to be in
respect to certain characters a potentiality or a predisposition
through hereditary kin^ip to evolve in certain definite directions.
Yet there is strong evidence against the existence of any law in
the nature of an internal perfecting tendency which would
operate independently of external conditions. In other words,
a balance appears to be always sustained between the internal
(hereditary and ontogenetic) and the external (environmental
and selcctional) factors of evolution.
BiBLiocRAPiiY. — Araong the older works on the history of
palaeontology arc the treatises of Giovanni Battbta Brocchi (1772-
1826), Conckietopa fossile Subappenina . . . Disc, sui progressi
ddlo studio . . . 1I43 (Milan); of Eticnnc Jules d'Aichiac, Htstoirt
du protris ds la tM^fis dt t^M d 1B62 (Paris. Soc. CM. ds France,
1847-1860): of Charles LyeU in his PtincipUs of Geology. A dear
narrative 01 the work of many of the earhcr contributors b found
in Founders of Geoiogy, by Sir Archibald Gcikie (London, 1897-
1905). The mo6t comprehensive and up-to-date reference work
on the I1 ' ' * ' ' ■ •-••••-••
ufidPai
1899), the final life-work of this ijrcat j ,, .._.
English in part by Maria M. Ogilvie-Gordon, entitled "History of
Geology and Palaeontology to the end of the 19th Century." The
succession of life from the earliest times as ft was known at thedoae
of the last century was treated by the same author in his HoiMueh
der P^UdorUdogie (5 vols., Munich and Leipzig, 1876-1893). Abbre-
viated cditMns of this work have appeared from the author. Crund-
tdgg der PaldonUdogie {Paiaeo*o<^gte) (Munich and Leiprig, 1895.
and ed., 1903), and in English form in Charics R. Eastman s Text'
Book of Palaeontology (IQ00-1902). A classic but unfinished work
describing the methods of invertebrate palacontokigy is Die Stdmme
des Tkierreieks (Vienna, 1889), by Mekhior Neumayr. In France
admirable recent works are Elements de PaUontMogie, by Felix
Bernard (Paris, 1895), and the still more recent philoeophical
treatise by Charics Dep&«t, Les Transformations du monde animal
(Paris, 1907). Huxley s researches, and especially hb share in the
development of the imiloaophy of palaeontology, will be found in
hb essays, Tke Scientific Memoes of Thomas Henry Huxley (4 vols.,
London, 1898-1902). The whole subject is treated systematically
in Nicholson and Lydekkcr's A Manual of Palaeontology (a vols.,
Edinburgh and London, 1889), and A. Smith Woodward s Outlines
of Vertebrate Palaeontology (Cambridge, 1698).
Among American contributions to vertebrate palacontokigy, the
J — I ^j ^£ Cope's theories is to be found in the volumes of
hb collected essays. The Origin of the Fittest (New York. 1887).
and The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution (Chicago^ 1896). A
brief summary of the rise of vertebrate palaeontology » found in
the address of O. Marsh , entitled " History and Methods of PaUeonto-
logical Discovery" (American Aasodatum for the Advancement
01 Science, 1870). The chief presenutions of the methods of the
American school of invertebrate palaeontologists are to be found in
.^. Hyatt'sgreat memoir " Genesis of the Arictidae " (Smithsonian
Contr, to Knowledge. 673, 1880). in Hyatt's " Phylogeny of an
Acquired Characteristic" (Philosophical Soe. Proe., vol. xxxii.
1804), and in Geological Biology, by H.S. Williams (New York. 1895).
In preparing the present article the author has drawn freely on
hb own addresses: see H. F. Osborn, " The Rise of the Mammalia
in North America" {Proc. Amer. Assn. Adv. Science, vol. xlii.,
i^3)« " Ten Years' Progress in the Mammalian Palacontokwy of
North America " (CompUs reudus du C^ Congykx mtem. de aoMogie,
sesMon de Bern, 1904), " The Present Problems of Palaeontology "
(Address before Section of ZooL International Coneress of Arts
and Science, St Louis, Sept. 1904), " The Causes of Extinction of
Mammalia " {Amer. Naturalist, x\. 7^9-795. 829-859, 1906).
(H. F. O.)
PALABOSPOHIITLUS, a small fish>like organism, of which
the skeleton is found fos^ in the Middle Old Red Sandstone
noB BrUih IfoMon OiM* «» F**WI KtpiiUt omi F<A«. bjr
pimn te^ of ik» TnoMBi.
Palaeospondylus gunni. restored by Dr R. H. Traquair.
(Neariy twke nat. siae.)
of Achananas, near Thuiso, Caithness. It was thus named
(Or. ancient vertebra) by Dr R. H. Traquair in 1890,10 allusion
to iU weU-devek)ped vertebral lings; and iu structure was
592
PALAEOTHERIUM— PALAEPHATUS
Studied in deun in 1903 by Professor and Miss SoUas, who
succeeded in making enlarged models of the fossil in wax.
The skeleton as preserved is carbonized, and indicates an eel-
shaped animal from 3 to s cm-i in length. The skull, which
must have consisted of hardened cartilage, exhibits pairs of
nasal and auditory capsules, with a gill-apparatus below its
hinder part, but no indications of ordinary jaws. The anterior
opening of the brain-case is surrounded by a ring of hard drri.
A pair of " post-branchial plates " projects backwards from the
head. The vertebral axis shows a series of broad rings, with
distinct neural arches, but no ribs. Towards the end of the body
both neural and haemal arches are continued into forked
radial cartilages, which support a median fin. There are no
traces either of paired fins or of dermal armour. The affinities
of Palaeospondylus are doubtful, but it is probably related to
the contemporaneous atmoured Ostracoderms.
Repbebncbs.— R. H. Traquair. paper in Proc. Roy. Phys. See.
EdiM., xtL 312. (1894): W. J, Sollas and 1. B. j. Soltaa. paper in
PkO. Traps. Roy. Soc. (1903 B.). (A. S. Wo.)
PALABUTHKRIUM (i.e. ancient animal), a name applied by
Cttvier to the remains of ungulate mammals recalling tapirs
in general appearance, from the Lower OUgoccne gypsum
quarries of Paris. These were the first indications of the
(Tran tke Paih gypwai.)
Reatoration of PMlaeotherium matnum. (About i nat. size.)
occurrence in the fossil state of pcrissodactyle ungulates allied
to the horse, although it was long before the relationship was
recognised. The palaeotheres, which range in sixe from that
of a pig to that of a small rhinoceros, are now regarded as repre-
senting a family, Palaeotkeriidae, nearly related to the horse-
tribe, and having, in fact, probably originated from the same
ancestral stock, namely, Hyracotherium of the Lower Eocene
(see Equidae). The connecting link with Hyracotherium was
formed by Pachynobphus {Propalaeotherium), and the line
apparently terminated in Paloplotherium, which is also OUgoccne.
Representatives of the family occur in many parts of Europe,
but the typical genus b unknown in North America, where,
however, other forms occur.
Although palaeotheres resemble tapirs in general appearance,
they differ in having only three toes on the fore as wcU as on the
hind foot. The dentition normally comprises the typical scries
of 44 teeth, although in some instances the first ptemohir is
wanting. The cheek-teeth are short-crowned, generally with
no cement, the upper molars having a W-shaped outer wall,
from which proceed two oblique transverse crests, while the lower
ones carry two crescents. Unlike the eariy horses, the later
premolars are as complex as the molars; and although there is a
well-marked gap between the canine and the premolars, there is
only a very short one between the former and the incisors. The
orbit is completely open behind. In other respects the palaeo-
theres resemble the ancestral horses. They were, however,
essentially marsh-dwdling animals, and exhibit no tendency to
the ciinorial type of limb so characteristic of the horse-line. They
were, in fact, essentially inadaptive creatures, and hence rapidly
died out. (R.L.*)
PALAEOZOIC ERA, in geology, the oldest of the great time
divisions in which organic remains have left any clear record.
The three broad divisions — Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, Cainozoic —
which an employed by geologists to mark three ita«et In the
development of life on the earth, are based primarily upon tke
fossil contents of the strata which, at one point or another, hnvc
been continuously forming sinoe the vety earliest time*. Tbc
precise line in the " record of the rocks " where the chronicle
of the Palaeozoic era closes and that of the Metozoic cim opens —
as in more recent historical documents — ^is a matter for editorial
caprice. The eariy geologists took the most natural dividing
lines that came within their knowledge, namely, the Hnc of change
in general petrological characters, e.g. the ** Transition Scries "
(Ober gangs gebirge), the name given to rocks approximately of
Palaeozoic age by A. G. Werner bccausi; they udiibited a timnsi-
tional stage between the older crystalline rocks and the y o ung er
non-crystalline; later in Germany these same rocks were said to
have been formed in the " Kohlenperiode " by H. G. Bronn and
others, while in England H. T. de U Beche classed them as a
Carbonaceous and Grcywacke group. Finally, the divisional time
separating the Palaeozoic record from that of the Mesosoic was
made to coincide with a great natural break or unconformity of
the strata. This was the most obvious coarse, for where such
a break occurred there would be the most maiked differences
between the fossils found below and those found above the
physical discordance. The divisions in the fossil record having
been thus established, they must for convenience remain, but
their artificiality cannot be too strongly emphasized, for the
broad stratigraphical gaps and h'thological groups which made
the divisions sharp and clear to the earlier geologists are proved
to be absent in other regions, and fossils which were formerly
deemed characteristic of the Palaeozoic era are found in some
places to commingle with forms of strongly marked Mesosoic
type. In short, the record is more neariy complete than was
originally supposed.
The Palaeozoic or Primary era Is divided into the fbOowiag
periods or epochs: Cambrian, Ordovician, Sflurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous and Permian. The fact that fossils found in the
rocks of the three earlier epochs— Cambrian, Ordovician, Sihuian
— have features in common, as f*istinguished from those in the
three later epochs has led ceruin authors to divide this era into
an earlier, Protozoic (Proterozoic) and a later Deuteroaoic time.
The rocks of Palaeozoic age are mainly sandy and moddy
sediments with a considerate development of limestone in
places. These sediments have been altered to shales, slntca»
quanzitcs, &c., and frequently they are found in a highly meta-
morphosed condition; in eastern North America, however, and
in north-east Europe they still maintain their horizontality and
primitive texture over large areas. The fossils of the esrfier
Palaeozoic rocks are characterized by the abundance of triloUtcs,
graptolttes, brachiopods, and the absence of all vertebrates except
in the upper strau; the later rocks of the era are distinguished by
the absence of graptolites, the gradual failing of the trilobites. the
continued predominance of brachiopods and tabulate corals, the
abundance of crinoids and the rapid development of placoderm
and heterocercal ganoid fishes and amphibians. The land planu
were all cryptogams, Upidodendron, SigiUaria, followed by
Conifers and Cycads. It is obvious from the advanced stage of
development of the organisms found in the earliest of these
Palaeo^ic rocks that the beginnings of h'fe must go much farther
back, and indeed organic remains have been found in rocks
older than the Cambrian; for convenience, therefore, the base
of the Cambrian b usually placed at the zone of the tzilobite
OteneUus. U.A.H.)
PALAEPHATUS, the author of a small extant treatise, entitled
Ilepi 'Avtaruv (On " Lxiredible Things "). It consists of a series
of rationalizing explanations of Gredc legends, without nny
attempt at arrangement or plan, and is probably an cpitoctte,
composed in the Byzantine age, of some laiger work, perhaps the
A69c». rGm pnOuuis ^fihtuf, mentioned by Siddas as the
work of a grammarian of Egypt or Athens. Suldas himsdf
ascribes a IIcpl 'Airiana^, in five books, to Polaephatus of Paros or
Priene. The author was perhaps a contemporary of Euhemcms
(3rd century B.C.). Suidas mentions two other writers of the
name: (1) an epic poet of Athens, who lived before the timn «l
PALAESTRA— PALAMCOTTAH
593
HooMr; <a) an hiHotiia of Abydus, aa intimAte friend of
AriBtotkb
See edidofl by N. Petta.'In Uytkotmpld tneei (1909), ia the
Teubner lenea* wkb valuable prolegpni«na sappleaientary to
Intorno aW opuueU dl P^kjato 44 dmredibiUbus (1890), by the
same writer.
PALAESTRA (Gr. miXadarpa), the name apparently applied
by the Greeks to two kinds of places used for gymnastic and
athletk exercises. In the one case it seems confined to the pUces
where boys and youths received a general gymnastic tnuning,
in the other to a part of a gymnasium where the oMekie, the
competitors in the public games, were trained in wrestling
{raXalwf, to wrestle) and boxing. The boys' fdctitrae were
private institutions and generally bore the name of the manager
or of the founder; thus at Athens there was a pahetlra of Taureas
iFUto, Ckarmidts), The Romans used the terms ^yiimartaim and
palaestra indiscriminately for any place where gymnastic ezerdses
were carried on.
PALAFOX DE MENDQZA, JUAN DB (1600-1659), Spanish
bishop, was bom in Aragon. He was appointed in 1839 bishop
of Angelopolis (Puebla de los Angeles) in Mexico, and there
honourably distinguished himself by his e£Ebrts to protect the
natives from Spanish cruelty, forbidding any methods of con-
yersion other than persuasion. In this he met with the uncom-
promising hostility of the Jesuits, whom in 1647 he laid under an
interdict. He twice, in X647 and 1649, laid a formal comi^aint
against them at Rome. Tbe pope, however, refused to approve
his censures, and all he could obtain was a brief from Innocent X.
(May 14, 1648), commanding the Jesuiu to respect t^e episcopal
jurisdiction. In z 653 the Jesuits succeeded in securing his trans-
lation to the little see of Osma in Old Castile. In 1694 Charles IL
of Spain petitioned for his canonixatbn; but though this passed
through the preliminary stages, securing for Palafox the title
of " Venerable," it was ultimately defeated, under Pius VI.,
by the intervention of the Jesuits.
See Antonio Goosalei de Resende, Vie d» Pakjax (French trans.,
Paris, 1690}.
PALAFOX Y MELZI. lOSB DB (1780-1847). dnke of Sara-
goasa, was the youngest son of an old Aragonese family.
Brought up at the Spanish court, he entered the guuds at an
early age, and in x8o8 as a sub-lieutenant accompanied Ferdinand
to Bayonne; but after vainly attempting, in company with
others, to>8ecure Ferdinand's escape, he fled to Spain, and
after a short period of retirement placed himself at the head
of the patriot movement in Aragon. He was proclaimed by
the populace governor of Saragossa and captain-general of
Aragon (May 35, 1808). Despite the 1nrai\t of money and of
regular troops, he lost no time in declaring war against the French,
who had already overrun the neighbouring provinces of Catalonia
and Navarre, and soon afterwards the attack be had provoked
began. Saragossa as a fortress was both antiquated in design
and scantily provided with mtmition^ and supplies, and the
defences resisted but a short time. But it was at that point
that the real resistance began. A week's street fighting made
the assailants masters of half the town, but Palafox's brother
succeeded in forcing a passage into the dty with 3000 troops.
Stimulated by the appeals of Palafox and of the fierce and
resolute demagogues who ruled the mob, the inhabitants resolved
to contest possession of the remaining quarters of Saragossa
inch by inch, and if necessary to retire to the suburb across the
Ebro, destroying the bridge. The struggle, which was prolonged
for nine days longer, resulted in the withdrawal of the French
(Aug. 14), after a siege which had lasted 6x days in dl.
Palafox then attempted a short campaign in the open country,
but when Napoleon's own army entered Spain, and destroyed
one hostile army after another in a few weeks, Palafox was
forced back into Saragossa, where he sustained a still more
memorable second siege. This ended, after three months, in
the fall of the town, or rather the cessation of resistance, for the
town was in ruins and a pestilence had swept away many
thousands of the defenders. Palafox himself, suffering from
the epidemic, fell into the hands of the French and was kept
XX to*
prifoaer at Viacennes mitfl December 18x3. In Jane 16x4 he
was confirmed in the oflke of captain-general of Aragon, but
soon- afterwards withdrew from it, and ceased to take part in
public affairs. From 1820 to 1823 he commanded the royal
guard of King Ferdinand, but, taking the side of the Constitution
in the civil troubles which followed, he was stripped of all his
honours and offices by the king, whose restoration by French
bayonets was the triumph of reaction and absolutism. Palafox
remained in retirement for many years. He received the tide
of duke of Saragossa from Queen Mazia Christine. From X836
he took part in military and political affairs as captain-general
of Aragon and a senator. He died at Madrid on the isth of
Februaiy X847.
A bioffraphical notiee of Palafox appeared hi the Spanish trans-
lation oTThiera's HisL des amsidaits ie Vemfire, by P. de Madrseai
For the two aic^ of Saragossa, see C W. C Oman. Peninsmar
War, vol. L; this account <s both more accurate and more just
than Napier's.
PALAMA8, OREOORIUS (e. 129^1359). Greek mystic and
chief apologist of the Hesychasts iq.v.\ belonged to a dis*
tinguished Anatolian family, and his father held an important
position at Constantinople. Palamas at an early age retired
to Mt Athos, whero he became acquainted with the mystical
theories of the Hesychasts.. In 1326 he went to SkSte near
Beroea, where he spent some years in isolation in a cdl specially
built for him. His health having broken down, he returned to
Mt Athos, but, finding little rdQef, removed to Thessalonica.
About this time Barlaam, the Calabrian monk, began his atudu
u^n the monks of Athos, and Palamas came forward as their
champion. In X34X and X35X he took part in the two synods
at Constantinople, which definitively secured the victory of the
Palamites. During the civil war between John Cantacuzene and
the Palaeologi, Palamas was imprisoned. After Cantacuxene's
victory in 1347, Palamas was released and appointed arch-
bishop of Thessalom'ca; being refused admittance by the
inhabitants, he retired to the islimd of Lenmos, but subsequently
obtained his see. Palamas endeavoured to justify the mysticism
of the Hesychasts' on dogmatic grounds. The chief objects of
his attack were Barlaam, Gregorius Adndynus and Nicepborus
Gregoras.
Pabmas was a prolific vKier. but only a Few of tl* worfei havt
been published, moat of wlii* h ^iH be found in J. f*. Mignc, Patrtf-
logia tjnuca (d., cli.}. They t ini^tit of jwlcmics agaln&t the Latins
and their doctrine of the Pr. iv^iiyo of Iht Holy Gb«t; HM>tha6tic
writings: homilies: a life of it Ptter (4 monk ot Athtu}^ a rhetnricil
essay Prosopopeia (ed. A. Jjhn, iS^), cojit^mlnff the acnuitiona
brought against the body by rlic smi!. fhe tMnir* mndt by thr
body, and the final prooourvrpr, . , r . ■ =v, • .' ■ ■ r '' <hc
body, on the ground that itt Mn» .ir- ilit r: ^ . • ^,Ma _ 1.-^.^11:4;.
See the historical works of John Cantacuzene and Nicepborus
Gregorls. the VUa Palamae by Philotheus, and the encomium by
Nilus (both patriarchs of Constantinople): abo C. Krumbsdier,
Cesckickle der bywantimisehen LHUratur (1897).
PALAHAU, a district of British India, in the ChotarNagpor
division of Bengal. It was formed out of Lohardaga, in i8g4,
and takes its name from a former state or chiefship. The
administrative headquarters are at Daltonganj: pop. (1901),
5837. It consists of the lower spurs of the ChoU-Nagpur
plateau, skping north to the valley of the Son. Area 4914
sq. m.; pop. (1901), 619,600^ showing an increase of 3*8% fai
the decade; average density, xa6 peisohs per sq. m., being the
lowest in all BengaL Pahunau suflfered severely from drought
in 1897. A branch of the East Indian railway from the Son
valley to the valuable coalfield near Daltpnganj was opened in
X902. "The only articles of export are jungle produce, such
aa lac and tussur silk. The forests are unprofitable.
See Palamau DisiHct CaaOker (Cafeutta, X907). "
PALAMCOTTAH, a town of British India, in the TinneveOy
district of Madras, on the opposite bank of the Tambrapami
river to Tihnevelly town, with which it shares a station on the
South Indian railway. 444 «!• south of Madras. P^. (1901)1
39>54^ It b the administrative headquarten of theifistrict,
and also the chief centre of Christian missions in south India.
Among many educational institutions may be mentioned tlw
Sarah Tucker College for Women, founded in 1895.
594
PALAMEDES— PALATINATE
PAUIIPIB. in GiMk. leteod, aoa of Nauplius kiac of
Euboea, one of the heroes of the Trojan War, belonging to the
pest-Homeric ^yde of legends. During the siege of Troy, Aga^
memnon, Diomedes and Odysseus (who had been detected by
Palamedcs in an attempt to escape going to Troy by shamming
madness) caused a letter containing money and purporting to
come from Priam to be concealed in his tent. They then
accused Palamedes of treasonable correspondence vrith the
enemy, and he was ordered to be stoned to death. Hisfather
exacted a fearful vengeanc e from the Greeks on their way home,
by placing false Ughts on the promontory of Caphareus. The
story of Palamedes was first handled in the Cyfria of Stasiaus,
and formed the subject of lost plays by Aeschylus {Pahmtdts)^
Sophodes {fiimpUm), Euripides (PoloMeifei), of which some
fragments remain. SophisU and rhetoricians, such as Gorgiss
and Alddamas, amused themselves by writing dedamatfens in
favour of or sgainst him. Palamedes was regarded as the
inventor of the alphabet, lighthouses, weighu and messuzcs,
dice, backgammon and the discus.
See Euripides. OrtsUs, 4A3 and achol.; Ovid. Mdam. nii. 56;
Senritta<m Vtrgfl. Aauid, ii. to, and Nettleahip*s note in Coninfton's
editkM ; PhikMtfatus, Hatoka, 1 1 ; Euripidei. Ttai. 581 ; for diHcfent
vernoos of his death eee Dictys Cretefrns IL 15; Faoanias
ii. 30, 3:x. 11, 2; Dares Phrygius,38; monograph by O. Jahn
(Hamburg, 1836).
PALAMPUR, a native state of India, in the Gujarat division
of Bombay, on the southern border of Rajpotana. Area, 1766
sq. m.; pop. (1901), 232,627, showing a decrease of 29 % in the
decade. The country is mountainous, with much forest towards
the xwrth, but undulating and open in the south and east. The
prindpal rivers are the Saraswati and Banas. The estimated
gross. revenue is £50,000; tribute to the gaekwar of Baroda, £2564.
The chief, whose title is diwan, is an Afghan by descent, llie state
is traversed by the main line of the Rajputana-Malwa railway,
and contains the British cantonment of Dcesa. Wheat, rice
and sugar-cane are the chief products. The state has suffered
severely of recent yean from plague. The town of Palantto
is a railway junction for Deesa, x8 bl distanL Pop. (1901),
X7»799.
Palanpur also ^ves its name to a political agency, or ooIlectloB
of native sUtes; total area, 6393 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 4)^7,271,
showing a decrease of 38 % in the decade^ doc to tbe effects
of ff fwtn^
PALAMHUDI (pronounced pahnkten, a form in which It b
sometimes quelled), a covered litter used in India and other
Eastern ooontrics. It is usually some eight feet long by four feet
in width and depth, fitted with movable blinds or shutters, and
slung on poles carried by four bearers. Indian and Chinese
women of rank always travelled in pdaHquim, and they were
largely used by European residenU in India before the railways.
The 9unman0 of Japan and the kituim of China differ from the
Indtaa pT^r'*T"'* only in the metliod of attarhing the poles to
the body of the conveyance. The word came fato European
use thitragh Von, paUtaqmrn, which lepwicnts an East Indian
word seen in several forms, e.r- Haky and Javanese pala$tiki,
Hindowani palki, PaJi paUanko, &c, all in the sense of litter,
couch, bed. The Sansk. fatyanka, couch, bed, the sonice of
all these words, is derived from pari, round, about, and auka,
booh. The Ntw JSngfisk DieUanary points out the curious
resemblance of these words with the Latin nse of fkalania
(Gr. ^AXvyO for a bearing or canying pok^ whence the Spaa.
palattea and falanqumo, ft bearer.
PALAn (Lat. paUtim, possibly from the not of patetn,
to feed), the roof of the mouth in man and vertebrate animak.
The palate is divided into two parU, the anterior bony " hard
palate " (see Moutb), and the posterior fleshy ''solt palate "
(see PoAnvKx). For the malformation consisting in a longl-
tndinal fissure in the roof of the mouth, see Clzr Paiate.
PALAIUATB ((kr. I^0k), a name given generally to any
district mlcd by a count pa la l ine , but parUcularly to a district
of Gennany, a province of the kingdom of Bavaria, lying west
of the Rhine. It is bounded on the N. by the Prussian Rhine
province and the Hcs&ian province of Rhein-Ucsaen; on the £.
by Baden, from which It is scpiiated by the Rhine; on ths
S. by the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, from which it in
divided by the Lauter; and 00 the W. by the admiaistnuive
districu of Trier and Cobleur, behmging to the Prussian Rhine
provimx. Jt has an area of ssM sq. m., and a pepolafion (1905)
of 885,280, showing a density of 386*9 to the Square mile. As
regards religion, the Inhabitants aro fairly equally distributed
Into Roman Catholics and Protestants.
The rivers in this fertile tract of eDanHy are the Rhine,
Lanter, Qudch,-^peirbach, Glan and Blies. The Voages, and
their continuation the Hardt, nm through the Und from aoutb
to north and divide it faito the fertile and mild plain of the
Rhfaie, together with the sbpe of the Hardt range, on the east,
and the rather inclement district on the west, which, mnmnc
between the Saatbrfick earboniferous mountaina and the northern
spun of the Hardt range, ends In a porphyrons duster of hSIs,
the highest point of which is the Donnenberg (2254 ft.). The
country on the east side and on the slopes of the Hardt yidd
a immber of the most varied products, such as wine., fruit, com,
vegetables, flax and tobacco. ^ Cattle are reared in great
quantity and are of cs wellep t. quality. The mines yidd iron,
coal, quicksilver and salt. The industries are very active,
especially hi iron, machinery, paper, chemicals, shoes, wnoUea
goods, beer, leather and tobacco. The province is weO serwd
by railway commnnirafien and, for purposes of admlnistntlon,
is divided into the foUowing x6 districU: Beigxabem,
DQrkheim, Frankrnthal, Germenhdm, Homburg, Kaisets-
lautem, Klrdiheimbolaaden, Kusd^ Landan, Ludwigshafen,
Neustadt, Pirmasens, Rockenhaosen, Sc Ingbert, Spires and
ZwetbrOcken. - Spires (Speyer) b the seat of government, and
the chid industrial centres are Ludwigshafen on the Rhine,
which is the pzindpal river port, Landan, and Neustadt, the
seat of the wine trade.
See A. Becker. Dit PfaU uni Ht Pfiher (Lei(»g. 1857): Mdilis,
FakrUm dwck dit Pfah (Augsburg, 1877); Kianx. Uamihmck dtr
Plait (Spires, 1902); Henaen, PfatsfUkrer (Neustadt. 1965); and
Niher, Du Burgm itr rImmsekM PfaU (StxasriMOg, 1887).
Hftftory.— The count palatine of the Rhine was a royal official
who is first mentloBed in the loth century. The first count was
Hermann L, who ruled from 945 to 998, and although the olRot
was not hereditary it appears to have been hdd mainly by his
deteendanu until the death of Count Hermaim HI. .in tiss.
These counts had gradually extended thdr powers, had obtained
the rifjttt of advocacy over the archbishop of Trier and the
bishopric of Juliers, and ruled various isolated districu aloi«
the RUae. In X155 the Gctman king, Frederick I., appointed
his step-brother Conrad as count palatine. Conrad took up
his residence at the caatle of Juttenbubd, near Hdddberg,
which became the capital of the Palatinate. In X195 Conrad
waa succeeded by his son-in-law Henry, son of Henry the Iioo«
duke of Saxony, wbo was a lojral supporter of the emperor Henry
VL After the laiter's death in X197 he assisted his own brother
Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., in his attempts to gaia
the German throne. Ouo rduMd to reward Heary for ths
support, so in 1204 he assisted his rival, the German king PhiKp,
but returned to Otto's side after Philip's murder in tsoS. In
xaxx Henry abdicated in favour of his son Henry, who died in
xai4, when the Pslatinate wss given by the German king
Frederick H. to Otto, the infant son of Louis I., duke of Bavaria,
of the Wittdsbach family, who waa betrothed to
Agnca, sister of the late count, Henry. The break-up of the
duchy of Frsnoonia had Increased the influence of the count
paladne of the Rhine, aad the unportanoe of hk position among
the princes of the empire is shown by Roger of Hoveden, wbo.
writing of the election to the <3erman throne in X198, singira
out four princes as chid dectors, among whom k the ooaat
palatine of the Rhine. In the Saekstntpitgd, a collection of
(krmsa kws which was written before 1235, the ooont is gives
as the butler (dapifer) of the emperor, the first pkce amoBg tka
ky electors.
The Paktinate was ruled by Louis of BavarU on bdialf of
his son until 1228, when it psased to Otto who rukd until hia
I death in 1353. Otto% possessions were soon afterwards £nded«
PALATINE
595
and Uf ddcr son Louis H. received the PklatxiuLte and Upper
Bavaria. Louis died in 1294 when these districts passed to
his son Rudolph L (d. 13x9), and subsequently to his gnmdson
Louit, afterwards the emperor Louis IV. By the TVeaty of
Pavia hi 1339, Louis granted the Pabtfaiau to his nephews
Rudolph n. and Rupert I., who received from him at the same
time a portion of the duchy of Upper Bavaria, which was called
the upper Palatinate to distinguish it from the Rhenish, or
lower Pahitinate. Rudolph di^ in 1353 1 after which Rupert
ruled alone until his death in X390. In 1355 he had sold a
portion of the upper Palatinate to the emperor Charies IV.,
but by various purchases he increased the area of the Rhenish
Palatinate. His successor was his nephew Rupert 11., who
bought from the German king Wenceslaus a portion of the
territory that his uncle had sold to Charles IV. He died In
1398 and was succeeded by his son Rupert HI. In 1400 Rupert
was elected German king, and when he died in 14x0 his pofises*
sions were divided among his four sons: the eldest, Louis IIL,
received the Rhenish Palatinate proper; the second son, John,
obtained the upper Palatinate; while the outlying districts of
ZweibrOcken and Slnunem passed to Stephen, and that of
Mosbach to OUo.
Whea the possessions of the house of Wittelsbach were
divided in 1255 and the branches of Bavaria and the Palatinate
were founded, a dispute arose over the exercise of the electoral
vote, and the question was not settled until hi 1356 the Golden
Bull bestowed the privilege upon the count polathie of the
Rhine, who exercised it until 1623. The part played by Count
Frederick V., titular king of Bohemia, during the Thirty Years'
War induct the emperor Ferdinand II. to deprive him of his
vote and to transfer it to the duke of Bavaria, Maximilian I.
By the Pttoe of Westphalia in 1648 an eighth electorate
was created for the count palatine, to which was added the
office of treasurer. In 1777, however, the coimt resumed the
ancient position of his family in the electoral college, and
regained the office of steward which he retain^ until the formal
dittolution of the 'empire In x8o6.
To return to the history of the Palatinate as divided mto
four parts among the sons of the German king Rupert In 1410.
John, the second ol these brothers, died in 1443, and his son
Christopher) having become king of Denmark in Z44O) did not
inherit the upper Palatinate, which was again united with the
Rhenish Palatinate. Otto, the soaof Otto (d. X46i)> Rupert's
fourth son, who had obtained ^losbach, died without sons in
X499, and this line became extinct, leaving only the two remaining
lines with interests in the Rhenish Palatinate. After Rupert's
death this was governed by his eldest son, the' elector Louis IIL
(d. 1436), and then by the latter's sons, Louis IV. (d. X449) and
Frederick L The elector Frederick, called .the Victorious, was
one of the foremost princes of his time. His nephew and
successor, the elector Philip, carried oh a war for the possession
of the duchy of Bavaria-Landshut, which had been bequeathe<l
to his son Rupert (d. 1504), but, when in X507 an end was put to
this struggle, Rupert's son. Otto Henry, only received Neuburg
and SulabadL Louis V. and then Frederick II. succeeded
Philip, but both died without sons and Otto Henry became
elector. He. too died without sons in 1559, when the senior
branch became extinct, leaving only the branch descended
from Rupert's third son, StepheiL
Alreat^ on Stephen's death in 1459 this family had been
divided into two branches, those of Simmem vid of Zwei-
brflcken, and in xsx4 the latter branch had been divided into
the lines of ZweibrOcken proper and of Veldentx. It was
Frederick, count palatine of Simmem, who succeeded to the
Palatinate on Otto Henry's death, becoming the elector
Frederick III. The new elector, a keen but not a very bigoted
Calvinist, was one of the most active of the Protestant princes.
His mm and successor, Louis VL (d. 1583), was a Lutheran,
but another son, John Casimir, who ruled the electorate on
behalf of his yotng nephew, Frederick IV., from 1583 to 1592,
gave every encouragement to the Calvinists. A simflar Ihie
of action was folldwed by Frederick IV. himself after x 592.
He WIS the fMmder and had of the EvsngiiiGal Union estab-
lished to combat the aggressive tendencies of tbe Roman
Catholics. His son, the elector Frederick V., accepted the throne
of Bohemia and thus brought on the Thirty Ycaxs' War. He
was quickly driven from that country, and his own electorate
was devastated by tbe Bavarians and Spaniards. At the peace
of Westphalia hi 1648 the Pahitinate was restored to Frederick's
son, CharlM Louis, but it was shorn of the upper Palatinatft
which Bavaria retained as the prise of war.
Scarcely had the Palatinate begun to recover when it was
attacked by Louis XIV. For six years (1673-79) the decto^
rate was devastated by the FVench troops, and even after the
Treaty of Nijmwegen it suffered from the aggrcHive policy of
Louis. In August x68o the elector Charies Louis died, and
when his son and successor, Charles, followed him to the graw
five years later the ruling faokily became extinct in the senior
Kne. Mention has already beoa made of a division of this
family into two hncs after 1459, and of a further divisioii of the
Zweibrttcken line in 15x4, iriien again two lines were founded^
The junior of these, that of Vddenta, became extinct fai
1694, but the senior, that of ZweibrOcken proper, was still very
flourishfflg. Under Count Wolfgang (d. 1569) it had pins
chased Sulzbach and Neuburg in xss7, and in the peison of his
grandson, Wolfgang WUliam (d. 165$) it had secured the coveted
duchies of Juliexs and Berg. It was PhiGp WQUam of Neaburgi
the son of Wolfgang WnBam, who became dector palatine
in succession to Charies in 1685.
The French Ung's brother, Philip, duke of Orieans, had
married Chariotte Elizabeth, a sister of the late dector Charles;
and consequently the French kmg ^imed a part of Charles's
lands in x68o. His troops took Heidelberg and devastated the
PaJatinate, whUe Philip WiDiam took refuge fai Vienna, where
he died in 1690. Then in 1697, by the Treaty of Ryswick,
Louis abandoned his claim in return for a sum cif money. Just
before this date the Palatinate began to be disturbed by troubles
about rdigion. The great majority of the inhabitants were
Protestants, but the family which succeeded in 1685 bdonged
to' the Roman Catholic Church. Philip William, however,
gave .equal rights to all his subjects, but tmder ha son and
successor, the dector John William, the Protestants were
deprived of various dvil rights until the intervention of Prussia
and of Brunswick in 1705 gave them some redress. The next
dector, a brother of the last one, was Charies PhiKp, who
removed his capital from Hddelberg to Maimheun in X72a
He died without male issue In December 1742. His successor
was his kinsman, Charles Theodore, count palatine of Sulzbach,
a cadet of the ZweibrOcken-Neuburg line, and xiow with the
exception of one or two small pieces the whole of the Palatinate
was united under one ruler. Charles Theodore was a prince of
refined and educated tastes and during his long reign his country
enjoyed prosperity. In 1777 on the extinction of the other
branch of the house of Wittelsbach, he became dector of
Bavaria, and the Palatinate was henceforward united with
Bavaria, the dector's capital being Munich. Charles Theodore
died without legitimate sons in 1799, and his successor was
Maximilian Joseph, a member of the Birkenfdd branch of the
ZweibrOcken family, who later became king of Bavaria as
Maximilian I.
In 1802 the elector was obliged to cede the portion of the
Palatinate lying on the left bank of the Rhine to France, and
other portions to Baden and to Hesse-Dannatadt. Much of
this, however, was regained In x8x5, and since that date the
Palatinate has formed part of the kingdom of Bavaria.
See Widder, Versiuh nner vottsUndiren jeoiraphisch-kistonschen
Beschnibung der KurfHrsUichen Pfdt (Frankfort. 1786-1788);
L. Hauner. (ksckkku der ittMntidhm PfsU (Hdddbm 184S);
Nebeoiiv. Cesekicktt der Pfait (HdddbmL 1874) : GOmbd. Gwkitkl^
der proUstantiuhtn JTtrcte dtr PfaU (Kaiwralautern, 1885): the
RtnsUn dtr PJaUgrafen gm JUmn, 1214-1508, edited by Koch
and WiOe gnmbnick. X804): and Wild, BUdenOas mr %adiulh
fffdlmcken CackidUt (Heidelbeig, 1904).
FALiTDfB (from Lat. palatum, a palace,) pertainhg to the
palace and therefore to the emperor, king Or other soverdgn
596
PALATKA— PALAZZOLO ACREIDE
rukr. In the later Ronuui Empire certaia offidab atteodiag
OB tho emperor, or diyhaiging other duties at his court, were
called pakUmi; from the time of Constantine the Great the
term was also applied to the soldiers stationed in or around the
capital to H«tinjiiUi* them from those stationed on the frontier
of the empire. In the East Roman Empire the word was used
to designate officials concerned with the administration of the
finances and the imperial lands.
This use of the word palatine was adopted by the Prankish
kings of the Merovingian dynasty. They empbyed a high
official, the tames palatimust who at first assisted theking in his
judicial duties and at a later date discharged many of these
himsdf. Other counts palatine were emplojred on military
and administrative work, and the system was maintained by
the CaroUngian sovereigns. The word paladin, used to describe
the followers of Charlemegne, is a variant of palatine. A
Fhmkish capitulary of 883 and Hinrmafi archbishop of Reims,
writing about the same time, testify to the extent to which the
Jndidal work of the Prankish Empire had passed into their handsi
and one- grant of power was followed by another. Instead of
remaining near the person of the king, some of the counts
palatine were sent to various parta of his empire to act as
judges and governors, the districts ruled by them being called
palatinafrs, Being in a special sense the representatives of
the sovereign they were entrusted with more extended power
than the ordinary counts. Thus oomes the later and more
general use of the word palatine, its application as an adjective
to persons entrusted with spedal powers and also to the districts
over which these powers were exercised. By Henry the Fowler
and espedally by Otto the Great, they were sent into all parts
of the. country to support the royal authority by checking the
independent tendencies of the great tribal dukes. We hear
ci a count palatine in Salony, and of others in Lorraine, in
Bavaria and in Swabia, their duties being to administer the
royal estates in these duchies. The count palatine in Bavaria,
an office held by the family of Wittelsbach, became duke of this
land, the lower title being then merged in the higher one; and
with one other exception the German counts palatine soon became
insignificant, although, the office having become hereditary,
Pfslzgrafen were in existence until the dissolution of the Holy
Roman Empire in x8o6. The exception was the count palatine
of the Rhine, who became one of the .four lay electors and the
most important lay official of the empire. In the empire the
word count palatine was also used to designate the officials
who assisted the emperor to exercise the rights which were
reserved for his personal consideration. Tibey were called
comita palatini coesam, or eomiUt saai palatii; in German,
BofpfaUgrafem.
From G«many the tenn palatine passed into England and
Scotland, into Hungary and Poland. It appears in England
about the end of the xxth century, being applied by Ordericus
Vitalis, to Odo, bishop of Bayeux and cari of Kent. The word
palatine came in England to be applied to the carb, or rulers,
of certain counties, men who enjoyed exceptional powers.
Their exceptional position is thus described by Stubba {Consl,
Hist. voL I): .T%ey were " earidoms in whidi the earb were
endowed with the superiority of whole counties, so that all
the landhokto held feudally of them, in which they received
the whole profits of the courts and exercised all the regalia or
royal rights, nominated the sheriffs,' held their own councfla
and actMl as independent princes except in the owing of homage
and fealty to the. king/' The most important of the counties
palatine were Durham and Chester, the bishop of the one and
the eari of the other receiving spedal privilegea from William I.
Chester had its own parliament, consisting of barons of the
county, and was not represented in the national assembly
until 1541, while it retained some of its spedal privilegea untfl
1830. The bishop of Duriiam retained temporal jurbdiction
over the county until 1836. Lancashire was made a county,
or duchy, palatine in i^Sif and kept some of its special judicial
privileges until 1873. Thus for several centuries ihe king's
writs did not run in these three palatine counties, and at the
p re se nt day Lancashire and Durham have their own ooaxts of
chancery. Owing to the ambiguous application of the word
palatine to Odo of Bayeux, it is doubtful whether Kent was ever
a palatine county; if so, it was one only for a few yean during
the xxth century. Other pabtine counties, which only retimed
thdr exceptional position for a short time, were Shropshire,
the Isle of Ely, Hexhamshire in Northumbria, and Pembroke-
shire in Wain. In Irebnd there were pabtine dbtrids, axtd
the seven original earldoms of Scotland occupied positions aoiae-
what analogous to that of the Eng^ pabtine counties.
In Hungary the important office of pabtine (Magyar If 4dm)
owes its inception to St Stephen. . At first the head of the
judidd system, the pabtine undertook other duties, and became
after the king the most important, person in the xt^m. At
one time he was chosen by the king from among four candidates
named by the Diet. Under the bter Habsburg rulers of Hungary
the office was several times held by a member of this family,
one of the pabtiaes being the archduke Joseph. The office was
abolished after the revolution of.x848.
In Pobnd the governors of the provinces of the *itffgrTfF«n
were called pabtines, and the provinces were sometimes called
In America certain districts colonised by En^ish settlers
were treated as palatine provinces. In 1632 Cedlius Calvert,
2nd Lord Baltinoore, recdved a charter from Charles L giving
him pabtine rights in Maryland. In 1639 Sir Ferdinando
Gorges, the lord of Maine, obtained one granting him 9% large
and ample prerogatives as were enjoyed by the bishop of Durham.
Carolina was another instance of a palatine province.
.. In additbn to the authorities mentiooed, see R. SchrSder. X«M«rh
isr detUscktn JUehtsg/uckdekte (Ldpag* 1902)1 C FTaff. CSndUcA^
des Pfalsirafemmlts (Halle. x847)V C^. T. Lasslcy. Tim Ctmmtj
Palattnt tf Dwham (New York, 1900), and D. jTModley, fiwfuh
CoBsHmUMal History {1907). (A..W.H>>
PALATKA, a dty and the county-seat of Putnam oounly.
Florida, U.SA., in the N.E. part of the sUte, on the W. bank
of the St John'a river, about 100 m. from its mouth, axkd at
the head of deep-water navigation. Pop. (1905) 3950; (19x0)
3779. Pabtka b served by the Georgb Southern & Florida
(of which it u the southern terminal), the Atlantic Coast Uae^
and the Florida East Coast railways, and also has connexion by
water with Baltimore, New York and Boston. Pabtka is
situated In a rich agricultural, orangfr-growing and timber region,
for- which it b the dbtributing centre. Large quantities of
cypress limiber are shipped from Pabtka. PabUca was incofpo>
rated as a town in X853, and in 187a was chartered as a city.
PALAVER (an adapution of Pbrt palavra, a word or q>cech;
Hal. parola; Fr. parolet ^™ the Low Lat. parahata^ a parable,
story, talk; Gr. ropo^oX^, literally "comparison"; the Low Lat.
parahcloft, " i<K talk," gives Fr. porter, " to speak," whence
" parley," " parliament," &c.), the name used by the Portuguese
traders on the African coast for their conversations and bargain-
ing with the natives. It was introduced into EngUab in the
x8th century through English sailors frequenting the Gmnes
coast. It has now passed into general use among the negroes
of West and West Central Africa for any conference, cither
among themsdves or with fordgners. From the amount of
unnecessary talk characteristic of such meetings with natives*
the word u used of any idle-or cajoling talk.
PAIAWARAM, a town of British India, hi Chingleput dbtfkt«
Madras, |x nu S. of Madras dty, with a station on the Sooth
Indian railway; pop. (1901), 64x6. Formerly called the pnai*
dency cantonment, as containing the native ganuon for Madras
dty, it » now a d6p6t for native infantry and the leaidcnoe of
European pensioners. There are several tanneries.
PAUlZZOLO ACRSIDB, a town of Sidly, in the province
of Syracuse, a8 m. tfy road W. of it, 3285 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (X90X), X41840. The town occupies the ste of the anciert
Acrae, founded by Syncose about 664 B.C. It foDowtd hi the
main the fortunes of the mother dty. In the treaty b H iP nu
the Romans and I^ero IL in 263 b.c. it was assigned to the btter.
The ancient dty by on the hiQ above the nmiem town, the
PALE— PALENCIA
597
Approtdi to it bdng defended by qmuifcs, in which tombs of
aU periods have been discovered. The Auditorium of the smsU
theatre is well preserved, though nothing of the stage remains.
Close to it are ndns of other buildings, which bear, without
justification, the names Naumachia, Odeum (perhaps a bath
establishment) and FaUce of Hiero. The water supply was
obtained by subterranean aqueducts. In the cliffs of the Monte
Pineta to the south are other tomb chambers, and to •the south
again are the curious bas>reliefs called Santoni oit SatUkeUif
mutilated in the 19th century by a peasant proprietor, which
appear to be sepulchral also." Near hut too u the necropolis of
the Acrocoro deDa Tone, where many sarcophagi have been
found. Five miles north lies Buscemi, near which a sacred
grotto has been discovered; and also a church cut in the rock
and surrounded by a cemetery.^
See G. Jodica. A ntichiA di Acre (Meiitiia, 1819). (Baron Todica's
collection of antiquities was dispersed after hb death.) J. Scbu-
Srittg, JakrbmkfUr PkOolop*, SuppL IV.. 66a-673*
\ PALE (through Fr. pd, from Lat pdus, a stake, for pa^jius,
from the stem pag- oi pangertt to fix; " pole " is from the same
original source), a stake, particularly one of a ck»ely set series
driven into the ground to form the defensive work known as
a " palisade "; sLo one of the lighter laths or. strips of wood
set vertically and fastened to a horiaoatal rail to form a " paling."
Used as an historicsl ^rm, a pale is a district marked off from
the surrounding country by a different system of government
and law or by definite boundaries. The best known of these
dbtricts was the " English Pale " in Ireland, dating' from the
reign of Henry II., although the word " pale " was not used in
this connexion unUl the latter part of the X4th century. The
Pale varied considerably, according to the strength or weakness
of the English authorities, and in the time of Henry VUL was
bounded by a line drawn from Dundalk to Kells, thence to
Naas, and from Naas £. to Dalkey, embracing, that is, part
of the modem counties of Dublin, Louth, Meath, and Kildare.
The Pale existed until the complete subjugation of Ireland under
Elizabeth; the use of the word is frequent in Tudor times.
There was an " English Pale " or " Calais Pale " also in France
until 1558, extending from Graveltnes to Wissant, and for a
short time under the Tudors an English Pale in Scotland.
In heraldry a " pale " is a band placed vertically in the
centre of a shield, hence " in pale " or " to impale " is used of
the marshalling of two coats side by side on a shield divided
vertically.
" Pale," in the sense of colourless, whitish, of a sliade of colour
lighter than the normal, is derived throi^sh O. Fr. paUtt mod. pAU,
from Lat. poiHdmSt PaUor, palUrt; and in that of a bakerV shovel,
or ** ped " as it b sometimes called, from Lat. polo, spade, probably
connected with the root of pandere, to spread out.
PAUARIOt AOmO (c 1500-1570), Italian humanist and
reformer, was bom about 1500 at Veroli, in the Roman
Campagnar Other forma of his name are Antonio Delia Paglia,
A. De^ Pa^iaricd. In 1520 he went to Rome, where he
entered the brilliant literary circle of Leo X. When Charles
of Bourbon stormed Rome in 1527 Paleario went first to Perugia
and then to Siena, where he settled as a teacher. In 1556 his
didactic poem in Latin hexameters, De immorlaiilaU animcrum,
ws* published at Lyons. It is divided into three books, the
fiist containing his proofs of the divine existence, and the
remaining two the theotogical and philosophical aiguments for
immortality based on that postulate. The whole concludes with
a rhetorical description of the occurrences of the Second Advent.
In 154a a tract, written by him and entitled Delia Fieneaa,
mffkkfua, tt tatufoMicne diOa passhne di CMristo, or Idbeilus
d€ morU Ckristif was made by the Inquisition the basis of a
charge of heresy, from which, however, he successfully defended
hinadf. In Siena he wrote his Actio in pontifices romanot
d eorum asutlas, a vigorous indictment, in twenty "testimonia,"
against what he now believed to be the fundamental error of
the Ronum Church in subordinating Scripture to tradition,
as well as against various particular doctrines, such as that ojf
> P. Orsi in Noiiri* dtgfi Scam (1899). 45^-471 i R^miicht Qaartal-
Mckrifi (1898). 634-631.
pingatofy; it was not, however, printed until after his death
(Leipzig, x6o6). In 1546 he accepted a professorial chair at
Lucca, which he exchanged in tsss for that of Greek and Latin
literature at Milan. Here about 1566 his enemies renewed thdr
activity, and in 1567 he was formally accused by Ftot Angdo
the inquisitor of Mihm. He waa tried at Rome, condeomed
to death in October 1569, and executed in July 157a
An editton of his works {Ant, Palearii Vendam Optra), including
four books of BpistoUu and twelve OraHmm besides the De im-
mortaliiak, was Published at Lyons in Mja; tUs was followed by
two others, at Eiasd, and several after ms death, the fullert being
that of Amsterdam, 1696. A work, entitled Ben^izio di Crislo
(" The Benefit of Christ's Death '\ has been attributed to Paleario
oa insufiident grounds. Live* by Gurlitt (Hamburg, r8QS); Young
(2 vols., London, i860); Bonpet (Paris, i86a).
PALBWCIA, an inland province of Spain, one of the eight into
which Old Castile was divided hi 1833; bounded on the N. by
Sanunder, E. by Burgos, S. by Valladolid, and W. by Valladolid
and Leon. Pop. (1900), r92,472; area, 3256 sq. m. The
surface of the province slopes gradually S. to the Duero (Douro)
valley. The principal rivers are the Pisueiga and the Carrion,
which unite at Duefias and flow into the Duero at Valladolid.
The chief tributaries of the Pisuetga within the province are
the Arlanaon, the Burejo, the Cioza, and the united streams
of the Buedo and Abanades; the Carrion is joined on the right
by the Cuesa. The north is traversed by the Cantabrian
Mountains, the h^est summit being the culminating point of
the Sierra del Brezo (6355 ft.). There are extensive forests in
this region and the valleys afford good pasturage. The remainder
of Palenda, the "Tierra de Campos," belongi to the great
Castib'an table-land. In the south is a marsh or lake, known
as La Laguna de la Nava. The mountainous district abounds
in minerals, but only coal and small quantities of copper are
worked. The province is crossed in the south-east by the
tmnk railway connecting Madrid with France via Irun, while
the line to Santander traverses it throughout from north to
south; there are also railways from the dty of Palenda to
Leon, and across the north from Mataporquera in Santander
to La Robia in Leon. A branch of the Santander line gives
access to the Orbo coal-fields. The main highways are good;
the other roads often bad. The Canal de Castilla, begun in
7753, and completed in 1832, connects Alar del Rey with
Vailauiolid. Wheat and other cereals, vegetables, hemp and
flax are extensivdy grown, except in the mountainous districts.
Flour and wine are made in large quantities, and there are
manufactures of linen and woollen stuffs, ofl, porcelain^ leather,
paper and rugs. Palenda rugs are in great demand through-
out Spain. The only town with more than 5000 inhabitants u
Palenda (q.v.).
For the history, inhabiunts, Ac, see Castxls.
PALBNCIA, an episcopal dty, and the capital of the Spanish
province of Palenda; on the left bank of the river Carrion, on
the Canal de Castilla, at the junction of railways from Leon
and Santander, and 7 m. N. by W. of Venta de Bafioa on the
Madrid-Irun line. Pop. (1900), is,940> Palenda is built in
the midst of the levd plains called the Tiem de Campos, 3690 ft.
above sea-leveL Three bridges across the Carrion afford access
to the nuxlem suburbs on the right bank. The older and by
far the more important part of the dty is protected on the west
by the river; on the other sides the old machioolated walls,
36 ft. high by 9 ft. in thickness, are in fairly good fuescrvation,
and beautified by alanudas or promenades, which were laid out
in 1778. Thtf cathedral was begun in 1321, finished in 1504, and
dedicated to St Antolin; it is a brge building in the hiter and
florid Gothic style of Spain. The site was previously occupied
by a church erected by Sancho IIL of Navarre sind Castile
(1026-1035) over the cave of St Antolin, which is still shown.
The cathedral oonuins some valuable paintings, old Flemish
tapestry, and beautiful carved woodwork and stonework. .The
church of San Miguel is a good and fairly well-preserved examp*"
of 13th-century work; that of San Francisco, of the same <>
is inferior and has suffered more from modernization.
598
PALENQUE— PALERMO
hoi|iiUl of San Luaro h said to date in part from the time -of
the Cid (9.v.)» who here married Ximena in 1074.
Much has been done for education. Paiencia has also hoapitals,
a (oondUng refuge, barracks and a bull-ring. Local industries
include iron-founding, and the making of rugs, alcohol, leather,
Map, porcelain, linen, cotton, wool, machinery and matches.
Paiencia, the Pailantia of Strabo and Ptolemy, was the chief
town of the Vaccaei. Its history during the Gothic and
Moorish periods is obKure; but it was a Castilian town of some
importance in the lath and 13th centuries. The university
founded here in 1208 by Alphonso IX was removed in xajg to
Salamanca.
FALBNQUB. the modem name of a deserted dty in Mexico,
in the narrow valley of the Otolum, in the north part of the state
of Chiapas, 80 m. S. of the Gulf port of Carmen. About jo ro.
away, on the left bank of the Usumacinia river, stand the ruins
of Men-ch6 or LorilUrd dty. The original name of Palenque
has been lost, and its present name is taken from the neighbour-
ing village, Santo Domingo del Palenque. Unlike the dead dties
of the Yucatin plains, Palenque is surrounded by wooded hills
and overgrown by tropical vegetation.
There is less stone carving on the exterior walls, door jambs
and pillars of the buildings than on those of tKe Yucat&n Penin-
sula; this is due to the harder and more uneven charaaer of
the limestone. Probably owing to the same cause, there is leas
cut stone in the walls, the Palenque builders using plaster to
obtain smooth surfaces. There is, however, considerable carving
on the interior walls, the best specimens being on the tablets,
aflGobed to the walls with plaster. Modelling in stucco was exten-
sively used. A few terra-cotta images have been found. Paint
and coloured washes were liberally used to cover plastered
surfaces and for omamenution, and painu seem to have been
used to bind plastered surfaces. The Palenque builders
apparently used nothing but stone toob in their work.
The so-called Great Palace consists of a group of detached
buildings, apparently ten in number, standing on two platforms
of different elevations. Some of the interior structures and
the detached one on the lower southern terrace are in a fair
state of preservation. The plan of construction shows three
paralld walls enclosing two corridors cpvered with the peculiar
pointed arches or vaults characteristic of Palenque. The
huildings appear to have been erected at different periods.
A square tower rises from a central part of the platform to
a height of about 40 ft., divided into a solid masonry base and
three storeys connected by interior stairways. The Temple of
Inscriptions, one of the largest and best preserved, a distin-
guished chiefly for its ubleU, which contain only hieroglyphics.
Sctdptured slabs form balustrades to the steps leading up 10
the temple, and its exterior is ornamented with figures in stucco,
the outer faces of the four pillars in front having life-size figures
of women with children in thdr arms. The small Temple of
Beau Relid stands on a narrow ledge of rock against the steep
slope of the mountain. Its most important feature is a large
stucco bas-relief, occupying a central position on the back
wall of the sanctuary. It consists of a single figure, seated
on a throne, beautifully modelled both in form, drapery and
ornaments, with the face turned to one side and the arms out-
stretched, and b reproduced by H. H. Bancroft. The temples
on the east side of the Otolum are distinguished by tall
narrow vaults, perforated by numerous square opcninp giving
the appearance of coarse lattice work. The Temple of the Sun
stands upon a comparatively low pyramidal foundation. The
Interior consists of the usual pair of vaulted corridors. The
sacred tablet on the back wall of the sanctuary is carved in low
relid in limestone, and consists of two figures, apparently a priest
and his assistant making offering. There are rows of hiero-
glyphics on the sides and over the central design. The Temple
of the Cross is a larger stnxture of similar design and construc-
tion. The tablet bdonging to this temple has exdted contro-
versy, because the design contains a nrpresemation of a Latin
cross. The Temple of the Cerro, called that of the Cross
No. >, because its tablet is very similar to that just mentioned,
stands back against the slope of the mountain, tod is in great
part a ruin. (For history and further details tee CiiiTaAL
Akeuca; I Arekaecloiy.)
PALERMO (Creek, lUvop^iot; Latin. Panktrmm, Pamofmnu],
a dty of Sicily, capital of a province of the sani^ name,
in the kingdom of Italy, and the see of an archbishop. Pop.
(1906), town 364,036, commune 323,747. The dty stands
in the N.W. of the ishmd, on a small bay looking E., the coa^t
forming the chord of a semidrde of mountains which henr in
the eampagna of Palermo, called the Conca d'Oro. The most
striking point is the mountain of terete, now called PeDegrxao
(from the grotto of Santa Rosalia, a favourite place of pilgrimage)
at the N. of this semicircle; at the S.E. is the promontory vf
Zaffarano, on which stood Soluntum {q.v.).
A neolithic settlement and necropolis were A cov ci e d ii
1897 at the foot of Monte Pellegrino, on the N.E. side (E. Salinas
in Notkie degli Scavi, 1907, 307). Palermo has been common^
thought to be an original Phoenidan settlement of unknova
date (though its true Phoenician name is unknown), but Holm
{Arehino storio siciliano, 1880, iv. 421) has suggested that the
settlement was originally Greek.^ There is no record of any
Greek colonies in that part of Sidly, and Panormus certainty
was Phoenidan as far back as history can cany us. Aocordi g
to Thucydides (vi. 3), as the Greeks colonized the E. of the
island, the Phoenldans withdrew to the N.W., and concentrated
themselves at Panormtis, Moi3re, and Soluntum. Like the
other Phoenician colonics in the west, Panormus caSaie under
the power of Carthage, and became the head of the Carthaginian
domim'on in Sicily. As such it became the centre of that strife
between Europe and Africa, between Aryan and Semitic man,
in its later stages between Christendom and Islam, which forms
the great interest of Sicilian history. As the Semitic head of
Sidly, it stands opposed to Syracuse, the Greek head. Undcr
the Carthaginian it was the head of the Semitic part of Scily.
when, under the Saracen all Sicily came under Semitic rule, it
was the chief scat of that rule. It was thrice woo for Europe,
by Greek, Roman and Norman conquerors — in 376 B.C. by
the Epirot king Pyrrhus, in 354 B.C. by the Roman consols
Aulus Atilius and Gnaeus Cornelius Sdpio, and in aj>. 1071
by Robert Guiscard and his brother Roger, the first count of
Sicily. After the conquest by P>-rrhus the dty was soon
recovered by Carthage, but this first Greek occupation was the
beginning of a connexion with western Greece and its islands
which was revived under various forms in later times. After
the Roman conquest an attempt to recover the dty for Canliace
was made In 250 B.C., which led only to a great Roman victofy
(see Punic Wabs). Later, in the First Punic War, HaaOcar
Barca was encamped for three years on Hiercte or Pellegrinoi,
but the Roman possession of the dty was not diiiurbed. Panor-
mus recdved the privileges of autonomy and immunity from
taxation. It seems probable that at the end of the icpubLc
the coinage for the west of Sidly was struck here (Mommaea
Rdm. MumweseHi 66$). A colony was sent here by AugttJtoiw
and the place remained of considerable importance, though
inferior to Cataoa. A fortunate chance has prescrvtsd to «s
a large number of the inscriptions set up in the Forum (Moamaeo.
Corpus itucr. lot. a. 753). The town was taken by the Vandal
Genseric in a.o. 440. It afterwards became a part of the East-
Gothic dominion, and was recovered for the empire hy BcUansiws
in 535. It again remained a Roman possession for csnctly
three hundred years, till it was taken by the Saracens in 835.
Panormus now became the Moslem capital. In io6a the Pisaa
fleet broke through the chain of the harbour and cnnsed otf
much spoil, which was spent on the building of the great chmrrh
of Pisa. After the Norman conquest the city remained for a
short time in the hands of the dukes of Apulia. But la soqs
half the dty was ceded to Count Roger, and in 1133 the i«st vai
ceded to the second Roger. When he took the hm^ tiUe
in 1130 h became *' Prima sedes, corona regis, et regnf <
' The coins bearing the name of Km arc no longer asMgncd tc
Pianormus: but certain coins with the name r*« (ZIx: about 410 » c )
belong to it.
PALERMO
599
During the Nonnan reigns Palermo was the nain centc« of Sicilian
history, c^edally during the disturbances in the reign of William
the Bad (1154-1x66). The emperor Henry VI. entered Palermo
in 1 1 94, and it was the chief scene of his cruelties. In 1198
his son Frederick, afterwards emperor, was crowned there.
After his death Palermo was for a moment a commonwealth.
It passed under the dominion of Charles of Anjou in 1266.
In the next year, when the greater part of Sicily revolted on
behalf of Conradin, Palermo was one of the few towns which
was held for Charles; but the famous Vespers of 1282 put an
PALERMO
end to the Angevin dominion. From that time Palermo shared
in the many changes of the Sicilian kingdom. In 1535 Charles
V. landed there on his return from Tunis. The last kings
crowned at Palermo were Victor Amadeus of Savoy, in 1713,
and Charles III. of Bourbon, in 1735. The loss of Naples by
the Bourbons in 1798, and again in 1806, made Palermo once
more the seat of a separate Sicilian kingdom. The city rose
against Bouri>on rule in 1820 and in 1848. In x86o came the
final deliverance, at the hands of Garibaldi; but with it came
also the yet fuller loss of the position of Palermo as the capital
of a kingdom of Sicily.
5t7e.-~The ori^nal city was built on a tongue of land between
two inlets of the sea. There is no doubt that the present main
street, the Cassaro (Roman coi/rum, Arabic Kasr), Via Marmorea
or Via Toledo (Via Vittoiio Emmanucle), represents the line
of the ancient town, with water on each side of iL Another
peninsula with one side to the open sea» meeting as it were
the main city at right angles, formed in Polybius's time the
Neapoiis, or new town, in Saracen tiroes Khalcsa, a name which
still survives in that of Calsa. But the two ancient harbours
have been dried up, the two peninsulas have met; the long
street has been extended to the present coast-line; a small inlet,
called the Cala, alone represents the old haven. The city kept
its ancient shape till after the time of the Norman kings. The
old state of things fully explains the name Uivoptun.
There are not many early remains in Palermo. The Phoeni-
cian and Greek antiquities in the museum do not belong to the
city itself. The earliest existing buildings date from the time
of the Norman kings, whose palaces and chuKhes were built
in the Saracenic. and Byxantine styles prevalent in the island.
Of Saracen works actually belonging to the time of Saracen
occupation there are no whole buildings remaining, but many
inscriptions and a good many columns, often inscribed with
passages from the Koran, which have been used up again in
later buildings, specially in the porch of the metropoliian church.
This last was built by Archbishop Waller {ft. 1 170)^ an English-
man sent by Heniy 11. of England as tutor to William II. of
Sicily— and consecrated in x 185, on the site of an ancient basilica,
which on the Saracen conquest became a mosque, and on the
Norman conquest became a church again, first of the Greek and
then of the Latin rite. What remains of Walter's building ia
a rich example of the Christian*Saracen style, disfigured, un-
fortunately, by the addition of a totally unsuitable dome by
Ferinando Fuga in 1781-1801. This church contains the tombs
of the en\peror Frederick II. and his parents—massive sarcophagi
of red porphyry with canopies above them — and also the royal
throne, higher than that of the archbishop: for the king of Sicily,
as hereditary legate of the see of Rome, was the higher ecdeai-
astical officer of the two. But far the best example of the style
is the chapel of the king's palace (cappella palalina), at the west
end of the city. This is earlier than Waller's church, being the
work of King Roger in 1143* The wonderful mosaics, the
wooden roof, elaborately fretted and painted, and the marble
incrustation of the lower part of the walls and the floor are
very fine. Of the palace itself the greater part was rebuilt and
added in Spanish limes, but there are some other paru of Roger's
work left, specially the hall called Sala Normanoa.
Alongside of the churches of this Christian-Saracen type,
there is another class which follows the Byzantine type. Of
these the most perfect is the very small church of San Cataldo.
But the best, much altered, but now largely restored to its
former state, is the adjoining church of La Martorana, the work
of George of Antioch, King Roger's admiral. This is rich with
mosaics, among them the portraits of the king and the founder-
Both these and the royal chapel have several small cupolas, and
there is a slill greater display in that way in the church of San
Giovanni degli Eremiti, which it is hard to believe never was a
mosque. It is the only church in Palermo with a bell-tower,
itself crowned with a cupola.
Most of these buildings are witnesses in different ways to the
peculiar position of Palermo in the 12th century as the " city
of the threefold tongue," Greek, Arabic, and Latin. King
Roger's sun dial in the palace is commemorated in all three,
and it is to be noticed that the three inscriptions do not translate
one another. In private inscriptions a fourth tongue, the
Hebrew, is also often found. For in Palermo under the Norman
kings Christians of both rites, Mahommedans and Jews were
all allowed to flourish after their several fashions. In Saracen
times there was a Slavonic quarter on the southern side of the
city, and there is still a colony of United Greeks, or more strictly
Albanians.
The series of Christian -Saracen building ia continued in
the country houses of the kings which surround the city, La
Favara and Mimnemo, the works of Roger, and the better
known Zixa and Cuba, the works severally of William the Bad
and William the Good. The Saracenic architecture and Arabic
inscriptions of these buildings have often caused them to be
taken for works of the ancient ameers; but the iascriptioBS of
6oo
PALES— PALESTINE
themsdves prove their date. All these buildiiip ue the genuine
work of Sidllan art, the art which had grown up in the island
through the presence of the two most civilized races of the
age, the Greek and the Saracen. Later in the itth century
the Cistercians brought in a type of church which, without
any great change of mere style, has a very diffeient effect, a
hi^ choir taking in some son the pUce of the cupola. The
greatest example of this is the neighbouring metropolitan church
of Monteale (9.9.) ; more ckisely connected with Palermo is the
church of San Spirito, outside the dty on the south side, the
scene of the Vespers.
Domestic and dvil buildings from the xnh century to the
iSth abound m P^ermo, and they present several types of
genuine national art, quite unlike anything in Italy. Of palaces
the finest is perhaps the massive Palaxao Chiaramonte, now
used as the courts of justice, erected subsequently to 1307.
One of the halls has interesting paintings of 1377^1380 on its
wooden ceiling; and in the upper storey of the court is a splendid
three-light Gothic window. The. later houses employ a very
flat aru, the use of which goes on in some of the houses and
smaller churches of the Renaissance. S. Maria della Catena
may be taken as an especially good example. But the general
aspect of the streets is Uter still, dating from mere Spanish
times. Still many of the houses are stately in their way, with
remarkable heavy balconies. The most striking point in the
dly is the central space at the crossing of the main streets,
called the Quattro Cantoni. Two of the four are formed by
the ancient Via Marmorea, but the Via Macqueda, which
supplies the other two, was cut throu^ a mass of small streets
in Spanish times.
The dty walls are now to a great extent removed. Of the
gates only two remain,>the Porta Nuova and the Porta Felice;
both are fine examples of the baroque style, the former was
erected in 15S4 to commemorate the return of Charles V. fifty
years earlier, the latter in xs8s. Outside the walls new quaners
have sprung up of recent years, and the Teatro Massimo and
the Politeama Garibaldi; the former (begun by G. B. Basile
and completed by his son in 1897) has room for 3200 spcctatois
and is the largest In Italy.
The museum of Palermo, the richest in the island, has been
transferred from the university to the former monastery of the
FOippini. Among the most important are the objects from
prehistoric tombs and the architectural fragments from Selinus,
induding several metopes with reliefo, which are of great impor-
tance as illustrating the devek>proent of Greek sculpture. None
of the numerous Greek vases and terra-cottas b quite of the first
dass, though the collection is important. The bronses are few,
but include the famous ram from Syracuse. There is also the
Casucdni collections of Etruscan sarcophagi, sepulchral urns
and pottery. Almost the only chusical antiquities from Palermo
itsdf are Latin inscriptions of the imperial period, and two
large coloured mosaics with figures found in the Piaua Vittoria
in front of the royal palace in 1869: in iga6 excavations in the
same square led to the discovery of a large private house,
apparently of the snd or 3rd century A.D., to which these mossics
BO doubt belonged. Of greater local interest are the medieval
and Renaissance sculptures from Palermo itsdf, a large picture
gallery, and an extensive coOection of Sicilian majolica, ftc.
I. The ttttiversity, founded in 1779, rose to importance in recent
years (from 500 students in 187} to 1495 in 1897), but has
slightly lost in numben since. The dty wean a prosperous
and busy appearance The Marina, or esplanade at the tooth
of the town, affords a fine sea front with a view of the bay;
near it are beautiful public gardens. In the immediate nrigh-
bourhood of the dty are the oldest church in or near Palermo,
the Lepers' church, founded by the first conqueror or deliverer.
Count Roger, and the bridge over the fonaken stream of the
Oreto, built in King Roger's day by the admiral George. Tliere
are also some later medieval houses and towers of some impor-
tance. These all lie on to the south of the city, towards the
hill called Monte Griffone (Griffon-Greek), and the Giant's Cave,
whkb has furnished rich stores for the palaeontoloflist. On
the other side, towards PeOegrino. is the new harbour of Pakno;
round which a new quarter has sprung up, fndudmg a yard
capable of building ships up to 475 ti- in length, and a dry docJi
for vessels up to 563 ft.
The steamship traffic at Palermo la 1906 amounted to aoss
veawls, with a total tonnage of s.403,851 tons. Palermo is ooe ol
Che two headquarters (the other bciog Genoa) of the Navigaaoae
Generate Italians, the chief Italian steamship company. The
prindpal imports wetfe 36,567 tons of timber (a large incifsar «■
the normal figures). 21,401 > tons of wheat and iSltlte tons of
coal; while the chief exports were 116,400 gallons of'wiae^7,839
cons of sumach and 123,023 tons of oranges and lemons, rusdiiv
moat of its valuahle rates hypothecated to the meeciog of oU dcfats»
the municipality of Palermo has embarked upon munidpal owner"
ship and trading in various directions.
The plain of Palermo » very fertile, and wdl watered by sprian
and screams, of the latter of whkh the Oreto is. the chief. U m
planted with orange and lemon groves, the products lof which niw
largdy exported, and with many palm-trees, the frWt of whadi,
however, does not attain maturicy. It also contains many viOaa
of the wealthy inhabitanu of Palermo, among the most beaocffnl
of which is La Favorite, at the foot of Monte Pdl^rino on eke
west, belonging to the Crown.
AuTHORiTiBS— Besides works dealing with Sicily generally, eke
established local work on Palermo b Descrisiom it PtUnw mtum^
by Salvstore Morso (2nd ed.. Palermo. 1827). Modern research and
criticism have been applied in Du miiUUUteriickt Kutut ra Faltr mm,
by Anton Springer (Bonn. 1869): Histeriuht Topotrapkit mm
Panormus, by Julius Schubring (Labeck, 1870): Sht£i di jlsrss
fakrmitana, by Adolf Holm (Palermo. 1880). See also *' The
Normans in Palermo,'* in the third series of Historical Bstays, by
E. A. Freeman (London, 1879). The dcscripcion of Palermo in
the second volume of Gadfd's guide-book. Uuter-Italiem mid SicHm
(Leitnig), leaves nothing to wish for. Various articles in the
Arckimo storico siciltano and the series of DsciMwnli ptr jsfsws
cUa storia ieOa SieUia, both published by the Socieck SKiliana par
la stona patria, may also be consuhed. (E. K F.; T. An.)
PALB, an old Italian goddess of flocks and shepheids. 1%e
festival called Parilia (less correctly Palilia) was cdebvatcd
in her honour at Rome and in the country on the 21st of ApriL
In this festival Pales was invoked to grant protection and
increase to flocks and herds; the shepherds entreated focgiveacs
for any unintentkmal profanalioo of holy places of which thcff
flocks might have been guilty, and leaped three times maom
bonfires of hay and straw (Ovid, FaUi, iv. 731^805). The
Parilia was not only a herdsmen's festival, but was regarded
as the birthday cdebration of Rome, which was supposed to
have been founded on the same day. Pales plays a very sub-
ordinate part in the rehgion of Rome, even the kx of the divinity
being uncertain. A male Pales was jometimcs spoken of,
corresponding in some respecu to Pan;' the female Fsles waa
associ ated w ith Vesta and Anna Perenna.*
PALESTINE, a geographical name of rather kiose appBcatiDS.
£tymok>gical strictness wouM require it to denote cxdosive||r
the narrow strip of coast-buid once occupied by the PhilistlDcs*
from whose name it is derived. It is, however, conventhmally
used as a name for the territory which, in the Old Testament,
is daimed as the inheritance of the pre-exilic Hebrews; th«a
it may be said generally to denote the soul hem third of tlie
province of Syria. Except in the west, where the oountiy ie
bordered by the Mediterranean Sea, the limit of this tcrritoty
cannot be hud down on the map as a definite line. The modos
subdivisions under the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Emphc aic in
no sense conterminous with those of antiqiuty, and hence do not
afford a boundary by which Palestine can be separated caactly
from the rest of Syria in the north, or from the Sinaitk aad
Arabian dcseru in the south and east; nor are the records el
andent boundaries sufficiently full and definite to make possible
the complete demarcation of the country. Even the coovcntioa
above referred to is inexact: it indudes the Philisthie tcetiiory,
daimed but never settled by the Hebrews, and exdudee the
outlying parts of the large area daimed in Num. jcedv. ea the
Hebrew possession (from the " River of Egypt " to Haaalh).
However, the Hebrews themsdves have preserved, m the
* The figures for t90S (40.005 tons, almost entirely from
were abnormally high, while those for 1906 are
bdow the average.
PHYSICAL FEATURES}
PALESTnSTE
6oi
proverbial ezpravfon '" from Dan to Beenheba *' (Judg. sb
I, ftc), an indication of the normal nortb-and-tonth Umitt of
their land; and in defining the area of the country under
dimiiiiion it ia th» indication which is generally followed.
Taking as a guide the natural featurea most nearly correipond-
ing to thicse outlying points, we may describe Palestine as the
strip of land extending along the eastern shore of the Mediter-
ranean Sea from the mouth of the Litany or Kasimiya River
(33* so' N.) southward to the mouth of the Wadi Ghusza; the
lattei' joins the sea in ji" sS' N., a short distance south of Gasa,
and runs thence in a sbath-easte^y direction so as to include
on its northern side the lite of Beenheba. Eastward there
is no such definite border. The River Jordan, it is true, marks
a line of delimitation between Western and Eastern Palestine; but
it is practically impoasible to say where the latter ends and the
Arabian desert begins. Perhaps the Hne of the pilgrim road
from DamascoB to Mecca is the most convenient possible
boundary. The total length of the region is about 140 m.; its
bicadth west of the Jordan ranges from about 23 m. in the
north to about 80 m. in the south. According to the English
engineers who surveyed the country on behalf of the Pales-
tine Ex|doration Fund, the area of this port of the country is
about 6040 sq. m. East of the Jordan, owing to the want of
a proper survey, no figures so definite as these are available.^
Hie limits adopted are from the south border of Hermon to
the mouth of the Mojib (Amon), a distance of about 140 m.:
the whole area has bieen calculated to be about 3800 sq. m.
The territory of Palestine, Eastern and Western, is thus equal
to rather more than one-aizth the siee of England.
There is no andent geographical term that covers all this
area. TiU the period of the Roman occupation it was subdivided
into independent provinces or kingdoms, different at different
times (such as Philistia, Canaan, Judah, Israel, Bashan, &c),
but never united under one collective designation. The eaten-
aion of the name of Palestine beyond the limits of Philistia
proper is not older than the Bynntine Period.
Pkytieai i'foflim.— Notwithttanding its small rise, McsUoe
pfvtenu a variety of seographkal detail so unuiual as to be in
ttseU sttflkient to mark it out as a country of cspedal interest.
The bordering regions, moreover, are at vaned in charscter as is
the countrV itself— sea to the west, a mountainous and «ndy desert
to the south, a lofty steppe plateau to the east, and the great roawes
of Lebanon to the north. In describing the general physical
features of the country, the most significant point to notice is
that (though it falls westward to the sea and riaes eastward to an
elevated puin) the riie from west to eait is not continuous, but is
sharply mtemipted by the deep fissure of the Ghor or Jordan
valley; which, running from north to 8oatb--for the neater part
of its length depressed below sea-level — foitns a divirion in the
country or both physical and political importance. In this respect
the function of the river Jordan in nlestine offers a strange
contrast, often remarked upon, to that of the Nile in Esypt. Tiie
former b of no use for imgation, except in the immedate ndgh-
bourhood of its banks, and is a barrier to cross which involves the
labour of a considerable ascent at any point except its most northern
section. The latter is at once the great fertilizer and the great
hichway of the country which it serves.
Western Pslestine is a region inters e c t ed by froupe of mountain
pealu and ranges, formins a southern extension of the Lebanon
qrstcm and running soutnward till they finally lose themselves
in the desert. The watershed of this system is so ptsced that from
two>thirds to throe*(ourths of the country is 00 its western dde.
This fact, taken in connexion with the great depth of the depres-
sion of the Ghor below the Mediterranean— already 68a (t. at the
Sea of Galilee — ^has a peculiar effect on the configuiatioo of the
country. On the west side the slope is gradual, especially in the
broad plain that skirts the coast for the neater part of its length ;
on the east side it is steep — precipitous indeed, towards the southern
end— and intersected by valleys worn to a tremendous depth by
the force of the torrents that once ran down them.
This territory of Western Palestine divides naturally into two
kMgitudinal strips— th« maritime plain and the mountain region.
These it will be convenient to consider separately.
I. Thg Mantimu Plain, which, with a lew interruptions, extends
along the Mediterranean coast from Lebanon to Egypt, is a strip
of land of remarkable fertility. It is formed of raised beaches
and scarbeds, rannng from the Pliocene period downwards, and
resting oa Upper Eooene sandstone. It varies greatly in width.
At the mouth of the Kasimiya it is some 4 m. across, and this
breadth it maintains to a short distance south of Tyre, where it
suddenly narrows; until, at Ras d-Abiad, it has been necessary to
cut a passage in the predpitoiis face of the cliff to sHow the coast-
road to be carried past it. This ancient worif is the well-known
*' Ladder of Tyre. South of this promontory the plain begins
to widen again; on the latitude of Acre (Akka). from which this
part of the plain takes its name, it is from 4 to <c m. across; while
farther south, at Haifa, it Is of still greater width, and opens into
the extensive Merj Ibn *Amir (Phun of Esdraehm) by which atn^ost
the whole of Western Palestine is mtersected. South of Haifa
the promontory of Carmel once more eaffacea the plain: here the
passage along the coast u hardy 200 yds. in width. At 'Athlit,
!» m. to the sonth, it is about a m.; from this point it expands ual-
ormly to about so m., which b the breadth at the latitude of Ascaba.
South of this it is shut in and broken up by groups of low hilla
From the Kasimiya southwards the maritime plain is crossed by
numerous river-beds, with a few ntceptions wmter torrents only.
Among the perennial streams may be mentioned the Na'amaa,
south of Acre: the Mukatta* Kishon, at Haifa ; the Nshr ex-Zerka,
sometimes called the Crocodile River->so named from the crocodiles
still oocasionaUy to be seen in it; the Nahr el-Falik; the 'Aujeh
a few miles north of Jaffa and the Nahr Rubin. The surface of
the plain rises gradusHy from the coast inland to an' altitude of
about aoo ft. It b here and there diversified by small hills.
II. Th9 MomUain RtgioHt the great plain of Esdraeloo, which
forms what from the earliest times has been recognised to be the
easiest entrsnce to the tnteiior of the counU-yr. cuu abruptV
through the mountain system, and so divides it into two groups.
Each of these may be subdivided into two regions presentii^ their
own spedal pecuUaritiea
' a. The Galilean Mountains, north of the plain of Esdrsdoo, EdI
into two regions, divided by a line joining Acre with the north end
of the Sea of Galilee. Ine northern region (Upper Galilee) Is
virtually an outlier of the Lebanon Mountains. At the north esd
is an elevated plateau, draining into the Kasimiya. The moua
are intersected by a complex qrstem of vallqrs, .of whidi i
thirty run down to the Mediterranean. The face toward thejordan
valley is k)fty and steep. The highest point b Jebel Jermak.
3^34 ft above the sea; about it, on the eastern and northern
sides, are lofty pla t eaua The region U fruitful, and in pbces well
wooded; it is beyond question the most pkturesque part of Palestine.
The southern rraion (Lower Galilee) shows somewhat different
characteristics. It consists of chains of comparativdy low hills,
for the neater part running east and west, cnckiainga number of
elevated plains. The principal of these plaina bEI-Buttauf. a
tract 400 to soo f t. above sea-level, endoaed within hiUs 1700 fL
high and measuring 9 m. east to west and a m.. north to south.
It b marshy at ita eastern end and ray fertile. Thb b tfacplain
of Zebulun or Aaochis, of antiquity. Toepkin -' "^ ' — *^
of El-Buttauf, b smaller, but eqoalty fa
of Tur'aa, south-
fertile. _ Among the
principal moonuins of thb district may be named J^iel Tur'an,
1774 ft. and lebd et-Tur (Tabor) 1843 it.| the latter is an bolated
of regular shape which rominands the elaai of Esdraekau
Eastward tk country falb to the level of the Ghor by a roccessien
of steps, among which the lava-covered Sahel d-AnsBa may be
mentioned, which lies west of the cliffs overhaaging the Sea of
Galilee. The chief valleys of thb regkm are the Nahr Na'aman
and its branches, whkh runs into the sea sooth of Acre, and the
Wadi Mukatu*, or Kishon. which joins the sea at Haifa. On the
cast may be mentkmed the Wadi er-Rubadiya, Wadi d-Hamaia and
Wadi Fajjas. flowing into the Sea of Galilee or dse into the Jordan.
b. The great plain of Esdrseloo b one of the most iawortantaad
striking of the natural features of Western Palestine. It b a burge
triangle, having its comen at lenin, Jebel et-Tur, and the outlet
of the Wadi Mukatta*. by which last it communicates with the
sea-coast. On the south-west it b bounded by the range of hflb
that terminates in the iy>ur of CarmeL The modem name* aa
above-mentioned, b Mo) Ibn *Amir ("the meadow-land of the
son of *Amir ") ; in andent times it was known as the Valley of
Jezreel, of which name Esdraehm b a Greek corruption; and by
another name (Har^Magedon) derived from that of the impor-
tant town of MegMdo— it b nlerred to symbolically in Rev.
xvL 16. It b the great highway, and also the great battlefield, of
Palestine. At the village ol Afuleh iu altitude u s6o ft. above the
ses4evel. In winter it is swampy, and in pbces afanost impassable.
The fertility of thb region b proverbiaL There are sevsnlsmall
sttbsidbry plains that extend from it both north and south into the
surrounding mountain region; of these we need only mention a
broad valley running nortn-castwards be t ween )tht\ Uohi. a range
IS n. kmg and 1690 ft. high, on the one side, and Mt Tabor
and the hifb of Nasareth on the other side. East of the waterrbed
are a number of valleys running to the Ghor: the most remarkable
of these are the Wadi el-Bireli and the Wadi Jahid. the btler
conuining the river that flows from the fine spring called *Ain Jalud.
c. The second of the divisions into whkh we have groupra the
mountain system lies south of the phin of Esdiaelon. Thb b
divisible into the districts of Samaria and Judaea. In the first of
these the mountain ranges are complex, appearing to radiate fioro
a centre at which lies Merj el-Ghuruk, a small phin aboot 4 m.
east to west and s m. north to sooth. This plain has no outlet
and b marshy in the rainy season. Connected with It are othsr
to enumerate. For the greater part the
6o2
PALESTINfi
prifiapal mounUiM are near the watenhed: they include Jebd
Fuku'a (GUboa). a range that form* the watershed at the eastern
extremity of the plain of Esdraelon. The range of Carmcl (highest
point i8ioft.)must alao be included in this district ; it runs from the
A i**V
palestiKe
(PHYSICAL FEATURES
/"^^f" .^nse. On the eastvn side of the wmterdted the nw.
l?!P^?l'*t'"5\** Pf ^P» ^ ««*' valley system that connects
the Mukhnah (the plain south of Nablus) ^th the Chor--b^
ginning with the impressive Wadi Bilan and proceeding thrrn^
Jr« ..'»"J»««n* *"<* abundanUy vatercd
Wadt Far'a. TeU 'Asur Manda a abort
distance north of Bdtcin (Bethel). South
VJ\ ** .*!i? !<*"« »«**]»' '*"«« lu»m-n as
UKuds) the chief town built u
central point abofve meatiooed— though tatermpted by many
paMe»— to the end of the promontory which malan the harbour
<* Haifa, at its foot, the best oo the Palestine coast. The highest
niouBlatw in the Samaria district are. however, in the neighbour-
^?^ <K. NaWus (Shechem). TTiey include the rugged bare mass
of Gtfttim (2849 ft-), the smoother cactu»<Ud cone of Ebal (3077).
and farther south Tell 'Asur (^318) at which point begins the
\ei-i\uas; cne cnia town DuUt upon it. The
highest point is Neby SamwiMMtzpAh).
aM5 «; above the sea. north of Jerusalem.
This city Itself stands at an altitude d
2500 ft. To the south of it begins the
subdivision of the Judaean moanutns nam
^•J*^?.^ Jew d-Khalil. from Hebcon
(d-Khalil), which stands in an ele%aied
basin some ^00 ft. above the attitude of
lerusalem: it ts here that the Jttdaeaa
Mountain* attain their greatest height.
South of Hebron the ridge gradually be-
comes lower, and hnally braiks up and
loses itself in the southern desert.
On the west side of the watershed the
roouatainout district exteada aboot haJf
way to the tea. broken by deep \aUc>»
and passes. Among these the moa im-
portant ate the Wadi Selman (VaHe>- ol
Aijalon) which seems to have taeti the
pnncipal route to Jerusalem in aKient
tunes; the Wadi Isma'in south of this,
along which runs the modem carriage rcnrl
from Jaffa to Jerusalem; and the Wadi
"-Surar. a higher section of the bed of t he
Nahr Rubin, along which now raw the
cailway line; fanher to the south w« may
mention the Wadi es-Sunt. which opens
up the country from Tell cs-Safi (Gath>)
eastward.
Between the moonuiMMia conntry ol
judaea and the maritime plaia is an un-
dulating region anciently known as the
Shephelah. It is composed of horiioataJ
strata of limestone, forminff groups of hitts
intersected by a network .of aoMfl aad
fertile valleys. In this region, whick is
of ^icat historical importance*, are the re>
mams of many ancient cities. The ad-
jacent part of the maritime ptaia n com-
posed of a rich, light brown kaamy soil.
Although cultivated with most prtmiii\e
appliances, and with Uttlc or no attempt
at irrigation or artificial fertiTtxatkm. the
average yield is eight- to twet>-e-fc)d
annually. This part of the plain is (in
European nomenclature) divMed into two
at about the latitude 01 Jaffa, that to the
north being the plain of Sarona (Sharon),
the southern half being the {Aain of the
Philistines.
On the east side of the watershed the
ground slopes rapidly from its height of
2500 ft. above sca-le\Tl to a maxtmun.
depth of 1100 ft. below aea-levd. within a
distance of about 20 m. It is a waste,
destitute of water and with but scantr
vegetation. It has never been brooght
into cultivation: but in the first Christian
centuries the caves in its valleys were the
chosen refuge of Christian moaastidsam.
It des(%nds to the level of the Ghor by
terraces, deeply cut through by profound
ravines such as the Wadi es-Suweinit. Wadi
Kelt, Wadi ed-Dabr, Wadien-Nar (Kedron)
and Wadi d 'Atdjch.
The southern district, which mdodea the
white mari region of Beeraheba. was im
ancient times called the Negel>. It ia a wide
steppe region which (though it oontaica
many remains of ancient towns and settle^
mcnts, and was evidently at one time a terri-
tory of great importance) is now almost ew-
tirely inhabited by nomads, ft should, however, be mentioned that the
Turkish government has developed a town at Beersheba, under
the jurisdiction of a Kaimmakam Oicutenant-govemor). alace tltt
beginninK of the aoth century.
The Ghor or Jordan valley is treated In a separate wUde (we
Jordan). There has been no systematic survey of Easum Palestiae
such as was carried out in Western Palestine betwaen tS75 ^"d I Wo
PHYSICAL PBATURESI
\iff tlM cAcen of tiw F^laitiM ExpkMktson Fund. A good 4k»l oT
work ha* been done by individual travellers, but the material for
a full description of its physical character is as yet lacking. Two
great rivers, the Yannuk (Hieromax) and the Zerka (jabbok).
divide Eastern Pilcstine into three sections, namely Hauran
(Bashan, m.) with the Jauba west of it: Jebel Ajlon (Gilbad.
g^.): and tfie Belk'4 (the southern portion of Gilead and the ancient
territory of the tribe of Reuben). The latter extends southward
to theMc^ib, which, as we have already seen, b the southern
boundary of eastern Pslestine.
It is a matter of dispute whether Hauraa should be indnded
within Palestine proper^ accepting its definition as the " ancient
Hebrew territory. It is a large volcanic region, entirely covered
with lava and other igneous rocks. Two remarkable rows of these
run in lines from north to south, through the region of the jaulan
parallel to tfaeChor, and from a k>na distance are conapicttoos
leatures in the landscape. The soil is lertile, and there are many
remains of ancient wealth and dvilization scattered over its surface.
South of the Yarmuk the formation is Cretaceous, Hauran basalt
being found only in Che eastern portion. That region b much
more moontainoua than Hauran. bouth of the Zerka the coomry
culminates in Jebel *Q>ha, a peak of Jebel Jil'ad (" the mountain
of Gilead "), 3596 ft. high. From thii point southward the country
assumes the appearance which b familiar to those who have visited
Jerusalem— an ebvated pbteau. bounded on the west by the pre-
dpitous cliffs known as the mountains of Moab, with bUt a few peaks,
such as Jebel Shihan (3781 ft.) and lebel Neba (Nebo, 264^ ft.), con*
spicuous above the le^ of (he rioge by reason of superior height.
CeoU>iy» — ^The oldest rocks consist of gneiss and schist, penetrated
by dikes and bosses of granite, syenite, porphyry and other in^
trusive rocks. Alt of these are prfr-Garboiufeious m age nnd most
of them probably belong to the Archean period. They are gener-
ally concealed by bter deposits, but are exposed to view along
the eastern margin of the Wadi Aiaba, at the foot ci the plateau
of Edom. Simiujr rocks occur also at one or two pbces in the
desert of et-Tib, wbib towards the south they attain a greater
extension, fbrminJK nearly the whole of Sinai and of the hills on the
east sidp of the Gulf of Akaba. These ancient rocks, which form
the foundation of the oduntry, are overlaid unconformably by a
series of conglomerates and sandstones, generally unfoGMliferous
and often rea or porpb in ookiur, very similar in character to the
Nubiaji sandstone 01 Upper Egypt. In the midst of thb series
there m an inconstant band orT<»silifcrous limestone, which has
been found In the Wadi Nasb and at other places on the southern
border of et-Tih, and also alonp: the western escarpment of the
PALESTINE
^03
Edom pbteau. The fossib tndude Syrituopora, Zapknntis,
Productust SMftfj &c., and beloi)g to tM rarboniferDus. The
undstone woicn hcs below the limestone is also, no doubt, of
Carboniferous age; but the sandstone above b conformably over-
laid by Upper Cretaceous beds and is generally referred to the
Lower Cfetacooos. No onoonformityr nowever, has yet been
detected anywhere in the sandstone series, and in the abscnoe of
fOssib the upper sandstone may represent any period from the
Carboniferous to the Cretaceous. The Upper Cretaceous is repre-
sented by limestones with bands of chert, and contains Ammonites.
Baculitcs, Hippurites and other fossils. It covers by far the
greater part ot Palestine, capping the tablc-bnds of Moab and
Edom. and forming most of the high bnd between the Jordan and
the Mediterranean. It b overbid towards the west by simiUr
limestones, which contain nummulites and belong to the Eocene
period; and these are foUowed near the coast by the calcareous
sandstone of Philistb, which b referred by Hull to the Upper
Eocene. LAva flows of basic character, belonging to the Tertbry
period, cover extensive areas in Jaubn and Hauran; and smaller
patches occur in the bnd of Moab and also west of the Jordan,
especially near the Soa of Gennesarelh Of Recent deposits the
most interesting are the raised beaches near the coast and the terraces
of the Jordan-Araba deprt»sion. The bttcr indicate that at one
period nearly the whole of this depression was lUlcd with water
up to a level Somewhat above that ot the Mediterranean.
The geological structure of the country is very simple in its broad
features, but of exceptional interest. In general the stratified
deposits lie nearly flat and in regular conformable succession, the
lowest resting upon the floor of ancient crystalhnc rocks. There b,
however, a sRght din towards the west, so that the newest deposits
lb near the coast. Moceovcr, along the eastern side of the Jordan*
Araba valley there is a great fault, and on the eastern side of thb
fault the wnob series of rocks sunds at a much higher bvel than
on the west. Consequently, west of the Jordan almost the whob
country is formed of the newer beds (Upper Cretaceous and bter),
whib east of the Jordan the older rocks, sometimes down to the
Archean floorr are exposed at the foot of the plateau. The western
margin of the valley is possibly defined by another fault which has
not yet been detected; but in any case it is dear that the great
depression owes its extraordinary depth to faulting. A line of
dffpressions of similar character has been traced by b. Sueas as far
south as Lake Nyasa.*
»See Lortet, La Mer Aforte (Pkris, 1877); E. Hull, MoutU Seir,
Sinm cmd Weskrn PqIuUm U«ondoa» 1865): and Mtmoir «» tk*
Rllest&ne bekxigs to the sub-tropical flone: at the
summer sobtkethesonb ten dencessouth of theaemth. Thekagch
of the day ranges fram ten to tourteoi hours. The great ^nutiety
of altitude and of sbifaci characteristics dves rise to a oonsiderabie
number of local dimatk peculiarities. On the aaaritime-pldn the
mean annual temperature b 70* F., the iiormal extremes being
about 50* to about 90". The harvest ripens about a fortnight
earlier than among the mountains. Citrons and oranges floundi^
as do melons and palms: the btter do not fruit abundantly, but
thb b less the fault of dimate than ol canJessaess in fertiliiation.
The sainfall b rather lower than among the mountains. In the
mountainous regiona the mean annual temperature b about 6a%
but there b a great range of variation. In winter there are often
several degrees of front, though snow very rarely lies for more
than a day or two. In summer the thermometer occasionally
regbt e rs as much as too* in the shade, or even a degree or two
more: thb however b exceptional, and 8o*-90* b a mtve siormal
maximum for the year, toe rainfall b about 28 in., aometimes
less, and in excepttonal years as much as 10 ia. in excess of thb
figure has been remstered. The vine^ fig and olive grow wdl in
tms region. The crimate of the Ghor, again, b different. Here the
ther m ometer may rise as high as \yr. The rainfall b scanty, but
as no dviliaed person inhabits the aoathem end of the Jocdan vaUey
throughout the year, and it has hitherto proved unpoesihb to
establuh self-regbtering instruments^ no systematic meteorological
observations have been taken. In Eastern Palestine there b even
a greater range of temperature; the loftier heights are covered in
winter with snow. The thermometer may range within twenty^oor
houn from ficedng-point to 80*.
The rainy season begins about the end of November, usual^
with a heavy thunderstorm: the rain at this part of the year is
the " former rain " of the Old Testament. The earth, baked hard
by the summer heat, b thus softened, and pibughifv begins at
onoe. The wettest month, as indicated by meteoroki;ical obser-
vation, b January; February b second to it, and December third;
March is also a very wet month. In April the rains come to an
end Jthe " btter rains ") and the winter crops rccdve thdr final
fertilization. The winter crops (bariey and wheat) are harvested
fcooi April to Juncb The summer crops (millet, seaame. figs,
melons, grapes, olives, &c.) are fertilixed by the heavy " dews "
which are one of the most remarkable diroaric features of the
country and to a large extent atone for the total lack of rain
for one half the year. These crops are harvested from August to
October.
WaUr Supply, — Notwithstanding the long drought, it must not
be supposed that Palestine b a waterless country, except in certain
districts. There are very few spots from which a spnng of some
sort is not accesdble. Perennbl streams are, and in uie recent
'cal agts always have been, rare in the country. The whob
the bnd b oitted with ancbnt cbterns; indeed, many hillsides
and fields are on that account most dangerous to walk over by night,
except for those who are thoroughly familiar with the landm '
dmarks.
These dstems are bell-shaped or bottlo^shajsed excavations, with
a narrow drcular shaft in the top, hdlowed in the rock and lined
with cement. Besides these, more ambitious works are to be found,
all now more or less ruined, in various parts of the country (see
Aqiteducts: Ancient). Such are the aqueducts, of which remains
exist at tericho, Caesarea and oUier places east and west of the
iordan; out espedally must be mentioned the enormous reservoirs
nown as Solomon's Pods, in a valby between Jerusalem and
Hebron, by which the former dty was supplied with water through
an elaborate system of conduits. Many 01 these aqueducts, as well
as countless numbers of now leaky dsterns, could with bat littb
troiibb be brought into use again, and would greatly enhance the
fertility of the country. The most abundant springs in Palestine
are the sources of the Jordan at Banias and at Tdl el-Kadi. ^ A
considerable number of springs in the country are brackish, bdng
impregnated with chemicab 01 various kinds or (when near a town)
with sewaee. The btter b the case of the Virgin's Fountain (Ain
Umm ed-Daraj), which b the only natural source of water in the
neighbourhood of Jerusabm.
Hot springs are lound in various parts of the country. especbHy
at El-Hamma, about 1 m. south of 'riberbs, where the water has a
temperatuae of 140* F. Thb b still used for curative purposes,
as it was in the days of Herod, but it b negbcted and dirty. The
spring of the Zerka Ma'in (Cahrrhoc) has a temperature of 147* F.
There are also hot sulphur springs on the west side of the Dead Sea.
Those of El-Hamma, bekm Gadara, are from 104* to lao* F ia
temperature.
ivsKMo.— It has been cakrolated that about ^95 different species
of vertebrate animals are recorded or still to be found in Palestine —
about 113 bdng mammals (including a few now extinct), 348 birds
(indudiiig 30 species peculiar to the country). 91 reptiles and 41
fishes Of the invertebrata the number is unknown, b«t ic must
be enormous. The most important domestic animab are the sheep
and the goat; the breed of oxen b small and poor. The camd. the
horse and the donhryare the draught animab; the flesh of the first
Gtolofyand (kograpky of Arabia Ptiraita, PaiuHmt ami ad/sniag
Dutrtas (London, 1886).
6o4
PALESTINE
irOPULATIOIf
b Mtcn by the poorer rlimgi, m it also occarfwiaMy that of the
seooad. Toe don, which prowl m large nunibcrs round the •Creeta
ol towiu and villaget, are Karody domesticated; much the same
it true of the catSi Wild cats, cheeuhs and leopards are found,
but they are now rare« ei^wciaUy the latter. The lion, which
inhabited the country in the time of the Hebrews, u now extinct.
The most important wild animals are the hyena, wolf (now oompaia-
tivriy nre), fox and jackaL Bats, various species of rodents, and
paeHes are very common, as is the ibex in toe valleys of the Dead
Sea. Among the most charscteristic birds may be mentioned eagles,
vultures, owls, partridges, bee-eatcrs and hoopoes; singing birds are
OB the whole uncommon. Snakea— many oithem venomous— are
numerous, and there are many varieties of llands. The crocodile
is seen ^but now wy rarely) m the Nahr ea-Zerka. Scorpions and
targe spiders are a universal pest.
.—The flon of 'Palestine has a conriderable nnge and variety,
' * ts. In the Jordan
larKsps
flora.'
owing to the variation in local climatic conditions,
valley the vegeution has a semi-tropical character, consonant with
ihe great heat, which here is normal. The coast-plain has another
r!, f.r. the ordinary vegetation of the Mediterranean UttoraL In
mountains the flora is, naturally, scantier than in these two
more favoured regions, but even here there is a rich variety. In all
parts of the country the contrast between thelandscape in early
sprinc and .later, when the oeaaation of rains and the Increase of
heat has burnt up the vcgctatioo, n very remarkable.
PcpulatioH.—-Tht inhabitants of Palestine are composed of
a lai^ number of elements, differing widely in ethnological
aflSnities, language and religion. It may be interesting to men-
tion, as an illustration of their heterogeneousness, that early
in the 20th century a list of no less than fifty languages, spoken
in Jerusalem as vemaculan, was then drawn up by a party
of men whose various official poaittons enabled them to possess
accurate information on the subject.* It is therefore no easy
task to write concisely and at the same time with sufficient
fullness on the ethnology of Palestine.
There are two classes into which the population of Palestine
can be divided-'the nomadic and the sedentary. The former
Is especially chazacteristic of Eastern Palestine, though Western
Palestine also contains its full share. The pure Arab origin
of the Bedouins is recognized in common conversation in the
country, the word " Arab " being almost restricted to denote
these wanderers, and seldom applied to the dwellers in towns
and villages. It should be mentioned that there is another,
entirely independent, nomad race, the despised Nowar, who
correspond to the gipsies or tinkers of European countries.
These people live under the poorest conditions, by doing smith's
work; they speak among themselves a Romani dialect, much
contaminated with Arabic In its vocabulary.
The sedentary population of the country villages — the fellahin,
or agriculturists— 4s, on the whole, comparatively unmixed;
but traces of various intrusive strains assert themselves. It
is by no means unreasonable to suppose that there is a funda-
mental Canaanite element in thb population: the "hewers
of wood and drawers of water" often remain undisturbed
through successive occupations of a land; and there is a remark-
able corre sp o n dence of type between many of the modem
fellahin and skeletons of andent inhabitants which have been
recovered in the course of excavation. New elements no doubt
came in under the Assyrian, Persian and Roman dominations,
and in more recent times there has been much contamination.
The spread of Islam introduced a very considerable Neo-Arabian
infusioiL Those from southern Arabia were known as the
Yaman tribe, those from northern Arabia the Kais (Qais).
These two divisions absorbed the previous peasant population,
and still nominally exist; down to the middle of the iQth century
they were a fruitful source of quarrels and of bloodshed. The
two great clans were further subdivided into families, but these
minor divisions are also being graduaUy broken down. In the
IQth century the short-lived Egyptian government introduced
into the population an element from that country which still
persists in the villages. These newcomers have not been
oompletdy assimilated with the villagers among whom they
* This list was intentionally made as exhaustive as posiible. and
included some languaaes Onich as Welsh) spoken by one or two
individual residents only. But even if. by omitting these accidmtal
icemst the list be reduced to thirty, a suficieat number will be left
to indicate the ooamopolitaa character of the dty.
haire found s home; the latter dapkt then, ai
intermarriage.
Some of the larger villages— notaUy Bcthkbem— wfaSd have
always been leavened by Christianity, and with the develop-
ment of industry have become comparatively prospcroua, tihow
tangible results of these happier circumstances hi m higher
standard of physique among the men and of personal appearance
among the women. It is not uncommon in popular writimi
to attribute this superiority to « crusader stimia— « theory
which no one can possibly countenance who knows what miaenafale
degenerates the half-breed descendants of the crusaders rapidly
became, as a result of their iounoral life and their ifsonnce of
the sanitary precautions necessary in a tijring dimate.
The population of the larger towns is M a mudi more c om p i ca
nature. In each there is primarily a large Arab ciemcs>t«
consisting for the greater part of members of important and
wealthy families. Thus, in Jerusalemi much of the tocal
influence Is in the hands of the families of El-Khalidi, El-
Husseini and one or two others, who derive their descent from
the heroes of the early days of Islam. The Turkidi demeat
is small, consisting exdusivdy of ofiidals sent individually fnMR
Constantinople. There are very large contingents fniia the
Mediterranean countries, espedaUy Annenia, Greece and Italy,
prindpaUy engaged in trade. The extraordinary development
of Jewish colonization has since 1870 effected a revohitiaB la
the bahince of population in some parts of the country, aocably
in Jerusalem. There are few residents jn the country from the
more eastern parts of Asia— if we except the Turkoman settle-
ments in the Jaulan, a number of Persians, and a fairly laise
Afghan colony that since 1905 has estab&hed itself in Jaffa.
The Mutflwilch (MoUwila), who form the majority of the
inhabitants of tbe villages north-west of Galilee, are probably
long-settled immigrants from Persia. Some trS)et of Kurds iivw
in tents and huts near Lake Huleh. If the inmates of the count-
less monastic esublishments be exduded, comparatively lira
from northern or western Europe will remain: the Gcraaa
'* Templar " colonies being perhaps the most important. There
must also be mentioned a Bosnian colony esUblished at Caeaarea
Palestina, and the Circassian settlements placed in certain
centres of Eastern Palestine by the Turkish govemmcat ia
order to keep a restraint on the Bedouin; the latter are abo
found in Galilee. There was formerly a Urge Sudanese and
Algerian dement in the population of some of the large towns*
but these have been much reduced in numbers since the
beginning of the 30th century: the Algerians howeve r stiff
maintain themselves in parts of Galilee.
The most Interesting of all the non-Arab communities la the
country, however, is without doubt the Samaritan sect ia
Nablus (Shecfaera); a gradually disappearing body, which has
maintained an independent existence from the time whca they
were first settled by the Assyrians to occupy the land left waste
b> the captivity of the kingdom of Israd.
The total popubtion of the country is roughly estimated
at 650,000, but no authentic offidal census exists fron which
satisfactory information on this point b obtainable. Some
two-thirds of this number are Moslems, the rest Christians of
various sects, and Jews. The largest town ia Pakstiae is
Jerusalem, estimated to contain a population of about 60^0001
The other towns of above 10,000 InhabiUnts are Jaffa (45,000),
Gaza (35.000), Safcd (30,000), Nablus (as.ooo), Keak (30,000),
Hebron (18,500), £s-Salt (15.000), Acre (11,000), Nasareth
(ii,oco).
The above remarks apply to tbe permanent popohtioa.
They would be incomplete without a passing word oa the
non-permanent elements which at certain scuoas of the year
are in the prindpal centres the most conspicuous. BspwisWy
in winter and early spring crowds of European and Americaa
tourists, Russian pilgrims and Bokharan devotees jostle. one
another in the streets ia fncturesque incongruity.
Pclitical DmnsMw— Under the Ottoman juritdictSoo PSskstiae
hks no independent existence. West of the Jordan, and to about
haU-way between Nabhis and Jcrusaksa, b the sootfaera poMisaaf
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY)
PALESTINE
605
tbe vilayrt or firovinoe of Betrat. South of this point i> the Mnjak'
of Jeniaftlem, to which Naiareth with its immediate neighbourhood it
added, to as to brine all the principal " Holy Places " under one
jurisdiction. East 01 the Jordan the country forms port of the
Uurn vQayet of Syria, whoee centre b at Damaacoa.
Commumi&atioiu.'—Vntii itoa oommunication through the country
was entirely by caravan, ana this primitive method is still followed
over the neater part of its area. On the 36th of September of that
year a raDway between Jaflfa and Jerusalem, with five intermediate
sutions, was opened, and has much facilitated transit between
the coast and the mountains of Judaea. A railway from Haifa
to Damascus was opened in 19<^: it runs across the Plain of
Esdraelon, enters the Chor at Beisan, then, turning northwards^
impinges on the Sea of Galilee at Samakh, and runs up the valley of
the Yarmuk to join, at ed-Der^ the line of the third railway. This
was undertaken in 1901 to connect Damascua with Mecca; in 1^
it was finished as far as Ma'an, and in 1008 the section to Medina
was completed. Carriage-roads also Began to be constructed
during the last decade of the loth century. They are on the whole
carelMsly made and nuintained, and are liable to |^ badly and more
or less permanently out of repair in heavy rain. Of completed
roods the most important are from Jaffa to Haifa* Jaffa to Nablus,
Jaffa to Jerusalem, Jaffa to Gasa; Jerusalem to Jericho, Jerusalem
to Bethlehem with a branch to Hebron, Jerusalem to Khan Labban
— ultimately to be extended to Nablus; and Gaza to Beersheba.
Other roada have been begun in Galilee («.f . Haifa to Tiberias and
to Jenin); but in this rcniect the northern province is far behind the
southern. For the rest there is a network of trades, all practically
impassable by wheeled vehicles, extending over the country and
connecting the towns and villa^ one with another.
/MftuffMi.— Thero are no mines and few manufactutea of import
tancc in Palestine: the country b entirely agriculturaL Although
the processes are primitive and improvements are discouraged,
both by the policy of the government and by an indolence and
suspiciousness of innovation natural to the people themselves,
fine crops of cereals are yielded, eroedally in the large wheat-lands
of (faiuian. Besides wheat* the u^lkiwing cn^ ace to a greater
or less extent cultivated — barley, nullet, sesame, mauxe, beans, peas,
lentils, kursenni (a species of vetch used as camel-food) and, in some
parts of the country, tobacco. The agriculturist has many enemies
to contend with, tne tax-gatherer being perhaps the most deadly;
aad draught, carthouakes, nts and locusts nave at all periods
been responsible for barren years.
The fruit trade is very connderable. The value of the oranges
exported from Jaffa in 1906 was ]^i6a,ooo; this amount Increases
annually, and of course in addition a considerable quantity is
retaineo for home consumption. Besides these are grown melons,
mulberries, bananas^ apricots, quinces, walnuts, lemons and citron.
The culture of the vine — formcriy an important staple, as is proved
by the countless ancient wine-presses scattered over the rocky
hillades of the whole countr^~feU to some extent into desuetude,
no doubt owing to the Modem prohibition of wine^rinldng. It is,
li9wever, rapidly retumin|{ to favour, principally under Jewish
auspices, and numerous vineyards now exist at different centres.
All over the countnr are olive-trees, the fruit and oil of which are
a staple product of the country; the trade is however hampered
by an excessive tax on trees, which not.only discourses planution,
but has the unfortunate effect of encouraging destruction. Other
fruit trees are abundant, though less so than those we have men-
tioned: such are pomegranates, pears, almonds, peaches, and, in
the warmer part of the country, palms. Apples are few and poor
in quality. The kkarrub (earob) is common and yields a fruit eaten
by the poorer classes.' Of ordinary table vegetables a considerable
quantity and variety are grown: such are the cabbage, cauliflower,
solaimm (egg-plant), cucumber, hibiscus (bamieh), lettuce, carrot,
artichoke, Sc. The potato is also grown in considerable ouantities.
Boide the agricultural there is a considerable pastoraf industry,
though it is principally confined to productbn for home consump-
tion. Sheep and goats are bred throughout the country; but the
breeding of the beasts of burden (donkeys, horses, camels) is chiefly
in the hands of the Bedouin.
Of the manufactures the following call for mention: pottery
(at Gaxa. Ramleh and Jerusalem); soap (from olive oU. principally
at Nablus) ; we may perhaps also extend the term to include the
collecting of salt (from the Dead Sea). This last is a government
monoOMV, but illidt manufacture and smuggling are hi^ly
oigantsea. Some of the minor industries, such as bee-keeping, are
tised with success by a few individuals. Other industries of
importaoce are basket-making, weaving, aad silk and cotton
practis
iMain
* A samiak ia usually a subordinate division of a vilayei, but that
of Jerusalem has been independent ever since the Crimean War.
This chan^ was made on account of the trouble involved in referring
all oompliGatioos (arising from questions rdating to the political
standing of the holy pbces) to the superior officials of Beirut or
Damascus, as had formerly been necessary.
' Sometimes imagined to be the " locusts '* eaten by John the
Baptist, on which account the tree is often called the locust-tree.
But it was the inaect which John used to eat; it ia still eaten by the
great devebpnient of , ,
IS manufactured by several
haa been fosteral since 1900 by the
(at Jerusalem and other places. Wins
of the German and Jewi '
}y sofne of the monastic establishments. Regula
u however handicapped by competition with toe tourist trade
in its several branc h e s a cting as guides and camp servants, manu-
facture and sale of "souvenirs (psfved toya and tiinkctt hi mother-
of-peari and olive-wood, forged antiquities and the like), and the
analogous trade in objets de piiU (rosaries, crosses, crude religious
pictures, &c.) for pilgrims. Travellen in the country squander
their money recklessly, and these trades, at once easy and lucrative,
are thus fatally attractive to the indolent Syrian and prejudicial
to the best interests of the country. (R. A. S. M.)
History
I.— Ofrf Testameni History:
Palestine is essentially a land of small divisions, and its
configuration docs not fit it to form a separate entity; it ** has
never bdonged to one nation and probably never will."* Its
position gives the key to its history. Along the west coast
ran the great road for traders and for the campaigns which have
made the land famous. The seaports (more espedally in Syria,
induding Phoenicia), were well known to the pirates, traders
and sca-powcn of the Levant. The southernmost, Gaza, was
joined by a road to the mixed peoples of the Egyptian Ddta,
and was also the port of the Arabian caravans. Arabia, in
lU turn, opens out into both Babylonia and Palestine, and &
familiar route skirted the desert east of the Jordan into Syria
to Damasais and Hamath. Damascus is closely connected
with Galilee and Gilead, and has always been in contact with
Mesopotamia, Assyria, Asia Minor and Armenia. Thus Pales-
tine lay at the gale of Arabia and Egypt, and at the tail end of
a number of sinall states stretching up into Asia Minor; it was
encircled by the famous andent dvilizations of Babylonia,
Assyria, South Arabia and Egypt, of the Hittites of Asia Minor,
and of the Aegean peoples. Cbnsequently its history cannot
be isolated from that of the surrounding lands. Recent research
in bringing to light considerable portions of long-foigotten ages
is revolutionizing those Impressions which were bas^ upon the
Old Testament— the sacred writings of a small fraction of this
great area; and a broad survey of the vicissitudes of this area
furnishes a truer perspective of the few centuries which concern
the biblical student.* The history of the Israelites is only one
aspect of the history of Palestine, and this is part of the history
of a very dosdy Interrelated portion of a world sharing many
similar forms of thought and custom. It will be necessary
here to approach the subject from a point of view whidiis less
familiar to the biblical student, and to treat Palesdne not merely
as the land of the Bible, but as a land which has played a part
in history for certainly more than 4000 years. The dose of
Old Testament history (the book of Nehemiah) in the Persian
age forms a convem'ent division between ancient Palestine and
the career of the land under non-oriental influence during the
Greek and Roman ages. It also marks the culmination of a
lengthy historical and religious devdopment in the establish-
ment of Judaism and its inveterate rival Samaritanism. The
most important data bearing upon the first great period are
given elsewhere in this work, and it is proposed to offer here a
more general survey.*
To the prehistoric ages bdong the palaeolithic and neoh'thic
flints, from the distribution of which an attempt might be made
to give a synthetic sketch of eariy Palestinian man.*
A burial cave at Gezer has revealed the existence
of a race of slight buOd and stature, muscular,
with elongated cnoia, and thick and heavy skull-bones. The
* G. A. Smith, TiisL Geog. 0/ tke Holy Land, p. 5S. This and the
author's art. '* Trade and Commerce, Bney. Bib. vol. iv., and his
Jerusalem (London, 1907). are invaluable for the relation between
Palestinian geography and history. For the wider geographical
relations, see especially D. G. Hogarth. Nearer East (London, 1902).
* See especially the writings of H. Winckler, in the 3rd ed. of
Schrader's Keilinsckrifkn mud das AUe TesL (Beriin, 1903): his
EdinonsfesckichtHclur «. gesckiclUlicker Orieui (1906), Ac
* See the articles on the surrounding countries and peoples,
and. for the biblical traditions, art. Jbw&
*See H. Vincent, Canaan d*aprks FexphraiiM riunie (I^vis,
1907), pp. 374 "Wm also pp. 39^-4^^
•iMatmr*
6o6
PALESTINE
lOLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
peppki lived in cava or rade huts, and had domesticated animals
(sheep, cow, pig, goat), the bones of which they fashioned into
various implements. Physically they are quite distinct from
the normal type, also found at Gezer, which was taller, of
stronger build, with well-developed skulls, and is akin both
to the Sinaitic and Palestinian t>'pe illustrated upon Egyptian
monuments from c. 3000 B.C., and to the modern native.' The
study of Oriental ethnology in the light of history is still very
incomplete, but the regular trend of events points to a mixture
of races from the south (the home of the Semites) and the north.
At what period Palestine first became the " Semitic '* land,
which it has always remained, is uncertain; nor can one decide
whether the characteristic megalithic monuments, especially to
the east of the Jordan, are due to the first wave which introduced
the Semitic (Canaanitc) dialect and the place-names. At all
events during the last centuries of the third millennium B.C.,
remarkable for the high state of civilization in Babylonia, Egypt
and Crete, Palestine shares in the active life and intercourse
of the age; and while its fertile fields arc visited by Egypt,
Babylonia (under Gimil-Sin, Gudea and Sargon) claims some
supremacy over the west as far as the Mediterranean.
A more definite stage is reached in the period of the Hyksos
(c. 1700), the invaders of Egypt, whose Asiatic origin is sug-
gested inter alia by the proper-names which include
^^ " Jacob " and " Anath " as deities.' After their
'expulsion it is very significant to find that Egypt
forthwith enters upon a series of campaigns in Palestine and
Syria as far as the Euphrates, and its successes over a district
whose political fate was bound up with Anyria and Asia Minor
laid the foundation of a policy which became traditional Apart
from rather disconnected details which belong properly to the
history of Babylonia and Egypt, it is not until about the i6th
century B.C. that Palestine appears in the clear light of history,
and henceforth its course can be traced with some sort of con-
tinuity. Of fundamental importance are the Amama cuneirorm
tablets discovered in 1887, containing some of the poUtical
correspondence between Western Asia and Egypt for a few
years of the reigns of Amenophis III. and IV. (c. 1414-13^)'
The first Babylonian dynasty, now well known for its Kham-
murabi, belonged to the past, but the cuneiform script and
language are still used among the Hiititcs of Asia Minor (centring
at Boghaz-kcui) and the kings of Syria and Palestine. Egypt
itself was now passing from its greatness, and the Hillites
(^,p.)— the term is open to some criticism — were its rivals for
the possession of the intervening lands. Peoples (apparently
Iranian) of liillile connexion from the powerful state of Mitannl
(Northern Syria and Mesopotamia) had already left their mark
as far south as Jerusalem, as may be inferred from the personal
names,* and to the intercourse with (apparently) Aegean
culture revealed by excavation, the letters add references
to mercenaries and bands from Melubba (vix. Arabia),
Mesopotamia and the Levant. The diminutive cities of this
cosmopolitan Palestine were ruled by kings, not necessarily of the
native stock; some ifcxre appointed — and even anointed — by
the Egyptian king, and the small extent of these city-states is
obvious from the references to the kings of such near-lying sites
as Jerusalem, Gezer, Ashkelon and Lachish. Tom by mutual
jealousy and intrigue, and forming little confederations among
* For fuller treatment of the data see R. A. S. Macattstcr's complete
memoir of the Gezer excavations.
> Reference may be made to Ed. Meyer's admirable mrvey of
Oriental histocy dowo to this age, Ctuk. d. AUtrtums (Benin,
1909), also to J. H. Breasted. HisL of Etypt (London. 1906). bks.
i.-iv.: and L. W. King. Hist, of Bab. and Ast vol. i. (London, 1910).
Some knowledge c^ tne culture, religion, history and interrelations
over the area of which Palestine formed part is indispensable for
any careful study of the ages upon which we now enter.
'See the admirable cditba by J. A. Knudtxon. with full notes
by O. Wcbcr fLeipxig. 1907-1910). For their bearing on Palestine,
see especially P. Dhorme. M. biUique (1908). pp. 500-519; (i909)f
PP:K7^»3®'"385.
* Dhorme. op.
Bibl. Arch. (19<
cf. A. H. Sayce,
op. eii. (IQ09). pp. 60 soq.; H. R. H
(1909). XXXI. 333 scq.: Weber, op. cit,,
yce. Arch. 0/ Cuneiform Inset, (1907). PI
Hall Proc. Sec.
p. 1088 acq.;
pp- X93 »q<i-
themselves, they were united by their common rec o g ni tio n of
the Egyptian suzerain, their court of appeal, or in some short-
lived attempt to withsund him. Apart from Jenisakm and
a few towns on the coast, the veal w«dght lay to the north, and
especially in the state of Amor.* It is an age of Internal dis-
organization and of heavy pressure by land and by sea troa
Northern Syria and Asia Minor. The land seethes with excite-
ment, and Palestine, wavering between allegiance to Egypt and
intrigues with the great movements at lu north, is unable to
take any independent Bne of action. The letters vividly describe
the approach of the enemy, and, in appealing to Egypt, abound
in protestations of loyalty, complaints of the distqyalty of oihct
kings and ezctaes for the writers' suspicious comtact. Of
exceptional interest are the letters from Jerusalem describing
the hostility of the maritime coast and the disturbances of the
9abiru ("allies ")t n itame which, though often equated with
that of the Hebrews, may ha\'e no ethnological or hntoriral
significance.* But Egypt was unable to help the loyaHsis.
even ancient Mitannl lost lu political Independence, and the
supremacy of the Hittites was assured. The history of the age
illustrated by the Amama letters is continued in the ubiets
found at Boghaz-keui, the capital of the old Hittite Empire.'
Subsequent Egyptian evidence records that Setl I. (e. 1310) of
the XlXth Dynasty led an expedition into Palestine, but
struggles with the Hittites continued until Ramescs II. (€. ijool
concluded with them an elaborate treaty which left him Dttle
more than Palestine. Even this province was with difRoilty
maintained: the disturbances in the Levant and In Asa Minor
(which belong to Aegean and Hittite history) and the revival
of Assyria were reshaping the political history of Western Asia.
Under Rameses III. (r. 1200-1169) we may recognize another
age of disorganization in Palestine, in the movements with which
the Philistines (q,v.) were concerned. Nevertheless, Egyjit.
seems to have enjo]red a fresh spell of extended sopremacy, and
Rameses apparently succeeded In recovering Palestine and
some part of Syria. But it was the dose of a lengthy period
during which Egypt had endeavoured to keep Palestine detached
from Asia, and Palestine had realized the significance of a
powerful empire at its south-western border. Somewhat If ter
Tiglath-Pileser (c. 1100) pushed the limits of Assyrian suzerainty
westwards over the lands formerly held by the great Uittiic
Empire. It is at this age, when the external evidence becomes
extremely fragmentary, that new political movements were
inaugurated and new confederations of states sprang into
existence. Palestine had been politically part of E^gypt or of
the Hittite Empire; we now reach the stage where it becomes
more closely identified with Israelite history.
Palestine had not as yet been absorbed by any of the great
powers with whose history and culture it had been so dosclj
bound up for so many centuries. In the "Amama" ^^
age the little kings had a certain measure of inde* jJffjM"**
pendence, provided they guarded the royal caravan
routes, paid tribute, refrained from conspiracy, and generally
supported their suzerain and his agents. However profound
the influence of Babytonia may have been, enavatjon has
dlKovered comparatively few specific traces of it. Although
cuneiform was used, the Palestinian letten show that the nativ-e
language, as in the case of earlier proper-names, was mwt
nearly akin to the later " Canaanite " (Hebrew. Moabtte and
Phoenician). In view of the relations subsisting sflxmg Pales-
tine, Mitannl and the Hittites^ it is evident that BabyloniaB
* Amor (Ass. Amurru, Bibl. AmaHU), lay north of Lebanon and
behind Phoenicia; but the rem fluctuates (Weber, •p, C9i^
fits sqq.). See an. Amoutb& and A. T. Clay, Amm rm (PhiU<
delphia. 1909).
• See H.^nckler. Altor. Forukune. (1901), nf. 99; W. M MQIIer
in I. Benangcr. Heb. Arekdoi. (1907), p. 445: B. Eerdmsna, AtMnt.
Stud. (1908), ii. 61 sqq.: Dhorme. op. til. (IQ09). pp. <77 SW* The
movement oif the Uabira cannot be isolated from that refMcsevted
in other fctten (where the enemy are not described by thb tcrvi).
and their steps do not agree with those of the Invadtag l— e l ii es
in the book ol Joshua (e.r). ^
» H. Winclder. Milua. d. dentseken Oriemt-GetelL s. BerOm <I907)
No. 35: cf. J. Gantang. Land of HiUiUs (London, I9te), 5*6 sqq.
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORYl
PALESTINE
607
ooaM Ittvt enteral indirectly; and vatfl one can
determine how much is specifically Babylonian the analogica
and paratteis cannot be made the groond for sweeping assertions.
The ittflttence of a superior power upon the culture of a people
cannot of course be denied; but history proves that it depends
upon the resembhmce between the two peoples and their
respective levels of thought, and that it is not necemarOy either
deep or lasting. A better case might be made for Egypt; yet
notwithstanding the presence of its colonies, the cult of its
gods, the erection of temples or shrines, and the numerous
traces of intercoune exposed by excavation, Palestine was
A&atic rather than Egyptian. Indeed Asiatic influence made
itself felt in Egypt before the Hyksos age, and later, and more
strongly, during the XVIIIth and following Dynasties, and
deities of Syto-Palestinian fame (Resheph, Baal, Anath, the
Baalath of Bybtes, Kadcsh, Astarte) found a hospitable welcome.
On the whofe, there was everywhere a common foundation of
culture and thought, with local, tribal and national develop*
ments; and it is useful to observe the striking similarity of
religious phraseology throughout the Semitic sources, and its
similarity with the ideas in the Egyptian texts. And this
becomes more instructive when comparison is made between
cuneiform or Egyptian sources extending over many centuries
and particular groups of evidence (Amama letters, Canaanite
and Aramaean inscriptions, the Old Testament and later Jewish
literature to the Talmud), and pursued to the cusloms and
beliefs of the same area to-day. The result is to emphasize
(o) the inveterate and indissoluble connexion between religious,
social and political life, (6) the differences between the ordinary
current rtligioos conceptions and specific positive devdopments
of them, and (c) the vicissitudes of these particular growths in
their relation to history.*
There is reason to believe that the religion of Palestine in the
Amama age was no inchoate or inarticulate belief; like the
fffflffff material culture it had passed through the elementary
stages and was a fully established though not, perhaps,
a very advanced organism. There were doubtless then, as
later, numerous local deities, closely connected with local
districts, differing perhaps in name, but the centre of 'similar
ideas as regards their relations to their worshippen. Com-
merdal and political intercourse had also brought a knowledge
of other deities, who were worth venerating, or who were the
aurvivors of a former supremacy, or whose recognition was
enforced. It is particulariy interesting to find in the Amama
letters that the supremacy of Egypt meant also that of the
national god, and the loyal Palestinian kings acknowledge that
their land belonged to Egypt's king and god. In accordance
with what is now known to be a very widespread belief, the
kingship was a semi-divine function, and the Pharaoh was the
incarnation of Amon-Re. This would bring a greater coherence
of worship among the chaos of local cults. The petty kings
naturally recognize the identity of the Pharaoh, and they hail
liim as their god and identify him with the heads of their ovm
pantheon, llius he is called — in the cuneiform letters — their
Shamash or their Addu. The former, the sun-deity, god of
justice, &c., was already well known, to judge from Palestinian
place-names (Beth-Shcmesh, &c.). The latter, storm or weather
god, or, in another aspect, god of rain and therefore of fertility,
is specifically West Asiatic, and may be equated with Hadad
and Ramman (see below). He is presumably the Baal who is
associated with thunder and lightning, and with the bull, and
who was familiar to the Egyptians of the XlXth and XXth
Dynasties in the adulations of their divine king. He is probably
also " the lord of the gods " (the head of a pantheon) invoked
in a private cuneiform' tablet unearthed at Taanach.* Besides
these gods, and others whose fame may be inferred (Dagon,
* Much confusion can be and has been caused by disregarding (h)
and by supposing that the appearance of similar elements of thought
or custom implied the presence of similar more complete organisms
(e.t. totemiim, astral relinon. jurisprudence). Cf. p. 183. n. 4.
'See. most recently, Unsnad s translation in H. Gressmann,
Ausgrabunten in Pal. u. d. A. T. (TQbinccn. 1908). p. 19 acq. The
title " lord of heaven "—whether the 5un or Addu, there was a
Nebo, Nergal, ftc), there were the doscly-retated goddesses
Ashira and Ishtar-AsUrte (the Old Testament Asherah and
Ashtoreth). Possibly the name Yahweh (see Jehovah) had
already entered Palestine, but it is not prominent, and if, as
in the case of certafai other deities, the extension oi the name
and cult went hand-in>hand with political circumstances, these
must be sought in the problems of the Hebrew monarchy."
At an age when there were no great external empires to control
Palestine the Hebrew -monarchy arose and claimed a premier
place amid its neighboun (c. 1000). How the smaU mmofUig
rival districts with their- petty kings were united tittnw
into a kingdom under a single head is a diluted * — w |r»
question; the stages from the half-Hittite, half -Egyptian land
to the independent Hebrew state with Its national god are an
unsolved problem. Biblical tradition quite plausibly represents
a mighty invasion of tribes who had come from Southern Palestine
and Northern Arabia (Ekth, Ezion-geber)— but primarily from
Egypt — and, after a series of national '* judges," established the
king^ip. But no place can be found for this conquest, as U is
described, cither before the " Amama " age (the date, following
X Kings vi. i) or about the time of Rameses II. and Minepteh
(see Exod. i. 11); and if the latter king (c. 1244) records the
subjugation of the people (? or land) '* Israel," the complicated
history of names does not guarantee the absolute Identity
of this " Israel " either with the pure Israelite tribes which
invaded the land or with the intermixed people after this event
(see Jews: }} 6-8). Whatever may have been the extent of this
invasion and the sequel, the rise and persistence of an inde>
pendent Palestinian kingdom was an event which concerned the
neighbouring states. Its stability and the necessary furtherance
of commerce, usual among Oriental kings, depended upon the
attitude of the maritime coast (Philistia and Phoenicia), Edom,
Moab, Amroon, Gilead and the Syrian states; and the biblical
and external records for the next four centuries (to 586) fre>
quently illustrate situations growing out of this interrelation.
The evidence of the course of these crucial years is tmequal and
often sadly fragmentary, and is more conveniently noticed in
connexion with the biblical history (see Jews: f§ 9-17). A
conspicuous feature is the difhctilty of maintaining this single
monarchy, which, however it originated, speedily became two
rival states (Judah end Israd). These are separated by a very
ambiguous frontier, and have their geographical and political
links to the south and north respectively. The balance of
power moves now to Israel and now to Judah, and tendencies
to internal dbintegration are illustrated by the dynastic changes
in Israel and by the revolts and intrigues in both states. As
the power of the surrounding empires revived, these entered
again into Palestinian history. As regards Egypt, apart from
a few references in biblical history {e.g. to its interference In
Philistia and friendliness to Judah, see Phtlistine), the chief
event was the great invasion by Sheshonk (Shishak) in the
latter part of the loth century; but although it appears to be
an isolated campaign, contact with Egypt, to judge from the
archaeological results of the excavations, was never intermittent.
The next definite stage is the dynasty of the Israelite Omri (q.v.),
to whom is ascribed the founding of the city of Samaria. The
dynasty lasted nearly half a century, and Is contemporary
with the expansion of Phoenicia, and presumably therefore
with some prominence of the south maritime coast. The royal
houses of Phoenicia, Israd and Judah were united by inter-
marriage, and the last two by joint undertakings in trade
and war (note also x Kings ix. a6 seq.). Meanwhile Assyria
was gradually estabh'shing itself westwards, and a remarkable
confederation of the heirs of the old Hittite kingdom,
" kings of the land of ^Jatti " (the Assyrian term JfJJJJi,
for the Hittites) was formed to oppose it. Southern
Asia Minor, Phoenicia, Ammon, the Syrian Desert and Israel
(under Omri*s son " Ahab the Israelite ") sent their troops to
support Damascus which, in spite of the repeated effocts of
tendency to Identify tbem~was perhaps known In 1Vcatine« ^
certainly was in Egypt and among the Hittites.
■ See S. A. Cook,' Expositor, Aug. 1910, pp. iir-iaj.
6o8
PALESTINE
lOLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
^ «as evidently able to hold its own from 8si to
839. The anti-Auyrian alUance waa, as often In west A^ a
temporary one, and the inveterate rivalries of the small sUtes
are illustrated, in a striking nuuiner, in the downfall of Omri's
dynasty and the rise of that of Jehu iS42-€, 745); in the bitter
onslaughts of Damascus upon Israel, leading nearly to its
annihilation; in an unsuccessful stuck upon the king of Hamath
by Damascus, Cilicia and small states in north Syria; in an
Isrselite expedition against Judah and Jerusalem (a Kings
xiv. X3 seq.); and finally in the recovery and extension of
Israelite power— perhaps to Damascus — under Jeroboam II.
In such vicissitudes as these Palestinian history proceeds upon
a much larger scale than the national biblical records relate,
and the external evidence is of the greatest importance for the
light it throws upon the varying situations. Syria could control
the situation, and it in turn was influenced by the ambitions of
Assyria, to whose advantage it was when the small states were
rent by mutual suspicion and hostility. It is possible, too^
that, as the states did not scruple to take advaouge of the
difikultics of their rivals, Assyria pla)red a more prominent
part in keeping these jealousies alive than the evidence actually
states. Moreover, in the light of these moves and counter*
moves one must interpret the isolated or incomplete narratives
of Hebrew history.' The repeated blows of Assyria did not pre-
vent the necessity of fresh expeditions, and later, Adad-Nirari III.
(813-783) claims as tributary the land of Hatti, Amor, Tyre,
Sidon, "the land of Omri" (Israel), Edom and Philistia.
Israel at the death of Jeroboam was rent by divided factions,
whereas Judah (under Uzziab) has now become a powerful
kingdom, controlling both Philistia and the Edomite port of
Elath on the gulf of 'Akaba. The dependence of Judaean
sovereignty upon these districts was Inevitable; the resources of
Jerusalem obviously did not rely upon the small district of
Judah alone. If Ammon also was tributary (2 Chron. xxvL 8,
xxvii.), dealings with Israel and perhaps Damascus could
probably be Inferred.
A new period begins with Tiglath-Pileser IV. (745-7^8):
pro- and anti-Assyrian parties now make themselves f^ and
niftwf when north Syria was taken in 738, Tyre, Sidon,
mame»9i Damascus (under Rezin), " Samaria " (under
AM^rrta, Menahem) and a queen of Aribi were among the tribu-
taries. It is possible that Judah (under Uzzixh and Jotham)
had oome to an undersUnding with Assyria; at all events Ahaa
was at once encircled by fierce attacks, and was only saved by
Tiglath-Pileser's campaign against Philistia, north Israel and
Damascus. With the siege and fall of Damascus (733'33)
Assyria gained the north, and its supremacy was recognized by
the tribes of the Syrian desert and Arabia (Aribi, Tema, Sheba).
In 731 Samaria, though under an Assyrian vassal (Hoshea the
last king), joined with Philistia in revolt; in 730 it was allied
with Gaza and Damascus, and the persistence of unrest is
evident when Satgon in 715 found it necessary to transport
into Samaria various peoples of the descrL Judah itself was
next involved in an anti-Assyrian league (with Edom, Moab
and Philistia), but apparently submitted in time; nevertheless
a decade later (701), after the change of dynasty in Assyria, it
psrticipated in a great but unsuccessful effort from Phoenicia
to Philistia to shake off the yoke, and suffered disastrously.'
With the crushing blows upon Syria and Samaria the centre of
interest moves southwards and the hbtory is i&lluenccd by
Assyria's rival Babylonia (under Marduk-baladan and his
successors), by north Arabia and by Egypt. Henceforth
there is little Samarian history, and of Judah, for nearly a
century, few political cvenu are recorded (Jews*. } r6). Judah
was under Assyrian supremacy, and, although it was in-
volved with Arabians In the revolt planned by Babylonia
' > Recsently found to be the third of that name (H. W. Hogg, The
JnUrpr€kr, 1910, p. 339).
'So «.{. in references to Ammon, Damascus and Hamath, and
in Judaean relations with Philistia. Moab and Edom.
'Sec art. HuBKXAB. A recently pubbshed inscription, of Sen-
nacherib (of 694 B.C.) mentions enauvrd peoples from Philistia and
Tyf«, but does not name Judah.
(against AsMirbaaipal), it appeus to have b«
quiescent.
At this stage disturbances, now by Aramaean tribes, now by
Arabia, combine with the new rise of Egypt and the weakness
of Assjrria to mark a turning-point in the world's ^ . ^ ^
history. PsammeUchus (Psamtek) I. (663-609) with ^7 ^
his Creeks, Carians, lonians and soldiers from Pala-
tine and Syria, re-established once more an Egyptian Empire,
and replaced the fluctuating relations between Palestine and
the small dyaasu of the Delu by a settled policy. Trading
intcrcommonication in the Levant and the constant passage
to and fro of merchants brought Egypt to the front* and, in
an age of archaic revival, the effort was made to re-catabltsh
the ancient supremacy over Palestine and Syria. The precise
meaning of these changes for Palestinian histoiy and life can
only incompletely be perceived, and even the sifoificance of the
great Scythian invasion and of the greater movemenu with which
it was connected is uncertain (see Scvthia). At all eveou,
Egypt (under Necho, 609^593) prepared to take advantage of
the decay of Assyria, and marched into Asia. Judah (under
Josiah) was overthrown at Megiddo^ where about nine centuries
previously the victory of Tethmnses (Thutmose) UI. bad made
Egypt supreme over Palestine and Syria. But Egypt was now
at once confronted by the Neo-Babyloaian or Chaldean Empire
(under Nabopolassar), which, after annihiUting Assyria with
the help of the Medians, naturally claimed a right to ihe
Mediterranean cosst-lands. The defeat of Necho by Nebuchad-
rezzar at Carchemish (605) is one of the world-famous battles.
Although Syria and Palestine now became Babylonian, this
revival of the Egyptian Empire aroused hopes in Judah of
deliverance and led to revolts (under Jehoiachin
and Zedekiah), in which Judah was apparently not ^_^_
alone.^ They culminated in the fall of this kingdom ""
in 586. Henceforth the history of Palestine is disconnected
and fragmentary, and the few known events of [wlitical
importance are isolated and can be supplemented on|y by infer-
ences from the movements of Egypt, Philistia or Phoenicia,
or from the Old Testament. According to the Chaldean
Nabonidus (553) all the kings from Gaza to the Euphrates
assisted in his buildings, and the Chaldean policy gencraUy
appears to have been favourable towards faithful vassals.
Cyrus meanwhile was rising to lead the Persians against Media.
After a career of success he captured Babylonia (553) and forth-
with claimed, in his famous inscription, the submission of Amor.
For the next soo years Palestine remained part of the new
Persian Empire which, with all its ramifications on land and oo
sea, embraced the civilized world from the Himalasras to the
Levant, until the advent of 'Alexander the Great (see Jews: fig).
Very gradually the face of history underwent a complete change.
Egypt had resumed its earlier connexions with the Levantixte
heirs of the ancient Acgeans, the old empires of the Nearer
East had practically exhausted themselves, and Palestine passed
into the fresh life and thought of the Greeks. (See bebw, p. 61 7 >
In any consideration of the internal conditions in Palestine it
must be observed that there is a continuity of thou^it, cnstoaa
and culture which u independent of political changes ,
and vicissitudes of names. With the establishment <
of an independent monarchy Palestine did not enter ^
into a new world. Whatever internal changes
ensued between the " Amama " age and 1000 B.C., they have
not left their mark upon the course of culture illustrated by the
excavations. These still indicate communication with £0^4
and the north (Syria, Asia Minor; Assyria and the Levant not
excluded), and even when a novel culture presents itseif, as is
certain graves at Gezer, the affinities arc with Cyprus and Asu
Minor (Caria) of about the nth or loth century.* The nse oi
* Cr. Jcr. xxvii. 3 scq., and the history of the Egyptian Hophra
(Aprics. 588-56^).
•At present it n difficult as regards Palestine to distinz^jli
Aegean influence (direct and indirect) from that of Asia Miivir
^nerally. Only after the old Cretan (Minoan) cultare had paisacd
it» zenith and was already decadent doc* it suddenly ~
Cyprus (H. R. Hall. Proc. Soc. Bibt. Arch, xxxl 227).
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
PALESTINE
609
iron came in about this time, perhaps from the north, and biblical
history (i Kings x. a8 seq., see the commentaries) even ascribes
to Solomon the import of horses from Kae and Musri (Cilicia
and Cappadocia). The cuneiform script, which continued in
Egypt during the XlXth and XXth Dynasties, was perhaps
still used in Palestine; it was doubtless familiar at least during
the Assyrian supremacy. But in the meanwhile the " North
Semitic" alphabet appears (from 850) with almost identical
forms in extreme nwth Syria («.;. Sam'al), in Cyprus, Gezer,
Al0kdbtL ***** "* Moob. The type is w^ry closely related to
the oldest European (Etruscan) forms, and, in a less
degree, to the " South Semitic " (old Minaean and Sabaean);
and since it at once begins (c. 700) to develop along separate
paths (Canaanite and Aramaean), it may bo inferred that the
common ancestor was not of long derivation. This alphabet
stands in contrast to the old varying types of the Aegean and
Asia Minor area and can hardly be of local origin. Under what
historical circumstances it was first distributed over Palestine
and Syria is uncertain; it is a plausible conjecture that once
more the north is responsible.^ Too little is known of the north
as a factor in Palestinian development to allow hasty infer-
ences, but it is ceruinly noteworthy, at all events, that the
names Amor and Qatti appear to move downwards, and that
" Hittite " is applied to Palestine and Philistia by the Assyrians,
and to Hebron in the Old Testament, and that Ezekiei (xvi. 3)
calls Canaanite Jerusalem the offspring of an Amorite and a
Hittite. It is to be observed, however, that the meaning of
geographical and ethnical terms for culture in general must
be properly tested— the term " Phoenician " is a conspicuous
case in point. Thus, in north Syria the art has Assyrian and
Hittite affinities, but is provincial and sometimes rough. Some
of the personal names arc foreign and find analogues in Asia
Minor; but even as the Philistines appear in biblical hlstoiy as
a" Semitic ^'people, so insaiptions from north Syria (c. 800-700)
are in Canaanite and early Aramaean dialects, and are in entire
agreement with " Semitic " thought and ideas. The deities too
generally bear familiar names. In Sam'al the kings Panammu
and Q-r-lhave non-Semitic names (Carian), but the gods include
TfOodM, Hadad, El (God par excelience), Reshcph and the
Sun-deity. In Hamath wc meet with the Baal of
Heaven, Sun and Moon deities, gods of heaven and earth, and
others. A god " Most High " Cdydn) was perhaps already
known in Hamath.' The '*Baal of Heaven," reminiscent of
the Egyptian title "lord of heaven," given long before to
Reshcph, appears in the pantheon of Tyre (c. 677). The
reference here is probably to the inveterate Hadad who, in his
Aramaean form Ramman (Rimmon), is found in Palestine.
Among the Hebrews, Yahweh, some of whose features associate
him with thunder, lightning and storm, and with the gifts of the
earth, has now become the national god, like the Moabite
Chemosh or the Ammonite Miicolm. (For the Edomite gods,
see EooM.) The name is known in the form Ya'u in north
Syria (8lh century), and, so far as the Israelite kings are con-
cerned, appears first in the family of Ahab. No images of
Yabweh or of earlier Canaanite deities have been unearthed;
but images belong to a relatively advanced stage in the
development of religion, and the aniconic stage may be repre-
sented by the sacred pillars and posts, by the small models of
heads of bulls, and by the evidence for calf-cults in the Old
Testament.' Yahweh was by no means the only god. Inter-
' On the points of contact with old Cretan and Anatolian scripts
•ec A. J. Evans, Scripta Minoa (Oxford, 1909), n. 80 sqq. The
persistence of evidence for the importance of Aegean and Asia
Minor (" Hittite ") peoples in the study of Palestine and surrounding
lands is one of the most interesting features of recent discovery.
Cf. H. Hogarth, Ionia and the East (Oxford, 1909), pp. 64 sqq.;
E. Meyer, (ksck. d. AlUrtums, i. (I 490. 5^3.
>So Dhorme interprets the place-Dame t/r (light oO-|it-'(-e-»t
(/la. BM, 1910. p. 67). *
*See Calf, Golden, and note the representation of a calf at
er-Rummin (Ramman • Hadad) in cast Jordan (Grcssmann
p. 35). It is obvious that the strict injunctions in Exod. xx. 4,
Deut. iv. 16 aqq., 23, 35, and other references to idolatry, are the
outcome <A a reactioa ai^ainst images.
course and aSiance introduced the cults of Chemosh, Milcom, the
Baal of Tyre and the Astarte of Sidon. Excavation has brought
to Ught figurines of the Egyptian Osiris, Isis, Ptah, Anubis
and especially Bes. Assyrian conquest and domination In-
fluenced the cults at all events outside Judah and Israel, and
when Sargon sent skilled men to teach ** the fear of God and the
king " (cyl. inscr. 7a-74) the spread of Assyrian religious ideas
among the Hebrews themselves is to be expected. Certainly
about 600 the Queen of Heaven, who has Ass3rrian traits, was
a favourite object of veneration (Jer. vii. 18, xliv. 17-19, 25);
yet already a century earlier the goddess " Ishtar of heaven "
was worshipped by a desert tribe (see Ishuael), and the titles
" lady of heaven," '* bride of the king of heaven," had been applied
centuries before to west Asiatic goddesses (Anath, Kadesh,
Ashira, &c.). Although no goddess is associated with the
national god Yahweh, female deities abounded, as is amply
shown by the numerous plaques of the great mother-goddess
found in course of excavation. The picture which the evidence
furnishes is as fundamental for our conception of Palestine
during the monarchies as were the Amama tablets for the age
before they arose. The external evidence does not point to
any intervening hiatus, and the archaeological data from the
excavations do not reveal any dislocation of earlier conditions;
earlier forms have simply developed and the evolution is s pro-
gressive one. Down to and at the time of the Assyrian
supremacy, Palestine in religion and history was merely part
of the greater area of mingled peoples sharing the same charac-
teristics of custom and belief. This does not mean of course
that the religion had no ethical traits — ethical motives are
frequently found in the old Oriental religions — but they were
bound up with certain naturalistic conceptions of the relation
between deities and men, and herein by their weakness.^
In the age of the Assjrrian supremacy Palestine entered upon
a series of changes, lasting for about three centuries (from about
740), which were of the greatest significance for
its internal development. The sweeping conquests Jjj'*'
of Assyria were " as critical for religious as for civil o^mlaaUoZ
history."' The brutal methods of warfare, the
cruel treatment of vanquished districts or cities, and the
redistribution of bodies of inhabitants, broke the old bonds
uniting deities, people and land. The framework of society
was shattered, communal life and religion were disorganized.
As the flood poured over Syria and flowed south, Israel (Samaria)
suffered grievously, and the gaps caused by war and deportation
were filled up by the introduction of new settlers by Sargon,
and by his successors in the 7th century. Unfortunately,
there is very little evidence in the biblical history for the sub-
sequent career of Samaria, but it is clear that the old Israel of
the dynasties of Omri and Jehu received crushing blows. The
fact that among the new settlers were desert tribes, suggests
the introduction, not merely of a simpler culture, but also of
simpler groups of ideas. In the nature of the case, as time
elapsed the new population must have taken root as securely
as — one must conclude — the invading Israelites had done some
centuries earlier. As a matter of fact the prophets Jeremiah
and Ezckiel by no means regarded the population lying to the
north of Judah as strangers, and the latter in turp were ready
to share the Judaeon distress at the fall of Jerusalem (Jer. xli, s),
and in hter years offered to assist in rebuilding Yohweh't
temple. Indeed, since the Samaritans subsequently accepted
the Pentateuch, and claimed to inherit the ancestral traditions
of the Israelite tribes, it is of no little value in the study of
Palestinian history to observe the manner in which this people
of singularly mixed origin so thoroughly assimikited itself td
the land and at first was virtually a Jewish sect. But Samaria
was not the only land to suffer. Judah, towards the close of
the 8lh century, was obviously very doscly bound up with
Philistia, Edom and Egypt; and this and Hcxekiah's dealings
with the anti-Assyrian party at Ekron do not indicate that
any feeling of national exdusiveness, or any abhorrence of the
* W. R. Smith, Rel. of the SemiUs (London. 1894), p. 58.
» Ibid. p. 35; cf. pp. 65, 77 sqq., 358.
6io
PALESTINE
|OLD TESTAMENT UlSTOity
" uncircuiadaed Phflistiaa *' pradominated. From the docrip-
Uon of Sennacherib's invasion it is dear that social and economic
conditions must have been seriously, perhaps radically disturbed/
and the quiescence of Judah during the next few decades implies
an internal weakness and a submission to Assyrian supremacy.
During the 7th century new movements were coming from
Arabia, and tribes growing ever more restless made an invasion
cast of the Jordan through Edom, Moab and Ammon. Although
they were repulsed, this awakening of a land which has so often
fed Palestine and Syria, when viewed with the increasing
weakness of Assyria, and subsequent vicissitudes in the history
of the Edomites, Nabataeans and East Jordan tribes, forbids
us to treat the invasion as an isolated raid.' Later, the fall of
the Judaean kingdom and the deportation of the leading dasscs
broiight a new social upheaval The land was not denuded,
and the fact that " some scores of thousands of Jews remained
in Judah through all the period of the exile,"' even though
they were " the poorest of the land," icvolutionixcs ordinary
notions of this period. (See Jews: § 18). But the Judaean
historians have successfully concealed the course of events,
although, as has long been recognized, there was some movement
fiiMUMa upwards from the south of Judah of i^ups closely
<ImW related to Edomite and kindred peoples of South
Palestine and Northern Arabia. The immigrants,
^like the new occupants of Samaria, gradually
assimilated themselves to the new soil; but the circumstances
can hardly be recovered, and even the relations between Judah
and Samaria can only be inferred. In the latter part of the
6th century we find some restoration, some revival of the old
monarchy in the person of Zerubbabel (520 B.C.); but again
the courK of events is problematical (Jews, § ao).* Not tmtil
the middle of the sth century do the biblical records (book of
Nehemiah) furnish a foundation for any leconstnKtion. Here
Jerusalem is in sore distress and in uixent need of reorganisation.
Zerubbabel's age is of the psst, and any attempt to revive
political aspirations is considered detrimental to the interests of
the surrounding peoples and of the Persian Empire. Scattered
evidence suggests that the Edomites were responsible for a new
catastrophe. Amid internal and external difficulties Nehemiah
proceeds to repair religious and social abuses, and there is an
important return of exiles from Babybnia. The ruling dassct
are related partly to the southern groups already mentioned
and partly to Samaria; but the kingship of old is replaced
by a high^priest, and, under the influence of Babylonian Jews
of the strictest principles, a breach was made between Judah
and Samaria which has never been healed (Jews: § ax seq.).
Biblical history itself recognizes in the times of Aitaxenus,
Nehemiah and Ezra the commencement of a new era, and
although only too much remains obscure we have in these
centuries a series of vicissitudes which separate the old Palestine
of Egyptian, Hittite, Babylonian and Assyrian supremacy from
the land which was about to enter the circle of Gredt and
Roman civilization. This division, it may be added, also seems
to leave iU mark upon the lengthy archaeological history of
Palestine from the earliest times to the Bysantine age. There
is a certain poverty and decadence of art, a certain simplicity
of civilization and a decline in the shape and decoration of
pottery which seems to exhibit signs of derivation from skin
prototypes elsewhere associated with desert peoples. This
phase comes at a stage which severs the earlier phases (including
the " Amama " age) from those which are very cknely connected
' See G. A. Smith, Jemsalem, u. 160, ig6 acq.
' See L. B. Paton, Early HiiL of Syria and Pai, (London, 1903),
p. ate; Winckler, Koilinsckr. «. doM A.T^ p. 131.
■ G. A. Smith, JerusttUm, it a6o.
«Oa ordinary historical grounds it is probable that there wu a
political reoraantzation and a welding of the divene dements
throughout the land (J. A. Montgomery, The Sa$marUans, Phila-
ddpbia, 1907; p. 6a seq.). There is intemal literary support for
this in the critjcisro of Deuteronomy (which appears to have in
view a comprehensive Israd and Judah at this period), and of
vmriotts passages evidently carikr than Nehemtah's time (see
R. H. Keonett. /mm. 0/ TTuol. Stud., tqos, pp. l7S-t8l; 1906.
pp. 486. 498).
with Sdeudd and later times. Its 1 _ _
dated with the invasion of the Israelites or with the establish^
ment of the independent monarchy, but on very inadequate
grounds; and since it has been independently placed at the
latter part of the monarchy, ita historical eaplaaatioo may
presumably be found in that break in the career of Palestine
when peoples were changed and new oiganisatioiis skmly grew
up.' The great significance of these vidssitudea for the course
of intemal conditions in Palestine is evident when it is otocrved
that the subsequent cleavage between Judah and Samaria,
not earlier than the 5th century, piesuppoaes an antecedent
oommoo foundatioo which, in view of the history d the
monarchies, can hardly be earlier than the 7th oentuiy. These
centuries represent an age whicb the Jewish historians have
partly igoMod (as regards Samatia) and partly obscured (aa
regards the return from exile and the reoonatruction of Jiidah);
but since this age stands at the head of an historical develop-
ment which leads on to Christianity and Rabbinical Judaism, it
Is necessary to turn from Palestine as a land in order to notice
more particularly certain features of the Old Testament upon
which the foregoing evidence directly bearSb
The Old Testament is essentially a Palestinian, an Oriental,
work and is entirely in accord with Oriental thou^t and
custom.* Yet, in its chamctexistic rdigion and
legislation there are essential ^liritual and ethical
peculiarities which 9ve It a uniqueness and a permap
nent value, the reality of which becomes more impccsaive whea
the Old Testament is viewed, not merdy from a Christiaa
or a Jewish tdeology, but in the light of ancient, medieval and
modem Palestine. The ideas which characterize the Old
Testament are planted upon lower levels of thought, and they
appear in different aspects (lepd, prophetical, hktorical) and
with certain developments both within its pages and in sub-
sequent literature. To ignore or to obscure the features which
are opposed to these ideaa would be to ignore the witness oi
external evidence and to obscure the old Testament itself.
The books were compiled and preserved for definite aims, and
thdr teaching is directed now to the needs of the people as a
whole— as in the ever popular stories of Geneai»->now to the
inculcation of the lessons of the past, and now to matters of
ritual. They are addressed to a people whose mental processes
and philosophy were primitive; and since teaching, in order to
be communicable, must adapt itself to cttrrent bdiefs of God,
man and nature— and the Inveterate conservatism of man
must be bora b mind—the trend of ideaa must not be confused
with the average standard of thought.' The teaching was not
necessarily presented in the form of an over-elaborated moral
lesson, but was associated with conceptions familiar to the laikd ;
and when these conceptions are examined from the anthrofio-
logical standpoint, they are found to ooouin much that is
strange and even abhorrent to modem convictions of a purdy
spiritual ddty. There are moreover many traces of conffictiitg
ideas and ideals, of cruder beliefs and customs, and of attempts
to remove or elevate them. In Genesis and elsewhere there
are enmples of popular thought which have not the character-
istic spirit of the prophets, and which, H is dear, could only
gradually be purified. The notion of a Yahweh scarcely less
limited in power than man, the naive views of supematural
beings and their ncancss to man, and the persistence of features
whidk stand rdativdy low In the scale of mental culture, only
serve to enhance the reality of the spirit which inspired the
endeavour to reform. There were rites and customs which
only after lapse of time were considered iniquitous. Magical
practices and forms of sacred prostitution and human sacrifice
were familiar, and the denundations of the prophets and the
* For the late date, see F. PMrie, TtO-d-Hesy UBqi), p. 47 aeq^
and Bliss and Macaliater. Extmrnliotu iMPaUstitu (ijvoai* H»> 79. 74«
roi, 134: and. for the suggestion in tbe^cxt, S A. Cook, fizfanter.
(Aug. 1909), pp. 104*114.
* See. «.f .. E. SeDio. AUtest. Rdig. im Rakmoi dtrmmdtm aitrntnlut-
ischem (Leipzig, 1 908).
* On the characteristics of primitive thought, see G. F. Scout.
lianiul ofPsyckclogy (London. 1907), Bk. I V.,espcdaUy pp. 574-S79>
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORYI
PALESTINE
6ii
lawgivers show very vividly the penisteBce of what was
current religion but was hostile to their teaching.* There is
an astonbbing boisterousness (cf. Lam. iL 7), joviality and
sensualism, all in striking contrast to the austerity of nomad
asceticism. There is a ferocity and fanaticism which manifests
itself in the belief that war wa9 a sacred campaign of ddty
against deity. Even if the account of the "ban" (utter
destruction) at the Israelite conquest be unhistorical, it repre-
sents current ideas (cf. Josh. vi. 17 seq.; i Sam. zv. 3; a Kings
XV. x6; 2 Chron. zzv. 12 seq.), and implies imperfect views of
the Godhead at a more advanced stage of religion and morality.
There are conflicting ideas of death and the dead, and among
them the belief in the very human feelings and needs of the
dead and in their influence for good or e^.' Moreover, the
proximity of burial-place and sanctuary and the belief in the
kindly care of the famous dead for their descendants reflect
^^ ''primitive'* and persisting ideas which find their
pStt parallel in the holy tombs of religious or secular
heroes in modem Palestine, and exemplify the
firmness of the link uniting local groups with local nmmetu.
" The permanence of religion at holy places in the East "■ is
one of the most important features in the relation between
popular and national religion. The local centres will survive
political and historical vicissitudes and the changes of
national cults and sects, and may outlive the national deities.
The supernatural beings may change their name and may vary
externally under Greek, Roman, Mahommedan or Christian
influence; but their relation to the local groups remains essen-
tially the same, although there is no regression to earlier organic
connexions. The inveterate local, one may perhaps say
immediate, powers are felt to be nearer at hand than the national
deity, who is more closely bound up with the changing national
fortunes and with current philosophy. These smaller deities are,
as it were, telluric, and the territory of each is virtually
hcnothebtic — as also its traditions— and even as to-day tfaie
saints or patrons enjoy a more real veneration among the
peasants than does the Allah of the orthodox, the long-estab-
lished worship of the ancient local beings always hampered
the reformers of Yahwism (cf. Jer. ii. 28, xi. 13).* Whether
they could be regarded as so many manifestations of a single
deity or as really distinct entities, there were at all events
similar and well understood relations between each and its
group; and although the cult was future-worship and was
attended with a licentiousness which drew forth the denuncia-
tions of the prophets, this is only one aspect of the local deity's
place in the religious conceptions of his circle. The excavations
(at Gezer, Megiddo, Jericho, &c.) indicate a persbting gross
and cruel idolatry, utterly opposed to the demaixls of the biw
and the prophets.* Jerusalem and the surrounding dbtrict
have ominous heathen associations.* Jerusalem itself by off
'See generally E. Meyer. Cesch. d. AUertums (Berlin. 1909). i.
§{f ^42 8qq. Ceremonial licentiousness was perhaps ot northern
origin (Meyer f 345), and as a preliminary to marriage seems to
have been known not only in Aaayria (Herod, i. 190), but also in
Palestine ("a law of the Amoritcs"; Test, of Judah, cd. R. H.
Charles, xxii. 2); cf. E. S. Hartland. Anthreppl. Essays . . .
E. B. Tyhr (Oxford, 1907}, pp. 189-402. (For miscellaneous
material see J. G; Frazer, ibio. pp. 101-174: "Folk-bre in the
Old Testament.")
■ See P. Torge, SctUnglaube u. Unstertduhkeilshoffnung im Alien
Test. (Leipzig, 1909^.
•The title of an mstructive essay by Sir W. M. Ramsay in the
Expositor, Nov.. 1906, pp. 45^ sqq. The whole subject involves also
the various forms ana developments of hero- and saint <ults, on
which cf. E. Lucius, Anfdnt/s d. Heiiit/tnkuUust &c (TObingen,
1904) ; P. Saintyves. SaitUs successeurs des dieux (Paris, 1907)
* On the old Baals of Palestine, sec H. P. Smith, in O. T. and
Sentitu Studies in Memory of W. R. Harper (Chicago, 1008). i. M-M-
For the persistence of the " high places," see G. F. Moore. Ency.
Bib. arts. ** High Place," " Idolatry and Primitive Religion."
'Vincent. Qinaan, p. 204: cf. S. -R. Driver. Modern Research
cs illustrating the BiUe (London, 1909). pp. 60 sqq.. 90.
' Viz. the shrines of Chemosh, Moloch, Baal of Tyre and Astarte
of Sidon (1 Kings xi. 1-8; 2 Kii^is xi. 18. xxiiL); the valley of
Hinnora (see J. A. Montgomery, Joum. BlU. Lit. xitvii. t. 24-47);
•nd the pbce-names Anathoth (" Anaths"), Nob (Nebo?). Beth-
ninib, Beth-shemesh. The name jcnisalcro may be compounded
the main line of intercourM aJad one may look fo^ a cotain con-
servatism in its famous Temple. Temples, shrines and holy
places were no novelty in Palestine, and the in- jonmahm
auguration of the great centre of JudaisA is ascribed am^tto ■
to Solomon the son of the great conqueror David, '^'v**
Phoenician aid was cnlated to buMd it, and the Egyptian
analogies to the construction accord with the known influence
of Egypt upon Phoenician art« It is the dwelling-place of the
deity, the centre of the nation and of the national hopes; the
fall of the Temple follows after Yahweh left it, it is rebuilt
and he returns (Zech. viiL 3). The Temple is merely pact
of the royal palace and the govenunent buildings (cf. Ezek.
xliii. 7 seq.), and this is as signihcant as the king's position
in its management. It is in keeping with the old conceptions
of the divine kingship, which, though they survive only
in isolated biblical references, live on in the ideals of the
Messianic king and his kingdom and in the post-exilic high
priest.' The Temple is built, ornamented and furnished
on lines which are quite incompatible with a q>iritual
religion. Msrthicai features sboond in the cherubim and
seraphim, the piUars of Jachin and Boaz, the mysterious
Nefanshtan, the bronze-sea and the laveis. These agree with
the more or kas dear allusions in the Old Testament to myths
of creation, Eden, deluge, mountain of gods. Titanic folk,
world-dragons, heavenly hosts, &c., and also with the unearthed
seals, tablets, altaxs, &c. representing mythical ideas. The
ideas occur in varying forms fiomEgypt to Babylonia and point
to a considerable body of thought, whkh is not less impnssive
when one takes into account the instances in the Old Testament
where myths have been rationalised, elevated, or otherwise re-
moved from their older forms (eg. the story of the birth ol Moses,
accounts of creation and deluge, &c.), or when one observes the
subsequent uncompromising objection to a display o( artistic
meaning, implying that it aroused definite conceptions. To.
reinterpret all thoe features as mere symbob, the lumber of
andent days, is to avoid the problem of their introduction into
the Temple, and to assume an advance of popular thought
which IS not confirmed by the retention and fresh developments
of the old ideas both in the pseudepigraphical literature and in
the literature of Rabbinical Judaism.* The hones of the sun-
god (3 Kings xxiiL 11), too, betong ton group of ideas which
may perhaps be associated with the plan of the Temple and with
the old hymn of dedication (i Kings viiL X3 seq.). At aU events,
when one considers the Babylonian-Assyiian conceptions of
Shamash as the supreme and righteous judge, god of truth and
justice, or the monotheism of Amenophis IV. ami his fine hymn
to the sun-god, it is certain that a corresponding Palestinian
deity would not necessarily be without etidcal and elevated
associations.* In short, the place which tlie Temfde held ia
with that of a deity (Winckler. JTeil. u. A.T. 234 ae^.; G. A. Smith,
Jerusalem, ii. 35 seq.), and the ddty $cdck is cunooslyaasodated
with the names of the Jerusalem priests Zadok, Jchoradak (cf.
Melchiacdck of Salem, Geo. xiv.), and the kings Adonindek and
Zcdckiah. The strange character of the names of the first kings In
Israel and Judah (Saul, David and Solomon), noticed already by
A. H. Saycc {Modem Reoiew, 1884, pp. 15^-169), cannot cadly be
See A. B. Davidson. Theol. of 0. T, (Edinburgh, 1904). p. 9:
J. G. Frazer, Adonis^ AUis and Osiris (London, 1907), pp. la sqq.,
401. Cf. the title " The Anointed of Yahweh," the sunile " as a
messenger (angel) of Yahweh " (a Sam. idv. 17. xix. 37), and the
idea of the king as the embodiment of his people's safety (3 Sam.
xxi. 17; Lam. iv. so). This absence of the deification of the
king is characteristic of biblical celifion which recognises Yahweh
as the only king; see H. Gressmann, Urspnmg d. isrttd.-jiid,
£5fAoArf«ifi«(G«ttingen,l905).pp. asosqq. . , . .^
■ For examples of the persistence oT the mterrelated ideas—
whether of astral significance or not is another question — see A.
icrrmias. Babylon im Nenen Test. (Ldpcig. 1905), Das AlU Test, im
.tthte d.Alten Orients (1906): E. Bischoff. Bab. Astrales im Wettkitdt
d. Thalmud n. Midrasck (1907).
* Cf . for an excellent example of Oriental religious thought, the
fine Babylonian hymn to Ishur (t.e. AsUrte), L. W. King. Saen
Tablets ofCreatum (London, 1907), pp. 723-337. and the specunens in
R. W. Rogen. Rel.of Bab. and Ass. tn iU Rdatians to lsnd(JuanAaa
1908). pp. 143-184. On ethical conceptions of heathen dcitiesL see
1. King. Detdopment of Religion (New York, 1910}. pp. 368-386^
6l2
PALESTINE
tOLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
rdig^otts tbouglit (cf. cspeciaHy Isaiah), the chancter of the
reforms ascribed to Joaiah (3 Kings xxiii.), the pictures drawn
by Jereniah and Ezekiel, and the lattcr's condemnation of the
half-Hittite, half-Amorite capital, combine with the events
of later history to prove that the religion of the national
sanctuary must not be too narrowly estimated from the
denunciations of more spiritual minds or from a priori views
of the inevitable concomitants of either henotheism or mono-
theism or of a lofty ethical teaching.
There Is indeed a devek^mcnt, but it is noi^ the less note-
worthy that the post-exilic priestly ritual preserves in the
IhattMak wor^p of the universal and only God Yahweh,
Dtvttt^ rites, practices and ideas which can be understood
***'fc only in the light of other nature-religions, especially
that of Babylonia, with which there are striking parallcb.^ For
examplei the^hod, an object of divination, is still retained, but
it is now restricted to the high-priest; and his position as head
of a theocratic state, and his ceremonial dress with its heathenish
associations presuppose a post monarchy.* Clad in almost
barbaric splendour (cf. Ecdus. zlv., L, and Jos. AiU. iii. 7, &c.)
he embodies the glory of the worshipping body like the kings of
old, and sometimes plays as important a part in the later
political history. The priestly system, as represented in the
Pentateuch, is not fitted for the desert, where its initiation is
ascribed, but on independent internal critical grounds belongs
to the post-exilic age, where it stands at the he»i of further
developments. It is the adaptation of the prophets' conceptions
of Yahweh to old religious ideas, the building up of new concep-
tions upon an old basis, a fusion " between old heath\en notions
and prophetic ideas," and " this fusion is characteristic of the
entire priestly law."* The priestly religion bound together
the community in a way that alone preserved Jewish mono-
theism; it stands at the head of a long, unintennittent history,
and it is to be viewed, not so much as the climax of Old Testa*
ment religion, but as one of a series of inseparable stages. In
concentrating the religious observances of the people upon
Jerusalem, its Temple and its priesthood, it became less spon-
taneous, and its services more remote from ordinary life. It
left room for rival schoob and sects, both within and without
the priestly drcles, and for continued development of the
older and non-priestly thought. These reacted upon this
institutional rehgion, which readapted and rcinterprefcd itself
from time to time, and when they did not help to build up
another theology (as in Christianity), they ended by assuming
too rigid and unprogressive a shape (see Qaraites), or, breaking
away from long-tried convention, became a mysticism with
mixed results (see Kabbalah). While these vicissitudes take
us away from Palestine, the course of native religious thought
is very significant for its relation to the earlier stages. Although
the national God was at once a transcendent ruler of the universe
and also near at hand to man, the unconscious religious feeling
found an outlet, not only in the splendid worship at Jerusalem,
but in the more immediate intercessors, divine agendes, and the
like; and when Judaism left its native soil the Ideal supernatural
beings revived — as characteristically as when the old place-
names threw of! their Greek dress — and they still survive, under
a veneer of Mahommcdanism, as the modem representatives of
the Baals of the distant past.*
* The presence of pftrallels also in South Arabian and Phoenidan
cultc ftUKECsts that the old Palestinian ritual van in general agree-
ment utth the Oriental religions. Specific inflttencc on the part
of Babylonia is not excluded; but the absence of striking points
(f agreement in other portions of the Old Testament may not be
due to anvthing else than the particular character of the circles
in which iney belonged.
> See C Westphal. Jakwes WohnitaUen (Giessen^ 1908). pp. 137 sqq.
A. Jeremias. tiilprecht Anwaersary Volume (1910), pp. 323-342,
and art. Costume: Oriental.
' C. G. Mootcfiore, in the Hibbert Lectures, 1893. p. 330, cf. p. 333
V* [the| marriage of heathen practice and monotheistic use is one
of the oddest and saddest features of the whole priestly code"),
of. also p. 411. and. in general. Lectures vi.-ix.
♦5cc Clcnnont-Canncau, Pal. Etplor. Fund, Quart. SUil*m.
('^75). pp- *oO wjq-: C. R. Conder, Tent W(*rk in Paiettine (London,
iK7"*h ii. 216 Miq.; j. G. [-raxer, op. f't. p. 71. ike, H. Grciksnisnn.
The ttniqueoesa of the Old Testament rdigkn is stamped
upon the Mosaic legislation, which combines in archaic manner
ritual, ethical and civil enactments. As a whole, g^g^
the economic conditions implied are pastoral and g^^^
agricultural, and are relativdy primitive; and the
general rudimentary character of the legal ideas appean in the
death penalty for the goring ox (Exod. ui. 28), resort to ordeal
(Ntun. V. 11-31), and in the treatment of murder, family,
marriage, slaves and property. The use of writing is once
contemplated (the " bUl of divorce," Dcut. ndv. 3), but not in
ordinary business; <Hith8 and symbols are used instead of written
contracts, and the commerdal law is nouUy scanty. The
simplidty of the legislation is also manifest in the land-system
in Lev. xxv., which implies a fresh beginning and not a readjust-
ment of earlier laws. In property succession thete
is a feeling of tribal aloofness which would not be
favourable to a central authority; and in faa the legal
machinery is rude, and the carrying out of the law <'
so much upon courts and officials as upon religious consideiatioos.
Ii there is a supreme court, it is priestly (Deut. xviL 8^13), and
the legislation is bound up with the worship of Yahw^, who
avenges wrong. This legislation appears as that of the
Israelites, newly escaped from bondage in Egypt, joined by an
ethical covenant-relation with Yahweh, and waiting in the
desert to enter and conquer the land of their ancestors. But
it is remarkable that, although within the Old Testament itsell
there are certain different backgrounds, important variations
and developments of law, these are relatively insignificant
when we insider the profound changes from the xstb-i3th
centuries (apparent by the period of the conquest) to the dose of
Old Testament history. Yet, the coiKlirions in Palestine during
the monarchies revnd grave aiul complex social problems^
marked class distinctions, and constant intercourse and commer-
cial enterprise. There was no place for tribal ezdusivcncsa, and
the upkeep of a monarchy (induding the Temple) and the
occasional payment of tribute would require duly appointed
officials and a central body. The pentateuchal laws rdating to
womoi belong to the country rather than to town life (note ibe
picture of feminine luxury in Isa. iii. 1 6 sqq. ; d. Amos iv. 2«-3) . In
general the pentateuchal legislation as. a whole presupposes an
undeveloped state of sodcty, and would have been inadequate
if not partly obsolete or unintelligible diuing the monarchies.*
But more elaborate legal usages had long been kimwn outside
Palestine, and, to judge from the Talmud and the Syrian law-
code {c. 5lh centtiry a.d.), long prevailed. Oriental law is
primitive or advanced according to the social conditions, with
the result that antiquity of ideas is no criterion of date, and
modem desert custom is more archaic than the ^ ^
great code of the Babylonian king Khammtirabi JJJI^
(c. 2000 B.C.). Common law is merely part of the
national life, and where it is implicated with religion tbcie is
no uniformity over an area comprising different groups of people.
In such a case there is resort to a controlling authority, whether
sdf -imposed (like the divine Pharaoh of the Amama age), or
mutually agreed (as Mahomet and the Arabian dans).* It
cannot be definitely said that the <Ad Babylonian code was in
force in Palestine. On the other hand, it is known that it vras
being diligently copied by Assur-bani-i>ars scribes (7th century
B.C.), and in view of the drcumstances of the Assyrian donuz^a-
tion, it is probable that, so far as Palestinian economic conditioitt
permitted, a legislation more progressive than the Pentateuch
Paldstiuas Erdgeruck in der isfod. Rdig. (Berlin, 1909), pOi 16 aq^^
In the above, and in other respects also, a survey of the mstory' *^
Palestine suggests the necessity of modifying that " bidoanca] "
treatment of the development of thought which pays ins«uneie«it
attention to the persistence -of the representatives of diflcff«f«
stages by the side of or after the disappearance of the higher stages:
see I. King, op. cit., pp. 304 sqq.
* Cf. J.-M. Lagrange, Hist. Crit. and Ike O. T. Ooodo^ 1905).
p. t76; H. M. Wiener, The Churchman (190S), p. 33-
•Sce W. R. SmitK Rd. of Semites, p. 70. who coaraarcs tlw
judirial authority of Moses. Note also the British Indian k^atat>o«
imposed upon the various castes and creeds each with thcw- r^'^T'ftr
rites and customs-
OLD TBSTAMENT HmORV)
PALESTINE
613
wu In me. The discovery at Geser of AMyrian contract*
tablets (65s and 6^ b.c) — one relating to tbe sale of land by
a certain Netbaniah—at least suggests tbe prevalence of Assyrian
costom, and tbis is confirmed by tbe tecbnical baainess metbods
fllustrated in Jer. izzii. Moreover, among the Jewish families
Kttled in tbe stb century B.C. in Egypt (Elephantine) and
Babylonia (Nippur), tbe Babylonian-Assyrian principles are
in vogue, and the presumption that tbey were not unfamiliar
in P^estine is strengthened further by tbe otherwise unac-
countable appearance of Babylonian-Assyrian elements later in
tbe Talmudic law. The denunciations in tbe prophetical writings
of gross injustice, oppression and maUdministration seem to
presuppose definite biws, which either were ignored or which
fell witb severity upon the poor and unfortunate. Tbey point
to a considerable amount of written law, which was evidently
class-legislation of an oppressive character.^ Tbe Babylonian
code is essentially class-legisbtion, and from tbe point of view
of the idealism of tbe Old Testament prophets, which raises tbe
rights of humanity above everything else, tbe steps which the
code takes to safeguard the rights of property (slaves included
therein) would naturally seem harsh. The code also regulates
wages and prices, and shows a certain humanity towards debtors;
and here any failure to carry out these laws would obviously
be denounced. < While the code, according to its own lights, aims
itvfihota at strict justice rather than charity, the Old Testa-
M4tM0 ment has reforming aims, and tbe religious, legislative
^•^^' and social ideals are characterised by the insistence
upon a lofty moral and ethical standard. These ideals are more
religious than democratic. The appeal of the prophets, ** is
not for better institutions but for better men, not for tbe abolition
of aristocratic privileges but for an honest and godly use of
them."' The writers have in view a people witb individual and
collective rights and responsibilities, united by feelings of tbe
deepest loyalty and kindliness and by common adherence to their
only God. There is a marked growth of refinement and of
ideas of morality, and a condemnation of the shameless vice and
oppression which went on amid a punctilious and splendid
worship. It is extremely significant that between the teaching
of the prophetical writings and the spirit of the Mosaic legislation
there is an unmistakable bond. The Mosaic law, in its reforming
aspect, is characterized by tbe denunciation of heathenism
and heathenish usages whicH belong to the old religion. There
is an insistence upon individual responsibility (Deut. xxiv. 16;
a Kings xiv. 6; cf. Jer. xzxi. 99 seq.; Ezek. xviii., xxxiii.), the
more notewortby when one considers the tenacity of the savage
ialto and its retention, though with some modifications, in the
Babylonian code. There is a tendency to mitigate slavery, and
the law of fugitive slaves is a particubrly instructive innovation
(Deut. zxiiL 15 seq., subsequently confined to the slave from
outside). Corporal punishment is kept within limits (xxv. 3),
but its very existence poinu to state-life rather than to the
desert. Some attempt is made to diminish the destructiveness
of war (xx. lo-so), but the passage is a remarkable illustration of
a barbarous age. Tlie endeavour is also made to improve the
monarchy of the future (xviL 14 sqq.), but mainly on religious
grounds, in order to diminish foreign intercourse. Noteworthy,
again, is the appeal to religious and ethical considerations in
Older to prevent injustice to tho widow and fatherless and to
unhappy debtors; statutory laws are either unknown, or, more
probably, are presupposed. The pentateucfaal legislation as a
-j^^Q^. whole is placed at the very beginning of Israelite
PnthmM, national history. Amid constant periods of apostasy
two epoch-making events stand out: (a) the redis-
covery of the Book of the Law (Deuteronomy is meant) in the
time of Josiah (a Kings xxii.) followed by a reform of sundry
religious abuses dating from the foundation of the temple, and
ib) tbe promulgation by Ezra of the Law of Yahweh, the law of
Moses (Ezra. vii. 10, 14; Neh. viii. 1), in the age of Nehemiah. at
tbe very close of biblical history. This legislation, endorsing
* O. C. Whitehouse, Century Bible, on Tsa. x. i seq.
'See W. R. Smith, Old TtsL in the Jew. Church (London, 1892).
PP 34«. 350 leq.
(in certain well-defined portions) priestly authority, excludes a
monarchy and stands at the bead of a lengthy development in
tbe way of expansion and interpretation. Its true place in
biblical history has been tbe problem of generations of scholars,'
and tbe discovery (Dec. igox-Jan. 190a) of the Babylonian code
has brought new problems of reUtionship and of external
influences. Although on various grounds there is a strong
probability that the code of Khammurabi must have been
known in Palestine at some period, tbe Old Testament does not
manifest such traces of tbe influence as might have been expected.
Pentatenchal law is relatively unprogressive, it is marked by a
characteristic simplicity, and by a spirit of reform, and the
persisting primitive social conditions imph'ed do not harmonize
witb other internal and external data. Tbe existence of other
laws, however, is to be presupposed, and there appear to be cases
where tbe Babylonian code lies in the background. An indepen-
dent authority concludes that " tbe co-existing likeness and
differences argue for an independent recension of ancient custom
deeply influenced by Babylonian law."* The questions are
involved witb tbe reforming spirit in biblical religion and history.
On literary-historical grounds the Pentateuch in Its present form
is post-exilic, posterior to the old monarchies and to tbe ideals of
the earlier prophetical writings. The laws are (a) partly contem-
porary collections (chiefly of a ritual and ceremonial character)
and (6) partly collections of older and different origin, though
now in post-exilic frames. The antiquity of certain principks
and details is undeniable — as also in the Talmud— but since
one must start from tbe organic connexions of tbe composite
sources, the problems necessitate proper attention> to the
relation between the stages in the literary growtli (working
backwards) and the vicissitudes which culminate in the post-
exilic age. Tbe simplicity of tbe legislation (traditionally
associated with Moab and Sinai and with Kadesh in South
Palestine), the humanitarian and reforming spirit, the condem-
nation of abuses and customs are features which, in view of the
background and scope of Deuteronomy, can hardly be severed
from the internal events which connect Palestine of the Assyrian
supremacy with the time of Nehemiah.*
Tbe introduction, spread and prominence of the nanu Yahweh,
the development of conceptions concerning his nature, his
supremacy over other gods and tbe lofty monotheism chMraettr
which denied a plurality of gods, are questions •ro.r,
which, like the biblical legislative Ideas, cannot be ^''^"r^
adequately examined within the narrow compass of the Old
Testament alone.
The biblical history is a " canom'cal " history which looks back
to the patriarchs, the exodus from Egypt, the law-giving and
the covenant with Yahweh at Sinai, the conquest of Palestine
by tbe Israelite tribes, tbe monarchy, the rival kingdoms, the
fall and exile of the northern tribes, and, later, of the southern
(Judah), and the reconstructions of Judah in the times of Cyrus,
Darius and Artaxerxes. It is the first known example of
continuous historical writing (Genesis to Kings, Chronldes-Ezra-
Nehemiah), and represents a deliberate effort to go back from
'See Bible: Old Test. Criticism', Jews, {{ 16, 23.
* C. H. W. Johns. Maslincs's DicL BiUe, v. 611 seq.. who points
out that the intrusion of pricsd); power into the bw courts is a recru-
descence under changed conditions of a state of things from which
the Babylonian cocic shows an emancipation nearly compt ' '^*^'
view formerly maintained by the present writer (Laws oj .
'' ' '" 204 sqq , 279 ecq-.&c.) relies
the Babylonian cocle shows an emancipation nearly complete. The
view formerly maintained by t*- ' — -''~ " ^ " -•
Code of Hammurabi, 1903, pp. :
diflerence between the exilic or post -exilic sources which 'unani-
AIoscs and
lied upon the
„ . . - ^ ^hich unam-
biguously reflect Babylonian and related ideas, and the absence
in other biblical sources of the features which an earlier compre-
hensive Babylonian influence would have produced, and it incor-
rectly assumed that the explanation might be found in the ordinary
reconstructions of Israelite history. Cf. above, p. 18a, n. 1.
* On the later history of the canonical law (Mishnah, Gemara,
&c.) see Talmud. The Talmud embodies law, which is rvlated to
the Babylonian code not only in content but also sometimes in
spirit: see L. N. Dembitz, Jew. Quart. Ra. xix. (1906), pp. lOO w|q.
For the efforts of ihe Rabbis to improve the legal .principles ia
Galilee in the 2nd and Ard centuries a d.. see A. Bflchler, Pubhcation
No. I, Jews* College, London. With the removal of Judaism from
Palestine and internal social changes the archaic primitive law re-
appeared, now influenced, however, by Mahommedan legislatiiMi.
6i4
PALESTINE
(OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
the <Uys when the Judacans sqiantcd fn>m the SamaritaiM
to the veiDr bcguming ot the worid. A chacacteriatic tone per-
vades the history* even of the antediluvian age, from the creation
of Adam; or rather, the history or the earliest times has been
written under its influence. It reveals itself in the days of the
Patriarchs, before the " Amama " age— or rather in the narra-
tives relating to these remote ancestors. It will be perceived
that an objective attitude to the subjective writings must be
adopted, the surtlng-point i» the writings themselves and not
individual preconceptions of the authentic hbtory which they
embody. Although there are various points of contact with
Palestinian external history, there is a faUure to deal with some
events of obvious importance, and an emphasb upon others
which are less conspicuous in any broad survey of the land.
There are numerous conflicting details which unite to prove that
various sources have been used, and that the structure of the
compilation is a very intricate one, the steps in its growth being
extremely obscure.* In studying the internal pecuUarittes and
the different circles of thought involved, it is found that they
often imply written traditions which have a perspective different
from that in which they axe now placed. As regards the pre-
monarchical period, some evidence points to a settlement
#%«• (apparently from Aramaean localities) of the patri-
Mn u KMrn i archs, and of Israel (Jacob) and hb sons, t.e. the
f^"**^ ** children of' IsraeL" It ignores a descent into
Egypt and the subsequent invasion.' The parallel account in
the book of Joshua of the entrance of the " childxen of Israel "
is, in its present form, the sequel to the journey of the people
along the east of Edom and Moab after the escape from Egypt,
and after a sojourn at Kadesh (Exodus-Deuteronomy). But
other evidence abo points to an entrance from Kadoh into
Judah, and associates the kin of Moses, Kenites, Calebites and
others. Thus, the tradition of a residence in Eg3rpt, implied
also in the stories of Joseph, has certainly become the
" canonical " view, but the recollection was not shared by all
the mixed peoples of Palestine; and to this difference of historical
background in the traditions must be added divergent traditions
of the earlier population. Traditions, oral and written, with
widely differing standpoints have been brought together and
merged. Moreover, the elaborate account of the vast invasion
and conquest, the expulsion, extermination and subjugation of
earlier inhabiunts, and the occupation of dties and 6elds,
combine to form a picture which cannot be placed in Palestine
during the isth-iath centuries. It must not be denied that the
recollection of some invasion may have been greatly idealized
by late writers, but it happens that there were important immi-
grations and internal movements in the 8t]h-6th centuries, that
Is to say, immediately preceding the poet-exilic age, when this
composite account in the Pentateuch and Joshua reached iu
present form. An enormous gap severs the pre-monarchical
period from this age, and while iht tribal schemes and tribal tradi-
tions can hardly be traced during the monarchies, the inclusion
of Judah among the " sons " of Inacl would iwt have originated
when Judah and Iscael were rival kingdoms. Yet the tribes
survive in post-exilic literature and their traditions develop
henceforth in JubiUts, T9sUtmeiU of the XJJ Patriarchs, &c.
During the changes from the 8th century onwards a non-
mona^ical constitution naturally prevailed, first in the north
and then in the south, and while in the north the mingled
peoples of Samaria came to regard themselves as Israelite, the
southern portion, the tribe of Judah, proves in x Chron. ii. & iv.
to be largely of half-Edomite blood. A common ground previous
to the Samariun schism is ignored; it is found only in the
period before the rival kingdoms. The political histofy of these
* la the art. Taws, If 1-34, the biblical history is uken as the
foundation, and the internal historical dlfliculties are nodced from
stage to stage. In the present state of biblical historical criticism
thi» plan seemed more advisable than any attempt to reconstruct
the lustory: the nccesiity for tome reconsttuction wilU however, be
dear to the reader on the groonds of both the internal intricacies and
the external evidence.
' See, in the fim imrtanoe. E. Meyer (and B. Luther). Die Israel-
iUH und tire SarhJbafstOmme (Halle. 1906) ; abo art. GBMSSia.
monarcfajea in the book of Kfaigs b singulariy slight cooaidering
the extensive body of tssdiiwn which may be pre-Mpposed,
€,g. for the rrigns of Jeroboam IL and Uxiiah, m
which may be inferred from the evidence for different Hl!^^^^^
sources dealing with other periods. The scanty
polUkal daU in the annalbtic notices of the north kingdom are
supplemented by more detailed naxiativcs of a few years lesdins
up to the rise of the last dynasty, that of Jeha. The MstoricaJ
problems involved point to a loss of perspective (Jkwb, | ii),
and the particular interest in the stories of Elijah and Elisha in an
historical work suggests that the political records passed throogb
the hands of communities whose interest lay in thtte figores.
Old tradition snggesU the ** schoob of the prophets '* at Jericho.
Gilgal and Bethel, and in fact the proximity of these places,
especially Bethel, to Judaean soil may be connected sritb the
friendly and sometimes markedly favoarahle attitude to Judah
in these narratives. The rise of the kingdom of IstkI under
Saul b treated at length, but more prominence b givem to the
influence of the prophet Samud; and not only b Saul's history
written from a didactic and prophetical standpoint (cf . siailariy
Ahab), but the great hero and ruler b handled locally as a
petty king at Gtbeah in Benjamin. The interest of the
luirratives clings around north Judah and Benjamin, aiul
more attention b given to the xbe of the Judaean djrnasty,
the hostility of SmI, and the romantic friendship between
hb son Jonathan and the young David of Bethlehem. The
hbtory of the northern ami southern kingdoms b handled
separately in Kings; but in Samud the rbe of each b cloady
interwoven, and to the greater glory of David. The acooont
of hb steps contains detaib touching Judah and its rebtion to
Israel which cannot be reconciled with certain trsditiona of
Saul and the Ephraimite Joshua. It combines amid diverse
material a hero of Bethlehem and rival of Saul with the idea of
a conqueror of thb dbtrict; it introduces peculiar traditiona
of the ark and sanctuary, and it associates David with
Hebron, Calebites and the wiUemess of Paran.* The booka of
Samuel and Kings have become, in process of coropilation, the
natural sequd to the preceding books, but the conflictinB features
and the perplexing differences of standpoint recur ebewbeic,
and the relatioiiship between them soggeita that similar cnnics
have been operative upon the compilation. The histovy of
Judah b, broadly speaking, that of the Davidic dynasty and the
Temple, and it begins at the time of the first khig of the rival
north. Care b taken to record the transference of secular
power and of Yahweh's favour from Saul to David, and David
accomplishes more successfully or on a brger scale the acfaievc»
ments ascribed to SauL The religious superiority of Jeiusaleaa
over the idolatrous north and over the " high pUces " b the tnain
theme, and with it b the supremacy of the native Zadokite prsests
of Jerusalem over others {e.g, ni Shiloh), who are connected
with the desert traditions. The politicai history b relatively
slight and uneven, and the framework b rehandlcd in Chraoicks
upon more developed linea and from a later ecclesiastical UniMl>
point, which suggests that many traditions of the moiuuchy
were octant in a late dress. Both books represent the aane
general trend of political events, even where the ** *-«t^«»s^Tl **
representation b most open to dxtidsm. Chronides, with the
book of Exra and Nehemiah, makes a continuity c^ma^ta^^
between the old Judah which fell in 586 and the Batm-^
return (time of Cyrus), the rebuflding of the tempte '*'■'■■■■
(Darius), and the reorganization associated with Nehemiah aai
Eaca (Artazexxes) Historical material after 586 b scaciy
in the extreme, aind, apart from the xeonds of Nehemiah az»i
a few other passages, the interest lies in the rdigions hbtory ci
the communities and rdormers who returned from BabylcHua.
The late and composite book of Chronides places at the hend of
the Israelite divisions, whidi ignore the eaodus (t dsoii. v^i
> Whence the theory that David waa of Sw Judaean or S. Pales-
tinian origin (Marouart, \^nckler, Cheyne, j&tfv. HA. cob. loocx.
96i3 seq.). and. also, that he knit tomher the southera ncrs-
Judaean dans (we David, Jodah). But it is preferable to neoigclm
different traditions of distinct origin and to inquire what gemun^
dements of history each may contain.
OLD TESTAMBNT HISTORY]
PALESTINE
615
14, 80*34), A Judah ooniisting of fngmentt of an older ttock
replenished with families of South Palestinian, Edomite and North
Arabian affinity. This half-Edomite population, recognizable
also in Benjamin, manifests iu presence in the official lists, and
more espedally in the ecclesiastical bodies inaugurated by
David, from whose time the supremacy of this Judah is dated.
The historical framework contains traditions of the reconstruc-
tion and repair of temple and cult, of the hostiUty of southern
peoples and their allies, and of conflicu between king and priests.
This retrospect of the Judaean kingdom must be taken with the
foUowing books, where the crucial features are (a) the presence
{c. 444) of an aristocracy, partly (at all events) of half-Edomitc
affinity, before the return of any important body of exiles
(Neh. ill.) ; {b) the gaps in the history between the fall of Samaria
(723) and Jerusalem (586) to the rise of the hierocracy, and (c)
the relation between the hints of renewed poUtical activity in
Zerubbabel's time, when the Temple was rebuilt (c. 530-516), and
the mysterious catastrophe (with perhaps another disaster to
the Temple), probably due to Edom, which is implied in the book
of Nchcmioh (c. 444). (See Jews, § 3 a.) These data lead to the
fundamental problem of Old Testament history. Since 2870
(Wellhauaen's Dt ientibus . . . Judaeis) It has been recognized
that I Chron. il. and iv. accord with certain details in i Samuel,
and appear to refer to a half-Edomite Judah in David's
time (c. 1000 B.C.).' More recently £. Meyer, on the basis of a
larger induction, has pointed out the relation of this Judah to a
Urge group of Edomite or Edomite-Ishmaelite tribes.* The
stories in Genesis represent a southern treatment of Palestinian
tradiiion, with local and southern versions of legends and myths,
and with interests which could only belong to the south.* It
has k>ng been perceived that Kadesh in South Palestine was
connected with a law-giving and with some separate movement
into Judah of clans associated with the family of Moses, Caleb,
Kenites, &c. (see Exodus, Tbe). With this it is natural to con-
nect the transmission and frestnce in the Old Testament of
specifically Kenite tradition, of the "southern" stories in
Genesis, and of the stories of Levi.* ' The rise of this new Judah
is generally attributed to David, but the southern dans remain
independent for some five centuries, only moving a few miles
nearer Jerusalem; and this vast interval severs the old half-
Edomite or Arabian Judah from the sequel — the association of
such names as Korah, Ethan and Heman with temple-psalms
and psalmody.* It has long been agreed that biblical religion
and history are indebted in some way to groups connected with
Edom and North Arabia, and repeated endeavours have been
made to explain the evidence in its bearing upon this lengthy
period.* The problem, it is here suggested, is in the first instance
a literary one — the Uterary treatment by southern groups, who
have become Israelite, of a lengthy period of history. When the
whole body of evidence is viewed comprehensively, it would seem
that there was some movement northwards of scmi-Edomite
blood, tradition and literature, the date of which may be placed
during the internal disorganization of Palestine, and presumably
in the 6th century. Such a movement is in keeping with the
course of Palestinian history from the traditional entrance of
the Israelite tribes to the relatively recent migration of the tribe
*"Thc populatioo of South Judah was of half-Arab origin^'
(W. R. Smith, Old Test. Jew. Church, p. 379).
* Meyer and Luther, op. cit., p. 446. et pfxssim.
* So especially Meyer and Luther, op>. dt.; cf. also H. Gressmann,
Zeit. f. alt-test. iVissetu. (1910), p. 28 aeq. Note also the view that
the grand book of Job (9.0.) has an Edomite background.
« A. R. Gordon, Early Trad, ef Cen. (London. 1907). pp. 74, 188;
Meyer, e^ ciL, pp. 83, 8] (on the Levites); Gremnann. loc. eiL;
Sw A. Cook, Amer. Joum. of Theel. (1909)* PP- 582 iqq. See GiNBSis,
LsviTSS, and Jaws, ( aa
* On the names, see Gbnxalogt : BihUcali Lbtttis, | a, end, and
Bney. Bib. col. 1665 scq.
* W. R. Harper (itnws and Hosea, 1905. p. liv.) observes: " Every
.year since the work of W. R. Smith bnngs Israel into ckMer relation-
ship with Arabia "; cf. also N. Schmidt's eoncluaions {Hibbert
Journal, 1908, p. 34a), and the Jerahmeelite theory of T. K. Cheyne.
who writes {Dtdtne and Fall of (he Kinfjiom oj Judah, London, 1908.
p. jucxvii.) "... by far the greater part of the extant litersry
monumema of ancient Israel are precisely those monuments whose
producers were most preoccupied by N. Arabia."
of *Amr.' In the Old TesUment popular feeling knows of two
phases: Edom, the more powerful brother of Jacob (or Israel)
— both could share in the traditions of Abraham, Isaac and
Jacob — ^and the hatred of the treacherous Edom in the
prophetical writings. Earlier phases have not survived, and
the last-mentioned is relatively late,* after the southern influenco
had left itself upon history, legend, the Temple and the
ecclesiastical bodies. On these grounds, then, it would seem
that among the vicissitudes of the 8th and folk)wing centuries
may be placed a movement of the greatest importance for
IsracUte history and for the growth of the Old Testament, one,
however, which has been reshaped and supplemented (in the
account of the Exodus and Invasion) and deliberately suppressed
or ignored hi the history of the age (viz. in Ezra-Nehcroiah).
llie unanimous recognition on the part of all biblical scholars
that the Old Testament cannot be taken as It stands as a trust-
worthy account of the history with which it deals, -. ^^
necessiutes a hypothesis or, it may be, a series of SSL^
hypotheses, which shall enable one to approach the
more detailed study of its history and religion. The curious
and popuUr tradition that Ezra rewrote the Old Testament
(2 Esd. ziv.), the concessions of conservative scholars, and even
the view that the Hebrew text is too uncertain for literary
criticism, indicate that the starting-point of inquio' must be
the present form of the writings. The necessary work of literary
analysis reached its most definite stage in the now famous
hypothesis of Graf (1865-1866) and especially Wellhaosen (1878),
which was made more widely known to English readers, directly
and indirectly through W. Robertson Smith, in the 9th edition of
this Encyclopaedia.* The work of literary criticism and its
application to biblical history and religion passed into a pew
stage as external evidence accumulated, and, more paiticulaiiy
since xgoo, the problems have assumed new shapes. The
tendency has been to assign more of the Old Testament, in its
present form, to the Persian age and bter; and also to work
upon lines which are influenced sometimes by the dose agreement
with Oriental conditions generally and sometimes by the very
striking divergences. It is the merit of Hugo Wincklcr especially
to have lifted biblical study out of the somewhat narrow fa'ncs
upon which it had usually proceeded, but, at the time of writing
(1910), Old Testament criticism still awaits a sound reconciliation
of the admitted internal intricacies and of the external evidence
for Palestine and that larger area of which it forms part. Upon
the convergence of the manifold lines of investigation rest *II
reconstructions, all methodical studies of biblical religion, law
and prophecy, and all endeavours to place the various develop-
ments in an adequate historical framework.
The preliminary hypotheses, it would seem, must be both literary
and historical. The varied standpoints (historical, sodal, legal,
religious, Sec.) combine with the fragmentary character rvBiiMimn
of much of the evidence to suggest that the literature w THlJi;."!'..
has passed through diifereot circles, with excision or^"^"'
revision of older material, and with the incorporation of other
material, sometimes of older origin and of independent litenuy
growth. Consequently, one is restricted in the first instance to
such literature as survives and in the form which the bst editors
or compUcrs ave it. Different views as rrganis history («.f.
invasions, tribal movements, rival kingdoms) and religion {e.g. the
Yahwch of Kadesh, Sinai, Jerusalem. &c.), and different pncstly,
prophetical and popular ideas are only to be expected, considCT-
ing the character of Palestinian population. Ilencc to weave
the data into a nngle historical outline or into an orderly
evolution of thought is to overtook the probability of bona
' T. Dissard, Rtv. BiU.* 1905, pp. 410-425. Some S. PaL revolt
is also reflected shortly before the rise of the Jehu dynasty {Sw%,
(11). A few centuries later, the Edomites (Idumaeans) were again
closely connected with the Jews: an Idumacan dynlsty-ihat of
the Herods— ruled in Judah, and once more there must lave been a
considerable amount of intermixture.
• a. R. H. Kennett, Joum. TheoL Stnd. (1906). p. 487: Cbin^.
Bibt. Essays (cd. Swete), p. 117. For an Edomite invasion between
5B6 and the Greek period, see alw H. Whnckler. Altar. FersO. (1900).
• E»c^i>rWenhausen*s articles, " Pentateuch.** " Israel,"
Moab," and W. R. Smith** large series including " Bible.*' " David,**
Decalogue," "Judgcsi""King^" "Levites,"^"— •'-»' ""P-i— "
Prophet*" " Psalms," &C.
bt6
PALESTINE
[OLD TESTAMENT HlSTOftV
, of tnditioa and to acanme that more nidi*
xncntary or primitive thoagbt was excluded by the admitted develop-
Boeot of reUgious-aodal ideals. The oldest nucleus of historical
tradition appan to belong to Samaria, but it has been adjusted
to other standpoints or interests, which are apparently connected
partly with the haU-Edomite and partly with the oU indi-
genous judacan- stock.^ Genesis-Kings (incomplete; some further
material in Jeremiah) and the later Chronicles— Nehemiah are m
their present form posterior to Nehemiah's time. Unfortunately
the events of his age afe shrouded in obscurity, but one can
Rcogniie the return of exiles from Babylon to Jerusalem and its
envirooa— DOW half-Edomite— and various internal rivalries which
culminate in the Samaritan schism.' The e c c les ias ti cal rivalries
have left their mark in the Pentateuch and (the later) Chronicles,
and the Samaritan secession appears to have coloured even the
book of Kings. These sources then are "post-exilic,** and the
elimination of material first composed in that age leaves historical,
lei^l and other material which was obviously in circulation (so,
«.|., the non-priestly portions of Gcncais).' The relativelv eariicr
group of booics b now the result of two complicated and contin-
uous redactions, " Deuteronomic ** (Dcut.-Kings) and " Priestly *'
(Cknens-Teshua, with traces in the foUowinjt books). The former
is excepttoiMlly intricate, being in its vanous adjects distinctly
earlier, and in parts even later than the " priestly.** Its standpoint,
too, varies, the phases being now northern or wider Israelite, now
half-Edomite or Judacan, and now anti-Samarian.
Moreover, there is a late incorporation of literature, aometimes
untouched by and sometimes merely approrimating to " Deutero-
nomic " language or thought. How very late the historical books are
in thdr present text or form may be seen from the Septuagint veraon
of Joshua. Samuel and Kings, and from their internal literary struc-
ture, which suggests that only at the last sUgcs of compilation were
they broii^t mto their present shape.* The result as a whole tends
to show that the " canonical " history belongs to the last literary
vicissitudes and that similar influences (which have not affected
every book in the same manner) have been at work throui^out.
The history of the past b viewed from rather different positions
which, on the whole, are subsequent to the relatively recent changes
ir^stislsr ^^ 8*^ ^^^ ^^ "^^ orranixations m Samaria and
■rr^iy ]•»<****• Conseauently, in addition to the ordinary require-
zLl ^ mcnts of historical criticism, biblical study has to take into
^^ account the intricate composite character of the aouices
and the background of these pooidons. It b the criticism of sources
which have both a literary and an historical corapositeneaa. Not
only are the standpoints of local interest (Samaria, Benjamin,
Juciah and the half-l^omite Judah being involved), but there are
remarkable devebpments in the ecclesiastical bodies (Zadokites of
lerusalem, country and half-Edomite priests, Aaronites) which
nave influenced both the writing and the revision of the sources
(see Lbvites). Yet it is noteworthy that the traditions are usually
reshaped, readjusted or reinterpreted, and are not replaced by
entirely new ones. Thus, the Samaritans cbim the traditions of
the bnd; the Chronicler tracea the connexion b e t ween " pre-exUic *'
and " post-exilic '*J|udaeaaa, ignoring and obscurine mtervening
events; the south nilestinian cycle oi tradition is adapted to the
history of a descent into and an exodus from Egypt; Zadoktte
priests are cntoUed as Aaronites, and the hierarchical traditions
*A Samarian (or Ephraimite or N. Israelite) nucleus may be
reoo^iixed in the books of Joshua-Kings; see the articles on these
boolu, Jews, | 6; cf. Meyer, pp. 47ft n. a, 486 seq., and K. Lincke.
Samana u, seine PropluUm (1903), ^. 34. These preserve old
poetical literature (Judg. v., a Sam. 1.), stories of conquest and
settlement, and they connect with the liturgy in Dcut, xxvii.
Joshua's covenant at Shechem and the Shechcmite covenant-god
(cf. Kennett. Jcum. TkeoL Stud,, 1906, pp. 495 soq. ; Lincke. op. cit.,
p. 89. W. Erbt, Die Hdbrter (1906), pp. 27 sqq. ; Meyer and Luther,
pp. 542 sqq., 550 seq.).
■ There seems to ot both political and religious animonty, but
it is not certain that Josephus b wrong in placing the schism at the
close of the Pieratan period; see, on this point. J7 Marquart, Isr. %.
Jud, GtKk, (1896), p. 57 seq.: C. Steuemagci. Theolot. Stud. u. Krit.
(1909). p. 5; G. Jahn, BUcker Esra u.r>^ehemia ^Leiden. 1909),
pp. 173-176: C. C. Torrey, Etra Studies (Chkago, 1910), pp. 321 soq.
Oki pncstly rivalries between Cutha and Babylon may expUin why
the mixed Samaritans became known as Cuthaeansr ^'~
the prevailing theory their pRdeccaBocs» the "ten
exiled in the 8th century.
' The term *' post-exiuc ** Is applied to literature and history after
the return of exifes and the relinous reconstruction of Judah. This,
on the traditkmal view, woola be in 537, if there were then eny
prominent return. Failing this, one must descend to the time of
Nehembh, which the biblical history itself regards aa epoch-making.
The tendency to make the exile an abrupt and complete change in
life b based uoon the theory underiying Chroniclea-Nehcmbh and
b mbleading (seeTotrey. e^.cit. pp. 287 sqq.. Ac). ^ ^ ^
* Cf. the ** Deuteronomic ** form of Samuel, and the depend-
ence of the fiterary growth of Ooesis and the account of the
exodus aikd invaaoo off Palestine upon the " aouthcra ** cyde of
tradition.
reveal ata^of orderly and active devekipiiiaatioordfet to a
the changing standpoints of different periods and caicleak* Thb
feature recurs in later Palcstinbn literature (aee MiDaASH.TALiii:o>
where there are later forms of thought and tradition, tomt elements
of which although often of older origin, are ahnoat or cndrdy wanus«
in the OU Testament. Much that wouU otherwise be -mnBteUigifalc
becomes more clear when one realiaea the readioeaa with wiu^
settlers adopt the traditional belief and custom of a land, and the
psychological fact that teaching must be relevant and must satisfy
the primary religious fceUnga and aspirations, that it moat not be at
entire variance with current belief a, birt must ft pees un t the oMer
beliefs in a new form. Any comparison of the tieatmeat of btbfacai
fiaures or events in the later literature will illustrate the retesiica
of certain old details, the appearance of new ones, and an organic
connexion which is everywhere m accotdanoe anh 000 temporary
thought and teaching. If thb raises the p rrsiiiiiplii i o that cwea
the oUest and most isolated biblical evidence may rest npoa atal
older authority, it shows also that the fuller detaib and Gontczt
cannot be confidently recovered; and that eariier forms woald
accord with earlier ralestinbn belief.* Hence, akhoogli records
may be moat untrustwoithy in their ptescttt for
one cannot n e c ess arily cfeny that a ronanoe may pre
reality of history or that it may preserve the fact 01 an event cvcm
at the period to which it is ascribed (e.g. Abraham and Amraptiel
in Gen. xiv.; the invasions before 1000 B.C., Ac.). But in all anch
caaes the prtseni form of the material may be more pnfittbly Bsed
for the atudy of the historical or rdigioua copccp ti oo a of sis ace. At
the same tune, the complexity 01 the vidasitudes of tradic&ooa.
exemplified in modem Pafestinc itself, cannot be ignored.^ Finally,
biblical history b an intentional and reasonea arrangemeat of
material, based noon composite souroea, for religiotta ami Adactic
purpoaea. Regarded as an historical work there b a remarkable
absence of proportion, and a lose of perspective in the lelaticMi
between antediluvian, patriarchal. Mosaic and later periods. From
the literary<ritical results, however, it b not so orach the
history of consecutive periods as the account of co a a s c a ti ve
periooa by compil e rs trim are not imx removed from otie aisnther
as r^ards dates, but differ in atandpointa^ There wa^ ia oae
caae, a tctzospect which did not include the ddun. mud m
another the patriarchs were actual setthrs, a descent into Egypt
and subsequent exodus being ignoied; moreover, the atandpomta
of those smo did not so into exib and of thom iriw did aad l Umu a d
would naturally diOer. In weaving the aourcm t o gat h t i the
compilers had some acquaintance en course with past history,
but on the whole it manifests itself only slightly (sec JKWS. | 24).
and the complete chronok>gical system oelongs to the latest atage.
Investigation must concern itself not with what was jwisilili or
probably known, but with what b actually preaentc«l. Tbe fact
remaias that when accepted tradition conflicts with more reliable
evidence it stands upon a level by itself;" and it b certain that a
compibtion baaed upon the knowledge which modem research
whether in the exact adenoca or in hiatory haa fEaiae*
have neither meaning for nor influence upoa the peojple whom ic
was desired to instrua. A considerable amount of earlier hisiory
and literature has been tost, and it is probable that the traditisns
of the origins of the composte Israelites, as they are now preserved,
embody evklence bekmging to the naarar eventa of the 8cb"6ch
ccstuncs. The history of those oevmrica b of fiinitamiaiiil
importance in any attempt to "reconstruct** biblical hisaar>'*
The fall of Samana and ludah was a literary as wdl as a politinl
catastrophe, and precisely how much earlier material has been
* Cf. S. A. Cook, Critical Notes om (M TestamaU History (1907).
pp. 62 seq., 67. 75 »qq.. 112 seq.
* This applies also to the prophetfeal writings, the atudy of wfkich
b complicated by their uae 01 past hiatory to give poiat to l^sr
ideas and by the recurrence in history of oommmt, samibr
events* As regards the rituationa which presoppoae the roa
of Jerusalem and a return of exiles, the obscure events after the
time of Zerubbabel cannot be left out of account. (See JKws«
fif I4t <7 Ip* 382). 22 n. 5, and art* ZmruAmAtL)
'Note the rapid growth and embellishment of
inextrkable interweaving of lact and fiction, the
or rationalized atorics of imaginary beings, the a^
mythical atoriea of thoroughly historical persans, the abaolote losa
of perH)ective, and a reliance not upon the merita of a traditioa bat
upon the authority with which it b aaaodated.
* Cf. the remarkabb Arabian atoriea of their prtdtciaaori, or the
data in Manetho and Cu
mtflMKling of accurate and inaccurate
* The evidence for Jewish colonies at Eleohantine in Upper Eg>-pc
(5th century •.€. ) has opened up new patha lor inqoify. Aooorfivg to
some schobra it b probabb that they were deac e ndrd fram the
soldiers settled by Pmmtek I. (7th century), and not only are tbry m
touch with Judah and Samaria, but in Psamtek's time aa cffoR wes
made by the Asbtk and other mercenaries to escape into Ethsopb
(I. H. Breasted. Bf. kist. doe. iv. 506 seq.). It b abeady sagtesacd
that allusions to a sojourn in Egypt may refer, not to the nauiai
times of Jacob and Moses but to the circumstances off the 7th
century: see C. Steucniaeel, op, dt, pp. 7-12: E. Meyer, ^"
beridUe of the Berlin Academy. June 190S, p. 655. a. l.
TO A.D. 70]
pntcrwd it a praUem in itself. It b iwy notenovthy, however,
tlur, n^ile no cere wu taken to preserve the history of the Chaklean
and Persian Empires— and consequently the most confused ideas
subsequently arose — the days of the Assyrian sapremacy leave a
much dearer imprint (cf. even the apocryphal book of Tobit). It
may perhaps be no mere chance that with the dynasties of Omriand
Jehu the nistorical continuity is more firm* that older forms of
prophetical narrative are preserved (the times from Ahab to Jehu),
and that to the reign of the great Jeroboam (first half of the 8tn
century), the canonical writen have ascribed the earliest of the
extant prophetkal writings (Amos and Hoaea).
External evidence for Palestine, in emphaslana the necessity
for a reconsderation of the serious difficulties in the Old Testament,
and in illustrating at once its agreement and stilly more
perplexing disagreement with oontenpotanr conditions,
famishes a more striking proof of its uniqueness and of its permanent
value. The Okl Testament preserves traces of forgotten history
and legend, of atrange Oriental mythology, and the remains of a
semi*teathenish past. ** Canonical " fiistory, legislation and
religion assumed their picaent fonns, and. while the earlier stages
can only incomp l etely be traced, the book stands at the head of
PALESTINE
617
cal Judai
leaving, the
many centuries has been regarded as an infallible record of divindy
granted knowledge and of divinely shaped history. During what
IS rdativdy a very brief period deeper inquiry and newer knowledge
have forced a slow, painful but steady readjustment of religious
convictions. While the ideals and teaching of the Old Testament
have always struck a responsive chord, scientific knowledge of
the evolution of man, of the workl's history and of nan's place in
the universe, constantly reveals the difference between the value
of the <rfd Oriental legacy for its influence upon the development
of manldnd and the unessential character 01 that which has had
ineviuMy to be relinquished. Yet, wonderful as the Old Testament
has ever seemed to past generations, it b c comca far more profound
a phenomenon when it is viewed, not in its own per s pe ct ive of the
unity of history— from the time of Adam, but in the history of
Palestine and of the old Oriental area. It enshrines the result of
certain influences, the teaching of certain troths, and the acquisition
of new conceptions of the relations between man and man, and man
and God. Man's primary religious feeling seeks to bring him into
asBodation with the events and persons of hb race, and that which in
the -Old Testament appears most perishable, most defective, and
which suffers most under critical inouiry, was necessary in order
to adapt new teaching to the commonly accepted beliefs <a a bygone
and primitive people.^ The place of the Old Testament in the
general education of the world is at the close of one era and at the
beginning of another. After a lengthy development in the history
of the human race a definite stage seems to have been reached
about 5000 B.Cf which step by step led on to those great ancient
culturea (Egyptian, Aegean, Babylonian) whidi aurroundcd Palea-
tine.' These have influenced all subseauent civiUaation, and it was
impossible that ancient Palestine could have been isolated from
contemporary thought and history. After reaching an astonishing
height (roughly 3500-1500 B.c.) these civilizing powers slowly
decayed, and we reach the middle of the first millennium B.C.— Hhe
age which is associated with the " Dcutero-lsaiah " (Isa. xl.-lv.),
with Cyrus and Zoroaster, with Buddha and Confucius, and with
Phocyhdes and Socrates.' This age, which comes midway between
the second Egyptian dynasty (e. 5000 B.C.) and the present day.
connects the oedine of the old Orienul empires with the rise of the
Persians, Greeks and Romans. In both Babylonia and Egypt it
was an age of revival, but there was no longer any vitality in the
old soil. In Palestine, on the other hand, the downfall of^the old
roonarchies and the infusion of new blood gave fresh life to the land.
There had indeed been pccvious immigrations, but the passage from
the desert into the midst of Palestinian culture led to the adoption
of the <Ad semi-heathenism of the land, a declension, and a descent
from the relative simplicity of tribal life.* Now. however, the
political conditions were favoarable. and for a time Palestine could
work out its own develc»pment. In these vicissitudes which led to
the growth of the Old Testament, in its preservation among a devoted
people, and in the results which have ensued down to to-day. it is
unpossible not to believe that the history of the past, with its
manifold evolutions of thought and action, points the way to the
religion of the f ntiire. (S. A. C.)
> Cf. P. Ckitdner. Hist. View of New Test. (1904) 96, 44, sqq.
* See Meyer's interesting remarks. Gesek. d. Alt. 1. 1| 593 sqq.
•Cf. A. P. Stanley, JewUk Chunk (1865), Lectures xlv. seq.;
A. Jeremias, Moneth, StrdrnMngen (Leipzig, 190a). p. 4^ seq. Among
the developments in Greek thought of this period, especially
interesting for the Old Testament is the teaching associated with
Phocylides of Miletus; see Lincke, SamanCt pp. 47 seg.
* Cf. G. A. Smith, HisL Ceog. pp. 85 sqq., also the Arab historian
Ibn KhaldQn on the effects of avilixation upon Arab tribes (see
e.g. R. A. Nicholson, Lit, HisL of the Arabs [London, 1907J, pp. 439
JL^Fr^m Alexander ike Gnal to ajk 7^
After the taking of Tyre Alexander decided to advance npon
Egypt. With the exception of Gaxa, the whde of Syria Palaes-
tine (as it was called) had made its submission. ^^
That— in summary fonn— is the samtive of the ttmOrML
Greek historian Airian {Anabasis, ii. as). Apart
from the facts contained in this statement, the phraseology is of
some importance, as the district of " Palestinian Syria " dearly
includes more than the territoiy of the Philistines, which the
adjective properly denotes (Josephus, AnUqmHes, I. 6, a, xiii. v.
10). From the military point of view<~and Arrian drew upon
the memoirs of two of Alexander's lleutenaots— the significant
thing was that not merely was .the coast route from Tyie to
Gaza open, but also there was no danger of a flank attack as the
expeditionary force proceeded. Palestinian Syria, in fact, is
here synonymous with what is commonly called Palestine.
Similarly Josephus quotes from Herodotus the statement that
the Syrians w Palestine are drcumcned and profess to have
learned the practice from the Egyptians (C. Apianem, i. as,
SS 169, 171, Niese); and he comments that the Jews are the only
inhabitants of Palestine who do so. These two examples of
the wider use of the adjective and noun seem to testify to
the forgotten predominance of the Philistines in the land of
Canaan.
But, in spite of the statement and silence of Arrian, Jewish
tradition, as reported by Josephus (Ani. xi. 8, 3 sqq.), represents
the high priest at Jerusalem as refuang Alexander's offered
alliance and request for supplies. The Samaritan»--the Jews
ignored in their records all other inhabitants of Palestine-
courted his favour, but the Jews kept faith with Darius so long
as he lived. Consequently a visit to Jerusalem is interpolated
in the joamey from Tyre to Gaza; and, Alexander, contrary to
all expectation, is made to respect the high priest's passive
resistance. He had seen his figure in a dream; and so he sacri-
ficed to God according to his direction, inspected the book of
Daniel, and gave them— and at their request the Jews of Babylon
and Media— leave to follow their own laws. The Samaritans
were prompt to daim like privileges, but were forced to confess
that, though they were Hebrews, they were called the Sidonians
of Shcchem and were not Jews. The whole story seems to be
merely a dramatic setting of the fact that in the new age
inaugurated by Alexander the Jews enjoyed rdfgbus fiberty.
The Samaritans are the villains of the piece. But it is possible
that Palestinian Jews accompanied the expedition as guides
or exerted their influence with Jews of the Dispersion on behalf
of Alexander.
It appears from this tradition that the Jews of Palestine
occupied little more than Jerusalem. There were kings of
Syria in the train of Alexander who thought he was mad when
he bowed before the high priest. We may draw the inference
that they formed an insignificant item in the population of a
small province of the Persian Empire, and yet doubt whether
they did actually refuse— alone of dl the inhabitants of Patestine
— to submit to the conqueror of the whole. At any rate they
came into line with the rest of Syria and were included in the
province of Code-Syria, which extended from the Taurus and
Lebanon range to Egypt. The province was entrusted first of
all to Parmenio (Curtlus iv. x, 4) and by him handed over to
Andromachus (Curtius iv. 5, 9). In 331 B.C. the Samaritans
rebelled and burned Andromachus alive (Curtius iv. 8, 9):
Alexander car*e up from Egypt, punished the rebels, and settled
Macedonians in their dty. The loyalty of the Jews he rewarded
by granting them Samaritan territory free of tribute — ^acconling
to a statement attributed by Josephus (c. Apianem, ii. § 4h
Niese) to Hecataeus.
After the death of Alexander (323 B.C.) Ptolemy Lagi, who
became satrap and then king of Egypt by right of conquest
(DiodoTus xviii. 39), invaded Code-Syria in 320 B.C. .
Then or after the battle of Gaza in 312 B.C. Ptolemy ^
was opposed by the Jews and entered Jerusalem by taking advan-
tage of the Sabbath rest (Agatharchides ap. Jos. c. Apionem
i. 22, §§ 309 seq.; d. Ani. xii. x, x). Whenever this occupation
6i8
PALESTINE
[TO A.D. 70
took pbce, Ptotemy became master of Palestine in 312 b.c.,
and though, as joeephus complains, be may have disgraced bis
title, SoUr, by momentary severity at the outset, later he created
in the minds of the Jews the impression that in Palestine or in
Egypt be was— in deed as well as in name — their preserver.
Since 315 bjc, Palestine had been occupied by the forces of
Antigonus. Ptolemy's successful forward movement was
undertaken by the advice of Seleucus (Diodorus xix. 80 sqq.),
who followed it up by regaining possession of Babylonia. So
the Sdeucid era began in 31a Bxx (cf. Maccabees, i. 10) and the
dynasty of Seleucus justified the " prophecy " of Daniel (xi. a):
" And the king of the south (Ptolemy) shall be strong, but one
of his captains (Seleucus) shall be strong above him and have
dominion" (see Seleccid Dynasty).
Abandoned by bis captain and future rival, .Seleucus, Ptolemy
retired and left Palestine to Antigonus for ten years. In 30a
B.C., by terms of his alliance with Seleucus, Lysimachus and
Cassander, be set out with a considerable force and subdued all
the cities of Coele-Sjrria (Diodorus tx. 113). A rumour of the
defeat of his allies sent him back from the siege of Sidon into
Egypt, and in the partition of the empire, which followed their
victory over Antigonus at Issus, he was ignored. But when
Seleucus came to claim Palestine as part of his share, he
found his old chief Ptolemy in possession and retired under
protest. From 301 B.C.-198 B.C. Palestine remained, with short
intemiptioitt, in the hands of the Ptolemies.
Of Palestine, as it was during this century of Egyptian
domination, there is much to be learned from the traditions,
reported by Josepfaus {Ant, xii. 4), in which the
' career of Joseph, the son of Tobiah, is glorified as
the means whereby the national misfortunes were
rectified. This Joseph was the nephew of Onias, son of Simon
the Righteous, and high priest. Onias is described — in order
to enhance the glory of Joseph — ^as a nuin of small intelligence
and deficient in wealth. In consequence of this deficiency he
failed to pay the tribute due from the people to Ptolemy, as his
fathers had done, and is set down by Josephus as a miser who
cared nothing for the protest of Ptolemy's special ambassador.
Considering the character of Joseph as it was revealed by
prosperity, one is tempted to find other explanations of his
conduct than avarice. It is clearly indicated that the Jews as a
nUiole were poor, and it is admitted that Onias was not wealthy.
Perhaps it was the Sabbatical year, when no tribute was due.
Perhaps Onias would not draw upon the sacred treasure in order
to pay tribute to Ptolemy. In any case Joseph borrowed money
from his friends in Samaria; and this point in the story proves
that the Jews were supposed to have dealings with the Samari-
tans at the time and could require of them the last proof of
friendship. Armed with his borrowed money, Joseph betook
himself to Egypt; and there outbid the magnates of Syria when
the taxes of the province were put up to auction. He bad
gained the ear of the king by entertaining his ambassador, and
the representatives of the dlics— the Greek cities of Syria —
were discomfited. The king gave him troops and he borrowed
more money from the king's friends. When he began to collect
taxes he was met with refusal and insult at Ascalon and at
Scythopolis, but he executed the chief men of each cily and sent
their goods to the king. Warned by these examples, the Syrians
(^ned their gates to him and paid their taxes. For twenty-
two years he held his office and was to all intents and purposes
governor of Syria, Phoenicia and Samaria — *' A good man "
(Josephus calls him) " and a man of mind, who rescued the
people of the Jews from poverty and weakness, and set them on
the way to comparative splendour " (i4iil. xii. 4, 10).
The story illustrates the rise of a wealthy class among the
Jews of Palestine, to whom the tolerant and distant rule of the
Ptolemies afforded wider opportunities. At the beginning it
is said that the Samaritans were prosperous and persecuted the
Jews, bat this Jewish hero embracing his opportunities reversed
the situation and presumably paid the tribute due from the Jews
by exacting more from the non-Jcwi$h inhabitants of his province.
He is a type of the Jews who embraced the deck way of life
as it was lived at Alexandria; but his influence in Palestine was
insidious rather than actively subversive of Judaism. It was
different when the Jews who wished to be men of the world too4.
their Hellenism from the Seleudd court and courted the favour
of Antiochus Epiphanes.
Halfway through this century (349 B.a) the desultory warfare
between Egypt and the Seleucid power came to a temporary
end (Dan. xi. 6). Ptolemy II. Philadelphus gave his daughter
Berenice with a great dowry to Antiochus II. Theoa. When
Ptolemy died (247 B.C.), Antiochus' divorced wife Laodtce was
restored to favour, and Antiochus died suddenly in order that
she might regain her power. Berenice and her son were likewise
removed from the path of her son Seleucus. In the vain hope
of protecting his si.«ter Berenice, the new king of Egypt, Ptolemy
m. Eugeretes I., invaded the Seleucid territory, "entered the
fortress of the king of the north " (Dan. xi. 7 sqq.), and only
retumed^Iaden with spoils, images captured from Egypt by
Cambyses, and captives (Jerome on Daniel /oe. cU.y-io put do^D a
domestic rebellion. Seleucis reconquered northern Syria wlihc ut
much difficulty (Justin xxxvii. a, i), but on an attempt to seize
Palestine he was signally defeated by Ptolemy (Justin xzviL », 4>.
In a23 B.C. Antiochus III. the Great came to the throiie ol
the Seleucid Empire and set about extending its boundaiies in
different directions. His first attempt on Palestine ^^^.
(aai B.C.) failed; the second succeeded by the j!y^
treachery of Ptolemy's lieutenant, who had been
recalled to Alexandria in consequence of hjs successful resistance
to the earlier invasion. But in spite of ihb assistance the
conquest of Cocle-Syria was not quickly achieved; and when
Antiochus advanced in 218 B.C. he was opposed by the Egyptians
on land and sea. Nevertheless he made his way into Palestine,
planted garriscms at Philoteria on the Sea of GaUIee and Sc>'tho-
polis, and finally stormed Rabbath-ammon (Philadelphia) which
was held by partisans of Egj'pt. Early in a 17 b.c. Ptolemy
Philopatcr led his forces towards Raphia, which with Caxa w:is
now in the bands of Antiochus, and drove the invaders ba<±.
The great multitude was given into hb hand, but he was not to
be strengthened permanently by his triumph (Dan. n. 11 K;q -
Polybius describes bis triumphal progress (v. 86): " All the
cities vied with one another in returning to their alleeiance.
The inhabitants of those parts are always ready to aorommodate
themselves to the situation of the moment and prompt to pa^
the courtesies required by the occasion. And In thb case it v^s
natural enough because of their deep-seated affection fox the
royal house of Alexandria."
When Ptolemy Philopater died in aos B.C., Antiodnis and
Philip of Macedon, his nominal friends, made a secret compact
for the division of his possessions outside Egypt. The time hai
come of which Daniel (xi. 13 sqq.) says; " The king oC the DorU
shall return after certain ytan with a great army and with mock
riches. And In those times there shall many stand up agai'i<t
the king of the south; also the robbers of thy people sha!l
exalt themselves to establish the vision; but they shall ialL"
Palestine was apparently allotted to Antiochus and be cnme to
take it, while Philip created a diversion in Thrace and .\sa
Minor. Already he had allies among the Jews and, if Dar..c.
is to be trusted, there were other Jews who rose up to shake <. 5
the yoke of foreign supremacy, Seleucid or Egyptian, and suc-
ceeded only in rendering the triumph of Antiochus easier of
achievement. But in the year aoo B.C. Rome intervened w::b
an embassy, which declared war upon PhUip and diiectec
Antiochus and Ptolemy to make peace (Polyb. zvL 27). Aai
in xgS B.c Antiochus heard that Scopas, Ptolemy's hirtd
commander-in-chief had retaken Coele-Syria (Polyb. xvL 5c'
and had subdued the nation o( the Jews in the winter. I'cr
these sufficient reasons Antiochus hurried back and defeat r^
Scopas at Paneas, which was known later as Caesarea PtrilTp: .
(Polyb. xvi. 18 seq.). After his victory be took formal posses^. -*
of Batanaea, Sanaaria, Abila and Gadara; " and r.fier a Lil>
the Jews who dwelt round about the shrine called Jentsalm
came over to him" (Polyb. xvi. 30). Only Gaza withstood
him, as it withstood Alexander; and PoIybiu5 (xvi. 40) pauses to
TOAJ>. 70|
PALESTINE
619
praiM thdr fidelity to Ptolemy. The siege of Gaxa was famous;
but in the end the dty was taken by storm, and Antiocfaus,
aecufe at last of the province, which his ancestors had so long
coveted, was at peace with Ptolemy, as the Roman embassy
directed. Fiom Palestine Antiochus turned to the Greek dties
of Asia Minor, and by 196 b.c he was in Thrace. There he was
confronted by the ambassadors of Rome, who expressed their
surprise at his actions. Antiochus replied that he was recovering
the territoiy won by Seleucus his ancestor, and inquired by what
v^t did the Romans dispute with him about the free dties in
Amtkiehm ^^ (Polyb. Tviii. 33 seq.). The conference was
^2f]jJJJ^ broken off by a false report of Ptolemy's death, blit
war between Rome and Antiochus was dearly inevit-
able—mod Antiochus was joined by Hannibal. After much
dIpkMnacy, Antiochus advanced into Greece and Rome declared
war upon him in 191 b.c (livy xzxvi. x). He was defeated on
the seas and driven first out of Greece and then out of Asia
Minor. His army was practically destroyed at Magnesia, and
be was forced to accept the terms of peace, which the Romans
had offered and he had refused before the battle. By the peace
of Apamea ti88 B.c.) he abandoned all territory beyond the
Taurus and agreed to pay the whole cost of the war. He had
stood in the botuteous land— the land of Israd-^^with destruction
in his hand. He had made agreement with Ptolemy. He had
turned his face unto the isles and had taken many. But now
a conmiander had put an end to his defiance and had even
returned his reproach unto him (Dan. id. r6-t8)^ After
Magnesia men said " King Antiochus the Great was " (Appian,
Syr. 37); and the by-word was soon justified in fact, for he
plundered a temple of Bel at Elymais to replenish his exhausted
treasury and met the fitting punishment from the gods at the
hands of the inhabitants (Diodonis xxiz. 15). He stumbled and
fell and was not found (Dan. xi. 19).
The need which drove Antiochus to this sacrilege rested
heavily upon his successor Seleucus IV. (reigned 187-175 B.C.).
^ The indemnity had stUI to be paid and Danid
ij^"""* designates Seleucus as "one that shall cause an
exactor to pass throtigh the gfery of the kingdom "
(xi. 90). A traditioB preserved in a Mace. ill. describes the
attempt of Hdlodorus, the Seleudd prime minister, to plunder
the tempJe at Jerusalem. The holy dty lay in perfect peace
and the laws were very well kept because of the piety of Onias
the high priest. But one Simon, a Benjamite, who had become
guardian of the temple, quarrelled with Onias about the dty
market, and reported to the governor of Coele-Syria and
Phoenida that the treasury was full of untold sums of money.
The priests and people besought Heliodorus to leave this sacred
treasure untouched, but he persisted and— in answer to thdr
prayers— was overtKrown by a horse with a terrible rider and
scourged by two youths. Onias, fearful of the consequences,
offered a sacrifice for his restoration, and the two youths appeared
to him with the message t>iat he was restored for the sake of
Onias. The description of the previous tranquillity may be
exaggerated, though it is clear that the Jews, like the other
inhabitants of Palestine, must have been left very much to
themsdves; but the enmity between the adherents of Simon
and the pious Jews, who supported and venerated Onias, seems
to be a necessary precondition of the state of affairs soon to
be revealed. There were abeady Jews who wished to make
terms with thdr overkmi at all costs.
When Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.) succeeded to
the throne, Jason— whose name betrays a leaning towards
ABth' Hellenism— the brother of Onias, offered the king
cftM m a bribe for the high-priesthood and another for leave
Mrf Jmm. to convert Jerusalem into a Greek dty (» Mace. I v. 7
sqq.). Antiochus had spent his youth at Rome as a hostage,
and the death of Seleucus found htm filling the office of war
minister at Athens. The Hdlenistic Jews were, therefore, his
natural alUes, and alliet were very necessary to him if he was to
establish himself in Syria. Onias had proceeded to Antloch to
explain the disorder and bloodshed due to Jason's followers,
and so Jason, high priest of the fews by grace of Antiochus,
had his way. The existing privileges, which the Jews owed to
their ambassador to Rome, were thrust aside. In defiance of
the hiw a gymnasium was set up under the shadow of the dtadel.
The young men of the upper classes assumed the Greek hat, and
were banded together into a gild of tpkebi on the Gredc modd.
In fact Jason established in Jerusalem the institutions which
Strabo expressly describes as visible signs of the Greek way of
life—" gymnasia and associations of epkebi and dans and Greek
names borne by Romans " (v. p. 264, referring to Neapolis) —
and that on his own initiative. The party who wuhed to make
a covenant with the heathen (x Mace. i. xx sqq.) were in the
majority; and so far and so long as they were in the ascendant
Antiochus was rid of his chief danger in Palestine, the debaUble
land between Syria and Egypt. At first Egypt was well
disposed to him, as Qeopatn his sister was regent. But she
died In 173 b.c.
The struggle for the possession of Palestine began in 170 B.C.,
when Rome was preoccupied with the war against Perseus of
Macedonia. Antiochus sent an ambassador to Rome to protest
that Ptolemy, contrary to all law and equity, was attacking
him (Pblyb. xzvii. 17). In self defence, therefore, Antiochus
.advanced through Palestine and defeated the Egyptian army
near Pdusium on the frontier. At the news the young king,
Ptolemy Philometor, fled by sea, only to fall into his unde's
hands; but his younger brother, Ptolemy Euergetes 11., was
prodaimed king by the people of Alexandria (Polyb. xxiz. 8).
Thus Antiochus entered Egypt as the champion of the rij^tful
king and laid siege to Alexandria, which was hdd by the usurper.
When he abandoned the siege and returned to Syria, Philometor,
whom he had established at Memphis, was reconciled with his
brother, bdng convinced of his protector's dufdidty by the fact
that he left a Syrian garrison in Pdusium. In x68 B.C. Antiochus
returned and foimd that the pretext for his presence there was
gone. Moreover the defeat of Penens at Pjrdna set Rome free
to take a strong line in Egypt. As he approached Alexandria
Antiochus met the Roman ambassador, and, after a brief
attempt at evaaon, accepted his ultimattmi on the spot. He
evacuated Egypt and returned home cowed (Dan. xi. 30; d.
Polyb. xxix. xx). Later he could attend the celebration of the
Roman triumph over Macedonia, and surpass it by a festival at
Antloch in honour of his conquest of Egypt (P6lyb. xxxi. 3-5);
but the loss of Pdusium made it imperative that he should be
sure of Palestine. His friends the Hcllenizing Jews had spUt
up into factions. Mendaus, the brother of Simon the Benjamite,
had bought the high-priesthood over the head of Jason, who
fled into the country of the Ammonites, in 172 B.C. (2 Mace,
iv. is sqq.). To secure his position (for he was not even of
the priestly tribe) Mendaus persuaded the deputy of Antiochus,
who was dealing with a revolt at Tarsus, to put Onias to death.
Antiochus, on his return, had his deputy executed and wept for
the dead Onias. But Mendaus managed to retain his position,
and his accusers were put to death. Antiochus could pity
Onias, who had been tempted from the sanctuaiy at Daphne,
but he needed on ally in Jerusalem— and money. Then, during
the first or second invasion of Egypt, Jason, hearing that
Antiochus was dead, returned suddenly and massacred all the
followen of Mendaus who did not take refuge in the dtadd. He
had some daim to the loyalty of such pwus Jews as remained,
because he was of the tribe of Levi— in spite of the means he,
like Mendaus, had employed to get the high-priesthood. His
temporary success reveals the strength of the party who wished
to adopt the Greek way of life without consenting to the complete
substitution of the authority of Antiochus for the prescriptions
of the Mosaic Law. It was also a warning to Antiochus, who
returned to exact a bkxxly vengeance and to kx>t the Temple
(169 or 168 B.C.). After the evacuatran of Egypt, Antiochus
followed out the poUcy which Jason had suggested tq him at the
first. Jerusalem was suddenly occupied by one of his capuins,
and a garrison was planted in a new fortress on |f,jfc,m
Mount Zion. Then to coerce the Jews Into con-
formity, the Law was outraged In the Holy Place. The worship
of Zeus Olympius replaced the worship of Vahweh, and swine
620
PALESTINE
f1X> AJX 90
were offered as in the Eleusinian mysteries. At the same lime t he
Samaritan temple at Sbechem was made over to Zeus Xeoius:
it is probable liiat the Samarilans were, like the Jews, divided
into two parties. The practice of Judaism was prohibited by
a royal edict (i Mace. i. 41-^3; 2 Mace, vi.-vii. 42). and some
of the Jews died rather than disobey the law of Moses. It is
legitimate to suppose that this attitude would have surprised
Antiochus if he had heard of it. His Jewish friends, first Jason
and then Menelaus, had been enlightened enough to throw off
their prejudices, and, so far as he could know, they represented
the majority of the Jews. Zeus was for him the supreme god
of the Greek pantheon, and the syncretism, which he suggested
for the sake of uniformity in his empire, assuredly involved no
indignity to the only Cod of the Jews. At Athens Antiochus
began to build a vast temple of Zeus Olympius, in place of one
begun by Peisistratus; but it was only finished by Hadrian in
A.D. 130. Zeus Olympius was figured on his coins, and he
erected a statue of Zeus Olympius in the Temple of Apollo at
Daphne. More, he identified hiouelf — Epiphanes, Cod ilani/cst
— ^with Zeus, when he magnified himself above all other ipxls
(Dan. xi. 37). To the minority of strict Jews he was therefore
" the abomination of desolation standing where ke ought not ";
but the majotity he carried with him and, when he was dying
(165 B.c) during his eastern campaigns, he wrote to the loyal
Jews as their fcUow citiaen and general, exhcvting them to
preserve their present goodwill towards him and his son, on
the ground that his son would continue his policy in gentleness
and kindness, and so maintain .friendly relations with them
(2 Mace. is.).
For the Jews who still deserved (he name the policy of
Antiochus wore a very different aspect. Many of them became
martyrs for the Law, and for a time none would
raise his hand to defend himself on the Sabbath if
at all. No record remains of the success of the
Athenian missionary whom Antiochus sent to preach the
4iew Catholicism; but the soldiers at any rate did their work
thoroughly. At last a priestly family at a village called Modcin
committed themselves to active resistance; and, when they
suspended the Sabbath law for purposes of self defence, they were
joined by the Hasidacans (Assidaeans), who seem to have been
the spiritual ancestors of the Pharisees. The situation was
plain enough: unless the particular law of the Sabbath was
suspended there would soon have been none to keep the Law at
all in PalesUne. Jerusalem had apostatized, but the country
so far as it was populated by Jews was faithfuL Under Judas
Maccabeus the outlaws wandered up and down re-establishing
by force their proscribed religion. In 165 B.C. they attained
their end, the regent of Syria conceded the measure of toleration
they required with the approval of Rome; and in 164 B.c. the
temple was purged of its desecration. But Judas did not lay
down his arms, and added to his resources by rescuing the Jews
of Galilee and Gilead and settling them in Judaea (i Mace. v.).
The Nabatacan Arabs and the Greeks of Scythopolis befriended
them, but the province generally was hostile. In spite of their
hostility Judas more than held his own until the regent defeated
him at Bethaachariah. The rebels were driven back on &Iount
Zion and were there besieged (163 B.C.). The nmiour of a
pretender to the throne saved them from destruction, and they
capitulated, exchanging the strongholds they had for their lives.
At any rate the time of compulsory fusion with the Greeks was
ended once for aU. In 161 B.C. Demetrius, the son of Selcucus,
escaped from Rome and was proclaimed king. Like Antiochus
Epiphanes, who ako had spent his youth aa a hostage in Rome,
he was inclined to listen to the UcUcniziog Jews, whom he f<mnd
assembled in f uU force at Antioch, and to support them against
Judas, who was bow fupreme in Judaea* But he dealt more
ifciy,, subtly with them: instead of a pagan missionary he
sent them Aldmus, a legitimate high>pricst, who de-
tached the Hasidaeans from Judas. Indeed, Aicimus and his
company did more mischief among the Israelites than the heathen
(i Mace. vii. 93) andJudastookveBgeanceupontbosc who deserted
(com him. Nicanor was appointed governor and prevailed upon
Judas to settle down like an ordinary citizen. But Aldmus com-
plained to the king and Judas fled just in lime to escape being
sent to Antioch as a prisoner. In the battle of Adasa, which soon
followed, Nicanor was defeated and his forces annibiUted,
thanks to the Jews who came out from all the villages of Judacn
(1 Mace. vU. 46). At this point (161 B.c.) Judas sent an cmbassj
to Rome and an alliance was concluded (i Mace. viiL), too late
to save Judas from the determined and victorious attack d
Demetrius. The death of Judas at Elasa left the field open to
the apostates, and his followers were reduced to the level of
roving brigands. The Syrian general made fruitless attempts to
capture them, and build forts in Judaea whose garrisons ^ould
harass Israel (i Mace. ix. 50-53), but Jonathan and Simon,
brothers of Judas, found their power increase until Jonatlian
ruled at Michmash as judge and destroyed the godless out of
Israel (x Mace. ix. 73).
In 153 B.a there appeared another of the series of pretenders
to the Syrian throne, to whose rivalry Jonathan, and SunoB
after him, owed the position they acquired for fa,-,fi,^
themselves and their nation. Jonathan wasrecog- — f rrria
nized as the head of the Jews, and his prestige and
power were such that the charges of the Helleniiing Jews
received scant attention. As the years went on he became
Suategus and the Syrian garrisons were withdrawn from all the
strongholds except Jerusalem and Bethzur. In 147 n.c be
defeated the governor of Coele-Syria in another civil war and
received Ekron as his personal reward — as it was said In the name
of the prophet Zachariah (ix. 7), "and Ekron shall be as a
Jcbu&ite." The king for whom he fought was defeated; but his
successor acceded to the demands of Jonathan, added three
districts of Samaria to Judaea and freed the whole from tribute.
The next king confirmed this and appointed Simon military
commander of the district stretching from Tyre to Egypt, So
with Syrian as well as Jewish troops the brothers set about
subduing Palestine; and Jonathan sent ambassadors in the aame
of the high-priest and people of the Jews to Rome and Sparta.
In spile of the treacherous murder of Jonathan by the S>'rian
general, the prosperity of the Jews was more than maintained by
Simon. The port of Joppa, which was already occupied by a
Jewish garrison, was cleared of its inhabitants and populated
by Jews. Finally, in 141 B.C., the new era b^an: the yoke of
the heathen was taken away from Israel and Simon was declared
high-priest and general and ruler of the Jews for ever until
there should arise a faithful prophet (i Mace. xiii. 41, xiv. 41).
In 135 B.c the political ambitions of the Jew's were rudely
checked: a new king of Syria, Antiochus Sidetcs, resented tbcir
encroachments at Joppa and Gaxara and drove them ^^_
back into Jerusalem. In 134 famine compelled John p^^r,,,,,
Ilyrcanus, who had succeeded his father Simon, to
a belated compliance with the king's demands. The Jews laid
down their arms, dismantled Jerusalem, and agreed to pay rest
for Joppa and Gaxara. 'But in 129 B.C. Antiochus died fightii«
in the East and for sixty-five years the Jews enjoyed indepen-
dence. John Ilyrcanus was not slow to take advantace of bis
opportunities. He conquered the Samaritarai and destroyed tbe
temple on Mount Gerizim. He subdued the Edomitcs and
compelled them to become Jews. Soon after his death fab sons
stormed Samaria, which Alexander the Great had colonised mith
M.icedonian soldiers, and razed it to the ground. Judas Ariaae-
bulus, who succeeded and was the first of the Hasmonaeans
called himself king and followed his father's example by oon>-
pelling the Ituraeans to become Jews, and so creating tbe Galilee
of New Tesument times. In this case, as in that of the Edom»tes«
it is natural to suppose that there existed already a nudeua el
professing Jews which made the wholesale conversion poaaibk.
By this time (loj B.C.) It was clear that the Hasmoaaeans were
—from the point of view of a purist— practically indistinguislH
able from the Hellcnitcrs whom Judas had o p po s ed so keenly,
except that they did not abandon the forrnal obacrvances ol
Judaism, and even enforced them upon forcigncift. Coaae*
quently the Jews were divided into two parties— Pharisees and
Sadduccesr-of whom the Pharisees cared only lor
FROM A. D. 9D)
PALESTINB
621
the will of God as rcveded id Scnpture or in tke
cvento of histoiy. Thii division bote bitter fruit in the reign of
n»m»u Aleaader Jannaeua (104-78 b.c), wiw fay a standing
yf^ army achieved a tenitoiial esqiassion which was little
trir*Mvigi I0 ^0 QJQ^ of ^ Pharisees. At first his attack upon
Ptolenais brought him into conflict with Egypt, in which he was
worsted, but the Jewish general who commanded the Egyptian
army peauaded the queen to evacuate Fakstme. Then he
turned to the countxy east of the Jordan, and then to Philistia.
Later he was utterly defeated by a king of Aiabians and fled to
Jerusalem, only to find that the Pharisees had raised his people
against him and wouki only be satisfied by his death. The
rebels' appeal to the Seleudd governor of part of Syria (88 b.c.)
caused a revulsion in his favour, and finally he made peace by
more than Roman methods. Aretas, the Arabian king, pressed
him hard on tho south and the east, but he was able to make
some conquesU still on the east of the Jordan. In spite of his
quarrel with the Pha ri sees, he seems to have offered the cities
be conquered the choice between Judaism and destruction
Got. Ani, ziii. 1 5, 4)* Under Alexandra, his widow (78-69 b.c.),
the Pharisees ruled the Jews and no expansion of the kingdom
was attempted. It was threatened by Tigranes, king of Armenia,
who then held the Syrian Empire, but a bribe and the imminence
of the Romans (Jos. AnL xiiL 16, 4; War i. 5, 3) saved it. At
her death a civil war began between her sons, which left the
j^j, way open for Rome. Pompe/s lieutenant Scaurus
entered Syria in 65 B.a, after the final defeat of
Mithradatcs, and Pompey soon foUowed to take command of
the situatkm. Three parties pleaded before him, the repre-
sentatives of the rival kings and a depuUtkm from the people
who wished to obey no king, but only the priesU of their God
(Jos. AiU. xiv. 3, 3.) Pompey finally decided hi favour of Hyrca-
nus, and entered Jerusalem I^ the aid of his party. TheadherenU
of Aristobulus seised and held the temple mount against the
Romans, but on the Day of Atonement of the year 63 B.C.
their position was stemmed and the priests were cut down at
the altars (Jos. Ant. ziv. 4, 3—4; War I 7). Hyrcanus was left
as high-priest— iMf king of the Jews— and his territory was
curtailed. The coast towns and the Decapolis, together with
Samaria and Scythopolis, were incorporated in the new Rpman
province of Syria.
In 61 B.C. P«>mpey celebrated the third of a series of triumphs
over Africa, Europe and Asia, and in his train, among the
prisoners of war, watf Aristobulus, king of Judaea. Palestine
meanwhile remained quiet until 57 b.c, when Alexander, the
son of Aristobulus, escaped from his Roman captivity and
attempted to make himself master of his father's kingdom.
Aulus Gabinius, the new proconsul of Syria, defeated his hastily
gathered forces, besieged him in one of the fortresses he had
managed to acquire, and induced him to abandon his attempt
in return for his life. The impotence of Hyrcanus was so
obvious that Gabinius proceeded to deprive him of all political
power by dividing the country into five cantons, having Jenisa-
lem, Gaizara, Amathus, Jericho, and Sepphoris, as their capitals.
Other raids, headed by Aristobulus, or his son, or his adherent
PeithoUus, disturbed Palestine during the interval between
57 and 51 b.c and served to create a prejudice against the Jews
in the mind of their masters. But with the dvil wars which
began in 49 B.C. there came opportunities which Hyrcanus, at
the instance of Antipater, used to ingratiate himself with Caesar.
Once more, as in the days of Simon, the suaerain power was
divided against itself, and, though Rome was as strong as the
Seleudds had been weak, Caesar was grateful For timely
help in the Egyptian War of 47 B.C. Hyrcanus was rewarded
by the title of Ethnarch, and Antipater with the Roman citizen-
ship and the office of proctirator of Judaea. The sons of Antipater
became deputies for their father; and it appears that Galilee,
which was entrusted to Herod, fell within his jurisdiction.
The power of thb Idumaean family provoked popular
f§gn^ risings and Antipater was poisoned. But Herod held
his ground as governor of Coclo Syria and retained
the Cavoor of Caiaius and Mark Antony in turn, despite the
oomplamu of the Jewish noblHty. In 43 b.c., however, the
tyrant of Tyre encroached upon Galilean territory and in 40 bjc
Herod had to fly for his Ufe before the Pivthians. Even as a
landless fugitive Herod could count upon Roman support. At
the instance of Mark Antony, and with the assent of Octavian,
the senate declared him king of Judaea, and after two years'
fighting he made his title good. Antlgonus, whom the Parthians
had set upon his throne, was beheaded by his Roman allies
(37 B.C.). As king of the Jews (37-4 bxx) Herod was completely
subject and eagerly subservient to his Roman masters. In
34 B.C (for example) or earlier, Mark Antony gave Geopatia
the whole of Phoenicia and the coast of the Philistines south of
Eleuthesus, with the exception only of Tyre and Sidon, part of the
Arabian territory and the district of Jericho. Herod acquiesced
and leased Jeiicho, the most fertile part of his kingdom, from
Cleopatra. In the war between Antony and OcUvkui Cleopatrm
prevented Herod from Joinmg Antony and so left hinrfree to
pay court to OcUvian after Actium (31 B.C.). A year Uter
Octavian restored to the Jewish kingdom Jericho, Gadara,
Hippos, Samaria, Gaza, Anthedon, Joppa and Straton's Tower
(Caeaarea). Secure of his position, Herod began to build temples
and palaces and whole cities up and down Palestine as visible
embodiments of the Greek civilization which was to distinguish
the Roman Empire from barbarian lands. A sedulous courtier,
he was rewarded with the confidence of Augustus, who ordered
the procurators of Syria to do nothing without taking his advice.
But with the establishment of (relatively) universal peace Palea*
tine ceased to be a factor in general history. Herod the Great
enlarged his borders and fostered the Greek civilization of the
cities under his sway. After his death his kingdom was dis-
membered and gradually came under the direct rule of Rome.
Herod Agrippa {kjo. 41-44) revived the glories of the reign of
Alexandra and won the favour of the Pharisees; but his attempt
to form a confederacy of client-princes was nipped in the bud.
Even the war which ended with the destruction of Jerusalem
in A.D. 70, and the rebclUon under Hadrian, which led to the
edict forbidding the Jews to enter Jerusalem, are matters
proper to the history of the Jews.
References to authorities other than Tosephus are given in the
coune of the article; his AtUimtilies and War are the chief aoures
for the period.. All modern authorities are aiveoby SchOrer.
a.H.A.H.)
ULr-From AJ>. 70 to the Present Day,
Owing to the peculiar conditions of the land and the varied
interesU mvolved in it, the hUer history may best be treated
in four sections. In the first the general political history will
be set forth; in the second a sketch will be given of the cult
of the " holy places "; the third will contain some particulars
regarding the history of modem colonization by foreigners,
which, while it has not affected the political status of the country,
has produced very considerable modifications in its population
and life; and the fourth will consist of a brief notice of the
progress of exploration and scientific research whereby our
knowledge of the past and the present of the land has been
systematized.
X. Political History from aj>. 7a — ^The destruction of Jerasalem
was followed by the dispersal of the Jews, of whom till then
it had been the religious and political centre. The
first seat of the sanhedrin was at Jamnia (Yebna), 22^,^,1^^
where the Rabbinic system began to be formulated.
This extraordinary spiritual tynumy, for it seems little dae,
acquired a wonderful bold and ezcrdsed a singulariy uniting
power over the scattered nation. The sharp contrasts between
its compulsory religious observances and thoae of the rest of
the world prevented such an absorption. of the Jewish people
into the Roman Empire as had caused the disappearance of
the ten tribes of Israd by thdr merging with the Aasyiians.
It would appear that at first, after the destruction, of the
dty, no specially repressive measures were contemplated by the
conquering Romans, who rather attempted to reconcile the Jews
to their subject state by a leniency which had proved suocoafol
in the case of other tribes brought by conquest within the empire.
622
PALESTINE
IPROll AJ>. 9»
But Uicy had reckoned withoat ihe iaoUting influence of Rab-
binism. Here end there tnull insunectioos took place, in
themadvea easily suppressed, but showing the Romans that
they had a turbulent and troublesome people to deal with.
At last Hadrian determined to stamp out this aggressive
Jewish nationalism. He issued an edict forbidding the reading
of the law, the observance of the Sabbath, and the rite of
drcumdskm; and determined to convert the still haU-niincd
Jerusalem into a Roman colony.
The awsequence of this edict was the meteor-like outbreak
of Bar-Cochebas iq.v.) aj>. x33-x35- The origin of this person
and the history of his rise to power are unknown.
*t ^.. Nor is it certain whether he himself at first made
A personal claim to be the promised Messiah; but
it was his recognition as such by the distinguished Rabbi Akiba,
then the most ««fltipntial Jew alive, which placed him in the
command of the insunectton, with 200,000 men at his command.
Jerusalem was captured, as well as a large number of strongholds
and villages throughout the country. Julius Severus, sent with
an immense army by Hadrian, came to quell the insurrection.
He recaptured Jerusalem, at the siege of which Bar-Cochebas
himself was slain. The rebels fled to Bether— the modem
Bittir, near Jerusalem, where the fortress garrisoned by them
still remains, under the name Khurbet el-Yahud, or " Ruin of
the Jews"— and were there defeated and slaughtered in a
sanguinary encounter. It is said that as many as 580,000
men were slalnl Hadrian then turned Jerusalem into a Roman
cobny, changed iu name to Aelia Capitolina, built a temple of
Jupiter on the site of the Jewish Umple and (it is alleged) a
temple of Venus on the site of the Holy Sepulchre, and forbade
any Jew, on pain of death, to appear within sight of the city.
This disaster was the death-bk>w to hopes of a Jewish
national ittdq>ettdence, and the leaders of the people devoted
• M^^ themselves thenceforth to legal and religious study
gy~ in the Rabbinical schoob, which from aj>. 135
(the year of the suppression of the revolt) onwards
developed in various towns in the hitherto despised province
of Galilee. Shefa 'Amr (Shafram), Sha'arah (Shaaraim) and espe-
cially Tttbariya (Tiberias) became centres of this learning: and
the remains of synagogues of the and or 3rd century which still
exist in Galilee attest the strength of Judaism in that dntrict
during the years foUowing the abortive attempt of Bar-Cocbeb^
Palestine thus continued directly under Roman rule. In
aj». los, under Trajan, ComeUus Palma added COesd and
Moab to the empire. In jqS Auranitis, Batanea and Tiachonitis
were added to the province.
The pilgrima^ of the Empress Helena properly bdongs
to the second section into which we have divided this h»tory ;
we therdbre pass it over for the present. The oonvmion of
Constantine to Christianity— or rather the profession of Chns-
tianily by Constantine-seemed likely to resuU in another
Jewish p«aecutk>n, foreshadowed by severe repressive edicts.
This, however, was averted by the emperor's dc»th.
The progress of the corrupt Chnstiamty of tbe onpne of
ByzanUum was checked for a while under Juhan the Apostate,
who, among other indications of his opposition to Chratianity.
rescinded the edicu against the Jews on his coming to the throne
in 361, and gave orders for the restoration of the Jewish temple.
The latter work was interrupted aUnost as soon aa begun by
an extraordinary phenomenon—the outburst of flames and loud
4 f t^«tinw, easUy explained at the time as a divine judgment
on this direct attempt to falsify the prophecy of Christ. It
baa b tf !« ingenionsly suggested in this more scientific generation
that the expkMkm was due to the ignition of some forgotten
atore of oil or ■'• pfc»>»*, such as was said to have been stored in
the temple (s Mace. L 1^-33, 36), *wi «mfl« to a store
discovered, with less disastrous consequences, in another part of
the city early in the 19th century.*
On the partiUott of the empire in aj>. 39S Palestine
natunDyfcU to the share of the emperor of the East. Froqithis
onward for more than two hundred years there is a period
of companthre quiet in Falestine, with bo cttcmnl pirlitifal
interference. The country was nominally Chrittiaa; Che only
history it displays being that of the devdopnent
of pilgrimage and of the cult of holy places and of rVn T
rdics, varied by occasiomd persecutions of the Jews.
The elaborate building operations of Justinian (537-56$) ■>««
not be forgotten. The *' (Golden GaU " of the Temple ana
and part of the church which is now the El-Akaa Moaqac at
Jerusalem, are due to him.
Not till 611 do we find any event of importance in the
uninteresting record of Byzantine sovereignty. But thm and
the foUowing years were signaliaed by a series o f^
catastrophes of the first magnifudr. Omsvocs II. '^'
(f.v.). king of Persia, made an inroad into Syria; joined by
the Jews, anxioas to revenge their misfoctnnca, he svepc over
the country, carrying plunder and dcstmction wherever
he went. Monasteries and churches were bnmt and aackcd,
and Jerusalem was taken; the Holy Sepukhre cfaarcb was
destroyed and iU treasures carried off; the other chnrclies
were likewise rased to the ground; the patriarch was taken
prisoner. It is alleged that 90,000 persons were massacred.
Thus for a time the province of Syria with PaleMiae was
lost to the empire of Byzantium.
The Emperor Heradius reconquered the lost tetritoty in 6 J9.
But his triumph was short-lived. A more formidable enemy
was already on the way, and the final wresting of Syria from
the feeble relics of the Roman Empire was inunlnent*
The separate tribal units of Arabia, more or lean *— p«**^7i
when divided and at war with one another, received for tht
first time an indissoluble bond of unioB from the
prophet Mahomet, whose perfect kiKmledge of SSm^
human nature (at least of Arab human nature)
enabled him to formulate a religious system that was cakolated
to command an enthusiastic acceptance by the tribes to which
it was primarily addressed. His successor, Abu Bekr, called
on the tribes of Amhia to unite and to capture the fertile piovincc
of Syria from the Christians. Heiadius had not aufficieni
time to prepare to meet this new foe, and was defeated an
his first engagement with Abu Bekr. (For the general hiatocy
of this period see Caufhatx). The latter^seiaed Boatra and
proceeded to march to Damascus. He died, however, bc<OR
carrying cut his design (a4>. 634), and was succeeded by Omar,
who, after a siege of seventy days entered the diy. Other
towns fell in tum, such as Cacaarea, Scbustch (Samaria), Nabha
(Shechem),Lydd, Jaffa.
Meanwhile Hersdhis waa not idle. He conccted a hnte
army and in 636 marched against the Arabs. The Intter
retreated to the Yarmuk River, where the Bytantinei met them.
Betrayed, it is said, by a Christian who had suffered peteonal
wron^ at the hands of certain of the Byzantine g— *^K the
army of Heradius waa utterly defeated, and with it fdl the
Byzantine Empire in Syria and Palestine.
After this victory Omar's army marched against Jerasalem.
which after a feeble resistance capitulated. The terms of
peace, though on the whole moderate, were of a
galling and humiliating nature, being ingenious^ '
contrived to make the Christians ever conscious of thciz own
inferiority. Restrictions in church>building, in drcsa, in the
use of beasts of burden, in social intercourse with Moslems, and
in the use of bcUs and of the sign of the cross were enforced.
When these terms were agreed upon and signed Omar, under
the leadership of the Christian patriarch Sophroniua, visited
the Holy Rock (the pmyer-place of David and the site of the
Jewish temple). This he found to be defiled with filth, spi^
upon it by the Christians in despite of the Jews. Omar and his
foUowcrs in person cleaned it, anid esublished the place ol prayer
which, though later rebuilt, has borne his name ever since.
Dissensbns and rivalries loon broke out among the Moalem
leaden, and in 661 Moawiya, the first caliph of the Oaayyad
dynasty, transferred the seat of the caliphate ^"><»4a^te^
Mecca to Damascus, where it remained tUl the^^^"*^
Abbasids seized the sovereignty and transfctrcd it to Bagdad
ROM A.a7<)
PALESTINE
623
(750) lUvaJs spring up from time to time. In 684 Caliph
AbdalmAlik ('Abd el-Mdek), in order to weaken the piestige of
Mecca, set himaetf to beautify the holy thrine of Jerusalem,
and built the KmUei esSakhtak, or Dome of the Rock,
which stiU remains one of the most beautiful buildings in the
irorid (Caupvate: B 5). In 83s the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre was restored; bat about a hundred yeaxs later it
was again destroyed mb a result of the revolt of the Carmathiana
ig.9.), who in 939 pillaged Mecca. This produced a Moslem
ezodus to Jerusalem, with the consequence mentioned. The
Carmathian revolt, one of the first of the great splits in the
Moslem world, was followed by others: in 936 Eg^ declared
its independence, under a line of caliphs which claimed descent
from Fatima, daughter of the prophet (see Fatdotes); and
in 996 Hakim Bi-amrillah mounted the Egyptian throne. This
madman caused the dnirch of the Holy Sepulchre to be entirely
destroyed: and giving himself out to be the incarnation of Deity,
hb cult was founded by two Persians, Darazi and Hamza ibn
AU, in the Lebanon; where among the. Druses it still pernsts
(see Dnnsss).
Hie contentions between the Abbosid and Fatimite caliphs
contfaraed till 1079, when Palestine suffered its next invasion.
This was that of the Seljuk Turkomans from Khorasan. On
behalf of thefr king, the Kfawarizmian general At^ invaded
Palestine and captured Jerusalem and Damascus, and then
marched on Egypt to cany out his original purpose of de-
stroying the Fatimites. The Egyptians, however, repulsed the
invaders and drove them back, retaking the captured Syrian
dties.
The sufferings of the Christians and the desecrations of their
sacred buildings dming these troubled times created wide-spread
indignation through the west: and this indignation was inflamed
into fury by Peter the Hermit, a native of Picardy,
SuamdM, ^"^ ^ *"^y ^^^ ^^ ^'^^^ * soldier. In. 1093 he
went in pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and in his wrath
at the miseries of the pilgrims he returned to Europe and
preached the duty of the Church to rescue the " holy places "
from the infidel. The Church responded, and under Peter's
leadership a motley crowd, principally of French origin, set
out in 1096 for the Holy Land. Others, under better general-
ship, followed; but of the 600,000 that started from their homes
only about 40,000 succeeded in reaching Jerusalem, ill-disdpllne,
famine and battles by the way having reduced their ranks.
They captured Jerusalem, however. In July X099, and the
leader of the assault, ClodCrey of Boulogne, was made king of
Jerusalem.
So was founded the Xatin kingd<ftn'of Jerusalem, whose
histoiy is one of the most painful ever penned (see Crusades).
It is a record of almost \inredeemed " envy, hatred,
and malice," and of vice with its consequent diseases,
all rendered the more repulsive in that its transactions
were carried on in the name of religion. For 88 turbulent
years this feudal kingdom was imposed on the country, and
then it disappeared as suddenly as it came, leaving no trace
but the ruins of castles and churches, a few place-names, and
an undying hereditary hatred of Christianity among the native
population.
The abortive Second Crusade (1x47)1 1«1 by the kings of
France and Germany, came to aid the rapidly weakening Latin
kingdom after their failure to hold Edessa against Nureddin,
the ruler of northern Syria.
In I r 73 Nureddin died, and his kingdom was sdxed by Saladin
(Saloh cd-Din), a man of Kurdish origin, who had previously
distinguished himself by capturing Egypt in company with
Sbirkuh, the general of Nureddin. Saladin almost imm«!iately
set himself to drive the Franks from the country. The Prankish
king was the boy Baldwin IV., who had paid for the crrocs of
hb fathers by being afflicted with leprosy. After being defeated
by Saladin at Banias, the Franks were compelled to make a
treaty with the Moslem leader. The treaty was broken, and
Saladin proceeded to take action. The wretched leper king
meanwhile died, his suixessor, Baldwin V. also a young boy,
was poisoned, and the kingdom passed to the worthless Guy
de Lusignan, who in the foUowing year (1187) was crushed
by Saladin at the battle of Hattin, which restored the whole
of Palestine to the Moslems.
The Third Crusade (1x89) to recover Jerusalem was led
by Frederick I. of Germany. Acre was captured, but quarreb
among the chieb of the expedition made the enterprise
ineffective. It was in this crusade that Richard Coeur-<le-lion
was especially dutinguishcd among the Prankish warriors.
Saladin died in x 193. In x X98 and x 204 took place the Fourth
and Fifth Crusades— mere expeditions, as abortive as the third.
And as though it were foreordained that no element of horror
should be wanting from the history of the crusades, in X2xa
there took pkice one of the most g^astty tragedies that has ever
happened In the worid~the Crusade of the Children. Fifty
thousand boys and girls were persuaded by some pestilent
dreamers that their childish iimocence would effect what their
immoral fathers had failed to accomplish, and so left their
homes on an expedition to capture the Holy Land. The vast
nujority never returned; the happiest of them were ship-
wrecked and drowned in the Mediterranean. This event is of
some historical importance hi that it indicates how obvious to
their contemporaries was the eyH character of those engaged
in the more serious expeditions.^
The other four crusades which took place\from time to time
down to X273 are of no special importance, though there is a
certain amoimt of interest in the fact that after the sixth
crusade, in x 2 29, emperor Frederick II. was permitted to occupy
Jerusalem for ten years. But a new clement, the Mongoliana of
Central Asia, now bxusts in on the scene. The tribes fxom east
of the Caspian had conquered Persia in x 2 x8. They were driven
westward by pressure of the Tatars, and in 1228 had been caBed
by the ruler of Damascus to his aid. In X240, however, they
transferred their alliance to the sultan of E^rpt, and pillaged
Northern Syria. Driven downward through Galilee they seised
Jerusalem, massacred its inhabitants and plundered Its churches.
They then marched on to Gaza, where the Egyptians jofaied
them, and together inflicted a crushing defeat on the Chtbtians
and Moslems of Syria, for once compelled to uxdte by the common
danger. The Khwarizmians and Egyptians afterwards quar*
relied, and the former were oompdled to retire, leaving
Palestine under the rule of the Mameluke* sultans of Egypt.
Shortly afterwards however, another Central Asiatic invaskm —
that of the Tatar tribes, took place. Under their leader HtUaga
these tribes came by way of Bagdad, which they captured in
1258, and In X2^ they attacked and captured Damascus and
ravaged Syria. Bibars (Beibars, Baibars), general of the
Egyptian sultan Kotuz, met and drove them back; and having
murdered his master, became sultan in his stead. He then
proceeded to attack and destroy the relics of Christian posses-
sion in Palestine. One after anothex^-Caesarea, Safed, Jaffa,
Antioch— they fell, leaving at last Acre (Akka) only. Bibaxs
died In 1277, and in x 291 Acre itself was captured by Khatel
son of Kala*Qn, who thus put a final end to Prankish dommation.
During the X4th century there is little of interest in the history
of Palestine. The Christians made efforts to creep back to
their former possessfons and churches were rebuilt in Jerusalem,
Bethlehem and Nazareth; but another devastation was the result
of the ferocious inroads of the Mongolian Timur (Tamerlane)
in X400.
The hat stage of the history of Palestine was reached m X5x«,
when the war between the Ottoman sultan and the Mamdukea
of Egypt resulted in the transference of the country
to the domhibn of the Turks. This change of rulers
did not produce much change in the adxninbtration
or condition of the country. Local governors were appointed
from headquarters: revenues were annually sent to Constan-
tinople: various public works were undertaken, such as the
* This stofy is probably the historic bsM of the legend of the
" Pied Piper of Hamdin.'*
' The Mamelukes were originally military slaves, who in ^{ypt
sttooeeded in seizing the supreme power. See Eovrr: tttslerf
iMoslem period).
624
PALESTINB
finfauKD.79
rebvDdiJig of the waUs of Jeni&akm by Suldmaii the Magnificent
(1537) ' but OQ the whole Palestine ceases for nearly three hundred
yean from this point to liavc a history, save the dreary record of
the sanguinary quarrels of local sheiks and of oppression of the
peasants by the various government officials. Few luunes
or events stand out in the history of this period: perhaps the
most interesting pcrsonah'ty is that of the Druse prince Fakhr
ud-Din (i 595-1634), whose expulsion of the Arabs from the coast
as far south as Acre and establishment of his own kingdom,
in defiance of Ottoman authority^to say nothing of his dilettante
cultivation of art, the result of a temporary sojourn in luly—
make him worth a passing notice. The German botanist,
Leoobard Rauwolf (d. 1596 or x6o6), who visited Palestine in
XS75, has left a vivid description of the difficulties that then
beset even so simple a journey as that from Jaffa to Jerusalem.
The former town he found in ruins. A safe conduct had to bo
obtained from the governor of Ramleh before the party could
proceed. At Yazur they were stopped by an official who
extorted heavy blackmail on the ground that the sultan had
given him charge of the "holy places" and had forbidden
him to admit anyone to them without payment (IX Further
on they had a scuiHe with certain " Arabiazks "; and at last,
after successfully accomplishing the passage of the "rough
and stony " road that led to Jerusalem, they were obliged to
dismount before the gate of the dty till they should receive
license from the governor to enter.
Towards the close of the zSth century a chief of the family
of 21aidan, named Dhaher el-Amir, rose to power in Acre. To
ff tenTi b^™ ^^ ^^™ E^SyP^ ^o. Albanian slave named
Ahmed, who (from the expcrtness with wliicb he
had been wont to carry out his master's orders to get rid of
inconvenient rivals) bore the surname d'Jaszar, " the butcher."
He had, however, incurred punishment for refusing to obey
a conmiand of his master, Mahommcd Bey, and so took
refuge with the Palestinian sheik. After five yean Mahommed
Bey died and el-Jarxar returned to Egypt. Dhaher revolted
•gainst the Turkish government and d-Jazzar was commis^
sioned to quell the rising; his long residence with Dhaher having
given him knowl^ige which marked him out as the most
suitable for the purpose. He was successful in his enterprise,
and was installed as governor in Dhaher's place. He was
a man of barbaric aesthetic tastes, and Acre owes some of
its public buildings to him: but he was also capricious and
tyrannical, and well lived up to his surname. Till 1791 the
French had had factories and business establishments at Acre;'
d-Jazzar ordered them in that year simimarily to leave the
town. In 1798 Napoleon, returning from his unsuccessful
attempt at founding an empire on the Nile, came to stir up a
Syrian rising against the Turkish authorities. He attacked
d-Jazzar in Acre, after capturing Jaffa, Ramleh and Lydd.
A detachment of troops was sent under General Jean Baptiste
RUber across the plain of Esdradon to uke Nazareth and
Tiberias, and defeated the Arabs between Fuleh and Afuleh.
Napoleon was however compelled by the English to raise the
siege. El-Jazzar died in 1806 and was succeeded by his milder
adopted son, Suldman, who on his death in 1814 was followed
by the fanatic Abdullah. This bigoted Moslem caused the
Jewish secretary of his office to be murdered. The Jew had
antidpated just such an event, and bad secretly arranged that
after his death an inventory of Abdullah's property should foil
into the hands of the government— knowing that the latter
bad claims oa the estates of d-Jazzar and SulcimaiL The
government accordingly pressed their claims: Abdullah refused
to pay and was besieged in Acre. He called for the intervention
of Mehemet Ali, governor of Egypt; the latter settled the
dispute, but Abdullah then refused to discharge the daims of
Mehemet Ali. The latter accordin^y sent 20,000 men under
the command of his son Ibrahim Pasha, who besieged Acre
in 1831 and entered and plundered it. So began the short-
lived Egyptian domination of Palestine. Mehemet Ali proved
*When Ihii French colony was established is unccriiia;
Maundrvll found them iheie at the end of ihe 1 7ih century.
no IcsB a tynnnical master than the Tuiks and tha shdka;
the country revolted in 1834, but the InmncctJOB wai qudled.
In 1840 LebaiMMi revolted; and in the sane y«ar the TurkSft
with the aid of France, Engfamd and Austria, icguned Fiakstine
and expelled the Egyptian goveraor.
From 1840 onwards the Ottoman 9»vcnimeBt gndnally
strengthened its hold on Palestine. The power of the local
sheiks was step by step reduced, till it at ia^ becane
evanescent — to the unmixed advantage of the whole
country; and the inc r eas e of European interests
has led to the esublishment of oonsulates and viofrimaaktcs
of the great powen in Jerusalem and in the porta.
The battle of religions still continued. In 1847 the dtipiue ia
the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem about the right to marfc
with a star the birthplace of Christ becune one of the priaoc
causes of the Crimean war. In x86o oocumd a luddea aati*
Christian outbreak in Damascus and the T^ebanon, in which
T4,ooo Christians were massacred. On the other hand it may
be mentioned that on the 30th of June 1855 the cioiB was for
the first time since the crusades borne aloft throogk tha itieeu
of Jerusalem on the occasion of the visit of a Enopeaa piisce;
and that in 1858 the sacred area of the Wa«uii^i^^i»tirif — t^
mosque on the site of the Temple of Jeiusalen— nras lor (he
first time thrown open to Christian vidton. The latter half
of the 19th century is mainly occupied with the reoofd of a very
remarkable process of colonization and aetticmeiU— French
and Russian monastic and other estabhshnents, some of tbeoa
semi-religious and semi^political; Gcmaa coloBies; f««**»^^i
American conmiunities; Jewish agricultural settlements— all,
so to speak, " nibbling " at the country, and ttudk so intent
upon gaining a step on its rivals as to be forgetful of the fathezinff
storm. For In the background of all is the vast p— *'"r''T of
Arabia, which at long intervals fills with its wild, ontantafaJe
humanity to a point beyond which it cannot support theoa.
This has been the origin of the long succession of Semitic waves —
Babylonian, Assyrian, Canaaalte, Hebrew, Nabataean, Minahni
that have flowed over Mesopotamia and Pdcstine; tha« is
every reason to suppose that they will be followed by othcgo,
and that the Arab will remain master at the end, as he was in
the beginning.
In Z896 Herd (g.s.) issued his proposal for the ettahUalnnent
of a Jewish state in Palestine and in 1898 he came to the oountry
to investigate its possibilities. The same year was «f|p"»'«H
by the picturesque visit of the German emperor, William IL,
which gave a great stimulus to German interests in the Holj
Land.
In 1901 Palestine was devastated by a severe ^Ndemic of
cholera. In Z906 arose a dispute between the British and
Turkish governments about the boundary between Turkish and
Egyptian territory, as the Turks had interfered with some of
the landmarks* A joint commission was aippointed, whicfa
marked out the boundary from Rafah, about midway b et wc m
Gaza and El-Arish, in an ahnost straight line S.S.W. to Tabah
in 39^ 30' on the west side of the gulf of Ahaba. A nmp of
the boundary will be found in the Geoff apkkal Jommal (1907),
xxix. 88.
2. Tke Uciy Places.— To the vast majority of dviUaed
humanity, Je^^, Christian and Moslem, the reiigioiis interest
of the associations of Palestine predominates over evoy other,
and at all ages has attracted pilgrims to its shrines. We need
not here do more than allude to the centrahzatlun of Jcwah
ideas and aspirations in Jerusalem, especially m the holy rock
oa which tradition (and probably textual corruption) have
placed the scene of Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac, and over which
the Mod Hdy Place of the Temple stood. The same associatiaBS
are those of the Moslem, whose rdigion has so strangdy absoH)cd
the prophets and traditions of the older fdths. Other shrines,
such as the alleged tomb of Moses, and the mosque of ibbroo
over the cave of Machpdah, are the centres of Moslem pilgrinnge.
Christianity is however responsible for the greatest development
of the cult of holy places, and It is to the sacred shrines o<
christeiMlom that we propose to confine our attention.
PROM A. D. ToJ
PALESTINE
625
There is no evidence (hat the earliest Clufstians were imbued
with the archaeological spirit that interested itself in sites which
the Risen Lord had vacated. The site o( Golgotha and of the
the Holy Sq>alchre, of the manger or of the home at Bethany,
were to them of no special moment in oomparisbn with the one
all-important fact that " Christ was risen." It was not till the
dear-cut impress of the events of Christ's life, death and
resurrection had with the lapse of years faded from human
recollection, that there arose a desire to " seek the living among
the dead." The story begins with Helena, mother of Constan-
tine the Great, who became fired with teal to fix definitely
the spots where the great events of Christianity had taken
place, and in aj>. 326 visited Palestine for the purpose.
Helena's pilgrimage was, as might be expected,
SMMjUMb *^tended with complete success. The True Cross
was discovered; and by excavation conducted
under Constantine's auspices, the Holy Sepulchre, "contrary
to all expectation " as Eusebius naively says, was discovered
also (see Jerusaleh; and Sepulchbe, The Holy). The
seed thus sown rapidly germinated and multiplied. The stream
of pilgrimage to the Holy Land began immediately, and has been
fk>wing ever since. Onwards from a.d. 333, when an anonymous
pilgrim from Bordeaux visited the "holy places'' and left a
succinct account of his route and of the sights which came under
his notice, we possess a continuous chain of testimony written
by pilgrims relating what they heard and saw.
It is a pathetic record. No site, no legend, is too impossible
for the unquestioning faith of these simple-minded men and
womeiL And by comparing one record with another, we can
follow the multiplication of " holy places," and sometimes can
even see them being shifted from one spot to another, as the
centuries pass. Not one of these devout souls had any shadow
of suspicion that, except natural features (such as the Mount
of Olives, the Jordan, Ebal, Gerizim, &c.) and possibly a very
few individual sites (such as Jacob's wcU at Shechem), there
waa not a single spot in the whole elaborate system that could
show even the flimsiest evidence of authentidtyl The growth
and development of " holy sites " can best be illustrated, in
an artide like the present, by a few figurcsi The account of
the " holy places " seen in Palestine by the Bordeaux pilgrim,
just mentioned, occupies twdve pages in the translation of the
Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society (in whose publications the
records of these early travellers can most conveniently be
studied): and those twdve pages may be reduced to seven
or eight as they are printed with wide margins, and have many
footnotes added by the editor. On the other hand the ex-
periences and observations of Felix Fabri, a Dominican monk
who came to Palestine about a.d. 1480, occupies in the same
aeries two large volumes of over 600 pages each I ^
This process of development has been illustrated in our own
time— a single instance will suffice. In the so-called "Via
Dolorosa " is a cave which was opened and planned about xSya
It subsequently became dosed and forgotten, houses covering
its entrance. In 1906 it was re-opened, the houses being cleared
away, and a hospice for Greek pilgrims erected in place of them.
During these works some local archaeologists attempted to pene-
trate the cave but were driven away by the labourers with
curses. At last the hospice was finished and the cave opened
for inspection. A pair of stocks was then shown beautifuUy
cut in the rock, where no stocks appeared in the plan of 1870;
with a crude painting su^>ended on the wall above, blasphem-
ously representing the Messiah confined in theml*
The Franciscans were nominated custodians of the "holy
places" by Pope Gregory IX. in 133^ Certain sites have,
however, always been hdd by the Oriental sects, and since
x8o8, when the Holy Sepulchre church was destroyed by fire,
the number of these has greatly increased. Indeed the t9th
* This comparison is made in full realization of the fact that the
Bocdcaux record is a dry catalogue, and that Fabri's work is swelled
by the miscellanoous gossip and " padding " which makes h one
of the most delightful Ixmks ever written in the middle ages.
> .Soe the exposure in the Revtu BibUque (the ocgan of the Dominican
•cbool of St Stephen at Jerusalem) for 1907.
XX, II
century was disgraced, !& Palestine, V a Teverlsh " scramble "
for sacred sites, in which the most rudimentary ethics of
Christianity were forgotten in the all-mastering d^ire to oust
rival secu and orders. Bribery, fraud, even violence, have
in turn been employed to serve the end in view: and churches,
chapels and monasteries, most of them in the worst architectural
taste, have sprung up like mushrooms over the surface of the
country, and are perpetuating the memory of pseudo-sanctuaries
which from every point of view were best relegated to oblivion.
The seal and self-sacrificing devotion which some of these
establishments, and their inmates, display, and their noble
labours on behalf of the country, iU people and its hirtoty
throw into yet more painful relief the actions and attitudes of
some of their fellow-Christians.
The authentidty of the "holy places" waa first attacked
seriously in the x8th century by a bookseller of Altooa named
Korte ; and since he led the way, a steady fire tA criticism has been
poured at this huge mass of Invention. Tbe process of manu-
facturing new sites, however, continues unchecked. Even the
Protestant churches are not exempt from blame in the matter;
a small tomb near the Damascus Gate of Jerusalem has been
fixed upon by a number of Eng^ enthusiasts as the true " Holy
Sepulchre," an identification for which there is nothing to be said.
The monasteries of the Roman communion and their residents
were under French protection until the disturbance between
Greek and Franciscan, monks in the Holy Sepulchre church
(Nov. 4, igox), which arose over the question as to the right to
sweep a certain flight of stairs. Stones and other weapons wers
frcdy used, and several of the combatants and bystanders were
seriously injured. As one result of the subsequent investiga-
tions, LaUn monks of other countries were assigned to the
protection of the consuls of those countries.
3. CdmitatioH^—Ikiimi to the time of Mehemet Ali the only
foreigners permanently resident in tha country were the members
of various monastic orders, and a few traders, such as the
French merchants of Acre. The first protestant missionariee
(those under the London Sodety for the Promotion of Christianity
among the Jews), settled in Jerusalem in 1823; to them is due
the inception of the trade in olive-wood artides, invented for the
support of their converts. In 1846-1848 a remarkable religious
brotherhood (the BrUderhaiu, founded by Spittler of Basd)
settled in Jerusalem: it was originally intended to be a settle-
ment of celibate mechanics that would form a nudeus of
misskm work to evangeUze the world. One of this community waa
Dr C. Schick, who lived over 50 years in Jerusalem, and made
many valuable contributions to its archaeology. In 1849 came
the first of several examples that have appeared in Palestine
from time to time of that curious product of American religious
life— a community of dupes or visionaries led by a prophet or
prophetess with claims to divine guidance. The leader in this
case was one Mrs Minor, who came to prepare the land for'
the expected Second Advent. Her followers quarrelled and
separated in 1853. This event is of importance, as it had mudi
to do with the remarkable development of Jewish colonization
which is a special feature of the hitter part of the history of the
19th century in Palestine. For Mrs Minor, having an interest
in the Jewish people, was befriended by Sir Moses Montefiore;
after her death her property was placed in charge of a Jew, and
later passed into the hands of the Alliance Israelite UniverseUe.
This body in 1870 established an agricultural colony for Jews
on the road from Jaffa to Jerusalem (" Mikweh Israd ").
Another visionary American colony, led by a certain Adams,
came In 1866. Tbey brought with them framed houses from
America, which are still standing at Jaffa. But the Adamsites
suffered from disease and poverty, and lost heart in a couple of
years: returning to America, they sold their property to a
German community, the Tempdgemeindef a Unitarian sect led
by Messrs Hoffmann and Hardcgg who esUblished themsdves
in Jaffa in 1868. Unlike the ill-fated American commum'Ucs,
these hardy WOrttcmberg peasants have flourished in Palestine,
and their three colonies— at Jaffa, Haifa, and Jerusalem — are
the most important European rrtmywtmift^ now in the count
626
PALESTINE
Since 1870 there has been a rtead/ devdopmeot of Jewish
fanroiirstloD, couisUng principally of refugees from couatxks
where anti-Seniitism is an importaot deneot in politics. Baioa
<Ic Kothschjld has iavestcd large sums in Jewish cobnics, but
at the comoaenccioeat of the present century he handed ovcr
fhcir administration to the Jewish Cobnization Association.
'lime alone can show how far these colonies are likely to be
permanently successful, or bow the subtly enervating influmot
oi the dhnate will affect later generatioos.
4. Esphratim.-^'PtevkfUM to the 19th century the turbulent
condition of the country made exploration difficult, and, off
the beaten track, impossible. There are many books written
by early pilgrims and by more secular travellers who visited
the country, which—when they are not devoted to the setting
forth of valueless traditions, as is too often the case— give very
useful and interesting pictures of the conditions of life and
of travel In the country. Scientific exploration docs not begin
Wfore Edward Robinson, an American clergyman, who, after
devoting many years to study to fit himself lor the work, made
a series of journeys through the country, and under the title
of BiUkd JUsearchet in PaUstint (X841-1856) published his
itineraries and observations. His work is marred by 4he
hastiness of his visiu and consequent superficiality of his
dcsaiptions of sites, and by some rash and untenable identifi-
cations: but it is at once a standsird and the foundation of
all subsequent topographical work in the country. He was
worthily followed by Titus Tobler, who in 1853 and later years
published volumes abounding in exact observation; and by
V. Cuerin, whose Description g^graphique, hist4frique, el
arckSohtigue de la PaUsiine, in 7 vols. (i868-x88o), contains
so extraordinary mass of material collected in personal travel
through the country.
In 1664 was founded the Palestine Exploration Fund, under
the auspices of which an ordnance survey map of the country
was completed (published 1881), and accompanied by volumes
containing memoirs on the topography, orography, hydro-
graphy, archaeology, fauna and flora, and other details. A
similar work east of the Jordan was begun but (x88a) stopped
by the Ottoman government The same society initiated the
scientific exploration of the mounds of Palestine. In 1891 it
excavated Tell el-Hesi (Lachish); in 1896-1898 the south wall
of Jerusolem; in 1898-1900 Tell es-Safi (Gath) Sind some smaller
mounds in the Shcphelah; all under the direction of Dr F. J.
Bliss. In XQoa it began the excavation of Geaer under the
direction of R. A. S. Macalistcr (see Gezcr).
The example thus set has been followed by French, German
and American explorers. The DeuUcher Poldstina-Vereu^ was
founded in 1878, and under its auspices important surveys have
been carried out, especially those of G. Schumacher east of the
Jordan; Tell cNMutcscUim (Megiddo) has also Leen excavated.
The Austrian Dr £. SclUn, working independently, has excavated
Tell Ta'nuk (Toanach), and in 1907 began work upon the mount
of Jericho. An admiroble biblical and archaeological school,
under the control of the Dominican oider, exists at Jerusalem;
and Gorman and American archaeological institutions, educa*
tionsl in purpose, are also there established. Valuable work in
exploration is annually done by the directors of these schools
and by their pupils. Under tliis head we must not omit to
mention A. Muail's investigations of some remote parts of
Eastern Palestine, and R. £. BrOnnow's great survey of Petra,
with part of Moab and Edom.
BiuuocRAPHV.—The litrrature relating to Palestine h very
abundant; Mcevwcially, P. Thoniseo. Systemai. BiUiog.f. PaUuHna-
iifemlar, i.. /j<k~/cv4 (Leipxig, iQOti). A laqEe coitcction of
nanea of works will be found in K. Rohricbt. BiUi^tkeca feoirathica
Paiaestinat (l)^). Older bibliographies arc T. Tobler. Bibi.o-
trapkwn Ctotrafkka PcUtitina* (ibOg), with a supplement in
Petfholdt's JvcMf Anaeiser fur Bibiicerapkis wid BMwlkekvisjen-
J«Aa/l (1875).
TorooaxriiT,
_- Rilter, Veri^fhtMJt Erdkunie, xv,-x\ni.
■I8«s): E. RobinsuQ, BiUUui Rcseauhfs in PaUUine (i&;i).
BMtfol RetMfiUs (1856). Physi<al Cc<fgrapky (1865); A-
RcUfid. P^ltsuna m^nitmmtis wteribus iUustmta (t7M): >i- B.
XTitUUKUmi^Itr^it96^Uai^Moa^{tA7iiinePaksiiM
(1848
ExploreHom Fmai,
Survey of Western Pal
.^„ (Mcnxn of tSe
ine). 7 vuU: Su McrriU, EaM 4gf m« J„-c^%
(1881): T. Tobler, BertfcJkrw (1819). .^axaretk {,it(a\,DntU Wi
««X (1859): C R. Conder, Temt Work in PaUshne (1878); G. Sih j-
macfacr. Aims Urn Jordan (1885); Tht Jamlan (1888). JUiOa (i^V)..
PeUa (1888). and /forthom Ajitm (1890): C R. Condcr, Hetk mmd
Moab (1883): C Baedeker. PaUitino amd Syria (IQ06); Victnc
Gu^'n, Deuriftion tioirapkique, kisUmqm, «f arcUdogiqiu de Is
Pakstine (1868-1880): G. A. Smith. Htstorieat Geoerapky of tU
Hdy Land (1897) ; F. J. BIim, Tka IXmiwpmtni of PaStiiat
iian (1906).
History.— L. B. Patoo, Early Bidory of Syria ami PaUstima
(1002): H. WincUer in 3rd ed. of Schrader's JCet/iiudkri/lai a. 4.
AUe Test. (1903): G. Cbrmack. Egypt in Asia (1908); tee further
arc Jews* ( 45: J. A. Mootranery, Tig Samaritans (1907). E.
SchOrer, Ceschukic das jndischen Voikes im ZiiiaUa Jean Ckruti
Cyd ed., 1898): S McrriU. CaliU* in the lima ^ Christ (1885); W.
Besant and E. H. Palmer, JerusaUm (4th cd., 1899); Pagfisla rtgrni
kierosotymUani, togj-izgt (ed. R. Rdhricht. 1893, 1904); R.
Rdhricfat, CosekickU dor Krenssige ilSgS) ; B. von Kuglcr, Ces€k>tkU
dor Krenaugt (i88o>: C R. Conder, Latin Kinfflam oi Jamsakm,
soger 1291 (1897); £. G. Rcy, Les Cohmies han^aas do Syrts (i8Sa);
J. Finn, Stimng Times or Records from JerusaUm (1878}; CtL
Churchill. Mount Lebanon ijB^, for modern history).
RsuoiON, FoLKLoaa, Cusrosi.— H. J. van Lenacc
Oair Modem Customs and Mannors (1878): W. M. Thmna, Thn
Land and the Book (1881-1883): W. R. South. LeOmres on the Ra-
ligion of the Semites (1894); G. A. Barton. Sketch ef Semitic OngiMS
' »); S. I. Curris. Pnmitioe Semitic Religion To-day (1903):
R. Smith. i:tii«*i> and Marriage (1003); J. E. Haaraer. Yaies
Told in Palestine (JVHh h Lagranse. JSludes tnr las reUgjiona ataa^-
tiques (1905); J. E. Hanauer, Fotkiort of the Heiy Land (1007):
J. G. Frazcr, Adonis, AUis and Osiris: Studies in the Btstcry
of Oriental Religion (1907); A. Janssen, Coutnmes des Arobes a»
Pays da Moab (1908); & A. Cook, Raligjion ef Andtnt PalasHno
Excavations as9 Archaeology. — C QenDootrGaaneaa,
Recueil d'archidogie orientale (from 1885), Archaeological Researcha
in Palestine, 1873-1874 (2 vols., 1899, 1896) ; W. M. F. Petrie.
TeU el-Hesy (1891); F. J. Btias, A Mound ^ Many CUi
Excavations at Jerusalem, J "
Macalister, Excavations •'
J. BtitB, A Mound ^ Many Citias (1894).
. iS94-f8Q7 (1808); F. J. Blw and R. jCs.
tn PaUsUne, iS^S-Jooo (1900): E. ScBin.
TeU Ta'annek {Denkschriften of the Vienna Academy. 1904): J. P.
Peters and H. Thiersch, Painted Tombs in ike Necropolis of MoHssa
i s. n c-u u_ T^f -, .*.__^.._ ^^ j (1908); E. Setkn
'hiues, History ofArt m
, nebriiscka Archdalogk
(1905) i G. Schumacher, TeU el-Mutestilim.vci. i. (i90«i);'E SeUin
Eaqiv. of Jericho, in MitteO. d. danischen orianL -----
Berlin, No. 39 (1908); G. Perrot and C Chii
so, &c (1890); I. Bcndnger. J_ _ _
;and ed.j 1907); H. Vincent. Canaan d'aprh rexthration ricenu
Sardinia, J\
1907); k. Grcssmann. AusgrtA, in Pal. u. d. AUe Test (1908).
Pal, Erdgemch in der israal. Relig, (1909): S. R. Driver, Madam
Research as iUustrating the Bible (1909;; P. Thonsao* Paldstinn a.
seine KuUur (1909).
Epigraphy and Nothsitatics.— F. de Saulcy, Nnmismatione de
la Terra Sainte (1874): P. W. Madden. Coins ef the Jem (1881):
T. Renach, Jewish Coins (1903}- See further, Sbmitic Lamooacss
and Numismatics.
Tub " Holy PLACSS."^Li^vin de Hamme. Guide de Is Tone
Sainte (1876).
Early Pilgmms and GBOGRAnnits.— A. Neubaocr, La Ho'
grafhie du Talmud (l868>; P. de Laprde. OaMMftset saam (1870;
£. Carmoly. Itineraira de la Terra Sainte (1847); P. Geyer. Jtmer^
hierosoiymtfana, saec., iv.-viii. (1898). Publications of the Soci^.
de roricnt Latin, and of the Palestine PHgrims Text Society.
Fauna and Flora.— H. B. Tristram, Natural History ef ike BO^
(1867) : G. E. Poit. flora of Syria, Palestine and Sinai (1896).
Climats.~J. Clai&her, Meteorological Observations at Jamsaiam
(i?o3)-
JoUxNAts.— Otuir«^/y Statement, Palestine ExploraHom ^ni
(from 1869); Zeilschrift des dentsckan Paldstina^Vareins (ffwo
1878): Rente bibUfue (from 1892); Raone da Variant Latiss (fran
1893) i Mitteslnngen der vorderastatischen GeseUsehaft Jjhxnm i8«>,
PALESTIKEi a dty and the ooonty-aeat of Andema county.
Texas, U.S A., about 90 m. £. by N. of Waoou Pop. (19x0 ocsk-
sus) 10,482. It is served by two lines of the Intematiooai &
Great Northern railway, sind by the Texas Sute railwmy.
Palestine is the trade centre of a district which produces cduob.
timber, fruit (especially peaches), an cxoellcDt grade of wcappcx
tobacco, petroleum, iron-ore and salt. It has various maass-
facturcs, including cotton gins, ootton-seed oil, dgaa^ lombcf
and brick. Its factory products were valued at $7^x6» in
1905. About s m. south-west of Palestine a vttlwmitf (the
first m the present Anderson county) was made in 1837, aad
there Fort Houston, a stockade fort, was built to protea the
settlers from the Indians. Palestine was laid oat aad «%s
PALESTRINA
627
made tlie county-Mat in 1846; it was chartered as a city in
1875, and Kchartered in 1905. In 1909 it adopted a oomfflisaion
govenunent.
PALESTRINA, GIOVANNI PIERLUIGI DA (1536-1594)*
Italian composer, was bom in Palestrina (the ancient Praencste)
at the foot of the Sabine mountains, in 1^26. The various
versions of his name make an interesting record. He appears
as Palestina, Pellestiino, Gio. Palestina, Gianetto PalestriDn,
Gianetto da Palestrina, Gian Pierl. de Palestrina, Job. PArUs
Aloi&ius, Jo. Petrabys, Gianetto, Giov. Preoestini, Joannes
Praeoestinua, Joannes Petraloysius Prenestinua.
Palestrina seems to have been at Rome from 1540 to 1544,
when he studied possibly under Gaudio MeU, but not under
Goudimel as bos erroneously been assumed. On the isth of
June 1547. he married Lucrezia de Goris. In 1551, by favour
of Pope Julius III., he was elected Magister Cappellae and Magis-
ter Puerorum at the CappelU Giulia, S. Pietro in Vaticano, with
a saJary of six scudi per month, and a house. Three years later
he published his First Book oj Masses, dedicated to Pope Julius
III., and beginning with the missa " Ecce sacerdos magnus."
On the 13th of January 1555, Palestrina was enrolled, by com-
mand of Pope Julius III., among the singers of the Cappella
Ststina. This honour involved the resignation of his office at
the Cappella Giulia, which was accordingly jjcstowed upon his
friend Animuccia. But the legality of the new appointment was
disputed on the ground that Palestrina was married, and the
father of four children, his wife, Lucrezia, being still alive; and,
though, for the moment, the pope's wiU was law, the case
assumed a differeut complexion ^ter his death, which took place
only five weeks afterwards. Hie next pope, Maroellus 11.,
was succeeded after a reign of aj days, by Paul IV.; and
within less than a year (Jvly 30, 1555) that stem
reformer dismissed Palestrina, together with two other married
singers, A. Fetrabosco and Ban, with a consolatory pension
of six scudi per month to each. This cruel disappointment
caused Palestrina. a dangerous iUness; but in October 1555
he was appointed maestro di cappella at the Lateran, without
forfeiting his pension; and in February xs6x he exchanged this
preferment for a similar one, with an allowance of x6 scudi
per month, at Santa Maria Maggiore.
Paiestrina remained in office at this cetebrated basilica for
ten years, and to this period is assigned an important chapter
in the history- of music. - Many circumstantial details of this
chapter are undoubtedly legends, due to the pious imagination
of Baini and others. In 1562 the council of Trent censured the
prevalent style of ecclesiastical music with extreme severity.
In X564 Pope Pius IV. commissioned eight cardinals to investi-
gate the causes of complaint; and these proved to be so well
founded that it was seriously proposed to forbid the use of all
music in the services of the Church, except uniaonous and un-
accompanied plain-chxmt. In these drcumstanccs Palestrina
is said to have been invited by two of the most active members
of the commission to come to the rescue. He accordingly
submitted three masses to Cardinal Carlo Borromeo for appra^.
These were privately rehearsed, in presence of the commissioners,
at the palace of Caxdinsl Vitellozzi; and the judges were iaan>>
mous in deciding that the tUrd mass fuifiHcd, In the highest
possible degree, all the conditions demanded* Hm private
trial took place in June 1565, and on the 19th of that month
the mass was publicly sung at the Sistine Chapel, in presence
of Pope Pius IV., who compared its music to that heard by St
John in his vision of the New Jerusalem. Parvi transcribed it,
(or the libr&ry of the choir, In charactets of extraordinary size
and beauty; and Palestrina was appointed by the pope composer
to the Sistine Chapel, an office created expressly in his honour
and confirmed to him by seven later pontiffs, though with the
very insufficient honorarium of three icudi per month, in addition
to the six which formed his pension.
In 1567 this mass was printed in Palestrina's Liber steundus
missarum. The Volume was dedicated to Philip II. of Spain,
but the mass was called the Missa Papa Marcdli, This title,
dearly givon in honour of the short-lived pope Maicellus II.,
has given rise to an absurd story, toUlby Pdlegrini and others,
to the effect that the mass was composed by Pope Maroellas I.,
martyred early in the 4th century, and was only discovered by
Palestrina. Of course in the 4th century such music was
inconceivable. The Missa Papae Maredii is now almost certainly
known to have been composed in 1562, two years before Paul
I V.'s oommission. Its ineffable beauty had often been described
in ^wing terms by thoae who heard it in the Sistine Chapel,
but it was only first heard in £ngland in i8&t, when the Bach
choir, consisting of 200 unaccompanied voices, sang it at St
James's Hall, under the direction of Mr Otto Gddschmidt.
Upon the death of Animuccia in iS7X Palestrina was re-elected
to his appointment at the Cappella Giuiia. He also succeeded
Animuccia as maestro di cappella at the oratory of Philip Noi;
but these appointments were far from lucrative, and he stUl
remained a very poor man. A letter of tlumks for xoo scudi,
written on the sist of March 1579 to the duke of Mantua,
illustrates this situation. In X580 he was much distressed by
the death of his wife; and the loss of three promising sens,
Angelo, Ridoifo and Silla, left him with one child only-Igino—
a very unworthy descendant* In February 1581 he married
the rich widow Virginia DoxmuH In x 586 Pope Sixtus V.
wished to appoint him maestro to the pontifical choir, as suc-
cessor to Antonio Boccapadule, then about to resign, and
commissioned Boccapadule to prepare the dwir for the change^
Boccapadule, however, managed so dumsUy that Palestrina
was accused of having meanly plotted for his own advancement.
The Pope was very angry, and punished the calumniators very
severely; but Palestrina lost the appointment. These troubles,
however, did not hinder his work, which he continued without
intermission until the snd of February 1594, when he breathed
his hat in the arms of his friend, Filippo Neri. (W. S. R.)
In the articles, MiTSic, Coctvtebpoint, Contsapuntal Fosus,
Hasvoky, Mass, Motet, and that portion of iNBTSxttEMTATio]!
which deals with vocal music, the reader will find information
as to many features of Palestrina's style and its relation to
that of the x6th century in general. So simple are the materials
of x6th-century music, and so dose its Umiutions, that the
difference between great and small artists, and still more the
difference between one great artist and another, can be detected
only by long and familiar experience. A great artist, working
within limits so narrow and yet so natural, is fortunatdy
apt to give us exceptional opportunities for acquiring the right
kind of experience of his art, since his genius becomes far more
prolific than a genius with a wider field for its energies. Yet aA
x6th-century masters seem to be illuminated by the infallibtUty
of the normal musical technique of their thne. This technique
is no bnger so familiar to us that its euphony and vivid tone
can fail to impress us wherever we meet it. There is probably
no respectable school piece of the x6th century, which, if pio-
periy performed in a Roman Catholic church, would be quickly
distingubhable by ear from the style of Palestrina. But when
we find that every additum to our acquaintance with Palestrina's
works is an acquisition, not to our notions of the progressive
possibilities of x6tb<entury music, but to our whole sense of
style, we nuiy then recognise that we are in the presence of one
of the greatest artists of all time.
Palestrina's work has many styles. Within its narrow range
there can be no sudi glaring contrasts as those of the *' three
styles " of Beethoven; yet the distinctions are as reaJ as they are
delicate. His eariy, or Flemish style, was apt to lead him mto
the notorious Flemish disregard of proportion. Yet in some
of his greatest works, such as the Missa breriSf we find un-
mistakably Flemish features so idealised as to produce breadth
of phrase {Missa brevis, Agnus Dd), remarkably modem firm-
ness of form (ibid, second Ryrie), and close canonic sequence
carried to surprising length resulting in natural unexpectedness
of harmony and subtle swing of cross rhythm {Amen of Credo>.
If we find it convem'ent to divide Palestrins's work rou|^ly
into three types, we shall be able to take the Missa Papae Mm-
etili as the crowning representative of his second ttylii &
probably is his greatest work; at all evcnU it cootinuci »'
628
PALFTTE— PALEY, W.
that iapnakm wbeoever ft h veid after « kmg coiine of his
other works; yet there are many masses, too numerous to men-
tion, which cannot easily be considered inferior to it. Indeed
F. X. Haberl, the editor of the comidete critical edition of
Fakstrina's works, prefen the Missa Ecce ego Jtannes, first
published by him in the 24th volume of that edition in 1887.
Palestrina-schohus will hardly think us singubr for pUdng
on the same plane as the Missa Papae Marceili at least x6 out
of Palestiina.'s 94 extant masses: liissa brms, bk. 3, no. 3;
DUs sttncHfieotMSf bk. 6, no. i; DUexi quctUam, bk. 6, no. 5;
O adnwabile commercium, bk. 8, no. 3; Dum ampierenim,
bk. 8, no. s; Veni sponsa Christi, bk. 9, no. 3; Quifiii lorn, bk. 10,
no. 5; Odtmtomt bk. 11, no. 4; -^'m^ Redemphris, bk. xx, no. 5;
Ascenda ad Pattern, bk. 12, no. 3; Tu es PeiruSy bk. 12, no. 5;
HodU Ckristus naius est, bk. 13, no. 2; Beatus LawrenUus, bk.
14, vol 3; Asswnpta est Maria, bk. 14, no. 5; Tu es Petms,
bkl x5, no. 5; Ecu ego Joannes, bk. 15, no. 6.
The third and most distinctive phase of Fakstrina's style is
that in which he relies entirely upon the beauty of simple masses
of harmony without any polyphonic elaboration whatever.
Sometimes, as in his four-part litanies, this simplicity is mainly
a practical necessity; but it b more often used for the purpose
of his pcofoundcst expressions of sacramental or penitential
devotion, as for instance in the motet Frabres ego enim accepi, the
Stabat Mater and the first, really the latest, book of Lamentations.
Besides these three main styles there are numerous cross-
currents. There is the interaction between the madrigal and
ecclesiastical style, which Palcstrina sometimes contrives to
ihow without confusion or degradation, as in the mass Vestioa
i coUL There is the style of the madrigali spirituali, including
Xe Verpne of Fetrarca; which again distinguishes itsdf into a
broader and a slighter manner. And there is lastly an astounding
absorption of the wildest freaks of Flemish ingenuity into
the loftiest polyphonic ecclesiastical stjrie; the great example
of which is the Missa VHomme ami, a work much maligned by
writeis who know only its title and the part played by its secular
theme in medieval music.
The works published in Falestrina's lifetime naturally contain
a huge proportion of his earlier compositions. After his death
the publication of his works continued for some years. We
are apt to read the musical histoxy of the X7th century in the
light of the works of its composers. But a somewhat tliffcrent
view of that time is suggested by the continual pouring out by
influential publishers of posthumous works of Falcstrina, in
far greater quantities than Palestrina had cither the influence
or resource to publish in his lifetime. We regard the i jth-centuxy
monodists as tritunphant iconoclasts; but it was not until their
primitive efJoits had been buried beneath the entirely new
arts to which they led, that the style of Falcstrina ceased to be
upheld as the one artistic ideal Moreover the posthumous
works of Palestrina belong lUmost entirely to his latest and
finest period; so that a study of Falcstrina confined to the works
which he himself was able to publish gives no adequate idea of
the proportion which his greater works bear to the rest. It
was not, then, the rise of monody that crowded i6th-centujy
art out into a long oblivion. On the contrary, the Falcstrina
tradition was the one thing which gave 17th-century composen
a practical basis for their technical training. Only in the 18th
century did the new art, before coming to maturity under Bach
and Uandd, reduce the Falcstrina style to a dead language.
In the middle of the xoth century that dead language revived
in a renascence which has steadily spread throughout Europe.
The Musica divina of Canon K. Froske of Regensburg, begun in
1853, was perhaps the first decisive step towards the rcstomtioo
of Roman Catholic church music. The St Cedlia Vcrein, with
pr F. X. Haberi as iu president, has carried on the publicalioo
and use of such music with the greatest energy in every
dvilixed country. The difficulties of rantrodudng it in its
native home, Italy, were so enormous that it is arguable that
they might not yet have been surmounted but fw the adoption
of less purdy artistic methods by Don Lorenio Pcrosi, who
focceeded in oowdiiig the Italian churches by the performance
of compositions written In an artless manner wUcfa, bf fts mere
negation of display, was fitted to produce upon unsophisticated
listeners such devout impressions as might gradually wean them
from the taste for theatrical modem church masi& The pope's
fiat has now incukated the use of Gregorian and x6th-centuxy
church music as &r as possible in all Roman CatlM^ churchea,
and the effect has been astonishing. Within eighteen months
of Pius X's decree on church music, the choir of Cologne Cathe-
dral, preWously far kss accustomed to a pure polypbonk style
than most German Protestant choirs, at Easter of 1905 gave a
very satisfactory perfotmance of the Mitsa Papae MaredlL
The infhience of what is henceforth an Inevitabk and conttntiai
familiarity of Fakstrina's styk, at least among Roman Catholks,
cannot fail to have the profoundest effect upon modem mnakal
culture.
Rilestrina's woriea, as contained in the complete editiao pub-
lished by Brettkopi and HMrtd, comprise 256 motets m 7
vols., the last two coosisttng larcdy 01 pieces hitherto anpol^'
lished. with one or two wrondy or ooubtf ully ascribed to Pakstrina ;
IS books of masses, of which only 6 were published in Pakstrina's
lifetime, the 7th beinr incompletely projected by him, aiuJ the
lAth and 15th first collected by Haberi in 1887 and 1888; \ boc
of magnifiotcs, on all the customary tones; i voL of hyni
1 vol. (3 books) of offertories for the whok year; a ^unc
containing 3 books of litanies and several i2-part motets; 3 books
of lamentations; a very larige volume of madrigals coatainlitg
2 eariy books and 30 later madrigals collected from mixed publica-
tions; a books of Madrigali spintuali, and 4 vob. of misceUaneoaa
works, newly discovered, imperfectly preserved and ckNibtful.
The fourth book of motets is not, like the first three, a ooUectioa
of works written at different times, but a single scheme, being a
setting of the Song of Solomon; aiid the fifth volume ia, like the
offertories, designed for ose throughout the church year.
(D.F.T.)
PALETTB (the Fr. diminutive of pale, spade, blade of an
oar, from Lat. pala, spade, baker's shovd or ped; cf. pamdare.
to spread), a term applied to many objecU which are flat and
thin, and q)edfically to a thin tablet made of wood, ptirrm»miw»
or other material on which artista place their oofonrs. The
term is also used of the shallow bos, with partitions for the
different coloured tesserae, used by mosaic workers. By tn&s>
ference the colouzs whkh an individual artist employs are known
as his " palette." The " palette-knife " is a thin fknfak knife
used for arranging the odouxs on the pakttei, ftc., and abo for
the application of colour on the canvas in large masses*
PALSy, FRBDBRICK APTHORP (1815-1888), En^ish
classical schoUr, was bom at Easingwdd in Yorkshire 00 the
14th of January xSrs. He was the grandson of William Faley,
and was educated at Shrewsbury school and St John's Colkgc,
Cambridge (BA. 1838). His conversion to Roman Catboiicism
forced him to leave Cambridge in 1846, but he returned in 18A0
and resumed his work as *' coach," until in 1874 he was appointod
professor of rlasairal literature at the newly founded Roman
Catholic University at Kensington. This institution was closed
in 1877 for lack of funds, and Faley removed to Boscombe, where
he died on the 8th of December 1888. His most important
editions are: Aeschylus, with Latin notes (1844-1847), the
work by which he first attracted attentioo; Aochylos (4th ed.,
1879), Euripides (and ed., 1872), Hesiod (2nd «d., iSSj).
Homer's Iliad (and ed., 1884), Sophocles, Pkiloetetes, Beetra,
Trockiniae, Ajos (x88o) — all with English commentary nod
forming part of the Bibliotkeca dassica', select imvate oratioru of
Demosthenes Cjrd ed., 1896-1898); Theocritus (^nd ed., tS6o).
with brief Latin notes, one of the best of his minor works. He
possessed consideFsble knowledge of architecture, and published
a Manna! of Gothic ArckHeetnre (1846) and Manual of Coiku
Mouldings (6th ed., 1902).
FALEY. WILUAH (1743-1805), English divine and philo-
sopher, was bom at Peterborough. He was educated at Gig^es-
wick school, of which his father was head master, and at Christ's
College, Cambridge. He graduated in 1763 as senior wrangler,
became fellow in 1766, and ia 1768 tutor of his ooUege. He
lectured on Clarke, Butler and Locke, and also delivered a
systematic course on moral philosophy, whkh snbaeqnemly
ionncd the basb of his well-known treatise. The tubscriptioB
PALFREY— PALGRAVE, SIR F.
629
cootroveny wis then agluting the iiaivenity, and Palcy
published an anonymous DtJencM of a pamphlet in which
fiishop Law had advocated the retrenchment and simplification
of the Thirty^nine Articles; he did not, however, sign the petition
(called the " Feathers " petition from being drawn up at a
meeting at the Feathers tavern) for a relaxation of the terms
of subscription. In 1776 Paley was presented to the rectory
of Musgrave in "Westmorland, supplemented at the end of the
year by the vicarage of Dabton,,and presently exchanged for
that of Appleby. In 178a he became archdeacon of Carlisle.
At the suggestion of his friend John Law (son of Edward
Law, bishop of Carlisle and formerly his colleague at Cam-
bridge), Paley published (1785) his lectures, revised and
enlarged, under the title of The Principles 0/ Moral and
Political Philosophy, The book at once became the ethical
text-book of the University of Cambridge, and passed through
fifteen editions in the author's lifetime He strenuously
supported the abolition of the sUve trade, and in 1789
wrote a paper on the subject. The Principles was fol-
lowed in 1790 by his first essay in the field of Christian apolo-
getics, Horae Paulinae, or the Truth of the Scrtpture History of
Si Paul evinced by a Comparison 0/ the Epistles which bear his
Name with the Acts o/the Apostles and with one another ^ probably
the most original of its author's works. It was followed in
1794 by the celebrated View oj the Evidences 0/ Christianity.
Paley's latitudinarian views are said to have debarred him from
the highest positions in the Church. But for his services in
defence of the faith the bishop of London gave him a stall in
St Paul's; the bishop of Lincoln made him subdean of that
cathedral, and the bishop of Durham conferred upon him the
rectory of Bishopwearmouth. During the remainder of his
life his time was divided between Bishopwearmouth and
Lincoln. In x8oa he published Natural Theology, or Evidences
of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity collected from the
Appearances of Nature^ his last, and, in some respects, his most
remarkable book. In this he endeavoured, as he says in the
dedication to the bishop of Durham, to repair in the study
bis deficiencies in the church. He died on the asth of May
1805.
In the dedication just referred to. Patcy claims a systematic
unity for his vrorku It is true that " they have been written in
an order the very reverse of that in which tbey ought to be read ";
nevertheless the Natural Tkeotogy forms " the completion of a
regular and comprehensive design." The truth of this wiU be
apparent if it is considered that the Moral and Political Philosophy
admittedly embodies two presuppositions: (1) that " God Almighty
wills and wishes the happiness of His creatures." and (2) that
adequate motives roust be supplied to virtue by a system of future
rewards and punishments. Now the second presupposition depends,
according to Paley, on the credibility of the Christian religion
(which he treats almost exclusively as the revelation of these
" new sanctions " of morality). The Endencet and the Horae
Paulinae were intended as a demonstration of this credibility.
The argument of these books, however, depends in turn upon the
assumption of a benevolent Creator desirous of communicating with
His creatures for their eood ; and the Natural Theoloty, bv applying
the argument from design to prove the existence 01 such a Deity,
becomes the foundation of the argumentative edifice.
In his Natural Theology Paley has adapted with consummate
skill the argument which Ray (1691) and Dcrham (1711) and
Nieuwentyt' (1730) had already made familiar to Englishmen.
*' For my part," he says, ** 1 take my stand in human anatomy ";
and what he everywhere insists upon is "the necessity, in each
particular case, of an intelligent designing mind for the contriving
and determining of the forms which organized bodies bear." This
is the whole argument, and the book consnts of a mass of well-
> Bernard Nieuwentyt (1634-1718) was a Dutch disciple of
Descartes, whose work, Rett gebruih der Werelt Beuhouwingtn,
Ejblished in 1716, was translated mto English in 1730 by T. Chamber-
yne under the title of The RtUgious Philosopher. A charge of
wholesale plagiarism from this book was brought against Paley in
the Alhenaeum for i8a8. Paley refers several times to Nieuwentyt.
who uses the famous illustration of the watch. But the illustration
is not peculiar to Nieuwentyt. and had been appropriated by many
others before Paley. The germ of the idea is to be found in Cicero.
D* natura deorum, u. 34 (see Hallam. Literature of Europe, iL
38s, note.) In the case of a writer whose chief merit is the smy
in which he has worked up existing material, a geaeral charge of
plagiarism is almost irrdevant.
choaea iastaacca marshalled in support of iL Bat by pladns
Paley's facts in a new light, the theory of evolution has deprived
his argument of its force, so far as it applies the idea of special
contrivance to individual organs or to species.
The Emdenees of Chruttanuy is mainly a condensation of Bishop
Douglas's Criterion and Lardner's Credibility of the Costel UtOon,
But the task is so judiciously performed that it would probably
be difficult to get a more effective statement of the external evidences
of Christianity than Paley has here presented. His idea of revelation
depends upon the same mechanical conception of the rebtion of
Cod to the world which dominates his Natural Theolory% and he
seeks to prove the divine origin of Christianity by iaoUting it from
the general history of mankind, whereas later writere bnd their
chiei argument in the continuity of the process of revelation.
The lace of the worid has cnan^iM so greatly since Paley's day
that we are apt to do less than justice to his undoubted merits.
He is nowhere original, and nowhere profound, but his strong
reasoning power, his faculty of clear arrangement and forcible
statement, olace htm in the first rank of expositors and advocates.
He masses bis arguments, it has been said, with a general's C|ye.
His style is perfectly perspicuous, and its " strong home-touch "
compensates for what is utcking in elasticity and jpaoe. Paley
displays little or no spirituality of feeling; but this is a matter in
which one age is apt to misjudge another, and Paley was at least
practically benevolent and conscientiously attentive to his paridi
duties. The active part he took in advocating the abolition of the
slave-trade is evidence of a wrider power of sympathy. His un-
conquerable cheerfulness becomes itself almost religious in the
last chapters of the Natural Theology, cnnndering that they were
written during the intervals of relief from the painful complaint
which finally proved fatal to him.
For his life, 5PcFH^/fC Characters{\%02)'M\An*% General Biography,
i. (1808): Lives, by G. W. Mcadlcy (1809) and his son Edmund
Paley. prefixed to the 1825 edition of his works: Leslie Stephen in
Dictionary of National Biot^aphy; Quarterly Renew, il. (Aug. 1809),
ix. (July 1813). On Palcy as a thcok)gian and philosopher, see
Leslie Stephen, English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, L 40$ seq.,
ii. 121 scq.; R. Buddcnsic^. in Herzog-Hauck's RealencyUopddte fSr
protestantische Theologie, xiv. (1904}. See also Ethics.
PALFREY, JOHN OORHAH (1796-1S81), American historian,
was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of May 1 796. He
graduated at Harvard, 1815, and became a Unitarian minister,
being pastor of the Brattle Square church, Boston, 1818-1831.
He was professor of sacred literature in the Harvard divinity
school, 1830-1839. Entering politics, he was secretary of state
of Massachusetu, 1844-1847; a representative in Congress, 1847-
1849; and postmaster of Boston, 1861-1867. He was editor of the
North American Review, 1835-1843. As a writer be is best known
by his History of New Engfand to the revolutionary war, in five
volumes, of which the first appeared in 1859 and the last pos-
thumously in 1890. He died at Cambridge, Massachixsetts, on
the j6ih of April 1881.
PALFREY, a riding-horse, particularly one of smaller and
lighter type than the war-horse, the " destrier " (Med. Lat.
dextrariuSt because led by the right hand till used), which was
only ridden in battle or tournament. The pajfrcy was thus
used on the march, &c., and also as a lady's riding-horse.
" Palfrey " came into English through the 0. Fr. paUjreit one ol
the numerous forms which the word took in its descent from the
Late Lat. paravercduSf a hybrid word from Gr. vap6^ in the
sense of extra, and veredus, a post-horse, probably a Celtic word,
for one who draws a rhala or carriage. The form parafredus
gives the Mod. Ger. Pferd, horse, through the O.H.G. pfarifrid.
PALOHAT, a town of British India, in the Malabar district
of Madras, on the Madras railway. Pop. (1901), 44ii77- As the
key to Travancore and Malabar from the East, it was formerly
of considerable strategic importance. The fort fell into Briti^
hands in 1768, and subsequently formed the basis of many of
the operations against Tippoo, which terminated in the storming
of Seringapatam. The easy ascent by the Palghat Pass,
formerly covered with teak forests, supplies the great route
from the west coast to the interior. The municipality manages
the Victoria college.
. PALGRAVE, SIR PRAVCTS (1788-1861). English historian,
was the son of Meyer Cohen, a Jewish stockbroker, and was
bom in London in July 1788. He was educated privately
and was so precocious a boy as to translate a Latin version el
the Battle of the Frogs and Mice into French in 179^, which w«i
published by his father in x797- In 1803 Palgrave was artir* '
63<3
PALGRAVE, F. T.— PAL!
to a &rm of tolidton, bot was called to the bar at the Middle
Temple in 1827. On his marriage in 1823 with Elizabeth,
daughter of Dawson Turner of Great Yarmouth, he had become
a Christian, and had changed his name to Falgrave, the maiden
name of his wife's mother. His work as a barrister was chiefly
cxmcemed with pedigree cases before the House of Lords. He
edited for the Record Commission Parliamentary Writs (London,
1827-1834); Rotuli curiae regis (London, 1835); The anlieni
kaleHdars and inventories of the treasury ef kU majesty* s exchequer
(London, 1836) ; and Documents and records iilustrating the history
of Scotland (London, 1837), which contains an elaborate intro-
duction. In 183 1 he published his History of England, Anglo-
Saxon Period, later editions of whkh were published as History
of the Anglo-Saxons; in 1832, his Rise and Progress of the English
Commonwealth, pronounced by Freeman a " memorable book *',
and in 1834 his Essay upon the original autJu^y of the king*s
council. In 1832 he was knighted, and after serving as one of
the municipal corporations commissioners, became deputy-
keeper of the public records in 1838, holding thb office until his
death at Hampstead on the 6th of July i86x. Palgrave's
most important work is bis History of Normandy and England,
which appeared in four volumes (London x85Z'-i864), and deals
with the history of the two countries down to iiof .
He also wrote Truths and Fictions of ike iitddle Ages (London.
1837. and again 1844): The Lord and the Vass<U (London, 1844);
and Handbook for traoeUers in Northern Italy (London, 1842, and
subsequent editions).
Palgrave's four sons were: Francis Turner Palgrave {q.v.\
sometime professor of poetry at Oxford; William Gifford Pat-
grave; Sir Robert Harry Inghs Palgrave (b. 1827), an authority
upon banking and economics generally; and Sir Reginald Francis
Douce Palgrave.
WiLUAM GiFFOxo Palcrave (1826-1888) Went to India as
a soldier after a brilliant career at Charterhouse School and
Trinity College, Oxford; but, having become a Roman Catholic,
he^was ordained priest and served as a Jesuit missionary in
India, Syria, and Arabia. Forsaking the priesthood, about
1864, he was employed as a diplomatist by the British govern-
ment in Egypt, Asia Minor, the West Indies, and Bulgaria,
being appointed resident minister in Uruguay in 1884; he died
at Montevideo on the 30th of September 1888. He wrote
a romance, Hermann Agha (London, 1873), A Narrative of a
Year*s Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia (London,
iS6s), Essays on Eastern Questions (London, 1872), and other
works.
Sir Recinau) Palgrave (182^1904) became a solicitor In
18s I ; but two years later was appointed a clerk in the House of
Commons, becoming clerk of the House on the retirement of
Sir Erskine May in 1886. He was made a K.C.B. in 1892,
retired from hh office in 1900, and died at Salisbury on the 13th
of July 1904. Sir Reginald wrote The Chairman's Handbook;
The House of Commons: Illustrations of its History and Practice
(London, 1869); and Cromwdl: an appreciation based on contents
porary evidence (London, 1890). He also assisted to edit the
tenth edition of Erskine May's Law, Privileges, Proceedings and
Usage of Parliament (London, 1896).
PALGRAVE, FRANCIS TURNER (1824-1897). English critic
and poet, eldest son of Sir Frands Palgrave, the historian, was
bom at Great Yarmouth, on the 28th of September 1824. His
childhood was spent at Yarmouth and at his father's house in
Hampstead. At fourteen he was sent as a day-boy to Charter-
house; and in 1843, having in the meanwhile travelled exten-
sively in Italy and other parts of the continent, he proceeded
to Oxford, having won a scholarship at Balliol. In 1846 be
interrupted his university career to serve as assistant private
secretary to Gladstone, but returned to Oxford the next year,
and took a first class in Literae Humaniores. From 1847 to
iS6a be was fellow of Exeter College, and in 1849 entered the
Education Department at ^VhitebaU. In 1850 he accepted the
vice-principalship of Rneller Hall Training College at Twicken-
ham. There he came into contact with Tennyson, and laid the
foundation of a lifelong friendship. When the training college
was abandoned, Palgrave returned to Whitehall in X855, becoming
examiner in the Education Department, and eveottiaJl^
assistant secretary. He married, in 1862, Cecil GrenviUe Milnea,
daughter of James Milnes-Gaskell. In 1884 he resigned his
poaitioa at the Education Department, and In the following
year succeeded John Campbell Shairp as professor of poetry nt
Oxford. He died in London on the 24th of October 1897. and
was buried in the cemetery on Barnes Common. Palgrave
published both criticism and poetry, but his work as a critic
was by far the more important. His Visions of England (i88o»
t88i) has dignity and lucidity, but little of the *' natural magic **
which the greatest of his predecessors in the Oxford chair
considered rightly to be the test of inspiration. His last volume
of poetry, Amtnophis, appeared in 1892. On the other band,
bis criticism was always marked by fine and sensitive tact,
quick intuitive perception, and generally sound judgment.
His Handbook 10 Ike Fine Arts Collection, International Exhibilion^
1862, and his Essays on Art (1866), though not free from
dogmatism and over-emphasis, were sincere contributions to
art criticism, full of striking judgments strikingly expressed.
His Landscape in Poetry (1897) showed wide knowledge and
critical appreciation of one of the most attractive aspects
of poetic interpretation. But Palgrave's principal cootribotiun
to the development of literary taste was contained in his
Golden Treasury of English Songs and Lyrics (1861), an
anthology of the best poetry in the language constructed
upon a plan sound and spacious, and followed out with n
delicacy of feeling which could scarcely be surpassed. Palgrave
followed it with a Treasury of Sacred Song (1889), and a
second series of the Goklen Treasury (1897), including the work
of later poets, but in neither of these was quite the same
exquisiteness of judgment preserved. Among his other works
were The Passionate Pilgrim (1858), a volume of selections
from Herrick entitled Chrysomela (1877), a memoir of Clough
(1862) and a critical essay on Scott (1866) prefixed to ao
edition of his poems.
See GwenUian F. Palgrave, F. T. Palgrave (1899).
PAU, the language used In daily Intercourse between cultnred
people in the north of India from the 7th century b.c. It con-
tinued to be used throughout India and its confines as a litenry
language for about a thousand years, and is still, though in a
continually decreasing degree, the literary lanpiagr of Burma,
Siam, and Ceylon. Two factors combined to give Pali its
importance as one of the few great literary lanpugcs of the
world: the one political, the other religious. The political Uctoc
was the rise during the 7th century bjc of the KosaU power.
Previous to this the Aryan settlements, atong the three nmtcs
they followed in their penetration into India, had remained
isolated, independent and amall communities. Their ^f^gifiigp
bore the same relation to the Vedic speech as the vaxioos Italian
dialects bore to Latin. The welding together of the great SLosala
kingdom, more than twice the sixe of Enf^and, in the very
centre of the settled country, led insensibly but irxesistibly to
the establishment of s standard of speech, and the standaid
followed was the language used at the court at Sivallhi in the
Nepalcse hills, the capital of Kosahu When Gotama the Buddha,
himself a Kosalan by birth, determined on the use, for the
propagation of his religious reforms, of the Uving tongce
of the people, he and his followers naturally made fidl use of
the advantages already gained by the form of speech cnrrrat
through the wide extent of his own country. A result followed
somewhat similar to the effect, on the German language, of the
Lutheran reformatbn. When, in the generations alter the
Buddha's death, his disciples compiled the docuiacQts of the
faith, the form they adopted became doniinanL Bat local
varieties of speech continued to eixsL
The etymology of the word PaU b uncertain. It pibbably
means " row, line, canon." and is used, in its exact Irrhniril
sense, of the language of the canon, containing the docimeBXs
of the Buddhist faith. But when Pah first became known to
Europeans it was already used also, by those who wrote in Pali,
of the language of the later writings, which bear the same relatioa
to the standard literary PaU of the rannniral texts as oaedieval
PALI
631
docs to daiiical Latin. A farther ntiwdnn of the nauiBg
ID which the word Pali was used followed in a very suggestive
way. The fint book edited by a European in Pali was the
Makdnnua, or Gicat Chronicle of Ceylon, published there in
1857 by Tumotir, then colonial secretary in the island. James
PxiDsep was then devoting his rue genius to the dedpbennent
of the early insoiptions of nerthera India, especially those of
Asoka in the 3rd century B.a He derived the greatest sssis-
taooe from Tumour's work not only in historical Information,
but also as regards the forms of words and grammatical inflrrions
The resemblance was so close that Prinsep called the alphabet
he was deciphering the Pali alphabet, and the language expressed
in it he called the Pali language. This was so nearly correct
that the usage has been followed by other European scholars,
and is being increasingly adopted. It receives the support
of Mahinima, the author of the Great Chronicle, who wrote in
Ceylon in the 5th century aj>. He says (p. 253, ed. Ttimour)
that Buddhaghosa translated the commentaries, then eidsting
only in Sinhalese, into Pali. The name here used by the
chronicler for Pali is " the MSgadhI tongue,'* by which expression
is meant, not exactly the language spoken in Mlgadha, but the
language in use at the court of Asoka, king of Kosala and
MSgadha. With this use of the word, philologicaUy inexact,
but historically quite defensible, may be compel the use of
the word English, which is not exactly the language of the
Angles, or of the word French, which is not exactly the language
of the Franks. The question of Pali becomes therefore three-
fold: Pali before the canon, the canon, and the writings
subsequent to the canon. The present writer has suggested
that the word Pali should be reserved for the language of the
canon, and other words used for the earlier and later forms of
it;* but the usage generally followed is so convenient that there
is little likelihood of the suggestion being followed. The
threefold division will therefore be here adhered to.
For the history of Pali before the canonical books were composed
we have no direct evidence. None of the pre-Buddhtittc sites have
as yet been excavated; and* with one doubtful cjception, no
inscriptions okier than the texts have as yet been fcuad. Wc have
to argue back from the state of things revealed in the texts, of
\'arious dates from 450-250 B.C., and in the inscriptions from that
date onwards. The inscriptions have now been subjected to a
very full critical and philoiogkal analysis in Professor Otto Franke's
Pali und SanskrU (Strassburg, 1902). He shows that in the 3rd
century B.C. the language used throughout northern India was
practically one, and that it was derived directly from the speech
of the Vedic Aryans, retaining many Vcdic forms lost in the later
classical Sanskrit. His list of such fonns is much more complete
than tint given by Childcrs an the introduction to his Dktionan
of the Pali Language. The particular form of this general speech
which was used as the lingua franca, the Hindustani of the period,
was the form in use in Kosala. Franke also shows that there were
local peculiarities in small matters of spelling and inflexion, and
that the particular form of the ktnguage used in and about the
Avanti district, of which tho capiul was Ujjcni (a celebrated
prc-Buddhistic city), was the basis of the bnRuage used in the
sacred texts as we now have them. Long ago VVestergaard, Rhys
Davids and Ernst Kuhn,« had made the same suggestion, mainly
on historical grounds, Mahinda, who took the texts to Ceylon,
having been bom at Vedisa in that district. The careful and
compete collection, by Franke, of the philoTogical evidence at
present avaibble, has raised this hypothctis into a practical cer-
tainty. The inscriptions are at present scattered through a number
of learned periodicals; a complete list of all those tltat can be sp*
proximately dated between the 3rd century n.c. and the and century
A.D. Is given in the first chapter of Franke s book. M. E. Scnart has
collected in his Inscriptions de PiyadaH (Paris, 1881-1886) those
inscriptions of Asoka which were known up to the date of his work,
subjecting them to a careful analysis, and providing an index to
the worth occurring in them. What is greatly needed is a new
edition of this work including the Asoka inscriptions di&covcred
during the last twenty years, and a similar edition of the other
inscriptions. The whole of the Pali inscriptions so far discovered
might fill somewhat more than a hundred panes of text. An out*
line of the history of the Pali alphabet has been given, with illus-
trations and references to the authorities, in Rhys Davids's Buddkut
India, pp. 107-140. __^^
» Journal of the Royal Asiatk: Society (1903). p. 39^'
* Wcstergaard, Vbtr den 6lU$len Zritramm 4$r imdiuhen (ksckickU,
p. 87; Rhys Davids, Transactions of the Philchtical Society (1875).
pw 70: Kuhn, Beitrdge zur Pali Crammatik. 7-9.
The cinonicil texts are divided into tluee ooUections called
Pitakas, s.s. baskets. This figure of speech refers, not to a
basket or box in which things can be stored, but to the baskets,
used in India in excavations, as a means of handing on the earth
from one worker to another. The first Pitaka contains the
Vinaya^ that is, Rules of the Order; the second the SuUas, giving
the doctrine, and the third the Abkidkammaf analytical exercises
in the psychological system on which the doctrine is based.
These have now nearly all, mainly through the work of the Pill
Text Society, been published in PaH.
The VInaya was edited in ^ vols, by H. Oldenberg; and the more
important parts of it have been tianslated into Euglidi by Rhys
Davids anci Oldenberg in their Vinaya Texts.
The Sutta Pitaka consists of five Nikdyas, foUr principal and one
supplementary. The four principal ones have been published for
the Pali Text Society, and some volumes have been translated into
English or German. These four Nikftyas, sixteen volumes in all,
are the main authorities for the doctrines of early Buddhism.
The fifth Nikfiya is a miscellaneous collection of treatises, mostly
very short, on a variety of subjects. It contains lyrical and ballad
p€>etry, K)ecimens of early exegesis and commentary, lives of the
saints, collections of edifying anecdotes and of the now welUknown
Jalakas or Birth Stories. Of these, eleven volumes had by 1910
been edited for the Pali Text Society by various scholars, the
J&takas and two other treatises had appeared elsewhere, and two
works (one a selection of lives of distinguished early Buddhists,
and the other an ancient commentary), were still in MS.
Of the seven treatises contained in the Abhidharama Pitaka five,
and onc'third of the sixth, had by 1910 been published by the Pali
Text Society; and one, the Dhamma Sangapi, bad been translated
by Mrs Rhys Davids. A description of the contents of all these
books in the canon is given in Khys Davids's American Leaures,
pp.44-«6.
A certain amount of progress has been made in the historical
critldsm of these books. Out of the twenty-nine works con-
tained in the three Pitakas only one claims to have an author.
That one is thtKathd Vattku^ ascribed to Tissa the son of Moggall,'
who presided over the third council held under Asoka. It Li
the latest book of the third Pitaka. All the rest of the canonkal
works grew up in the schools of the Order, and most of them
appear to contain documents, or passages, of different dates.
In his masterly analysis of the Vinaya, in the introduction to
his edition of the text. Professor Oldenberg has shown that there
are at least three strata in the existing presentation of the
Rules of the Order, the oldest portions going back probably to
the time of the Buddha himself. Professor Rhys Davids has put
forward similar views with respect to the Jatakas and the Sutta
NipSta in his Buddkisl India, and with respect to the Nikf yas
in general in the introduction to his Dialogues of the Bnddka.
And Professor Windlsch has discussed the legends of the tempta-
tion in his Iddra und Buddha, and those relating to the Buddha's
birth in his Buddha*s Geburt, It seems probable that the
Vinaya and the four Nikfiyas were put substantially into the
shape in which we now have them before the council at VesftH. a
hundred yesrs after the Buddha's death; that slight aheralions
and additions were made in them, and the miscellaneous NikSya
and the Abhidhamma books completed, at various times down
to the third council under Asoka; and that the canon was then
considered closed. No evidence has j^t been found of any
alterations made, after that time, in Ceylon; but there were
probably before that time, in India, other books, now lost, and
other recensions of some of the above.
Of classical Pali in northern India subsequent to the canon
there is but little evidence. Three works only have survived.
These arc the MUinda-paflha, edited by V. Trenckner, and
transhtcd by Rhys Davids under the title Questions of King
MUinda; the Nelti Pakarapa, edited by E. Hardy for the PaK
Text Sodety in 1002; and the Petaka Upadesa, The former
belongs to the north-west, the others to the centre of India, and
all three may be dated vaguely in the first or second centuries a.d.
The first, a religious romance of remarkable interest, may owe
its preservation to the charm of its style, the others to the
accident that they were attributed by mistake to a famous
apostle. In any case they are the sole sxirvivors of what must
■No doubt identical with Upagupta. the teacher of Asoto
t Smith. Early History of India, and ed.. 1908, and ref^ '
(cf. Vincent £
63^2
PALIKAO
have been a vast aad varied Utcntoie. Prefcstof Takdnmihas
tbowD the poMibalily of levera] complete books belooging to it
being still extant in Chinese translations.* and we may yet hope
to recover original (ragmenu in central Asia, Tibet, or NepaL
I At p. 66 of the Camdha Vaiiua, a modem catalogue of Pah
books and authors, written in Pali, there is given a list of ten
authors who wrote Pah books in India, probably southern India.
We may conclude that these books are still extant in Burma,
where the catalogue was drawn up. Two only of these ten
authors are otherwise known. The first b DhamnupAla, who
wrote in Klficipura, the modem Conjevaram in south India,
in tl>e 5th century of our era. His principal work is a series of
commentaries on five of the lyrical anthologies included in the
miscellaneous NikAya. Three of these have been published by
the Pali Text Society; and Professor E. Hardy has discussed in the
ZtiUckriJt dtr deuUchen morgenUlndiscken CaeUsckafi (1897).
pp. ios->ia7, all that is known about him. Dhammap&U wrote
also a commentary on the Nettl mentioned above. The second
b Boddhadatta, who wrote the Jindlankdra in the 5th century
AA It has been edited and translated by Professor J. Gray. It
b a poem, of no great interest, on the life of the Buddha.
The whole of these Pali books composed in India have been
lost there. They have been preserved for us by the unbroken
succession of Pali scholars in Ceylon and Burma. These
scholars (most of them members of the Buddhist Order, but
many of them laymen) not only copied and recopied the Indian
Pali books, but wrote a very brge number themselves. We
are thus beginning to know something of the history of this
literature. Two departments have been subjected to critical
study: the Ceylon chronicles by Professor W. Geiger in his MahA-
Mqira und Dipavatfisa, and the earlier grammatical works by
Professor O. Franke in two articles in the Journal ofUu Pali Text
Society for 1903, and in his Gesckickte und Kritik der einkeimisckcn
Pali Crammatik. Dr Forchhammer in hb Jardine Priie Essay,
and Dr Mabel Bode in the introduction to her edition of the
Sdsanc-vatttsa, have collected many detaib as to the Pali
literature in Burma.
The resulu of these investigations show that in Ceylon from
the 3rd century d.c. onwards there has been a continuous
succession of teachers and scholars. Many of them lived in
the various vikdras or residences situate throughout the island,
but the main centre of intellectual effort, down to the 8th
century, was the Mahi Vihara, the Great MinsUr, at Anwr&dha-
pura. Thb was, in fact, a great university. Authors refer,
In the prefaces to their books, to the Great Minster as the source
of their knowledge. And to it students flocked from all parts
of India. The most famous of these was Buddhaghosa, from
Bchar in North India, who studied at the Minster in the 5th
century aj>., and wrote there all hb well-known works. Two
volumes only of these, out of about twenty still extant in MS.,
have been edited for the Pali Text Society. About a century
before this the Dipa-vamsa, or Island Chronicle, had been com-
posed in Pali verse so indiflerent that it b apparently the work
of a beginner in Pali composition. No work written in Pali in
Ceylon at a date older than thb has been discovered yet. It
would seem that up to the 4th century of our era the Sinhalese
had written exclusively in their own tongue; that is to say that
for six centuries they had studied and understood Pali as a dead
language without using it as a means of literary expression.
In Burma, on the other hand, where Pali was probably intro-
duced from Ceylon, no writings in Pali can be dated before the
iiih century of our era. Of the hbtory of Pali in Siam very
little b known. There have been good Pali scholars there since
late medieval times. A very excellent edition of the twenty-
seven canonical books has been recently printed there, and
there exist in our European libraries a number of Pali MSS.
written in Siam.
It would be too early to attempt any estimate of the value
of thb secondary Pali literature. Only a few volimies, out of
leveral hundreds known to be extant in MS. have yet been
published. But the department of the chronicles, the only
» Journal of the Pali Text Society (1905), pp. 7a, 86
one to lar at an adeqoatdy titated, baa thwwii to much ighi
on many points of the history of India that we may reaaocuL^v
expect results equally valuable from the publication and sru.T
of the remainder. The works on religion and philosophy cspct>
ally will be of as much scrvioe for the hbtory of ideas in that
later periods aa the publication of the canonical books hzs
already been for the earlier period to which they refer. T^
Pali books written in Ceylon, Burma and Siam will be oor box
and oldest, and in many reipects oar only, authorities for the
sociology and politics, the litecaUuc and the icUgion, of tlxir
respective couikries.
SsLBcnn AvTrJ^wrnts„—TerU: PeJi Texi Seckty Ifix vc»'«,
1881-IQ08); H. (ikUnticff^ 1^ V\mija Hfakom (« vob., Lo«>d n.
1879-1883); V. f ^u-Jif^A\,Th± JAUika 17 vols., London. 18^1 hv7J:
G. Tumour, Tk^ i/aA^xii?:ij ^CDlcrdLo, 1837); H. OidcnU-rp.
Tke Dipavaijua cU^ndon, i^j^i}: V^ Tnrnckncr, MHimda (Lotk;: 9,
1880). Transtatumi, Rhy^ UaviJi aiicl H. Oldenbcrg. Kfi*;c
Texts (3 vols., OxJcfil, iS8i'i885>; Rhyi Davids, kitttuda (a \x.i^.
Oxford, 1890-ifrM . Bi$hniti «/ Ar Buddka (Oxford, f^oo.*.
H. C. Warren, Buddhism m Tnnu&lKWj (Cambridge, Mats. ib>^. :
Mrs Rhys DavUt, BuHkid PtpKheifty (London. 1900); K. L
Netraiann. Reden dts Guttmo St^Oo is volt., Leipng. l896-x8o£);
Lieder der M&iukr u^i Nmwn (Beriift tBo^); Max MOlicr aad V.
FAUsb6U. Dkawm^pida oW Suit^ Ntpdi-f (Cwocd. 1881). Pkaloitxy-
R C. Childcrs. lfKiit.'ft^ry of the Fuli Language (Londoo, li*;.?-
1875); Ernst Kulin. Vf'.imgc sur Pah Crammattk (Berlin. i?rc ,
E. MQller. Pali Grammar (London. 1884): R O. Franice. Gexk.iie
und Kritik der etnketmucken PalpCrawtmatik und Lexieofrapki*,
and Pali und Sanskrtt (Strassbuif . 1903;; D. Andcrarn. Pali idtiidtr
(London, 1901-1907) Hulory (of the alphabet, bnguAgc and
texts) Rhys Davids, Ameruan teaures (London. 3rd ed . K^c!* ;
Buddhist India (Lonidon. 1903); E. Wmdisch. kUlra und Buddha
(Leipzig. 1895). and Buddha's Geburt (Leipzig. 1^): W. Ccticrr.
Mahdvaifua umd DIpoMipsa (Ldpzig. IQOS): E. ForcliluiBm.cr
Jardtne Prize Essay vRangooo, 1885)1 Dr Mabel Bode, Sdwtu-
variisa (London. 1897; (T. W. R. D.)
PAUKAO, CHARLES QUnXAUME MARIE APFOLUIIAIRB
ANTOINE COUSIN MONTAUBAN. Comts de (1796 iS;$^
French general and statesman, was bom in Paris on
the a4th of June 1796. As a cavalry officer yoong
Montauban saw much service in Algeria, but he was siiQ
only a colonel when in 1S47 he effected the capture of Abd-
el-Kader. After rising to the rank of general of division acd
commanding the province of Constantinc, he was af^xxinted in
1858 to a command at home, and at the close of 1859 was
selected to lead the French troops in the joint French and
British expedition to China. His conduct of the operations did
not escape criticism, but in i86a he received from Napoleon IIL
the title of comte de Palikao (from the action of that name);
he had already been made a senator. The allegation that be
had acquired a vast fortune by the plunder of the Pckin suroircr
palace seems to have been without foundation. In 1865 be
was appointed to the command of the IV. army corps at L>'ons.
in the training of which he displayed exceptional energy and
adminblrative capacity. Ih 1870 he was not gn^en a command
in the field, but after the opening disasters had shaken the
OUivier minbtry he was entrusted by the empress-regent with
the portfolio of war, and became president of the oouitcil
(Aug. 10). He at once, with great success, reorganised the
military resources of the nation. He claimed to have raised
Marshal MacMahon's force at Ch&lons to r40tOoo men, to have
created three new army corps, 33 new regiments and too.ooo
gardes mobUes, and to have brought the defences of the capital
to a state of efficiency— all thb in twenty-four days. Be oos>
ceived the idea of sending the army of CbAioos to raise Lbc
blockade of Mets. The scheme depended on a predsioo aad
rapidity of which the army of ChSlons was no longer capaUc.
and ended with the disaster of Sedan. After the capituhiloa
of the emperor the dictatorship was offered to Palikao,' but he
refused to desert the empire, and proposed to establish a council
of national defence, with himself as "lieutenant-general of
government.** Before a decision was made, the chamber was
invaded by the mob, and Palikao fled to Belgium. In 1871 he
appeared before the parliamentary commission of inquiry, a^
in the same year established Un Uinistire de la guerr* de ser;.-
quatre jours. He died at Versailles on the 8th of January z8;&.
PALIMPSEST— PALINGENESIS
633
Tlie cascom of removlag writing from the
furface of the outerial on which it had been inscribed, end
thus preparing that luzface for the receptioa of another teit,
has been practised from early times. The term paJimpaest
(from Gr. viAiM, again, and i^, I scrape) is used by Catullus,
apparently with reference to papyrus; by Cicero, in a passage
wherdn he is evidently speaking of waien tablets; and by
Plutarch, when he narrates tliat Plato compared Dionysius
to a fitffUo^ iroX^fi^ifOTor, in that his tyrant nature, being
ivokKwXmm, showod itself like the imperfectly erased writing of
a palimpsest MS. In this passage reference is clearly made to
the washing off of writing from papyrus. The word roXf^^ifarot
can only in its first use have been applied to MSS. which were
actually scraped or rubbed, and which were, therefore, composed
of a material of sufficient strength lo bear the process. In the
first instance, then, it might bie applied to waxen tablets;
secondly, to vellum books. There are still to be seen, among
the surviving waxen tablets, some which contain traces of an
earlier writing under a fresh layer of wax. Papyrus could not
be scraped or rubbed; the writing was washed from it with the
sponge. Thb, however, could not be io thoroughly done as
to leave a perfectly dean surface, and the material was accord-
. ingly only used a second time for documents of an ephemeral
or common nature. To apply, therefore, the title of palimpsest
to a MS., of this substance was not strictly correct; the fact that
it was so applied proves that the term was a conunon expression.
Traces of earlier writing are very rarely lo be detected in extant
papyxt Indeed, the supply of that materhd must have
been so abundant that it was hardly necessary to go to the
trouble of preparing a papyrus, already used, for a second
writing.
In the early period of palimpsests, veDura MSS. were no
doubt also washed rather than scraped. The original surface
of the material, at all events, was not so thoroughly defaced
as was afterwards the case. In coutm of time, by atmospheric
action or other chemical causes, the original writing would to
some extent reappear; and it is thtu that so many of the capital
and uncial palimpsests have been successfully deciphered. In the
later middle ages the surface of the vellum was scraped away
and the writing with it. The reading of the later examples is
therefore very difficult or altogether imposstble. Besides actual
rasure, various recipes for effacing the writing have been found,
toch as to soften the surface with milk and meal, and then to
nb with pumice. In the case of such a process being used,
total obliteration must almost inevitably have been the result.
To intensify the traces of the original writing, when such exist,
various chemical reagents have been tried with more or less
success. The old method of smearing the vellum with tincture
of gaU restored the writing, but did irreparable damage by
blackcm'ng the surface, and, as the stain grew darker in course
of time, by rendering the text altogether illegible. Of modem
reagents the most harmless appears to be hydrosulphate of
ammonia; but this also must be used with caution.
The primary cause of the destruction of vellum MSS. by wilful
obliteration was, it need hardly be said, the dearth of material.
In the case of Greek MSS., so great was the consumption of old
codices for the sake of the material, that a synodal decree of the
year 691 forbade the destruction of MSS. of the Scriptures or
the church fathers— imperfect or injured volumes excepted.
Tlie decline of the vellum trade also on the introduction of paper
caused a scarcity which was only to be made good by recourse
to material already once used. Vast destruction of the broad
quartos of the early centuries of our era took place in the period
which followed the fall of the Roman Empire. The moat valuable
Latin palimpsests are accordingly found in the volumes which
were remade from the 7th to the 9th centuries, a period during
which the large volumes referred to must have been still fairly
numerous. Late Latin palimpsesu rarely yield anything of
value. It has been remarked that no entire work has been
found in any instance in the original text of a palimpsest, but
that portions of many works have been taken tc make up
ft single volume. These facta prove that scribes were indis-
criminate in supplying themselves with material from any old
volumes that happened to be at hand.
An enumeratioa of the different palimpsests of value is not here
pOMible (lee Wattenbach. Schnftwuen, prd ed.. pp. 299-317): but
a few may be mentioned of which facsimiles are aoceMble. The
MS. in the Bibliothique Nauonale« Paris, known as the Codex
Ephraemi, conuiniog portions of the Old and New Testaments in
Greek, attributed to the 5th century, is covered with works of
Ephraem Syrus in a hand of the 12th century (ed. Tischcndorf.
1843. 184s). Amooff the Syriac MSS. obtained from the Nitrian
desort in Egypt, and now deposited in the British Museum, some
important Greek texts have been recovered. A volume containing
a work of Severua of Antioch of the beginning of the •9th century
is written on palimpsest leaves taken from MSS. of the Iliad of
Homer and the Gospel of St Lake, both of the 6th century {Cat.
A ne, MSS. vol. i.. pis. 9. 10), and the EUmeni* of Eadid of the 7th or
8th century. To the same collection belongs the double palimpsest,
in which a text of St John Chrysoctom. in Syriac. of the 9th or
loth century, covers a Latin namnutical treatise in a currive
hand of the 6th century, which in its turn has displaced the Latin
annals of the historian Granius Ltdniaaus, of the 5th century
(Co/. Anc. MSS. ii., pis. i. a). Among Latin paliropaests also
may be noticed those which have been reproduced in the Extm^
of Zangemdster and Wattenbach. These are — the Ambrocian
Plauttts. in rustic capitals, of the 4th or 5th century, re-written
with portions of the Bible in the oth century (pi. 6); the Cicero
P« republica of the Vatican, in unaals. of the 4th centuiy, covered
by St Augustine on the Psalms, of the 7th century (pi. 17; Pal,
Six., pi. 160) ; the Codex Theodosianus 01 Turin, of the 5th or 6th
century (pi. 35): the Fasti Coosulares of Verona, of a.d. 486
(pi. 39); and the Arian fraginent of the Vatkan,of the Sth century
(pi. ^i). Most of these originally belonged to the monastery df
Bobbio, a fact which gives some indication of the |[reat literary
wealth of that house. By uung skill and judgment, with a favour-
ing light, photography may be often made a useful agent in the
decipherment of obscure palimpsest texts. (£. M. T.)
PAUNDROME (Gr. t^i", again, and 3p6/iot, a course), a verse
or sentence which runs the same when read either backwards
or forwards. Such is the veise —
Roma tibi subito motibus iblt amor;
or
Signa te, signs, temere me tangis et angist
or
Some have refined upon the palindrome, and composed venet
each word of which is the same read backwards as forwards:
for instance, that of Camden —
Odo tenet mulum. madidam mapparo tenet Anna.
Atina tenet mappam madidam, mulum tenet Odo.'
The following b still more complicated, as reading hi four
way»— upwards and downwards as well as backwards and
forwards^*
s A T o a
A a B p o
T B N E T
OPERA
a O T A S
PAUNQBIIBSI8 (Gr. r&Xtp, again, yCwtfcr, beoondng, birth),
a term used in philosophy, theology and biology. In phiknophy
it denotes in its broadest sense the theory (e.;. of the PyUia-
goreans) that the htmum soul does not die with the body but
is " bom again " in new incarnations. It is thus the equivalent
of metempsychosis {q.v.). The term has a narrower and more
specific use in the system of Schopenhauer, who applies it to
his doctrine that the will does not die but manifests itself afresh
in new individuals. He thus repudiates the primitive metem-
psychosb doctrine which maintains the reincarnation of the par-
ticular soul. The word " palingenesis " or rather *' paltngenesia "
may be traced back to the Stoics, who used the term for the
continual re-creation of the universe by the Demiurgos (Creator)
after its absorption into himself. Similarly Phflo speaks of
Noah and his sons as leadets of a " renovation " or " re-birth "
of the earth. Josephus uses the term of the national restoration
of the Jews, Plutarch of the transmigration of souls, and
Cicero of his own return from exile. In the New Testament
the properly theological sense of spiritual regeneration is found,
though the word itself occurs only twice; and it is used by the
church fathers, r.f. for the rite of baptism or for the state d
repentance. In modem biology («.|. Haeckd and Friu MflP**"
^34
PALISSY
'* palingenesis " has been used for the exact reproduction of
ancestral features by inheritance, as opposed to "kenogenesb"
(Gr. Kotvdt new), in which the inherited characteristics are
modified by environment.
PAUSSY, BERNARD (1510-1589), French potter (see Cera-
mcs), is said to have been bom about 15x0, either at Saintes or
Agen, but both date and locality are uncertain. It has been stated,
on insufficient authority, that his father was a glass-painter and
that he served as his father's apprentice. He tells us that be
was apprenticed to a glass-painter and that he also acquired
in his youth the elements of land-surveying. At the end of his
apprenticeship he followed the general custom and became a
travelling workman; acquiring fresh knowledge in many parts
of France and the Low Countries, perhaps even in the Rhine
Provinces of Germany and in Italy.
About 1539 it appears that he returned to his native district
and, having married, took up his abode at Saintes. How he
lived during the first years of his married life we have little
record except when he tells us, in his autobiography, that he
practised the arts of a portrait-painter, glass-painter and land-
surveyor as a means of livelihood. It is known for instance
that he was commissioned to survey and prepare a plan of the
salt marshes in the neighbourhood of Saintes when the council
of Francis I. determined to establish a salt tax in the Saintonge.
It is not quite clear, from his own account, whether it was
during his Wanderjakr or after he settled at Saintes that he was
riiown a white enamelled cup which caused him such surprise
that he determined to spend his life — to use his own expressive
phrase ** like a man who gropes in the dark " — in order to
discover the secrets of its manufacture. Most writers have
supposed that this piece of fine white pottery was a piece of the
enamelled majolica of Italy, but such a theory will hardly bear
examination. In Palissy's time pottery covered with beautiful
white tin-enamel was manufactured at many centres in Italy,
Spain, Germany and the South of France, and it is inconceivable
that a man so travelled and so acute should not have been well
acquainted with its appearance and properties. What is much
more likely is that Paiissy saw, among the treasures of some
nobleman, a specimen of Chinese porcelain, then one of the
wonders of the European world, and, knowing nothing of its
nature, substance or manufacture, he set himself to work to
discover the secrets for himself. At the neighbouring village
of La Chapelle-des-Pots he mastered the rudiments of peasant
pottery as it was practised in the i6th century. Other equip-
ment he had none, except such indefinite information as be
presumably had acquired during his travels of the manufacture
of European tin-enamelled pottery.
For nearly sixteen years Paiissy laboured on in these wild
endeavours, through a succession of utter failures, working with
the utmost diligency and constancy but, for the most part,
without a gleam of hope. The story is a most tragic one; for
at times he and his family were reduced to the bitterest poverty;
he burned his furniture and even, it is said, the floor boards of
his house to feed the fires of his furnaces; sustaining meanwhile
the reproaches of his wife, who, with her little family clamouring
lor food, evidently regarded these proceedings as little short
of insanity. All these struggles and failures are most faithfully
recorded by Paiissy himself in one of the simplest and most
interesting pieces of autobiography ever written. The tragedy
of it all is that Pah'ssy not only failed to discover the secret of
Chinese porcelain, which we assume him to have been searching
for, but that when he did succeed in making the special type of
pottery that will always be associated with his name it should
have been inferior in artistic merit to the contemporary produc-
tions of Spain and Italy. His first successes can only have been
a superior kind of " peasant pottery " decorated with modelled
or applied reliefs coloured naturalistically with glazes and
enamels. These works had already attracted attention locally
when, in 1548, the consuble de Montmorency was sent into
the Saintonge to suppress the revolution there. Montmorency
protected the potter and found him employment in decorating
with hia glased terra-cottas the chiteau d'Ecouen. The
paironafe of such an influentiai noble toon brooght I^BMy
into fame at the French court, and although he warn aa avowed
Protestant, he was protected by these nohitt from the ocdi»-
ances of the parliament of Bordeaux when, in 1562, the property
of all the Protestants in this district was seized. PaUiay s
workshops and kilns were destroyed, but be himself was saved,
and, by the inicrposilion of the all-powerful constable, he was
appointed " inventor of rustic pottery to the king and the
queen- mother "; about 1563, under royal piotectioiu be was
allowed to establish a fresh pottery works in Paris in the vicinity
of the royal palace of the Louvre. The site of bis kilns indeed
became afterwards a portion of the gardens of the Tuilerics.
For about twenty-five years from this date Paiissy lived and
worked in Paris. He appears to have been a personal favourite
of Catherine de' Medicis,andof her sons, in spiu of his pvofenioa
of the reformed religion.
Working for the court, his productions passed through many
phases, for besides continuing his " rustic ^gulines *' be made a
large number of dishes and plaques ornamented with scriptural
or mythological subjects in relief, and in many cases be appears
to have made reproductions of the pewur dishes of Fraoc(*«
Briot and other metal workers of the period. During this
period too he gave several series of public lectures on natural
history—the entrance fee being one crown, a large fee for those
days— in which he poured forth all the ideas of his fecund nitd.
His ideas of springs and underground waters were far ia
advance of the general knowledge of his time, and he was ooe
of the first men in Eurooe to enunciate the correct theory of
fossils.
The close of Palissy's life was quite in keeping vitb bis
active and stormy youth. Like Ambroise Pare, and some other
notable men of his time, be was protected against ecclesiastical
persecution by the court and some of the great nobles, but in
the fanatical outburst of 15SS be was thrown into the Bastille,
and although Henry III. oficrcd him his freedom if be would
recant, Paiissy refused to save his life on any such terms. He
was condemned to death when nearly eighty years of age. but
be died in one of the dungeons of the Bastille in 1589.
Palissys Pottery.— The technique of the various wares he
made shows their derivation from the ordinary yy>?frtnt pottery
of the period, though Palissy's productions are, of course, vastly
superior to anything of their kind previously made in EUirope.
Lt appears almost certain that he never used the potter's wheel,
as all bis best known pieces have evidently been pressed into
a mould and then finished by modelling or by the application ot
ornament moulded in relief. His most characteristic produc-
tions are the large plates, ewers, oval dishes and vases to which
he applied realistic figures of reptiles, fish, shells, plants and
other objects. This is, however, not the woik of an artist, hot
Rustic Plate by PaSny
that of a highly gifted naturalist at the dawn of modern 1
who delighted to copy, with faithful accuracy, all the details
of reptiles, fishes, planU or shells. We may be sure that hi»
fossil shells were not forgotten, and it has been suggested, with
great probability, that these pieces of Palissy's were only
PALITANA— PALLADIO
63s
manubcturad sfter hit removal to Paib, as the shdis an always
well-known lonns from the Eocene deposits of the Paiis basin.
Casts from these objects were fixed on to a metal dish or vase
of the shape required, and a fresh cast of the whole formed a
mould from whkh Pallssy could reproduce many articles of
the same kind. The various parts of each piece were painted
in realistic colours, or as nearly so as could be reached by the
pigments Pslissy was able to discover and prepare. These
colours were mostly various shades of blue from indigo to ultra-
marine^ some rather vivid greens, several tints of browns and
greys, and, more rarely, yellow. A careful exanriiution of the
most authentic Palissy productions shows that they excel in the
sharpness of their niodeliing, in a perfect neatness of inanu>
iscture and, above all, in the subdued richness of their general
tone of colour. The crude greens, bright purples and yellows are
only found in the works of his imitators; whilst in the marbled
colours on the backs of the dishes Palissy's work is soft and
well fused, in the imitations it is generally dry, even harsh and
uneven. Other pieces, such as dishes and plaques, were oma-
menled by figure subjects treated after the same fashwn,
generally scriptural scenes or subjects from classical mythology,
copied, in many cases, from works m sculpture by oontemporary
artists.
Another dassof designs used by Palissy were plates, tazu
and the like, with geometrical patterns moulded in relief and
pierced through, forming a sort of open network. Perhaps the
most successful, as works of art, were those plates and ewers
which Palissy moulded in exaa facsimile of the rich and delicate
works in pewter for which Francois Briot and other Swiss
metal-workers were so celebrated. These are in very slight
relief, executed with cameo<Iike finish, and are mostly of good
design belonging to the school of metal-working developed by
the lulian goldsmiths of the z6th century. Palissy's ceramic
reproductions of these metal plates were not improved by the
colours with which he picked out the designs.
Some few enamelled earthenware statuettes, full of vigour and
exprcBBtoo. have been attributed to Palissy; but it is doubtful
whether he ever worked in the round. On the whole his productions
cannot be aswgncd a high rank as works of art. though they have
always been highly valued, and in the 17th century attempts were
made, both at Delft and Laoibcth, to adapt his '' rustic ' dishes
with the reliefs of animals and human figures. These imitations
are very blunt in modelling and coarsely painted. Th^ are
Kncrally marked on the back in blue with initials and a oiate —
owing ibcm to be honest adaptations to a different medium,
not attempts at forvvry such as have been produced during the last
fifty years or so. One of the first signs of the revival of old French
faience, a movement that was in great activity between 1840 and
1870. was the appearance of copies of Palissy's " Bestiole " diahes,
made with great skill and succx'ss by Avisscau of Tours, and after-
ward* bv Pull of Paris. Though both these men produced original
works of (heir own, collectors have had great cause to regret the
excellence of their copies, for many of the best, being unmarked,
have found (heir way Into goocT collections. The well-known
Setter. Barbixet, who set out to make " Palissys *' for the million,
oodcd France for a time with rude copies that ought never to have
deceived anyone.
The bcbt collccdons of Palissy's ware ate those in the museums
of (he Louvre, the H6(el Guny. and S&vres; and in Engbnd that in
the Viaoria and Albert Museum, together with a few choice
specjrncns in the British Museum and In the Wallace Collection.
As an .author. Palissy was undoubtedly more successful than as a
potter. A very high pontion amongst French writers is assigned
to him by Lamartme (B. Paliisy, 8vo.. Paris. 1852}. He wrote
with vigour and simplkity on a great variety of subjects, such as
agriculture, natural philosophy, religion, and especially in his
LArtdf. terre, where ne gives an account of bis processes and how
he discovered them.
See Moricy. Life of Palissy (1855): Marryat. Potiery (1850. pp.
31 seq.): A. Dumcsnil. B. Palissy, U pctitr di tern (1851): A. Tarn-
<U Fceuvre d« 3. Palissy (1862). For Palissy as a Huguenot, see
Rossignol. Dts ProUstanles illustres. No. iv. (1861). The best English
account of PaKs«y as a potter is that given by M. L. Solon, the
most distinguished pottery-artist of the 19th century, in his History
and DescHplion of the Old French Faience (1903). (W. B.*)
PAUTANA, a native state of India in (he Kathiawar agency
of the Bombay presidency. Area, 389 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
51,856, showing a dccrcbse of 15% in the decade. Hie chief b
a Gobel Rajpot, with the title of Thakur Sahib. Gross revenue,
^,000; tribute jointly to the gaekwar of Baxoda and the nawab
of Jnnagarh, ^yoa The capital of the state is F^tana;
pop. i3,8oa Above the town to the west rises the hUl of
Satnmja, sacred to the JaJna. On this hill, which is truly a
city of temples, all the peculiarities of Jain architecture are
fotmd in a marked degree. Some of the temples are as old as
the nth century, and they are spread over the intervening
period down to the present. The hill is visited by crowds of
pilgrims every year.
See J. Burgess, NoUs efa Visit to Salmnjayo HiU (Bombay. 1^69).
PALX STRAITS, the channel lying between the mahiland
of India and the island of Ceylon. It is named after Robert
Palk, governor of Madras (1755-1763). The straits lie north
of the line of reefs called Adam's Bridge, while the Gulf of
Manaar lies south of it. The two channels are connected by the
Famban passage.
PALU a word the various meanings of which can be traced
to the Latin word ^a//««m, that Is, a piece of doth used either
as a covering or as a garment. In the last sense the pallium was
the IpArtop, the square or oblong-shaped outer garment of the
Greeks. In the sense of a garment the English usage of " pall "
is confined to the ecclesiastical vestment (see Palzjuv) and to
the supertunica or dalmatic, the pallium regale or imperial
mantle, one of the principal coronation vestments of British
sovereigns. The heraldic bearing known as a "pall" takes
the form of the Y of the ecclesiastical vestment. The chief
applications of the word, in the sense of a covering, are to an
altar frontal, to a linen cloth used to veil the chalice in the
Catholic service of the Eucharist, and to a heavy black, purple
or white covering for a coffin or hearse. The hvcry companies of
London possessed sumptuous state palls for the funerals of their
members, of which some are still in existence. The Merchant
Taylors' company have two examples of Italian workmanship.
The so-caUed " Walworth pall " of the Fishmongers* company
probably dates from the rfith century. The Vintners' pall is
of cloth of gold and purple velvet, with a figtire of St Martin
of Tours, the company's patron saint.
An entirely difTerent word is *' to pall," to become ormake stale,
insipid or tasteless, hence to cease to interest from constant repeti-
tion : this Is a shortened form of '* appal '* (O. Fr. appaUir, to become
pale; Lat. paltidus).
PALLA. Pala, or Ihpala, the native name of a red Sooth
African antebpe of the size of a fallow-deer, characterised by
the large black lyrate horns of the bucks, and the presence in
both sexes of a pair of gknds on the back of the hind feet
bearing a tuft of black hahs. On the east side the palla
(Aepyeeros melampus) rangea as far north as the southern
Sudan; but h) Angola it is replaced by a species or race (Ae.
petersi) with a black ** bhue " down the face. Pallas associate
in large herds on open coimtry in the neighbourhood of water'.
(See Awreiore.)
PALLADIAN, the term given in English architecture to
one of the phases of the Italian Renaissance, introduced into
England in 1620 by Inigo Jones, a great admirer of the works
of Andrea Palladio (^.v.). In 1716, Richard Boyle, 3rd earl
of Burlington, who also admired the works of Palladio, copied
some of them, the front of old Burlington House being more
or less a reproduction of the Palazso Porto at Vicenza, and the
villa at Chiswick a copy of the Villa Capua near Vtcensa. It
is probably doe to Lord Burlington that the tftle Palladian fs
the designation for the Italian style as practised in England.
In 1 86a Sir Gflbert Scott's Gothic design for the new government
offices was rejected and Lord Palmerston selected in preference
the Palladian style. In France and America, Barozzi Vignole
(1S07-T573), another Italian architect, holds a similar position
as the chief authority on the Italian Renaissance.
PALLADIO. ANDREA (1518-1 580), Italian architect, was
bom in Vicenza on the 30th of November 1518. The works
of Vitruvius and Alberti were studied by him at an early MML
and his student life was spent in Rome, where he was tr
636
PALLADIUM
bit ptXxan Count Triaino. In 1547 he Tetnrncd to Vicenxa,
where he designed a very brge numbo- of fine buildingi-<-«niong
the chief being the Palaizo deila Ragione, with two storeys
of open aicades of the Tuscan and Ionic orders, and the Bar-
barano, Porti and Chieregati palaces. Most of these buildings
look better on paper than in reality, as they are mainly built
of brick, covered with stucco, now in m very dilapidated con-
dition; but this does not affect the merit of their design, as
Palladio intended them to have been executed in stone. Pope
Paul III. sent for him to Rome to report upon the state of St
Peter's. In Venice, too, Palladio built many stately churches
and palaces, such as S. Giorgio Maggiore,the Capuchin church,
and some large palaces on the Grand CanaL His last great
work was the Teatro OUmpico at Vicenza, which was finkbed,
though not altogether after the original de^gn, by his pupil and
fellow citizen Scamoszi.
In addition to his town buildings Palladio designed many
country villas in various parts of northern Italy. The villa of
Capra is perhaps the finest of these, and has frequently been
imitated. Palladio was a great student of classical literature,
and published in 1575 an edition of Caesar's Comnunlaries
with notes. His / gualtro libri dtW arckiktU$ra, first published
at Venice in 1570, has passed into countless editions, and been
translated into every f European language. The original edition
b a small folio, richly illustrated with well-executed full-page
woodcuts of plans, elevations, and details of buildings—
chiefly either ancient Roman temples or else palaces designed
and built by himself. Among many others, an edition with
notes was published in England by Inigo Jones, most of whose
works, and especially the palace of Whitehall, of which onl3r
the banqueting room remains, owed much to Palladio's inspira-
tion. The style adopted and partially invented by Palladio
expressed a kind of revolt against the extreme licence both of
composition and ornament into which the architecture of his
time had fallen. He was fascinated by the stateliness and pro-
portion of the btiildings of ancient Rome, and did not reflect
that reproductions of these, however great their archaeological
accuracy, could not but be lifeless and unsuited to the wants
of the i6th century. Palladio's carefully measured drawings
of andent buildings are now of great value, as in many cases
the buildings have altogether or in part ceased to exist.
AuTHORiTiss.— MonUnari. Vila di A ndrea Palladio (17^) ; Rigato,
OsservasUmi sopra Andrea Palladio (1811); Magrini. iiemorie
iniomo la vita di Andrea Palladio (1845); Millria, Memorie defli
arekHeUi, iL 35*54 (1781); Symonds, Kenaistana in Italy— Fine
Arts, pp. 94-99: 2anella, Vita di Andrea Palladio (Milan. 1880);
BaricheUa. Vita di Andrea Palladio (Loaigo. 1880).
PALLADIUM (Gr. iraXX&5(oy), an archaic wooden image
((6aFor) of Pallas Athena, preserved in the citadel of Troy as
a pledge of the safety of the dty. It represented the goddess,
standing in the stiff archaic style, holding a spear in her right
band, in her left a distaff and spindle or a shield. According
to ApoUodorus (iii, la, 3) it was made by order of Athena,
and was intended as an image of Pallas, the daughter of Triton,
whom she had accidentally slain, Pallas and Athena being thus
regarded as two distinct beings. It was said that Zeus threw
it down from heaven when Il'us was founding the dty of Ilium,
Odysseus and Diomedes carried it off from the temple of Athena,
and thus made the capture of Troy possible. According to
some accounts, there was a second Palladium at Troy, which
was taken to Italy by Aeneas and kept in the temple of Vesia
at Rome. Many dties in .Greece and Italy claimed to possess
the genuine Trojan Palladium. Its theft is a frequent subjea
in Greek art. espedatly of the earlier time.
PALLADIUM [symbol Pd, atomic weight xo6*7 (0-«i6)l,
in chemistry, a metallic clement associated with the platiniim
group. It is found in platinum ores, and also in the native
condition and associated with gold and silver in Brazilian
gold-bearing sand. Many methods have been devised for the
isolation of the metal from platinum ore. R. Bunaen (Ann.,
1868, 146, p. 265), after remo^nng roost of the platinum as
ammonium plattnochloride. precipitates the residual metals
of the group by iron; the resulting prcdpilatc is then heated
with ammoniara chloride and evaponted with fomfa^ ohric
add, the residue taken op in water, and the paJladiom mrcfpf-
Uted as potassium palladtna chloride. This is purffied by
dissolving it in hot water, and evaporating the soltttion with
oxalic add, taking up the residue in potaanom chlctide, aal
filtering off any potasaium platinochloride formed. The filtrate
deposits poeawtinm palladium chloride, which oa beating in a
current of hydrogen leaves a residue of the metaL Rocasler (ZrsL
/. ckemie, 1866, p. r75) piedpitatcs both platinum and p«B»^"«—
as double chlorides, the resulting mixed diloridcs bciog ledoced
to the metals by ignition in hydrogen, taken Up in aqua regia«
the solution neutxalized, and the palladium predpitated by
mercuric cyau'de. See also T. Wilra (Ber., 1880, 13, p. xi^;
x88i, 14, p. 639; i88a, 15, p. 941) on iu separation as pallados-
ammine ddoride, and Coz {PkU. Ueg.^ 1843, -33, p. x6) on the
separation of palladium from Brazilian gold saad. Pnrr
palladittm nuiy be obtained by the reduction of the doab>
chloride (NH4)t PdCl« in a current of hydrogen, or of paHadiout
chloride with formic add.
It is a ductile metal of silvery lustxe, with a specific gimvity of
ix-97 (o^'C). It IS the most easily fusible of the melab of the
pkitinura group, its melting-point being about 1530-1550*0
(L. Holbom and F. Henning, SUab. Akad. Berlin^ 1905, p. 5>0>
It readily distils when heat^ in the electric furnace. Its icccs
specific heat between o* and t*C. is 0*0582 -(- 0-0000 tot
(J. VioUe, Comptea rendus, 1879, ^r P- 702). Palladiuin finds
application in the form of alloys for astronomical instnnnents.
in dentistry, and in the construction of springy aiKl movcniciiis
of docks. Native palladium is dimorphous. It is aolublr m
nitric add, more espedally if the add contains oxides of lutnsctt,
and when obtained in the findy divided condition by reductioa
of its salts, it is to some extent soluble in hydrochloric add. It
also dissolves in boiling concentrated sulphuric add and in
hydriodic add. It oxidizes when fused with caustic alkalis.
It combines with fluorine and with chlorine at a dull red heat.
but not with kxline, whilst bromine has acarcdy any action ca
the metal. It combines with sulphur directly, and according
to T. Wilm (Ber., 1882, 15, p. 2235) forms the oxide PdjO.
when heated in a current of air.
Two aeries of salts are known, namdy. palladioas salts and
salts, corresponding to the two oxides PdO and PdOi. C .
the palUdious salts only are stable^ the |3aUadic salts readily pasucf
into the palladious form on boihog with vntcr. The paUadIi:ia
compounds show a complete an^ogy with the correapoodlr{
platmum salts. All the salts of the metal when heated drnmiw
and leave a residue of the metal; the metal may also be obcajiw^
from solutions of the salts by the addition of zinc. iron. fanr.ic
acid, phosphorus and hot alcohol. Sulphuretted hydrefen fj\t\
with palladium salts a predpitate of palladium sulphide «hkJi U
insoluole in ammonium sulphide; mercuric chk>nde gjv=s ti-r
characteristic vellowish preapitate of palladious chloride, anl
potasaum iodiae the black palladious iodide which dissolves 'V
addition of excess of the predpitant. These two latter iractk^..*
may be used for the recognition of palladium, as may also tU
behaviour of the salts with ammonia, this reaeent giv-ing a brtrkv
precipiute. which turns to a red shade, and u soluble u a Ian*
excess of the predpitant to a clear solution, from which by addir-c
hydrochloric add a j^ltow predpitate of palladosammine chlondc
Pd(NHi)sClfl, is obtained. Palladium is permeable to hydrogro at
a temperature of 340" C. and upwards. It absorbs bydrofee and
other pses, the heat of occlusion being 4640 calories per gnm
of hydrogen. The occluded h^rogen is strongly bound to tfar
metal, only traces of the gas bemg given off on stamfinc m tvrvr
but it is easily removed when Kcated to too* C T. Graham (Pkd
Mat., 1 866-1869) WAS of the opinion that the occluded h>-drc^««
underwent great condensation and behaved as a quaa-noetal itr
which he gave the name " hydrogenium "), forming an allov «ith t^e
palladium: but L. Troost and P. Hautefevilte Man. dbtni. pk-i.
1874. (5) 3, p. 379^ couMdered that a definite compouod of ccrv
position PdsH *as formed. The more recent work oil C. Hoitsins
(Zeit. i>kyt. chim.. 1895, 1 7. p. i) however, appears to <&tnovv lot
formation of a definite compound (see also J. Dewar. PhC, J/«3r.
1 87 A. (4) 47. pp. 334. 343). A palladium hydride was obtained U
Grahiim by the reduction of palladious sulphate witb sodivrB
hypophocpnite. It is an unstable black powder, which reerl.W
loses hydrogen at o* C. C. Paal and J. Gerum {Brr., ic»-^,
41. p. 8 1 8) have shown that when palladium Mack is sospend^^l In
water one volume of the metal combines with 1204 volnaes di
hydrogen, or in the atomic proportion Pd/H «|/'98L
tkcae
PALLADIUS— PALLAS
637
PaOaima meidet PdO, b » Mack powder fonned by heating
•pptigy palladium to a dull red heat in a current of oxygen or by
l^tle ignition oi the nitrate. It is'inioluble in adds, is easily
reduced, and decompoaea when heated. Palladic oade, PdOi, is
obtainea in the hydnted condition. PdOfiiHK>. by the action of
e on paUadious chloride ; by the electrolytic oxidation of palladia
ous nitrate in slb^htly acid solution (L. WoKlcr); lind by the ;
of caustic potash on potassium paliiadio<hloride; the liquid bong
neutnliaed with acetic acid (I. Bellucci, Ztit, at$ort. Ckem.t 1905,
47, p, 287)* It is a dark red or brown coloured powder, whidh loses
oxygen on beating. When boiled with water it passes into the
lower oidde. It is an encigetic^oxidixin| agent, and when freshly
prepared » soluble in dilute mineral acids. A hydratcd form of
the monodde, PdO>f»H<0, is obtained by hydrolyanf^ a faintly
ackl solution of the nitrate (L. Wdhier, ZetL amarg. Ckem,, 1905, a6,
p* 333)t or by the action 01 a slight caoess of caustic aoda on the
doable chloride KaPdCU. It is a dark brown powder whkh loses
its water of hydration when dried in air* and in the dry condition
b difficultly soluble in adds. By the electrolytic oxidation of
palladious nitrate L. WOhler and ¥. Martin (lb.. I908, 57, p. 396),
obtained a hydratcd oxide, PdK>raH«0, as a dark brown ixiwder
which dissolves in hydrochloric add, forming an unstable cUoride.
Paltadwus tUmide, PdCIs, is obtained as a d^quesccnt crystalline
mass when spongy oalladium b heated to duU redness in a current
of dry chlorine. A hydrated form* of composition PdClt'2HK>.
results on dissolving ^lladlum in aqua retna, containing only a
small proportion of nitric add. It crystallizes from water as a
reddbh-brown sotkl. It absorbs hydrogen and b easily reduc^.
It combines with carbon monoxide to form compounds of com-
position PdCla-aCO; aPdCUaCO: PdCli-CO (E. Fink. Compks
RtnduSt 1898. 126, p. 646). and can be used for the determination
of the amount <rf carbon monoxide in air (Potain and R. Drouin,
lb., 1898, ia6, p. 938). On treatment with dry amraoma gas it
ybids palladodiammlne ddoride, Pd(NH.)«Clt. Palladious chloride
combines with hydroxylamine to form the compounds Pd(NH/))4CU
and Pd(NH^)iCl|. The first resulu from the action of hydroxyl-
amine on the chloride In the presence of sodium carbonate, and
may be isobted as the free baae. The other b thrown down as a
yellow granubr predpitate when a small quantity of dilute hydro-
chloric acid b added to the base, Pd(NH«0)«(OH), ^ Fdael and
A. Nowak, Ann., 1907, 351. p. 430). The chloride PdCh b only
known in add solution, and is obtained when palladium b dissolved
in aqua regb or when palbdic oxide b dissolved in concentrated
hydrochloric acid. The solution b brown in cokMtr and gradually
loses chlorine, being converted into palbdious chloride. *Both
chlorides combine with many other metallic chlorides to form
characteristic double salts, the double potassium salts having the
formulae KiPdCl^ and KiPdCU. The former may be prroaicd by
adding an csoess of potassium chloride to palladious chloride, or
by boiliog K|PdCli with a brge excess of water. It crysUUises
in prbros which are readily coluble in water but are practically
Insoluble in absdute alcohol It b decomposed by direct besting,
and also by heatins in a current of hydrogen. The latter compound
b formed when chlorine b passed into a warm aqueous solution of
the former or by dissolving palladium in aqua regb and saturating
the solution with potassium chloride. It crysuUises In scarlet
octahedra which darken on beating, and decompose when strongly
heated. It b slightly solubb in cold water, but dissolves in warm
dilute hydrochloric add. When boiled with akohol it b reduced
to the metallic condition.
The svbsulpkid*, PdiS, is obtained as a hard, green coloured
mass when palladosammine chtoride b fused with sulphur or when
the sulphide PdS b fused with sulphur and ammonium chloride.
It loses sulphur slowly when heated and b insoluble in acids. PaU
Utdiout sidpkide^ PdS, b obtained by precipitation of the corres-
ponding salts with sulphuretted hydrogen, or by the action of dry
sulphuretted hydrogen gas on palbdosammine chloride. As pre-
Earcd in the dry way it b a hard, blue xoloured, insoluble mass,
ut if obtained oy predpitation b of a brownish-bbck colour and
b soluble in nitric add. When heated in air it oxidizes to a basic
sulphate. The disutphidt, PdSi, b a brownish-black crysUlline
powder which b formed when the double ammonium palbdium
chk>ride (NH4)tPdCU b heated to redness with caustic soda and
sulphur. It combines with the alkaline sulphides. It gradually
loses sulphur on heating, and b easily soluble in aqua regb. A
aulphkic of composition PdsS« haa been described (R. Scfandder,
oxWe . ,
ackb on the meUl. It forms a reddish-brown, deliquescent.
crystalline mass, and b easily soluble in water, but in the presence
of a Urn exceia of water ytdds a bask sulphate. PaUadnun
nilrati, Pd(NOa)t, crysulUzcs in brownish-yellow deliquescent
(Misms and is obtained by dissolving the metal in nitric acid. It
IS very soluble in water, and its aqueous solution decomposes on
fe*?!!?!;**^?^ precipltttion of a basic nitrate. PaUodium cmntde,
Pd(CNk b obtained as a yelk»wbh prectpiute when palbdium
chkinde is precipitated by mercuric cyanide. It b insoluble in
water, and on heating decomposes into palbdium and cyanogen.
It m soluble 10 solutions of the alkaline cyanides, with formation
K. Ann., 1873. '48. p. fos).
Jladium sMlpkaU, PdSO«-aH^, b obtained by dbsolving the
Ide in sulphuric add, or by the action of nitnc and sulphuric
of doubb cyamdes of the type i&Pd(CN)« On aoeoant ^f ito
insolubility and its subility it b useful for the separation of palb-
dium from the other metab of the datinum group.
The palladium salts combine witiqammonb to lorm characteristic
compounds, which may be srouped into two main divnion's:
(1) the palladamminea (palboosammines) of type lPd(NH * "
and.(3) tho palbdodiamminea lPd(NH,)4]X». The palbdosani
mmines) of type IPd(NHi).XiI.
,- r NH,)JX.. Thepalbdosammines
are obtained. by adding a bige excess of ammonb to the palbdious
salts, the resulting c&ax solution bdng then predpitated by the
mineral add correraonding to the salt used. Thb method of pre-
paration serves well for the chtoride, from which other salts may be
obtained by doubb decomposition. Thcae salta are fairly stabb,
and are red, ydtow or orange in colour. The palladodiammine
salts are mostly colourless, and >are not very stable; adds convert
them into the palbdosammines, -and they lose two molecules of
ammonia very easily. They are formed by the actkm of a brge
excess of ammonb on the palladious salts or on the corre spo nding
palladosammine salts in the presence of water.
on Atomk: Weights, 1909, recount several new determinations:
Haas {Dissertaiion, Erbngcn, 1908) from reduction of jpalladosam-
mine bromide obtained the value 1067; Kemmerer (TacitJ, Penn-
sylvanb, 1908), from reduction of the corresponding chloriidle and
cyanide obtains a mean vahie of 106^4^: whilst A. Gutbier and hb
colbborators, from analyses of palbdosammine chloride and
bromide, obtained the values 106-64 ^^0*03 and 106-65 1^0*03 from
the chloride, and 106-655 from, the bromkb (/9iif. pr. ckem,, 1909,
u. 79, pp. 235. 457).
PALLADIUS* RUnUDS TAURUS ABMIUAHU8, a Roman
author of the 4th century a.d. He wrote a poem on agriculture
{De re rustica) in fourteen books, the material being derived
from Columella and other earlier writers. The work b con«
veniently arranged, but far inferior in every other respect to
that of CblumcUa.
There b a modem German edition by Schmitt (Ldpxig, 1898).
PALLAMZA, a small industrial town and summer and
winter resort of the province of Npvara, Piedmont, Italy, 659 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 4619 (town); 5247 (commune). It
occupies a podtion of great natural beauty, on a promontory
on the W. of Lago Maggiore, with a semidrde of mountains
bdiind and the lake and Borromean Islands in front, 6a m. N.
of Novam direct. The annual mean temperature b 5s* Fahr.;
January, 37- 1*, July , 74*. There b a fine boUnkal garden.
PALLAS, PBTBR SmON (1741-18x1), German naturalbt
and traveller, was bom in Berlin on the sand of Sep t ember
1741, the son of Simon Pallas, surgeon in the Prussian army
and professor of surgery in Berlin. He was intended for the
medical profession, and stndied at the universities of Berlin,
Halle, G6Uingen and Ldden. He early dbpbyed a strong
leaning towards natural hbtery. In 1761 he went to England,
where for a year he devoted himself to a thorough study of the
collections and to a geological investigation of part of the coast;
and at the age of twenty-three he was elected a fordgn member
of the Royal Sodety. He then spent some time in HoUaod,
and the results of his investigations appeared at the Hague in
1766 in hb EUncJms ZoopkyUnum and MisceUanea ZooUpta,
and m 1767-1804 in hb SpiciUgia ZpologUo (Berlin). In 1768
he accepted the inviution of the empress Catharine H. to fill
the professorship of natural hbtory in the Imperial Academy
of Science, St Petersburg, and in the same year he was appointed
naturalbt to a scientific expedition through Russia and Siberia,
the immediate object of which was the observation of the transit
of Venus in 176^ In thb leburely journey Pallas went by
Kasan to the Caspian, spent some time among the Kalmucks,
crossed the Urab to Tobolsk, visited the Altai mountains,
traced the Irtbh to Rolyvan, went on to Toinsk and the Yenisd,
crossed Lake Baikal, and extended hb journey to the frontiers
of China. Few explorations have been so fruitful as thb six
years' journey. The leading results were given in his Reisen
durck verschieden* Prtmtuen des rUssischen 'Reicht (3 vols.,
St Petersburg, 1 771-1776), richly illustrated with coloured
pUtes. A French translation in r788-z793, in 8 vols., with
9 vob. of plates, contained, in addition to the narr a l l ™ **^
natural hbtory results of the expedition; and an Eni^'
latwn in three volumes appeared in 1812. As spc
638
PALLAVICINO, F.— PALLIUM
of this greftt journey may be mentioned Sammlungen histariuht^
NaekrichUn Uber die mmgoliscken Vdlkerschaften (2 vols.,
St Petersburg, 1776-1802); Novae species quadrupedum, 1778-
1779; Pallas's contributions to the dictionary of languages oC
the Russian empire, 1 786-1 789; Icones iiucctorum, praeserlim
R^ssiae Siberiaeque pecttluiritim, 1781-1806; Zoographia rosso-
asiatka (j vob., 1831); besides many special papers in the
Transaciums of the academies of St Petersburg and Berlin.
The empress bought Pallas's natural history collections for
ao,ooo roubles, 5000 more than he asked for them, and allowed
him to keep them for life. He spent a considerable time in
1 793-1 794 in visiting the southern provinces of Russia, and was
so greatly attracted by the Crimea that he determined to take
up his residence there. The empress gave him a large estate
at Simpheropol and 10,000 roubles to assist in equipping a
bouse. Though disappointed with the Crimea as a place of
residence, Pallas continued to live there, devoted to constant
research, especially in botany, till the death of his second wife
in x8io, when be removed to Berlin, where he died on the 8th
of September 181 1. The results of bis joume>' in southern
Russia were given in his Bemerkungen auf einer Reise dutch die
sUdlfeMen SUMhetterschaften des russischen Reichs (Leipzig, 1799-
1801; English translation by Blagdon, vols. v.-viiL of Modern
Discoveries^ z8o3, and another in a vols., 181 2). Pallas also
edited and contributed to Neue nordische Beitrdge tur pkysi-
kal scken Erd^ und V6lberbesckreibung, Naturgesckickte, und
Oekonomi* (i 781- 1796), published JUustraliones plantarum
imperfecte vd nondum cognilarum (Leipzig, 1803), and con-
tributed to Bu£fon's Natural Hilary a paper on the f<^maUon
of mountains.
See the essay of Rudolph! in the Transactions of the Berlin
Academy for 1812 ; Cuvier's Eloge in his Recueii des iioges historiques,
vol. ii.; and the Life in Jarolne's Naturalisis* Liorary, vol. iv.
(Kdin., 1S43).
PALUVICINO. FERRANTI (1618-1644). Italian writer of
pasquinades, a member of the old Italian family of the Palla-
vidni, was bom at Piacenza in 1618. He received a good
education at Padua and elsewhere, and early in life entered
the Augustinian order, residing chiefly in Venice. For a year
he accompanied Oltavio Piccolomini, duke of Aroalfi, in his
German campaigns as field chaplain, and shortly after hit return
he published a number of
clever but exceedingly scurri-
lous satires on the Roman
curia and on the powerful
house of the Barberini, which
was so keenly resented at Rome
that a price was set on his
head. A Frenchman, Charles
de Breche, decoyed him from
Venice to the neighbourhood
of Avignon, and there betrayed
him. After fourteen months'
imprisonment he was beheaded
at Avignon on the 6th of
March, 1644.
HU
Eshcda
in Italian, and published at Rome ita two foUo volumes in 1656-
i6s7 (2nd ed., considerably modified, in 1666). In this be
continued. the task begun by Terenzio Aldati, who had beca
commissioned by Urban VIII. to oomect and supersede the very
damaging work of Sarpi on the tame subject. Aldati and
Pallavidno had access to many important sources from the use
of which Sarpi had been preduded; the contending parties*
however, are far fn>m agreed at to the cx>mpletenest of the
refutation. The work wat translated into Latin by a Jesuit
named Giattlnus (Antwerp, 1670-1673). There is a good
edition of the original by Zaccharia (6 vols., Faenza, i79a-i79o).
It was translated into German by Kllttche in 1835-1837. He
also wrote a life of Alexander VII. and a tragedy {Erwieneg^dm^
1644), &c
His collected Opere were pubCahed ta Rome la i844-ift4S.
PALLIUM or Pall (derived, so far as the name is concerned,
from the Roman pallium or paltat a woollen doak),anecdcsi-
astical vestment in the Roman Cath<^c Church, originaUy
peculiar to the pope, but for many centuries post bestowed by
him on aU metropolitans, primates and archbishops as a symbol
of the jurisdiction delegated to them by the Holy See. Tbc
pallium, in its present form, is a narrow band, " three fingers
broad," woven of white lamb's wool, \vith a loop in the centre
resting on the shoulders over the chasuble, and two dependent
lappets, before and behind; so that when seen from front or
back the ornament resembles the letter Y. It is decorated
with six purple crosses, one on each tail and four on the loop, is
doubled on the left shoulder, and is garnished, back and froct .
with three jcwdlcd gold pins. The two latter characteristics,
seem to be survivals of the time when the Roman pallium, like
the Greek ufto^dpiov was a simple scarf doubled and pinned on
the left shoulder.
The origin of the pallium as an ecclesiastical vestment is lest
in antiquity. The theory that explains it in connexion with the
figure of the Good Shepherd carrying the lamb on his shoulders,
so common in early Christian art, is obviously an explanation
a posteriori. The ceremonial connected with the preparation of
the pallium and its bestowal upon the pope at his coroaatioo.
however, suggests some such symboUsrn. The Itmbi whose
wool is destined for the making of the pallia are «>lexnii)y
presented at the altar by the nuns of the convent of St Agaes at
Dnn tv Patfaar J. Btua, lad reT>redtic«d (ram hb 2K« /Z(Mr|/i;Ae Gtm^^
Illustration of the Development of the Pallium.
_ may l)e ima^ncd, mienor m scurrility and grossness (Palla-
vidno's specialities), are much less prized oy the curious than the
Operg seJte (Geneva, 1660), which were move than once reprinted
ia HoUaad, and were translated into German in 16615.
PALLAVICnfO (or Pallavicini), PISTRO 8F0RZA (1607-
1667), Italian cardinal and historian, son of the Marquis Ales-
sandro Pallavidno of Parma, was bom at Rome in 1607. Having
taken holy orders in 1630, and joined the Sodety of Jesus in
1638, be successivdy taught philosophy and theology in the
Collegium Romanum ; as professor of theology be "was a member
of the congregation appointed by Innocent X. to investigate the
Jansenist heresy. In 1659 he was made a cardinal by Alexander
VII. He died at Rome on the sth of June 1667 Pallavidno
b chiefly known by his history of the council of Trent, written
Rome at mass on St Agnes' day, during the singing of the
Agnus Dei. They are recdved by the canons of the Latexaji
church and handed over by tbem to the apostolic subdeaoons.
by whom they are put out to pasture till the time of shearing
The paUia fashioned of thdr wool by the nuns are carried b,.
the subdeacons to St Peter's, where they are placed by the caooro
on the bodies of St Peter and St Paul, under the high altar, hx
a night, then committed to the subdeacons for safe custo^. A
pallium thus consecrated is placed by the archdeacon over tte
shoulders of the pope at his coronation, with the words " Rcceiv e
the pallium," ix. the plenitude of the pontifical office, *' to
the glory of God, and of the most glorious Virgin His Mother.
and of the blessed apostles St Peter and St Paul, and of the
Holy Roman Church."
PALL-MALL— PALM
639
The elaborate ceremonial might suggest an effort to symbolise
the command " Feed My lambs! " given to St Peter, and its
transference to Peter's successors. Some such idea underlies
the developed ceremonial; but the pallium itself was in its origin
DO more than an ensign of the episcopal dignity, aa it remains
in the East, where — under the name of dim^hputv (c^/iot,
shoulder, ^kfittw, to cariy)— it is worn by all bishopa. More-
over, whatever symbolism may be evolved from the lambs' wool
is vitiated, so far as origins are concerned, by the fact that the
papal pallia were at one time made of while linen (see Johannes
Diaconus, Vita S. Gngorii M. lib. I V, cap. 8, paUium ejut bysso
candente contextum).^
The right to wear the pallium seems, in the first instance, to
have been conceded by the popes merely as a mark of honour.
The first recorded example of the bestowal of the pallium by
the popes is the grant of Pope Symmachus in 513 to Cacsarius
of Axles, as papal vicar. By the time of Gregory I. it was given
not only to vicars but as a mark of honour to distinguish
bishops, and it is still conferred on the bishops of Autun, Bam-
berg, Dol, Lucca, Ostia, Pavia and Verona. St Boniface caused
a reforming synod, between S40 and 850, to decree that in
future all metropolitans must seek their pallium at Rome (see
Boniface's letter to Cuthbert, 78, Monumenla Germaniae, epis-
tolae, III.); and though this rule was not universally followed
even until the 13th century, it is now uncanonical for an arch-
bishop to exercise the functions proper to his office until the
pallium has been received Every archbishop must apply for it,
personally or by deputy, within three months after his conse-
cration, and it is burled with him at his death (see Akchbishop).
The pallium is never granted until after payment of consider-
able dues. This payment, originally supposed to be voluntary,
became one of the great abuses of the papacy, especially during
the period of the Renaissance, and it was the brge amount
(raised largely by indulgences) which was paid by Albert, arch-
bishop of Mainz, to the papacy that roused Luther to protest.
Though the pallium is thus a vestment distinctive of bishops
having metropolitan jurisdiction, it may only be worn by them
within their jurisdiction, and then only on certain solemn occa*
sions. The pope alone has the right to wear everywhere and at
all times a vestment which is held to symbolize the plenitude
of ecclesiastical power.
Sec F. (linschius. KirchenrtckU II. 23 sqq.; Grcsar. " Das rdmische
Pallium und die fiUcsten liturgischcn Sch&rpen fin Festschrift
Mum elfkunderjjfihrigen Jubildum des campo sanio in Rom, Freiburg.
1897): Dit Canjce, Glossarium s.v, "Pallium": Joaeph Bravn,
Die liiurgischi Caoandung im Oaidtnt und Orient (Freiburg-i-B^
1907).
PALL-MALL, an obsolete English game of French origin,
called in France paitle-mailte (from Palla, ball, and malleus,
mallet). Sir Robert Dallington, in his Method for Travel (1598),
says: " Among all the exercises of France, I prefer none before
the Paille-MaiUe." James I., in his BasUikon doron^ recom-
mended it as a proper game for Prince Henry, and it was actually
introduced into England in the reign of Charles I., or perhaps a
few years earlier. Thomas Blount's Clossographia (cd. 1670)
describes it as follows: " Pale Maille, a game wherein a round
boT/le is with a mallet struck through a high arch of iron (stand-
ing at either end of an alley), which he that can do at the fewest
blows, or at the number agreed on, wins. This game was hereto-
fore used in the long alley near St James's, and vulgarly called
Pell-Mell." The pronunciation here described as "vulgar"
afterwards became classic. A mallet and balls used in the game
were found in 1845 and are now in the British Museum. The
mallet resembles that used in croquet, but its head is curved and
its ends sloped towards the shaft. The balls are of boxwood and
about one foot in circumference. Pepys describes the alley as of
hard sand " dressed with powdered cockle-shells." The length
of the alley varied, that at St James's being about 800 yds.
Some alleys had side walls.
» Father Joseph Braun. S.T., holds that the pallium, unlike
other vestments, had a liturgical origin, and that it was akin to
the scarves of office worn by priests and priestesses in pagan rites.
See Di4 p^mtiAuUn Ceminder da Ab e ndl an d n , p, 174 (Fraimrc-i-B.
1898).
PALLONB atalian for "large baU." from palh, ball), the
national ball game of Italy. It is dcKended, as are all other
court games, such aa tennis and pelota, from the two ball games
played by the Romans, in one of which a large inflated ball,
called foUis, was used. The other, probably the immediate
ancestor of pallone, was played with a smaller ball, the pila.
Pallone was played in Tuscany as early as the X4th century, and
is still very popular in northern and cential Italy. It is played
in a court (sferisteric), usually 100 yds. long and x; yds. wide.
A white line crosses the middle of the court, which is bounded on
one side by a high wall, the spectators sitting round the other
three sides, usually protected by wire screens. One end of the
court is called the baiiula and the other the ribtattuta. At the
end of the batluta is placed a spring-board, upon which stands the
plajfer who receives the service. The implements of the game
are the pallone (ball) and the bracciale (bat). The pallont is
an inflated ball covered with leather, about 4! in. in diameter.
The bracciali is an oak 'gauntlet, tubular in shape, and covered
with long spike-like protuberances. It weighs between five and
six pounds and is provided with a grip for the hand. The game
is played by two 'sidea— blues and reds— of three, men each,
the batiUori (batter), spalla (back) and Unino (third). At lb«
beginning of a game the battitore stands on the spring-board
and receives the ball thrown to him on the bound by a seventh
player, the mandarino, who docs duty for both sides. The batter
may ignore the ball until it comes to him to his liking, when he
runs down the spring-board and strikes it with his bracciale
over the centre line towards his opponents. The game then
proceeds until a player fails to return the ball correctly, or hits
it out of bounds, or it touches his person. This counts a point
for the adversary. Four points make a game, counting 15, 50,
40 and 5a
Set n Ciueeo dd pall&ne, by G. Franceschini (Mdan. 1903)-
PALM, JOHANN PHIUPP (1768-1806), German bookscUer,
a victim of Napoleonic tyranny in Germany, was born at Schorn<
dorf, in WUrttemberg, on the 17th of November 1768. Having
been apprenticed to his uncle, the publisher Johann Jakob
Palm (1750-1826), in.£clangen, he married the daughter of the
bookseller Stein in Nuremberg, and in course ol time became
proprietor of his father-in«law's business. In the spring of 1806
the firm of Stein sent to the bookselling esublishment of Stage
in Augsburg a pamphlet (presumably written by Philipp
Christian Yelin in Ansbacfa) entitled Deutschland in seiner tiefen
Emitdrigtmg (" Germany in her deep humiliation "), which
strongly attacked Napoleon and the behaviour of the French
troops in Bavaria. Napoleon, on being apprised of the violent
attach made upon his hfgime and failing to discover the actual
author, had Palm arrested and handed over to a military
commission at Braunau on the Bavarian-Austrian frontier, with
peremptory instructions to try and execute the prisoner within
twenty>four hours. Palm was denied the right of defence, and
after a mock trial on the 35th ol August 1806 he was shot on the
following day. A life-siae bronze statue was erected to his
memory in Braunau in 1866, and on the centenary of his death
numerous patriotic meetings were held in Bavaria.
See F. Schultheis. Jehann Philipp Palm (Nuremberg, i860);
and J. Rackl. Der nOtnberger Buckhdndler Johann Philtpp Palm
(Nuremberg, 1906).
PALM (Lat. pdiM, Gr. iraXil^), originally the flat of the hand,
in which sense it is still used; from this sense the word was
transferred as a name of the trees described bdow. The
emblematic use of the word (- prize, honour) represents a
further transference from the employment of the palm-leaves
as symbols of victory.
The Palms (Patmaceae) have been termed the princes of the
vegetable kingdom. Neither the anatomy of their stems noi the
conformation of their flowers, however, entitles them toaaysach
high position in the vegetable hierarchy. Their stems are not
more complicated in structure than those of the common
butcher's broom (Rmscus)-, their flowers are for the i
as simple as those of a rush iluncMs), The order Pf *
640
PALM
i$ diancterixed among monocotyledonous plants by the pre-
sence of ao unbrancbed stem bearing a tuft of leaves at the
extremity only, or with
the iMves scattered;
these leaves, often gigantic
in sise, being usually firm
in texture and branching
in a pinnate or palmate
fashion. The flowers are
borne on simple or branch-
ing spikes, very generally
protected by a'spathe or
spathes, and each consists
typically of a perianth qf
six greenish, somewhu
inconspicuous segments in
two rows, with six sta-
mens, or pistil of 1-3
carpels, each with a single
ovule and a succulent or
^ dry fruit, never dehiscent
Fl0.l.A,B.— noraldiagrarosofaPalm (fig- »» A and B). The
(Chamaerops kumilis). seed consists almost ez-
A. male flower. B, female-flower. dusively of endosperm, or
in 0, endosperm/ which is lodged the rela-
tively very minute embryo
(fig. I, C). These are the general characteristics by which this
very well-defined order may be discriminated, but, in a group
containing considerably more than a thousand species, deviations
from the general plan of structure occur with some frequency.
As the characteristic appearances of palms depend to a large
extent upon these modifications, some of the more important
among them may briefly be noticed.
Taking the stem fiist, we may mention that It is In veiy many
palms rdativcly tall, erect, unbranchcd, regularly cylindrical.
Fia «.— Ofl ww erp ^ Draco (a Rattan Palm).
l« Youag ahoot much rediaood. a, Pit of item
inflowMcc oo e. 3, Part of female infloreaoraoe. 4i The
ripe fnnta*
or dilated bdow to as to form an elongated cone, either smooth.
or oofcred with ths projecting remnaau of the fonner leaves, or
marked with circular scars hidicmttng the position of thoae leaves
which have now fallen away. It varies in diameter from the
thickness of a reed (as in Ckamaeivrea) to a sturdy pillar-like
structure as seen in the date-palm. Palmyra palm (fig. 7) or
Talipot. In other cases the very slender item b prastrate, or
(Afttr Bortky aad TriMB. JTaMdMl Mwli, by penoiHiM of IC«n |. 4 A.
Fio. 3w— Axeca Palm (Ama Caikku).
1. Tree, very much reduced. 5. Mate flower opened by w mi irij
2, Part of leif. of a petal.
3, Portion of inflorescence with 6, Fruit.
mate flowers above, fcroate 7, 8, Same cat acnMa.aBd teogtk-
(larger) below. wise. ^. Fibroas perkarp:
4. Petal of a mate flower. en, rummated endosperm: c«
embryo.
scandent by means of formidable hooked prickles which, by
enabling the plant to support itself on the branches of neigh-
bouring trees, also permit the stem to grow to a very great
length and so to expose the foliage to the light and air above the
tree-tops of the dense forests these palms grow in, as in the genus
Calamus, the Rattan or Cane palms. In some few instances the
trunk, or that portion of it which is above ground, is so shod that
the plant is in a loose way called " stemlcss " or " acaolesccnt,**
as in CeoHoma^ and as happens sometimes in the only species
found in a wHd state in Europe, Ckanuurops kumilis. The
vegetable ivory {PhyUUphas) of equatorial America has a very
short thick stem bearing a tall duster of leaves which appears
to rise from the ground. In many spedes the trunk is covered
with a dense network of stiff fibres, often compacted together at
the free ends into spines. This fibrous material, which Is so
valuabte for cordage, consists of the fibrous tissue of the leal-
stalk, which in these cases persists after the decay of the softer
portions. It is very characteristic of some palms to produce from
the base of the stem a scries of adventitious roots which gradually
thrust themselves into the soil and serve to steady the tree and
prevent its overthrow by the wind. The underground stem of
some spedes, e.g. of Calamus, is a rhixome, or root-stock, tengtben-
ing in a more or less horizontal manner by the development of
the terminal bud, and sending up lateral branches like suckers
from the root-stock, which form dense thickets of cane-Iike
stems. The branching of the stem above ground is nnusoal.
except in the case of the Doum palm of Egypt {Hyphaene), wbcrv
the stem forks, often repeatedly; this is due to the developoMat
of a branch to an equal strength with the main stem. In <
PALM
641
CMtt bnaching, vhen present, is probftUy the result of some
mjniy to the terminal bud at the top of the stem, in consequence
of whidi buds sprout out from below the apei.
The internal structure of the stem does not differ fundamentally
from that of a typical monocotyledonous stem, the taller, harder
trunks owing their hardness not only to the fibrous or woody
skeleton but also to the fact that, as growth goes on, the originany
soft cellular ground tissue through which the fibres run becomes
hardened by the deposit of woody matter within the cells, so that
ultimately the cellular portions become as hard as the woody
fibrous tissue.
The leaves Of palms are either arranged at more or less distant
intervals along the stem, as in the canes (Calcmus, Daemanarops,
fig. 9, &c.), or are approximated in tufts at the end of the stem,
thus forming those noble crowns of foliage (figs. 5, 6, 7) which are
so closely associated with the general idea of a palm. In the
young condition, while still unfolded, these leaves, with the
succulent end of the stem from which they arise, form ** the
cabbage," which in some species is highly esteemed as an article
of food.
The adult leaf very generally presents a sheathing base taper-
ing upwards into the stalk or petiole, and this again bearing the
Umina or blade. The sheath and the petiole very often bear stout
spines, as in the rattan palms (see fig. a); and when, in course of
time, the dpper parts of the leaf decay and fall off, the base of the
leaf-stalk and sheath often remain, either entirely or in their
fibrous portions only, which latter constitute the investment to
the stem already mentioned. In size the leaves vary within very
wide limits, some being only
a few inches in extent, while
those of the noble Caryota
may be measured in tens of
feet In form the leaves of
palms are very rarely simple ;
usually they are more or less
dlvid^, sometimes, as in
Caryota, extremely so. In
species of Gwnoma, Yers-
ehaJeUia and some others,
the leaf splits into two
divisions at the apex and not
^ . ,^i^^ , ,„, elsewhere; but more usually
'• ''Xl^jWIfrnS?^'^*^" the leaves branch regularly
a, Same cut lengthwise showing "» » pahnate fashion as m
weeds, the fan -palms LaUmia,
Bcrassus (fig. 7), Ckamaerops, Sabal, ftc, or in a pinnate
fashion as in the feather-palms, Artca (fig. 3). Kentia, Calamus,
Daemonarops (fig. a), &c. The form of the segments is generally
more or less linear, but a very distinct appearance is
given by the broad wedge-shaped leaflets of such palms as
Caryota, liartinaia or Mauriiia These forms run one into
another by transitional gradations; and even in the same palm
the form of the leaf is often very different at different stages of
its growth, so that it is a difficult matter to name correctly
seedling or juvenile palms in the condition in which we generally
meet with them in the nurseries, or even to foresee what the
future devekipment of the plant is likely to be Like the other
parts of the pUnt, the leaves are sometimes invested with hairs
or spines; and, in some instances, as in the magnificent Ceroxyton
attdicofa, the under surface is of a glaucous white or bluish
colour, from a coating of wax.
The Inflorescence of palms consists generally of a fleshy spike,
either simple or much branched, studded with numerous, sometimes
extremely numerous, flowers, and enveloped by one or more sheath-
ing braas called " spathes " (fig. 5). these parts may be small,
or they may attain relatively enormous dimensions hanging down
from amid the crown of foliage like huge tresses, and addmg greatly
to the noble effect of the leaves. In some cases, as in the Talipot
palm, the tree only flowers once: it grows for many years until it
has biecome a large tree then develops a huge inflorescence, and after
the fruit has ripened, dies.
The individual flowers are usually small (figs. 3. 6). greenish and
insiffnificant: their general structure has been mentioned already
Modifications from the typical structure arise from difference of
textnra, mad aptciany from anpimsainn of parts, m oooaeque
which the flovwers arc very fenerally unisexual (figs. 1. %, 6). though
the flowers of the two sexes are generally produced on the same trew^
(m o noe cio us), not indeed always in the same season, for a tree irt
joffi^f^^vf
Fig. 5. — Acrocomta scUrocarpa, much reduced.
sp, Spathe envek>ping the fruits, 3, The same cut lengthwise,
shown 00 a larger scale m I. m. Fibrous roesocarp, tn,
2. A fruit. haird endocarp; i, seed.
one year may produce all male flowers and in the next all female
flowers. Sometimes the flowers are modified by an increase in the
number of parts; thus the usually six stamens may be represented
by la to 34 or even by hundreds. The carpels are usually three m
number, and more or leas combined ; but they may Ik free, and their
number may be reduced to two or even one. In any case each
carpel contains but a single ovule.
Owing to the sexual arrangements before mentioned, the pollen
has to be transported by the agency of the wind or of insects to the
female flowers. This is fadliuted sometimes by the elastic move-
ments of the stamens and anthers, which liberate the pollen so
freely at certain times that travellers speak of the date-palms of
Egypt {Phoenix dactyltfera) being at daybreak hidden in a mist
of pollen grains. In other cases- fertilization is effected by the
agency of man, who removes the male flowers and scatters the
poQen over the fruit'beanng trees. This practice has been followed
in the case of the date from ume immemorial , and it afforded one
of the earliest and most irrefragable proofs by means of which the
sexuality of plants was finally cstablislied. In the course of ripening
of the fruit two of the carpels with their ovules may become absorbed.
as m the coco-nut. the fruit of which contains only one seed though
the three carpels are mdicated by the three longitudinal sutures and
by the presence of three germ-pores on the hard endocarp.
The fruit is various in form, sue and character; sometimes, as in
the oomnmn date (fig. 4) it is a berry with a fleshy rind enclosing a
hard stony kernel, the true seed, the fruit of Areca (fi|^ 3) is similar:
sometimes it is a kind of drupe as in Acrccomia (Rg. 5), or the coco-
nut. Cocos nnafera, where the fibrous central portion investing the
hard shell corres p onds to the fleshy portion of a plum or cherry,
while the shell or nut corresponds to the stooe of stone-fruits,
the seed being the kernel. In Bor^ssiu the three seeds are each
enclosed in a separate chamber formed by the stony endocarp
(fig 7) Sometimes, as in the species of iietroxyUm (fig. 6), Rapkia,
DaemonoroPs (fig. 2), &c.. the fruit is covered with hard, pointed,
reflexcd shining scales, which give it a very remarkable appearance
The seeds show a corresponding variety in siae and shape, Wk
642
PALMA, J.
«!w»y» romttm of • «Mi «f cainpcnB, is wUck b
r^i^lnN^r «itrr wmmojt cafaryo (Hn. I. «. 61 TlK ha
dM dtit M f kc eivSiMpcnB. tbe wtttt dSrf ioh of tW
the Mac M^>«LUK« la a wdxet crut/kuomi the «xaCcd
Ivory" M •imved froai «hc eario»^*crm of Fk/Uiffkn. li
l^r<^a the ic/vT Mm! coai tA">tac» tfetckened aVxa} the coutk of
tr^ v««r'.Ur iMivJlrt a?^ {r«'/».r.t laco tbr er/kwpmn produces tbe
c>^r4^^<it/M: appearaaue lo i«ctki« kao«a a* ra
tpcii M^va ia like A/cia aut '^ 3i-
Fio 6.— Sago PaliD {Metroxyhn Scgiu).
I. Afjrx of leaf 6, Fruit.
3, Iir.iruhlet of fruit ma; «pa/1ix 7, Fruit cut lengthwise, showing
3. lirjfwhtet '>f mulr irinoicKcace. teed s and the minute em-
4. Vtrtke r/f m-«le ttiv.rr\. bryoeuhich it embedded in
5. bamr cut tengtbwue. a Dorny eodotperm.
The ordrr ronlaint 133 genera with about 1100 spedes mainly
tropirdi, but with ftoroe repretcntalives in warm temperate
rcKiona Chamanopi kumilii u a native of the Mediterranean
rcKion, and the datepaim sriclda fniit in southern Europe as far
norlh at j8* N btitude In eastern Asia the Palms, like other
trnpical families, extend along the coast reaching Korea and the
k'Kiih of Japaik In America a few small genera occur in the
•'ill I hem United States and Caiifomui, and m South America
thr southern limit b reached in the Chilean genus Jubcea (the
(liile coco-nut) at 37* S. btitude. The great centres of
(Ji.iribution are tropical America and tropical Asia; tropical
Africa coniams only 11 genera, though some of the species, like
tlir Doum palm {l/ypkaent IhtbdUa) and the Delebor Palmyra
f..ilm ( Bjfiisius fluMtifer) have a wide distribution. With three
cx(q)liotiB Old and New World forms are distlnct^tbc
toionut {CtHos nuttftra) if widely distributed 00 the coasts of
trdpiial Africa, In India and the South Seas, the other species
of I he genus are confined to the western hemisphere. The oil
p.ilm i/Jiictt guineensis) is a native of west tropical Africa, the
other species of the genus is tropical American. Rafkui has
•l»o species in both tropical Africa and tropical America.
The ijj genera of the order are ranged under seven tribes,
dittinguishrd by the nature of the foliage, the sexual coDdi-
tuina of the flower, the character of the seed, the position of the
raphe. &c. Other characters serving to distinguish the mmor
groups are afTordcd by (he habit, the position of the spatiies,
the " aestivaiion " of the flower, the nature of the stigma, the
ovary, fruit, &c.
It b imfMMMbW to ovrrrvtimate the utility of palms. They
furnbli foeid, shaker, clothing, tiosber* fuel, building matrriiU.
r, Maww , wt^pt, oB. vaa. wiaa. taans^ ^pcrig
4 a boos dL mmai pvodste. wfcK^ laiAer xrxm
mom irai.;aUe to iht mainr% aad to txrrptal agncUcnflU Tkc
Coco-atji paim, Cmn mmciferu^ aad the Da'e pala. Pkae*^ d^. ».
ferm.. have been ticaiod mdrr senarate beading ^"9*' **^ ^ • '^
capabk «f hffWhf hrifiid a«« pwl ^ rw i by tijiii 1 ias>
Fic 7wPalmyfa Palm {.Bofossus fiabcRiJtr), a femak 1
t. Portion of female inflocescenoe ihofwiog young
», Fruit cut across showing the three seeds, all
Cocas nuciftra, Boratius fdbdltfer. Rhapis ttnifera, Artn^a smcchart-
fera. Phoenix iUveUnt, UaurtUa ttntfera, &c. Search a procitrrd
in abundance from the stem of the bago palm, UetrorfUm (6( 6
and others. The fleshy mesocarp of the fruit of Eiaeis gtametrr,^
of wcMcm tropical Afrca yields, when crushed and boiled. ** (u!a
oil." Coco-nut oil is extracted from the oUy endosperm of the cor^>-
nut. Wax u exuded from the stem of CervxjUm a wrf i c sJa ard
Coptmuia eerijera A vanety of " dragon's blood." a icsdn. *
procured from Daemonoropi Draco and other species. EdkU'
fruits are yielded by the date, the staple food of some dktr i ci s uf
oonhcrn Af nca The coco-nut b a source of wealth to its posacMors :
and maoy of the species, e.g Arua saptda (Cabbage-palm and
others), arc valued for their " cabbage "; but. as this is tbe termi<vkl
bud whose rnnoval causes the destruction of the tree, this a a wastH l1
artick of dwt unless care be taken by judicious pbnting to avcn
tbe annibibtiofl of the supplies. The famous " coco de racr," or
double coco-nut. whose floating nuts are the objecu of so maiv
legends and superstitions, is known to science as Ledotcea uytifl-
larum The tree is peculur to the Seychelles, where it b used for
many useful purposes, lu fruit b like a huge plum, coatalniajt
a stone or nut like two coco-nuts (in their huaks) united toscther.
These illustrations must suffioc to indicate the numerous coooocuc
uses of palms.
The only snccies that can be cultivated in the open air in England,
and then only under exceptiooaUy favourable circu m s ta acc a . are
the Eloropean Fan palm, Chamaerops hmmtlis, the Chasaa polra.
Trackycarpui Fertunei. &c . and the Chilean Ji^aea ipecloii.'.^
The date palm is commonly pUnted along the Mediterranean coa r.
There are several low growing palms, such as Rkapu /labdltfrrm.^
Chamaerops humiUs, &c.. which are suited for ordinary grera-boaiae
culture, and many of which, from the thick texture of their leaws.
arc enabled to resbt the dry and often gas-laden atmosphere ct
living rooms.
PALMA, JACOPO (c. 1480-1528), Italian painter of the
Vcnetbn school, was bom at Scrinalu near Bers>^mo, towards
14S0, and died at the age of forty-eight in July 152S. Ue b
currently named Palma Veccbio (Old Palma) to diatingobh him
from Palma Gtovane, his grand-nephew, a much inferior painter.
His grandfather's name was Ncgretto He b reputed to have
been a companion and competitor of Lorenzo Lotto, and to socBe
extent a pupil of Titian, after arriving ia Vcnioe ca4y in thf
PALMA—PALMELLA
6+3
x6tli century} be may alto have been the master of Boni/aaa
His earlier works betray the influence of the Bellini; but
modifying his style from tbe study of GiorgioQe and Titian,
Palma took high rank among those painters of the distinctively
Venetian type who remain a little below the leading nruisterSi
For ficbncss of cobur he is hardly to be surpassed; but neither in
inventioo nor vigorous draughtsmanship does he often attain any
peculiar excellence. A face frequently seen in his pictures is
that of his (so-called) daughter Violante, of whom Titian was said
to be enamoured. Two works by Palma are more particularly
celebrated. The first is a composition of six paintings in the
VeneUan church of S. Maria Formosa, with St Barbara in the
centre, under the dead Christ, and to right and left SS. Dominic,
Sebastian, John Baptist and Anthony. The second work is in
the Dresden Gallery, representing three sisters seated in the
open air; it is frequently named '* The Three Graces." A third
fine work, discovered in Venice in 1900, is a portrait supposed to
represent Violante. Other leading examples are: the " Last
Supper," in S. Maria Mater Domini; a " Madonna," in tbe church
of S. Stefano in Vicenza; the ** Epiphany," in the Breta of Milan;
the " Holy Family, with a young shepherd adoring," in tbe
Louvre; " St Stephen and other Saints," *' Christ and the Widow
of Nain," and the " Assumption of the Virgin," in the Academy
of Venice; and "Christ at Emmaus." in the PittI Gallery The
beautiful portrait of the National Gallery, London, with a back*
ground of foliage, originally described zi " Ariosto " and as by
Titian, and now reascribed to that master, was for some yean
assumed to be an unknown poet by Palma Vecchio. It is cei^
tainly much more like the work of Titian than of Palma. In
X907 the Staedel Institute in Frankfort acquired an important
work by Palma Vecchio, identified by its cUrector as an illustration
of Ovid's second Melamorpkosis, and named " Jupiter and
Calisto."
Palma's grand-nephew, Palma Giovane, was also named
Jacopo (1544 to about 1626). His works belong to the decline
of Venetian art. (W.MR.)
PALMA. or Palica de Mallorca, the capital of the Spanish
province of tbe Balearic Islands, the residence of a captain-
general, an episcopal see, and a flourishing seaport, situated
13 S m. S.S.E. of Barcelona, on the south-west coast of Majorca,
at tbe head of the fine Bay of Palma, which stretches inland for
about to m. between Oipes Cala Figueraand Regana. Pbp. (1900),
63,937, including a colony of Jews converted to Christianity
(CAmtIm). Palflia is the meeting place of all the highways in the
island, and the terminus of the railway to Inca, Manacor, and
Alcudia. The ramparts, which enclose the city on all sides
except towards the port (whera they were demolished in t%^i)^
have a circuit of a little more than 4 m. Though begun in i$6f ,
they were n6t finished till 1836. Palma underwent considerable
change in the 19th century, and the fine old-world Moorish char-
acter of the place suffered accordingly! The more conspicuous
buildings are the cathedral, the exchange, the royal palace, now
occupied by the captain-general, and the law courts, the episcopal
palace, a handsome late Renaissance building (1616), the gcneial
hospital (1456), the town-house (end of tbe i6th century), the
picture gallery, and the college. The church of San Francisco is
interesting for the tomb of Raimon Lull, a natfve ef Pahna. The
cathedra! was erected and dedicated to the Virgin by King James I.
of Aragon as he saOed to the conquest of Majorca; but, though
founded in 1130, it was not finished till 1601. llie older and
more interesting portions are the royal chapel (1233), with the
marble sarcophagus of James II. (d. 131 1) which was erected here
in 1770; and the south front with the elaborately-sculptured
doorway known as dd mirador (1389). The exchange (hnja), a
Gothic building begun in 14*6, excited the admiration of the
emperor Charles V. Palma has a seminary founded in 1700. a
collection of archives dating from the 14th century, a school
and museum of fine arts, a nautical Khool and an institute
founded in 1836 to replace the old university (1503).
The harbour, formed by a mole constructed to a length of
387 yds. in the t4th century and afterwards extended to more
than 650 yds., has been greatly improved sfaice 1875 by dredging
and a further addition to the mole of 136 yds. Previously it
was not accessible to vessels drawing more than 18 ft. Palma
has frequent and regular commttnicatjon by steamer with
Barcelona, Valencia and Alicante. Puetiopf, about 2 m. south-
west of the city, was once a good harbour, but is now fit only for
small craft. Palma has a thritdng trade in grain, wine, oil,
almonds, fruit, vegetables, silk, foodstuffs and livestock. There
are manufactures of akohol, h'queurs, chocolate, starch, sugar,
preserves, flour, soap, leather, earthehware, glass, matches,
paper, linen, woollen goods and rugs.
Palma pnobnUy Owes, if not its existence, at least its name
(symbolized on the Roman coins by a palm branch), to Metellus
Balearicus, who in 133 b.c settled three thousand Roman and
Spanish colonists on the island. The bishopric dates from the
14th century About x m. south-west of Palma is the castle of
BeUver or Belbes, the andent residence of the kings of Majorca.
Miramar, the beautiful country seat of the archduke Ludwig
Salvator of Austria, is la m. iu>rth of Palma.
PALMA. or San Mioitbl oe la Palma, a Spanish island In the
Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the Canary Islands (q.ff.).
Pop. (1900), 4i.994t nrea a8o sq. ul Palma is 36 m. long, with
an extreme breadth of x6 m. It lies 67 m. WJ>f.W. of Tencriffe.
It is traversed from north to south by a chain of mountains, the
highest of whkh is 7900 fl. above sea-leveL At the broadest
part is a ctkter 9 m. in dhuneler, known as the Caldera (i.e.
cauldron). The bottom of the crater has an elevation of 2300 ft.,
and it is overhung by peaks that rise more than 5000 ft. above it.
Pafana contains several mineral spnngs, but there is great want
of fresh water. The only stream which is never dried up is that
which issues from the Caldera. In 1677 an eruption, preceded
by an earthquake, took place from a volcano at the southern
extremity of the Island, and. much damage was done. Santa
Cruz de la. Palma (pop 7024) on the eastern coast is the prindpal
town The anchorage is good.
PALM BEACH* a winter resort on the east coast of Florida,
U.SA., in Palm Beach county, about 264 m. S. of St Augustine;
served by the Florida East Coast railway. It b situated on a
peninsuU (about' 30 m long and 1 m. wide) separated from the
mainland bgr Lake Worth, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean, and
derives iu name from the groves of coco-nut palms which fringe
the lake. The toco-nut was introduced here by chance, through
the wrecking, off the coast, in January 1879, of a coco-nut-laden
Spanish vessel. The Gulf Stream is within about 1 m. of tbe
shore, and the diinate is mild and equable, the winter tempera-
ture normally ranging between 70^ and 75^ F. On the Atlantic
is the Breakers,.a huge hotel, and fadng Lake Worth is the Royal
Poinciana, the largest hotel in the southern states. Palm Beach
has few permanent residents and is not Incorporated. On the
mainland just aaoss tbe lake is the city of West Palm Beach
(pop. in 1905, xsSe; 1910, 1743), a pleasure resort and the
c9unty-seat of Palm Beach county (created in 1909).
PALM-CIVET, or PAKAixnciTU, the name of the members off
the civet-tike genus Paradoxnrus, represented by several species
mainly from south-east Asia. (See Cakkivoka.) Palm-civets
are mostly about the size of tbeidomestic cat, or rather larger,
chiefly arboreal in habits, with dark uniform, spotted* or striped
fur. The common Indian palm><ivet (P. Hiier) ranges through-
out India, wherever there are trees, frequently taking up its
abodes in roof-thatch. Its diet consists of small mammals
and reptiles, birds and their eggs, fruit and vegetables. From
four to six young are brought forth at a litter, and are easily
tamed. Other species are the Ceylonese P. aureus, the brown
P y^ieMf,4he Himalayan P. frayt and the Malayan P Htrma-
phroditus* The small-toothed palm-civets, from the Malay
Archipehgo, Sumatra and Java, have been separated from th^
typical group to form the genus Arclcgale. In Africa the group
is represented by two species of Ndndinia, which show several
primitive characters.
PALMBLLA, a town of Portugal, in the district of Lisbon
(formeriy included In the province of Estremadura); at the north-
eastern extremity of the Serra da Armbida, and on thel ' '
Sftubal railway. Pop. (1900), Indusive of the neif^
644
PALMER, SIR C M.— PALMER, G.
vShgt of Marmieca, 11,478. Palndb 1* u andcBt Imd
pktaresque town, stUI sunounded by toMauvt bat rained walls
and dominaicd by «. medkni castle. Vitioiltine, market-
gudeniog and Iniit-famiDg ue important local indiistrin.
PalmeUa was taken from the Moon in 1147 by Alphonao I.
(Affooio Henrique*), and entrusted in 11 86 to the knighu of
Santiago. The title ** duke of Palmella " dates from 1834, when
il was conferred on the ttatrimin Pedro de Sousn-Hobccia, oonnt
of Palmella (1 781-1850).
PALMER. 8IR CHABLE8 KARX. Bast (t82>-i907), Eagiiih
shipbuilder, was born at South Shields 00 the ^rd of November
i8s9. His father, originally the captain of a whaler, removed
In 1828 to NewcastJe-on-Tyne, where he conducted a. ahip-
onming and ship-broking business. Charles Palmer at the age
of fifteen entered a shipping business in that town, whence, after
six months, be went to Marseilles, where his father had procured
him a post in a large commercial bouse, at the same time entrust'
iog him with the local agency of his own busmess. After two
years' experience at MaxseUles be entered his father's business
al Newcastle, and in 2842 he became r partner. His business
capacity attracted the attention of a leading local oollieiy owner,
and he was appointed maiuger of the Marley Hill coUieiy in
which he became a partner m 1846. Subsequently he was made
one of the managers of the associated collieries north and south
o( the Tyne owned by Lord Ravensworth, Lord Wlurndiffe,
the marquess of Bute, and Lord Strathmore, and in due course he
gradually purchased these properties out of the profits of the
Marley Hill colliery. Simultaneously be greatly devcfeped the
then rcccntly-established coke trade, obtaiidng the coke contracts
for several of the large EngUsh and continental railways. About
1850 the question of ooal>tnasport to the London market
became a serious question for north country colliery proprietors.
Psliner therefore built, largely according to his own plans, the
"John Bowes," the first iron screw'Cdilier, and several other
steam-colliers, in a yard establssbed by him at Jarrow, then a
small Tyncside village. He then purchased iron-mines in York-
shire, and elected along the Tyne at Jarrow large shipbuilding
yards, blast-furnaces, steel-works, roDing-mills and engme-
works, fitted on the most elaborate scale. The firm produced
war-ships as well as merchant vessels, and their system of rolling
armour plates, introduced in 1856, was generally adopted by
other buildeis. In 1865 he tuned the iwsiness into Palmer's
Shipbuilding and Iron Cbmpany. Limited. In 1886 his services
in coanesion with the Mttlement of the costly dispute between
British ship-owners and the Sues Canal Company (of which he was
then a director) were rewarded with a baronetcy. He died in
London on the 4th of June 1907.
PALHBR, EDWARD HENRY (1840-1882), EngUsh orientalist,
the aoa of a privau schoolmaster, was bom at Cambridge, on the
7th of August 1840. He was educated at the Pene School, and
as a schoolboy showed the characteristic beat of his mind by
picking up the Romany tongue and a great familiarity with the
life of the gipsies. From Kbool he was sent to London as a
clerk in the city. Palmer disliked this life, and varied il by
learning French and Italian, mainly by frequenting the society
of foreigners wherever he could find it. In 1850 he returned to
Cambridge, apparently dying of coosumptloa. He had an almost
miraculous recovery, and in i860, while he was thinking of a new
start in life, fell in with Sayyid Abdallah, teacher of Hindustani
at Cambridge, under whose influence he began his Oriental studies.
He matriculated at St John's Cbllcge in November 1863, and in
1867 WM elected a feUow on account of his attainments as an
orientalist, especially in Persian and HindustsnL During his
residence at St John's he catalogued the Persian, Arabic and
Turkish maauscripu in the university library, and in the libraries
of King's and Trinity. In 1867 be publbhcd a treatise on
OritHlat MyUkism^ baac^ on the Maksad-i-Aksd of Aiis ibo
Mohammad NafasL He was engaged in 1869 to join the survey
of Sinai, undertaken by the Palestine Exploration Fund, «nd
followed up this work in the next year by exploring the desert of
El-Tih in company with Charles Drake (i846>i874)- They
uunplcted this journey on foot and without eicort, making fnends
among the Bedouin, to whom 1
EffendL** After a visit to the Lebanon and to
where be made the acquaintance of Sir Ricftaid Burton, tlicn
consul there, he returned to En^aad in 1870 by way of Cooataati-
nople and Vienna. At Vienna he met Aminnis Vaasli&y. The
icralU of this eiprdftfon appeared in the IkmH ef lit Biaims
(1871); hi a report pnbfisbed hi the journal of the PaiestiDe
ExpkntiDn F^ind (1871); and in an article 00 the Stem Setis tf
Syria In the Quarlerfy Renem (1873). In the dooe of the year
1871 he became Lord Almoner's Professor of Arabic at CambrMse,
married, and settled down to teofhing His salary was small,
and his allaiis were further complicated by the long ilncss of hb
wife, who died in 1878. In 1881, two years after his sccowi
marriage, be left Cambridge, and Joined the staff of the Sleiidnpitf
newspaper to write on non-pohiioJ subjects. He was called to
the English bar in 1874, and eariy in 1S82 he was asked by the
government to go to the East and assist the Egyptian espedhioa
by his influence over the Arabs of the desert El-Tlh. He was
instructed, apparently, to prevent the Arab sheikhs from Joining
the Egyptian rebels anid to secure their non-intcrierence with the
Suez CanaL He went to Gasa, without an escort made his wnjr
safely thiou|^ the desert to Sues— an cqdoit of lingular boldncna
— and was highly successful in his ne^otkuions with the Bedouin.
He was appointed interpreter-in-chief to the force in Egypt,
and from Sues he was again sent into the desert with Captans
William John Gill and Flag-lieutenant Harold Chaningtoa
to procure cameb and gain the allegiance of the sheikks by
considerable presenu of money. On this journey he and his
companions were led Into an ambush and murdered (Angnil
1882). Their remains, recove r ed after the war by the tf mts
of Sir Charles (then Cokmd) Wairen, now lie in St Panl*is
Cathedral
Palmer's highest qualities appeared in hta travda, eipecialiy in
the heroic adventures cf his last journeys. His brilliant Kfaolanlnp
is displayed rather in tbr works he wrote in Persian and other Eastcn
laneuages than m his EngUsh books, which were geoerally wrtcten
uiufer pressure. His scholarBhip was wholly Eastern in character,
and lacked the critical Qualities of the modem school of Oriental
learning in Eurooe. All his works show a gnat liaguiatic raage and
very versatile talent; but he left no peraianent literary momiment
worthy of his powers. His chief writings are T%» Ihstrt ^ Iks
Emrfnf (1871). Pams «/ BekA sd I>iis (Ar. and Eng.. 187^1877}.
Arabic Gnmmar (1874), Hutory rf Jtnuakm (1871), bv Boantasid
Palraei^--thie latter wrote the part taken from Arshic sources;
Ptrsian DvUonary (1876) and Bm^uk and Persian Didtammry
(posthumous, 1883): translation of the Koran (1880) for the SacnA
Books oftht Bast series, a spirited but not very accurate rendering.
He also did good service in editing the Naata Xdsis id the Mesciae
Exploration.
PALMBB. ERASTDS DOW (18x7-1904), American sodptflr,
was bom at Pompey, New Yoric, on the and of April 181 7. In
his leisure moments as a carpenter he started by carving portraits
in cameo, and then began to model in day with modi snoccsa.
Among his works are: *' The White Captive " (1858) in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; "Peace in Bondage"
(1863); " Angel at the Sepulchre " (1865), Albany, New York;
a bronae statue of Chancellor Robert R. Livingston (1874), in
Statuary Hall, Cftpitol, Washington; and many portrait hnstx.
He died in Albany 00 the 9th of March i904> Ha nn, Walter
Launt Pahner (b. 1854), who studied art under Carolus-Duran
in Paris, became a member of the National Academy d Design
(1897), and is best known for his painting of snow scenes.
PAUmU OBORGB (1818-1897), British biscuit-manufacturer,
was bom on the x8ih of January s8i8, at Long Sutton, Somenet-
shire, where his family had been yeomen-farmers for several
generations. The Palmeis wero Quakers, and (Seoige Palmer
was educated at the school of the Sodety of Friends at Sidcot,
Somersetshire. About 1833 be was apprenticed to a miller and
confectk>ner at Taunton, and in 1841, in conjtuction with
Thomas Huntley, set up as n biscuit-manufacturer at Reading
By the application of steam-machinery to biscuit-manufacture
the £rm of Huntley 8t Palmer in a comparativdy short time b«rik
up a very large business, of which on the death of Huntley in
i8s7 Ckorge Palmer and his two brothers, Samud andWilUam
Isaac Palmer, became proprietors. In the same year George
PALMER, J. McAULEY— PALMERSTON
645
Falmcr was elected mAjror of Reading, and from 1878-1885 he
was Liberal member of Parliament for the town. He died at
Reading, to which he had been a most generous benefactor, on
the 19th of August 1897. His sons, George WOliam Palmer (b.
1851) and Sir Walter Palmer (b. t8$8), displayed a like munifi-
cence, particularly in connexion with University College, Reading.
George William Palmer, besides being mayor- of Reading,
represented the town In Parliament as a Liberal. Sir Walter
Palmer, who was created a baronet in 1904, became Cbnaervative
member for Salisbury in iqoo.
PALHBB, JOHN McAULBY (x8x7-xqoo), American soldier
and political leader, was bom at Ea^e Creek, Kentucky, on the
13th of September 1817. In 1831 his family removed to Illinois,
and in 1839 he was admitted to the bar in that state. He was
a member of the state constitutional convention of 1847. In
i8s»-i8s5 he was a X>emocratlc member of the state Senate, but
joined the Republican party upon iU organization and became
one of its leaders in Illinois. He was a delegate to the Republican
national convention in 1856 and a Republican presidential
elector in i860. In x86x he was a delegate to the peace conven-
tion in Washington. During the Civil War he served in the
Union army, rising from the rank of oolond to that of major-
general in the volunteer service and taking part in the capture
of New Madrid and Island No. xo, in the battles of Stone River
and Chickamauga, and, under Thomas, in the Atlanta campaign.
He was governor of Illinois from 1869 to 1873. In 187a he
joined the Liberal-Republicans, and eventually returned to the
Democratic party. In X89X-1897 he was a Democratic member
of the United States Senate. In 1896 he was nominated for the
presidency, by the " Gold-Democrats," but received no electoral
votes. He died at Springfield, Illinois, on the 35th of September
1900.
See TU Personal RecoOtctions of John U. Pdma—TU Slory ^an
Earnest Life, published posthumously in 190X.
PALMER. RAT (1808-1887), American clergyman and bymn-
wriier, was bom in Little Compton, Rhode Island, on 'the i3th
of November 1808. He graduated at Yale College in 1830, and
in 1832 was licensed to preach by the New Haven West Aasod-
ation of Congregational Ministers. In 1835-1850 he was pastor
of the Central Congregational Church of fiath, Maine, and in
1850-1866 of the First Congregational Church of Albany, New
York; and from 1866 to 1878 was corresponding secretary of the
American Congregational Union. He died on the 39th of March
18S7 in Newark, New Jersey, where, from x88i to 1884 he had
been assistant pastor of the BcUevIUe Avenue Congregational
Church. His most widely known hymn, beginning " My faith
looks up to Thee, Thou Lamb of Calvary." was written, in 1830,
was set to the tune " Olivet " by Lowell Mason, and has hexm.
translated into many languages; his hymn beginning "Jesus,
these eyes have never seen " (1858) is also weU-known.
Among the hymns translated by him are those beginning: "O
Christ, our King. Creator, Lord " (by Crcgoiv the Great); '^Come
Holy Ghost in love " (by Robert II. of France;; ** Jesus, thou lo^ of
loving hearts " (by Bernard of CUirvaux) ; and ** O, Bread to pilgrims
given " (from the Latin). Other hymiwCsoroeof them tranislations
iroro Latin) and poems were collected in his Compute Poetical Worka
(1876), followed m 1880 by Votces of Hope and Gladness. He also
wrote Sptritual Improoement (1830), republbhcd in 1851 as Closet
Honrs; Hints on the Fomtatum of Religtous Opinions (i860), and
Bamest Words on True Success in lafe (1873}.
PALMER, SAMUEL (1805-1881), English landscape painter
and etcher, was bom in London on the 37th of January x8os.
He was delicate as a child, but in 1819 he exhibited both at the
Royal Academy and the British Institution; and shortly after-
wards be became intimate with John Linnell. who introduced
him to Vartey, Mulready, and, above all, to William Blake, whose
strange and mystic genius had the most powerful effect on
Palmer's art. An illness led to a residence of seven years at
Shoreham in Kent, and the characteristics of the scenery of the
district are constantly recurrent In his works. Among the more
important productions of this time are the *' Bright Cloud " and
the "Skylark/' paintings in oil. which was Palmer's usual medium
in earlier life. . In 1839 he married a daughter of liiuielL The
wedding toor was to Italy, where he spent over two years in
study. Returning to London, he was in 1843 elected an associate
and in 1854 a full member of the Society of Painters in Water
Colours, a method to whidi he afterwards adhered in his painted
work. His productions are distinguished l^ an excellent com-
mand over the forms of landscape, and by mastery of rich,
glowing and potent colouring. Among the best and most
important paintings executed by Palmer during his later yean
was a noble series of illustrations to Milton's VAlUgro and //
Penseroso, In 1853 the artist was elected a member of the
English Etching Club. Considering his reputation and success
in this department of art, his plates are few in number. Their
virtues are not those of a rapid and vivid sketch; they aim rather
at truth and completeness of tonality, and embody many of the
characteristics of other modes of engraving— of mexxotint, of
line, and of woodcut. Readily accessible and sufiBcicntly
represenUtive phites maybe studied m the "Early Ploughman,"
in Eicking and Etchers {isi ed.), and the "Herdsman's Cottage,"
in the third edition of the same work. In t86i Palmer removed
to Reigate, where be died on the 34th of May i88t. One of his
latest eflforts was the production of a series of etchings to illustrate
his English metrical version of Virgil's Eclogues^ which was
published In 1883, illustrated with reproductions of the artist's
water-colours and with etchings, of which most were completed
by his son, A. H. Palmer.
PALMER, a township of Hampden county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A. Pop. (19x0 U.S. census) 8610. It has an area of about
3X sq. m. of broken hill country. Its chief village, also named
Palmer, about xs m. east of Springfield, is on the Chicopee river,
is served by the Boston ft Albany and the Central Vermont
railways, and by an electric Hne to Springfield, and has varied
manufactures; the ether villages are Thomdike, Bondsville,
and Three Riven. The prindpal mantifactures are cotton
goods, carpets and wire goods. Palmer was originally settled in
1 7 16, but received a notable accession of population from a
large Scotch-Irish colony which went from Ulster to Boston In
17x8. Their settlement was followed, apparently, by immigration
from Ireland in 1737. In X753 the plantation was incorporated
as a " district," and under a general state law of 1775 gained the^
legal rights of a township. Palmer was a centre of disaffection
in the time of the Shays Rebellion.
Sec T. H. Temple, History of the Town ef Palmor . . . t7i6-l8S6
(Palmer. 1889).
PALMER, a pilgrim who as a sign or token that he had made
pilgrimage to Palestine carried a palm-branch attached to his
suff, or more frequently a cross made of two strips of palm-leaf
fastened to his hat The word is frequently used as synonymous
with " pilgrim " (see Pocsimacs). The name " palmer " or
" palmer-worm " is often given to many kinds of hairy catcr-
pillan, specifically to that of the destructive tineid moth,
Ypsiiopkus pometdla. The name is either due to the English
use of ** palm " for the blossom or catkin of the wiOow-tree, to
which the caterpillan bear some resemblance, or to the wandering
pilgrim-like habits of such caterpillars. Artificial flies used
in angling, covered with bristUxlig hain, are known also as
••palmen"or"hacUes."
PALMERSTON. HENRY JOHN TEMPLEL S^ VistfouNT (1784-'
X865). Engtish sutesman, was bora at Broadlands. near Romsey,'
Hants, on the 30th of October X784. The Irish branch of the
Temple family, from which Lord Palmenton descended, was very
distantly reUted to the great English house of the same name,
but these Irish Temples were not without distinction. In the
reign of Elixabeth they had furnished a secretary to Sir Philip
Sidney and to Essex in Sir William Temple (x55r-t*»7)i »fter-
wards provost of Trinity College, Dublin, whose son. Sir John
Temple (t6oo-x677), was master of the rolls in Ireland. The
latter's son, Sir William Temple (g.».), figured as one of the ablest
diplomatists of the age. From his younger brother. Sir John
Temple (1633-X704). who was speaker of the Irish House of
Commons, Lord Palmerston descended. The eldest son of the
speaker, Henry, ist Viscount Palmenton {c. x673-i7Sl^'Mi
created a peer of Ireland on the t3th of Match X7X3. "
646
PALMERSTON
ftuccMdcd by hu grandson, Henty the second viicount (1739-
1803), who married Mim Maxy lUt (d. i8os>, ft lady celebrated
(or ber beauty.
The and viscount 'f eldest son, Henry John, is mentioned by
Lady Elliot In her correspondence as a boy of singular vivacity
and energy. These qualities adhered to him through life, and
he had scarcely left Harrow, at the age of eighteen, when the
death of his father (April I7r, i^a) raised him to the Irish
iv.crage. It was no doubt owing to his birth and connckions,
but still more to his own talents and character, that Lord
I'^ilmerston was thrown at a very early age into the full stream
ui political and official life. Before he was faur-andtwcnty he
bad stood two contested elections for the university of Cambridge,
at which he was defeated, and he enured parliament for a pocket-
borough, Newtown, Isle of Wight, in June 1807. Through the
interest of his guardians Lord Malmesbury and Lord Chichester,
the duke of Portland made him one of the junior lords of the
Admiralty on the formation of his administration in 1807. A
few months later he delivered his maiden speech in the House of
Commons in defence of the expedition against Copenhagen,
which he conceived to be justified by the known designs of Napo-
leon on the Danish court. This speech was so successful that
when Perceval formed his government in 1809, he proposed, to
this young man of five^and^twcnty to take the chancelk)rship'of
the exchequer. Lord Palmerston, however, preferred the less
important oflicc of secretary-at-war, charged exclusively with the
fiuanclal business of the army, without^ aseatin the cabinet, and
in this position he remained, without any signs of an ambitious
temperament or of great political abilities, for twenty years
(1809-1828). During the whole of that period Lord^Palmerston
was cbicdy known as a man of fashion, and a subordinate minister
without Influence on the general policy of the cabinets be ser\'cd.
Some of the most humorous poetical pieces in the New Whig Guide
were from his pen, and he was entirely devoted, like his friends
Peel and Crokcr, to the Tory party of that day. Lord Palmerston
never was a Whig, still less a Radical; he was a statesman of
the old English aristocratic type, liberal in his sentiments,
favourable to the march of progress, but entirely opposed to
the claims of democratic government.
In the bter yean of Lord LivcrpooPs administration, after
the death of Lord Londonderry in iSaa, strong dissensions existed
in the cabinet. The Liberal section of the government was
gaining ground. Canning became foreign minister and leader
ol the HotisA of Commons. Uuskisson began to advocate and
apply the doctrines of free trade. Roman Catholic emancipation
was made an open question. Although Lord Palmerston was
not in the cabinet, he cordially supplied the measures of
Canning and his friends. Upon the death of Lord Liverpool,
Camung was called to the head of affairs; the Tories, including
IVel, withdrew their support, and an alliance was formed between
the Liberal members of the late ministry and the Whigs. In this
combination the chancellorship of the exchequer was first offered
to Lord Palmerston, who accepted it, but this appointment was
trust rated by the king's intrigue with Hcrrics, and Palmerston
was content to remain secret ary-at-war with a seat in the cabinet,
which he now entered for the first time. The Canning adminis*
tiatioD ended in four months by the dcoth of its illustrious chief,
and was succeeded by the feeble ministry of I.ord Goderich,
which barely sur\nvcd the year. But the ** Canningitcs," as
they were termed, remained, and the duke of Wellington hastened
to include Palmers^ion, Huski&son, Charles Grant, Lamb (Lord
Melbourne) and Du^llcy in his government. A dispute between
the duke and Uuskisson soon led to the rcsignaiion of that
minister, and his friends felt bound to share his fate. In the
spriBf o( 1S3S Palmerston found himself in opposition. From
that moment he appc.irs to ha\>e directed his attention closely
to foreign affairs; indeed he had already urged on the duke of
WeUinfton a more acti\'e interference in the affairs of Greece;
he bad made aevcral \iui% to Paris, where be foresaw with great
accuracy the impending revolution; and 00 the ist of June iStq
he made his first great speech on foreign affairs. Lord Palme r-
atoo waa no otatori his loosuaie was uostiidic^^ and his ddivtiy
somewhat embarrassed; but he generally foucKl words to say
the right thing at the right time, and to address the House <jf
Commons in the language best adapted to the capacity aad ilie
Umper of his audience. An attempt was made by the duke ol
Wellington in September 1830 to induce Palmerston to re-entcx
the cabinet,which he refused to do without Lord Lansdowne aod
Lord Grey, and from that time forward be may be said to have
associated his political fortunes with those of the Whig party. It
lyas therefore natural that Lord Grey should place tJie dq>art-
ment of foreign affairs in his hands upon the formation of the great
ministry of 1830, and Palmerston entered with seal onthedttti(.a
of an office over which he continued to exert his powerful
influence, both in and out of office, for twenty years.
The revolution of July 1830 had just given a sUong shock to
the existing settlement of Europe. The kingdom of the Kelhcr-
lands was rent asunder by the Belgian revolution; Portugal uas
the scene of civil w.ir; the Spanish succession was about to op«.a
and pUce an infant princess on the throne. Poland was in arms
against Russia, and the northern powers formed a closer alliance,
threatening to the peace and t he liberties of Europe. In presence
of these varied dangers, Lord Palmerston was prepared to act with
spirit and resolution, and the result was a. notable achievcmcut
of his diplomacy. The king of the Netherlands bad appealed to
the powers who had placed him on the throne to maintain his
rights; and a conference assembled accordingly in London 10
settle the question, which involved the independence of Belgium
and the security of England. On the one hand, the nonbera
powers were anxious to defend the king of IIolbnd;oo the other
hand a party in France aspir<;d to annex the Belgian provinces.
The poUcy of the British government was a close alliance with
France, but an alliance based on the principle that no inteiesu
were to be promoted at variance with the just rights of others, or
which could give to any other nation well-founded cause of
jealousy. If the northern powers supported the king of
Holland by force, they would encounter the resistance of France
and England united in arms, if France sought to annex Belgium
she would forfeit the alliance of England, and find herself opposed
by the whole continent of Europe. In the end the pcAicy of
England prevailed; numerous difficulties, both great aud small,
were overcome by the conference, although on the verge of war,
peace was maintained; and Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburs was
placed upon the throne of Belgium.
In x8j3 and 1834 the youthful queens Donna Maria of Portugal
and Isabelb of Spain were the representatives and the hope of the
constitutional party In those countries— assailed and hard
pressed by their absolutist kinsmen Don Miguel and Don Carlos,
who were the representatives of the male line of succession.
Lord Palmerston conceived and executed the plan of a quadruple
alliance of the constitutional states of the West to ser\T as a
counterpoise to the northern alliance. A treaty for the pacifica-
tion of the Peninsula was signed in London on the 32nd of April
1834; and, although the strug^c was somewhat prolonged in
Spain, it accompli^ed ks object. France, however, had been a
reluctant party to this treaty. She never executed her share in
it with xeal or fidelity. Louis Philippe was accused of secielly
favouring the Cartists, and he positively refused to be a party to
direct interference in Spain. It is probable that the hesitation
of the French court on this question was one of the causes of the
extreme personal hostility Lord Palmerston never ceased to show
towards the king of the French down to the end of his lile. if
indeed that sentiment had not taken its orig^ at a much cariirr
period. Nevertheless, at this same time (June 1834) Lord
Palmerston wrote that *' Paris is the pivot of my foreign policy*.*
M. Thiers was at that time in office. Unfortunately thee
differences, growing out of the opposite policies of the t^^
countries at the court of Madrid, increased in each succeedi*^ g
)*ear; and a constant but sterile rivalry was kept up, w>...a
ended in results more or I^ss humillatiog and injurious to both
nations.
The affairs of the East interested Lord Palmerston in the
highest degree. During the Creek War of IndepcndcDoe he
had strenuously supported the claims of the Helkacs ogolast the
PALMERSTON
Hi
"Turks and the execution o< the Treaty of London. But from
1B30 the defence of the Ottoman Empire hecame one of the
cardinal objects of his policy. He believed in the regeneration
of Turkey. " All that we hear," he wrote to Bulwer (Lord
Dalling), *' about the decay of the Turkish Empire, and its being
a dead body or a sapless trunk, and so forth, is pure unadulterated
nonsense." The two great aims he bad in view were to prevent
the esUblishment of Russia on the Bosporus and of France on
the Nile, and he regarded the maintenance of the authority of
the Porte as the chief barrier against both these aggressions.
Against Russia he had kwg maintained a suspicious and hostile
attitude* He was a party to the publication of the " Portfolio "
in 1834, and to the mission of the " Vixen " to force the blockade
of Circaasta about the same time. He regarded the treaty of
Unkiar Skclcssi which Rusna extorted from the Porte in x8j2,
when she came to the relief of the sultan after the battle of
Konieh, with great jealousy; and, when th» power of Mehemet
Ali in Egypt appeared to threaten the existence of the Ottoman
dynasty, be succeeded in effecting a combination, of all the
powerB.who signed the celebrated collective note of the 37th of
July 1839, pledging them to maintain the mdependenoe and
integrity of the Turkish Empire as a security for the peace of
Europe. On two former occasions, in 1633 and in 1835, the
policy of Lord Palmerston, who pr^Msed to afford material aid
to the Porte against the pasha of Egypt, was overruled by the
cabinet; and again, in 1839, when Baron Bnmnow first proposed
the active interference of Russia and Enghmd, the offer was
rejected. But in 1840 Lord Palmerston rctuined to the charge
and prevailed. The moment was critical, for Mehemet Ali had
occupied Syria and won the battle of Ncsib against the Torkisb
forces, and on the isi of July 1839 the snkan Mohammed
expired. The Egyptian forces occupied Syria, and threatened
Turkey; and Lord Ponsonby, then British ambassador at
Constantinople, vehemently urged the necessity of crushing so
formidable a rebellion against the Ottoman power. But France,
though her ambassador bad signed the collective note m the
previous year, declined to be a party to measures of coercion
against the pasha of Egypt. Palmerston, irritated at her
Egyptian policy, flung himsdf into the arms of the northern
powers, and the treaty of the 15th of July 1840 was signed in
London without the knowledge or concurrence of Ftance. This
measure was not uken without great hesitation, and strong
opposition on the part of several members of the British cabinet.
Lord Palmerston himself dedared in a letter to Lord Melbourne
that he should quit the ministry if his policy was not adopted;
and be carried his point. The bombardment of BeirOt, the fall
of Acre, and the total coUapseof the boasted power of Mehemet
All followed in rapid succession, and before the close of the year
Lord Palraerston's policy, which had convulsed and lerrifitfd
Europe, was triumphant, and the author o( it waa regarded as
one of the most powerful statesmen of the age. At the same
time, though acting with Russia in the Levant, the British
government engaged in the affairs of Afghanistan to defeat her
intrigues in Central Asia, and a contest with China was termmated
by the conquest of Chusan, afterwards exchanged for the island
of Hong'Kong.
Whhin a few months Loid Melbourne's admhiistration came
to an end (1841), and Lord Palmerston remained for five years
out of office. The crisis was past, but the change which took
place by the substitution of M. Gufaot for M. Thiers in France,
and of Lord Aberdeen for Lord Palmerston in England, was a
fortunate event for the peace of the world. Lord Ptilmerston
had adopted the opinion that peace with France was not to be
relied on, and indeed that war between the two countries was
sooner or later inevitable. Lord Aberdeen and M. Guisoi
inaugurated a different policy; by mutual confidence and friendly
offices they entirely succeeded in restoring the most cordial
understanding between the two governments, and the irritation
which Lord Palmerston had mflamed gradually subsided.
During the administration of Sir Robert Peel, Lord Palmerston
led a retired life, but he attacked with characteristic bitterness
the Ashburton treaty with the United States, which closed
successfully some other quertions he had long kept open. In
all these transactions, whilst full justice must be done to the
force and patriotic vigour which Lord Palmerston brought to
bear on the questions he took in hand, it was but too apparent
that he impcoted into them an amount of passion, of pernnal
animosity, and imperious language tvhich rendered him in the
eyes of the queen and of his colleagues a dangerous minister.
On this ground, when Lord John Russell attempted, m December
1845, to form a ministry, the combination failed because Lord
Grey refused to join a government in which Lord Palmerston
should resume the direction of foreign afiiairs. A few months
later, however, .this difficulty was surmounted^ the Whigs
returned to power, and Palmerston to the foreign office (July
1846), with a strong assurance that Lord John Russell should
exercise a strict control over his proceedings. A few days sufficed
to show how vain was this expectation. The French government
regarded the appointment of Palmerston as a certain sign of
renewed hostilities, and they availed themselves of a despatch
in which Palmerston bad put forward the name of a Coburg
prince 'as a candidate for the hand of the young queen of Spain,
as a justification for a departure from the engagements entered
into between M. Gnixot and Lord Aberdeen. However little
the conduct of the French government in this transaction of
the Spanish marriages can be vindicated, it is certain that it
originated m the belief that in Palmerston France had a restless
and subtle enemy. The efforts of the British minister to defeat
the French marriages of the Spanish princesses, by an appeal to
the treaty of Utrecht and the other powers of Europe, were
wholly unsuccessful; France Won the game, though with no
small kMs of honourable reputatk>n.
The revolution of 1848 spread like a conflagration through
Europe, and shook every throne on the Continent except those
of Russia, Spain, and Belgium. Palmerston sympathixed; or
was supposed to sympathize, openly with the revolutionary
party abroad. No state was regarded by him with more
aversion than Austria. Yet his opposiUon to Austria was
chiefly based upon her occupation of gieat part of Italy and her
Italian policy, lor Palmerston maintained that the existence of
Austria as a great power north of the Alps was an essential
element in the system of Europe. Antipathies and sympathies
had a large share in the political views of Lord Palmerston, and
his sympathies had ever been passionately awakened by the cause
of Italian independence. He supported the Sicilians against the
king of Naples, and even allowed arms to be sent them from
the arsenal at Woolwich; and, although he had endeavoured to
restrain the king of Sardinia from his rash attack on the superior
forces of Austria, he obtuned for him a reduction of the penalty
of defeat. Austria, weakened by the revolution, sent an envoy
to London to request the mediation of England, based on a large
cession of Italian territory; Lord Palmenton rejected the terms
he might have obtained for Piedmont. Ere long the reaction
came; this straw-fire of revolution burnt itself out in a couple
of years. In Hungary the civil war, which had thundered at
the gates of Vienna, was brought to a dose by Russian intervene
tion. Prince Schwarzenberg assumed the government of the
empine with dictatorial power; and, in spite of what Palmerston
termed his " judicious hottle-holding," the movement be had
encouraged and applauded, but to which he could give no material
aid, was everywhere subdued. The British government, or
at toast Palmenton as its representative, was regarded with
suspicion and resentment by every power in Europe, except
the French republic; and even that was shortly afterwards to
be alienated by Palmerston*s attack on Greece.
This state of things was regarded with the utmost annoyance
by the British court and by most of the Britbh ministers.
Palmerston had on many occasions taken Important steps
without their knowledge, which they disapproved. Over the
Foreign Office he asserted and exercised an arbitrary dominion,
which the feeble efforts of the premier could not control. The
queen and the prince consort (see Victoiua, Queei«) ^l4pot
conceal their indignation at the position in which htj"'*™' '
them with aU the other courts of Europe. When ^
648
PALMERSTON
Rungsrian leader, baded in Engbnd, Palmenton propoecd to
receive bin at Broadlaadt, a design which was only prevented
hy a peremptory vote of the cabinet; and in 1850 be took
advantage of Don Padiico's very questionable daims on the
Hellenic government to organise an attack on the little kingdom
of Greece.* Greece being a state under the joint protection of
three powers, Russia and France protested against iU coercion
by the British fleet, and the French ambassador temporarily
Idt London, which promptly led to the termination of the
affair. But it was taken up in parliament with great warmth.
After a memorable debate (June 17), Palmerston's policy was
condemned by a vote of the House of Lords. The House of
Commons was moved by Roebuck to reverse the sentence,
which it did (June sq) by a majority of 46, after having heard
from Palmenton the most eloquent and powerful speech ever
delivered by him, in which he sought to vindicate, not only
his claims on the Greek government for Don Pacifico, but
his entire administration of foreign affairs. It was in this
speech, which lasted five hours, that Palmerston made the well-
known declaration that a British subject^" Civis Rtfmanus
sum "— anight everywhere to be protected by the strong arm
of the British government against injustice and wrong. Yet,
notwithstanding this parliamentary triumph, there were not a
few of his own colleagues and supporters who condemned the
spirit in which the foreign reUtions of the Crown were carried
on; and In that same year the queen addressed a minute to the
prime minister in which she recorded her dissatisfaction at the
manner in which Lord Palmerston evaded the obligation to sub-
mit his measures for the royal sanction as failing in sincerity to
the Crown . This minute was communicated to Palmerston, who
did not resign upon it. These various circumstances, and msny
more, had given rise to distrust and uneasiness in the cabinet,
and these feelings reached their climax when Palmenton, on
the occurrence of the coup d'ital by which Louis Napoleon made
himself master of France, expressed to the French ambassador
in London, without the concurrence of his colleagues, his
personal approval of that act. Upon this Lord John Russell
advised his dismissal from office (Dec. 1851). Palmerston
speedily avenged himself by turning out the government on a
militia bill; but although he survived for many years, and
twice filled the highest office in the state, his career as foreign
minister ended for ever, and he returned to the foreign office
00 more. Indeed, he assured Lord Aberdeen, in i8s3, that he
did not wish to resume the seals of that department. Not-
withstanding the seal and ability which he had invariably
displayed as foreign minister, it had long been felt by his col-
leagues that his esger and frequent interference in the affairs
of foreign countries, his imperious temper, the extreme acerbity
of his language abroad, of which there are ample proofs in his
published correspondence, and the evasions and artifices he
employed to carry his points at home, rendered him a dangerous
rtpreKntative of the foreign interests of the country. But the
lesson of his dismissal was not altogether lost on him. Although
his great repuution was chiefly earned as a foreign minister, it
may be said that the last ten years of his life, in which he filled
other offices, were not the least useful or dignified portion of
his career.
Upon the formation of the cabinet of 1853, which was com>
posed by the junction of the surviving followers of Sir Robert
Peel with the Whigs, under the earl of Aberdeen, Lord Palmerston
accepted with the best possible grace the office of secretary of
state for the home office, nor was he ever chargeable with
the slightest attempt to undermine that Government. At one
moment he withdrew from it, because Lord John Russell per-
sisted in presenting a project of reform which appeared to him
entirely out of season; and he advocated, with reason, measures
* David Pacifico ( 1 78^-1834) was a Portuiue« Jew. bom a British
suhi«ct, at Gibraltar. He bcoaine a merchant at Athens, and in
1847 his house wa» burnt down in an anti-Semitic rioi. Pacifico
bmught an action. Uving the danuign at £i6.ooa At the same time
George Flalay, the hi«torian, was uifinc Us own grievancn •(ainst
the Graek gow ra meat, aad as both cUims were rripudiated Palmer-
nion took tharo op. Eventually Pacifioo rsceivsd a tubsuuuial aaa.
of greater energy on tbe appraadi os wai, srincs ^**^*^ poaHDly,
if they had been adopted, have avcited the conicat srith Russia.
Aa tiK difficulties of the Criasean osntpaign increaaed, h waa
not Lord Pafanerstoo but Lord John Russell who broke ap the
goverameot by icf tising to meet Roebuck's motion of nqoiry.
Palmerston remained falthfid and loyal to Ina coUeafpscs in tlse
boor of danger. Upon tbe resignation of Lord Aberdeen and
tbe dnke of Newcastle, tbe genoal sentiment of the Honse of
Commons and the cotuitry called Pafanenton to the head of
affairs, and be entered, on the $th of Fcbniaiy 1855, vpon tbe
high office, which he retained, with one abort interval, to the
day of his death. Palmenton nras in the seventy-first year of
his life when be became prime minister of England.
A series of fortunate events followed his arcearioB to power.
In March 1855 the death of the emperor Nicholas renovcd bis
chief antagonist. In September Sevastopol was taken, llse
administration of the British army was reformed by a consolida-
tion of offices. In the following spring peace was signed in
Paris. Never since Pitt had a minister enjoyed a greater abase
of popularity and power, and, unlike Pitt, Palmerston bad the
prestige of victory in war. He was assailed in pariiamcnt by
tbe eloquence of Gladstone, the sarcasms of Disraeli, aad tbe
animosity of the Manchester Radicals, but the country was
with him. Defeated by a hostile combination of parties in the
House of Commons on the question of the Chinese war in 1857
and the alleged insult to the British flag in the acixure of the
lorcha " Arrow," he dissolved parliament and appealed to the
nation. The result was the utter defeat of the extreme Radical
party and the return of a more compact Liberal majority.
The great events of the succeeding years, the Indian Mutiny,
and the invasion of Italy by Napoleon III., belong rather to the
general history of the times than to the life of Palmerston; but
it was fortunate that a strong and able government was at the
head of affairs. Lord Derby's second adminbtration of i8sS
lasted but a single year, Palmerston having casually been
defeated on a measure for removing conspiracies to murder
abroad from the class of misdemeanour to that of felony, which
was introduced in consequence of Orstni'a attempt on the life
of the emperor of the French. But in June 1850 Palmerston
returned to power, and it was on thb occasion that be proposed
to Cobden, one of his most constant opponents, to take office,
and on the refusal of that gentleman Milner Gibson was
appointed to the board of trade, although he had been tbe
prime mover of the defeat of the government on the Conspiracy
Bill. Palmerston had leamt by experience that it was wiser
to conciliate an opponent than to attempt to crush him, and
that the imperious tone he had sometimes adopted in tbe Hotiie
of Commons, and his supposed • bscquiousness to the em p e ror
of *he French, were the causes of the temporary reverse be had <
sustained. Although Palmerston approved the objects of tbe
French invasion of Italy in so far as they went to establish
Italian independence, the annexation of Savoy and Nice to
France was an incident which revived his old suspicions of the
good faith of the French emperor. About this time he expressed
to the duke of Somerset his conviction that Napoleon III. ** had
at the bottom of his heart a deep and unexlinguishable desire
to humble and punish England," and that war with France was
a contingency to be provided against. The unprotected con-
dition of the principal British fortresses and arsenals bad long
attracted his attention, and he succeeded in inducing the House
of Commons to vote nine milU<ms for the. fortification of those
important pomts.
In i8s6 the projects for rutting a navigable canal IhnMigb
the Isthmus of Suez was brought forward by M. de Lesseps. at^
resisted by Palmerston with all the weight he could bnnx to
bear against it. He did not foresee the advantages to be
derived by British commerce from this great work, and he was
strongly opposed to the establishment of a powerful French
company on the soil of Egypt. The concession of land to the
company was reduced by his intervention, but in other rcspcrts
the work proceeded and was accomplished. It may here be
mentioned, as a remarkable instance of his fbrssifht, that
PALMERSTON— PALMISTRY
649
FaliMnton toM Loid Malme^uiy, 00 his acoesafon to the
foreign office in 1858, that the chief reason of his opposition
to the canal was this: he helieved that, if the canal was made
and proved successlul, Gfeat Britain, as the fiist mercantile
state, and that moat closely connected with the East, would
be the power most interested in ii; that England would therefore
be drawn irresistibly into a more direct interference in Egypt,
which it was desirable to avoid because England had aheady
enough upon her hands, and because intervention might lead
to a rupture with France. He therefore preferred that no such
line of communication should be opened.
Upon the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, Lord
Pahnerstoo acknowledged that it was the duty of the British
government to stand aloof from the fmy; but his own opinion
led him rather to desire than to avert the rupture of the Union,
which mii^t have been the result of a refusal on the part of
England and France, to recognize a bk>ckade of the Southern
ports, which was notoriously imperfect, and extremely prejudicial
to the inteiesu of Europe. The cabinet was not of this opinion,
and, although the belligerent rights of the South were promptly
recognised, the neutrality of the Government was strictly
observed. When, however, the Southern envoys were taken by
force from the " Trent," a British packet, Palmerston did not
hesitate a moment to insist upon a full and complete reparation
for »o gross an infraction of International law. But the difficulty
with the American government over the " Ahibama " and other
vessels, fitted out in British ports to help the Southern cause,
was only settled at last (see Aiabaka Auutsahon) by an
award extremely onerous to England.
The last transaction in which Palmerston engaged arose out
of the attack by the Germanic Confcdentton, and Its leading
states Austria and Prussia, on the kingdom of Denmark and
the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. There was but one
feeling in the British public and the nation as to the dishonest
character of that unprovoked aggression, and it was foreseen
that Austria would em long have reason to repent her share in
it. Palmerston endeavoured to induce France and Russia to
concur with England in maintaining the Treaty of London,
which had guaranteed the integrity of the Danish dominions.
But those powers, for reasons of their own, stood aloof, and the
conference held in London in 18164 was without effect. A
proposal to send the British fleet into the Baltk was overruled,
and the result was that Denmark was left to her own resources
against her formidable opponents. In the foltowing year, on
the i8ih of October 1865, Lord Pabnetston expired at Brocket
Hall, after a short illness, in the eighty-first year of his age.
His remains were laid in Westminster Abbey.
Althous^ there was much in the official life of Lord Palmerston
• which inspired distrust and alarm to men of a less ardent and
contentious temperament, he had a lofty conception of the
strength and the duties of England, he was the irreconcilable
enemy of slavery, injustice and oppression, and he laboured with
inexhaustible energy for the dignity and security of the Empire.
In private life his gaiety, his buoyancy, his high breeding, made
even his political opponenta forget their differences; and even
the warmest altercations on public affairs were merged in his
largo hospitality and cordial sodal relations. In this respect
he was aided with consununate abih'ty by the tact and grace
of Lady Pahnerston, the widow of the 5th Earl Cowper, whom
be married at the ck)Be of 1839, and who died in 1869. She
devoted herself with enthusiasm to all her husband's interests
and pursuits, and she made his house the most attractive centre
of society in London, if not in Europe. They had no chiklren,
and the title became extinct, the property descending to Lady
Palmerston's second son by Earl Cowper, W. F. Cowper-Temple,
afterwards Baron Mount Temple, and then to her grandson
Evelyn Ashley (1836-1907) son of her daughter^ who married
the 7th eari of Shaftesbury— who waa Lord Pabnerston's
private secretary from 1858 to i86s*
The Life of Lord PalmersUm, by Lord Dalling (a volt., 1870).
with valuable selections from the nnmstcr'i autobiographical diaries
and private cerreipondeKa. only came down to 1847. aod waa
completed by Evelyn Ashley (vol. ilL, 1874; iv., v., 1876). The whole
was re-edited by Mr Ashley, in two volumes (1879), the standard
biography. The Lift by Uoyd Sanders (1888) is an excdlent shorter
wore.
PAUfERSTON. the chief town of the' Northern Territory of
South Australia, in Palmerston county, on the E. shore of
Port Darwin, 2000 m. direct N.N.W. of Adelaide. The town
stands 60 ft. above the level of the sea, by which it is almost
surrounded. There are a government house, a town hall, and
an experimental nursery garden. Palmerston has a magnificent
harbour, accessible to ocean-going vessels, and the jetty is
conncrted by rail with Playford. 146 m. distant. Cool breezes
blow almost continuously throughout the year. The mean annual
rainfall is 62-21 in. Pop. (i9oO» t973i mostly Chinese.
PALMETTO, in botany, a popular name for Sabal PalnuUc,
the Palmetto palm, a native of the southern United Slates,
especially in Florida. It has an erect stem, 20 to 80 ft. high
and deeply cut fan-shaped leaves, 5 to 8 ft. long; the fruit is a
black drupe § to } in. long. The trunks make good piles for
wharves, &c., as the wood resists the attacks of borers; the
leaves are used for thatching. The palm is grown as a pot-plant
in greenhouses.
PALMISTRY, (from *' palmist," one who studies the palm,
and the Teutonic affix ry signifying "art"; also called
Crikokanct, from x^» the hand, and /loircfa, divination).
The desire to Icam what the future has in store is nearly as
old as the sense of responsibiUty in mankind, and has been the
parent of many empirical systems of fortune-telling, which
profess to afford positive knowledge whereby the affairs of life
may be regulated, and the dangers of failure foretold. Most of
these systems come into the category of occult pursuits, as they
are the interpretations of phenomena on the ground of fanciful
presumptions, by an appeal to unreal or at least unvenfiable
influences and relations.
One of the oldest of this large family of predicfive systems
is that of palmistry, whereby the various irregularities and
flexion-folds of the skin of the hand are interpreted as being
associated with mental or moral dispositions and powers, as
well as with the current of future events in the life of the indi-
vidual. How far back In prehistoric times this system has been
practised It is impossible to say, but in China it is said to have
existed 3000 years before Christ,* and In Greek literature it is
treated even in the most ancient writings as well-known belief.
Thomas Blackwell* has collected some Homeric references:
a work by Mclampus of Alexandria is extant in several versions.
Polemon, Aristotle and Adamantius may also be named as having
dealt with the subject; as also have the medical writers of Greece
and Rome— Hippocrates, Galen and Paulus Aegineta, and in
later times the Arabian commentators on these authors. From
references which can be gathered from patristic writings it is
abundantly evident that the belief in the mystical meaning
of marks on the " organ of organs " was a part of the popular
phUoeophy of their times.
After the invention of printing a very considerable mass of
literature concerning thb subject was produced during ihe
i6th and 17th centuries. Praetorius, in his Ludicrum chiro-
maniicum Uena, 1661)* has collected the titles of 77. Other
works are quoted by Fullcbom and HGtst, and by writers
on the history of philosophy and magic; altogether about
98 books on the subject pubhshed before 1700 are at present
accessible. There is not very much variety among these treat-
ises, one of the eariiest, valuable on account of its rarity, is
the block-book by Haith'eb, Die Kutut Ciromantia* published
at Augsburg about 1470 (probably, but it bears no imprint
of place or date). In this there are ook>ssal figures of hands,
each of which has its regions marked out by inscriptions. Few
of these works are of sufficient interest to require mention.
» Giles, in QmUmPorary RmtwUwh , ... . . ^ „
•Proofg of Uu fnmnry into Ike Uj9 and Wnimgs of Homtr,
p. 3^ (London, 1736).
^Thia book ia worthy of note on aoooant of the quaint and
■arcactic humour of iu numerous acrostic versa. m^mmA^
* There ia a copy in the Rytands Library. Mancncster. ^— -
DMin'a BibUepopkkal Douuiunm (1817). 1. 143-
f>S9
PALMITIC ACID— PALM SUNDAY
The best an tboK by P<iinpettis,Robert Flndd, John de Indiciiie,
TalMuerus, Bapdsta dalla PorU, S. Cardan, Gocknius, Codes,
FrOlich, Sammer, Rothmann, Ingebert, Pomponius Gatiricus,
and Tricassus Mantuanus. There are akn early Hebrew works,
of which one by Gcdaliah b extant. An Indian literature is
also said to exist. Some of these authors attempt to separate
the physiognomical part of the subject (Chirognomia) from
the astrological (Chiromantia) ; see espedaUy Caspar Schott in
Magia naturalu universalu, Bamberg, 1677. Since the middle
of the i9tb century, in spite of the enactments of laws in Britain
and elsewhere against the practice, there has been a recrudescence
of belief in palmistry, and a new^ literature has grown up differing
little in essence from the older. The more important books of
this series are K. G. Carus. Ober Grund ti. BednUung d*r ver-
schiedtnen Formen der Hand, 1846; Landsberg, Die HandtelUr
(Posen,i86i); Adolf DesbaroUes, Les if ysUrade la wtain (tS $9);
C S. D'Arpentigny, ChiropiomU^ la science de la main (1865),
of which an English version has been published by Heron
Alien in 1886; G. Z. Gessmatm, Kateckismus der HandUsekunst
(Berlin, 1889); Czynszi, Die Deulungder Handlinien {Dtesdent
1893); R. Beamish, The Psyckommy of the Hand (1865); Frith
and Allen, The Science of Palmistry (1883); Cotton, Palmisfry
and its practical uses (1890). Some of the older writers 'appealed
to Scripture as supporting their systems, espedaUy the texts
Exod. xiii. x6; Job xxxvii. 7; and Prov. iiL x6. A considerable
amount of literature ^0 and con was devoted to this controversy
in the 17th and i8th centuries.
At the present day palmistry is practised in nearly all parts
of China. The criteria of judgment used there are referred to
in the article by Professor H. A. Giles, already quoted. It is
also extensively practised in India, especially by one caste of
Brahmins, the Joshi. In Syria and Egypt the palmist can be
seen plying his trade at the cafCs; and among the Arabs there
are chiromantists wbo are consulted as to the probable success
of enterprises. It is probably from their original Indian home
that the traditional dukkeripen (fortune-telling) of the gipsies
has been derived.
This system of divination has the charm of sjnpUdty and
dcfiniteness, as an application of the '* doctrine of signatures "
which formed so extensive an element in the occult writings of
the past six centuries. In the course of ages every detail has
been brought under a formal set of rules, which only need
mechanical application. There have been in past times con-
siderable divergences in the praaice, but at present there is
a fairly uniform system in vogue. One school lays special
stress on the general shape and outline of the hand. Corvaeus
enumerates 70 varieties, Pamphilus cuts them down to 6, John
de Indagine to 27, and Tricassus Mantuanus raises them to 80.
llie characters of softness or hardness, dryness or moisture,
&c., are taken account of in these classifications. The lines of
cardinal importance are (i) the rasceta or aoss suld, which
isolate the hand from the forearm at the wrist, and which are
the ffexion folds between the looser forearm skin and that tied
down to the fascia above the levd of the anterior annular
ligament. (2) The line which isolates the ball of the thumb,
where the skin ceases to be tied to the front of the palmar fascia,
is called the line of life. (3) A line starting above the head of
the second metacarpal bone and crossing the hand to the middle
of lis ulnar border is the line of the head. (4) The transverse line
below this which passes from the ulnar border a little above the
level of the bead of the fifth metacarpal and ends somewhere
about the root of the index finger is the line of the heart. (5)
The vertical line descending from the middle of the wrist to end
about the base of the middle finger is the line of fortune. (6)
The obUque line which begins at the wrist end of the line of life
and descends towards the idoar end of the line of the head is the
line of the liver.
These lines isolate certain swellings or monticuli, the largest
of which is (x) the ball of the thumb, called the mountain of
Yenus; (s) that at the base of the Index finger is the moontain of
Jupiter; (3) at the root of the middle finger is the mountain of
Saturn, while those at the bases of ring ami little finger axe
respectivdy the mountains of the (4) Sun and (5) of Ifferenry.
Above the mountain of Mercury, and between the lines of bead
and heart is (6) the mountain of Mars, aiKl above the Gne of the
heart is (7) the mountain of the Moon. The relative siaes ol
these nwuntains have assigned to them thdr definite correk-
tioos with characters: the 1st with charity, love, libertnaige:
the and with religiosity, ambition, love of honour, pride, super-
stition; the 3rd with wisdocn, good fortune, prudence, or w^ies
defident improvidence, ignorance failure; the 4th when large
makes for success, celebrity, inleli^ence, audadiy, when small
meanness or love of obscurity; the 5th indicates love of know-
ledge, industry, aptitude for commerce, and in its cxtmne
fonns on the one hand love of gain and dishonesty, oa the other
slackness and laxiness. The 6th is related to degrees of covrage,
resolution, rashness or timidity; the 7lh indicates sensKiwness,
morality, good conduct, or immorality, overbearing temper and
sdf-wilL
The swellings on the palmar faces of the phalanges of the
several fingers are also indicative, the xst and 2nd of the thumb
respectively, of the logical faculty and of the will; the rst, snd
and 3rd of the index finger, of materialism, law and ordrr.
idealism; those of the middle finger, humanity, system, infrl>
ligence; of the ring finger, truth, economy, energy; aiid of the
little finger, goodness, prudence, reflectiveness.
Over and above these there are other marks, crossts, trlang!e9.
&c., of which mctee than a hundred have been described axi
figured by different authors, eadi with its interpretatioo; and
is addition the back of the hand has its ridges. The ~ '
combine podoscopy with chiromancy.
To the anatomist the roughnesses of the pahn are of <
able interest. The folds are so disposed that the thick skin
shall be capable of bending in grasping, while at the saose time
it requires to be tightly bound down to the skeleton of the hand,
else the slipping of the skin would lead U> insecurity of prehcasaoo,
as the quilting or buttoning down of the covers of fumitttre by
upholsterers keeps them from sKppiog. For this piirpoee the
skin is tied by connecting fibres of white fibrillar tiasne to the
deep layer of the dermis along the lateral and lower edges of the
palmar fascia and to the sheaths of the flexor tendons. The
folds, therefore, which are disposed for the purpose of making
the grasp secure, vary with the relative lengths of the mctacaxpttl
bones, with the mutual relations of the sheaths of the ternkss^
and the edge of the pabimr fascia, somewhat also with the
insertion of the palmaris brevis musde. The suld are cmplm-
sixed because the subcutaneous fat, which is copious in order
to pad the skin for the purpose of firmness of hokifng, hang
restricted to the intervals between the lines abng vhkh the
skin is tied down, makes these intervals project, and thcM are
the monticuli. The sweUaog of the mountain of Venns is simply
the indication of the siae of the muscles of the ball of the thumh»
and can be increased by their exerdse. Similarly the hypotheosr
musdes for the little finger underlie the three ulnar mai^iaal
mountains, the sixes of which depend on thdr develflpmcat and
on the prominence of the pisiform bone.
That these purely mechanical arrangements have any psfcUc,
occult or predictive meaning is a fantastic imagmatioB, which
seems to have a peculiar attracttdn for certain types of miod,
and as there can be no fundamental hypothesis of oondatxoo,
its disfiwikMi docs not lie within the province of rcssoii.
(A. Ma.)
PALMRIC ACIDl »-HBXADEcyuc Acm, CH«(CHt)i/X)bH,
an organic add found as a glyceride, palmitin, in all animal
fats, and partly as glyoeride and partly uncomhined in pafaa oiL
The cetyl ester is spermaceti, and the myric^ ester is largdy
present in beeswax. It h most conveniently obtaiaed from
olive oil, after removal of the oleic acid (9.9.), or from Japanese
beeswax, which is its ^yceride. Artificisily it may be prepsxed
by heating cetyi alcohol with soda lime to 270* or byfnsiiv
oleic add with potassium hydrate.
PALM SUNDAY {Dominica palmarum), the Sunday bcfme
Easier, 10 called from the custom, still observed in the Roman
CathoUc Church, of blesiog pahn branches andcanyi^thea \m
PALMYRA
65 «
t procettl<ni in comnenMntioo ol Christ's- triompkal entry into
t jeruMlem. In the Western Church, Palm Sunday is counted
as the fiist day of Holy Week, and iu ceremonies usher in the
I series of services, cuhninating In those of Ck)od Friday, which
p commemorate the Passion of the Lord,
e The ceremonies on Palm Sunday as celebrated now m the
t Roman CathoUc Church are divided in three distina parts:
I (i) The solemn blessing of the palms, (2) the procession, (3) the
L mass.
I Branches of palm, olive or sproutirtf willow (hence in England
t known as " palm ") having been pkuxd before the altar, or at the
, Cpisilc side, after Terce and the sprinkling of holy water, the
priest, either in a purple cope or an alb without chasuble, proceedr
^ to bless thcra. The ceremony begins with the singing by the choir of
E the anthem Hosanna Fiiio Damd; the collect roRows; then the
( singing of a lesson from Exodus xv. by the subdoaCon; then the
Gradual, reciting antipbonaily the conspiracy of the chief pnests
and Pharisees, and concluding with Christ's prayer on Mt Olivet:
then the Gospel, sung by the deacon in the ordinary way, followed
by a " continuation oTthe Holy Gospel *' (Matt. xxi. and sqa.). After
this the priest blesses the puma in a series of prayers, that those
who receive them " may bo protected in soul and body," and that
" into whatever place tncy may be brought the inhabitants of that
place may obtain ITiy benediction: and all adversity being rrmovcd,
&c." The priest then sprinkles the palms thrkrc with holy water,
saying the prayer Asfivifs Mt, ftc, and also incenses thrm thrice.
The principal of the clergy present then approaches and gives a palm
to the celebrant, who then, in his turn, distributes the branches,
first to the principal of the clergy, then to the deacon and sub-
deacon, and to the other ckrgy in order of rank, and bstly to the
laity, all of whom receive the palms kneeiine, and kiss the palm
and the hand of the celebant. During the mstribution amiphons
are sung.
The Jeacon now turns to the people and says Procedamus in pace,
and the procession begins. It is headed by a thurifcr carrying a
smoking thurible; then comes the sob>deacon carrying the cross
between two acolytes with lighted tapers; the clergy next ia order,
the celebrant coming last with the deacon on his left, all carrying
branches and singing antiphonally, so long as the procession
lasts, the account 01 the entry into Jerusalem, ending with
*' Beiudutut qui ventf in ndwiine Domint: Hosauna in excc/m."
On returning to the church, two or four singers cater firsl and cbse
the doors, then, turning towards the procession outside, sing the
first two verses of the hymn " Gloria, laus et honor," (hose outside
repeating them, and so on till the hymn is finished. This done, the
Mibdeacon strikes the door with the staff of the cross, when it is
immediately opened, and the procession enters singing. The mass
that follows, characterised -by all tne outward signs of sorrow proper
to Passion Wcck^ is in striking contrast with the jo>'ous triumph of
the procession.
In the Orthodox Eastern Church Palm Sunday (Kvpiaxi^ or
lofnit rCiV 0aiuiv, ioprii /3aTo06pot, or 4 ^aib^pos) Is not included
in Holy Week, but is regarded as a Joyous festival commem-
orating Christ's triumphal entry into Jerusalem. There is no
longer a procession; but the palms (in Russia willow twigs)
are blessed, and are held by the worshippers during the service.
The earliest extant account of a liturgical celebration of Patm
Sunday is that given in the Peregrinaiio Silviae {Eleutficriae)*
which dates from the 4th centuxy and contains a detailed account
of the Holy Week ceremonies at Jerusalem by a Spanish lady
of rank: —
The actual festival began at one o'clock with a service in the church
on the Mount of Olives: at three o'clock cbrgy and people went in
procession, sirtf^ng hymns, to the scene of the Ascension: two hours
of prayer, sii^na and reading of appropriate Scriptures foMowcd.
until, at five o'clock the reading of the passage from the Gospel
telling how " the children with oRvc branches and palms goto meet
the Lord, and cry: * Blessed is he that comcth in the name of the
Lord * *' gave the signal for the crowd to break up, and, carrying
branches of olive and palm, to comluct the bishop, in eo typo quo
tunc Dominus Mucins est,* with cries of " Blessed is he that comet h
in the name of the Lord'** to the Church of the Resurrection in
Jerusalem, where a further service was held.
This celebration would seem to have been long established at
Jerusalem, and there Is evidence that in the4tfa and 5th centuries
it had already been copied in other parts of the East. In the
West, however, it was not introduced until much later. To
Pope Leo I. (d. 461) the present Dominica palmarum was
* The text Is published among the appendices to Duchesne's
Ortiinci du culU CltrHitn (and cd.. 1898). p. 48C, '* Procession du
soir."
> Drews takes this to mean " riding on an ass.'*
known as DominUa jiasaiombi PIusIm Sunday, and the Western
Church treated it as a day, not of rejoicing, but of numming.
The earliest record in the West of the blessing of the palms and
the subsequent procession is the libar ordinum of the West
Gothic Church (published by Firotin, Paris, igo4, pp. 178 sqq.),
vhich dates from the 6th centuiy; this shows plainly that the
ceremonial of the procession had been borrowed from Jerusalem.
As to how far, and at what period, it became common there
b very little evidence. For England, the earliest record is the
mention by Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne (d. 709), in his Ik
ittt^us virginUatis (cap. 30, Migne PatrU, Lot. 89, p. 128),
of a aacrosancta palmarum solemnitas, which probably means
a procession, since he speaks of the Benedictus qid unU, 9ic.,
being sung antiphonally. As the middle ages advanced the
procession became more and more populo;- and increasingly a
dramatic represeatatioo of the triumphal progress of Christ,
the bishop riding on «n as or horse, as in the East.' Flowers,
too, were blessed, as well as palms and willow, and carried in
the procession • (hence the names, pascba ftoridum, dominica
fiorumttramontm, Ics pdqucs fieurics).
The origin of the ceremony of blessing the palms is more obscure*
It is not essential to the. dramatic character of the celebration and
for centuries seems to have formed no usual part of it. Herr Drews
{Reatencyklop. XXI. p. 417, 40-te) ascribes to it an entirely separate
and pagan origin, it is significant that olive and willow shoald
have been chosen for benediction together with, or as substitutes
for palm, and that an exorcizing power should have been ascribed
to the consecrated branches: they were to heal disease, ward
off devils, protect the hourcs where they were set up against
lightning and (ire, and the fields where they were planted against
hail and storms. But healing pou-cr bad been ascribed to the
oli>e in pagan antiquity, and in toe same way the willow had from
time immemorial been credited by the Teutonic peoples with the
possession of protective qualities. It was natural that olive and
willow should have been chosen for the Palm Sunday ceremony, for
they arc the cariicst- trees to bud in the spring; thcur oonaecratioh,
however, may be explained by the intention to Christianize a pagan
belief, and it is easv to see how their mystic virtues came in this way
CO be ascribed to tne palm also. When and where the custom first
arose is unknown.
Of the reformed churches, the Church of En^^and klone
includes Palm Sunday in the Holy Week celebrations. The
blessing of the palms and the procession were, however,
abolished at the Reformation, and the name "Palm Sunday,"
though it survives in popular usage, is not mentioned In the
Book of Common Prayer. The intention of the compilers of
the Prayer-book seems to have been to restore the '* Sunday
next before Easter," as it Is styled, to its eariier Western
character of Passion Sunday, the second lesson at matins
(Matt. xxvi. 5) and the spedal collect. Epistle (Phil. H. s) »«<!
Gospel (Matt, xxvii. 1) at the celebration of Holy Communion
all dwelling on the humiliation and passion of Christ, with no
reference to the triumphal entry into Jerusalem. The modern
revival, in certain churches of an " advanced " type, of the
ceremonies of blessing the palms and carrying them in procession
has no official warrant, and Is therefore without any significance
as illustrating the authoritative point of view of the Church of
England.
Of the Lutheran churches only that of Brandenburg seems to
have kept the Palm Sunday procession for a while. Thfa was
prescribed by the Church order (Kirchenordnung) of 1540,
but without the ceremony of blessing the palms; it was
abolished by the revised Church order of 1572.
Sec the article "PatmsoHntag'* in Wetrer und Wclte, Kirchen-
Uxtkon (2nd ed.). ix. 1319 sqq. : anicle ** Woche, grosse," by Di^ws in
Heraog-Hauck. Reakmykiopadii (jrd ed.. Leipzig. 1908). xxi. 41^:
Wiepen, Paimsonnlagsprousstontn und Palmesel (Bonn. 1903); U
Duchesne. Origines du culU Ckr6titn (2nd ed., Paris. >8o8), p. 237.
For ceremonies anciently observed in England on Palm Sunday
see M. E. C. Walcott. Sacred Archaeology (1868) and J. Brand.
Popuhr amtiquitits (cd. 1870).
PALMYRA, the Greek and Latin name of a famous city of
the East, now a mdre collection of Arab hovels, but still an object
of interest on account of its wonderful ruins. In 2 Chron.
' For curious instances of the part played by the ass in medieval
church festivals see the artickr Fools. Feast of,
6 S3
PALMYRA
viti. 4, imd in the native' ascripUolis, it it called Tadmor, and
this is the name by which it is known among the Arabs at the
present day (Tadmur, Tudmur).^ Tlie site of Palmyta lies
ISO m. N.E. of Damascus and five days' camel jouney from
the Euphrates, in an oasis oi the Syrian desert, 1,300 ft. above
sea-level. At this point the great trade routes met in andent
times, the one crossing from the Phoenician ports to the Persian
Gulf, the other coming up from Petra and south Arabia.
The earliest mention of Palmsrra is in s Chron. viii. 4, where
Solomon is said to have built " Tadmor in the wilderness ";
X Kings iz. 18, however, from which the Chronider derived his
statement, reads " Tamar " in the Hebiew text, with " Tadmor "
in the Hebrew margin; there can be no doubt that the text
is right and refers to Tamar in the land of Judah (Esek.
ilvii. xq; ilviil. 28). The Chronider, we must suppose,
altered the name b«cawe Tadmor was a dty more familiar
and renovmed in his day, or possibly because he wished to
increase the extent of Solomon's kingdooL The date of the
Chronicler may be placed about 300 B.a, so Palmyra must
have been in existence long before then. There is reason to
believe that before the 6th century b.c the caravans reached
Damascus without coming near the oasis of Tadmor; probably,
therefore, we may connect the origin of the dty with the gradual
forward movement of the nomad Arabs which followed on the
overthrow of the andent nationalities of Syria by the Babylonian
Empire (6th century B.C.). The Arabian tribes began to take
possession of the partly cultivated lands east of Canaan, became
masters of the Eastern trade, gradually acquired settled habits,
and learned to speak and write in Aramaic, the language which
was most widely current throughout the region west of the
Euphrates in the time of the Persian Empire (6th-4th century
B.C.). It is not till much hter that Palmyra first appears in
Western literature. We learn from Appian {Bell. ct». v. 9) that
in 4>-4> B.C. the dty was rich enough to exdte the cupidity
of M. Antonius (Mark Antony), while the population was not too
large to save itself by timely fb'ght. The series of native
inscriptions, written in Aramaic, begins a few years after; the
earliest bears the date 304 of the Sdeudd era, i.e. 9 B.C. (Cooke,
North-^emUU InscripiioHS No. x4i»VogU6, Syrie CaUrale
No. 30a); by this time Palmyra had become an important
trade-post between the Roman and the Parthian sutes. Its
characteristic dvilization grew out of a mixture of various
elemcnu, Arabic, Aramaic, Greek and Roman. The bulk of
the population was of Arab race, and though Aramaic was used
as the written language, in common inlercounc Arabic had by
no means disappeared. The pn^)er names and the names of
deities, while partly Aramaic, are also in part unmistakably
Arabic: it is suggestive that a purdy Arabic term (/a|b/, NSI.
No. 136) was used for the septs into which the citizens were
divided.
Originally ta Arab settlement, the oasis was transformed in
the coufM of time from a mere halting-place for caravans to
a city of the first rank. The true ^ab despises agriculture;
but the pursuit of commerce, the organization and conduct, of
trading caravans, cannot be carried on without widespread
connexions of blood and hospitality between the merchant and
the leading sheiks on the route. An Arabian merchant city
is thus necessarily aristocrau'c, and its chiefs can- hardly be
other than pure Arabs of good blood. Palmyra also possessed
the character of a reUgious centre, with the worship of the Sun-
god dominating that of inferior deities.
The chief luxuries of the andent world, silks, jewels, pearls,
perfumes, incense and the like, were drawn from India, China
and southern Arabia. Ph'ny {N. H. xii. 41) reckons the yearly
import of these wares into Rome at not less than three-quarters of
a million of English money. The trade followed two routes:
■How the name Plsknyra anwe k obscure. The Greek for a
palm is 4oimi, and the Gre<ek ending • vro could not have been affixed
to the Latin polma. Schultem (Kile Sal., Index geogr.) cites
TiUtimr aa a variant of the Arabic name; this mi|hc mean '^abound-
ing in palms " (from the root tamat) ; ocherwiie Tadmor may have
b^n originally an Assyrian name. See Laganir, Bdiwui der
Nwmima, p. i»5 u.
one by the Red Sea, Efirpt Md AlemufaJB, ihtMhtttnm tte
Persian Gulf through the Syro-Arabian desert. The latter,
when the Nabataean kingdom of Petia (f.t.) cane to an cssd
(aj>. X05), passed into the hands of the Palmyrene mendatanta.
Thdr caravans (owoSfeu) travelled right across the desert to the
great enUep6ts 00 the Euphrates, Vologesiaa, about $$ m. aoutb-
east of Bal^lon, or Forath or Chaiax dose to the Penian CuJf
{NSI. Nos. XZ3-X15). The trade was enormously pio6tablc
not only to the merchants but to the town, which levied a
rigorous duty on all exporu and impoits; at the same time
formidable r^ had to be faced both from the dcflcct-tribcs and
from the Parthians, and successfully to plan or convoy a great
caravan came to be looked upon as a distinguished service to t lie
state, often recognized by public monuments erected by ** oovncil
and people" or by the merchanta interested in tKe venture.
These monuments, a conspicuous feature of Palmyrene archi-
tecture, took the form of sUtues placed on brackets projecting
from the upper part of the pillars which lined the principal
thoroughfares. Thus axoee, beside minor stre«^ts, the imposinc
central avenue whidi, starting from a triumphal aidi near
the great temple of the Sun, formed the main axis of the dty
from south-east to north-west for a length of 1240 yards, and
at one time consisted of not less than 750 columpa of rosy-white
limestone, each 55 ft. high.
Local industries do not seem to have been important. One
of the chief of them was the production of salt from the deposita
of the desert ;> another was no doubt the manufacture of
leather; the inscriptions mention also a powerful gild of workct*
in gold and silver (NSI. No. 126); but Pahnyta was not aa
industrial town, and the exacting fiscal system which drev
profit even out of the bare necessaries of lif e— «ich as wato«
oil, wheat, salt, wine, straw, wool, skins (see Tarijf ii. 6, NSI.
pp. 315 sqq.)— must have weighed heavily upon the artisan
dasa. The prominent townsmen were engaged in the otsaxuza-
tion and even the personal conduct of caravans, the diKhaice
of public offices such as those of airafff ar, secretary, guardian of
the wells, president of the banqueU of Bd, chief of the market
(see NSJ. Nos. 1x4, 1x5, xii, xaa), sometimes the victualUnc
of a Roman expedition. The capable performance of ihttc
functions, which often involved oonaiderable pecuniary sacrifices,
ensured public esteem, honorary inscriptions and statues; and
to these honours the head of a great house was careful to add
the glory of a splendid tomb, consecrated as the " long home "
Qit. " house of eternity," d. Eccles. xii. 5) of himself, hi» aoan
and his sons' sons for ever. These tombs, which lie ontaidc
the dty and overlook it from the surrounding hills, a featuie
chaxacteristically Arabic, remain the most interesting monu-
ments of Palmyra. Some are lofty towers containing sepulchral
chambers in stories;* others are house-like buildings with a
single chamber and a richly ornamented portico; the sides of
these • chambers within are adorned with the names and
sculptured portraits of the dead. As a rule the buHdiagii of
Palmyra do not possess any architectural individuality, bvl
these tombs are an exception. The style of all the ruins is late
dassic and highly ornate, but without refinement.
The rise of Palmyra to a poaition of political imponaxice
may be dated from the time when the Romans established
themsdves on the Syrian coast. As early as the first imperial
period the dty must have admitted the suzerainty of Rome,
(or decrees respecting its custom-dues were issued by Getmanictis
(A.D. X7-X9) and Cn. Domitius Corbulo (aj>. 57-66). At the same
time the city had by no means surrendered its independence,
for even in the days of Vespasian (a.d. 69-79) the distiActi\«
*"The toil of this marsh feast of Palmyra] is so impcrgtMtrd
with salt that a trench or pit rank in it becomesfitled in a shori
time with concentrated brine, the water of which evaporates in i!w
intense sunshine and leaves an incrustation of excellent salt **
Post. NarrcttBe efa Seemtd Jvmnuty to Palmyra in PsI. Ej^ F»nd's
Qtly. St. (189a). p. 3M*
' One of these tomb-towers, called Kasr eth-Thnniyeh. b iii ft.
high. 33i ft. S9ttarc at the bate, as ft. g tn. smiaiv above the base^
ment : it contains «x stories and places for j8o bodies. OppOHte the
entrance within is a hall with recesses Tor conins and a ri '
oeilittg; underneath b aa immense vauh.
I richly paneOed
PALMYRA
653
potttloB of l^almyra as an iBtcnnediate state tMtwcai the two
great powers of Rone and Paitlua was reoogniaed and carefully
watched. The splendid period of Palmyra (a.d. ijo-270), to
which the greater part of the iosaibed monuments belong,
started from the overthrow of Petra (a.d. 105) » whkh left
Palmyra without a competitor for the Eastern trade. Hadrian
treated the city with spedal favour, and on the occasion of his
visit in a.d. 130,. granted it the name of Hadxiana Palmyra
(wiarm NSI. p. 3 as). Under the -aaliie emperor the
customs were revved and a new tariff promulgated (April,
A.O. 137), cancelling the loose system of taxation " Ijy custom "
which formerly had prevailed.^ The great fiscal inscription,
which still remains where it was set up, gives the fullest picture
of the life and commerce of the dty. The government was
vested in the council (fiovK^) and people (Mmo<)i and admin-
istered by civil officers with Greek titles, the proedros (president),
the pammaUm* (secretary), the archons, qyndics and dtkafrMm
(a fiscal round! of ten), following the model of a Greek muni-
dpah'ty under the Roman Empire. At a later date, probably
under Septimius Severua or CaracalU (beginning of 3rd century).
Palmyra received the Jiu italieum and the status of a colony;
the executive offidals of' the council and people were called
i<ra/2^M, equivalent to the Roman tf»«»mrf (NSI. Nos. X2x, 127);
and Palmyrenes who became Roman dtizens began to take
Roman names, usually Septimius or Julius Aurelius, in addition
to tbdr native names.
It was the Parthian wars of the 3rd century which brought
Palmyra to the front, and for a brief period raised her to an
almost daacling position as mistress of the Roman East. A
new career of ambition was opened to her dtixens in the Roman
honours that rewarded services to the imperial armies' during
their frequent expeditions in the East. One house which was
thus distinguished had risen to a leading place in the dty and
before long played no small part in the world's history. Its
members, as we learn from the inscriptions, prefixed to their
Semitic names the Roman geHlUiciuM of Septimius, which shows
that they received the dtiaenship under Septimius Severua
(A.D. 193-411), presumably In recognition of their services in
connexion with his Parthian expediik>n. In the next generation
Septimius Odainatb or Odenathus, son of Hairan, had attained
the rank of Roman senator {ovydhtruAt, Vogil^ No. ax, NSI.
p. 38s ».). conferred no doubt when Alexander Severua visited
Palmyra in A.o. 330-231; his son again, Septimius Hairan,
seems to have been the first of the faaaily to recdve the title of
Ris Tadnior (" chief of Tadmor ") in addition to his Roman
rank {NSI, No. X25); while his son — the relationship, though
nowhere stated, is practically certain — the famous Septimius
Odainath, commonly known as Odenathus (f.v.), the husband
of Zenobia, received even higher rank, the consular dignity
(^arua6t) which is given him in an inscription dated aj>. 158,
in the reign of Valerian {NSI. No. xa6). The East was then
agitated by the advance of the Parthian Empire under the
Sassanidae, and the Palmyrenes, in spite of thdr Roman honouis
and thdr Roman dvilixation, which did not really go much
below the surface, were by no means prepared to commit them-
selves altogether to the Roman side.* But Parthian ambitions
made it necessary ipr the Palmyrenes to choose one side or
other, and their choice leaned towards Rome, both because
they dreaded interference with their religious freedom and
because the Roman emperor was further of! than the Persian
king. In the contesu which followed there can be no doubt
that the Palmyrene princes cherished the idea of an independent
empire of their own, though they never threw over thdr alle-
giance to the Roman suzerain until the dosing act of the dxama.
Thdr opportunity came with the disaster which befell the
Roman army under Valerian (^.t.) at Edeasa, a disaster, says
' >The fun text, both Greek and Palmyrene, with an EndUh
traiwlation, b given ia NSI, pp. 313-340. The tariff ihottid be
compared with the Greek Tario of Coptos a.0 90 (Flinders Petric,
Koptos. pp. 37 iqq.) and the Latin Tariff cf Zarai {Cofp.in»a. lot.
viii. 4508).
* For the genera! history of the Period see Persia: Bittory, A.
I viil, " The Soaianiaa Eropirsk'*
wliidi had nearly the same sagnficnce for the
Roman East as the victory of the Goths at the mouth of the
Danube and the fall of I>edus; the emperor was captured
(a.d. 360) and died in captivity. The Peruans swept victoriously
over Asia Minor and North Syria; not however without resist-
ance on the part of Odenathus, who inflicted considerable losses
on the bands returning home from the pillage of Antioch. It
was probably not kmg after this that Odenathus, with a keen
eye for his advantage, made an attempt to atuch himself to
Sbapur I. (f.v.) the Persian king;' his gifts and letters, however,
were contemptuously rejected, and from that time, as it seems,
he threw himself warmly into the Roman cause. After the
captivity and death of Valerian, Gallienus succeeded to a merdy
nominal rule in the East, and was too careless and sdf-indulgent
to take any active measures to recover the tost provinces.
Thereupon the two leading generals of the Roman army,
Macrianus and Callistus, renounced their allegiance and pro-
claimed the two sons of the former as emperors (a.o. 261).
During the crisis OdeiMthus remained toyal to Gallienus, and
was rewarded for his fidelity by the grant of a positton without
paralld under ordinary circumstances; as hercxlitary prince of
Palmyra he was appointed dux Orientis, a sort of vice-emperor
for the East (ajd. 262). He started promptly upon the work
of recovery. With his Palmyrene troops,* strengthened by
what was left of the Roman army corps, he took the offensive
against Shapur, defeated him at Ctesiphon, and in a series of
brilliant engagements won back the East for Rome. During
his absence at the wars, we leara from the inscriptions (aj>.
363-367) that Palxqyra was administered by his deputy Septi-
mius Worod, " procurator ducenarius of Caesar our tord," also
styled " commandant," as being Odenathus' viceroy (Apyairtnit,
NSI. NoSb 137-139). Then in the senith of his success
Odenathua was assassinated at Qom^ (Emesa) atong with his
ddest son Herodes (aj>. 366-367). The fortunes of Palmyra
now passed into the vigorous hands of Zenobu (f.f.)t who had
been activdy supporting her husband in his policy. Zenobia
seems to have ruled on behalf of her young son Wahab-aUath
or AthenodOrua as the name is Graedsed, who counts the years
of his reign from the date of his father's death. Under
(Menathns Palmyra had extended her sway over Syria and
Arabia, perhapa also over Armenia, Cilida and Cappadoda;
but now the troops of Zenobia, numbering it is said 70,000^
proceeded to occupy Egypt; the Romans under Probus resbted
vigorously but without avail, and by the beginning of aj>. 270,
when Anrelian succeeded Claudius as emperor, Wahab-allath
was governing Egypt with the title of ** king." His coins of
370 struck at Alexandria bear the legend viir) e{oHsularis)
Riomamorum) imiptrator) dijitx) JUpmanarum) and display his
head beside that of Aurelian, but the latter atone is styled
Augustus. Meanwhile the Palmyrenes wero pushing thdr
influence not only in Egypt but in Asia Minor; they contrived
to establish garrisons as far west as Ancyra and even Chalcedon
oppodte Byaantium, while still professing to act under the
terms of the joint rule conferred by Gallienus. Then in the
course of the jrear a.d. 37»-37x came the inevitable and open
breach. In Palmyra Zenobia is still called " queen " (fiaaOuaoa,
NSI. No. i3x; cf. Wadd. 3628), but in distant quarters, such
as Egypt, she and her son ckim the dignity of Augustus;
> Pctnis Patridus. Fratm. kist. graec. iv. t87.
*Th« Palm)rrene archers were eipedaUy famous. Apmui
mentions them in coonexlon with M. Antony's raid in 41 b.c. (BdL
etp. v. 9). Later on a contingent ■crved with the Roman army in
Africa, Britain, Italy, Hungary, where grave*stones with Palmyrene
and Latin iaaolptions have been found; we Lidxbar»ki. NordstwL
tpigr. p. a8i acq. ; EpUmtris, ii. 93 (a Latm inscription of the time of
Marcus Aurelius), aiad NSI. p. 313. The South Shields inscription,
now in the Free Library of tbie town, was found in the neighbouring
Roman camp: it is given in NSI. p. 3«x The Palmyrene soldier
who kC it up was do doubt an aidier. Jewish ttaditioa had reason
to renseraber these formidable Palmyrenes in the Romaa armies:
aoooiding to the Talmud 80,000 of them aaasted at the destruction
of the firat temple. 8000 at that of the second! Talm. Jerus.
Tmatnih, fd. 68 a. Midraih Ekka, n. 3. For other referenoes to
nOmyra (called Tarmod) In the Tafanud see Neubauer G^dfr. du
Talm. 301 s%q.
654
PALNI HILLS— PALO ALTO
Wahab-alUllifstb ycar)beglitf to 'mat eoins at AiexudrU willmut
tbe head of Aurelian and bearing the imperial title; and Zenohia's
coins bear the same. It was at this time (aj>. 171) that the two
chief Palmyrene generals Zabdl and Zabbai, »et vp a statue
to the deceased Odenalhus and gave him the sounding designa-
tion of " king of kings and restorer of the whole dty " {NSi.
No. 130). These assumptions marked a definite rejection of
all allcgbnGe to Rome. Aurelian. the true Augustus, quickly
grasped the situation, 4pd took strenuous measures to deal with
it. At the close of aj>. 270 Prohus brought back Egypt into the
empire, not without a considerable struggle; then in 171 Aurelian
made preparations for a great campaign against the seat of the
mischief itself. He approached by way of Cappadocia, where he
reduced the Palmyrene garrisons, and thence through Cilida
he entered Syria. At Antiocfa the Palmyrene forces under
Zabdft attempted to resist his advances, but they were compelled
to fall back upon the great route which leads from Antioch
through Emesa (mod. ||omf) to their native city. At Emcsa
the Palmyrenes were defeated in a stiffly contested battle. At
length Aurelian arrived before the walls of Palmyra, which was
captured probably in the spring of aj>. 272. In accordance
with the Jucfidous poUcy which he had observed in Asia Minor
and at Antioch, he granted full pardon to the citizens; only
the chief officials and advisen were put to death; Zenobia and
her son were capttxred and reserved for his triumph when he
returned to Rome. But the final stage in the conquest of the
dty was yet to come. A few months later, in the autumn of
273 — ^the latest inscription Is dated August 37a (Vogii^, No. 116)
—the Palmyrenes revolted, killed tbe Roman garrison quartered
in the dty, and proclaimed one Antiochus as their chief.
Aurelian heard of it just when he had crossed the Hellespont
on his way home. He returned instantly before any one expected
him, and took the dty by surprise. Pidmym was destroyed and
the population put to the sword. Aurelian restored the walls
and the great Temple of the Sun (aj>. 273); but the dty never
recovered its splendour or importance.
lanfMOfc^The lansuage spoken at Pafanyim was a dialect of
wcatera Aramaic, and belonga to the tame group as Nabauean and
the Aramaic spoken in Egypt. In some important points, bowoer,
the dialect was related to the eastern Axamaic or Syrian (c.f. the
plur. ending in I'; the dropping of the final I of the pronominal
pen. pL of the verb; the infin. ending A, Ac). But the rektion to
wcMern Aramaic is closer; specially charaacristic are the following
features: the iroperf. beginning «ith y, not as In Syriac and the
eastern dialects with « or /; the plur. ending -ayjA'; the forms of
the demonstrative praoouns, Ac As the bulk of the populaiioa was
of Arab race, it b not surpasiag that many of the proper names are
Arabic and that feveial Arabic words occur in the inscriptions.
The technical terms of munidpal government are mostly Greek,
transliterated into Palmyrene: a few Latin words occur, of course
in Aramaic fomu. For further rharartrristics of the dialect see
Ndkieke, ZDMC, axiv. 85-109^ The writing is a modified fonn of the
old Aramaic character, and especially interesting because it rcpre-
senu almost the last sUge through which the ancient alphabet
passed befoie it developed into the Hebrew aqoaie character.
The names of the months were the same as those used by the
Nabaucaas, Syrians and later jews via. the Babylonian. The
calendar was the Syro-Macedonian, a solar^ as distinct from the
primitive lunar, calendar, which Roman mfluence disseminated
throughout Syria; it was practically a reproduction of the Julian
calen&r. Dates woe reckooed by the Sdeudd era, whkh began
in October 312 ».c.
Rdirion. — ^The religion of Palmyra did not differ in essentials from
that of the north Syruns and the Arab tribes of the eastern desert.
The chief god of the Palmyrenes was a solar deity, called Samas or
Shamash C* sun '*), or Bd. or Malak-bd,* whose mat temple is still
the most imposing feature among the ruins 01 Palmyra. Both
Bd and Malak-bd were of Babyiooian origin. Sometimes asao-
dated with the Sun-god was *Agfi>bol the Moon<god who is repre-
sented as a young Roman warrior with a large oescent attached to
his sfaouklen (Rom. 1, and Voefl£ pt. zii. Na I4i)> The great
*Athar-'athch, in Gi * *
goddess of the Aramaeans, 'Athar-'athch,
liredc Atargatis
* TruMCtibed M«X«xM^. Maiagbehis. ftc, and in the Paha,
inacr. givea in NSI^ p. a68, traai^tfri Sol sanctJsMmos; he was
further idmlififH with Zdn. Malak4id baa been explained as
" iiiuaingtr of Bd "; but more probably MakA ia the common
Babybnan epithrt wudik given to varioos gods, and means
"amaad lor"; Malak-bd wUI than be the siu. aa the viaible
■epraaentative of BH.
(f.p.), and Alath, the chief goddem of Ike aKieat Aahs, wcsw aho
woishipped at Pallia. AnodMr deity whose name eocuA in vwiava
inscriptjoos, is Baal-ahamim, ija. " B of the heavens." •!«»■ mty^mrm,
imes called "lord of eternity," but he war --
I the national gods of Palmyra, so far as we I
though he pco^ibly had a temple there. Another
lately discovered, is that of a " ' ' '
U
Ambic ddty " Shr-a.
__ lAm the good and bountiful god who docs not drink wine **
{NSI. Na 140 B) ; the name means ** he who accompanies, the pro-
tector of. the people *'^<he divine patron of the caravan. hcommnH
formula in Pdmyieoe dedkauioas rans ** To him whose aaae a
blessed for ever, the good and the compasaioaatc "i out of revcfencc
the name of the ddcy was not pronounced; was it Bd or Malak-bc! >
It is worth -noticing that this epithet like " k>rd of eternity '* '..r.
*• of the world *'), has a distinctly Jewish dttracter. *«——•—
about 12 names of gods are fcrnnd m iUmyreae; aoa
however, only occur m compound proper names
After its overthrow by Aurdian, Palmyra was partially f«vi\Td
as a military sutton by Diocletian (end of 3rd century a.i>.). as
we learn from a Latin inscription found on the site. Before th*
time Christianity had made its way into the oasis, for aowng the
Lathera present at the Council of Nicaea (aj>. ^s) wa» Marinus
btsb<» of Palmyra. Tbe names of two other bishops of the stk
and oth centuries have come down to us. About A.D. ^. Palm> ra
vas the station of the first IHyrian legion (JVW. diga. i. 95, cd. Back-
ing) ; Justinian ia 327 furaished it with an anoBiioct, and bnik tbe
waU of which the ruins still reaaain (Preoofm^ i>e mtiif, ii. 1 1 1
At the Modem conquest of Syria, Palmyra capitulated to Khlltd
(see CxLirHATE) without erabradng Islam (Balldsori (BaUdhurP.
Ill scq.; Y&qOt, i. Stl). The town became a Moslem lonress and
recdvcd a coosidcfabic Arab cdooy; for in the tdgn of Mcrwfta
II. (A.H. 127-132) it sent a thousand Kalbite hora e o w n to aid the
revolt of Coieaa, to the district of which it is reckoned by the Arabic
geographers. The rebellion was sternly suppressed and the walls of
the dty destroyed (Ibn al-Achir, a.m. lay. cd. Tomberg V.. x^-,
d. Frai. IdsL at. 139, Ibn Wadih. ii. aio).' In Una oDonesioa
Y2i)at tells a curious story of the opening of one of the tomha by the
caliph, which in spite of fabulous mddents, recalling the locnd of
Rodenc the Goth, shows some traces of local knowledge. The ruirs
of Palmyra greatly interested the Amba, and arc commewMrated
in several poems oootod by YSqAt and others; they are refenrd tw
by th^ early poet N^bigha as proofs of the might of SokMnon and k«a
sovcrdgoty over thdr builders the Jinn (Dcrenbourg. /smra. As.
xii. 269} — a legend which must have come from the Jews, who dth«T
dt' ng to the ruins after the great overthrow or returned in the time
of iJiodetian. Rderencea to Palmvra in later rinea hnsw baem
odlected by Quatrtm^e. SuUanM iiamtauks, iL pt. I. pL ass w^
All but anoifailated by earthquake in the It th century, it reco\en^
considerabfe prosperity: when Benjamin of Tudela vultcd the dtv.
which was sull ca&ed Tadmor, he loend MOO Jewn within the 1
(lath century). It was stiU a wealthy j '
tury; but ia tha^caersl decline of 1'
the trade routes, it sunk at length to a poor group of hovels gatl _ _
in the courtyard of the Temple of the Sun. The ruins first became
known to Europe through the visit of Dr WDfiam Halifax of Aleppo
in 1691 ; his Rdadm 4^ a vajagt to Tadmor has been printed from hia
autogmph ia the PaL Exphir. Fund's Qoartcriy Sutcment for itoOL
Halilax not only took measurements, but copied i3 Greek and a
l*almyreoe texts. The architecture was carefully studied by Wood
and Dawkins in lyst, whose splendki folio (TV RmiuM •/ PsAwyv*.
London, itm) also gave copies of inscriptions. But the epign^hac
wealth of numyra was first opened to study by the c o l le c t ioas Of
Waddington J^voL iil) and De VogQi (U Syne €tntnU) made ia
time the most valuable document which has
1861-iAa. Since that t
come to light is the great fiscal inscription d i sc o vereo in iSCa by
Prince A ham d r k Laxaraw.
See also A. D. Mordtmann, Silmmjub. of the Munich Acad.(i«7S} :
Sachau, ZDMG. xxx>'. 728 aqq.; D. H. Mullcr, Paim, Insckr. (ifiq^^ :
J. Mordtmann Palmyrenisaus- (1899); Oermont-Ganneau, £ladci
4*07?*. or. i., RaxuU. forth, or. ilL, v., vil.; Liddnrsld. Epilowuwir. L
and iL; Sobcrahdm, Folm. /nackr. (I90S>> The Mpot i m* d'ijNjgr.
shm, oootaina the new texu which have been pnbtiihed aaaoa
1900. For the coins von Sallet's Firsten von Polmjra (1866)
must be read with his later essay in the ffum. Zeitichr. n. ^f
oqq. (1870). Critical discussions of the history will be fennd «*
SchUler. Geuk. d. R&miukem KoitoruiL, L • Tdl (1883). PP^ •>! 099.
•nd 857 sqq., and Mnmmarn, Pronmot ^f jAtSmmom £mp^
(Eng. trans., x886). pp. 93 sqq. (C. A. C^
PAUH HIUS. a lEBfe of hiUs in south India, in tbe Madnca
dittxia of Blndns. Tliey an an ofEahooi from tkt WoM/en
Ghau, and, while distinct froot the adjacent Anasalai Hilta;,
form part of the lame ayatem. They contain tiie hHI station
of goH^ftati^l (yaoo ft.), which 1ms a milder and more eqnabk
climate than Ootacamuad in the NUi^ Hilla. There is tone
coffee cultivation on the lower slopes.
PALO ALTO, a dty of Santa Qara connty, California. U.S^ ,
between two of the coast ranges, aboot s8 m. S. of Saa FranciMO^
wealthy pboeaa late aa the i4tk cc»-
e of the Cast, and owing to chafes m
Eth to a poor group of hovels gatbefrd
PALOMINO DE CASTRO— PAMIRS
655
and about 18 m, from the sea. Fbp. (1910) 44<6. It is served
by the coast division of the Southern Padfic nilway, and is the
f ailway sution for Leland Stanford Jr. University (q.v,), which
is about z m. south-west of the city. At Menlo Park is St
Patrick's Theok>gical Seminary (Roman Catholic). By all real
estate deeds the sale of intoxicating liquors is for ever prohibited
in the city; and an act of the state legislature in 1909 prohibited
the sale of intoxicating liquor within i} m, of the grounds of the
university. The name (Sp. " tail tree ") was derived from a
solitary redwood-tree standing in the outskirts of the city.
Palo Alto was laid out in 1891, but had no real existence before
1893. It was incorporated as a town in 1894, having previously
been a part of Ma3rfield township; in 1909 it was chartered as a
city. Palo Alto suffered severely in the earthquake of 1906.
PALOMINO DB CASTRO Y VELASCO, ACISCLO AMTONIO
(1653-1736), Spanish painter and writer on art, was bom of good
family at Bujolance, near Cordoba, in 1653, and studied philo-
5ophy» theology and law at that capital, receiving also lessons
in painting from Valdcs Leal, who visited Cordoba in 1673, and
afterwards from Aliaro (1675). After taking minor orders he
removed to Madrid in 1678^ where he associated with AUaro,
Coello and Carefio,.and executed some indifferent frescoes. He
soon afterwards married a lady of ranki and, having been
appointed alcalde of the mesta, was himself ennobled; and in
1688 he was appointed painter to the king. He visited Valencia
in 1697, and remained there three or four years, again devoting
himself with but poor success to fresco painting. Between
1705 aiid 17x5 he resided for considerable periods at Salamanca,
Granada and Cordoba; in the latter year the first volume ol his
work on aft appeared in Madrid. After the death of his wife
in 1735 Palomino took priest's orders. He died on the X3th
of August 1736.
His work, in 3 vols, folio (I7i5'l724)i entitled El iiiuto pidorka
y escala oplUa, consists of three parts, of which the first two, on
the theory and practice of the art of painting, are without interest
or value; the third, with the subtitle El Parnaso espttflol pinteresco
laureadoy is a nine of important biographical material relating to
Spanish artists, which, notwithstanding its fauhy style, has proctavd
for the author the not altogether undeserved honour of being called
the " Spanish Vasari." It was partially translated into English in
>739; sn abridgment of the onginat (Las Vidas de Ips pinlores y
€StiUuarioa espoMoUs) iras published in London in 1742, and after-
wards appeared in a Frencli translation in 1740. A German vtrsioa
was published at Dresden in 1781, and a reprint of the entire work
at Madrid in 1797.
PALTOCK, ROBERT (1697-1767), English writer, the only
son of Thomas Paltock of St James's, Westminster, was born in
1607. He became an attorney and lived for some time in
Clement's Inn, whence he removed, before 1759, to Back Lane,
Lambeth. He married Anna Skinner, through whom his son,
also named Robert, inherited a small property at Ryme
Intrtnseca, Dorset. There Robert Paltock, who died in London
on the 20th of March 1767, was buried. Paltock owes his fame
to his romantic Lift and Adventures of Peter WUkim (1751),
which excited the admiration of men like Coleridge, Southey,
Charles Lamb, Sir Walter Scott and Leigh Hunt. It has been
several times reprinted, notably with an introduction by Mr
A. H. Bullen in 1884. It was translated into French (1763) and
into German (1767).
PALUDAN-MULLER, PREDERIK (1809-1876), Danish poet,
was the third son of Jens Paludan-Miiller, from 2830 to 1845
bishop of Aarhus, and bom at Kjerteminde in Filnen, on the 7th
of February 1809. In 1819 his father was transferred to Odense,
and Frederik began to attend the Latin school there. In 1828
he passed to the university of Copenhagen. In 1832 he opened
his poetical career with Four Romances, and a romantic comedy
entitled Kjarlighed ted kofel ("Love at Court"). This
enjoyed a considerable success, and was succeeded in 1833 by
Dandurinden ("The Dancing Girl"). Paludan-MUllcr was
accepted by critidsm without a struggle, and few writers have
excited less hostility than he. He was not, however, well
inspired in bis lyrical drama of Amor and Psyche in 1834 nor in
his Oriental tale of Zuleimasjtugt (" Zuleima's Flight ") in 1835,
iu each of which he was too vividly influenced by Byron. But be
regained alt that he had lost by Us two vohunes of poems in
1836 and 1838. From 1838 to 1840 Paludan^MOUer was making
the grand tour in Europe and his genius greatly expanded; in
Italy he wrote Venus, a lyrical poem of extreme beauty. In the
same year, 184X1 he began to publish a great ^ork on which he
had long been engaged, aitd which he did not conclude until
1848; this was Adam Homo, a narrative epic, satirical, modem
and descriptive^nto which Paludan-Miiller wove all his variegated
impressions of Denmark and of love. This remains the typical
classic of Danish poetical iiteratare. In 1844 he composed three
enchanting Idylls, Dryadetu hryUnp (" The Dryad's Wedding ")
TUhon (" Tithonus ") and AheU dad ("The Death of Abel ").
From X850 a certain decline in the poet's physical energy became
manifest and be wrote less. His amjestic drama of Kalama
belongs to 1854. Then for seven years he kept silence.' Para-
diset (" Paradise ") x86i; and Bentdikt fra Nnreia (" Benedict
of Nurcia ") x86i; bear evidence of malady, both physical and
mental. PsJudan-Mttller wrote oonaiderably after this, but never
recovered his early raptures, except in the very latest of all his
poems, the enchanting welcome to death, entitled Adonis. The
poet lived a very retired life, first in Copenhagen, then for many
years In a cottage on the outskirts of the royal park of Fredens-
botg, and finally in a bouse in Ny Adelgade, Copenhagen, where
he died on the 27th.of December 1876. (E. G.)
PALWAU a town of British India, in Gurgaon district,
Punjab. Popt. (i90t), ia,83a It is a place of great antiqm'ty,
supposed to figure in the earliest Aryan traditions under the
name of Apelava, p«rt of the Pandava kingdom of Indraprastha.
lu importance is mainly historical, but it is a centre for the
cotton trade of the neighbouihood, having a station on the
Delhi-Agra branch of the Great Indian Peninsula raOway.
PAHIBRS* a town of south-western France, capital of an anon-
dissement in the department of Axttge, 40 m. S. by £. of Toulouse
on the railway to Foix. Pop. (1906), town, 7728; commune,
10449^ Pamiers is the seat of a bishopric dating from the end of
the 13th century. The cathedral (chiefly of the X7th century) with
an octagonal Gothic tower, is a biaarre mixture of the Graeco-
Roman and Gothic styles; the church of Notre>Dame du Camp
(17th and 18th centuries) is noticeable for its crenelated and
machicolated facade of the 14th oentuxy. Pamiers has a sub-
prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, a communal college and a
school of commerce and iadustry. Iron and steel of excellent
<|uality, chains and carxiage-spriags are among its products.
It has also tanneries and wool, flour, paper and saw mills,
brickworks and lirae>kilns, and commerce in grain, flour, fodder,
fruit and vegetablea. llieie are stone quarries and ntirsery
gardens in the vicinity, and the white wine of the district is well
khown.
Pamiers was originally a caatle buflt in the beginmng of the
I2th century by Roger II., count of Foix, on lands belonging
to the abbey of St Antonin de Fr^delas. The abbots of St
Antonin, and afterwards the bishops, shared the authority over
the town with the counts. This gave rise to numerous disputes
between monks, counts, sovereigns, bishops and the consuls of
the to\ni. Pamiers was sacked by Jean de Foix in 1486, again
during the religious wars, when the abbey of St Antonin was
destroyed, and finally, in 1638, by Henry II. of Bourbon prince
of Cond6.
PAMIRS, A teonntainous region of central Asia, lying on the
north-west border of India. Since 187$ the Pamirs have
probably been the best explored region in High Asia. Not only
have many traveUcn of many nationalities directed their steps
towards the Bam-i-dnnya (" the Roof of the World ") in search
of adventure or of scientific information, but the government
surveys of Russia and India have met in these high altitudes,
and there efiiected a connexion which will help to solve many of
the geodetic problems which beset the superfidal survey of
Asia. Since Wood first discovered a source oi the Oxus in Lake
Victoria in 1837, and left us a somewhat enoneous conception of
the physbgiaphy of the Pamirs, the gradual approach of Russia
from the north stimulated the processes of exploration from the
aide of India. Native explorers from India first began tr *-~
656
PAMIRS
busy In the Punin' about i860, and continued their invettiga-
tiooft for the following fifteen years. In 1874 the miasion
of Sir D. Forsyth to Yarkand led to the first systematic
geographical ezploiution of the Pamir country. In 1885 Ney
Elias made his famous journey across the Pamirs from east to
west, identifying the Rang Kul as the Dragon Lake of Chinese
geographer*— a distinctioa which has also been dairaed by some
geographers for Lake Victoria. Then Lockhart and Woodthorpe
in 1886 passed along the Wakhan tributary of the Oxus from its
head to Ishkashim in Badakahan, and completed an enduring
record of most excellent geographical research, Bonvalot in
1687, Littledale in x888, Cumboland, Bower and Dauvergnoi
followed by Younghusband in succeeding yean't extending to
1890; Dunmore in 1892 and Sven Hedin in z894*x895, have all
contributed more or less to Pamir geography; but the honours
of successful inquiry in those high altitudes still fall to Lord
Curzon, whose researches in 1894 led to a singularly clear and
comprehensive description of Paxnir geography, as well as to
the best map compilation that till then had existed. Meanwhile
Russian explorers and Russian topographers had been equally
busy from the north. The famous soldier Skobelev was probably
the first European to visit the Great Kara KuL He was follqwed
by scientific missions systematically organized by the Russian
government. In 1883 PutiaU's mission started south. Grom-
chevsky was hard at work from x888 to xS^a. Yanov began
again in 1891, after a short spell of rest, and las left his mark as
a permanent record in the vaUey of Sarhad (or Wakhan), between
the Baroghil pass and Bozai Gumbas. Finally, in 1895, the
Russian mission under General Shveikovsky met the British
mis&ion under General Gerard on the banks of Lake Victoria,
and from that point to the Chinese frontier eastward demarcated
the line which thereafter was to divide Russian from British
interests in highest Asia. Since then other travelleiB have
visited the Pamirs, but the junction of the Russian and British
surveys (the latter based on triangulation carried across the
Hindu Kush from India) disposes of any further daim to the
honours of geographical expbration.
Our estimate of the extent of Pamir conformation depends
much on the significance of the word Pamir. If we accept the
^ Persian derivation of the term (which is advanced
^rBflCto'by Curcon as being perhaps the most plausible),
fiapmir, or " the foot of mountain pealis," we have
a definition which is by no means an inapt illustration of the
actual facts of configuration. It has been too often assumed
that the plateau of Tibet and the uplands of the Pamirs are
analogous in physiography, and that they merge into each other.
This is hardly the case. Littledale points out {R. G. 5. Jown.,
vol. vii.) that the high-level valleys of glacial formation which
distinguish the Pamirs have no real counterpart in the. Chang
or plains of Tibet. The latter are >ooo ft. higher; they are
intersected by narrow ranges, and are drained by no rivers of
importance. They form a re|^n of salt lakes and stagnant
marshes, relieved by wide fiat spaces of open plateau country.
The absence of any vegetation be^nd grass- or scrub is a
striking feature common to bpth Punir and Chang, but there
the resemblance ceases, and the physical conformation of
mountain and valley to the east and to the west of the upper
sources of the Zarafshan is radically distinct.
The axis, or backbone, of Pamir formation is the great
meridional mountain chain of Saxikol — ^the andent Taurus of
-j^ tradition and htstoiy— «a which staiuls the highest
fuigin. Pc>^ wsnh of the Himalaya, the Muztagh Ata
(35,000 ft). This chain divides off the hi^4evel
sources of the Oxus on the west from the streams which sweep
downwards into the Turkestan depression of Kashgar on the
east. There are the true Pamirs {ia. valleys reaching up in long
slopes to the foot of mountain peaks) on either side, and the
Pamin on the west differ hi some caaential respects fron those
on the east. On the west the following are generally recognized
as distinct Paaifs: (t) the Great Pamir, of which the dominant
feature is Lake Victoria; (>) the Little Pamir, separated from the
Great Pamir on the aortk by what is now known as tha Nkolas
range; (3) the Pamir-I-Wakhan, which is the namnr troisi^ dt
the Wakhan tributary of the Oxus, the term Pamir applying 's
its upper reaches only; (4) the Alichur— the Pamir of the Yah:
Kul and Ghund— immediately to the north of the Great Paas.^
(s) the Sarea Paxnir, which forms the valley of the Murghch
river, which has here found its way round the eatt of the Great
Pamir and the Alichur from the Little Pamir, and now maLs
westwards for the Oxus. This branch was considered by masi
geographers aa the main Oxus stream, and Lake Chakmakt^
at its head, was by them regarded as the Oxus source. At the
foot of the Sarez Pamir stands the most advanced Rnasinn act-
post of Murghabi. To the north^'east of the Alichur air the
Rang Kul and the Kara Kul (or Kargosh) Pamirs. Rang Krf
Lake occupies a central basin or depression; but the Karm K:a
drains away north-eastwards through the Sarik<d (as tlic latter*
bending westwards, merges into the Trans-Alai) to ^**^g*^ aad
the Turkestan plains. Similar diaractetiatics diatiiig;isish x^
these Pamirs. They are hemmed in and separa t ed by sccw-'
capped mountain peaks and lidges, which are ar amr d with
gladers terminating in xnoraines axul shingle slopes at tbe bsse
of the foot-hilb. Long sweeps of grassy upland bestiwn whb
boulders lead from the stream beds up to the snowfidds, yc]lo«.
grey or vivid green, according to the season and the measure c^
suidlght, fold upon fold in interminable succession, their hleak
monotony being only relieved by the grace of flowers for a shost
space during the summer months.
To the east of the Sarikol chain is the Taghdumbaah Pazmr,
which daims many of the characteristica of the wcstcni Pamia
at iu upper or western extremity, where the Karacbvkar.
which drains it, b a comparatfvdy small stream. But what
the Karachukar, joining forces with the Khunjerab, stretches
out northwards for a comparativdystraight run to Taabkuighaa,
dividing asunder the two panlld ranges of Sarikol and Kand^ .
which together form the Sarikol chain, the appcllatloa Pair^
can hardly be maintained. This is the richest portion of iLe
Sarikol province. Here are stone-built houses ooUrctcri ia
scattered detachmeota, with a spread of cultivatioB leachi^
down to the river. Here are water-mills and many pemaneat
appliances of dvilization suited to the lower altitude (11,500 it^
the average hei|^t of the upper Pamirs being about 13,000). and
here we are no longer near the sources of the river at the foot d
the mountain peaks. One other so<alled Pamir exists to ibc
east of Sarikol, separated therefrom by the eastern range (the
Kandar) of the Sarikol, which is known as Mariom or hlaxioog
But this Pamir b situated nowhere near the sources of the Zaxif-
shan or Raskam river, which it bordexs, and possesses little a
common with the Pamirs of the west. The Mariom Pamir defina
the western extremity of the Kuen Lun, which stretches east-
wards for 250 m.^^ore it becomes the pc^tical bouadary d
northern Tibet
The Muztagh diain, which holds within its giasp'thc n
•yftem of gUaers in the worU, forms a junctioo with the
at the head of the Taghdumbash, where also anodiergreat
(chat of the Hindu Kuah) has Its eastern joocs. The v^
political boundary between the extreme north of the
Kashmir dependcndes and the extreme south of Chinese
Turkeitan is carried by the Zarafshan or Raskam river
which runs paralld to the Muztagh at iu oortheni f oot
(its valley dividing the Muztagh from the Koen Lun)»m
a point in about 79* so' E., where it is transferred to the watershed
of the Kuen Lun. Within the limits of these partially czpltfrd
highlands, lying between the I^uaira and the Tibetan table-had.
exact geographical definition ia impossible. But we snay fdkiv
Godwin«Auiten in accepting the main chain of the Mosiagb «•
merging into the central mountain system of the Tibetan CasAS.
its axis bdng defined and divided by the transverse itnam of the
S^yok at its westward bend, wtiibt the Karakoram rnng^ ta whirS
the Shyok rises, b a mbsidiary aorthera branch. The pass o«w the
Karakoram (18,500 ft.) is the most formidable ofasUcfe oa the man
trade route between Leh and Kashgar.
The Taghdumbash Pamir occupicv a geographical posrcSoa of
some political significance. One important pass (the Bejrik. 1$, toe fL)
leads from the Russian Pamirs into Sarikol across iu
northern bolder. A secood pass (the Wakbiir. 16.190 ft.)
connecu the head of the Wakhan valley oi AfghaaislaB
with the Sarikol province across its western head, wlalst
a thiid (the Kilik, i s,6oo ft.) leads into the bead of the Ha
PAMPA, LA—PAMPAS
657
and opens m diiScttU and dnserout route to Gilgit. The Tag h-
dumbuh tscbtiroed both by China and Kan jut (or Hunxa). and there is
consequently an open boundary question at this comer of the Pamiri.
From Lave Victoria of the Great Pamir the northern boundary
of that extended strip of Afghanistan which reaches out to the head
i>Aa«<cww ^ ^^^ Taghdumbash from Badakshan north of the Hindu
fjr""^ Kush Is to be traced: westwards, in the Lake Victoria
SLmiT Mtf ^^**'*>^ of the Oxus; and eastwards, on the Nicolas
aMm^ range, dividing the Great and Little Pamirs, till it ever-
j^, looks a point on the Aksu (or Murghab) river in about
74* 40' B. Here it diverges southwards to the Sarikol
chain, north of Taghdumbasli. This eastward extension was laid
down by the Pamir Boundary Commission of 1895. All the head of
the Little Pamir, with the Wakhan valley, b consequently Afghan
territory, but no military posts have been established so tar. The
Alichur, Rang Kul, Kaigosh (Kara Kul) and Sarec are Russian
Pamirs. The Mariom Pamir is Chinese.
The Wakhan glaciers under the Wakhjir water-parting. Lake
Chakmaktin near the sources of the Aksu, and Lake \^tona of the
Great Pamir have all been claimed as indicating the
^MUHiH «/ *™* source of the Oxus. But detailed examination of
thtOxm^ ^^^ hydroeraphkal conditions proves that neither of the
two lakes, Victoria (13400 ft.) or Chakmaktin (13,020 ft.),
ean justly be leearded as sources, both of them being derived
from the same mighty system of glacial snowfieMs on the summit
of the N kolas range. Both may be regarded as incidents ia the
course of glacial streams (incidents which are diminishing in volume
day by day), rather than original springs or sources. The same
glacial beds of the Nicolas range send down tributary waters to the
Panja or Wakhap river, below its junction with the ice stream from
Wakhjir, and thus it becomes impossible to decide whether the
glaciers of the Wakhjir or the glaciers of Nicolas should be regarded
as effecting the most imporunt contribution to the main stream.
There is evidence also that glacial moraine formations from time to
time may have largely affected the catchment area of these tribu-
tary streams. It would be as rash to assert that from Lake Victoria
no waters could «ver have issued with an eastward flow as it would
be to state that from Chakmaktin none ever flow westwards. The
measure of the verscity of Chinese pilgrims and geographers in the
early centuries of our era must not be balanced on such points as
these.
There is no evidence that the Pamirs were ever the support of
permanent settlements. The few mud-built buildings which once
ik%amiMtkui existed ■* Chakmaktin and at La near only decide
llj^jr^ recent occupation which could hardly have possessed a
* 7~ permanent character, and the few shrines and domed
v^paj. tombs which are scattered here and there about the
empty desolation of the Pamir slopes are all of them of recent
construction. The nomadic population which seeks pasturage
during the summer months in these drearjr altitudes is entirely
Klrghix, and we may uke it for granted that it wUl soon be entirely
Russian. The non-Russian population during the summer of
1895 could not have amounted to more than a few hundred souls —
occupying a few encampments in the Little Pamir and in the Tagh-
dumbash. The total population of the Russian Pamirs has been
reckoned at 350 " kibitkas," or 1500 souls. There is no ethno-
-raphical distinction to be traced between the Kirghiz of the Alichur
*arair and the Kirghiz of the Taghdumbash.
The Kirghiz are Sunni Mahommedans by faith, but amongst
them there are curious survivals of an ancient ritual of which the
origin is to be traced to those Nestorian Christian
communities of Central Asia which existed in the
y^^ middle ages. A Christian bishopric existed at Yarkand
f ^t ntS^ io Marco Polo's time, and is rapposed to have survived
for another century (1350). The last Gurkhan of the
Kara Khitai Empire in the eariy part of the i^th century
(the legendary Prester John) was a member of a Christian tribe
called Naiman. which is one of the four chief tribal divisions
mentioned by Ney Elias. The Nainun tribe claim kinship with
the Kipchaks. It is curious that the same survival of Christian
ceremonial should be found amongst the Sarikoli. a Shiah people
of Aryan descent akin to the Tajiks of Badakshan, as may be traced
amongst the Kirghiz. Christian svmbob have been d i sc o vered
in the southern towns of Chinese Turkestan by Sven Hedin.
The total area of the Pamir country may be estimated as about
150 m. long by 150 ro. broad, of which about one-tenth is grass
pasture land and the rest mountainous. All of it once
^J^',^ formed part of the ancient kingdom of Bolor. itself a
"• '*"■'• survival of the yet more andent empire of the Yue<hi,
Tokharistan; and across it, in spite of its bleak inhospitality,
there have been one or two recogniied trade routes from east
to west throughout all ages. The most important commercially
« ^_^ was that which passed north-west via Tashkurghan
^2^w and Rang Kul, from Chinese Turkestan to the khanates
* north of the Oxus; but the route via Tashkurvhan and
Lake Victoria to Badakshan was also well trodden. The great
pilgrim route of Buddhist days was that which connects the
ancient Buddhist cities of the Takla Makan in Chinese Turkeattn
with Chitntl (Kashkar). by the Baroghil Pass across the Hindu
Kush. This was but one unk in a chain of devout peregrinatioo
TL7L \l*
Par
whfch stretched from China to India, and whieh Included every
intervening Buddhist centre of note which existed in the eariy
centuria 01 our era.
For -six or seven months of the year (November to April) the
Pamirs are cqvered with snow, the lakes are frozen, and the passes
neariy impracticable. The mean temperature during aimmtA
the month of January recorded by Russian observers Z!JiS^
at the Murghabi— or Pamirski—post is -I3' F. In aI^I
July this rises to 63^ F., the elevation of the station being
12,150 ft. During the spring and summer months the prevalence
of fierce cutting winds, which are shaped by the conformation of
the valleys into blasts as through a Tunnel, folk>wing the strike
of the valleys either up or down, makes travelling painful and
existence in camp most unpleasant In the absence of wind the
summer atmosphere is often bright and exhilarating, but there is a
constant tendency to sudden squalls of wind and rain, which pass
as quickly as they gather. The most settled record of the Pamir
Boundary Commission of 1895 lasted from the 19th of August to
the nth of September, the maximum temperature being recorded
at 77* on the aist of August at Kixil Rabat (12,570 ft.) ; and yet on
the i6th of August snow had fallen to the depth of 6 in. and the
Beyik Pass was blocked. There were indications that monsoon
influences extended as far north at least as the Great Pamir, and a
definite analogy was established between the record of barometric
pressure on the Pamirs and that of the outer ranges of the Himalaya.
AUTHORZTIBS.— <:aptain J. Wood, A Journey to Ote Source of the
Oxus (new ed., London, 1873), Report of the Forsyth Missum (Cal-
cutta, 1875); Cokmel T. E. Gordon. The Roof of ike World (London,
1876): Pitman (trans.), Tkrouzh tke Heart of Asia (London. 1889);
Eari of Dunmore, The Pamirs (London, 1893); Major Cumberland,
Sport o» the Pamirs (London, 1895); Hon. G. N. Curzon. "The
Pamirs and the Source of the Oxus," R. G. 5. Joum., vol. viii.;
Report of the Proceedings of the Pamir Boundary CommiasioH (Cal-
cutta, 1897). (T. H. H.*)
PAMPA, LA, a territory of the southern pampa region ol
Argentina, bounded N. by lyfendoea, San Luis and Cordoba,
E. by Buenos Aires, S. by the territory of Rio Negro, from which
it is separated by the river Colondo, and W. by Mendoza.
Pop. (1904, official estimate), sa.isa It belongs geographicaUy
to the southern part of the great Argentine pampas, from which its
name is derived, but in reality only a part of its surface belongs
to the plain region. The western and southern part (perhaps
the larger) is much broken by hills, swamps and sandy wastes,
with occasional stretches of wooded country. The western half
is crossed by a broad depression, eztending from Mendoza south*
east to an intersection with the valley of the Colorado, which
was once the outlet of the dosed drainage basin occupied by the
provinces of Mendoza, San Juan and San Luis. This depression
is partially filled with swamps and lakes, into which flow the
rivets Atuel and Salado. An obscure continuation of these
rivers, called the Chadl-leubu, flows south-east from the great
swamps into the large lake of Uirelauquen, about 60 m. north of
the Colorado. There are a great number of lakes in La Pampa,
especially in the south-east. The eastern half is described as
fertile and well adapted for grazing, although the rainfall is
very light. Since the dosing years of the 19th century there
has been a large emigratkm of stock-raisers and agrictdturists
into La Pampa, and the territory has become an important
producer of cattle and sheep, wheat, Indian com, linseed, barley
and alfalfa. The climate is excessivdy dry, and the temperature
ranges from the severe frosts of winter to an extreme of 104^ F. in
summer. Strong, constant winds are characteristic of this
region. Railways have been extended into the territory from
Buenos Aires and Bahia Bianca, the hitter being the nearest
seaport. There is oonnodon also with the Transandine'railway
line on the north. The capital is General Acha (pop. about
3O0O in 1905), and the only other places of importance are Santa
Rosa de Toay and Victorica, both small, uninteresting ** camp "
viUages.
PAMPAS (Span. La PompCt from a Quidiua word signifying
a levd open space or terrace), an extensive plain of Argentina,
extending from the Rio Colorado north to the Gran Chaco, and
from the foothills of the Andes east to the Parani and Atlantic
coast^ It conabts of a great calcareo-argiUaceous sheet, once
^ There are other pampas In South America, such as the Pampas
de Aullagas, in Bolivia, the Pampas del SacraoMnto between the
Huallaga and Ucayali riven in eastern Peru, and othen less wdl
known, but when tn« word Pampas is used alone the great Argentine
plain tss
658
PAMPERO— PAMPHILUS
the bed of an aodent sea, covered on the west by shtosle tod
sand, and oa the cast by deposits of estuary silt of irregular
thickness brought down from Ihc northern highlands. Its
western and northern limits, formed by the foothills and talus
slopes of the Andes, and by the south of the great forested
depression of the Gran Chaco^ cannot be accurately defined, but
its area is estimated ot 200,000 to 300,000 sq. m. Its greatest
breadth is across the south, between the 36th and 37th parallels,
and its least in the north, where the eastern ranges of the Andes
project deeply into its north-western angle. Its surface is broken
in the north-west by the siaras of Tucuman, Catamarca, San
Luis and Cordoba, the latter rising from the midst of the plain,
and by some small isolated sierras and hills on the south. It
has a gradual slope from north-west to south-east, from an
elevation above sca-Ievcl of 2320 ft. at Mendoza to 20 ft. at
Buenos Aires on the La Plata— the distance across (between
Mendoza and Buenos Aires) being about 635 m. There are
other slight irregularities in its surface, such as the longitudinal
depression on the west, the saline, arid depression west of the
Cordoba sUrraSt the Mar de ChJquita depression N.E. of Cordoba,
and some smaller areas elsewhere. Apart from these the plain
appears perfectly IcveL The cast, which is humid, fertile and
grassy, has no natural arboreal growth, except in the vicinity
of Cordoba and in the north, where algarrobos and some of the
Chaco species are to be found. In the extreme south some
species of low, thorny bushes cover considerable areas in the
vidm'ty of the hill-ranges, otherwise the pkin is destitute of
native trees. Since the arrival of Europeans several species
have been introduced successfully, such as the eucalyptus,
poplar, paraiso (Afelia Asedarach), peach, willow, 0mbik
(Pircunia) and others.
The distinctive vegetation of the grassy pampas is the tall,
coarse-leaved "pampas grass" (Cynerium argenieum) whose
feathery spikes often reach a height of eight or nine feet It
covers large areas to the exclusion of all other spedes excq)t the
trefoils and herbs that grow between its tussocks. The natural
grasses of the pampas are popularly divided into pasta dura
(hard pasturage), which includes the large, tussock-forming
species, and pasta moUe (soft pasturage), the tender undergrowth.
Since the advent of Europeans other forage plants have been
introduced, the most successful and profiuble being alfalfa or
lucerne {Uedicago saUva)^ which is widely cultivated both for
hay and for green pasturage for the fattening of market stock.
West of thk region is a dry, sandy, semi-barren plain, called
the "sterile pampas." It has large saline areas, brackish
streams and lakes, and immense sandy deserts, and in singular
contrast to the fertile, treeless region of the east it supports
large areas of sttmtcd trees and thorny bushes. Most prominent
in thb hardy but unattractive growth is the " chafiar " (Curliaca
or Courliaca dccorticans), which is characteristic of the whole
area, and kd Professor (jricsbach to suggest the substitution
of " formadon del chafiar " for " fonnadon del monte," the
designation adopted by botanists for this particular region.
The chafiar is thorny and of low, irregular growth, and furnishes
a strong durable wood and a sweet fruiL
The grassy plains are well watered by streams flowing to the
Parani, La Plata and coast, though some of these arc brackish.
There are laiige saline areas in northern Santa F6, Santiago del
Estero and Cordoba provinces, and throu^out the greater part
of the pampean plain wells cannot be sunk lower than x8 or 20 ft.
without encountering brackish water. On the sterile pampas
these conditions are still more common, the drainage southward
through the Desaguadero and Salado being charged with saline
matter. There aro many saline lakes scattered over the pampas,
the hrgest being the Mar de Chiquita, and Lake Porongos in
Cordoba, the great swamps and lagoon oa the lower Salado in
Mendoxa, and Lake Bcbcdero in San Juan.
The fauna of the pampas is limited to comparatively few species,
all of which arc found beyond tea limits, also. These include the
vixcacha {Lxt^Uimus Iruhodactytus). Patasonian hare (Dtdichotis
pataioniai)^ coyp6 {Myo^olamtu eoypu), cui {Cavia anstr^ii). tuco>
toco {Oen^mys mageUanica), jafcuar {Fetis onca), puma (Fe/iT con-
M(or), giaa»<at (resembliiig fdu latui). wooa<at {Fetis teoffroyi)^
a fox-like dog iFdis ^t^krw, Asara). aflBarft (akin to Camia JmkaimM},
kkunk, weasel (Calicttsoarbarah deer {Cenus €Ampe*tru), four apicies
of armadillo, and two of the opowum. Hudson comidcri the
burrowing vixcacha. or btacacha. the most characteristic detuae* oi
the pampas, though the large ytUow ^x>8aum (Dideipkya auto-
caudala) accms to be nngulany adapted to life on the leviel gn^»\
plain. The avifauna is ai>parently richer, owiag to mtsrati..'-
Hudson enumerates 18 species of storks, ibisea. herons, spooa-bi '>
and flamingoes. 20 species oC ducks, geese and swans, 10 or 12 of tt .
ralUncs, including the graceful ]^f>icaha or dancing bird, aod 2S *
the Umicolae (13 of which are visitors from North Aroefka). L^r ;
birds are not numerous. Vultures and hawks are common, aund the .<-
are a few owls, the best known of which is the " minera ** iGc9tsi
cuniadaria), which tnhabiu the burrow of the viacadha. Atarts
other species of land birds, some 40 in number, are the iiul»tar>
starling {Sturndla), whose red breast makes it a coaspituous ot>K* i
on the pampas, the whUc4)andcd mocking-bird, the chak^r «
" crested screamer " (Chauna chavarria), the tinamou, and tt r
rhea, or South American ostrich. There are two specie* of t.u
filMiHou— the rufous and spotted — which are called Daren i»'»
and are often hunted with snares by^ honemeo. The roea, or ^
very numerous,^ is now found farther inland than formerly, and i»
. . _nychi
appearance of the painpaa. The first chani
01 cattle and horses. Cattle were pasture
i was ia the iatroditctkm
on the open pampas a<5 J
. jy men called gq.uchos or m€sluos, who became ni^-
braced for their horscnunship, their hardihood and their lawle&sr.r'^,
were guarded by men called gauchos or meslUos, who^ I
steadily diminishing in number.
Civilized occupation is working many changes in the diaraceer ai«d
a. Th ' " .....
;tle wc
iicdei
iship, I
Attention was then turned to sheep-breeding, which dev«l pei
another and better type of plainsmen-^the Irish and Scot-.)
shepherds. Then followed the extensive cultivaiioo of ccn»' .
forage crops, &c., which led to the general use of fences, the emp^ •
mcnt of immigrant bbourers, largely Italian and Spaoish. \
building of railways and the growth of ** camp" towns. 1
picturcsoue caucho is slowly disappearing in the eastern provlno. -
and the herds and flocks are being driven farther inland. The rur>
ipulation of the pampas is still sparse and the cstaacia* are vn .
. _ W. H. Hudson, The Naluralisl in La Plata (Lotidoa, i9o< .
Charles Darwin. Voyage oj tiit Beag^ (I^oodon, \%y^ and i»xr .
and Richardo Napp, La rtpuhlica argaitina (Buenos Aires, la; .
also in German).
PAMPERO, the cold south-west wind whidi blows over t^:
great plains of southern Argentina. The term is somcwh '
loosely applied to any strong south-west wind in that rcf^kt .
but more strictly to a rain squall or thunderstorm arb :
suddenly in the prevailing currents from north and nortliH:^'
Pamperos arc experienced at Buenos Aires on an avera^ aU>>i
a dozen times in the year, chiefly during October, Novenbcr a ■ •!
January.
PAMPHILUS (ist century A.D.), a Greek grammarian, of th.
school of Aristarchus. He was the author of a oomprehcnsi ^
lexicon, in 95 books, of foreign or obscure words (7X«0rrat ^»«
X4^t), the idea of which was credited to another grammar^',
Zopyrion, himself the compiler of the first four books. Th:
work itself is k>st, but an epitome by Diogcnianus (snd centur* 1
formed the basis of the lexicon of Uesychius. A similar compL -
tion, called A€nu>» C meadow"; cf. the Praia of Suetoni..*
from its varied contents, dcah'ng chiefly with mytlioles>-*<
marvels, was probably a supplement to the lexicon, althoii;:''.
some scholars identify them. Pamphilus was one of the ch <
authorities used by Athenacus in the Deipnasopkists. Smo.^
assigns to another Pamphilus, simply described as " n pk£^'
sopher," a number of works, some of which were probably by
Pamphilus the grammarian.
See G. Thilo in Ersch and Grvber's AUgtmeine Riertlefid e,
M. Schmidt, appendix to his edition of Ilesjchius, (1862; yfoL i* :
A. Wcstermann in Pauly's Rni-mcydop&die (1848).
PAMPHItUS, an eminent promoter of hsamlng in tlie ear'>
church, is said to have been bom, of good family, in Pboeci. i
(Berytus?) in the latter half of the 3rd century. After stu4>'i' »
at Alexandria imder Picrius, the disciple c^ Origen, be v._»
ordained presbyter at Caesarea in Palestine. Tliece he esta' -
lishcd a theological school, and warmly encouraged studcn's;
he also founded, or at least largely extended, the great iiUt^v
to which Euscbius and Jerome were afterwards so much indebti :
He was very zealous in the transcription and distribution ..
copies of Scripture and of the works of various Christian writc-w.
especially of Origen; the copy of the complete works vi the !»:•
named in the library of Caesarea was chiefly in the hand«r7i:Ug
PAMPHILUS— PAMPHLETS
659
of Punphnut Mnttdf. At the outbreak of the ' persecutiOB
under Muimin, Pamphilus waa thrown into prison (a.o. 307)
and there, ak>tig with his attached friend and pupil Euaebiua
(sometimes distinguished as Eusebius Pamphili), he composed
an Apclogyfor Origtn^ in five books, to which a sixth was after-
wards added by Eusebius. He was put to death in 309 by
Firmilian, prefect of Caesaxea.
Only the first book of the Apolofy oi Pampihilas Is extant, and that
but in an imperfect Latin translation by Kufinus. It is printed in
Lommatzsch ■ edition of Origen, voL xxiv.. and in Routh, Rel. sac
iv. 339 (cf. Hi. 487,500, fraffments). Photius (Codex 1 18) gives a short
survey of the whole. Jerome mentions Letters to iricnds, and
there may have been other workai Eusebius' memdr of Pamphilus
has not survivedL See E. Preuachen in Herzog-Iiauck's Real'
encyklopadic, and A. Harnack, AUckrisU. Litteraturgesch. I. 543.
PAMPHILUS, a Greek painter of the 4th century, of the school of
Sicyon. He was an academic artist, noted for accurate drawing,
and obtained such a reputation that not only could he charge
his pupils great sums, but he was also successful in introducing
drawing in Greece as a necessary part of liberal education.
PAMPHLETS. The earliest appearance of the word is in the
PkilobibloH (X344) of Richard de Buiy, who speaks of " panfle-
tos exiguos " (ch. viii.). In English wa have '* this leud
pamflet" {Test, of Love, bk. iii.), Occleve's "Though that this
pamfilet " {Reg. of Pr. ao6o), Lydgate's " Whiche is a paunflet"
{Minor Poepu, 180) and Caxton's "paunfiettis and bookys "
{Book of Eneydos, 1490, Protogi^). In all these examples
pamphlet is used to indiicate the extent of the production, and
in contradistinction to book. A short codicil in a will of 1495
is called "this pampclet" (Test. Ebor. iv. 26). In the zyth
century the word was used for single plays, poems, newspapers
and news letters (Murray's New English Did. vii. 410).
Not till the x8th century did pamphlet, begin to assume its
modem meaning of prose controversial tnct. " Pamphlet "
and " pamphMlaire '* are of comparatively recent introduction
into French from the English, and generally indicate fugitive
criticism of a more severe, not to say libellous, character than
with us. The derivation of the word is a subject of contention
among etymologists. The supposed origin from the amatory
poem of " Pamphilus," and a certain PamphOa, an author
of the ist century, may be dismissed as fanciful. The experts
are also undecided as to what is actually understood by a pam-
phlet. Some bibliographers apply the term to everything,
except periodicals, of quarto size and under, if not more than
fifty pages, while others would limit its application to two or
three sheets of printed matter which have first appeared In an
unbound condition. These are merely physical peculiarities,
and include academical dissertations, chap-books and broad-
sides, which from their special subjects belong to a separate
class from the pamphlet proper. As regards its literary character-
istics, the chi^ notes of a pamphlet are brevity and spontaneity.
It has a distinct aim, and relates to some matter of current
interest, whether personal, reh'gious, political or literary.
Usually intended to support a particular line of argument, it
may be descriptive, controversial, didactic or satlricaL It is
not so much a class, as a form of literature, and from iu ephe-
meral character represents the changeful currents of pubUc
opinion more closely than the bulky volume published after
the formation of that opinion. The history of pamphlets being
the entire record of popular feeling, all that is necessary here is
to briefly indicate the chief families of political and reh'gious
pamphlets which have exerdsed marked influence, and more
particularly in those countries— England and France-*-where
pamphlets have made so laige a figure in influencing thoughu
and events. It is difficult to point out much in ancient Uterature
which precisely answers to our modem view of the pamphlet.
The iibelli famoH of the Romans were simply abusive pasqui-
nftdes. Some of the small treatises of Ludan, the lost AnU'Caio
of Caesar, Seneca's A pocoloeyniosis written against Gaudius,
Julian's Kaiiropcr 4 aviixbaiav and 'Avtuxh^ 4 luxtofwirniiv,
from their general application, just escape the charge of being
mere satires, and may therefore claim to rank as early specimens
pf the pamphlet.
At the end 6f tlie 14th centaty the LbBard ddctrinea were
widely circulated by means of the tracu and leafleu of WycJif
and his followers. The Ploughman's Praytr and Lantkorno of
Light f which appeared about the time of OMcastle's martyrdom,
were extremely popular, and similar brief vernacular pieces
became so common that it was thought necessary in 1418 to
enact that persons hi authority should search out and apprdiend
all perwns owning English books. The printers of the 15th
century produced many controversial tractates, and Caxton and
Wsmkin de Worde printed m the lesser form. It was in France
that the printing-press fint began to supply reading for the
common people. Daring the last twenty yean of the 15th
century there arose an extensive popular Htenture of farces,
tales in verse and prose, satires, almanacs, &c., extending to a
few leaves apiece, and circulated by the itinerant booksellers
still known as onlportenrs. These foUc-books soon spread from
France to Italy and Spain, and were introduced into Eni^and
at the beginning of the i6th century, doubtless from the same
quarter, as most of oca* eariy chap-books are translations of
adaptations from the French. Another form of literature even
more transient was the broadside, or single sheet printed on one
side only, which appears to have flourished principally in
Enghmd, but which had been in use from the first invtnlion
of printing for papal indulgences, royal proclamations and
similar documents. Throughout western Europe, about the
middle of the 16th century, the' broadside made a consider-
able figure in times of political agiution. In England it was
chiefly used for. ballads, which soon became so extremely
popular that during the first ten years of the reign of Eliza-
beth the names of no less than forty ballad printers appear in
the Stationers' registers.
The humanist movement at the beginning of the i6th century
produced the famous EpistoUu obscurorum wonan, and the
leading spirits of the Reformation period— Erasmus, Hutten,
Luther, Melanchthon, F^ancowita, Veigerio, Curio and Calvin—
found in tracts a ready method of widely circulating their
opmions. The course of ecdcaiastical events was precipitated
in England by the SuppUcacyon for the Beggars (1528) of Simon
Fish, answered by Sir Thomas Mora's Supplycadon pf Poor
Soulys, In the time of Edward YI. brief tracU were latfe^
used as a propagandist instrument in favour of the Reformed
religion. The licensing of the press by Mary greatly hindered
the production of this kind of literature. From abont 1570
there came an unceasing flow of Puritan pamphlets, of wldch
more than forty were reprinted under the title of A parte of a
register (London, Waldegrave, 4to). In 1584 was published
a tract entitled A briefe and plaint Dedaration eoncermng thi
deiires of aU those faitkfui ministers that have and do eeehe
for the discipline and reformation of the Church of En^tandOt
believed to have been written fay W. Fulke D.D. Against
this John Bridges, dean of Sarum, preached at Pul^ Cross,
and expanded his sermon into what he called A d^ence of
the government established in the ckurck of Engfand (1587),
which gave rise to Oh read over D. John Bridges .... Printed
at the cost and charges of U, MarprelaU gentleman (1588), which
first gave the name to the famous Martin Marprdate tracts,
whose titles sufficiently indicate their opposition to priestly
orden and episcopacy. Bishop Cooper's Admonition to the
People of En^nd (1589) came next, folbwed on the other side
by Hay any work* for Cooper , . , by Martin the MetropdU
tane, and by others from both parties to the number of about
thirty-two. The controversy lasted ten years, and ended in
the discomfiture of the Puritans and the seizure of their secret
press. The writers on the M arprelate side are generally supposed
to have been Penry, Throgmorton, Udal and Fenoer, and their
opponents Bishop Cooper, John Lilly and Nash.
As early as the middle of the 16th century we find ballads oi
news; and in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. small pamphlets,
translated from the German and French, and known as **news»
books," were circulated by the so-called " Mercury- women."
These were the immediate predecesaors of weekly newspapers,
and continued to the end of the 17th century. A proclamation
66o
PAMPHLETS
was issued by Chades II., on the xatb of May 1680, "for
isppressing the printing and publishing of unlicensed news-books
and pamphlets of news."
In the 17th century pamphlets began to contribute more than
ever to the formation of public opinion. Neariy one hundred
were written by or about the restless John Lilbume, but still
more numerous were those of the undaunted Prynne, who him-
self published above one hundred and sixty, besides many
weighty folios and quartos. Charles L found energetic suppor-
ters in Peter Heylin and Sir Roger LTstrange, the latter noted
for the coarseness of his pen. The most distinguished pamphle-
teer of the period was John Milton, who began his career in this
direction by five anti-episcopal tracts (i64X>i642) during the
Smectjrmnuus quarrel. In 2643 lus wife's desertion caused
him to publish anonymously Doctrine and disciptine of divorce^
followed by several othen on the same subject. He printed
Of Education; to Mr. Samuel Hartlib in 1644, and, unlicensed
and unregisteTed, his famous Areopagitica — o speech for the
Uherty of unlicensed printing. He defended the trial and execu-
tion of the king in Tenure of kings and magistrates (1648). The
EikoH BasUike dispute was conducted with more ponderous
weapons than the kind we are now discussing. When Monk
held supreme power Milton addressed to him The present means
of a free commonwealth and Readie and easie way (x66o), both
pleading for a commonwealth in preference to a monarchy.
John Goodwin, the author of Obstructors of Justice (X649), John
Phillipps, the nephew of Milton, and Abieser Coppe were violent
and prolific partisan writers, the last-named specially known
for his extreme Presbyterian prindplcs. The tract Killing no
murder (1657), aimed at Cromwell, and attributed to Colonel
Titus or Colonel Sexby, exdtcd more attention than any other
political effusion of the time. The history of the Civil War period
is told day by day in the well-known cdlection made by George
Thomason the bookseller, now preserved in the British Museum.
It includes pamphlets, books, newspapers and MSS. relating
to the Civil War, the Commonwesilth and Restoration, and
numbers 32,255 pieces ranging from Z640 to x 661, and is bound
in 200S volumes. Each article was dated by Thomason at the
time of acquisition. William Miller was another bookseller
famous for his collection of pamphlets (1600-17x0), which were
catalogued by Tooker. William Laycock printed a Proposal for
raising a fund for buying them up for the nation.
The Catholic controversy during the reign of James 11. gave
rise to a multitude of books and pamphlets, which have been
described by Peck {Catalogue^ X735) and by Jones {Catalogue,
Chetham Society, a vols., 1859-1865). Politics were naturally
the chief feature of the floating literature connected with the
Revolution of x688. The political tracts of Lord Halifax are
interesting both in matter and manner. He wrote The character
of a trimmer (1688), circulated in MS. as eariy as X685. About
the middle of the reign Defoe was introduced to William III.,
and produced the first of his pamphlets on occasional conformity.
He issued in X697 his two defences of standing armies in support
of the government, and published sets of tracts on the partition
treaty, the union with Scotland, and many other subjects.
His Shortest Way with the Dissenters (1702) placed him in the
pillory.
Under Queen Anne pamphlets arrived at a remarkable degree
of importance. Never biefore or since has this method of
publication been used by such masters of thought and language.
Political writing of any degree of authority was almost entirely
confined to pamphlets. If the Whigs were able to command
the services of Addison and Steele, the Tories fought with the
terrible pen of Swift Second in power if not in literary ability
were BoHngbroke, Somers, Atterbury, Prior and Pulteney.
The government viewed with a jealous eye the free use of this
powerful instrument, and St John seized upon fourteen book-
sellers and pablishcrs in one day for ** h'bels " npon the adminis-
tration (see Annals of Queen Anne, Oct. 33, 171 x). In 17x3
a duty was laid upon newspapers and pamphlets, displeasing
all parties, and soon falling into disuse. Bishop Hoadly*s
sermon on the kingdom of Christ (X7X7), denying tliAt tberr wa
any such thing as a visible Church of Christ, oocaaiooed it£
Bangorian controversy, which produced neariy two bmidnc
pamphlets. Soon after this period party-writing declined irm
its comparatively high standard and fell into meaaer and vc-al
hands. Under Geoige III. Bute took Dt Shebbcare fma
Newgate in order to employ his pea. The court |>afty raccriT^
the support of a few aUe pamphlets, among which najr be an-
tioned The consideration of the German War against the pc'.r.
of Pitt, and The prerogative droit de Roy (X764) vindicating tf r
prerogative. We must not forget that although Samuel Johrv<3
was a pensioned scribe he has for an excuse that hb polit^.^i
tracts are his worst performances. Edmund Burke, on uv
other hand, has produced in this form some of ham most valar:
writings. The troubles in America and the uaion bct w«^
Ireland and Great Britain are subjects which are atmndazi^V
illustrated in pamphlet literature.
Early in the xgth century the rise of the quarterly rcrirvs
threw open a new channel of publicity to those who bad psr^
viously used pamphlets to spread their opinions, a&d later oa ti?
rapid growth of monthly magasines and weekly reviews aflbcdc^
controversialists a much more certain and extensive ciiralaLiaa
than they could ensure by an isolated publication. Altboagk
pamphleU are no longer the sole or most important factor c:
public opinion, the minor literature of great events Is nr»rr
likely to be entirely confined to periodicals. Tbe foUovicf
topics, which xm'ght be largely Increased in number, have eaci
been discussed by a multitude of pamphlets, most of wbAa.
however, are likely to have been hopeless aspirants for a mc?e
certain means of preservation: the Bullion (Question (xSio.
the Poor Laws (1828-X834), Trattsfor the Times and the casais;
controversy (1833-1345)1 I>r Hampden (xSi36), the r^w^Aa*
Revolt (X837-1838), the Com Laws (184X-X848), Goibain CoMro-
versy (1849-X850), Crimean War and Indian Mutiny (sS54-x55c .
Schleswig-Holstein (X863-X864), Ireland (f 868-1869), tbeFtaxtoK
(German War, with Dame Europa*s School and its xaiiutos
(1870-X871), Vaticanism, occasioned by Mr Gladstone's Tcjar*
Decrees (1874), the Eastern Question (X877-X880), the Irish LmtA
Laws (1880-X883), Irekmd and Home Rule (1885-1886), SouU
African War (x899-X903) and Tariff Reform (1903).
France.— The activity of the French press in pottisc fcrb
small tracts in favour of the Reforxned religion caused the Sc^
bonne in 1523 to petition the king to abolish the diabolical an
of printing. Even one or two sheets of printed matter «vn
found too cumbersome, and single leaves or placands were i&sv.-i
in such numbers that they were the subject of a special cu*-i
on the a8th of September X553. An ordomumee oC Fcbnu.'>
X566 was specially directed against libellous pamphlets tvi
those who wrote, printed or even possessed them. Tbe rh^T
between Francis I. and Charles V. gave rise to many poU:..i.
pamphlets, and under Francis II. the Guises were attacicti 1%
similar means. F^. Hotman directed his Epistre envoiSe am /. *r
do France against the Cardinal de Lorraine. Tbe VaJois Li>l
Henry III. in particular wexe severely handled in Lee Hermapkr^^
dites (e. 1605), which was followed by a long series of imilation^
Between Francis I. and Charles DC. the general tone otf ib«
pamphlet-h'terature was grave and pedantic. From the laiier
period to the death of Henxy IV. it became more cruel ^iid
dangerous.
The Satyre Mhtipfte (i594)> one of the most perfect modcW H
the pomphlec in the bnguage. did infinite hann to the Lcerue. Thx
pamphlets against the JeniiU were many and violent. P^ie Rkzhcocv
defended the order in Chaste du renardPosquter (160A), the k'^^rr
person being their vigorous opponent Eticnne Pasquier. Co tre
death of the king the country was filled with appeals for r rt rr ^^
against the Jesuits for his murder; the best known of then ««« :V
AntuCalon (161 1), generally attributed to C€mr de Plaix. Jhttat
the regency of Maiy de* Medici Che pamphlet chafed its ar%rrvr
form to a more facetious type. In s|Mte of tne danger oi anch ptocvM-
ing under the uncompromising ministry of Richelieu, there was o
lack of libels upon him. which were even in most instances printed «
France. Theaebrgrly increased during the Fronde, but it was Maatfva
who was the subjca of asore of this litaataft tlnaaay other bHUvsosI
PAMPHLETS
66 1
peraotuige. It has been calciilat«d that fram th« Farisiaa pitm
atone there came sufficient Masarinades to fill 150 quarto volumes
each of 400 pages. Etsht hundred were publishra during the siege
of Paris (Feb. 8 to March il, i649>. A collection of satirical
pieces was entitled Tableau du goiatnument tfe RkkeUeUt MoMorim,
Foitquei^ €l Colbert (16^3). Pamphlets dealing with the amours 01
the Icing and his courtiers were in vogue in the time of Louis XIV.,
the most caustic of them being the Carte gfograpkique de la cour
(1668) of Bussy-Rabutin. The |>reases of Holland and the Low
Countries teemed with tracts against Culbert, Le Tellier, Loovois
and Pefe Lachaise. The first of the ever-memorable Prvoinetalet
appeared on the 33rd of January 1656, under the title of LeUre de
Louis de Montalte d un irovincxai de ses amis, and the remaining
eighteen came out at regular intervals during the next fifteen months.
They exdtcd extraoidinary attention throughout Europe. The Jesuit
replies were feeble and ineffectual. John Law ax>d the schemes of
the bubble period caused much popular raillery. During the long
reign of Louis XV. the distinguished ruimes of Voltaire, Rousseau,
Montesquieu. Diderot, D'Aiembert, D'HoIbach, Helv^tius and
Beauroarchais must be added to the list of writers in this class.
The preliminary strusgl^ between the narliament and tht Crown
gave rise to hundreds ofpamphlets. which grew suU more numerous
as the Revolution approachra Linguet and Mirabeau began their
appeals ro the people. Camille Desmoulins came into notice as
a publicist during tWe elections for the states-general ; but perhaps
the piece which caused the most sensation was the Qu'esl u ^ue le
Tiers Eiat (1789) of the Abb£ Siey^. The Domwe sabmm fac
regem and Pange lingua (1789) were two ro^ralist brochures of
unsavoury memory. The queen was the subject of vile attack
and indiscreet defence (see H. d'Almeras* Uarie Antoinette et lee
pamphlets^ 1907). The financial disorders of 1790 occasioned the
EWets des assignals sur le firtx du pain of Dupont de Nemours;
Necker was attacked in the Criminelle Neckeroloeie of Marat ; and
the Vrai miroir de la noblesse draraed the titlea names of France
through the mire. The nuunacre (Mthe Champ de Man, the death
of Mirabeau, and the flight of the king in 1791* the noyades of
Lyons and the crime of (Tnarlotte Corday in 1793, and the terrible
winter of 1794 h^ve each their respective pamphlet literature,
more or less violent in tone. Perhaps the most complete collection
of French revolutkmary pamphlets is that in the Bibliothique
Nationale: the British Museum possesses a wonderful collection
formed by John Wilson Croker. Under the consulate and the
empire the only writers of note who ventured to seek this method
of appealing to the world were Mme de Stad, B. Constant and
Chateaubriand. The royalist reaction in 1816 was the cause of
the PitiHon of Paul Louis Courier, the first of those brilliant pro-
ductions of a master of the art. He gained the distinction of judicial
erocedure with his Simple Diseours in 1821, and published m 1824
is last political work. Le Pamphlet des pamphlets, the most eloquent
justifiastion of the pamphlet ever penned. The Uhnoire d com-
suiter of Montlosier attacked the growing power of the Congregatioa.
The year 1837 saw ad aupnentation of severity in the press laws
M. de Comenin was tne chici pamphleteer of the reisn of Louis
Philippe. The events of 1848 gave birth to a number oipamphlctSt
chieny pale copies of the more virile writings of the first revolution.
Among the few men of power Louis Vcuillot was the P^re Duchesne
oif the Clericals and Vktor Hugo the Camille Desmoulins or Marat
of the RepubUcans. After 1852 there was no lack of venal apologies
of the coup d'itat. The second empire suffered from many bitter
attacks, among which may be mentioned the Lettre sur rhisktire
de France (1861) of the Due d'Aumale, Propos de LabUnus (iS6s)
of Rogeaid. Dialogue aus enfers (1864) of Maurice Joly and Ferr/s
Com^ fantastifues d'Haussmamn (1868). In more recent times
the Panama prosecutions and the Dreyfus case fave oocasioa to an
immense pamphkt literature.
<krmatty,—ln Germajiy, the cndle of printing, the pamphlet
(Plugscknft) was soon a recognised and popular vehicle of
thought, and the fierce religious controversies of the Reformation
period afforded a unique opportunity for iu ttse. The employ*
ment of the pamphlet in this conneidon was characteristic of
the new age. In coarse and violent language the pamphlets
appealed directly to the people, whose sympathy the leaders
of the opposing parties were most anxious to secure, and their
issue on an enormous scale was undoubtedly one of the most
potent influences in rousing the German people against the pope
and the Roman Catholic Church. In general their tone was
extiemely intemperate, and they formed, as one authority has
described those of a century later, " a mass of panegyric, admoni*
tion, invective, controversy and scurrility.*' Luther was one of
the eadiest and most effective writers of the polemical pamphlet.
His adherenU quickly followed his example, and his opponenU
also were not slow to avail themsdves of a weapoo which was
proving itadf so powcrfoL So Intense at this thne did this
pamphlet war become that Erasmus wrote " apud Germanos, vix
quicquam vendibile est pneter Lutherana ae anti Lutherana."
A renarkabla feature was the coarseness of many of these
pamphlets. No sense of decency or propriety restrained their
writers in dealing either with sacred or with secular subjects, and
thn attracted the notice of the imperial authorities, who were also
alarmed by the remarkable growth of disorder, attributable in part
at least to the wkk drcuktioo of pamphlet literature. AcxxMdinsly
the issue of libeUous pamphlets was forbidden by order of the (Uet
of Nurembera in 1524. and again by the diets of Spires in 1529,
of Augsburg in 15^0 and of Recensbuig in 1541, while in 1589 the
emperor Rudolph It. fulminated against them.
The usual method of selling these pamphlets was by means of
hawkers. J. Jansseo (History of the German PcoUe, £1^. trans.,
vol. ili.) says these men " went about in swarms onering pamphlets,
carlfcatures and lampoons for sale; in the larger towns vendors
of every description of printed matter jostled each other in the
■« .III 1.1 ••
The oontroveisies of the earlier period of the Thirty Years' War,
when this struggle was German rather than international, produced
a second flood m pamphlets, which possessed the same characteristics
as the earlier one. In the disturbed years also which preceded the
actual outbreak of war attempts were made in pamfriilets ro jostify
almost every action, however unjust or dishonoureble, while at the
same time those who held different opimons were mercilessly and
scurrilously attacked. The leading German princes were among
the foremost to use pamphlets in this connexion, especially perhaps
Maximilian of Bavatia and Christian of Anhalt.
LiTSRATuas.— An excellent catalogue by W. Okiys of the pam-
phlets in the Harleian Library is added to the loth volume of the
edition of the Miscdtany by T. Park; and in the Bitdioteca volants
di G. Cinetti (and ed., a vols. 4to. 1734-1747) may be seen a
bibliography of pamphlet-literature, chiefly Italian and Latin, with
notes. See also Cat. of the three collections of boohs, pamphleU, fife. ^
the British Museum on the French Rev., 1890: CaL of the Thomason
boohs. Pamphlets 6fc„ 1908, a vols. A few of tne more representative
ooUsctions of pamphlets in English may be mentioned. These
are. The Phemx (2 vols. 8vo» 1707); Morgan's Phoenix brUanmemt
Uxo, 17^^: Bishop Edmund Gibson's PreservoHoe againU Popery
(i vols, folio, 1738, new ed.. 18 voh. sm. 8vo, 1848-18^), consisting
chiefly of the anti-Catbobc discourses of James 11.^ time; The
Harleian Miscellany (8 vols. 4to, i744-»753: new ed. by T. Park.
10 vols. 4to, i8o6~i8i3, oontaiaing 000 to 700 pieces dlustrative
of Enriish history, from the library of Edward Harley, earl of
Oxford) : Collection of scaru and valuaUe tracts [hnawn as Lord Somers*
Tracts] (16 Mrts 4to, 1748-1752, and ed. by Sir W. Scott, 13 vols.
}to, 1809-18 is)* also fuU of matter for Englbh history; The
*amphleteer (99 vols. 8vo, 1813-1828), oontainiag the best pamphlets
of that day; and Arthur Waugh. The Pamphlet Library (^ vola.
8vo. 1897-1898), giving examples of political, religious and hterary
pamphlets from WydiTto Newman, with historical essays.
" ' - • -• • '^- - ' ■• • "■ • Eiymo^
_ series,
^ ^, ^ ,. , ., . ,, 167. 990; 6th series, voL
ii. p. 15SS*; Tth^senes, voll vL pp. 261, '^aa; Murray's New English
Diet. vol. vii. The general history of the subject may be traced in
M. Davies, Icon lOeUorum (1715): W. Olifys. "History of the
Origin of l^unpUets," in Moigan's Phoenix Brit, and Nichds's
Lit. A necdotes ; Dr Johnson's Introduction to the Harleian MiseeUanyi
D'Israeli. Amenities of Literature; Roue du deux mondes (April 1,
1846): Irish Quart. Review, vii. 267; Edinburgh Review (Oct. 1855);
Quarterly Revuw (April 1908); The Library, new series, vol i. aoS;
Ruth's AneissU Baftads and Broadsides (Philobtbton Soc.); W. Mas-
kell. Marttn-Marprelate Controoersy (1843); E. Alter. Sketch ef
Mar prelate Controversy (i9Qiii W. Pieree, HisL Jntrod. to the Mar-
prelate Tracts (1908) ; T. Jones, Cat. of coUection of tracts for and
against P o pery t he whole if PeaCs lists and his references (Cnetham
Soc, I8sfir-i865); Blakey's HisL of Politicai Literalme; Andrews,
HisL of British JoumaUsmiLaxoaim, Grand DieL Universdi Nodaer,
Sur la liberU de la presse; Leber, De Vftat riel de la presse (1834):
Moreau, BibliograPhie des maaarinades (1850-1851); BuUetin du
BUdiopkHe Beige (i859-i86a); Nisard. Hist, des Hvres populaires
(1854): A. Gennond de Lavigne, Des Pamphlets de la fin de
Fempire, &c 1814-1817, Catatogue (Paris, 1B79): Paris, BibL
uatumalOt catalogue des.ractttms, sfc, anteriemrs d 1790, by A. Corda,
Paris, iteo; A. Maire, Ripertoire des thises de doctoratis lettres des
fsniversitu fraanQaises jSip-xgoo (Paris, I9(n) ; and the annual
Catalagua des TUses et Bcrits Acadttmques (Hachene) 1889-1910.
For German academical dissertations see G. Fock, C
tionum pkBohgicormm dassicamm (Leip '
catalogues by Klussmann (1889-19 _
MUkan (for Bonn, 1818-1885), Pretxsch ^ivi ^icoiAti, .oi.-.v.^o/
and others. For Dutch pamphlets see L. D. PMit, BtbUolhech van
nederlandscke Pan^letten (a vols. 410, Hagoe, 1889-1884): and
W. P. C. Knuttel. Catdogus son de PamfUttm Vertameling
berusiende in de K. Bibliotheck 1486-1795 (5 parts 4to. Hague, 1889-
X905). For methods of dealing with pamphfets in libraries, see
varwus articles in Library Jourwa (i860, 1887. 1889. 1894)- (H. ILT.)
For the derivatk>a of the word paniphlet consult Skeat's 2
logical DicL; Pegge's Anonymianai Notes and Queries, $td
vol. iv. pp. 315, 379, 46a, 4aa, voL v. pp. i6jr^ 390; 6th series, voL
^pcig:. X894)/ and many ^wcial
^1903), Ktikula (1802-1803),
txsch (for Breslau, 1811-1885)
66a
PAMPHYLIA— PAN
PAHPHTUA, in andent geography, the region !n the south
of Asia Minor, between Lyda and Cilicia, eatending from the
Mediterranean to Mt Taurus. It was bounded on the N. by
Pisidia and was therefore a country of small extent, having a
coast-Unc of only about 75 m. with a breadth of about 30 m.
There can be little doubt that the PamphyUans and Pisidlaos
were the same people, though the former had received colonics
from Greece and other lands, and from this cause, combined with
I he greater fertility of their territory, had become more civilized
than their neighbours in the interior. But the distinction
between the two seems to have been csuhlished at an early
period. Herodotus, who does not mention the Pisidians,
enumerates the Pampfaylians among the nations of Asia Minor,
while Ephorus mentions them both, correctly including the «ne
among the nations on the coast, the other among those of the
interior. The early PamphyUans, like the Lycians, had an
alphabet of their own, partly Greek, partly " Asiam'c," which a
few inscriptions on marble and coins preserve. Under the*
Roman administration the term PamphyUa was extended so as
to include Pisidia and the whole tract up to the frontiers of
Phrygia and Lycaonia, and in this wider sense it is employed by
Ptolemy.
Pamphylia consists almost entirely of a plain, extending from
the slopes of Taurus to the sea, but this plain, though presenting
an unbroken level to the eye, does not all consbt of alluvial
deposits, but is formed in part of travertine. " The rivers
pouring out of the caverns at the base of the Lydan and Pisidian
ranges of the Taurus come forth from their subterranean courses
charged with carbonate of lime, and are continually adding to
the Pamphylian plain. They buUd up natural aqueducts of
limestone, and after flowing for a. time on these elevated beds
burst their walls and take a new course. Consequently it is
very diflBcult to reconcile the accounts of this district, as trans-
mitted by andent authors, with its present aspect and the
distribution of the streams which water it. By the sea-side in
the west of the district the travertine forms ditTs from 30 to
80 ft. high " (Forbes's Lycia, 11. 188). Strabo describes a
river which he terms Catarraaes as a large stream falling with
a grvat noise over a lofty cM. Tha is the cataract near Adalia.
East of Adalia is the Cestrus, and beyond that again the
Eurymedon, both of which were considerable streams, navigable
in antiquity for some little distance from the sea. Near the
mouth of the latter was a lake called Caprias, mentioned by
Strabo; but it is now a mere salt marsh.
The chief towns on the coast are: Olbia, the first town in
Pamphylia, near the Lydan frontier; AttaUa (q.v,)\ and Side
iq.v.). On a hill above the Eurymedon stood Aspendus (q.v.)
ud above the river Cestrus was Perga (f.v.). Between the
two rivers, but somewhat farther inland, stood Sylleum, a strong
fortress, which even ventured to defy the arms of Alexander.
These towns are not known to have been Greek cdonies; but
the foundation of Aspendus was traditionally ascribed to the
Argives, and Side was said to be a colony from Cyme in AeoUs.
The legend related by Herodottis and Strabo, which ascribed
the origin of the Pamphylians to a colony led into their country
by Amphilochus and Calchas after the Trojan War, is merdy a
characteristic myth. The cohis of Aspendus, though of Greek
character, bear legends !n a barbarous dialect; and probably
the Pamphylians were of Asiatic origin and mixed race. They
became largely hellenizcd In Roman times, and have kf t
magnifioent memorials of their dvilizatloD at Perga, Aspendus
and Side. The district is now largdy peopled with recent
settlers from Greece, Crete and the Balkans.
The Pamphylians are first mentioned among the nations
subdued by the Mermnad kings of Lydia, azul afterwards passed
in successioD under the dominion of the Persian and Macedonian
monaxchs. After the defeat of Antiochus in. in 190 B.C. they
were induded among the provinces annexed by the Romans
to the dominions of Eumenes of Pergamuro; but somewhat
later (hey joined with the Pisidians and CiKoans in piratical
ravages, and Side became the chief centre and slave mari of
thfie fretbootcr^ Pamphylia was for a short Lime induded in
the dominions of Amyntas, king of Calatia, but after bis dc^tl
lapsed into a district of a Roman province, and it:& xuxjoc i» t,^
again mentioned in history.
See C. Unckomiski. Us ViOes de la Pampkyiie et dt U Firiiu
(1890). (D. C. H.)
PAMPLONA, or Pa^cpeluna, the capital of the Spar-si
province of Navarre, and an episcopal ace; Mtuated 1^78 It
above sea-level, on the left bank of the Aiga, a tributary of the
Ebro. Pop. (1900), 38,886. Pamplona has a station on tbf
Ebro railway connecting Alsasua with Saragosaa. From il%
position it has always been the principal fortress ol Navam.
The old outworks have been partly demdished and frptacr-j
by modem forts, while suburbs have grown up round the Ic.'xt
walls and ba&tions. The dtadd, south-west of the city, «i»
constructed by order of Philip II. (1556-1598), and was cnodcLed
on that of Antwerp. The streets of the city are regular and
broad, there are three fine squares or plazas. The most attror-
tive of these is the arcaded Plaxa dd Castillo, flanked by the hJ!
of the provincial council and by the theatre. The cathedxal .$
a late Gothic structure begun in ij97 by Charks III. (El Notk)
of Navarre, who is buried within its walls; of the older Rom;;^-
esque cathedral only a small portion of the doisteta reina.;^
The fine interior is remarkable for the peculiar structure of i s
apse, and for the choir-stalls carved in English oak by %iig\^
Ancheta, a native artist (1530). The pnndpal facade is Cun^-
thian, from designs of Ventura Rodriguez (1783). The sax*
architect designed the superb aqueduct by wfaidi the cit> a
supplied with water from Monte Francoa, some nine miles cC
The beautiful cloisters on the south side of the cathedral, and the
chapter-house beyond them, as well as the old churches o< Sax
Saiumino (Gothic) and San Nicolas (Romanesque), are also u
interest to the student of architecture. There are also ibr
bull-ring, capable of accommodating 8000 spectaton* tbc
pdola court (c/ Trinquck) and several parks or gardens. Tic
city is well provided with schools for both sexes; it has also s
large hospital.
Pamplona has a flourishing agricultural trade, besides macs-
factures of doih, linen stuflfs, flour, soap, leather, cards, pap**
earthenware, iron and naUs. The yearly fair in oonnczion wi-i
the feast of San Fennin (July 7), the patron saint of the ci^
attracts a large concourse from all parts of northern Spain.
Originally a town of the Vascones, Pamplona was rcbu3: is
68 B.C. by Pompey the Great, whence the name Pbmpacio -
Pompelo (Strabo). It was captured by Euric the Goth in ^b»
and by the Franks under Childebert in 542; it was dismant..-:
by Charlemagne in 778, but repulsed the emir of SaragosBa %
907. In the 14th century it was greatly strengthened ai^
beautified by Charles UI., who built a dtadd on the site v w
_ occupied by the Plaza de Toros and by the Basilica de S. Ignsf..
the chureh marking the spot where Ignatltis de Lpjrola rcctx-t>.:
his wound in defending the place against Andrl de Focx 12
153 1. From 1808 it was occupied by the French untO takca tj
Wellington in 1815. In the Carlist War of 1816-40 It ws»
hdd by the Cristinos, and in 1875*76 it was more than oc::
attacked, but never taken, by the Carlists.
PAN (*' pasturer "), in Greek mythology, son of Bcrmea ar*.
one of the danghters of Dryops (" oak-man "), or of Zeis ar d
the nymph Callisto, god of shepherds, flocks and forests. Be 2
uot mentioned in Ikmier or Hcsiod. The most poctksl accoc:-
of his birth and life is given in the so-called HooMric hymn 7*
Pan. He was bom with horns, a goat's beard and feet a&c a
tail« his person being completdy covered with hair. HisoMt&r
was so alarmed at his appesiance that the fled; bat Hermes tok.4
him to Olympus, where he became the favooiite of the goth^
especially Dionysus. His life and chaxactetistics are typical ci
the old shepherds and goatherds. He was csaentiaOy a mix
god," a wood-spirit concdved in the form of a goat«*' ttrir^
in woods and caves, and traversing the tops of the aonstaia? ;
he protected and gave fertility to flocks; he hunted and fiihfd
and spotted and danced with the mountain nymphs. A I
of music, he invented the shepherd's pipe, said to have I
from the reed into which the nymph Syiina «aa t
PAN— PANAETIUS
663
when fleeing from his embraces (OVid, Uetam, I 691 sqq.).
With a kind of trumpet formed out of ft shell he terrified the
Titans in their fight with the Olympian gods. By his unexpected
appearance he sometimes inspires men with sudden terror—
hence the expression '* panic " fear. Like other spirits of the
woods and fiekls, he possesses the power of inspiration and
prophecy, in which he is said to have instructed Apollo. As a
nature-god he was brought into connexion with Cybele and
Dionysus, the latter of whom he accompanied on his Indian
expedition. Associated with Pan is a number of Fsnisd, male
and female forest imps, his wives and children, who send evil
dreams and apparitions to terrify mankind. His original home
was Arcadia; his cult was introduced into Athens at the time of
the battle of Marathon, when he promised his assistance a)sainst
the Persians if the Athenians in return would worship him.
A cave was consecrated to him on the north side of the Acropolis,
where he was annually honoured with a sacrifice and a torch-
race (Herodotus vi. 105). In later times, by a misinterpretation
of his name (or from the identification of the Greek god with the
ram-headcd Egyptian god Chnum, the creator of the worid),
he was pantheistically conceived as the tmiversal god (r6 va»).
The pine and oak were sacred to him, and his offerings were
goats, lambs, cows, new wine, honey and milk. The Romans
identified him with Inuus and Faunus.
In art Pan is represented in two different aspects. Sometimes
be has gost's feet and horns, curly hair and a long beard, half
animal, half man; sometimes he is a handsome youth, with long
flowing hair, only characterized by horns just beginning to grow,
the shepherd's crook and pipe. In bas-reliefs he is often shown
presiding over the dances of nymphs, whom he is sometimes
pursuing in a state of intoxication. He has furnished some of
the attributes of the ordinary conception of the devil. The
story (alluded to by Milton, Rabelais, Mrs Browning and Schiller)
of the pilot Thamus, who, sailing near the island of Paxi hi the
time of Tiberius, was commanded by a mighty voice to proclaim
that " Pan is dead,'* is found in Plutarch {De orac. dtfectu, 17).
As this story coincided with the birth (or crucifixion) of Christ
it was thought to herald the end of the old world and the beginning
of the new. According to Roscber (in Neu* Jckrlritcher fUr
Pkilotogie, 1892) it was of Egyptian origin, the name Thamus
being connected with Thmouis, a town in the neighbourhood
of Mendes, distinguished for the worship of the ram; according
to Herodotus (ii. 46), in Egyptian the goat and Pan were both
called Mendes. S. Rcinach suggests that the words uttered
by the "voice" were Oo^oOr. 6a/ioDs, 7ravttitt<^h t£^»t?«
(" Tammuz, Tammux, the all-great, is dead "), and that it
was merely the lament for the " great Tammuz " or Adonis
(see L. R. F^mell in The Yecr*s Work in Classical Studies,
1907)-
See W. Cebhard. PankuUtis (Brunswick. 1872); P Wetzel. De
Jffve et Pone dis arcadicis (Brcslau, 1873): W. Immerwahr. Kulle
et iiylken Arkadiens (1891). vol. L. and V. Bdrard, De VOrigine des
cultes arcadiens (1894). who endeavour to show ihat Pan i$ a lun-
god (^«». ^cOfw) : articles by W. H. Roscher in Lexikon der M/tMope
and by J. A. Hild in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des Amli-
auitisi E. E. Sikes in Classical Review (1895). ix. 70; O. Gruppe,
Crieckische Mythotogu ( 1 906) , vol. iL
FAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages,
cf. Ger P/anttc, it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in
a shortened form of Lat. patina^ shallow bowl or dish, from
patere, to lie open), a term apphcd to various sorts of open, flat,
shallow vessels. Its application has been greatly extended by
analogy, r g. to the upper part of the skull; to variously shaped
objects capable of retaining substances, such as that part of
the lock In eariy firearms which held the priming (whence the
expression " flash in the pan," for a premature and futile effort);
or the circular metal dish in which gold is separated from gravel,
earth, &c., by shaking or washing (whence the phrase " to pan
out," to obtain a good result) Small ice-floes are also called
" pans," and the name is given to a hard substratum of soil
which acts as a floor to the surface soil and is usually impervious
to water For " pan '* or " pane " in archheaure see Halt-
tDcort WoKK.
The Hindosttti jM* is the betd-leaf, which, mixed with
areca-nut, lime, &c., is chewed by the natives of the East Indies.
The common prefix " pan," signifying universal, all-embradng
(Or. war, all), is often combined with the names of races,
nationalities and religions, conveying an aspiration for the
political or spiritual union of all the imits of the nation or creed;
familiar examples are Pan-Slavonic, Fftn-Gcrman, Pan-IsUmisai,
Pan-Anglican, Pan*Americ«n.
PAMA» B city of Christian county, lUmob, U.S.A., in the
central part of the stale. Pop. (1900) 5530 (727 being foreign-
bom); (1910) 6055. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio
Southwestern, the Qeveland, Cindnaatf, Chicago & St Louis,
the Illinois Central and the Chicago 8c Eastern Illinois railways.
It is in the Illinois coal region, and coal-mining is the most
important industry; the city is also a shipping point for hay and
grain grown in the vidnity. Pana was incorporated in 1S57, and
was reincorporated in 1877. Its name is said to be a conupted
form of " Pan! " (Pawnee), the name of a tribe of Indiana.
PANACEA (Gr. voi'dMia, all-healing, from was, all, and
dii^09ai,toheal), a universal remedy, or cure for all diseases,
a term applied in the middle ages to a mythical herb supposed
to possess this quality. Many herbs have had the power of
curing all diseases attributed to them, and have hence had the
name of " all-heal " ; such have been, among others, the mistletoe,
the woundwort {SUickys paluslris), the yarrow or milfoil, and
the great valerian.
PANACHB» a French word adapted from Ital. pennaekio^
Lat. pemto, feather, for a plume of feathers on a helmet or bat;
the " panache " should be properly distinguished from the
" plume," as being a large duster of feathers fixed on the top of
the helmet and flowing over it, the " plume " being a single
feather at the side or front. The word " panache " is often used
figuratively in French of a flamboyant piece of ornamentation,
a " purple patch " in literature, or any exaggerated form of
decoration.
PANAENUS. brother of Pheidias, a Greek painter who worked
in conjunction with Polygnotus and Micon at Athens. He also
painted the marble sides of the throne of the statue of Zeus
erected by his brother at Olympia.
PANAETIUS (c.> x8s-i8o to xio-xo8 B.a), Greek Stoic philo-
sopher, bebnged to a Rhodian famfly, but was probably
educated partly in Pergamum under Crates of Mallus and after-
wards in Athens, where he attended the lectures of Diogenes the
Babylonian, Critolaus and Camcades. He subsequently went to
Rome, where he became the friend of Ladius and of Sdpio the
Younger. He lived as a guest in the house of the latter, and
accompanied him on his mission to Egypt and Asia (143 or 141).
He returned with Sdpio to Rome, where he did much to intro*
duce Stoic doctrines and Greek philosophy. He bad a number
of distinguished Romans as pupils, amongst them Q. Mudus
Scaevola the augur and Q. Aelius Tubero. After the murder of
Sdpio in 129, he resided by turns in Athens and Rome, but
chiefly in Athens, where he succeeded Antipater of Tarstls as
head of the Stoic school. The right of dtizenship was offered
him by the Athenians, but he refused it. His chief pupil in
philosophy was Posidonius of Apamea. In his teaching he laid
stress on ethics; and his most important works, of which only
insignificant fragments are preserved, were on this subject.
They are as follow: IIcpl roO xo^^xoirof {On Duty), in three
books, the original of the first two books of Cicero's De efficiis;
llcpl irpwolai (On Providence) ^ used by Cicero in his De divin-
atione (ii.) and probably in part of the second book <^ the De
Deornm natural a political treatise (perhaps called Hcpi
roXtnie%), used by Cicero in his De rcpublica; Hepl eC^iilas
{On Cheerfulness); Utpl alpifftuv {On Philosophical Schools) \,
a letter to Q. Aelius Tubero» De dolorc paliendo (Cicero, De
finibuSf iv. 9, 33).
Edition of the fragmenti by H. N. FcMer (Bonn. 188^). and in
F. van Lynden's monoeraph (Leiden, 1802). Sec also A. Schmekel.
Die Pktlosophie der mtttleren Stoa (1892); F Suscmihl, Cesckirhte
der jriechiscken Lttferalur in der Alexandnneneit (1892), ii. 63-80:
E. Zellrr. " Bcttriige zur Kcnntniss des Stoikers Panitius " in Cam-
mcntationes phtloloiae in honorem Th. Mtmimscni (1877): on the u^e
664
PANAMA
SBsde of htm by Cicero. R. Hinvl. Vnkrsmdmnim n Cietrcs
Mosopkueken ScknfUn (1877-1883). For hit importance in the
Scdc wcceaaon and nis philosophy geacrally, see Sroica.
PAMAMA* A Central American republic, occupying the
Isthmus of Panama, and lying approximately between 7^ 15'
and 9* 39' N. and between 77"^ is' and 83"^ 3</ W. It is bounded
N. by the Caribbean Sea, E. by Colombia, of which it was
formerly a part, S. by the Gulf (or Bay) of Panama, an arm of
the Pacific, and W. by Costa Rica. Its area is estimated at
from 31,500 to 33,800 sq. m.; iU greatest width is xx8 m. and
iU greatest length 430 m.; its land frontier is only about 350 m.,
but on the Caribbean it has a coast of 478 m. and on the Pacific
a coast of 767 m.
Physical Ftfotercr.— The Isthmus of Panama, coeztensixt
with the republic, is the whole necfc of land between the Ameri-
can continents; in another use the term " Isthmus of Panama "
is applied to the narrow croesing between the dties of Colon and
Panama, the other narrow crossings, further east, being the
Isthmus of San Bias (31 m.) and the Isthmus of Barien (46 m.).
The use of the term " Isthmus of Panama " to include the whole
country is becoming more cxmunon. The Caribbean coast^Une
to concave, the Pacific deeply convex. The Mosquito Gulf is to the
N.W., the Gulf of Darien to the N.E., and on the N. coast are
several bays. Almirante Bay, near the Cosu Rican boundary, is
3-X3 m. wide, with many islands and good anchorage, protected by
Columbus Island, about 8 m. long; immediately east of it, and
connected with it, is Chiriqui lagoon (area about 330 sq. m.), 32 m.
long, I a m. wide at the widest point, with a maximum depth of 1 20
ft., protected on the sea side by Chiriqui Archipelago; immediately
east of Ck)Ion, at the narrowest part of the isthmus, isthe Gulf of
San Bias, 30 m. long and 10 m.wide, protected by a peninsula and
by the Mulatas Archipelago-— low, sandy islands stretching
about 80 m. along the coast — and having the excellent harbour
of Mandinga in the south-west; stiU farther east is Caledonia
Bay with another good harbour. On the north coast there are
about 630 islands with a total area of about 150 sq. m. The
Pacific coast is deeply indented by the Gulf of Panama, which is
roo m. wide between Cape Garachine and Cape Malo, and has the
Bay of Parita (20 m. wide at its mouth) on its west side, north
of Cape Malo, and the Gulf of San Miguel (15 m. wide at its
mouth) on its east aide, north of Cape Garachine. Darien
Harbour, formed by the Tuira and Savannah riven, is a part of
Um Gulf of San Miguel and is i x m. long, 7-4 m. wide, and nearly
landlocked. In the Gulf of Panama there are 16 large and
about 100 smaller islands (the Peari Islands), with a total area
of 4SO sq. m., the largest being Rey or San Miguel (15 m. long
and 7 m. wide), and San Jos£ (25 sq. m.); both are wcU
wooded. West of the Gulf of Panama and separated from it by
Azuero Peninsula is the Gulf of Montijo, 20 m. long and 14 m.
wide at its mouth, across which stretches Cebaco Island, 13) m.
long and 3 m. wide; west of Cebaco is Oiba, the largest island of
the republic, ax m. long and 4-12 m. wide.
The countnr has no lakes; the apparent exceptions are the artifi-
cial lakes, Bohio (or Gatun) and So«i, of the Canal Zone. There are
a few swamps, especially on the northern &hore. But the drainage
is good: about t^ streams empty into the Caribbean and some
325 into the Paafic In the eastern part are three complicated
drainaec systems of rivers very largely tidaL The largest is that of
the Tutra (formeriy called Rio Darien). whose headwaters are near
the Caribboan and which empties into the Pacific in the Gulf of
San Miguel. The Chcpo (or Bayano) also is a digitate system with
a drainage area rcachmg from the Caribbean to the Pacific; it is
navigable for about 120 ra. by small boats. The Chores flows from
a source near the I*Saci6c soutn-west and then north to the Caribbean ;
is a little more than too ra. kxig and is navigable for about half
that distanoe; it varies greatly m depth, aometimeft rising 35 ft.
in 24 hours (at Gamboa), and drains about looo sq. nL West of
these three nvers arc simpler and comparatively uniinportant river
rems, rising near the centre of the tsthraus. Orographically
country is remarkable. The " exceedingly irr^ulariy rounded,
few-pointed oiountains and htUs ooveged by dense forests " (Hill)
are Antillcan, not Andean, and tie at right angles to the axes of the
systems of North and South America. The only regular ranses in
Panama are in the extreme western part where the Cotu Rica divide
continues into Panama, and. immediately south of this and parallel
to it. the Cofdniera of San Bias, or Sierra de (niirwui. where the
highest peaks are Chiriqui (n,365 ft.) aod. oa the CbsuRkaa
boundary, Pico Blanco (ii.ffo ft.) and Rovalo (TOao ft.); tfcoe m
two passes, 3600 and 4000 ft. high respectively. On the ia« 1
boundary of the republic is the Serrania del Darien. an Andeaa za..
partly in Colombia. The rough country between coor.air.i - »
loQowing so-called ''Sierras," which are not really rangci
Veragua proyinoe. Sierra de Veragua, with Santiago (9197c .
near the Chiriqui laoge, and Santa Maria (4600 ft.), immec^ac;
north of the aty of Santa FA: in Los Santos proviaoe (Aae-
Peninsula), bold hills ri»ng 3000 ft., and in Panama pcwiarc. x't
much-broken Sierra de Panama, which has a maximum besgk:
X700 ft. and a minimum, at the Culebia Pus, of »90 ft., the Iokv
point, except the interooeanic water-partiag in Nicaracaa, whidk •
153 ft., in the western continental system. There have beca b.
' 'e volcanoes since the Pliocene Tertiary time, but tbe oc
I are a few i
active volcanoes since the Pliocene Tertiarytime, but tbe 00c:
. Jces. There are a few pL.u
like that of David, in Chiriqui province, but irregular aortaor ■
is Mill subject to dangerous earthquakes.
normal; and this irregularity is the result of ireiy heavy
consequent extremely developed drainage system *•— »**f n%w
valleys down neariv to the sea-kvd. and of marine erosion, as s^y
be seen by the bold and rugged islands, notably tboae in the C-J
of Panama. It is improbable that there has been any eonaoiaa t»
water between the two oceans here nir« Tertiary time.
C/iffuOe.— The mean temperature varies little tbrav^soot t^
republic, being about 80* F.: at Cokm, where 68" b a Ion» and ^5'
a high temperature, the mean is 79-t*; at Panama the nit^r »
80*6*. But this difference is not the usual one: nannafiy *.>
Caribbean coast is a degree or two w arm er than the Pacific ocm#
There is a wet and a dry season; in the fonner, from the middlr J
April to the middle of December, there falls (in heavy, abort ni -•
about 85% of the total annual precipitation, and south-east •-- i
prevaiL The north-cast wind prevails in the dry season, why-n ■
dusty and bracing. The rainfall at Cokm on the north onast wa
from 85 to 15s in., with tas as the mean; at Gamboa in tbe latoxr
it varies from 7^ to 140 in., with 93 as the mean; and at Pknama js
the south coast it varies between 47 and 90 (rardy X04 in.}, the imss
being 67 in.
Nahtral Raimrc«s.'—Go\A is mined to a small cxtcot; tbr one
productive mines are about Darien and in Code pro v imn. C««
has been found between the Plain of David and Bocaa del Tor.
There are valuable deposits of coal near Bocas dd Torn and Cohi
Dulce. There are important salt mines near Agua Daloe on Para
Bay. Iron is found in several parts of the IsUunua. MiaBd
springs are common, especially near fonner volcanoes.
There are valuable vegetable dye-stuffs, mrdirinal plants (tm-
cially aarsaparilla, copaiba and ipecacuanha), cabinet and faafid.-«
timber (mahogany, &c.). india-rubber, tropical fruits '
bananas), and various palms; fish are ccononticaHy in
the name Panama is said iO have meant ia an Indian da
in fish "—and on the Pacific coast, oysters and peari '* ovmbs '
{MeUagrina califomica) — the headquarters of the peari fiAiij »
the dty of San Miguel on the largest of the Peari Islands, orf
Coiba Island. There is linle agriculture, though the aoQ is rich ani
fertile ; bananas (occupying about one>half the area under cnkhnRxn
and grown especially in the north-west), coffee (also gronna asperaiN
on the Costa Rican border in (Thiriqui province), cacao (growag
wild in Bocas del Toro province), tobacco, and cereals are tbe larcea
crops. Stock-raising is favoured by thie escdient graxii
blooded cattle are imported for breeding.
Soap and chocolate are manufacturea in Panama City. Td
and salt manufactum are government monopoUea. Sngar ic^
fineries are projected. In the canal tone there are great Aam
for the manufacture and repair of machinery.
Ccmwterce and Communications. — The pnndpal ports are Cdbn
Panama ■ and Bocas del Toro, the htst bnng a baaana-AipfK^
port. In 1908 the country's Imports were valoed at BjJ^obJftt
(vegetable products, 81,879.397; agricultuni products, 9ias$J9fo:
textiles, 1 1.187 .803; mineral products, 8788,069; and wines aai
liquors, 8675,703; the textiles mainly from Great Britain, all oc^
ports largely from the United Sutes); and the cnorts woe
lued at Jl 1, 757^1^5 (including ve^^table products, moat^ bnasasi
**" *"* """ " *~ '"" ^"^' and minerel pradnrc^
lue of goods shipped to the
It. 539.395. animal products, 8135,207,
879.630). of which 81.587.217 was the vafu, _. .
United States, 8113.038 of goods to Great Britain, and $34-4^ to
Germany. Besides bananas the largest exports are hides, mbcvr.
coco-nuts, limes, native curios and qtiaqua bark.
along the rivers from point to point on dther coast Is cajsy. Tfe
Panama railway, the only one in the country, is 47) m. long, wad rxns
between Colon and Panama; it was nuide posable by the reA rf
gold-miners across the isthmus in the years immediately afto*
1849 • ^^' financed by the New York house of Howland A AspurwaB—
Aspinwall (later Colon) was named in honour of the junior mcnbc*.
William Henry Aspinwall. (1807-1875)— and was cotnnletcd b
February 1855 at an expense of 87.500.000. It was purdiaacd bv
De Lesaeps's Compatniie Univcrselle de Canal Interocteninae dr
Panama for 825.500,000; and. with the other hoklings of the f
company. 68.869 «hares (more than 97% of the total) pnaKd to rhr
» Chr.^obal, the port of Colon, ar.d Balboa, the port of I .
He wHhffl the Caaal Zone and are under the juindicthm of tte
Uaitsd States.
PANAMA
66s
United Sutes government. The line of Itilimy b very nesrly that
of the canal, and the work of the railway engineers was of great value
to the French engineers of the canal. There arc several telegraphic
and telephone systems; a wireless telegraph station at Colon; and
telegrapfiic cables from Colon and Panama which, with a connecting
cable across the isthmui. give an "all<able" service to South
America, to the United States and to Europe. There are two old
waeon roads from Panama City, one, now little used, north to Porto
BeUo. and the other (called the royal road) i? m. north-west to
Cnices at the head of navigation on the Chagiet River. Other roads
are mere rough trails.
inkabiionU and Towns,^Thte population in 1900 was about
36x,ooa The inhabitants exhibit various degrees of admixture
of IndiaOt negro and Spanish blood, with an increasing proportion
of foreigners. The Indiana are roost numerous in the western
ptrt. The negroes, largely from Jamaica and the other Wesl
Indies, came in large numbers to work on the canal. The
Spanish was the race that stood for civilization before North
American influence became strong. Many Spanish peasants,
Italians and Greeks came in to work on the canal, but this is not
a permanent population. As elsewhere in Spanish America,
there has been German coloniiatlon, notably in Code province,
where a ianse tropical estate was established in 1894.
The principal cities in Panama arc: Colon {q.v.), at the Caribbean
end of the canal; Panama (f.r). at the Pacific end of the canal,
and near it. in the Canal Zone, the cities of Balboa and Ancon;
Bocasdcl Toro (pop. about 4000}, capital of the province of the same
name, in the north-western corner 01 the country, with a brge trade
in bananas and good fishing in the bay; Porto Bello (pop. about
3000), formerly an important commercial city, in Colon province,
on Porto BeUo Bay, where Colambus established the colony of
Nombrc de Dios in 1502 — ^thc present city was founded in 1584, was
^«. jturcd by the English (notably by Admiral Edward Vernon
and by buccaneers, and is the terminus of an old paved road
often captured by the English (notably by Admiral Edward Vernon
I753)> s^nd by buccaneers, and is the terminus of an old paved roacf
CO Panama, whence gold was brought to Porto Bctio fdr shipment;
in I
Chagres (pop. about 2500). also in Colon pravinoe, formerly an impor-
tant port, and now a fishing place; Agua Dulce, formerly called
Trinidad (pop. about 2000), in Cocic province, on Parita Bay, the
centre of the salt industry : and San Mippicl, on an island of the same
name in the Gulf of Panama, the principal peart fishery. The lar^^r
inland cities arc: Ciudad dc David (pop. about 8000), the capital
of Chiriqut. 12 m. from the Pacific. 60 m. east of the Costa Ricaa
boundary, with a trade in cattle; Los Santos (pop. about 7200),
the capital of Los Santos province; Sandagode Vcragua (pop. about
7000). 300 ft. above the sea, with various manufactories, g<Hd, silver
and copper mines, and mineral springs and baths near the city;
Las Tablas (pop. about 6500) and Pese (pop. about 5600) m
Los Santos province; Pcnomene (pop* about 3000). on the river of
that name in Cocle province (of which it is the capital), with a trade
in straw hats, tobacco, cacao, ooflTee, cotton, rubber, cedar and
cattle: ami in the Canal Zone Goigona (jooo) and Obispo (ss^^o)!
each with an American oobny.
AdministraiMt.'-By the constitution promulgated en tht
ijth of February 1904 the government is a highly centralised
republic. All male citizens over 31 years of age have the right
to vote, except those under judicial interdiction and those
Judicially inhabilitated by reason of crime. The president,
who must be at least 35 years old, is elected by popular vote for
four years, is ineligible to succeed himself and appoints cabinet
members (secretaries of foreign affairs, government and justice,
treasury, interior ["f omen to"] and public instruction); five
supreme court judges (who decide on the constitutionality of a
bill vetoed by the president on constitutional grounds^tbeir
action, if favourable to the constitutionality of such a bill,
makes the president's signature mandatory) ; diplomatic repre-
sentatives; and the governors (annually) of the provinces, who
are responsible only to him. The president's salary is f 18,000 a
year. There is no vice-president, but the National Assembly
elects every two years three designadM^ the first of whom would
succeed the president if he should die. The National Assembly
b a single chamber, whose deputies (each at least 25 years old)
are elected for four years by popular vote on the basis of i to
every 10,000 inhabitants (or fraction over 5000); it meets
biennially; by a two-thirds vote it may pass any bill over the
president's veto-~the president has five or ten days, according
to the length of the bill, in which to veto any act of the legislature.
At the head of the judidary is the Supreme Court already
referred to; the superior court and the circuit courts are com-
posed pf judges appointed for four years by the membeis ol
the Supreme Court. The municfpol court justices are appointed
by the Supreme Court judges for one year.
The seven provinces, restoring an oM administrative division,
are: Panama, with most of the territory east of the canal and a
little (on the Pacific side) west of the canal; Colon, on either aide of
the canal, along the Caribbean; Cocle. west and south; Los Santos,
farther west and south, on the Azuero Peninsula, west of the Gulf:
Verai^uas. to the north-west, crossing to the Mosquito Gulf; and
Chiriaui. farthest west, on the Pacific, and Bocas del Toro on the
Caribbean. The provinces are divided into municipal districts
(distriios mnnicipaUs), each of which has a municipal legislature
(coHUJo munidpixl), populariy elected for two years, and an atcGlde,
who is the agent of the governor of the province and is apjminted
annually. By the treaty of the i8th of November 1908 Panama
ceded to the United Sutes the " Canal Zone,' ' a strip of land reaching
S m. on cither side <^ the canal and including ceruin islands in tlie
Gulf of Panama: from this cession were excluded the cities of Colon
and Panama, over which the United Sutes received jurisdiction
only as rc^rds saniution and water-supply.
, EducatioH.^Th* system of publk: education dates from the
mdcpendcncc of Panama only and has not been developed. But
primary instruction has been greatly improved; there is a school
of arts and trades at the capital, in which there are endowed
scholarships for pupils from different provinces; a normal school
has been esublished to trein teachers for the Indians; high schools
and training schools have been opened; and the government pays
the expenses of several students in Europe.
Coinage and Finance. — In June 1904, under the terms of an agree-
ment with the AmerKan Secretary of War, ■ Panama adopted the
gold sundard with the balboa, equivalent to an American gold dollar,
as the unit ; and promised to keep in a bank in the United States
a deposit of Amcncan monejr eaual to 15% of its issue of fractional
silver currency, which Is limited to four and a half million batboas.
This agreement put an end to the fluctuatwns of the paper currency
previcuslv used. Currency of Panama is legal tender in the Canal
Zone, and tliat of the United Sutcs in the Republic of Panama.
The republic has no debt : It refused to accept responsibility for
a part of the Colombian debt ; and it has no standing army. On
the 30th of June 1908 the toul cash assets of the government were
S7.860.697. of whkh 16.000,000 was invested in New York City
real estate, and more than Si. 500,000 was in deposits in New York.
In the six months ending with that date the receipts were Si .259,574
(laiigely from import and>export duties, and taxes on liquors, tobacco,
matches, coffee, opium, salt, steamship companies and money
changers), and the cash balance for the six months was Si05.307.
Histpry.—Tbe Isthmus of Panama was probably visited by
Alonso de Ojeda in 1499. In 1 501 Rodrigo Bastidas coasted along
from the Gulf of Venesucla to the present Porto BeUo. Colum-
bus in 1502 coasted along from Almirante Bay to Porto BeUo
Bay, where he planted a colony (Nombre de Dios) in November;
the Indians destroyed it almost immediately; it was re-estab-
lished in 15x0, by Diego de Nicuessa, governor of the newly
established province of CastUla del Oro, which included what is
now Nicaragua, Costar Rica and Panama. In 1510 Martin
Femandes de Endso, foUowing Alonso de Ojeda to the New
World, took the survivors of Ojeda's colony of Nueva Andalucia
(near the present Cartagena and east of Panama) and founded
on the Tuira river the colony of Santa Maria la Antigua del
Darien (commonly caUed IHrien). An insurrection against
Endso in December 1510 put in command Vasco Nui^ de
Balboa, who had accompanied Rodrigo de Bastidas in the
voyage of 1 501 . In September 1513 Nufiez crossed the isthmtis
and (on the 25th or 26th) discovered the Pacific. Immediately
afterwards he was succeeded by Pedro Arias de Avila, by whom
Nucva Andalucia and CastiUa del Oro were united in 1 514 under
the name of Tierra Firroa, and who founded in 1519 the city of
Panama, now the oldest European settlement on the mainland
in America. The portage between the two oceans was of great
commereial importance, especially in the i6th century, when
treasure from Peru (and treasure was the raum d^tre of the
Spanish settlemenu in Panama) was carried across the isthmus
from Panama City. A Scotch settlement under letters patent
from the Scotch Parliament was made by WiUiam Paterson
(q.v.) in 1698 on thcsite of the present Porto Escoces (in the north-
eastern port of the republic), but in 1700 the Spanish authoritiet
expelled the few settlers stiU there. Panama was a part of the
viceroyolty of New Granada created in 1718. and in 18x9 became
a part of the independent nation of Colombia and in 1831 of New
Granada, from which in 1841 Panama and Veragua provinces
seceded as the state (short-lived) of the |sthmu4 of Panama.
666
PANAMA— PANAMA CANAL
The constitution of the Gr»iiuUiie Confederation of 1853 gave
the states the right to withdraw, and in 1857 Panama* again
seceded, soon to return. When NuAez in 1885 disregarded
the constitution of 1863, which made the component states
severally sovereign, he was strongly opposed by the people of
Panama, who had no actual representation in the convention
which made the constitution of x886, on instrument allowing
Panama (which it made a department and not a state) no local
government. The large expenditures of the French canal
company made the department singularly alluring to corrupt
officials of the central government, and Panama suffered severely
before the h'quidation of the company in 1880. There wcr«
risings in 1895 and in 1898-1902, the latter ceasing with American
interposition. The treaty of the United States in 1846 with
Kcw Granada, granting transportation facilities on the Isthmus
to the United Slates, then preparing for war with Mexico, and
guaranteeing on the part of the United States the sovereignty
of New Granada in the Isthmus, has been considered the first
step toward the establishment of an American protectorate over
the Isthmus. In 1901 by the negotiation of the Hay^Pauncefote
Treaty it became possible for the United ^States alone to build
and control an interoceanic canal. The' Hay-Herran Treaty
of January 1903, providing that the United States take over the
Panama Canal was not ratified by the Colombian Congress,
possibly because it was hoped that settlement might be delayed
until the concession to the company expired, and that then the
payment from the United Stales would come directly to the
Colombian government; and the Congress, which had been
•pedally called for the purpose— there was no regular legislative
government in Bogoi& In i898r-zQ03~adjourncd on the 31st of
October. Three days later, on the 3rd of November, the
independence of Panama was declared. Commander John F.
Hubbard of the United States gunboat " Nashville " at Colon
forbade the transportation of Colombian troops across the
Isthmus, and landed 42 marines to prevent the occupation of
Colon by the Colombian force; the diplomatic excuse for his
aclion was that by the treaty of 1846 the United States had
promised to keep the Isthmus open, and that a civil war would
have closed it. On the 7th of November Panama was virtually
recognized by the United States, when her diplomatic representa-
tive was received; and on the i8th of November a treaty was
signed between the United States and Panama, ceding to the
United States the " Canal Zone," for which and for the canal
concession the United States promised to pay Sio.ooo.ooo
immediately and Si $0,000 annually as rental, the first payment
to be made nine years after the ratification of the treaty. On
the 4th of January 1904. two months after the declaration of
independence, a constitutional assembly was elected, which met
on the islh of January, adopted the constitution described
above, and chose as president Manuel Amador Guerrero (1834-
1909). He was succeeded in October 1908 by Domingo de
Obaldia. In 1905 a treaty was made with Costa Rica for the
demarcation of tlie boundary line between the two countries.
See Henri Pensa. La RefmUique et U Canal de Panama (Paris.
I^). devoted mainly to the question of international law: Vald6s.
Ctotrafia del istmo de Panama (New York. 1905): R. T. Hill, *' The
Oeoloeical History of the Isthmus of Panama and Portbns of Porto
Rico •^(1898). vol. 28. pp. 151-285. of the BulUtin ofthe Museum of
Combarativc Zoology of Harvard College: E.J. Cattcll (cd.), Panama
(Philadelphia. 1905). beinjf pt. i. | 27 of the Foreign Commct^
1 College: E.J. Cattcll (cd.), Panama
trntiaoeipnia. 1905). ocinjf pt. i. t ^7 01 the ForriRn Commcr
cial Cuklc of the Philadelphia Commercial Museum : and the publica
tions on Panama of tlie Intcrnatiooal Bureau of American Republics.
PANAMA, the capital and the chief Pad&c port of the republic
of Panama, and the capital of the province oC the same name,
in the foutk*centnl part of the country, at the bead of the Gulf
cf Panama, and at the south terminus of the Panama railway,
47) n. from Colon, and of the Panama Canal. Pop. (1910),
about 30,000, of whom nearly one-half were forctgn-bom or of
foreign parenUgc. Panama is served by regular steamers to
San Frandsoo, Yokohama and other Pacific ports. The city
'The state of Panatna. with boundaries nearly corresponding to
those of the present republic, and includinfr the province of Panama
and other provinces, was created in 1855 by kgulativc enactiacau
is built on a rocky peninsula jutting out to the east. wte»r *'v
mouth of the Rio Grande and at the foot of Mt Ancon (jtc
The harbour is good and is enclosed at the south by tc* .
tugged islands, the largest being Perico and Fkucenoo (bdo-^
to the United Stales) and Taboga (935 ft.), which is a p*^.*
country residence for wealthy citizens. The main atre<.ts -
north and south and are cut by the Avenida Central; ik^-
all the streets arc narrow and crooked. The principaJ squx
are Cathedral, Santa Ana, Bolivar and Leascps. The c.
proper is almost entirely endosed by the remains of a r^.
granite wall (built in 1673, ^hen the new dty was establish*
on the top of which on the side facing the sea is Las Bo««. -
promenade. The public buildmgs include the cathe-: .
(1760), the government palace, the municipal palace, i*
episcopal palace, the church of Santa Ana, a nataooal thea-
a school of aru and trades, a fonagn hospital, the ft'-,
administration building of the Canal Company, Santo Tr?
Hospital, the pest house of Punta Mala and vaiioaa as>l-.-
The houses arc mostly of stone, with red tile roofs, two or 1 ^ •
storeys high, built in the Spanish style around central ps
or courts, and with balconies projeaing far over the r^-t**
streets; in such houses the lowest fkior is often rented to a i>* -
family. There are dwellings above most of the shops. 1 *
streets are lighted with electricity; and there are electric 5 -•
railways and telephones in the city. The water supp!> -
drainage systems were introduced by the United States p >-. -
mcnt, which controli the saniution of the city, hut h ■
other jurisdiction over it. Two miles inland b Anoon, ir
Canal Zone, in which are the bospitab of the Isthmian C -
Commission and the largest hotel on the isthmus. TTe
of Panama was formerly a stronghold of yellow fever and ma'.:
which American sanitary measures have practically eradin- .
Panama has had an imporunt trade: its imports, about t i
as valuable as its exports, include cotton goods, haberdosh- ->
coal, flour, sQk goods and rice; the most valuable csportk a-:
gold, india-rubber, mother of pearl and oocobolo wood. ^-
Balboa (3 m. west of the city, connected with it by raSway, < .
formerly called La Boca), the port of Panama and the z.*
terminus of the canal, is in the Canal Zone and u a port u* -:
the jurisdiction of the United States, the commercial f.i.:T
of Panama is dependent upon American tariffs and v
degree to which Panama and Balboa may be identified. K
Balboa there ore three wharves, one 985 fL long and ar.
1000 ft. long, but their capacity is so insuffidcnt that ligh:ct. .
is still necessary. In the city there is one small dock whid^ . .
be used only at full tide. Small vessels may cool at K«c« .'
island in the Gulf of Panama, which is owned by the I - • *
States. Soap and chocolate are manufactured. Fouadcc -
1 519 by Pedro Arias de Avila, Panama is the oldest EaTc;^.-
town on the mainland of America. In the x6tii ccfitvr> •
city was the strongest Spanish fortress in the New ^\' '
excepting Cartagena, and gold and silver were brought k:- -
by ship from Peru and were carried across the LaK- .•
to Chagres, but as Spain's fleets even ui the Pacific mkzz
more and more often attacked in the 17th century. Fanjr*.
became less important, though it was still the chief Spanish f<-'
on the Pacific. In 167 1 the city was destroyed by Henry Moir . v
the buccaneer; it was rebuilt in 1673 by Alfonso hfcreodo t
Villacorta abo^t five miles west of the old site and ncsT?
the roadstead. The city bos often been visited by earK
quakes. In the dty in June 1826 the Panama CoB^gxcss s-fi
(see Pan-Amcrxcan CoNrcKENCEs).
PANAMA CAIIAk When he crasscd the Atlantic, the
object Columbus had in view was to find a western passage f rv?
Europe to Cathay. It was with the greatest rductance. a^
only after a generation of unremitting toil that the exphners » ^
succeeded him became convinced that the American cootiMTt
was continuous, and formed a barrier of enormous extent to •**£
passage of vessels. The questton of cutting a canal throic^
this barrier at some suitable point was immnliately raised, b
1550 the Portuguese navigator Antonio Galvao published s
book to demonstrate that a caaal oould be cut at TehusBtcpte.
PANAMA CANAL
667
Nicaragua, Panama or Darfen, and fai 1551 the Spanish historian
F. L. de Gomara submitted a memorial to Philip II. urging in
forcible language that the work be undertaken without delay.
But the project was opposed by the Spanish Government, who
had now concluded that a monopoly of communication with
their possessions in the New World was of more importance than
a passage by sea to Cathay. It even discouraged the improve-
menl of the communications by land. To seek or make known
any better route than the one from Porto Bello to Panama
was forbidden under penalty of death. For more than two
centuries no serious steps were taken towards the construction
of the canal, if ezceptbn be made of William Paterson's disas-
trous Darien scheme in 1698. In 1771 the Spanish government,
having changed its policy, ordered a survey for a canal at
Tehuantepcc, and finding that line impracticable, ordered
surveys in 1779 at Nicaragua, but political disturbances in
Europe soon prevented further action. In 1808 the isthmus was
examined by Alexander von Humboldt, who pointed out the
lines which he considered worthy of study. After the Central
American republics acquired their independence in 1833,
there was a decided increase of interest in the canal question.
In 1825 the Republic of the Centre, having received applica-
tions for concessions from citi2ens of Great Dritain, and also from
citizens of the United States, made overtures to the United States
for 'aid in constructing a canal, but they resulted in nothing. In
1830 a concession was granted to a Dutch corporation under
the special patronage of the king of the Netherlands to construct
a canal through Nicaragua, but the revolution and the separ-
ation of Belgium from Holland followed, and the scheme fell
through. Subsequently numerous concessions were granted to
citizens of the United States, France and Belgium, both for the
Nicaragua and the Panama lines, but with the exception of the
concession of 1878 for Panama and that of 1887 for Nicaragua,
DO work of construction was done under any of them.
Knowledge of the topography of the isthmus was extremely
vague until the great increase of travel due to the discovery of
gold in California in 1848 rendered improved communications
a necessity. A railroad at Panama and a canal at Nicaragua
were both projected. Instrumental surveys for the former in
184Q. and for the btter in 1850, were made by American
engineers, and, with some small exceptions, were the first
accurate surveys made up to that time. The work done resulted
in geographical knowledge suflicicnt to eliminate from considera-
tion all but the following routes: (i) Nicaragua; (3) Panama;
(3) San Bias; (4) Caledonia Bay; (5) Darien; (6) Atrato river,
of which last there were four variants, the Tuyra, the Truando,
the Napipi and the Bojaya. In 1866, in response to an inquiry
from Congress, Admiral Charlei H. Davit, U.S. Navy, reported
tliat " there does not exist in the libraries of the world the
means of determining even approximately the most practicable
route for a ship canal across the American isthmus." To clear
up the subject, the United States govemincnt sent out, between
1870 and 1875, a scries of expeditions under officers of the navy,
by whom aU of the above routes were examined. The result
was to show that the only lines by which a tunnel could be
avoided were the Panama and the Nicaragua lines; and in 1876
a United States Commission reported that the Nicaragua route
possessed greater advantages and offered fewer difficulties than
any other. At Panama the isthmus is narrower than at any
other point except San Bha, iu width in a straight line being
only 35 m.and the height of the continental divide isonly 500 ft.,
which is higher than the Nicaragua summit, but less than
half the height on any other route. At Nicaragua the distance
is greater, Ixmg about 156 m. in a straight line, but more than
one third is covered by Lake Nicaragua, a sheet of fresh water
with an area of about 3000 sq. m. and a maximum depth of
over 300 ft., the surface being about 105 ft. above sea-lcvc).
Lake Nicaragua ia connected with the Atlantic by a navigable
river, the San Juan, and b separated from the Pacific by the
continental divide, which is about 160 ft. above sea-level. At
Nicaragua only a canal with locks is feasible, but at Panama
a sea-levd canal is a physical possibility.
By the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 with Great Britain,
by the treaty of 1846 with New Granada (Colombia), Article
XXXV., and by the treaty of 1867 with Nicaragua, Article XV:,
the United States guaranteed that the projected canal,
whether the Panama or the Nicaraguan, should be neutral,
and, furthermore, that it be used and enjoyed upon equal terms
by the citizens of both countries in each case. A modification
of the Clayton-Bulwcr Treaty being necessary to enable the
United States to build the canal, a treaty, making such modlfica-
tions, but preserving the principle of neutrality, known as the
Ilay-Pauncefote Treaty, was negotiated with Great Britain
in 2900; it was amended by the United States Senate, and the
amendments not proving acceptable to Great Britain, the treaty
lapsed in March 1901. A new treaty, however, was negotiated
in the autumn, and accepted in December by the U.S. Senate.
The completion of the Sues Canal in 1869, and its subsequent
success as a commercial enterprise, drew attention more forcibly
than ever to the American isthmus. In 1876 an associatiop
entitled " Soci£t6 Civile Internationale du Catuil Interoc6anique *'
was organized in Paris to make surveys and explorations for
a ship canal An expedition under the direction of Lieut
L. N. B. Wysc, an officer of the French navy, was sent to the
isthmus to examine the Panama line. In May 1878 Lieut.
Wyse, in the name of the association, obtained a concesak>n from
the Colombian government, oomroonly known as the Wyse
Concession. This is the concession under which work upon the
Panama Canal has been prosecuted. Its first holders did no
work of construction.
In May 1879 an International Congress composed of 135
delegates from various nations— some from Great Britain,
United States and Germany, but the majority fs^gt
from France — ^was convened in Paris under the Ammm
auspices of Ferdinand de Lesseps, to consider the Compsay*
best situation for, and the plan of, a canal. After a session
of two weeks the Congress decided that the canal should be
at. the sea-level, and at Panama. Immediately after the
adjournment of the Congress the Panama Canal Company was
organized under a general law of France, with Lesseps as presi-
dent, and it purchased the Wyse Concessk>n at the price of
10,000,000 francs. An attempt to float this company in
August 1879 failed, but a second attempt, made in December
1888, was fully successful, 6,000,000 shares of 500 francs each
being sold. Tht next two years were devoted to surveys and
examinatk>ns and preliminaiy work upon the canal. The plan
adopted was for a sea-level canal having a depth of 29^ ft. and
bottom width of 72 ft., involving excavation estimated at
157,000,000, cub. yds. The cost was estimated by Lesseps in
1880 at 658,000,000 francs, and the time required at eight years.
The terminus on the Atlantic side was fixed by the anchorage
at Colon, and that on the Pacific side by the anchorage at
Panama. Leaving Colon, the canal was to pass through low
ground by a dht:ct line for a distance of 6 m. to Gatun, where
It intersected the valley of the Chagres river; pass up that
valley for a distance of 21 m. to Obispo, where it left the Chagres
and ascended the valley of a tributary, the Cumacho; cut through
the watershed at Culebra, and thence descend by the valley
of the Rk> Grande to Panama Bay. Its total length from deep
water in the Atlantic to deep water fn the Pacific was about
47 m. It was laid out in such a way as to give easy curvature
everywhere; the sharpest curve, of which there was but one,
had a radius of 6200 ft., four others had a radius of 8200 ft.,
and all othen had a tadius of 9800 ft. or more. To secure this
it was necessary to select a point for crossing the watershed
where the height was somewhat greater than that of the lowest
pass. The line was essentially the same as that followed by the
Panama railroad, the concession for which granted a monopoly
of that route; the Wyse Concession, therefore, was applicable
only upon condition that the canal company could come to an
amicable agreement with the railroad company.
The principal difficulties to be encountered in carrying out this
plan consisted in the enormous dimensions of the cut to be made at
Culebra, and in the control of the Cha^rei river, the valley of which
668
PANAMA CANAL
b oceopled by tte canal for a lane part of its length. This stieam
is of torrential character, its discharKe vaiying from a minimuai of
about 3SO cub. ft. to a maximum of over 100,000 cub. ft. per second.
It rose at Gamboa on the ist of December 1890, 18} ft. in twelve
hours, its volume increa:>ing from 15.600 cub. ft. to 57,800 cub. ft. per
second at the same time; and nmilar violent changes are not un*
common. To admit a stream of this character to the canal would be
an intolerable nuisance to navigation unless space could be pro-
vided for its waters to spread out. For a canal with locks the remedy
b simple, but for a sea-level canal the problem is much more difficult,
and no satisfactory solution of the question was ever reached under
the Lesseps pUn.
Work under this plan continued until the Utter part of 1887,
the management bcin^ characterized by a decree of extravagance
and corruption rarely if ever equalled in the history of the world.
By that time it had become evident that the canal could not be com*
pfcted at the sea-level with the resources of time and money then
available. The plan was accordingly changed to one including
locks, and work was pushed on with vigour until 1889, when the
rumF^^inv, hi^rocninic bankrupt, was dissolved bv a judgment of the
TrtljLinal Civil dL' l;i Sm-wc, dated the 4lh of February 188^, a liqui-
^^toi bcin^ dppoinri^rl by rhe court to take charge of iu affairs.
One ol the more [i^^- - —'^ duties assigned to this official was to
keep the proper tv and the concession alive, with a view
lo the lormation ul mpany for the completion of the canal.
He gr^du-illy [vdLM.<.nj '^,.. number of men employed, and finally
lyspended the works^ on i^-^. isth of May 1889. He then proceeded
to utiily himM^K that tb.. canal project was feasible, a question
ftbotit whicTi th« Ini^iiTj ■■■''■ 'he company had caused grave doubts,
and ro tbiii cud r . nquiry to Be held by a commission of
French nrkd lon:i[: rs. This commission reported on the
gih dI Muy i^Q a, . J with kicks, for whk:h tncy submitted
a pbn. CDuld \x buiU ki . .^ it years at a cost of 580,000.000 francs
for the wrofk*, whir Ji ^uin ';.>uld be increased to 900,000.000 francs
to include jidmintMtni-i.m .: id financing. They reported that the
ptaflt in band was in gi.H:-d condition and would probably suffice
lor finlihiiif Ibe cmiul, jnl they estimated the value of the work
done and of the ^nt in lii d at 4^0.000.000 francs.
The time nifhm whkh ^h^i canal was to be completed under the
Wyar C«npf»ion h^vini* rv irly expired, the liquidator sought and
ohttiinert fmm ihc Colomt vni government an extension of ten years.
Tutu^ ^^.L^vtiULiitly iliL ujne was extended by the Colombian
go\'cmment, the date ultimately fixed for the completion of the
canal being the 31st of October 1910. For each of these extensions
the.Cok>mbun government exacted heavy subaidiea.
The liquidator finally secured the organuation of a new
company on the aotb of October 1894. The old company and
the liquidator had raised by the sale of stock and bonds the
sum of 1,371,683,637 francs. The securities issued to raise this
money had a par value of 2,245,151,360 francs, held by about
300,000 persons. In all about 73,000,000 cub. yds. had been
excavated, and an enormous quantity of machinery and other
plant had been purchased and transported to the isthmus at
an estimated cost of 150,000,000 francs. Nearly all of the stock
of the Panama railroad — 68,534 of the 70.000 shares existing—
also had been purchased, at a cost of 93,368,186 francs.
The new company was regularly organized imder Freoch
law, and was recognized by the Colombian government. It
Ste^mS vu technically a private corporation, but the great
Pamsmm number of persons interested in the securities of the
Compmay, ^i^ company, and the special legislatioa of the
French Chambers, gave it a scmi-nalional character. By
the law of the 8th of June 188S, all machinery and toob
used in the work must be of French manufacture, and raw
material must be of French origin. Its. capital stock consisted
of 650,000 shares of 100 francs each, of which 50.000 shares
belonged to Colombia. It succeeded to all the rights of the
old company in the concessions, works, lands, buildings, plant,
maps, drawings, &c., and shares of the Panama railroad.
For the contingency that the canal should not be completed,
special conditions were made as to the Panama railroad shares.
These were to revert to the liquidator, but the company had
the privilege of purchasing them for 20,000,000 francs in cash
and half the net annual profiu of the road. The Panama
railroad retained its separate organization as an American
corporation.
Immedbtely after its orgamzation In 1894 the new eompany
took possession of the property (except the Panama railroad
shares, which were held in trust for its benefit), and proceeded to
make a new study of the entire subject of the canal in its cnpnecring
aad commercial aspects* It resunoed the work of excavation, with
a moderate namber of men wflkient to comply with the verr^ 4
the concession, in a part of the line — the Emperador and C . • ^
cuts — where such excavation must contribute to the enterf r^. .
completed under any plan. By the middle of 1895. about ^^c
men had been collected, and since that time the work profrr .^
continuously, the number of workmen varying between I9(k> <..:
360a The amount of material excavated to the end of 1 h-^ • ^
about 5,000,000 cubic yards. The amount expended to the .- ^
of June 1899 was about 3S.000.000 francs, besides about 6.^*000
francs advanced to the Panama Railroad Compaay for boMdiin 1
pier at La Boca.
The charter provided for the appointment by the ootnpany x^
the liquidator of a special engineering commission of five cnembr^
to report upon the work done and the conclusioos to be dnn
therefrom, thk report to be rendered when the amouBts cxpc«>>>^
by the new company should have reached about one>half its cac«'j±
Ine report was to be made public, and a special meeting c^ \-t
stockholders was then to be held to determine whether or not ::»
canal should be completed, and to provide ways and means. !>:
time for this report and special meeting arrived in 1898. la r^
meanwhile the conipany had called to its aid a
mittee composed of^ fourteen engineers, European and Anvf^ %
some cf them among the most eminent in their profcaaoo. A -
a study of all the data ax'ailable, and of such additiooal san^t
and examinations as it considered should be made, this oounir.o
rendered an elaborate report dated the l6th of November m^*-
This report was referred to the statutory commission of fi\-e. » :
reported in 1899 that the canal could be built accord in g to t°: :
project within the limits of time and money estimated. The h»^. J
meeting of stockholders was called immediately after the trxAM:
annual meeting of the 30ih of December 1890. It ia utsder^'. .1
that the liquidator (who held about one-fourth the stock) rei^^-i
to take part in it, and that no conclusions were reached as to j<
expediency <rf completing the canal or as to providing way^ a-J
means. The engineering questbns had been solved to the »a^^
faction of the company, out the financial questions had been m^ir
extremely difficult, if not^ insoluble, by the appearance d. vx
United Mates government in the field as a probaole builder o^ sz
isthmbn canal. The company continued to conduct its operarrra
in a provisional way, without appealing to the public for capttaL
The plan adopted by the company involved two levela abo\« tJsr
sea-level — one of them an artificial lake to be created by a dara a.
Bohio, to be reached from the Atlantic by a flight of two locks, j.-^
the other, the summtt-lcvcl, to be reached by another flight oi t^<
locks from the preceding. The summit-kvel was to have a»
surface at high water loa f t< above the sea, and to be aupplied >nt>
water by a feeder leading from an artificial reservoir to be c-o-
structcd at Alajuela in the upper Chagrcs val!ey ; the ascent on it-s
Pacific side to be likewise by four kicks. The canal was toKj r
a depth of aol ft. and a bottom width of about 98 fu. with ^
increased width in certain specified parts. Its general plaa wa$ Thr
same as that adopted by the old company. The locks wexe t. be
double, or twin locks, the chambers to have a serviceable Icr^-^
in the clear of 738 ft., with a width of 8a ft. and a depth of 5^ t
10 in., with lifts varying from 20 to 33 ft., accordiac to sitiuciea
and stage of water. The time required to build the canal wa
estimated at ten years; and iu cost at $35,000,000 francs ior the
works, not including administration and financing.
The occupation of the Panama route by Europeans,' and the
prospect of a canal there under foreign control, was aot
a pleasing spectacle to the people of the United mgrnw^m
States. The favour with which the Nicaragua. •""*"■"
route had been considered since 1876 began to
a partisan character, aiMl the movement to
canal on that line to assume a practical shape. Ib 1SS4 a
treaty, \nown as the Frelinghuyscn-Zarala Treaty, was aerat>-
ated with Nicaragua, by the terms of which the United Sta!n
Government was to build the canal without cost to Nicafa^ca,
and after completion it was to be owned and manaced jointly
by the two governments. The treaty was suboutted to the
United States Senate, and in the vote for ratificatiott, «a \ht
29th of January 1885, received thirty-two votes in iHM favoor
against twenty-three. The necessary two-thinb vote not
having been obtained, the treaty was not ratified, and a chaztfe
of administration occurring soon afterwards, it was withdrava
from further consideration. This failure led to the Ibmnfi&a
in New York by private citizens in 1886 of the Nicaragua Canal
Association ,f or the purpose of obtaining the neceaary concessions.
making surveys, laying out the route, and Ofganising suet
corporations as should be required to construct the casal
They obtained a concession from Nicaragua in April 1SS7, ax4
one from Costa Rica in August 188S, and sent parties to sorrey
the canaL An act for the incorporation of aa aworiniooia
PANAMA CANAL
669
be known as the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua passed
Congress and was approved on the 2olh of February 1889,
and on the 4th of May 1889 the company was organized. It
took over the concessions and, acting through a construction
company, began work upon the canal in June 1889. Operations
upon a moderate scale and mainly of a preliminary character
were continued until 1893, when the financial disturbances of that
period drove the construction company into bankruptcy and
compelled a suspension of the work. It has not since been
resumed. At that time the canal had been excavated to a depth
of 17 ft. and a width of 380 ft. for a distance of about 3000 ft.
inland from Greytown; the canal line had been cleared of timber
for A distance of about 20 m.; a railroad had been constructed
for a distance of about 11 m. inland from Greytown; a pier
had been built for the improvement of Greytown harbour and
other works undertaken. In all, about $4,500,000 had been
expended.
Congress continued to take an interest in the enterprise,
and in 1895 provided for a board of engineers to inquire into the
possibility, permanence, and cost of the canal as projected by
the Maritime Canal Company. The report of this board, dated
April 189s, severely criticized the plans and estimates of the
company, and led to the appointment in 1897 of another board,
to make additional surveys and examinations, and to prepare
new plans and estimates. The second board recommended
some radical changes in the plans, and especially in the estimates,
but its report was not completed when the revival of the Panama
scheme attracted the attention of Congress, and led to the
creation in 1899 of the Isthmian Canal Commission. In the
meanwhile the property of the Maritime Canal Company has
become nearly worthless through decay, and its concession
has been declared forfeited by the Nicaraguan government.
The interest of the United States in an isthmian capal was
not essentially different from that of other maritime nations
Istbmimm down to about the middle of the 19th century, but
CBoalCwm* It assumed great strength when California was
iMiiatofl. acquired, and it has steadily grown as the impor-
tance of the Pacific States has developed. In 1848 and again
in 1884, treaties were negotiated with Nicaragua authoriz-
ing the United States to build the canal, but in neither
case was the treaty ratified. The Spanish War of 1898
gave a tremendous impetus to popular interest in the
matter, and It seemed an article of the national faith that
the canal must be built, and, furthermore, that it must be under
American control. To the American people the canal appears
to be not merely a busineaa enterprise from which a direct
revenue is to be obtained, but rather a means of unifying and
strengthening their national political interests, and of developing
their industries, particularly in the Pacific States; in short,
a means essential to their national growth. The Isthmian
Canal Commission created by Congress in 1899 to examine all
practicable routes, and to report which was the most practicable
and most feasible for a canal under the control, management
and ownership of the United States, reported that there was
no route which did not present greater disadvantages than those
of Panama and Nicaragua. It recommended that the canal
at Panama have a depth of 35 ft. and a bottom width 150
ft., the locks to be double, the lock chambers to have a length
740 ft., width 84 ft. and depth 35 ft. in the dear. The cost
of a canal with these dimensions, built essentially upon the
French plans, was estunated at 1156,378,258. A phin, however,
was recommended in which the height of the Bohio dam was
increased about 20 ft., the level of Lake Bohio raised by that
atoiount, the lake made the summit-level, and the Alajuela dam
omitted. The cost upon this plan was estimated at $143,971,127.
According to the plan recommended by the Commission for
Nicaragua the line began at Greytown on the Caribbean Sea,
where an artificial harbour was to be constructed and
follow the valley of the San Juan for roo m. to Lake Nicara-
gua; thence across the lake about 70 m. to the mouth of Las
Lajas river; then up the valley of that stream through the
watershedi and down the valley of the Rio Grande, 17 m. to
Brito on the Pacific, where also an artificial harbour was to
be constructed. The distance from ocean to ocean is 187 oil
About midway between the lake and the Caribbean the San
Juan receives its most important affluent, the San Carbs, and
undergoes a radical change in character. Above the junction
it is a dear water stream, capable of improvement by locks
and dams. Below, it is dioked with sand, and not available
for slack-water navigation. A dam across the San JuaA above
the mouth of the San Carlos was to maintain the water of the
river above that point on a level with the lake. The line of
the canal occupied essentially the bed of the river from the lake
to the dam; from the dam to the Caribbean it foUowed the left
bank of the river, keepmg at a safe distance from it, and occasion-
ally cutting through a high projecting ridge. The lake and
the river above the dam constitute the summit-level, which
would have varied in height at different seasons from 104 to
izo ft. above mean sea-level. It would have been reached from
the Caribbean side by five locks, the first having a lift of 36I ft.,
and the others a uniform lift of 18) ft. each, making a total
lift of 1 10^ ft. from low tide in the Caribbean to high tide in the
lake. From the Padfic side the summit would have been reached
by four locks having a uniform lift of 28} ft. each, or a total
lift of 114 ft. from low tide in the Pacific to high tide in the lake.
The time required to build the canal was estimated at ten years,
and its cost at $200,540,000.
Tfie report of the commission, transmitted to Congress at the
end of 1900, ended thus: —
The Panama Canal, after completion, would be shorter, have
fewer lockt and less curvatune than the Nicaragua Canal. The
measure of these advantages is the time requinsd for a vessel to
pass throuffh, which is .estimated for an average ship at 12
hours for Panama and 33 hours for Nicaragua* On the other
hand, the distance from San Francisco to New Yorkris ^77
to New Orleans 579 m. and to Liverpool 386 m. greater via ran
than via Nicaragua. The time required to pass over these dia-
Uncca being greater than the difference in the time of tesasst
through the canab, the Nicaragua line, after completion, would
be somewhat the more advantageous of the two to the United
States, notwithstanding the greater cost of maintaining the longer
canal.
The government of Colombia, in which lies the Panama Canal,
has granted an exclusive concession, which stiU has many years to
run. It is not free to S^nt the necessary rights to the United
States, except upon condition that an agreement be reached with
the New Panama Canal Company. The Commission believes that
such agreement is impracticable. So far as can be ascertained,
the company b not willing to sell its fianchise, but wUl allow the
United States to become the owner of part of its stock. The
Commission considers such an arransement inadmisstble. The
Governments of Nkaragua and Cbata Rica, on the other hand, are
oncnrameUed by conc e ss i o ns , and are free to grant to the United
States such privilMes as may be mutually agreed upon.
In view ot all tbe facts, and particularly in view of all the di£B-
cultles 01 obtaining the necessary rights, privileges and franchises
on the Panama route, and aasuminff that Nicaragua and Costa
Rica reoDgniae the value of the canal to themselves, and are pre-
pared to grant coooessiona on terms which are reasonable and
acceptable to the United States, the Commission is of the opinion
that " the most practicable and feasible route for " an btnmian
canal, to be " under the control, management and owner^ip of
the United States,*' b that known as the Nicaragua route.
Thb report caused the New Panama Canal Company to view
the question of selling its property in a new Ugfat, and in the
spring of 1 901 it obtained permbslon from the p^Btma
Cokmibian government to dbpose of it to the United P9ai»
States. It showed itself, however, somewhat reluc- ■*"V*"*
tant to name a price to the Canal Commission, and It was not tiU
January 1902 that it definitely offered to accept $40,000,000. In
consequence of thb offer, the commission in a supplementary
report issued on the x8th of January 1902 reversed the condusion
it had stated in Its main report, and advised the adoption df
the Panama route, with purcbase of the works, ftc, of the French
company. A few days previous to thn report the Hepburn
biD authorizing the Nicaragua cansJ at a cost of f x8o,ooo,ooo.
bad been carried in the House of Representatives by a larg«
majority, but when it reached the Senate an amendment — the
so-called Spooner bill — was moved and finally became htw on
the 28th of June 1902. This authorized the president to acquire
670
PANAMA CANAL
^H tke prapcxty ol the Puuiba Canal Company, indudins Kt
l^^5 than 6S369 cbaxcs of the Pananu RFJir^ad Company,
for • ^"* o^ exceeding $40,000,000, and lo obtain from
ColomhiA perpetual control of a strip of bnd 6 m. wide;
.^bile il he failed to come to terms with the company and with
Coiombia in a reasonable time and on reasonable terms, he was
l,y treaty to obtain from Costa Rica and Nicaragua the tcrxi-
^,0ry necessary for the Nicaragtia canaL
Kecotiations were forthwith opened with Colombia, and
^tiniately a treaty (the Hay-Herran treaty) was signed in
^^^^„fi^ January 1903. The Colombian Senate, however,
^/# < * — ■ '««sed ratification, and it seemed as if the Panama
g^M9»a4' scheme would have to be abandoned when the
mmco^ complexjon of affairs was changed by Panama
^voltiivg tK>m Colombia and declaring itself independent in
jijovember 1903 Within a month the new repubUc, by the
jI^y.Bunau.VanlU treaty, granted the United Suies the use.
^j^^cupatwn and control of a strip of land 10 m. wide for the
purpose* of the canaL A few days after the ratification of this
treaty by the United Sutes Senate in February 1904— the
concc*«on.o» the French company having been purchased
_^ commission was appointed to undertake the organization
^d management of the enterprise, and in June Mr J. F. Wallace
^^^ chosen chief engineer. Work was begun without delay,
but the commission's methods of administration and control
,oon proved unsatisfactory, and in April 1905 it was reorganized,
three of its members being constituted an executive committee
vhich was to be at Panama continuously. Shortly afterwards,
^ the end of June, Mr WalUcc resigned his position as chief
engineer and was succeeded by Mr John F. Stevens.
In cwinexjon with the reorganization of the commission a
board of consulting engineers, five being nominated by European
governments, was appointed in June 1905 to consider
the quesUoo, which so far had not been settled,
whether the canal should be made at sea-level,
without l^ks (al least except tidal regulating locks at or
near the Paofic terminus), or should rise to some elevation
above sea-level, with locks. The board reported in Januaxy
1906. The majority (eight members out of thirteen) declared
in favour of a sea-level canal as the only plan " giving reasonable
assurance of safe and uninlcrruptcd navigauon **; and they
considered that such a canal could be constructed in twelve
or thirteen years' time, that the cost would be less than
$250,000,000, and that it would endure for all time. The
minority recommended a lock canal, rising to an elevation of
85 ft. above mean sea-level, on the grounds that it would cost
about $100,000,000 less than the proposed sea-level canal, that
it could be buOt in much less time, that it would afford a better
navigation, that it would be adequate for all its uses for a longer
time, and that it could be enlarged if need should arise with
greater facility and less cost- The chief engineer, Mr Stevens,
also favoured the lock or high-level scheme for the reasons,
among others, that it would provide as safe and a quicker passage
for ships, and therefore would be of greater capacity; that it
would provide, beyond question, the best solution of the vital
problem how safely to care for the fkxxl waters of the Cbagrcs
and other streams, that provision was made for enlarging its
capacity to almost any extent at very much less expense of
time and money than could be provided for by any sea-level
plan; that its cost of operation, maintenance and fixed charges
would be very much less than those of any sea-level canal; and
that the time and cost of its construction would be not more
than one-half that of a canal of the sea-level type. These
conflicting reports were then submitted to the Isthmian Canal
Commission for consideration, with the result that on the 5th
of February, it reported, one member only dissenting, in favour
of the lock canal recommended by the minority of the board
of consulting engineers. Finally this plan was adopted by
Congress in June 1906. Later in the same year tenders were
invited from contracton who were prepared to undertake the
crxnstruction of the canaL These were opened in January 1907,
but none of them was regarded as entirely satisfactory, and
., \ -O ^f; t
> Ca^BI /nflC IvAPdj'
[KJ MhC
FA 3 !f rc :'""* '^\. (^:W&^N
PAN-AMERICAN CX>NFERENCES
671
Prcsideiit Rooseveh dedded thtt it would be best for the govern-
ment to coatiniie tbe work, which was placed under the mon
immediate control of the U.S.A. Corps of Engineen. At the
same time the Isthmian Canal Commission was reorganized,
Major G. W. Goethais, of the Corps of Engineers^ becoming
enipneer in chief and chairman, in succession to Mr J. F. Stevens
who, after succeeding Mr T. P. ShonU as chairman, himself
resigned on the tst of April
The following are the leading particulars of the canal, the course
of which b shown on the accompanying map. The length from
deep water in the Atlantic to deep water m tlie Padlic will beabout
50 m., or, since the distance from deep water to the shore-line is
about 4i m. in Limon Bay and about 5 m. at Panama, approximately
40} m. from shore to shore. The summit level, regulated between
M and 67 ft. above sea-Ievel. will extend for ^1} m. from a large
«>arth dum at Gatun to a smaller one at Pedro Miguel, and is to be
reached by a flight of 3 locks at the former point. The Gatun
dam will be 7200 ft. long along the crest including the spillwa]^,
will have a maximum width at its base of 2000 ft., and will be uni-
formly 100 ft. wide at its top, which will rise 115 ft. above sea-
level. The lake (Lake Gatun) enclosed by these dams will be
i64i sq. m. in area, and will constitute a reservoir for rtceivins the
floods of the Chagrcs and other rivers as well as for supplying
water for lockage. A smaller lake (Lake Miraflores). with a surface
elevation of 55 ft. and an area of about 2 sq. m. will extend from
a lock at Peoro Miguel to Miraflores, where the valley of the Rio
Grande is to be clMed by an earth dam on the west and a con-
crete dam with spUlway on the east, and the canal-is to descend to
sea-level by a fltgnt of two locks. All the locks arc to be induplicate,
each being no ft. wide with a usable length of 1000 ft. divided
by a m\M\e gate. The channel leading from deep water in the
Caribbean sea to Gatun will be about 7 m. kmg and mo ft. broad,
increasing to 1000 ft. from a point 4000 ft. north 01 the locks in
order to form a wailing basin for ships. From Gatun locks, 0-6 m
in length, the channel is to be 1000 ft. or more in width for a dis-
tance of nearly 16 m. to San Pablo. Thence it narrows first to
800 ft., and then for a short disunce to 700 ft., for ^i m. to mile 27
near Juan Grande, and to 500 ft. for 4I m. from Juan Grande to
Obispo (mile AiJ). From this point through the Culcbra cut to
Pedro Miguel lock, it will be only 300 ft. wide, but will widen again
to 500 ft. through Miraflores lake, if m. long, to Miraflores locks,
the toul length of which including approaches will be nearly a
mile, and will thence maintain the same width for the remaining
8 m. to deep water on the Pacific. The minimum bottom width of
the canal will thus be 300 ft., the average being 649 ft., while the
minimum depth wilt be 41 ft.
In 1909 it was estimated that the construction of the carnal wouM
be completed by the ist of January 1915, and that the total cost
to the United States would not exceed $375,000,000 including
f^o.000,000 paid to the French Canal Company and the Republic
of Panama, $7,382,000 for civil administration, and $20,OM,aoe
for sanitatbn. The last was one of the most necessary expenditures
of all, since without it disease would have greatly retarded tbe
work or perhaps prevented it altogether.
See W. F. Johnson, Four Cenluries of the Panama Canal (New
York, 1906): Report of the Board of Consulting Engineers for the
Panama Canal (Washington. 1906); Annual Reports of the Isthmian
Canal Commission (Washington); Vaughan Cornish, The Panama
Canal and its Makers (Loadoxi, 1909).
PAN-AMBRICAN COHFBRBNCES. At inte'rvals delegates
from the independent countries of North, Central and South
America have met in the Interests of peace and for the improve-
ment of commercial relations and for tbe discussion of various
other matters of common interest. A movement for some
form of Union among the Spanish colonies of Central and South
America was inaugurated by Simon Bolivar while those colom'es
were still fighting for independence from Spain, and in 1825
the United States, which in May 1823 had recogtuzed their
independence and in December 1823 had promulgated the
Monroe Doctrine, was invited by the governments of Mexico
and Colombia to send commissioners to a congress to be hdd at
Panama in the following year. Henry Clay, the secretary of
state, hoped the congress might be the means of establishing
a league of American republics under the hegemony of the
United States, and under his influence President J. Q. Adams
accepted the invitation, giving notice however that the com-
missioners from the Umted States would not be authorized
to act in any way inconustent with the neutral attitude of their
country toward Spain and her revolting colonies. The principal
objects of the Spaiflsh-Americans in calling the congress were,
in fact, to form a league of states to resbt Spain or any other
Eun^eaui power that might tttempt to biterfere In America
and to consider the expediency of freeing Cuba and Porto Rico
from Spojiish rule; but in his message to the Senate askbig that
body to approve faSs appointment of commissioners Adams
declared that hii object in appointing them was to manifest a
friendly interest in tbe young republi^ give them some advice,
promote commercial redprodty, obtain irom tbe congress
satisfactory definilioiis of the terms " blockade " and " neutral
rights " and encourage religious liberty. In the Senate the pro-
posed mission provoked a spirited attack on the administration.
Some senators feared that it might be the means of dragging
the United States into entan^ng alliances; others charged
that the Preadent had construed the Monroe Doctrine as a
pledge to the southern republics that if the powers of Europe
joined Spain against them the United States would come to
their assistance with arms and men; and a few from the slave-
holding states wished to have nothing to do with the republics
because they proposed to make Cuba and Porto Rico independent
and liberate the slaves on those islands. The Senate finally,
after a dday of more than ten weeks, confirmed the appointments.
There was further dday in the House of Representatives, which
was asked to make an appropiiation for the mission; one of
the commisaoneis, Richard C. Anderson (1788-1826), died
on the way (at Cartagena, July 24), and when the other, John
Sergeant (1779-1852), reached Panama the congress, consisting
of representatives from Colombia, Guatemala, Meiico and
Peru, had met (June 22), conduded and signed a "treaty
of um'on, league and perpetual confederation" and adjourned
to meet again at Tacubaya, near the City of Mexico. The
governments of Guatemala, Mexico and Peru refused to ratify
the treaty and the Panama congress or conference was a failure.
The meeting at Tacubaya was never hdd.
Mexico proposed another conference in 1831, and repeated the
proposal in 1838, 1839 and 1840, but each time without result
In December 1847, while Mexico and the United States were
at war, a conference of representatives from Bolivia, Chlle^
Ecuador, New Granada and Peru met at Lima, gave the other
American republics the privilege of joining in its ddiberations
or becoming parties to its agreements, continued to deliberate
until the 1st of March 1848, and concluded a treaty of confedera-
tion, a treaty of commerce and navigation, a postal treaty
and a consular convention; but with the exception of the ralifr*
cation of the consular convention by New Granada its work
was rejected. Representatives from Peru, Chile and Ecuador
met at Santiago in September 1856 and signed the ** Continental
Treaty " designed to promote the union of the Latin-American
republics, but expressing hostility toward the United States
as a consequence of the filibustering expeditions of William
Walker (1824-1860); it never became effective. In response
to an invitation from the government of Peru to each of the
Latin-American countries, representatives from (Juatemafa^
Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Argentina
met in a conference at Lima in November 1864 to form a
** Union.*' Colombia was opposed to extending the invitation
to the United States lest that country should " embarrass the
action of the Congress"; the conference itself accomplished
little. In 1877-1878 jurists from Peru, Bolivia, Cuba, Chile,
Ecuador, Honduras, Argentina, Venezuela and Costa Rica
met at Lima and conduded a treaty of extradition and a treaty
on private international law, and Uruguay and Guatemala
agreed to adhere to them. War among the South American
states prevented the holding of a conference which had been
called by the government of Colombia to meet at Panama Sn
September 18S1 and of another which had been cafled by the
government of the United States to meet at Washington in
November 1882 In 1888-1889 jurists from Argentina, Bolivia*
Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay met at Montevideo
and conduded treaties on international dvil law, international
commerdal law, international penal law, international law
of procedure, literary and artistic property, trade-marks and
patents, several of which were subsequently^ ratified by the
South American countries.
672
PANATHENAEA
In Mar ><<9 ^ Coaptm oT tlw Vtiktd Statci had pMKd
M Act Mtborizing tbe PrcaideBt to invite tbe mnesal Uti«-
Am«rku» ffOYcnuBcnU f o ft coniereace io WaaUagtoa to CMaider
mctaurat tor prcwrving the peace, the foniutioo of a cnstona
uakm, the citablishinciit ol better eommaakatjoa bctweea
porta, the adoption of a common lihrer coin, a nnilorm lystcm
ol weight*, meaMiea, patent-rights, copyrigbu and tiade-marfca,
the tubject of laniutioo of ahipa and qnanuitine, &c AH the
governmenU except Santo Domingo accepted the invitation
and thia conftrence ia commonly koowa aa the fint Pan-
American Conference. It met on the and of October 18S9,
wai presided over by Jamca C. Blaine, the American aecretaiy
of itate, who had been inatnimentaJ ia having the conference
called, and conitnocd iu tcaaiona until the 19th of April 1890.
A majority of iU members voted for oompolsory arbitraUon,
and recommendations were made relating to ndprKity treaties,
ciwtome regulations, port duties, the free navigation of American
rivets, taniury regulations, a. moncury union, weighu and
measorai, patenlt and trade-marks, an international American
bank, an intercontinental railway, the citradition of criminals,
and Mveral other matUrs. Nothing came of iu recommen-
dations, however, except the establishment in Washington of an
International Bureau of American RcpubUcs for the collection
and publiration of Information relating to the commerce,
products, laws and customs of tbe countries represented. At
the suggestion of President McKinley the government of Mexico
called the second Pan* American Conference to meet at the.
City of Mexico on the sand of October 1901. There was a full
representation and the sessions were continued until the 31st
of January iqos. The chief subject of discussion was arbitration,
and after much wrangling between those who insisted upon
compulsory arbitration and those opposed to it a majority of
the delegations signed a project whereby their countries should
become parties to the Hague conventions of 1899, which provide
for voluntary arbitration. At the same time ten delegations
signed a project for a treaty providing for compulsory arbitration.
The conference also approved a project for a treaty whereby
controvcrsirs arising from pecuniary claims of individuals of
one country against the government of another should be sub-
mitted to the arbitration court established by the Hague con-
vention. Tlie conference ratified a resolution of the first con-
ference recommending the construction of complementary
lines of the proposed Pan- American railway.
At this conference, too, the International Bureau of American
Republics wasoivaniaed under a governing board of diplomatisU
with the secretary of state of the United States as chairman;
It was directed to publish a monthly bulletin, and in several
other respects was made a more imporunt institution. Its
governing tioard waa directed to arrange for the third Pan-
American C onfcrence, and this body was in session at Rio de
Janeiro from the list of July to the 26th of August 1906.
Delegates attended from the United States, Argentina, Bolivia,
Braail, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, San Domingo,
Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama,
Paraguay, Peru, Snlvador and Uruguay; Haiti and Venezuela
were not reprcacnted. The secretary of sute of the United
States, Elihu Root, though not a delegate, addressed the con-
ference. The subjects considered were much the same as those
at the two preceding conferences. With respect to arbitration
this conference passed a resolution that the delegates from the
American republics to the second conference at the Hague be
)n%trucied to endeavour to secure there " the celebration of a
frneral arbitration convention so effective and definite that,
meriting the approval of the dvilixcd world, it shall be accepted
ami put in force by ewry nation," With respect tc copyrights,
patents and trademarks this conference re-affirmed the con-
ventions of the second confcrtncc. with some modifications,
with rcsfKCt to naturalisation it recommended that whenever
a native of one country who has been naturalixed in another
again takes up his residence in his native country without
intending to ittum to his adopted country he should be con-
•klend as having roassumed his original dtiaenship; and with
fcspcct to iMt pwobie coBsctioB of |
**I>n9» Doctrine** * ia opposed, the 1
that ** the G o > miuicn ta> icpeeiented thenm cooaidKr tht po^
of iovitiac tbe Seoood PcMe Conletcanr al Che Hacae to ca-
sidcr the qacsijeo of tbe compdagnr ooBectian of poUk drbcs,
and, ia fcaesal, acaaa toKfing to diminiib fadvcoB ■ntioos
copilicts having an exdnsively pecuiary origSn." Tbe foim^
Conference met in Buenos Aires in JntyAagMt tgio, agreed u
submit to arbitration such money daims aa cannot be amicai. .
settled by diplomacy, and mamed tbe- Boxcau tbe Bvresu a
Pan-American Unkm.*
The first Pan-Americaa s d eatffi c oongiaa net at SantiafTi.
Chile, on the 35th of December 1908 for the coosidentioQ cf
distinctly American problems. It continnrd in scsaioii bciJ
the sth of January 1909, and icsolvcd that a aeoond congrca
for the same pnipose shoiiU meet at Washtagton in 19x2.
See IiUematicfud American Cfttfemee, Reports amd ff miwu 'u '
Horn CWashington, 1890), and especially the Historical Appeodix.
PAVATHEHABA, the oldest and most inaportant of the
Athenian festivals. It was originally a religioas cdebratka.
founded by Erechtheus (Erichthonha), in bonour of Athena
Polias, the patron goddess of the dty. It n said that when
Theseus united the whole land ander one government be oiade
the festival of the dty-goddeas common to the entire oonntry,
and changed the older name Athenaea to Panatheaaea (FlDt&iv:!
Theseus, 34}. Tlie union (Synoedsm) itself was celebrated bj
a distinct festival, caU^ Synoeda or Synoccesia, which had no
ocmnexion with the Panathenaea. In addition to the xdigioas
rites there is said to have been a chariot race from tbe cariso!
times, in which Erechtheus himself won the pcixe. Considenb^
alterations were introduced into the proceedings by X*cjsistTaia
{q,v.) and his sons. It is probable that the distiactson of Greater
and Lesser Panathenaea dates- from this period, the latter bei^t
a shorter and simpler festival hdd every yeax. Every fooit^
year the festival waa celebrated with peculiar masnificeocf;
gymnastic sports were added to the horK races; and there is
Uttle doubt that Peisistratus aimed at making the penteteric
Panathenaea the great Ionian festival in rivalry to the Dorxa
Olympia. The penleteric festival was celebrated in tbe ih-^
year of each Olympiad. The annual festival, probably h£i
on the 38th and 39th of Hecatombaeon (about the middle of
August), consisted solfcly of the sacrifices and rites proper to this
season in the cult of Athena. One of these rites orisinal^T
consisted in carrying a new pcplus (the state robe of Atheax)
through the streets to the Acropolis to clothe the andent carved
image of tbe goddesa, a ceremonial known In other cities aai
represented by the writer of the Iliad (vi. 87) aa being ia cse
at Troy; but it is probable that this rite was afterwards restric*ed
to the great penteteric fesUvaL The peplus was a cas*>.
saffron-coloured garment, embroidened with scenes frocn xht
battle between the gods and giants, in which Athena had takca
part. At least as early as the 3rd century b.c:. tlie custom was
introduced of spreading the peplus like a sail on the mast of a
ship, which was rolled on a machine in the procession. Even lie
religious rites were celebrated with much greater splcndowr at
the Greater Panathenaea. Tbe whole empire shared in tbe ^rc. :
sacrifice; every colony and every subject state sent a depntati^
and sacrifidal xmimals. On the great day of the feast tbex?
was a procession of the priesta, the sacrificial assistants of eveir
kind, the representatives of every part of the empire with their
victims, of the cavalry, in short of the population of Attica aai
1 So named from a note (1902) directed by Dr Don Unu Mara
Drsgo, the Argentine minister of foieign anoirs, to the Aiigem -s
diplomatic represenUtive at Washington at the time of t^ ci-^
cullies of Venesuda inddent to the coOection of debts owed t«
fomrnrrs by that country
* the Bureau is supported by o
"1^ to population, of the 1 .
Andrew Carnegie contributed $750,000 and the variocs rcfn;!
acomiii^ to population, of the twenty-ooe Amenaui repa^*^
$350,000 for the erection of a permaDent home for the Bcacau
Washington. The Bureau has a libiary of aome 15.000 v^kbe
and piAlisbei mincroas handbooks, pamphlets aad attpa.
additKM to iu momkly BtilUtins. lu «
cboaen by the Governing Board.
PANCH MAHALS— PANCREAS
673
great put of ito dqientacict. After the prcaenUtkHi of the
peplus, the hecatomb was sacrificed. The subject of the frieze of
the Parthenon b an idealized treatment of this great procession.
The festival whkh had been beautified by Peisistratus was
made still more imposing under the rule of Pericles. He intro-
duced a regular musical contest in place of the old recitations of
the rhapscxles, which were an old standing accompaniment of
the festival. This contest took place in the Odeum, originally
built for this purpose by Pericles himself. The order of the
agones from this time onwards was— first the musical, then the
gymnastic, then the equestrian contest. Many kinds of contest,
such as the chariot race of the apobatai (said to have been
introduced by Erechtheus), which were not in use at Olympia,
were practised in Athens. ApobaUs was the name given to
the companion of the charioteer, who showed his skill by leaping
out of the chariot and up again while the horses were going at
full speed. There were in addition several minor contests:
the PyrrkiCf or war dance, celebrating tne victory of Athena
over the giants; the Euandria, whereby a certain number of
men, distinguished for height, strength and beauty, were
chosen as leaders of the procettion; the Lampadedromia, or
torch-race; the Naumackia (Regatta), which took place on the
hist day of the festival. The proceedings were under the super-
intendence of ten atUotkeiaet one from each tribe, the lesser
Panathenaea being noanagcd by tneropoei. In the musical
contests, a golden crown was given as first prize; in the sports,
a garland of leaves from the sacred olive trees of Athena, and
vases filled with oil from the same. Many specimens of these
Panathenaic vases have been found; on one side is the figure of
Athena, on the other a design showing the. nature of the com-
petition in which they were given as prizes. The season of the
festival was the 24th to the 29th of Hecatombaeon, and the
great day was the«8th.
See A. Mommsen. PtsU der Stadt Alhen (1898): A. Michaelis.
Jtr Parthenon (1871). with full bibliography ; P. Stengel, Die
grieckiuken KuUiuattertamer (1898) : L. C. Purser in Smith's Dtciion-
Stengel. Die
ary of AnH^ttUies (3rd ed., 1891): L. R. Famell, Cutis of the Greek
3tatei;aIflo article AtbbMa and works quoted.
PANCH KAHAIA ( *- Five Districts), a district of British
India, in the northern division of Bombay. Area, 1606 sq. m.,
pop. (1901), 261,020, showing a decrease of 17% in the decade,
owing to famine. The administrative headquarters are at
Godhra, pop. (1901), 30,915* Though including Champaner,
the old Hindu capital of Gujarat, now a ruin, this tract has no
history of its own. It became British territory as recently as
1 86 1, by a transfer from Sindhia; and it is the only district of
Bombay proper that is administered on the non-regulation
system, the collector being also political agent for Rewa Kantha.
It consbts of two separate parts, divided by the territory of a
native state. The south-western portion is for the most part
a level plain of rich soil; while the northern, although it com-
prises some fertile valleys, is generally rugged, undulating and
barren, with but little cultivation. The mineral products com-
prise sandstone, granite and other kinds of building stone.
Mining for manganese on a laige scale has been begun by a
European firm, and the iron ancl lead ores nuiy possibly become
profitable. Only recently has any attempt been made to con-
serve the extensive forest tracts, and consequently little timber
of any size is to be found. The principal crops are maize,
millets, rice, pulse and oilseeds; there are manufactures of
lac bracelets and lacquered toys; the chief export is timber.
Both portions of the district are crossed by the branch of the
Bombay and Baroda railway from Anand, through Godhra and
Dohad, to Ratlam; and a chord line, opened in 1904, rims from
Godhra to Baroda city. The district suffered very severely
from the famine of 1899-1900.
PANGBSAS (Gr. rv, all; cpktt, flesh), or sweetbread, in
anatomy, the elongated, tongue-shaped, digestive gland, of a
pinkish colour, which lies across the posterior wall of the abdomen
about the level of the first lumbar vertebra behind, and of the
transpyloric plane in front (see Anatokv: Superficial and ArHs'
tU). lu ri^ end is only a little to the right of the mid line
of the abdomen and is curved down, round the superior med-
enteric vessels, into the form of a ^". This hook-like right end
is known as the head of the pancreas, and its curvature is adapted
to the concavity of the duodenum (see fig.) The first inch of
the straight limb is narrower from above downward than the
rest and forms the neck. This part lies just in front of the
beginning of the portal vein, just below the pyloric opening of
the stomach and just above the superior mesenteric vessels.
The next three or four inches of the pancreas, to the left of the
neck, form the body and this part lies in front of the left kidney
and adrenal body, while it helps to form the posterior wall of
the "stomach chamber" (see Alimentary Canal). At its
left extremity the body tapers to form the tail, which usually
touches the spleen (see Ductless Glands) Just below the
hilum, and above the basal triangle of that viscus where the
splenic flexure of the colon is situated. On the upper border of
the body, a little to the left of the mid line of the abdomen, is
a convexity or htmip, which is known as the tuber omentale
of the pancreas, and touches the elevation (bearing the same
name) on the liver.
The pancreas is altogether behind the peritoneum. In its greater
part it IS covered in front by the lesser aac (see Coblom amo SaaotTS
Membrambs). but the lower part of the front of the head and the
very narrow lower surface ot the body are in contact with the
greater sac. There is one main duct of the j^oncraas, which is
•ometimes known as the duct of Winung; it u thin-walled and
white, and runs the whole length of the organ nearer the back than
the front. As it reaches the head it turns downward and opene
into the second part of the duodenum, joining the common bile
duct while they are both i>iercing the wsUs of the gut. A smaller
accessory pandteatic duct is found, which communicates with the
main duct and usually opens into the duodenum about three-
quarters of an inch above the papilla of the latter. It drains the
lower part of the head, and either crosses or communicates with
the duct of Wirsung to reach its opening (see A. M. Schinner,
Beitrag tw Cesckichte imd AnaL des Pancreas, Basel, 189^).
The pancreas has no real capsule, but i^ divided up mto lobules,
which are merely held together by their ducts and by loose areolar
tissue: the glands of which these lobules are made up are of the
adno-tubular variety (see Epithblial Tissots). Small groups of
epithelium-like cells without ducts (Islets of Langerfaans) oecur
among the glandular tissue and are cnarscteristic 01 the pancreas.
In cases ol diabetes they sometimes degenerate. In the centre
of each adnus of the main elandular tissue of the pancreas are
often found spindle-shaped cells (centro-adnar cells of Langerhans).
For details of microscopic structure see EssemtUUs ef Histeloiv,
by E. A. Schafer (London. 1907).
Embryohgy.— The pancreas is devdoped, by three divertkula,
from that part of the foregut which will later form tbe duodenum.
Of these diverticula the leK ventral disappears early,> but the right
ventral, which is really an outgrowth from the lower part of the
common bile duct, forms the head of the pancreas. The body
and tail are formed from the dorsal diverticulum, and the two
parts, at first separate, join one another so that the ducts communi-
cate, and eventually the ventral one takes almost all the aecretkm
of the gland to the intestiue, while that part of the dorsal one which
is nearest the duodenum atrophies and forms the duct of SantorinL
The main pancreatic duct (ol Wirsung) is therefore formed oartly
by the ventral and partly by the donal diverticulum. As the
diverticula grow they give off lateral branches, which branch
aaain and afaia until the terminal buds form the adni of the
gland. At first the pancreas grows upward, behind the stomach,
between the two byera of the dorsal mesogastrium (see COELoy
AND Serous Membranes), but when the stomach and duodenum
turn over to the right, the gland become s horisontal and the open-
ing of the right ventral diverticulum becomes more dorssL Later,
by the unequal mwth of the duodenal walls. It comes to enter tbe
gut on its left side where the papilla is permanently situated. After
the turning over of the pancreas to the right tiie peritoneum is
absorbed from its dorsal a^MCt. The iaieu of Langerhans are
now renrded as portions of the glandular epithelium which have
been isolated by the invaskm and growth round them of ibescnchyme
(see Quain's Anatomy, voL L. IQ08).
Comparative Anatomy. — In the Acrania (Amphioxus) no repre>
aentative of a pancreas has been found, but in the Cydostomata
(hags and lamprevs) there is a small lobular gland opening into
the bile duct whicn probably irpresents it. In the Elaamobranchs
(sharks and rays) there is a definite compact pancreas of consider-
able siae. In the Teleostomi, which include the true bony fish
(Tdeostei). the sturgeon and Polytenis, the pancreas is sometimes
* N. W. Ingalls has shown {Archie, f. mik, Anat. mnd EniwichL
Bd. 70, 1007), that in a human embryo of a-9 mm. the two ventral
buds penut and join one another below tbe liver bud.
674-
PANCREAS
a oomptct glaad and tometiaNa diffuse b eHwen the Uyen of the
mesentery t mt other tiinee it ia to surrounded by the liver as to be
difiiculc to find.
Among the Dipnoi (mud fish). Protopterus has it embedded in
the walls of the stomacn and intestine.
The Amphibia have a definite compact pancreas which lies in
the U-shaped loop between the stomach and duodenum, and b
massed round the bile duct. In the Reptilia there are some-
times several ducts, as in the crocodile and the water tortoise
(Enys), and this arrangement b also found in birds (the pigeon,
tor insunce, has three ducts opening into the duodenum at very
diflerent Icveb). la m^mmaU the gland b usually compact, though
into Ike ptmermi k ol some medieoJegal tmporttribe mm beiag s
cause of death. The condition b rarely recogniaed tn timt is
operative interference. Acute kaemorrkaiU pancreatiHs u a c:=^
bination of inflammation with haemorrhage ui which the paxicrsa
b found enlarged and infiltrated with blood. Viotent pain, vest-
ing and collapse, are the chief features as b also tbe cam. z
tancreatic abscess in which the abscess may be sin^ or mwlopNc.
In the latter case operation has been followed by rero-..-
Haemorrhasic inflammation has been followed by iomrrtne e< ^
tancreaSf wfiich usually terminates fatally. In two renuuicable cm^
however, reported by Chiari recovery followed oo the disr bar ge pv
rectum of the necrosed pancreas. Cknnic pamcnaiili* as aaMl t;
AerU
OuA'tfc luHJitK vt tfUm
Kifftrt
Fig. I.— The Viscera and Vcsseb on the Puste iiui Abdominal WalL
The stomach, liver and most of the intestines have been removed. The perit
preserved on the right kidney, and the fossa for the Spigelian lobe. In uking out the liver, the
vena cava was left b^iod. The stomach-bed b well snown. (From a body hardened by chromic*
add injections.)
sometimes, as in the rabbit, it b diffuse. It usually has two ducta,
as in man. though in many animals, such as the ox, she e p and goat,
only one persists. When there b only one duct it may open with
the common bile duct, «.g. sheep and cat« or may be vecy far away
as in the ox and rabbit. (F. G. P.)
Diseases ej the bamcreas. — As the pancreas plays an important
part in the phjrsiofogy of digestion much attention has of bte been
paid to the question of iu secretions. In sclerosis, atrophy, acute
and chfxmic inflammatory changes and new growths in the pancreas
an absence or lessening of its secretion may be evident. Haemarrkagji
Mayo Robeon to occur in connexion with the symptoiM of catanrhd
jaundice, which he suggests b due to the pressure on the cocaaos
duct by the swollen pancreatic tissue. The orj^n is efdargcd acrf
very ha«d. and the symptoms are pain, dyspepsia, jaandirr, lem of
weight and the presence of (at in the stoob. Tub latter sign »
common to all forms of pancreatic disease. In *'**"T**nVrff witS a2
pancreatic diseases small yellowish patches are found in dbe pan-
creatic tissue, mesentery, omentum and abdominal fatty t^w
generally, and the tisHies appear to be studded wkh viritiali i
often not larger than a pia's head. Tha <
PANDA—PANDURA
67 s
first obtcnwl by B*ker, hu teen itnned " fat-iieeriMiL" Tht
paacreu like other organs, is subject to the occurrence of new
crowthst tttmoura and cysts* syphilis and tuberculooiB.
PANDA (Aditrus fulgens), a camivorotts mamma] of the family
Procyonidae (see Carnivoka). This animal, rather foxier than
a cat, ranges from the eastern Himalaya to north-west China. In
the former area it is found at heights of from 7000 to xs,ooo ft.
above the sea, among rocks and trees, and chiefly feeds on
fruits and other vegetable substances. Its fur is of a remarkably
rich reddish-brown colour, darker below; the face is white,
with the exception of a vertical stripe of red from just above the
eye to the gape; there are several pale rings on the tail, the tip
of which is black.
PANDARU8, in Greek legend, son of Lycaon, a Lycian, one
of the heroes of the Trojan war. He is not an important figure
in Homer. He breaks the truce between the Trojans and the
Greeks by treacherously wounding Menclaus with an arrow, and
finally he is slain by Diomcdea (Homer, Iliad, ii. 827, iv. 88,
V. 290). In medieval romance he became a prominent figure
in the tale of Troilus and Crcssida. He encouraged the amour
between the Trojan prince and his niece Crcssida; and the word
"pander" has passed into modern language as the common
title of a lovers* go-between fn the worst sense.
PANDECTS (Lat. patuUcta, adapted from Gr. vavikKnji, all-
containing), a name given to a compendium or digest of Roman
law compiled by order of the emperor Justinian in the 6lh
century (a.d. 530-533). The pandects were divided into fifty
books, each book containing several titles, divided into laws,
and the laws into several parts or paragraphs. The number of
jurists from whose works extracts were made is thirty-nine,
but the writings of Ulptan and Paulus make up quite half the
work. The work was declared to be the sole source of non-
statute law: commentaries on the compilation were forbidden,
or even the citing of the original works of the jurists for the
explaining of ambiguities in the text. See Jusi^niav; and
Roman Law.
PANDERMA (Gr. Panormus), a town of Asia Minor, on the
south shore of the Sea of Marmora, near the site of Cyzicus.
It has a trade in cereals, cotton, opium, valonia and boracite
and is connected by a carriage road with Balikisri. Pop. xo,ooo
(7000 Moslems).
PANDHARPUR, a town of British India, fn Sholapur district
of Bombay, on the right bank of the river Bhima, 38 m. W. of
Sholapur town. Pop. (1901), 33,405. Pandharpur is the most
popular place of pilgrimage in the Dcccan, its celebrated temple
being dedicated to Vithoba, a form of Vishnu. Three assem-
blages are held annually. In 1906 a light railway was opened to
Pandharpur from Bars! Road on the Great Indian Peninsula
railwav.
PANDORA (the " All-giving ") in Greek mythology, according
to Hesiod {Theog. 570-612) the first woman. After Prometheus
had stolen fire from heaven and bestowed It upon mortals Zeus
determined to counteract this blessing. He accordingly com-
missioned Hephaestus to fashion a woman out of earth, upon
whom the gods bestowed their choicest gifts. Hephaestus gave
her a human voice. Aphrodite beauty and powers of seduction,
Hermes cunm'ng and the art of flattery. Zeus gave her a jar
{rWoi), the so-called " Pandora's box " (see below), containing
all kinds of misery and evil, and sent her, thus equipped, to
Epimetheus, who, forgetting the warning of bis brother
Prometheus lo accept no present from Zeus, made her his wife.
Pandora afterwards opened the jar, from which all manner of
evils flew out over the earth (for parallels in other countries,
see Frazer's Pausanias, ii. 330). Hope alone remained at the
bottom, the lid having been shut do\vn before she escaped.
(Hesiod, W. and D. 54-X05). According to a later story, the
jar contained, not evils, but blessings, which would have been
preserved for the human race, had they not been lost through
the opening of the jar out of curiosity by man himself (Babrius,
Fob. 58).
See J. E. Harriioa, " Pandora'^ Box." in Journal of HdHomit
Studies, XX. (1900), io whieb the opening of tb« jar ia explained as
an aetiolQrioal mirthfaMcd 00 the AtMatt festivd of the PIttoigi*
(part of the Anthesteria, q,vX and P. Gardner. " A new Pandora
vase" (xxi., ibid.. 1^1). Pandora is only another form of the
Earth gfxidess, who is conceived as releasing evil spirits from the
rtfbf , which served the purpose of a grave (cf. the removal of the
/apu manalis from the muMus, a circular pit at Rome supposed to
be the opening; to the world below, on three days in the >'ear, whereby
an opportunity of reviuting earth was afTorded the dead). See
also O. Gnippe, Criechiscke Mythohgie (1906). i. 94.
PANDUA, a ruined dty in Malda district of Eastern
Bengal and Assam, once a Mahoramedan capital. It is situated
7 m. N.E. of Malda, and about 30 m. from the other great
mined city of Gaur (7.9.), from which it was largely bu3L It
was probably originally an ontpost cf Gadr, and grew in import-
ance as Gaur became unhealthy. In a.d. 1353 Haji Shams*
uddin Ilyas, the first independent king of Bengal, transferred
bis capita] from Gaur to Pandua; but the time of its prosperity
was short, and in a.d. T453 the capital was transferred back to
Gaur. Its only celebrated building is the Adina Mosque, which
was described by James Fergusson as the finest example of
Pathan architecture in existence. This great mosque was
built by Sikandar Shah in 1369 (see Indian AscaiTECTUM:).
Pandua now, like Gaur, Is almost entirely given over to the
jungle.
PANDULPH (Pakdolto] (d. 2226), Roman ecclesiastical
politician, papal legate to England and bishop of Norwich, was
bom in Rome, and first came to England in 121 x, when be was
commissioned by Innocent III. to negotiate with King John.
Obtaining no satisfactory concessions, he is said to have pro-
duced the papal sentence of excommunication in the very
presence of the king. In May 1213 he again visited England
to receive the king's submission. The ceremony took i^aee
at Dover, and on the following day John, of his own motioii,
formally surrendered England to Uie representative of Romtf
to receive it again as a papal fief. Pandulph repaid this act of
humility by using evezy means to avert the threatened French
invasion of England. For nearly a year he waa supeneded
by the cardinal-legate Nicholas of Tusculum; but returning
in 1215 was present at the conference of Runnymede, when
the great charter was signed. He rendered valuable aid to
John who rewarded him with the see of Norwich. The arrival
of the cardinal-legate Gualo (1216) relegated Pandulph to a
secondary position; but after Gualo's departure (1218) he came
forward once more. As representing the pope he -claimed a
control over Hubert de Burgh and the other ministers of the
young Henry UI.; and his correspondence shows that he inter-
fered in eveiy department of the administration. His arrogance
was tolerated while the regency was still fai need of papal assist-
ance; but in X32X Hubert de Burgh and the primate Stephen
Langton successfully moved the pope to recall Pandulph and
to Bend no other legate a latere in his place. Pandulph retained
the see of Norwidh, but from this time drops out of En^^ish
politics. He died in Rome on the x6th of September 1226 but
his body was taken to Norwich for burial.
Sec W. Shiriey. Royal and Other Hutoruat Utters (" Rolb series V)
vol. i.: Misa K. Norgate. John UcUand (190a): W. Stubbs, Cam-
stUuUoual History (1897) vol. L
PANDDRA {tanhoura^ lanhuTf tambora, masidore, pondare,
bandofra, bandoer, &c.), an ancient oriental stringed instrument,
a member of the lute family, having a long neck, a highly-
vaulted back, and originally two or three strings plucked by
the fingers. There were in antiquity at least two distinct
varieties of pandura, or tanbur. (i> The more or less pear-
shaped type used in Assyria and Persia and introduced by way
of Asia Minor into Greece, whence it passed to the Roman
Empire. In this type the body, when the graceful inward
curves which led up gradually from base to neck were replaced
by a more sloping outline, approximated to an elongated triangle
with the comers rounded off. (3) The oval type, a favourite
instrument of the Egyptians, also found in ancient Persia
and among the Arabs of North Africa, who introduced it into
Spain. Our definite knowledge of tbc pandura is derived from
the treatise on music by Fftrabl,* the Arab scholar who flouzished
>See Michael Casiri. BiU, Arab. Hisp., I 347-
676
PANE— PANEGYRIC
in the loth century. He mentions two kinds of lanburs, devo-
ting to each a chapter, i.e. the tanbur of Khorasan, the Persian
type, and the tanbtir of Bagdad, the Assyrian variety; these
differ in form, in length, and in the arrangement of the frets.
Unfortunately, Farabi does not describe the shape of the body,
being more concerned with the musical scale and compass of
the instrument; but means of identification are supplied by
ancient monuments. There is a tanbur on an Assyrian bas-
relief <^ the reign of Assur-nasir-pal, c. 880 B.C (British Museum),
on a slab illustrating camp life; the musician is playing on a
pear-shaped tanbur with a very long slender neck, which would
have served for two strings at the most, white two men, dis-
guised in the skiiis of wild beasts, are dancing in front of him.
There were in Farabi's day five frets at least, whereas on the
tanbur of Khorasan there were no fewer than eighteen, which
extended for half the length of the instrument. Five of these
frets were fixed or invariable in position, the thirteen others
being interpolated between them. The fixed frets, counting
from the nut, gave an interval of one tone to the first, of a
fourth to the second, of a fifth to the third, of an octave to the
fdurth, and of a major ninth to the fifth, thus providing a suc-
cession of fourths and fifths. The additional frets were placed
between these, so that the octaves generally contained seventeen
intervals of one-third tone each. The two principal accordances
for the tanbur of Khorasan were the marriage when the strings
were in unison, and the lute or accordance in fourths. Farabi
mentions a tail-piece or tobalba, to which the strings, generally
two in number but sometimes three, were attached; they rested
on a bridge provided with as many nouhes as there were strings.
In the tanbur of Khorasan they were wound round pegs placed
opposite each other in the two sides of the head, as in the inodem
violin.
Ponux> states that the pandura was invented by the Anynans
or E^ptians, and had three strings. Theodore Reinach ■ is of
opinion that pandura was a generic term for instruments of the
lute type during the Roman and Alexandrine periods. This may
be the case, but from the modern standpoint we cannot in our
daanfication afford to disregard the invariable characteristics
observed in the modem, no less than in the ancient and medieval,
tanburs or ponduras.
To be able to identify the pandura it is as well to bear in mind
the distinctive features of otner instruments with which it might
be confounded. The unbur had a long neck resembling a scaion
of a cylinder and a hishly vaulted oack, and its strings were
plucked. In the rebab the neck was wanUns or at best rudi-
mentary, consisting of the gradual narrowing of the body towards
the bead, and during the middle ages m Europe, as rebec,
it was always a bowed instrument. The early lutes had larger
bodies than tanburs, the neck was short compared to the length of
the body, the head was generally bent back at right angles, and the
convex was not so deeply vaulted as that of the tanbur. The
barbiton or bass lute had a long neck also, but wider, to take six,
seven, or even nine strings, and from the back or profile view the
general appearance was what is known as boat-shaped.
Under the Romans the pandura had become somewhat modified :
the long neck was preserved but was made wider to take four strings,
and the body was either oval ' or dightly broader at the base, but
without the inward curves of the pear-shaped instruments. A
striking example of the former is to be seen among the marbk» of
the Townley Collection at the British Museum on a bas-relief
illustrating the marriage feast of Eros and Psyche, a Roman sculp-
ture assigned to e. 150 ax. This example is of great value to the
archaeology of music, for the instrument can be studied in full
and in profile. The arrangement of the four pegs in the back of
the head is Orientol.
The Penians had a six-stringed tanbur,* which they distinguished
* Ouomasticon, iv. 60. . ...
*See Daremberg and Saglio, Diet, des antiguiUs tjrtcquts et
rvmaines, article '"^Lyre." p. 1450; also Rome des itudes gncqua^
viii. 171, Ac, with iUustratxMis, some of which the present writer
would prefer to classify as early lutes, owing to the absence of the
characteristic long neck of the tanburs.
I * This instrument resembles the oval tanburs represented in the
miniatures of musicians in thcCantigasdi Santa Mana (13th century)
having two strings, and 00 ead» side a group of three very
•maO. round sound-holes, probably of Moorish origin. The MS.
is numbered J. b. a in the Escorial; the miniatures are reproduced
in J. F. RiaAo's Critical and Bioff. NaUs on early SpoMtsk Idusu
(London. 1887).
* In the miaiatures of the CanUgas tkere are oval tanburs with
•s the iiriesdUn,* whereas a thrSMtringcd variety wn* kimn as ite
sckrud.
The tanbur survived during the middle ages and an lats as :*y
1 8th century; it may be traced in the musical documents of se\v _
countries. In England the name of pandura or bandoer wak g: . :
to an instrument with wire strings having no charactcristsc atnjct ^
feature in common with the ancient tanbur but wtaeuMiag *%•
cittern {o.v.). The bandoer had a fiat back and sound-boardTji - - i
by ribs having a wavy outline. A smaller sire of die same insr.-
ment was called orpkareon, and a laiger and wider pemoream; ti^nt
are described and figured by Preetorius,* who snneats that rr*
instrument, invented in England as bandoer, is probably airu:.-
to the Greek wanitOpa, This bandora. we leara from an entr> .:
Sir Philip Leyccster's* Index to his commooplaoe book d ]<-t
was invented by **John Roae dwdlinge in BridenreO amoV
Elizabeth, who left a sonne farre exceodinge hlmarlf ia aabr;:
instruments."
A I7th-centunr French MSw (Add. JM^, fol. 144) in the Bri-..:
Museum, containing drawings of musical instntmenta, grvcs ''-
tambora, not the English h/brid, but a true dcsoendaat oT i-*
andent Oriental tanbur, with nine striiwB, a rose aooad-lbole a-i
seven freta; the French writer erroneously states that h ia wz- .r
to the dstre (cittern). Ftlippo Bonanni" gives an iUiatratior .
the same kind of instrument, with ten strings in five pain of nnisi -a
and calls it pandura. (K. S,
PANE (Fr. ^n, Lat. pannus, 4 doth, garment), odgilBally i
piece of doth, especially one of a ntmiber of pieces of doth .'
other material joined to form one piece for a garment; tbc mar'
is thus also appUed to the *'* slashes " in the material ol a dr^<.
made to show a rich lining or the colour of a lining when differ^:::
from the outer side of the garment. In this sense the word c ;.•
survives in English in " cotmterpane," an outer coverJcl fcr a
bed. " Pane " is used frequently for the flat side of anytf v$.
espedally in diamond-cutting of the sides to the *'tAl>'*
of a brilUant, or to the faces of a bolt nut or hammer-be a.
The most common use of the word now is that c^ a piece of g j^
filling a compartment In a window. In architecture the v< -<i
is also applied to a bay of a window, compartment of a i>artit>.a,
side of a tower, turret, &c. (See Bay and HALr-TZMaii
Work.)
PANBOTRIC, strictly a formal public speech delivered a
high praise of a person or thing, and generally high studied or
undlscriminating eulogy. It is derived from rasnrytpci^ 'a
speech) "fit for a general assembly" (vay^Tvpis, pantgynv.
In Athens such speeches were ddivered at national fcsti\*als at
games, with the object of rousing the dtixena to emulate i^
glorious deeds of their ancestors. The most famous are t^
Olympiacus of (jorgias, the (Hympiacus of Lysias^ and \^
Panegyricus and Panatkenaicus (neither of them, howr%c:
actually delivered) of Isocrates. Funeral orations, such as the
famous speech put into the mouth of Perides by Thac>-d}de^
also partook of the nature of panegyrics. The Romans confrc*.
the panegyric to the living, and reserved the ftmeral oraz»::
exdusivcly for the dead. The most celebrated *^*-t|^ ci 2
Latin panegyric ipanegyricus) is that ddivered by the youcff?
Pliny (a-O* 100) in the senate on the occasion of his assump: -
of the consulship, containing a somewhat fulsome eulogy «
Trajan. Towards t he end of the 3rd and during the 4th cent*, r-
as a result of the orientalizing of the Imperial court by Dlodeiiii
it became cu«tomary to celebrate as a matter of course tbe
superhuman virtues and achievements of the reigning emper:"
Twelve speeches of the kind (Pliny's included), eight of than t •
famous Gallic rhetoricians (Claudius Mameninus, £umeni-i
Nasarius, Drepanius Pacatus) and three of anonymous autV*
ship, have been collected under the title of Panegyrici tts^r:
latini (ed. E. B&hrens, 1874). Speaking generally, they are
characterized by a stilted, affected style and a tone of gny^
adulation. There are extant similar orations by Ausod.zs,
six or seven strings, one played by a Moor; both have the ta3.
piece in the form ofa crescent.
* See Hammer von PurgstaU on the " Seven Seas," in ralira^i
ier Ltieratur, xxxvi. 390 (Vienna, i8a6).
* Syntagma mmsicum (WolfcnbQttel, 1618), pi. zviL and ch. H.
63: reprint in PuUtk, d. Ces. /. JdutikforHknmt (BcrUa, iSfi^u.
Jahrgans XII.
* See Dr F. J. Furnivall's edition of Captain Co* m Robtwt Ltm^
ham's letter, Dolbd Society (London, 1871), p. 67.
■ Sec Ca ti ne tt a armonieo, ch. 49. pl- 97 (Roan, 173a).
PANEL— PANIN
677
Symnwchtis and Ennodiin, and panegyrict in vane bjr Claiidiaa,
Merobaudet, Priactan, Corippua aiid.oihefs.
See C. G. Heyne, " Cenmtra xii. panegyriconim vetenim.'* in hh
Opusctda acadtmica (1812). vi. 80*118: H. RQhl, D« xH pantgyHcis
latinis (progr. Greifswald, 1868); R. l^kbintLts Dfrnms t^moim
profanes (Parb, 1906).
PANEL (O. Fr. pond, mod. panmeau, piece o! doth, from Med.
Lat. pamullMSt diminative of pamnm, doth), a piece of doth,
slip of parchment, or portion of a surface of wood or atona
endosed in a compartment. In the first sense the word sotvives
in the uae of " pand " or " pannel " for the doth-atuffcd lining
of a saddle. From the slip of parchment on which the Ust of
jurymen is drawn* up by the sheriff, " pand *' in English law
is applied to a jury, who are thus said to be ** empanelled."
In ScoU kw the word is used of the indictment, and of the
person or persons named in the indictment; ** pand " is thus the
equivalent of the English " prisoner at the bar." In building
and architecture (Fr. pamteau; ItaL quttdpiett0, formdU; Ger.
Peid) " pand " is propieriy used of the piece of wood framed
within the stiles and raila of a door, filling up the aperture;
but it is often applied both to the whok square frame and the
sinking itself, and also to the ranges of sunken compartments
in cornices, corbel tables, groined vaults, ceiHiigs, && In
Norman work these recesses are generally shallow, and more of
the nature of arcada. In Early English work the square panels
are ornamented with quatrdoils, cxisped drdes, &c., and the
larger paneb are often deeply recessed, and form niches with
trefoil heads and sometimes canopies. In the Decorated style
the cusping and other enrichments of panels become more
elaborate, and they aie often filled with shidds, foliages, and
sometimes figures. Towards the end of this period the walls 6f
important buildings were often entirdy covered with long or
square panels, the former frequently forming niches with statues.
The use of pands in this way became very common in Per-
pendicular work, the wall frequently being entirdy covered
with long, short and square paneb, which latter are fre-
quently richly cusped, and filled with every spedes of onament,
as shields, bosses of foliage, portcullis, lilies, Tudor roses, &c
Wooden pandUngs very much resembled thoae of stone, except
in the Tudor period, when the pands were enriched by a varied
design, imiuting the pbuts of a piece of linen or a napkin folded
in a great number of paralld lines. This is generally called the
iinen pattern. Wooden ceilings, which are very common, are
composed of thin oak boards nailed to the raften, ooUars, &c,
and divided into panels by oak mouldings fixed on them, with
carved bosses at the intersections.
PANBNTHBISM, the name given by K. C. F. Krause {q.v.) to
his philosophic theory. Krause hdd that all existence is one
great unity, which he called Wcsen (Essence). This Essence is
God, and includes within itsdf the finite unities of man, reason
and nature. Cod therdoro indudes the world in Himself and
extends beyond it. The theory is a conciliation of Theism and
Pantheism.
PANGOUNt the Malay name for one of the spedes of the
scaly anteaters, which belong to the order Edentata (9.V.), and
t3rpify the family Manidae and the genus iianis. These animals,
which might be taken for reptiles rather than mammals, are
found in the warmer parts of Asia and throughout Africa.
Pangolins range from x to 3 ft. in length, exdusive of the tail,
which may be much shorter than or nearly twice the length of
the rest of the animal Thdr legs are short, so that the body
is only a few inches off the ground; the ears are very small;
and the tongue is long and worm-like, and used to capture ants.
Their most striking character, however, is the coat of broad over-
lapping homy scales, which cover the Whole animal, with the
exception of the under surface of the body, and in some spedes
the lower part of the tip of the tail. Besides the scales there
are generally, especially in the Indian spedes, a number of
isolated hairs, which grow between the scales, and are
scattered over the soft and flexible skin of the belly. There are
five toes on each foot, the claws on the first toe rudimentary, but
the others, especially the third of the fordoot, long, curved, and
laterally compressed. In walking the fore-danrs are tvned
backwards and inwards, so that the weight of the animal resU
on the back and outer surfaces, and the points are thus kept
from becoming bhmted. The skull is long, smooth and rounded,
with hnperfea zygomatic ardies, no teeth of any sort, and, as
in other ant-eating mammals, with the bony palate extending
unusually far backwards towards the throat. The lower Jaw
consisU of a pair of thin rod-like bones, wdded to each other at
the chin, and rather loosely attached to the skull by a joint which,
instead of bdog horixontal, is tilted up at an anj^ of 45*. the
outwardly-twisted condyles articulating with the inner surfaces
of the k>ng glenoid processes in a mamer unique among
mammals.
The genus If aim, which contains all the pangolins, may be
v^^^
White-bellied Pangolin {Manis iricuspis).
conveniently divided into two groups, distinguished by geo-
graphical distribution and certain convenient, thou|^ not
highly important, external characters. The Asiatic pangolins
are characterixed by having the central series of body-scales
continued to the extreme end of the tail, by having many iso-
hited hairs growhig between the scales of the back, and by thdr
small external ears. They all have a small naked spot beneath
the tip of the tail, which is said to be of service as an organ of
touch. There are three spedes: viz. iianis javamca, ranging
from Burma, through the Malay Peninsula and Java, to Borneo;
U. OMtUa, found in China, Formosa and Nepal; and the Indian
Pangolin, M. pentadactyla, distributed over the whole of India
and Ceylon. The African spedes have the central series of
scales suddenly interrupted and breaking into two at a point
about a or 3 in. from the Up of the tail; they have no
hair between the scales, and no external ears. The following
four spedes bdong to this group: the long-taikd pangdin
{Ai. Macrura)f with a taU nearly twice as long as its body, and con-
taining as many as forty-six caudal vertebrae, nearly the largest
number known among Mammals; the white-bdlied pangolin
(M. Incuspis), dosdy allied to the hst, but with longer three-
lobed scaka, and white bdly hairs; and the short-taDed and
giant pangdins (M, temmincki and gigttnka)^ both ct which
have the tail covered entirdy with scales. Those spedes with
a naked patch on the under side of the tail can dimb trees.
The four spedes of the second group are found in West Africa,
although some extend into south and eastern equatorial Africa.
(O. T.* R. L.*)
PANIN. NliOTA IVANOVICH. Count (1718-1783), Russian
statesman, was bom at Danzig on the x8th of Sqitember 1718.
He passed his childhood at Pemau, where his father was
commandant. In 1740 he entered the army, and rumour had it
that he was one of the favourites of the empress Elizabeth. In
X747 he was accredited to Cooenhasen as Russian 1
SjS
PANIPAT— PANI2ZI
biit a ftv ooalbft kUr wm Uwfiiiiit to Siockhoia, «Aac
lor the oeat ivdvc yean he pbyed a ooMpfeuous pert es the
chief oppooeot of the Fceach party. It ie laid that during
bia fcaidence ia Sweden Paain, who crrtaiiily had a strong
apeculative bent, coDfCetvcd a loodncaa for oonstitntiooal foma
of fovenmeot. PoUticaHy he waa a pupfl of Alexis Bestiiahcv;
cooaeqaeatly, when ia the middle 'fiftica Russia aoddcnly
lamed Francophil instead ef Francophobe, Panin's position
bccane extieoiely difllifnir. However, be found a fnend in
Bfstnshev's supplaster, Michael Voreotsov, and when in 1760
he was unexpectedly appointed the govCTuor of the Ittfk grand
duke Paul, bis Influenre waa assured. He was on Catherine'a
side during the revolution of 176a, but his jealousy of the
faff'ff*f* which the Oriovs seemed lihdy to obtain ovtr the new
emprcaa predisposed him to favour the pcorlamsfion of his
ward the grand duke Paul as emperor, with Catherine as regent
only.
To circumscribe the ioAucoce of the ruling favourites he next
suggested the formation of a cabinet council of six or eight
ministeis, through whom all the busioeaa of the state was to be
transacted; but Catherine, suspecting in the skilfully presented
novelty a subtle attempt to limit her power, rejected it after
some hesitation. NevertheleM Panin continued to be indis-
pensable. He owed his influence partly to the fact that be waa
the governor of Paul, who waa greatly attached to bim; partly
to the peculiar circumstances in whidh Catherine had mounted
the throne; and partly to his knowledge of foreign affairs.
Although acting as minister of foreign affairs be waa never made
chanceUor; but he was the political mentor of Catherine daring
the first eighteen years of her reign. Panin was the inventor
of the famous " Korthero Accord," which aimed at opposing
a combination of Russia, Prussia, Poland, Sweden, and perhaps
Great Britain, against the Bourbon-Habsburg League. Such
an attempt to bind together nations with such different aims
and characters waa doomed to failure. Great Britain, for
instance, could never be persuaded that it was as much in
her Interests as In the interesU of Russia to subsidise the anti-
French party in Sweden. Yet the idea of the " Northern Accord,"
though never quite realised, had important political consequences
and influenced the policy of Russia for many years* It explains,
too^ Panin's strange tendemcss towards Poland. For a long
time he could not endure the thought of destroying her, because
he regarded her as an Indispensable member of his "Accord,"
wherein she waa to supply the place of Austria, whom circum-
stances had temporarily detached from the Russian alliance.
Poland, Panin opined, would be especially useful in case
ol Oriental combinations. All the diplomatic questions concern-
ing Russia from 1761 to 1783 are intimately associated with
the name of Panin. It was only when the impoasibOity of
lealislog the " Noxthem Accord " became patent that his in-
fluence began to wane, and Russia sacriflced millions of roubles
Inutlessly in the endeavour to carry out his pet scheme.
Af ur 1 77s, when GusUvus III. upset Panin's plans in Sweden,
Panin, whose policy hitherto had been at leaat origioa] and inde-
pendent, became more and more subservient to Frederick II.
of Prussia. As to Poland, his views differed widely from the
views of both Frederick and Catherine. He seriously guaranteed
the integrity of Polish territory, afur pladog Stanislaus 11.
00 the throne, in order that Poland, undivided and aa strong aa
circumstances would permit, might be drawn wholly within
the orbit of Russia. But he did not foresee the oomplicatioos
which wero likely to arise from Russia's interference in the
domestic affairs of Poland. Thus the confederation of Bar,
and the Turkish War thereupon ensuing, took him completely
by surprise and ooosiderably weakened his position. He was
forced to acquiesce in the fint partition of Poland, and when
Ruada came off third best, Gre|ory Oriov declared in the
council that the mirtlster who had signed such a partition treaty
waa wQfthy of death. Panin further incensed Catherine by
meddling with the marriage arraagcments of the grand duke
Paul and by advocating a closer aUiaace with Prussia, whereas
the e mp iei a waa beginning to incline more and moie towards
tn after the seosnd mani a s wT FvJ
Panin maintained all his old hsflufncr over his papal, vbo. ^^mx
himself, was BOW a warm admirer ol the king of PnuBa. TV-^
are even traditiooa from this period of an actual ttm ap i i^ o
of Panin and Paul against the empress. As the Anstriaa io^i-
ence increased Fanin found a fresh enemy in Joseph 11 , a' i
the efforts of the did statesman to ptevent a matrimoaial alLaxx*
between the Ruasian and Austrian courts determined Cai^rlr*
to get rid of a counsellor of whom, for some mysteriona rcax&.
she was secretly afraid. The drcumstance^ of his dHagrM-v
are complicated and ohacure. The final rapture secma to h^.t
arisen on the question of the declaration of "the armed Bcatrx' t
of the North;" but we know that Fntemkin and the English am-
bassador, James Hanis (afterwards nt eati of Malmeabnry), wci«
both woridng against him some time before that. In Mny ijSi
Panin was dismissed. He died in Italy on the 31st of Marrh
1783. Panin waa one of the most learned, aocomplisfacd acd
courteooa Russians of his day. Catherine called hina "her
encyclopaedia.'' The cari of Buckinghamshire declired h.-
to be the asost amiable negotiator be had ever met. He v:«
also of a most humane disposition and a friend ef Liberal iii«*J-
tutioos. Aa to his honesty and kindness of heart tbere wt -v
never two opinions. By nature a sjrbarite, he took can to
have the best cook in the capital, and women had for ham aa
irresistible attraction, though he was never married.
See anonymous Lift ef C&uat N. I. Pmitm (Rus.; St P fe t ei iljirr
1787} : Pditkat cvnapondemu (Rus. and Fr.). Collections of Rna^js
Histor. Society, vol. is. (St Petcrsbuig. x872): V. A. Bab»9cr«.
CnckUkU Katkarina II. (Berlin. 1891-189O; A. BrOckwr. UaUr.^
for Ike Btonapky of Count Pamn (Rus. ; St Pecertbarg, 1 888).
(R. N. B.)
PANIPAf, a town of British India, In Kamal district of the
Punjab, 53 m. N. of Delhi by rail. Pop. (1901), 26,9x4. The
town is of great antiquity, dating back to the gneat war of the
iiahabkSrata between the Ptndavas and Kaurava bfctbrec
when it formed one of the tracts demanded by YudistUra from
Dur>iodhana as the price of peace. In modem times, tlie plalas
of Panipat thrice formed' the scene of decisive hattJes wlii<±
sealed the fate of upper India— in r5s6, when Blber complete*:,
defeated the imperial foroes; in 1556, when his grandson, Akbx^
on the same battlefield, conquered Himo, the Ifindn general ^.t
the Afghin Adil Shflh, thus a second time esuUishtng the
Mogul power; and finally, on the 7tb of Jamiaiy 1761, whtr^
Ahmad Shflh Durftni shattered the Mahratu confederacy. T>^
neighbourhood is a favourite manoeuvring ground for Btjii^h
camps of lostnicdon. The modem town stands near the oH
bank of the Jumna, on high ground oomposed of the d€brls o«
earlier buildings. It Is a centre of trade, and has mannfaanres
of cotton doth, metal-ware and glisa. There are factories im
ginning and pressing cotton.
PANIZZI. SIR AVraONY (x797-t879). EogUah Bfanrten, wm
bom at BresceUo, in the duchy of Modena, Italy, on the 1 6th
of September 2797. After taking his degree at the naivcsssrr
of Parma, Antonio Paniazi became an advocate. A fervent
patriot, he was implicated in the movement set on foot in i&i
to overturn the government of his native duchy, and in October
of that year barely escaped arrest by a prodpitate flig^ He
first established himself at Lugano, where he publbhed aa
anonjfmoos and now esoessivdy rare pamphlet, genetallj knova
as / Pracestidi Rmhkrs^ an exposure of the moostrons injustice
and iUegalitJea of the Modencse government's pWf tMl l n gt
sgainst suspected pefsoos. Kapelled from Swltaerland at the
joint instance of Austria, France and Stfdinia, he cause to
England in May 1823, hi a state bordering upon deatltntion
His countryman, Ugo Foscoh>, provided him with intiodactsons
to William Rosooe and Dr William Shepherd, a Uaitiiian minister
in Liverpool, and he earned a living for some time by giving
Italian lessons. Roscoe Introduced him to Broo^^mm, by wbose
influence he was made, in i8a8, professor of Italhm at Un lv e taity
College, London. Hk chair was almost a sinecure; bat hcs
abflities rapidly gained him a footing in London; and in 183 1
Brougham, then lord chancellor, used his at e^Eoe position as a
principal trustee of the British Museum to obtain ior Pianjaai
PANJABI^PANJDEH
679
the p6>t of an extn ambiuA libckritn of the Printed Book
department. At the same time he was working at his edition
of Boiardo'i OrhMdo innamoraUi. Boiardo's iame had been
eclipsed for three centuries by the adaptation of Bemi; and it
is hi^ily to the honour o( Faniazi to have redeemed him from
obhvion and restored to Italy one of the very best of her
narrative poets. Hia edition of the Orlando tHnamdraletuad the
OHa$tdo Jurioso was published between 18^0 and 1834, prefaced
by a valuable essay on the influence ol Celtic legends on medieval
romance. In 1835 he edited Boiardo's minor poems, and was
about the same time engaged in preparing a catalogue of the
library of the Royal Society.
The unsatisfactory condition and illiberal management of the
British Museum had long excited discontent, and at length
a trivial circumstance led to the appointment of a parliamen-
tary committee, which sat throughout the sessions of 1835-1836,
and probed the condition of the institution very thoroughly.
Paniui's principal contributions to its inquiries with regard to
the library were an enormous mass of statistics respecting foreign
libraries, and some admirable evidence on the catalogue of
printed books then in contempUlion. In 18137 he was appointed
keeper of printed books. The entire collection, except the King's
Library, had to be removed from Montague House to the new
building, the reading-room service had to be reorganised,
rules for the new printed catalogue had to be prepared, and the
catalogue itself undertaken. All these tasks were successfully
accomplished; but, although the rules of catak>guing devised by
Panizzi and his assistants have become the basis ol tubsequent
work, progress of the catalogue itself was slow. Thife first
volume, comprising letter A, was published in 1841, and
from that time, although the catalogue was continued and com-
pleted in M&, no attempt was made to print ony more until
i88z. The chief cause of this comparative failure was inju-
dicious interference with Paniszi, occasioned by the impatience
of the trustees and the public. Panixei's appointment, as that
of a foreigner, had from the first been highly unpopukir. He
gradually broke down opposition, partly by his social influence,
but far more by the sterling merits of his administintkin and his
constant efforu to improve the library. The most remarkable
of these was his report, printed in 1845, upon the museum's
extraordinary deficiencies in general literature, which ultimately
procured the increase of the annual grant for the purchase of
books to £10,000. His friendship with Thomas Grenviile (f 755^
1846) led to the nation being enriched by the bequest ol the
unique Grenviile library, valued even then at £50,000. In
1847-1849 a royal commission sat to inquire into the general
state of the museum, and Panixsi was the centre of the pro-
ceedings. His administration, fiercely attacked from many
quarters, was triumphantly vindicateil in every point. Panixsi
immediately became by far the most influential oflfidal in the
museum, though he did not actually succeed to the principal
librarianAhip until 1856. It was thus as merely keeper of
printed books that he 0Dnc<*ived and carried out the achievement
by which he is probabfy best rcmembcred~-the erection of the
new library and reading-room. Purchases had been dtscoumgcd
from Uck of room in which to deposit the books. Panixsi
cast his eye on the empty quadrant enckised by the museum
buildings, and conceived the daring idea of occupying it with
a centnsl capola too distant, and adjacent galleries too low, to
obstruct the inner windows of the original edifice. The cupofai
was to cover three hundred readers, the galleries tp provide
storage for a million of books. The original design, sketched
by Panixsi's own hand on the x8th of April 1859, was submitted
to the trustees on the 5th of May; in May 1854 the necessary
C9q>enditure was sanctioned by parliament, and the building
was opened in May 1857. Its construction had involved a
multitude of ingenious arrangements, all of which had been con-
trived or inspected by Panizxi, who had a genius for minute
detail and a gift for mechanical invention.
Panixd succeeded Sir Henry EUis as principal h'hrarian
in March 1S56. During his tenure of this post a great
improvement was effected in the condition ol thi museum
staff by the tfecog&!tio& of the baatatton aa a besaeh ol
the dvil service, and the decision was taken to remove the
natural histoiy collections to Kensington. Of tins questionable
measure Panixa was a warm advocate; he wtss heartily gkut
to be rid of the naturalists. He had small love for science and
its professors, and, as his friend Maoaulay said, " would at any
time have given three mammoths for one Aldus." Many
important additions to the collections were made during h^
administration, especially the Temple bequest of antiquities, and
the Hallcamassean sculptures discovered at Budrun (HaUcar-
aaasus) by C. T. Newton. Panizzi retired in July x866, but
continued to interest himself actively in the aflairs of the museum
until his death, on the 8th of April 1879. He had been created
a K.C.B. in 1869.
Panizzi had become a naturalixed EngUsIiman, but his devo-
iion to the British Museum was rivalled by his devotion to his
native land, and his personal ijifluence with English Liberal
statesmen enabled, him often to promote hot cause. Through-
out the revohitionary suvvements of .1848-1849, and again during
the campaign of 1859 and the subsequent transactions due to
the union of Naples to the kingdom of upper Italy, Panizxi was
in constant communication with the Italiaa patriots and their
confidential representative with the English ministers. He
laboured, according to circumstances, now to excite, now to
mitigate, the English jealousy of France; now to moderate their
apprehensions of revolutionary excesses; now to secure en-
couragement or connivance for Garibaldi. The letters addressed
to him by patriotic Italians, edited by his Uteraiy executor and
biographer, L. Fagan, alone compose a thick volume^ He was
chariuble to his exiled countrymen in Enghwd, and, chiefly at
his own expense, equipped a steamer, which was lost at sea, to
rescue the Neapolitan prisoners of state on the island of Santo
Stefano. His services were recognized by the offer of a senator«>
ship and of the direction of public instruction in Italy; these
offers he declined, though in his latter yeaa he frequently visited
the land of his birth.
His administrative faculty was extraordinary: to the widest
grasp he united the minutest atuntion to matters of deUiL By
introducing great ideas into the management of the museum-
he not only redeemed it from being a mere show-place, but
raised the standard of library administratMn all over Englaml*
His moral character was the counterpart of his intcUectual:
he was warm-heorted and magnanimous; extreme in love and
hate-~a formidable enemy, but a devoted friend. His intimate
friends included Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Roscoe, Grenviile,
Macaulay, Lord Langdale and his family, Rutherfurd (lord
advocate), and, above all perhaps, Francis Haywood, the
translator of Kant. His most celebmted friendship, however,
is that «ith Prosper M^m6e, who, having begun by seeking
to enlist his influence with the En^ish government on behalf
of Napoleon III., discovered a congeniality of tastes which
produced a delightful correspondence. M^rim^e's part has been
published by Fagan; Paniszl's perished in the conflagration
kindled by the Paris commune.
See Fagan. Life oj Sir AnthMty Pamm (Loo.. 1880). (R. G.)
PAIMABI (properly PaftjAftl). the language of the Central
Punjab (property Panj&b). It is spoken by over 71,000,000
people between (approximately speaking Uie 77th and 74th
degrees of east longitude. T^e vernacular of this tract was
originally an old form of the modem LahndA, a member of the
outer group of Indo-Aryan languaises (^.9.), but it has been
overlaid by the expansioii of the midUuid Sauias£nl Prakrit
(see Pbauut) to its east, and now bekmgs to the intermediate
group, possessing most of the chanurteristics of the midland
language, with occasional traces of the old outer basis which
become more and more prominent as we go westwards. At
the 74th degree of east longitude we find it merging into the
modem LahndA. The language is fully described in the article
HlNDOSTAhO.
PANJDBH, or Penjpeh, a village of Rusnan Turkestan,
rendered famous by " the Panjdeh scare " of 1885. It as«
on the evt «de of the Kvshk riva near iu junctkm '
68o
PANNA— PANNONIA
Moighab at PoM-KhbhtL In Undi 1885 whcD the Runo-
Afghan Boundary COmmiaatoa should have been engaged in
settling the boundazy-line, this portion of it was in dispute
between the Afghans and the Russians. A part of the Afghan
force was encamped on the west bank of the Kushk, and on the
jpth of March General Komarov sent an ultimatum d em a n d in g
their withdrawal. On their refusal the Russians attacked them
at ^ a.m. on the joth of Biarch and drove them across the Pul-i-
Khishti Bridge with a loss of some 600 men. The incident
nearly give r& to war between Engknd and Russia; but the
amir Abdur-Rahman, who was present at the Rawalpindi
conference with Lord Duf erin at the time, affected to regard
the matter as a mere frontier scuffle. The border-line subse-
quently laid down gives to Russia the comer between the Kushk
and Murghab rivers as far as Marochak on the Murgbab, and the
Kushk post has now become the frontier post of the Russian
army of occupation.
PAVMA, or PuNNA, a native sUte of CentrsI India, in the
Bundelkhand agency. Area, 3493 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 193,986,
showing a decrease of 19% in the preceding decade due to
famine; tribute £33,000. The chief, whose title is roaharaja,
is a rajput of the Bundela dan, descended from Chhatar
Sal, the champion of the independence of Bundelkhand in the
i8th century. The maharaja Lokpal Singh died in 1898, leaving
an only son, Madho Singh, who, in 1902, was found guilty
by a special commission on the charge of poisoning his unde,
and was deposed. The diamond mines, for which the state was
formerly famous, arc now scarcely profitable. There are no
railways, but one or two good roads. The town of Panna is
6i m. S. of Bands. Pop. (1901), 11,346. It has a fine modem
palace and several handsome temples and shrines.
PANNAOB (O. Fr. pasnage, from Med. Lat. pasnagium,
pasnaticum for paslionaiicumt paseto; pascere^ to feed), an English
legal term for the feeding of swine in a wood or forest, hence used
of a right or privilege to do this. The word is also used generally
of the food, such as acoms, beech-mast, &c., on which the swine
feed.
PANlflBR (Fr. paniett Lat. panariumy a basket for carrying
bread, poms), a basket for carrying bread or other provisions;
more especially a broad, flat basket, generally slung in pairs
across a mule, pony or ass for transport. The term has also been
applied to an overskirt in a woman's dress attached to the back
of the bodice and draped so as to give a " bunchy " appearance.
At various times in the history of costume this appearance
has been produced by a framework of padded whalebone,
steel, &c., used to support the dress, such frameworks bdng
known as " panniers." At the Inns of Court, London, there was
formerly an official known as a " pannier man,'* whose duties
were concerned with procuring provisions at market, blowing
the hom before meals, &c. The office has been in many of
the inns long obsolete, and was formally abolished at the Inner
Temple in 1900. At the Inner Temple the robed waiters in
hall have been called " panniers," and apparently were in some
way connected with the officer above mentioned, but the proper
duties of the two were in no way identical.
PAimOlflA, in andent geography a country bounded north
and east by the Danube, conterminous westward with Noricum
and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper
Moesia. It thus corresponds to the south-wcstem part of
Hungary, with portions of lower Austria, Styria, Camiola,
Croatia, and Slavonia. Its original inhabitants (Pannonii,
sometimes called Paeonti by the Greeks) were probably of
niyrian race. From the 4th century b.c. it was invaded by
various Celtic tribes, probably survivors of the hosts of Brennus,
the chief of whom were the Ckmi, Scordisd and TauriscL Little
is heard of Pannonia until 35 B^c., when its inhabitanU, having
taken up arms in support of the Dalmatians, were attacked by
Augustus, who conquered and occupied Sisda (Sissek). The
country was not, however, definitely subdued until 9 B.C., when
it was incorporated with lOyria, the frontier of which was thus
extended as far as the Danube. In a.d. 7 the Panaonians, with
the Dalmatians and other lUyriaa tribes, revotted. and were
overoonc by Tiberias and Gcmianfcas. after n hafd4oaclt
campaign which lasted for two years. In aa xo Pannonia
was orgunxed as a separate pronnce--*ccarding to A. W. Ziunpt
{Sitdia rmmma), not till aj). 10; at least, when the tfaicc
legions statiwwd there mutinied after the death of Augostos
(A.O. 14), Junius Blaesus is spoken ol by Tadtua (ilnMlr, L 16)
as legate of PBnnonia and commander of the legiook The
proxiraity of dangerous baihaiian tribes (Quadi, Maroonnastt)
necessitiOed the presence of a large noniber of tnopa (seven
legions in later times), and numerous fortresses were biiiOi on
the bank of the Danube. Some tine b e t ween the jtmn lea
and X07, which marked the termination of the first and second
Dadan wars, T^jan divided the province into Panaoain ni^«rMr
(1^ &»w), the western, and inferior (4 xArw), the eastern *poitMn.
Acoordittg to Ptolemy, thoe divisions were sepantcd bj a
line drawn from Arrabotut (Raab) in the north to Servitiaai
(Gndiska) in the south; later, the boundary was pieced farther
east. The whole country was sometimea called the Pnnnottias
{Pamiomae), Pannonia tuperior was under the *^»if**¥T k^te,
who had formerly administered the single province, and had
three legions under his control: Pannonia M/cfMr at fint under
a praetorian legate with a sini^ legion as ganaon, after Mama
Aurelius under a consular legate, stiff with only «oe kfian-
The frontier on the Danube was protected by the estabUsluneat
of the two colonies Aelia Munta (Esse) and AeUa Aqoincwm
(Alt-Ofen, modem Buda) by Hadrian.
Under Diodetian a fourfold division of the country waa
made. Pannonia inf trior was divided Into (i) Valeria (so called
from Diocletian's daughter, the wife of Galerios), extending
along the Danube from Altinum (Mohacs) to Brigetio ((VSafiny >.
and (3) Pannonia ttctmda, round about Sirmium (Mitroviu) at
the meeting of the valleys of the Save, Drave, and Danube.
Pannonia superior was divided into (3) Pannonia prima, iu
northern, and (4) Savia (also called Pannonia ripmiemtit), iU
southern part. Valeria and Pannonia prima were under a
praata and a dux; Pannonia seeuuda under a eanndariM and a
dux\ Savia under a dux and, later a corrector. In the middle
of the 5th century Pannonia was ceded to the Hum by
Theodosius II., and after the death of Attila sn cc aaaivU y
passed into the hands of the Ostrogoths, Longobards (Lombards),
and Avars.
The hihabitants of Pannonia are described as hcmve and
warlike, but cruel and treacherous. Except in the moantaJBOus
districts, the country ^as fairly productive, especially after the
great forests had been cleared by Probus and (jalenns. Bcf or
that time timber had been one of its most important exports.
Its chief agricultural products were oats and barley, from whkh
the inhabitants brewed a kind of beer named ratecs. Vines and
olive-trees were little cultivated, the former having been first
introduced in the neighbourhood of Sirmium by PnlNa.
S<UiuHca (Celtic, iianO was a common growth, as in Noncvoa.
Pannonia was also famous for its breed of hunting-dogs. Althouidb
no mention is made of its mineral wealth by the andenta, it is
probable that it contained iron and silver mines. Its ducf
rivers were the Dravus (Drave), Savus (Save), and Axrabo
(Raab), in addition to the Danuvius (less correctly, Daaabii»>,
into which the first three rivers flow.
•The native settlements consisted of pagi (cantons) coataxntt^
a number of vici (villages), the majority of the large towns being
of Roman origin. In Upper Pannonia were Vindobona (Vicnna\
probably founded by Vespssian; Camuntum (^.r., PctroneQ);
Arrabona (Raab), a considerable military station; Brigetio;
Savaria or Sabaria (Stein-am- Anger), founded by Claadius. a
frequent residence of the later emperors, and capital of Ptamoe^
prima; Poetovio (Pettau); Sisda, a place of great Impottaace
down to the end of the empire; Emona (Laibach), later assigned
to Italy; Nauportus (Ober-Laibach). In Lower PXttnonia wctv
Sirmhim, first mentioned in A.n. 6, also a frequent residescc
of the later emperors; Sopianae (POnfkirdien), seat cf \\»
praeses of Valeria, and an important place at the meeting <^
five roads; Aquincum, the residence of the dux of Valeria, the
seat of Uglo i^a^utrix.
PANOPLY— PANSY
68 1
See J. Marquardt, Rimistk^StaaUmwailtag, i. (anded., 188 1). 291 «
Corpus ifUcrtpiioHum lalinarum, iti. 41s; G. Zippcl. Pie romisehe
Ilcrrschaft in Iltyrien (Leipzig. 1877); Motninscn. Provinces of the
Rontuu Empire (Eng. trant.). i. aa. 38: A. Forfoiger. Handhuck der
olUn Ceograpkie 9on Europa (Hamburg, 1877): aftide in Smith'a
Dictionary of Creek and Komam Ceoerapky, ii. (1873); Ptolemy,
ii. 15. 16; PUny, Nat. Uizi. ii. 28; btrabo vU. 313: Dio Cassius
xlix. 34-38, IIv. 31-34. Jv. 28-32; Veil Pat. ii. no.
PANOPLY, a complete suit of armour. The word representi
the Gr. TOJwrXia (ras, all, and ftrXa, anns), the full armour of a
hoplite or heavy-armed soldier, ije. the shield, breastplate, helmet
and greaves, together with the sword and lance. As applied
to armour of a Uter date, " panoply " did not come into use till
the end of the t6th and beginning of the 17th century, and was
then used of the complete suits of plate-armour covering the
whole body. The figurative use of the word is chiefly due to
the phrase 4 morMo roC eaoD, "the whole armour of God "
(£ph. vi. II).
PANORAMA (Gr. iray, all, and 8paf», view), the name given
originally to a pictorial representation of the whole view visible
from one point by an observer who In turning round looks
successively to all poinU of the horixon. In an ordinary picture
only a small part of the objects visible from one point is induded,
far leas being generally given than the eye of the observer can
take in whilst stationary. The drawing is In this case made by
projecting the objects to be represented from the point occupied
by the eye on a plane. If a greater part of a landscape has
to be represented, it becomes more convenient for the artist
to suppose himself surrounded by a cylindrical surface in whose
centre he stands, and to project the landscape from this position
on the cylinder. In a panorama such a cylinder, originally
of about 60 ft., but now extending to upwards of 130 ft. diameter,
is covered with an accurate representation in colours of a kind-
flcape, so that an observer standing in the centre of the cylinder
sees the piaure like an actual landscape in nature completely
surround him in all directions. This gives an effect of great
reality to the picture, which is skilfully aided in various ways.
The observer stands on a pUtform representing, say, the flat
foof of a house, and the space between this platform and the
picture is covered with real objects which gradually blend into
the picture itself. The picture b lighted from above, but a
roof is spread over the central platform so that no light but
that reflected from the picture reaches the eye. To make this
light appear the more brilliant, the passages and staircase
which lead the spectator to the platform are kept nearly dark.
These panoramas, suggested by a German architectural painter
named Breisig, were first executed by Robert Barker, an
Edinburgh artist, who exhibited one In Edinburgh in 1788,
representing a view of that city. A view of London and
views of sea fighu and battles of the Napoleonic wars followed,
Panoramas gained less favour on the continent of Europe,
until, after the Franco>German War, a panorama of the siege
of Paris was exhibited in Paris. Since then some notable
panoramas have been on view in the cities of Europe and
America.
The name panorama, or panoramic view, b also given to
drawings of views from mountain peaks or other points of view,
such as are found in many hotels in the Alps, or, on a smaller
scale, in guide-books to Switzerland and other mountainous
districts. In photography a panoramic cameim b one which
enables a wide picture to be taken.
PANPSTCHISM (Gr. -nv, all; ^^to^. soul), a philosophical
term applied to any theory of nature which recognises the
existence of a psychical element throughout the ' objective
world. In such theories not only animab and plants but even
the smallest particles of matter are regarded as having some
rudimentary kind of sensation or " soul," which plays the same
part in relation to their objective activities or modifications as
the soul docs in the case of human beings. Such theories are
the modem scientific or semi-sdentific counterparts of the
primitive animism of savage races, and may be compared with
the hyloxoism of the Greek physicists. In modem times the
chief exponents of panpsychist views are Thomas Carlyle,
Fecfaner and Pauben: a stmOflr Idea lay at the root of the
physical theories of the Stoics.
PANSY, or HxAXTSEASE. Thb flower has been so long
cultivated that Itssource b a matter of uncertainty. As we now
see it, it b a purely artificial production, differing considerably
from any wild plant known. It b generally supposed to be
merely a cultivated form of Vida tricolor (see Violet), a com>
fieki weed, while othen assert it to be the result of hybiidixa-
tion between V. trieokr and other species such as V. altaica,
V, grandiflora, &c. Some cxpcrimenU of M. Carri^re go to show
that seeds of the wild V. tricolor will produce forms so like those
of the cultivated pansy that it is reasonable to assume that that
flower has originated from the wild plant by continuous selection.
The changes that have been effected from the wild type are^
Wild Pansy {Viola tricolor), about half nat. sixe.
1, Stamen, with s^r. 3, Transverse section of tame.
2, Pistil, after fertilization, cut I-3 enlaiised.
lengthwise, showing the numer-
ous parietally attached ovules.
however, more striking to the eye than really fundamental.
Increase in size, an alteration in form, by virtue of which the
narrow oblong petab are converted into circular ones, and
variations in the intensity and dbtribution of the colour— these
are the changes that have been wrought by continued selection,
while the more essential parts of the flower have been relatively
unaffected. The modem varieties of the pansy consist of the
show varieties, and the fancy varieties, obtained from Belgium,
and now very much improved. Show varieties are subdivided
according to the colour of the flowers Into sclfs, white grounds
and yellow grounds. The fancy or Belgian pansics have
various colours blended, and the petab are blotched, streaked
or edged. The bedding varieties, known as violas or tufted
pansies, have been raised by crossing the pale-blue Viola
eornuia, and also V. lutea, with the show pansies. They are
hardier than the true pansies and are free-blooming sorts marked
rather by effectiveness of colour in the mass than by quality
in the individual flower; they are extremely useful in spring and
summer flower-gardening.
The paiuy flourishes in well cnnched garden soil, in an open but
cool ritoation, a loamy soil being preferable. Cow-dung is the best
manure on a light aoil. The established sorts are increased by
cuttings, whilst seeds aie sown to procure novelties. The cuttinj^s,
which should consist by preference of the smaller noo-flowcring
growths from the base of the plant, may be inserted cariy in Sep-
tember, in sandy bcmI, under a naod-light or to boxes under ^asS| aad
682
PANTAENUS— PANTHEISM
as aooo u rooted should be rBmoved to a fresb bed of fine sandy soil.
The seeds may be sown in July. August or September. The bed
may be prepared early in September, to be in readiness for planting.
by being well manured with cow-dung and trenched up to a depth
of 2 ft. The plants should be planted in rows at about a foot apart.
In spring they should be mukned with half-rotten manure, and the
»hootf as they lengthen should be pegged down into this enriched
surface to induce the formation of new roots. If the blooms show
signs of exhaustion by the inconstancy of their colour or marking,
all the flowers should be oickcd off, and this top-dressing and pegpng-
down process pecfomiea in a thorough manner, watering in dry
weather, and keeping as cool as possible. Suoccssional beds may \x
put in about F^eoruary, the voung plants being struck later, and
wintered in cokl frames. The fancy pansles require similar treatment,
but are generally of a more vigorous constitution.
When grown in pots in a coM frame, about half a doxen shoots
filling out a 6-in. pot, pansles are vtrv handsome decorative objects.
The cuttings should oe struck early in Aueust, and the plants
shifted into their blooming>pots by the middle of October; a rich
open loamy compost n necessary to success, and they must be kept
free (rf apnidcs. Both the potted plants and those grown in tnc
open beds benefit by the use of liquid manure.
PAMTAENUS, head of the catechcllcal school at Alexandria,
c. A.D. x8o-2oo, known chiefly as baving been the master of
Clement, who succeeded him, and of Alexander, bishop of
Jerusalem. Clement speaks of him as the " SiciUan bee," but
of his birth and death nothing is known. Euscbius and Jerome
speak of him as having been, originally at least, a Stoic, and as
having been sent, on account of his zeal and learning, as a mis-
sionary to " India." There is some reason to think that this
means the Malabar coast. There was a considerable intercourse
between south India and the cast Mediterranean at the time,
and Christian thought possibly did something to mould the great
system of Tamil philosophy known as the Saiva Siddhanla.
Pantaentxs ** expounded the treasures of divine doctrine both
orally and in writing," but only a few brief reminiscences of his
teaching are extant (see Routh, Rtl. sac. i. 375-383). Lightfoot
suggests that the conclusion of the well-known Epistle to Diog-
nctus, chs. XX, xs, may be the work of Pantacnus. Clement
thought highly of his abnitics, and Origcn appeals to his
authority in connexion with tbo inclusion of philosophy in the
theological course.
PANTALOOH (Ital. pantahne), a chaxacter in the old Italian
popular comedy, said to represent a Venetian, from the favourite
Venetian saint San Pantaleone, and transferred from it to
pantomime (9.0.). The Italian pantaloon was always a silly
old man viiih spectacles and wearing sb'ppers, and his character
was maintained in pantomime and has also made fats name a
synonym for a tottering dotard, as in Shakespeare's As You Like
It (tx. vii. X58). From the Venetian usage the word " panta-
loon " (whence " pants ") has also been given to certain forms
of garment for the legs, the exact meaning varying at different
times.
PANTBCHHIOOH, an invented word, from Gr. iroi, all, and
ux^'^'^f of or belonging to the arts (lixvai), originally used
as the name of a bazaar in which all kinds of artistic work was
sold; it was establiBhed in Motcomb Street, Bclgrave Square,
London, early in the XQth century, but failed and was turned
into a furniture depository, in which sense the word has now
passed into general usage. The large vans used for removing
furniture are hence known as pantechnicxMi vans or pantech-
nicons simply.
PANTBLLERIA, or Pantalama (ancient C^rxyra^), an island in
the Mediterranean, 62 m. S. by W. of the south-western extremity
of Sicily, and 44 m. E. of the African coast, belonging to the
Sicilian province of Trapani. Pop, (xgoi), S6S3. It is entirely
of volcanic origin, and about 45 sq. m. in area; the highest point,
an extinct crater, is 2743 ft. above sea-leveL Hot mineral
springs and ebullitions of steam still testify to the presence of
volcanic activity. The island is fertile, but lacks fresh water.
The principal town (pop. about 3000) is on the north-west, upon
the oiJy harbour (only fit for small steamers), which is fortified.
There k also a penal colony here. The island can be reached by
steamer from Trapani, and lies close to the main route from east
to west through the Mediterranean. In X905 about 300,000
* The name is Semitic, but its meaning is uncertain.
gallons of wine (mostly sweet wine), and 1900 tons of drkj
raisins, to the value of £34,730, were exported.
On the west coast, a m. south-east of the harbour, a iicoUtf.c
village was situated, with a rampart of small blocks of obsidt .-,
about 35 ft. high, ^s ft. wide at the base, and x6 at the top. upt -
the undefended eastern side: within it remains of huis mere
found, with pottery, tools of obsidian, &c. The objects d.^
covered are in the museum at Syracuse. To the south-east, b
the district known as the CuneUe, are a large number of toir.lss
known as sesi, umilar in character to the nurogki of Saxdiao.
though of smaller size, consbting of round or elliptical to«rr>
with sepulchral chamben in them, built of rough blocks of la%^
Fifty-seven of them can still be traced. The largest is mn cIL; ^
of about 60 by 66 ft., but most of tJic sesi have a diameter f\
20-25 't. only. The identical character of the potteiy found in t ^ :
sesi with that found in the prehistoric village proves that t>s
former are the tombs of the inhabitants of the latter. TY-s
population came from Africa, not from Sidiy, azui was of Ibrriaj
or'Ibero-Ligurian stock. After a considerable interval, durl-i^
which the island probably renuiined unixihabited, the CanoA-
ginians took possession of it (no doubt owing to its iznponaace as
a sUtion on the way to Sicily) probably about the beginning of ibc
7th centuxy B.C., occupying as their acropolis the twin hill a
San Marco and Sla Teresa, i m. south of the town of PantcUeri^
where there are considerable remains of walb in xectang^^*
blocks of masonry, and also of a number of cisterns. Vi.'*:
tombs have also been discovered, and the votive terra-ootui
of a small sanctuary of the Punic peiiod were found Dear t^
north coast.
The Romans cxrcupied the ishnd as the Fasti THumpbaki
record in 355 B.C., lost it again the next year, and recovered it ia
2x7 B.C. Under the Empire it served as a place of banishmem Icr
prominent persons and members of the imperial family. Tlx
town enjoyed municipal rights. In 700 the Christian populati^ r
was annihilated by tJie Arabs, from whom the island was takxa
in 1x23 by Roger of Sicily. In 131X a Spanish fleet, imdcr the
command of Reqtiesens, won a considerable victory here, and tb
family became princes of Pantelleria until 1553, when the low:
was sacked by the Turks.
See Orri. *' Pantelleria " (in Uommunii dei Limcei 189^ is.
X93-2«4). CT- As ,
PANTHEISH (Gr. ray, all, aeAr, god), the doctrine whfc'
identifies the universe with God, or God with the oniveise.* T> *
term " pantheist " was apparently first used by John ToLaisd -s
1705, and it was at once adopted by French and English writers
Though the term is thus of recent origin, the system of ihou^i
or attitude of mind for which it stands may be traced back U.<i
in European and in Eastern philosophy to a very early stagr.
At the same time pantheism aknost ncoefaaxily presupposes *
more concrete and less sophisticated conception of God axkd lU
universe. It presents itself historically as an intellectual re%v :
against the difficulties involved in the peestipposition of tlu-iv..
and polytheistic systems, and in philosophy as an atteropt t.>
solve the dualism of the one and the many, unity and diilerrnct.
thought and extension. Thus the pious Htndtx, confronted ^ .
the impossibility of obuining perfea knowledge by the sec^-»
or by reason, finds his sole perfection in the contemplation of t b-.
infinite (Brahma). In Greece the idea of a fundamental ur .' .
behind the plurality of phenomena was present, though vag>tc . >
in the minds of the eariy physicists (see Ionian School), but
the first thinker who focuwed the problem ckar^ was Xriio>
phanes. UiUike the Hindu, Xenopbanes ixidincd to panthri^r-
•s a prole&t against the anthroporaoiphic polytheism of the tJiz:c.
which seemed to him improperly to esalt one of the many
modes of fim'ie existence into the plaoa of the Infinite. TfaEs
Xenopbanes for the £tst time postulates a supccme God whose
*Stj{etly. pantheism is to ideotify the anhrene with God, whi*^
the term * pancosmism" (rir. cAvfiot, the univerM) hasfrraucntly bees
used for the identification of God with the universe. For pracTK.J
purposes this refinement is of small value, the two kJeas being aspc-. •»
of the same thing; cf. A. M. Fairbaim, Sindiex im PUfos. K^J.^
Hist. (1877). P- 39a- Both " Atheiira " (}.».) aw* " ' ' — '•
used as oontradKtories*
PANTHEON— PANTOGRAPH
683
characteristic b primarily the negation of the Finite. A similar
netaphysic from a different starting-point is foand in Heraditiis,
who postulates behind the perpetually changing universe of
phenomena a One which remains. This attitude towards
existence, expressing itself in different phraseology, has been
prominent to a greater or less degree since Xenophanes and
Heraditus. Thus the metaphysic of Plato finds reality only in
the " Idea," of which all phenomena are merely hnperfect copies.
Neoplatonism (and especially Plotinus) adopted a similar atti-
tude. The Stoics, with the supreme object of giving to human
life a definite unity and purpose, made the individual a part of
the universe and sought to obliterate all differences. The uni-
verse to them is a manifestation of divine reason, while all things
come from and return to (the M6f B^ta xdrw) the rptdfia StiervpWf
the ultimate matter. The same problems in a different context
confronted the monotheistic religions of Judaism and Chris-
tianity. We find Phllo Judaeus endeavouring to free the concept
of the Old Tntament Yahweh fh>m anthropomorphic dmraetcr-
istics and finite determinations. But though Fhilo sees the
difTicuIties of the orthodox Judaism he catmot accept pantheism
or mystidsm so far as to give up the personality of God (see
Locos).
With Neoplatomsm we enter upon a somewhat diffierent
though closely allied attitude of mind. To Plotinus God lies
beyond sense and imagination: all the theologian can do is to
point the way in which the thinker must travel. Though the
spirit and the language of Plotinus is dosely allied to that of
pantheism, the result of his thinlcing is not pantheism but
mystidsm. This nwy be briefly illustrated by a comparison
with the greatest of modem panthrfsts, Spinoza. To him God
is the immanent principle of the universe — " Deus sivc Nalura."
On the prindple that everything which is determined (finite)
is " negated " (" determinatio est negatio "), God, the ultimate
reality must be entirely undetermined. To explain the universe
Spinoza proceeds to argue that Oo<l, though undetermined
0b extra, is capable of infinite self-determination. Thus God,
the causa siti, manifests himsdf in an infinite mtt1tti>Iidty of
particular modes. Spinoza is, therefore, both pantheist and
pancosmist: God exists only as realized in the cosmos: the
cosmos exists only as a manifestation of God. Plotinus, on
the other hand, cannot admit, any realizatton or manifestation
of the Infitiite: God is necessacrily above the worid— he has no
attributes, and ts unthinkable. Such a view is not pantheism
but mystidsm (q.v.), and should be compared with the theology
of Oriental races.
rhe semi-Oriental mystidsm of the Kcoplatonlsts and the
logos doctrines of the Stoics alike influence early ChrisHan
doctrine, and the pantheistic view is found frequently in medieval
theology {e.g. in Erigena, Meister Eckhardt, Jakob Boehme).
The Arabic scholar Averrocs gave Aristotle to western Europe
in a pantheistic garb, and thus influenced medieval sdentists.
So Bruno constructed a personified nature, and the sdentific
and humanistic era began. The pantheism of Spinoza, com-
bining as it did the religious and the sdentific points of view,
had a ^vide influence upon thought and culture. SchelUng (in
his Identity-philosophy) and Hegel both carried on the panthe-
istic tradition, which after Hegel broke up into two lines of
thought, the one pantheistic the other athdstic.
From the religious point of view there arc two main problems.
The first is to establish any real relation between the individual
and God without destroying personality and with it the whole
idea of human responsibility and free will: the second is to
explain the infinity of God without destroying his personaUty.
In what sense can God be outside the worid (see Deism): in
what sense in it (pantheism)? The great objection to pantheism
is that, though ostensibly it magnifies the Creator and gets rid
of the difficult dualism of Creator and Creation, it tend? prac-
tically to deny his existence in any practical intelligible sense.
Sc«, further, Theism; Deism; Atheism; Absolitts.
PANTHEOII (Lat. pafttheum or pantMam; Gr. rioBam, all-
holy, from vat, all, and 0061 god), the name of two buIUiogs ia
Rome and Paris respectively; more generally, the name of any
building in which as a mark oC honour the bodies of the nation^ft
famous men are buried, or " memorials " or monuments to them
are placed. Thus Westminster Abbey is sometimes atyied the
British " Pantheon," and the rotunda in the Escorial whert
the kings of Spaia are buried also bears the name. Near
Regen&burg (g.v.) is the pantheon ol Germaa worthies, known
as the Valhalla. The first building to which the name was
given was that buHt in Rome in 27 B.C. by Agrippa; it was
burn^ later and the existing building was erected in the reign
of Hadrian; since aj>. 609 it has been a Christian church,
S Maria Rotunda. It was the I^uia building that gave rise
to the generic use of the term for a btuldmg where a nation's
illustrious dead rest. The Pantheon in Paris was the church
built in the classical style by Soufilot; it was begun in 1764 and
consecrated to the patroness of the dty, Sainte Genevieve.
At the Revolution it was secularized under the name of £e
Panlhion, and dedicated to the great men of the nation. It was
reconsecrated in Z828 for worship, was again secularized in
1830, was once more a place of wordnp from 185 1 to 1870, and
was then a third time secuhirized. On the entablature is
inscribed the words Aux Crondts Homnus La Palrie Reconnais-
saute. The decree of Z685 finally established the building for
the purpose for which the luime now stands.
PANTHER, another name for the leopard (q.v.), also used in
America as the name of the puma (g.v.). The word is an adap-
tation of Lat. panthera\ Gr. xhsfBtip, the supposed derivation of
which from rm, all, and ^p, animal, gave rise to many tales
and fables in medieval bestiaries and later scientific works.
The panther was supposed to be a distinct animal from the
pardas, pan), the leopard, to which also many legends were
attached. In modem times a distinction had been unscientifi-
cally drawn between a larger type of leopard to which the name
panther was given, and a smaller and more graceful specimen.
PANTlIf, a town of northern France in the department of
Seine, on the Canal d'Ourcq, adjoining the fortifications of Paria
on the north-east. Pop. <ic9o6), 33,604. The manufacture
of boilers, railway wagons, machinery, oil, glass, chemicals,
polish and perfumery, and the operations of dye-works, foundries
and distilleries, represent some of the varied branches of its
industrial activity. There is also a state-manufactory of
tobacco:
PANTOQRAPH, or Pantagsafb (from the Greek ir&yra, all,
and Yp&^p, to write), an instrument for making a reduced, an
enlarged, or an exact copy of a plane figure.
In its commonest form it consists of two long arms, AB »nd AC
(fig* I), jointed together at A, and two short arms, FD and F£,
iotnted together at P and with the
long arms at D and £; FD is made
exaaly equal to AE and FE to
AD, so that ADFE is a parallclo-
gram whatever the angle at ^4. _
The instrument is tiupf»rted parallel
to the paper oo castors, oa which it
moves freely A tube is usually
fixed vertically at c, near the ex- ^,
trcmity of the long arm AC, and
nmtlar tubes are mounted on plates
which sikle along the short arms
BD and FD\ tb^ are intended to hold cither the axle pin on a
wdghted fulcrum round which the instrument turns, or a steel
pointer, of a pencil, interchangeably. When the centres of the tubes
are exactly in a srraight line, as on the dotted line hjc^ the small
triangle bfD wilt always be similar to the large triangle kA\ and then,
U the fukruro is placed under b, the pencil at /. and the pointer at c,
when the Instrument is moved round the fulcrum as a pivot, the pencil
and the pointer will move paralld to each other through distances
which will be respectively in the proportion of hfiobc, thus the pencil
at / draws a reduced copy of the map under the pointer at c; if the
pencil and the pointer wereirttcrdiangedan enlarged copy would be
drawn; if the fulcrum and pencil were interchanged, and the sliders
set for/ to bisect he, the map would be copied exactly. Lines are
engra v«d on the arms BD and FD. to indicate the positions to which
the sliders must be act (or the ratios |, |. . ., which are commonly
required.
The square pantograph of Adrian Gavard consists of two ^mduatcd
arms which arc pivoted on a plain bar and connected by ^m*-**— •-*
bar sliding between them throughout their tntira len^^
Flc. X.
684
pantomime:
at any required dittance from the plain bar; a sliding phte carryuw
a vertical tube, to hold either the ajde of the fulcrum, the pencil,
or the pointer, is mounted on one of the arms and on a prolooeation
of the plain bar beyond the other arm, and also on the graduated
connecting bar; and an additional arm is prodded bv means of which
reductions below or enlargements above the scales given on the
instrument can be readily effected.
The eidotrapk (Gr. tlSos, form) is designed to supersede the panto>
graph, which is somewhat unsteady, having several supporU and
^nts. It is composed of three graduated ban. one of which is held
over a fulcrum and carries the others, which are lighter, one at each
extremity. The three bars are movable from end to end in box-
sockets, each having an index and a vernier in contact with the
graduated scale. The box-socket of the principal bar turns round
the vertical axle of the fulcrum; that of each side bar is attached
to a vertical axle, which also carries a grooved wheel of large
diameter and turns in a collar at either end of the prindpal bar.
The two wheels are of exactly the same diameter and arc connected
by a steel band fitting tightly into the grooves, so that they always
turn together through identical arcs; thus the side bars over which
they are respectively mounted, when oocc set parallel, turn with
them and always remain parallel. A pointer is held at the end of
one of the side bars and a pencil at the diagonally opposite end of
the other. The bars may be readily set by their graduated scales
to positions in which the distances of the pencil and the pointer
from the fulcrum will always be in the ratio of the given and the
required map scales.
I Numerous other modifications have been proposed from time to
time; many forms are described in G. Pcllehn's Der PafUograph
(Berlin, 1903).
PANTOMIME* a term which has been employed in different
senses at different times in the history of the drama. Of the
Roman panlcmimus, a spectacular kind of play in which the
functions of the actor were confined to gesticulation and dancing,
while occasional music was sung by a chorus or behind the scenes,
some account is given under Drama. In Roman usage the
term was applied both to the actor of this kind of play and to
the play itself; less logically, we also use the term to signify
the method of the actor when confined to gesticulation. His*
torically speaking, so far as the Western diVma is concerned
there is no intrinsic difference between the Roman panlomimus
and the modem " ballet of action,*' except that the latter is
accompanied by instrumental music only, and that the per-
sonages appearing in it are not usually masked. The £n|^ish
"dumb-show," though fulfilling a special purpose of iu own,
was likewise in the true sense of the word pantomimic The
modem pantomime, as the word is still used, more especially in
connexion with the English stage, signifies a dramatic enter-
tainment in which the 'action is carried on with the help of
spectacle, music and dancing, and in which the performance of
thatactionor of itsadjuncts is conducted by certain conventional
characters, originally derived from Italian "masked comedy,"
itself an adaptation of the Jahvlae AttUanae of ancient Italy.
Were it not for this addition, it would be difficult to define
modem pantomime so as to distinguish it from the masque; and
the least rational of English dramatic species would have to be
regarded as essentially identical with another to which English
literature owes some of its choicest fmit.
The contributory elements which modem pantomime contains
very speedily, though in varying proportions and manifold
combinations, introduced themselves into the modem drama as
it had been called into life by the Renaissance. In Italy the
transition was almost imperceptible from the pastoral drama
to the opera; on the Spanish stage ballets with allegorical
figures and military spectacles were known towards the close
of the i6th century; in France ballets were introduced in the
days of Marie de' Medici, and the popularity of the opera was
fully established in the earlier part of the reign of Louis XIV.
The history of these elements need not be pursued here, but
there is a special ingredient in modem pantomime of which
something more has to be said. From the latter part of the
x6th century (Henry III. In 1596, sought to divert the dreaded
states-general at Blois by means of the celebrated Italian com-
pany of the Celon) professional Italian comedy {commedia ddP
arte, called commedia alt* imprornso only because of the skill with
which the schemes o( its plays were filled up by improvisation)
liad found its way to Paris with its merry company of characters,
partly corresponding to the favourite typci of regokr oosMdy
both ancient and modern, but largely borrowed froai the oc^
species of masked comedy — so called from its actioo bciag
carried on by certain typical figures in masks — said to have bcea
invented earlier in the same century by Angelo Beolco (Ruxsaatc j
of Padua. These types, local in origin, included P^nUUcne ik.e
Venetian merchant, who survives in tbe uncommercial Pantoloom,
the Bobgncse DaUwe, The Zannis {Ginaunis) were the do-
mestic servants in this species of comedy, and indiidcd amoog
other varieties the ArUukiuo, This is by far the most interest-
ing of these typ«i uul by far the best discussed. The Ariecdnrso
was formerly supposed to have been, like the rest* of Italian
origin. The very remarkable .contribution (cited below) of Dr
Otto Driesen to the literature of folk-lore as well as to that of iLe
stage seems however to establish the conclusion (to which carlur
conjectures pointed) that the word Harlequin or HerUqmu a of
French origin, and that the dramatic figure of Harlequin k aa
evolution from the popular tradition of the harlckin-fo.js
mentioned about the end of the xxth century by the Nonc^n
Ordericus Vitalis. The " damned souls " of legend became th^
comic demons of later centuries, the croquc-toU with the dcxil's
mask; they left the impress of their likeness on the hcH-mobth
of the religious drama, but were gradually humaniaed as a
favourite type of the Parisian popular street-masques (cAorrsc/u t
of the i4tb and xsth centuries. Italian literature contains only
a single passage before the end of the i6tfa century which can
be brought into any connexion with this type — the alUkimi
(cat's back) of canto xxL of the Injemo. The French harle-
quin was, however, easily adopted into the family of Ilalkn
comedy, where he may, like his costume,* have been assooattd
with early national traditions, and where he continued to diveri^
from his fellow Zannis of the stolid sort, the Scapin of Frcrtn
comedy-farce. From the time of the performances in France cj
the celebrated F€d4i company, which played there at interval
from the beginning to the middle of the X7th century onwaixis.
performing in a court ballet in X636, Triatxan MortineUi had bcca
its harlequin, and the character thus preceded that of the
Parisian favourite Trivelin, whose name Cardinal de Rets was
fond of applying to Cardind Masarin. There can be no pretcrKc
here of pursuing the French harlequin through his later develop-
ments in the various species of the comic drama, indud.rg
that of the marioitettes, or of examining the histofy of his
supersession by Pierrot and of his ultimate cxtinctioxu
Students of French comedy, and of Moliire in particular, are
aware of the influence of the Italian players upon the poogrra
of French comedy, and upon the works of its incomparait'c
master. In other countries, where the favourite t>'pcs U
Italian popular comedy had been less generally seen or »c:e
unknown, popular comic figures such as the KngU&h fools acd
clowns, the German Hannntrstf or the Dutch Ptckelkering, were
ready to renew themselves in any and evexy fashion vh.t.a
preserved to them the gross salt favoured by their patron:.
Indeed, in Germany, where the term pantomime was not Bac^i.
a mde form of dramatic buffoonery, corresponding to the coarser
sides of the modem English species so-called, long flourished, and
threw back for centuries the progress of the regular draica.
The banishment of Hansmani from the German sta^ was
formally proclaimed by the famous actress Caroline Nenber at
Leipzig in a play composed for the purpose in x 737. After bescg
at last suppressed, it found a commendable substitute in the
modem Zaubcrpasse, the more genial Vienna counterpart of the
Paris ficrie and the modem English extravaganza.
In England, where the nuuque was only quite exceptionally
revived after the Restoration, the love of spectacle and other
frivolous allurements was at first mainly met by the variovs
forms of dramatic entertainment which went by the name of
" opera." In the preface to Albion anJif /ftofiiui (16S5}, Drydea
gives a definition of opera which would fairly apply to modera
extravaganza, or to modem pantomime with the harieqninade
* The traditional costume of the ancient Roman mimi h
the centuMeuhu or variccatcd (haricquin^s) jadtct, the
the sooty face and the unshod feet.
PANTOMIME
685
kit out. dumcter-dandng vas, however, at the same time
largely introduced into regular comedy; and» aa the theatres
vied with one another m seeking quoettn^ug modo to gain the
favour of the public, the English stage was fully prepared for the
innovation which awaited iU Curiously enough, the long-lived
but cumbrous growth called pantomime in England owes its
immediate origin to the beginnings of a dramatic species which
has artistically furnished congenial delight to nearly two centuries
of Frenchmen. Of the early history of voMdeviUe it must here
suffice to say that the unprivileged actors, at the fairs, who had
borrowed some of the favourite chamcter-typcs of Italian popular
comedy, after duding prohibitions against the use by them of
dialogue and song, were at last allowed to setup a comic opera
of their own. About the second quarter of the i8th ceptiuy,
before these performers were incorporated with the Italians, the
Ught kind oif dramatic entertainment combining pantomime
proper with dialogue and song enjoyed high favoiur with the
Froich and their visitors during this period of peace. The
paudemlU was cultivated by Le Sage and other writers of mark,
though it did not conquer an enduring place in dramatic litera-
ture till rather hter, when it had, moreover, been completely
nationalized by the extension of the Italian types.
It was this popular species of entertainment which, under the
name of pantomime, was transplanted to England before in
France it had attained to any fixed form, or cotdd claim for its
productions any place in dramatic literature. CoUey Cibber
mentions aa the first example, followed by " that Succession of
monstrous Medlies," a piece on the story of Mars and Venus,
which waa still in dumb-show; for he describes it as " form'd into
a connected Presentation of Dances in Character, wherein the
Passions were so happily expressed, and the whole Story so
intdh'gibly told, by a mute Narration of Gesture only, that even
thinking Spectators allow'd it both a pleasing and a rational
Entertainment." There is nothing to show that Harlequin and
his companions figured in this piece. Gcnest, who has no
record of it, dates the period when such entertainments first
came into vogue in England about 1733. In that year the
pantomime of Hcrtaptm Dr Faustus had been produced at Drtiry
Lane—its author being John Thurmond, a dancing master, -who
afterwards (in 1727) published a grotesque entertainment called
The Miser t «t Wagner and Abericoek (a copy of this is in the
Dyce Library). Hereupon, in December 1723, John Rich
(1693-X76X), then lessee of the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields,
produced there as a rival pantomime The Necromancer, or
History of Dr Faustus, no doubt, says Gencst, " gotten up with
superior splendour." He had as early as 17 17 been connected
with the production of a piece called Harlequin Executed, and
there seem traces of similar entertainments as far back as the
year 1 700. But it was the inspiriting influence of French example
and the keen rivalry between the London houses, which in 2723
really estabUshed pantomime on the English stage. Rich was
at the time fighting a difficult battle against Druiy Lane, and
his pantomimes at Lincoln's Inn Fields, and afttfwards at
Covent Garden, were extraordinarily successfuL He was
himself an inimitable harlequin, and from Garrick's lines in his
honour it appears that his acting consisted of " frolic gestures "
without words. The favourite Drury Lane harlequin was
Pinkethman (Pope's "poor Pinky"); readers of the Toiler
(No. 188) will remember the Ironical nicety with which his merits
arc weighed against those of his competitor Bullock at the
other house. CoUey Cibber, when described by Pope as " mount-
ing the 'wind on grinning dragons" briskly denied having in
his own person or otherwise encouraged such fooleries; in his
Apology, however, he enters into an elaborate defence of himself
for having allowed himself to be forced into countenancing
the "gin-shops of the stage," pleading that he was justified
by necessity, as Henry IV. was in changing his religion. Another
butt of Pope's, Lewis Theobald, was himself the author of more
than one pantomime; their titles already run ta the familiar
fashion, e.g. A Dramatick Entertainment, caffd Harlequin a
Sorcerer, with the Lova of Pluto and Proserpine (1725; the " book
of the Words," as it may be callied, is in the Dyce Library). In
another early pantomime (abo in the Dyce Library) called
Perseus and Andromeda, loitk the Rape of Colomtrine, or The Flying
Linert, there are five *' interludes, three serious and two comic."
This is precisely m the manner of Fiddmg's dramatic squib
against pantomimes, Tumblo-down Dick, or Phaeton in the Suds,
first acted in 1744* and ironically dedicated to "Mr John Lun,"
the name that Rkh chose to assume as harlequin. It is a capital
bit of biurlesque, which seems to have been directly suggested by
Pritchard's Fall of Phaeton, produced in r736.
There seems no need to pursue further the history of EngUdi
pantomime in detaiL "Things of this nature are above
criticism," as Mr Machine, the " composer " of Phaeton, says in
Fiddhig's piece. The attempt was made more than once to free
the stage 6x>m the incubus of entertainments to which the public
persbted in flocking; in vain CoUey Cibber at first laid down the
rule of never giving a pantomime together with a good play; in
vain his son Thcophilus after him advised the return of part of
the entrance money to those who would leave the house before
the pantomime began. "It may be questioned," says the
chronicler, " if there was a demand for the return of £20 in ten
years." Pantomime carried everything before it when there
were several theatres in London, and a dearth of high dramatic
talent prevailed in all; and, allowing for occasional counter-
attracUons of a not very dissimilar nature, pantomime continued
to flourish after the Licensing Act of 1737 had restricted the
number of London play-hoxises, and after Garrick's star had risen
on the theatrical horizon. He was himself obliged to satisfy
the public appetite, and to disoblige the admirers of his art, in
deference to the drama's most imperious patron»^the public at
large.
In France an attempt was made by Noverre (q.v.) to restore
pantomime proper to the stage as an independent q>ecies, by
treating mythological subjects seriously in artificial ballets.
This attempt, which of course could not prove permanently
successful, met hi England also with great applause. In an
anonymous tract of the year 1 789 in the Dyce Library, attributed
by Dyce to Archdeacon Nares (the author of the Glossary),
Noverre's pantomime or ballet Cupid and Psyche is commended
as of very extraordinary merit in the dioice and execution of
the subject. It seems to have been without words. The writer
of the tract states that " very lately the serious pantomime has
made a new advance in this country, and has gained establish-
ment in an English theatre "; but he leaves it an open question
whether the grand ballet of Medea and Jason (apparently pro-
duced a few years earlier, for a burlesque on the subject came out
in X78x)was the first complete performance of the kind produced
in England. He also notes The Death of Captain Cook, adapted
from the Parisian stage, as possessing considerable dramatic
merit, and exhibiting " a pleasing picture of savage customs and
manners.
To condude, the chief diflfcrence between the earlier and later
forms of English pantomime seems to lie in the fact that in the
earlier Hariequin pervaded the action, appearing in the. comic
scenes which alternated throughout the piece with the serious
which formed the backbone of the story. Columbine (originally
in Italian comedy Harlequin's daughter) was generally a village
maiden courted by her adventurous lover, whom village con-
stables pursued, thus performing the bborious part of the police-
man of the modem harlequinade. The brilliant scenic effects
were of course accumulated, instead of upon the transformation
scene, upon the last scene of all, which in modem pantomime
follows upon the shadowy chase of the characters called the rally.
The commanding influence of the cbwn, to whom pantaloon
is attached as friend, flatterer and foil, seems to be of compara-
tively modem growth; the most famous of his craft was un-
doubtedly Joseph Grimaldi (1779-1837). His memoxy is above
all connected with the famous pantomime of Mother Qoose^
produced at Covent Garden in x8o6. The older British type of
Christmas pantomime, which kept its place in London till the
'seventies, has been preserved from oblivion in Thackeray's
Skclclies and Travels in London, The species is not yet ■■ * ■ '* "
extinct; but, by degrees, the rise of the music-hall'
686
PANTON— PAOLI, P.
popuUrity oC a new type ot music-ball performer influenced the
character of the show which was given under the name of a
Christinas pantomime at the theatres, and it became more of a
burlesque " variety entertainment/' dovetailed into a fairy play
and with the " harlequinade " part (which had formed the closing
scene of the older sort) sometimes omitted. The tvord had really
lost its meaning. The thing itself survived rather in such
occasional appearances of the Pierrot " drama without words "
as charmed London playgoers in the early 'nineties in such
pieces as VEnJanl prodignc.
AuTiiORiTiBS. — For a ^ncral survey see K. F F. FKigel,
CetckuhU des Crotttk-Kmrnscken, revised ed. by F. W. Eveling
S1867); A. Pougin, Dictionnaire hiitoriaue el pittoresoue du thidtre
Pans, 1885). As to the commtdia deWarle, masked, comedy, in
taly and France, and their influence on French regular comedy.
«ee t. Moland, MdiJkre et la conUdie Ualienne (2nd cd.. Paris, 1867) .
and O. Dricsen's remarkable study, Dtr Ursprung des HarUkm
(Berlin, 1904). As to the German Hanstmrst and liansumrsttaden,
sec G. Gcrvinus, Ceschuhle der deiUschen Dtcktunp, vol. iii (Leipzig.
1853); E. Devricnt, Cesch.dirdeuischen SckauspielkuHst, vol. ti. (Leip-
zig, 1848) . and as to the German Harlequin, Cess:ng's Ham^urpuhe
DranuUurtit, no. 18 (1767), and the reference there to lustus
Moser's HarUkm oder Vertkeidtjung des CroUsk-Komtscken UT^i)-
As to English pantomime, sec Gcnest, Account of the Engltsk Stage
(10 vols,, Bath, 1833), especially vol. iii : Dibdin, CompleU History
0/ tke State (5 vols., London. 1800), especially vob. ii., iv., and v. ,
Apologyfir tke Life of CoUey Cibber, cd. K. W. Lowe (2 vols.. London,
1880) ; P. Fitzgerald, Life ofCarrkk (3 vols., London, 1868).
^' (A.W.W.)
PANt6n, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of
Lugo; in a mountainous district, watered by the rivers Mifw
and Cabe. Pop. (iqoo), 13,988. Livestock is extensively reared,
and large quantities of wheat, wine, oats and potatoes are
produced. The other industries arc distilling and linen
manufacture. The nearest railway station is 6 m. east, at
Montforte.
PANTRY (0. Fr. patieUrie; Med. l^t. panctaria, a bread-shop,
from paniSf bread), originaUy a room in a house used for the
storage of bread, hence " pantcr " or " pantler," an officer of a
household in charge of the bread and stores. In the royal house-
hold of England the oflBce was merged in that of butler. At
coronations the office of " panneter " was held by the lord of the
manor of Kibworth Beauchamp; it was his duty to carry the
salt-cellar and carving-knives to the royal table, and he kept
these as his fee. The last holder of the office was Ambrose
Dudley, son of John, duke of Northumberland, at Elizabeth's
coronation. At his death the manor reverted to the Crown.
" Pantry " was early widened in meaning to include a room in a
house used for the storing of all kinds of food, and is now
restricted to the butler's or parlourmaid's room, where plate,
china, glass, &c., for the use of the table is kept, and duties in
connexion with the serving of the table are performed.
PANTUN (Pantoum), a form of verse of Malay origin. An
imitation of the form has been adopted in French and also in
English verse, where it is known as " pantoum." The Malay
pantun is a quatrain, the first and third and the second and fourth
lines of which rhyme. The peculiarity of the verse-form resides
in the fact that the first two lines have as a rule no actual
connexion. In so far as meaning is concerned, with the two last,
Of with one another, and have for their raison d'ilre a means
of supplying rhymes for the concluding lines. For instance .—-
Sinudok k&yu di-rimba
Binang kurap bir-simpul pulek:
Singgok dudok her-tindek riba,
Jdngan di-kdnp hUa-kan blUeh.
The rhododendron is a wood of the junde.
The strings within the frame-work of the loom ax« in a tangled
knot.
It is true that I tit on thy lap.
But do not therefore cnerish the hope that thou canst take
any other liberty.
Here, It will be seen, the first two Hues have no meaning,
though according to the Malayan mind, on occasion, these
"rhyme-making" lines are held to contain some obscure,
symbolical reference to those which follow them. The MaUy
is not exacting with regard to the concctncss of his rhymes^
and to his ear rmba and nba ihyme aa eitctly as ptfefc Mat
buleh. It should also be noted that, in the above eaokmplc, as is
not infrequently the case with the Malay pauttm, there is t
similar attempt at rhyme between the initial words of the tlt-s
as wcU as between the word with which they coadode, stmisu
and s&nggok^ henang znAjdngjUn, and kArap and kdrap aO Aefmkrt
to the Malayan ear There ace large numbers of w^4ciicy-
pantim with which pi«ctically all Malaya are acquainted, ib.u*.
as the commoner proverbs are familiar to us all, and it is not si
infrequent practice in conversation for the first line of a p^ntmrn—
via., one of the two lines to which no real npwamnc attaches^tc
be quoted alone, the audience being supposed to possess ti.
necessary knowledge to fit on the remaining lines for himself :^ i
thus to discover the significance of the allusioii. Amonscultu- j
Malays, more especially those living in the Deighbouifaood 01 : c
raja's court, new pantun sre constantly being composed, duct i.
them being of a highly topical character, and these insprov^
tions are quoted Ikora man to man until they become otrreni Lie
the old, weU-kaowB verses, though within a far mote resninrd
area. Often too, the pantun is used in lovo-makiog, but they &t
then usually composed for the exclusive use of the autkor acd :ur
the delectation of his lady-loves, and do not find their wy xci.^
the public stock of veises^ " Cai^>ing " pantun is also a l.x
uncommon pastime, and many Malays will contmoe sach oc»>
tcsu> for hours without once repeating the same vecae, aod oiict
improvising quatrains when their stock thieateas to becoae
exhausted. When this game is played by skilled yrtrsihtrx
the pantun last quoted, and very frequently the seoood 1. e
thereof, is used as the tag on to which to hang the siirpreti -^
verse.
The " pantoum " as a form of verse was introduced into Fresc^
by Victor Hugo in Lcs Oruutates (1829) It was also pnctjke«
by Theodore de BanvUle and Leconte de Lisle. Austin Dobscc >
In Town is an example of its use, in a lighter maoDct, a
English. In the French and English imitation the vcxae iorra i
in four^line stanzas, the second and fourth line of each \c^<
forming the fi^rst and third of Uie next, and so oa to the i^«.
stanza, where the first and third line of the fiiat stanaa fore
the second and fourth line. (H. CX^
PANYASIS (more correctly, pAifVASSis), of Halicamaw>
Greek epic poet, uncle or cousin of Herodotus, flourished ab«x:
470 B.a He was put to death by the tyrant Lygdamis {e. 45a .
His chief poems were the Heraclaas in 14 books, dcscribir.g : r
adventures of Heracles in various parts of the world, and i'£
lonica in clegucs, giving an account of the founding and 6&ic
mcnt of the Ionic colonies in Asia Minor. Although not m^..
esteemed in his own Umc, which was unfavoiuabJe to e;~
poetry, he was highly thought of by later critics, some of vhca
assigned him the next place to Homer (see (^uintilian. imsi. ctj.
X. L 54). The few extant fragments show beauty and fulLxa «..'
expression, and harmonious rhythm.
Fragmeata in G. Kinkel. Epic poet, fragnunta (l877)» ed. Mpu-
atcly by J. P Tzschirncr (1842): F. P Funcke, De Paftyas\iu r..-
(1837); VL Krausse. De Panyasside (189T).
PAOU, CESARB (1840-X902), Italian historian ax^d palace-
graphcr, son of senator Baldossare PaoU, was bom and educau ^
in Florence. At the age of twenty-one he was given an appou •
ment in the record office of his native city; from 1865 to 1S7Z k:
was attached to the Archives of Sienna, but eventually rrta.rr-:
to Florence. In 1S74 he was appointed first professor of pal^:.-
graphy and diplomatics at the Istituto di Studit Sixpcrioci *.
Florence, where he continued to work at the interpretatior
M5S. In 1887 he became editor of the Ardiicio stonco tUlu -.
to which he himself contributed numerous articles. His vcr*^
consist of a large number of historical essays, studies on pal^^L •
graphy, transcriptions of state and other papers, reviews, Ac
See C. Lupi. " Cesare Paoli,** in the Arckaia ttancm sbs^^a
vol xxix. (1902). with a complete list of his works.
PAOU, PASQUALE (1725-1S07), Conican general and patxi. -
was bom at Streita in the parish of Rostino He was the sea
of Giacinto PaoIl, who had led the Corsican rebcb sgaicjt
, Genoese tyranny. Pasquale followed his father into czsk,
PAPACY
687
serving with dfatfocdon in the NeapoUtan anny; on his rettim
to Corsica (^.v.) he was chosen oommander^in-chiel of the rebel
forces, and after a series of suoceasfui actions he drove the
Genoese from the whole island except a few coast towns. I^e
then set to work to leorganixe the government, introducing
many useful reforms, and he founded a univeisity at Corte. In
1767 he wrested the island of Capraia from the Genoese^ who,
despairing of ever being able to subjugate Corsica, again sold
their righu over it to France. For two years PaoU fought
desperately against the new invaders, until in 1769 he was de-
feated by vastly superior forces under Count de Vaux, and obliged
to take refuge in England. In 1789 he went to Paris with the
permission of the constituent assembly, and was afterwards sent
back to Corsica with the rank of lieutenant-general. Disgusted
with the excesses of the revolutionary government and having
been- accused of tresson by the Convention, he summoned a
CffksuUOf or assembly, at Corte in 2793, with himself as president
and formally seceded from France. He then offered the suxe-
rainty of the island to the British government, but finding no
support in that quarter, he was forced to go into exile once more,
and Corsica became a French department. He retired to London
in X796, when he obtained a pension; he died on the sth of
February 1807.
See Boswdl's Lif§ tf'J^hnsoH^ and his Account &f Corsica and
Memoirs cf P. Paoli (1768): N. Tommaseo, " Lcttcxedi Paaquale de
PaoU " (in Archivio itorico ilalianot xst series, vol. xi.), and Delia
luale
Corsica, Sfc. (ibid., nuova scrie, vol. xi., parte iu) ; Pompei. De Vital
de,la Corse (Paris,- 1821); Giovanni Livi, '* Lettere inedite di Pasquale
Paoti'* (in Arch, star, ilal.t sthMries, vols. v. and vi.) ; Bartoli, Historia
di Pascal Paoli (Bastia. 1891) ; Lcncisa, P. Paoli e la luerra d'indipen-
denta della Corsica (Milano. 1890) ; and Comtc dc Buttafuoco, Frag-
munis pour sernr 4 / kistoire de la Corse de 1764 d 1769 (Bastia, 1859;.
PAPACY' (a term formed on the analogy of " abbacy" from
Lat. papQf pope; cf. Fr. papautS on the analogy of royauU.
Florence of Worcester, A.D. Z044, quoted by Du Cangc s.v.
Papa, has the Latin form papatia; the New Eng. Diet, quotes
Gower, Conf. i. 358, as the earliest instance of the word Papacic)^
the name most commonly applied to the office and position of the
bishop or pope of Rome, in respect both of the ecclesiastical and
temporal authority claimed by him, i.e, as successor of St Peter
and Vicar of Christ, over the Catholic Church, and as sovereign of
the former papal states. (See Pope and Rouan Caibouc
Church.)
"L—From the Origins to 1087,
The Christian community at Rome, founded, apparently, in
the time of the emperor Claudius (4X~54)» ftt once assumed great
^f,^ importance, as is clearly attested by the Epistle to
prtmMhw the Romans (58). It received later the visit of Paul
Rvmaa while a prisoner, and, according to a tradition which
Chursb. J3 „Q^ jjut ut^ig disputed, that of the apostle Peter.
Peter died there, in 64, without doubt, among the Christians
whom Nero had put to death as guilty of the burning of Rome.
Paul's career was also terminated at Rome by martyrdom. Other
places had been honoured by the presence and preaching of these
great leaders of new-born Christianity; but it is at Rome that
they had borne witness to the Gospel by the shedding of their
blood; there they were buried, and their tombs were known and
honoured. These facts rendered the Roman Church in the
highest degree sacred. About the time that Peter and Paul
died in Rome the primitive centre of Christianity^-that is to say,
Jerusalem— was disappearing amidst the disaster of the war of
the Roman Empire with the Jews. Moreover, the Church of
Jerusalem, narrowed by Jewish Christian particularism, was
hardly qualified to remain the metropolis of Christianity, which
was gradually gaining ground in the Graeco-Roman worid.
The true centre of this worid was the capital of the EmfMre; the
transference was consequently accepted as natural at an eariy
*■ This article is a Keoeral history in outline of the papacy itself.
Spedal periods, or aspects arc dealt with in fuller detail elsewhere,
e.g. in the bioKraphical notices of the various popes, or in such
articles as Chorch HtSTORY; Roman Catholic Ciiuxch; iNVasTt-
TUKEs; Canon Law; EcctssiAsriCAL Jurisdictioii: Ultbamon*
" s ecclesiastical
TANisM ; or the articles on the various e
date. The idea that the Roman Church h at the head of the
other Churches, and has towards them certain duties consequent
on this position, is expressed in various ways, with more or less
deamess, in writings such as those of Clemens Romanus, Ignatius
of Antioch and Hermas. In the and century all Christendom
flocked to Rome; there was a constant stream of people—bishops
from distant parts, apologists or hexcsiarchs. All that was done
or taught in Rome was immediately echoed through aU the other
Churches; Irenaeus and Tertuilian constantly lay stress upon the
tradition of the Roman Church, which in those very eariy days
was almost without rivals, save in Asia, where there were a
ntuiber of flourishing Churches, also apostoHc in ori^n, forming
a compact group and conscious of their dipiity. The great
reception given to Polycarp on his visit to Rome in a.d. 155 and
the attitude of St Irenaeus show that on the whole the traditions
of Rome and of Asia harmonixed quite welL They came into
conflict, however (c aj>. 190), on the question of the celebration
of the festival of Easter. The bishop of Rome, Victor, desired
his colleagues in the various parts of the Empire to form them-
selves into councils to inquire into this matter. _.
The uiviution was accepted by all; and, the con- AStritrt
saltation resulting in favour of the Roman usage, t bmKt m a a
Victor thought fit to exclude the recaldtrant Churches «"*^^
of Asia from the Catholic communion. His conduct in this
dispute, though its severity may have been open to criticism,*
indicates a very definite conception on his part of his authority
over the universal Church. In the 3rd century the same position
was maintained, and the heads of the Roman Church continued
to speak with the greatest authority. We find cases of their
intervention in the ecclesiastical affain of Alexandria, ^ the
East, of Africa, Gaul and Spain. Though the manner in which
they wielded their authority sometimes meets with critidsm
(Irenaeus, Cyprian, Firmilianus), the prindple of it is never
questioned. However, as time went on, certain Churches
became powerful centres of Christianity, and even when they did
not come into conflict with her, their very existence tended to
diminish the prestige of the Roman Church.
After the period of the persecutions had passed by, the
great ecdesiasttcal capitals Carthage, Alexandria, Antioch and
Constantinople, as secondary centres of organization cmtrH^ai
and administration, drew to themselves and kept In r^nnta
their hands a share in ecdesiastical affairs. It was < ft»Qei as
only under quite exceptional circumstances that any ^"*"'**
need was fdt for oecumenical decisions. Further, the direction
of affairs, both ordinary and extraordiimry, tended to pass from
the bishops to the sUte, which was now christianised. The
Eastern Church had toon do facto as its head the Eastern emperors.
Hencdorth it receded more and more from the influence of the
Roman Church, and this centrifugal movement was greatly
helped by the fact that the Roman Church, having cesaed to
know the Creek language, found herself practically exduded
from the world of Greek Christianity.
In the West also centrifugal forces made themsdves felt.
After Cyprian the African episcopate, in proportion as it per-
fected iu organization, seemed to feel less and less the need for
dose rehujons with the apostolic see. In the 4th century the
Ddnatist party was in open schism; the orthodox party had the
Upper hand in the time of Aurelius and Augustine; the regular
meeting of the councils further Increased the corporate cohesion
of the African Episcopal body. From them sprang a code of
ecclesiastical laws and a whole judldal organization. With
this organization, under the popes Zoslmus, Boniface and Cdes-
tine the Roman Church came into conflict on somewhat trivial
grounds, and was, on the whole, bdng worsted in the struggle,
when the Vandal invasion of Africa took place, and for nearly
a century to come the Catholic communities were subjected to
very hard treatment. The revival which took place under
Bysantine rule (6th and 7th centuries) was of little importance;
» Vfctor's conduct in this matter was not approved by a number
of bishops (including Irenaeus), who protested against it
(A»rir«^««ffA4ANTc<) in the interesu of peace and Christian Ignre
(fiusebius. Hisk ecd: v. S4).*-H£l».) -*—
688
PAPACY
IORIGINSTOm^
but the aatonomy whicb had been denied them under Atuelfiu
was maintained to the end, that is to say, up till the Mahommedan
conquest.
During the 4th century it is to be noticed that, generally
speaking, the Roman Church played a comparatively insignificant
nm Rommm P^^ ^^ ^^^ West. From the time of popes Damasus
Cbmithtm and Siricius various affairs were referred to Rome
ih0 4tk from Africa, Spain or GauL The popes were asked
Ceataiy* ^^ gj^^ decisions, and in answer to those demands
drew up their first decretals. However, side by side with the
Roman see was that of Milan, which was also the capital of
the Western Empire. From time to time it seemed as if Milan
would become to Rome what Constantinople was to Alexandria.
However, any danger that menaced the prestige of Rome dis-
appeared when the emperor Honorius removed the imperial
residence to Ravenna, and still more so when the Western
emperors were replaced in the north o! Italy by barbarian
sovereigns, who were Arians.
In Spain, Gaul, Brittany and the provinces of the Danube,
similar political changes took place. When orthodox Christianity
nmCtmKk^^^ gained the upper hand beyond the Alps and the
iBtM0 Pyrenees, the episcopate of those cotintries grouped
itself, as it had done in the East, around the
sovereigns. In Spain was produced a fairiy strong
religious centralization around the Visigothic king and the metro-
politan of Toledo. In Gaul there was no chief metropolitan; but
the king's court became, even sooner than that of Spain, the
centre of episcopal affairs. The Britons and Irish, whose remote-
ness made them free from restriction, developed still more decided
individuality. In short, the workings of all the Western episco-
pates, from Africa to the ocean, the Rhine and the Dannbe, lay
outside the ordinary influence of the Roman see. All of them,
g(»tit^tiam «ven down to the metropolitan sees of Milan and
9ftk0 Aquileia, practised a certain degree of autonomy, and
A^A«# in the 6th century this developed into what is called
^'*'^^^' the Schism of the Three Chaptera. With the excep-
tion of this schism, these episcopates were by no means in op-
position to the Holy See. They always kept up relations of some
kind, especially by means of pilgrimages, and it was admitted
that in any disputes which might arise with the Eastern Church,
the pope bad the right to speak as representative of the whole
of the Western Church. He was, moreover, the only bishop of a
great see — for Carthage had practically ceased to count — who
was at that time a subject of the Ronuui emperor.
This was the situation when St Gregory was elected pope in
590. We may add that in peninsular Italy, which was most
dearly under his ecclesiastical jurisdiction, the- Lombards had
spread havoc and ruin; so that nearly ninety bishoprics had been
suppressed, cither temporarily or definitively. The pope could
act directly only on the bishoprics of the coast districts or the
islands. Beyond this limited circle he had to act by means of
diplomatic channels, through the governments of the Lombards,
Franks and Visigoths. On the Byzantine side his hands were
less tied; but here he had to reckon with the theory of the
five patriarchates which had been a force since Justinian.
According to Byzantine ideas, the Church was governed—
under the supreme authority, of course, of the emperor— by the
five patriarchs of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and
Jerusalem. Rome had for a long time opposed this division,
but, since some kind of division was necessary, had put forward
the idea of the three sees of St Peter— Rome, Alexandria and
Antioch— those of Constantinople and Jerusalem being set aside,
as rcsultbg from later usurpations. But the last named were
just the most important; in fact the only ones which counted at
all. since the monophysite secession had reduced the number of
the orthodox in Syria and Egypt practically to nothing. This
dissidence Islam was to complete, and by actually suppressing
the patriarchate of Jerusalem to reduce Byzantine Christendom
to the two patriarchates of Rome and Constantinople.
There was no comparison between the two from the point of
view of the East. The new Rome, where the emperor reigned,
prevailed over the old, which was practically abandoned to the
baibariaas. ShewaattfflbyGotirtaygivmt&epreoBdciioe, bai
that was all; the council in Trullo (69a) even claimed to toipoK
reforms on her. When Rome, abandoned by the
distant emperors, was placed under the protection of
the Franks (754), relations between her and the Greek
Church became gradually more rare, the chief oc caii OBS baag
the question of the images m the 8th century, tbe qnsfrd
between Photius and Ignatius in the 9th, the affairs ef the loir
marriages of the emperor Leo VL and of the patiisxcli T1ie»'
phylact in the xoth. On these different occaaloiis the popc»
ignored in ordinary times, was made use of by the Bysantiae
government to ratify measures which it had found neoessaiy ta
adopt in opposition to the opinioa of the Greek episcopate.
These relations were obviously very different from those ^Akh
had been observed originally, and it would be an injnsticr to
the Roman Church to take them as typical of her irUrimw ^tiih
other Christian bodies. She had done all she conld to defend her
former position. Towards the end of the 4th century, wha
southern Ulyxicum (Macedonia, Greece, Crete) was p"««*^g uada
the authority of the.£astem emperor, she tried to keep him wttba
her ecclesiastical obedience by creating the vicariate of Th«s3»-
lonica. Pope Zoslmus (4x7) made trial of a similar orsaiBzaiKs
in the hope of attaching the churches of the Gauls more doae- r
to himself. It was also he who began the stnig^e •jf«**> the
autonomy of Africa. But it was all without effect. From xht
6th century onwards the apostolic vicars of Aries and Thesu-
lonica were merely the titular holders of pontifical honours, viii
no real authority over those who were nomiiuUly under thcr
jurisdiction.
It was Gregory I. who, though with no premeditated intesticx
was the first to break this drcle of autonomous or dxssuf^=t
Churches which was restricting the influences of the _
apostolic see. As the result of the missions sent to sa» <
England by him and his successors there arose a "V"*^
church which, in spite of certain Irish elements, was and xeiBairvd
Roman in origin, and, above all, spirit and tendency. In it tim
traditions of old culture and religious learmng imported fr*=
Rome, where they had almost ceased to bear any fniit, f ouv' s
new soil, in which they flourished. Theodore, Wilfrid, Bcoec.::*.
Biscop, Bede, Boniface, Ecgbert, Alcuin, revived the fire of Ic^r>
ing, which was almost extina, and by their aid enligfatenxsc:
was carried to the Continent, to decadent Gaul and barbar.^
Germany. The Churches of England and Germany, founded : .*
from all traditions of autonomy, by Roman legates, tender i
their obedience voluntarily. In Gaul there was no host: 1 *
to the Holy See, but on the contrary a profound vencra*s =
for the great Christian sanctuary of the West. The Carolingt.:
princes, when Boniface pomted them towards Rome, foBovr!
him without their clergy offering any resistance on grotmd* -J
principle. The question of reform having arisen, from the a;«»>
stolic see alone could its fulfilment be expected, since in it* w :
the succession of St Peter, were preserved the moat ang**^
traditions of Christianity.
The surprising thing is that, althotigh Rome was then inchid r.
frithin the einpire of the Franks, so that the popes wcfe aficr:.:
special opportunities for activity, they showed for the most r- '
no eagerness to strengthen their authority over the dcrgy hcjar .
the Alps. Appeals and other matters of detail were refer*
to them more often than under the Merovingians. They j:3
answers to such questions as were submitted to them; :r
machinery moved when set in motion from outside; bat *^r
popes did not attempt to interfere on their own initiative. T 's
Prankish Church was directed, in fact, by the govemmmt ^
Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. When this failed, as h-;>
pened during the wars and partitions which followed the dcsrl
Louis, the fate of this Church, with no effective head and under ; -
regular direction, was very uncertain. It was then thai 4
clerk who saw that there was but an uncertain
prosprct of help from the pope of his time, concci\*cd SH^
the shrewd idea of appealing to the popes of the past,
so as to exhort the conteraporaiy generation through the tr.. . '
of former popes, from Clement to Gregory. This design «4&
ouGiNs TO Men
PAPACY
689
resJiiedinUiccielebntedforgaylauMmastlM'' FalwDMntab "
(lee DscmAU).
Hardly were they in dicaktioB thioughout the Fnnklsb
Empire when it happened that a pope, Nichoba L, waa elected
fg^^^, vho waa animated by the tame spirit aa that which
f^Sr, ^'^ inspired them. There waa no lack of oppor-
tttnitics for intervening in the affairs not only of
the Western but of the Eastern Church, and he seised upon
them with great dedsion. He sUunchly supported the patri-
arch Ignatius against his rival, Photios, at Constantinople;
he upheld the righu of Teutbeiga, who had been repudiated
by her husband^ Lothair II. of Lorraine, against that prince and
bis brother, the emperor Louis II.; and he combated Hincmar,
the powerful metropolitan of Reims. It was in the course of
this laat dispute that the False Decretals found their way to
Rome. Nicholas received them with some reserve; he refrained
from giving them his sanction, and only borrowed from them
what they had already borrowed from authentic texts, but in
general he took up the same attitude as the forger had ascribed
to his remote predecessors. The language of his successors,
Andrian II. and John VlII.,stitt'sbows some trace of the energy
and pride of Nicholas. But the drcumstaaces were becoming
difficult. Europe was being split up under the influence of
feudalism^ Christendom was assailed by the bftrbarians, Norse-
men, Saracens and Huns; at Rome the papacy was passing
into the power of the local aristocracy, with whom after Otto I.
it was disputed from time to time by the sovereigns of Germany.
It was stUl being held in strict subjection by the bitter when,
towards the end of > the nth century, Hikiebrand (Gregory VII.)
undertook lu enfranchisement and began the war of the
investitures (^.v.), from which the papacy was U> issue with
such an extraordinary renewal of its vitality.
In Eastern Christendom the papacy was at this period an
almost forgotten institution, whose pretensions were always
Stthm of met by the combined opposition of the imperial
Bmttmad authority, which was still preponderant in the
WtMU Byzantine Church, and the authority of the patri-
archate of Constantinople, around which centred all that
survived of Christianity in those regions. To complete the
situation, a formal rupture had occurred in 1054 between
the patriarch Michael Cerularius and Pope Leo IX.
In the West, Rome and her sanctuaries had always been held
ui the highest veneration, and the pilgrimage to Rome was
Otaerai "^ ^^ <"<»^ important hk the West. The pope,
AwWMoraa officiating in these holiest of all sanctuaries,
tMoPapa^ as guardian of the tombs of St Peter and St Paul
teTAiwy, ^j jijg uiheritor of their rank, their rights, and
their traditions, Was the greatest ecclesiastical figure and the
highest religious authority in the West. The greatest princes
bowed before him; it was be who consecrated the emperor.
In virtue of the spurious donation of Constantine, forged at
Rome in the time of Charlemagne, which was at first circulated
in obscurity, but ended by gaining universal credit, it was
believed thiat the first Christian emperor, in withdrawing to
Constantinople, had bestowed on the pope all the provinces
of the Western Empire, and that in consequence all sovereignty
in the West, even that of the emperor, was derived from ponti-
fical concessions. From all points of view, both religious and
political, the pope was thus the greatest man of the West, the
ideal head of all Christendom.
When it was necessary to account for this position, theologians
quoted the text of the Gospels, where St Peter is represented
as the rock on which the Church b built, the pastor of the sheep
and lambs of the Lord, the doorkeeper of the kingdom of heaven.
The statements made in the New Testament about St Peter
were applied without hesitation to all the popes, considered
as his suoeessors, the inheritors of bis see (Petri sedes) and of
all his prerogatives. This idea, moreover, that the bishops of
Rome were the successors of St Peter was expressed very early
—as far back aa the 2nd century. Whatever may be said as
to its historical value, it symbolises very well the great authority
of the Roman Church in the early days of Christianity; an
authority vAicbirat Chen idolkiiitered by the Ushopa of Rome,
and came to be more and more identified with them. The
couadla were also quoted, and especially that of Nicaea, which
does not itself mention the question, but certain texts of
which contained the famous gloss: EedetUi romana semper kabuH
pHmatum, But this proof was rather insufficient, as indeed it
was felt to be, and, in any case, nothing could be deduced from
It save a kind of precedence in honour^' which was never con-
tested even by the Greeks. The Gospel and unbroken tradition
offered a better argument.
In his capacity as head of the church, ** and president of the
Christian agape," as St Ignatius of Antloch would have said,
the pope was considered to be the supreme presdent an4
moderator of the oecumenical assemblies. When the episcopate
met in council the bbhop of Rome had to be at its head. No
decisions of a general nature, whether dogmatic or disdplinaiy,
could be made without his consent. The appeal from all
patriarchal or condliary Judgments was to him; and on those
occasions when he had to depose bbhops of the highest standing,
notably those of Alexandria and Constantinople, his judgments
were carried into effect. During the religious struggles between
the East and West be was on a few occasions condemned (by
the Eastern council of Sardica, by Dioscorus, by Photlus) ; but the
sentences were not carried out, and were even, as in the case
of Dioscorus, considered and punished as sacrflegious attacks.
In the West the principle, " prima sedes a nemlne judicatur,"
was always recognized and applied.
In ordinary practice this theoretically wide authority bad
only a limited applicatioru The apostolic see hardly ever
interfered in the government of the local Churdies. pneOcMi
Save in Its own metropolitan province, it took no^^^to-
part in the nomination of bishops; the provincial 'J^*^'*'
or regional councils were held without its authori- '•••■y*
zation; their judgments and regulations were carried out without
any suggestion that they should be ratified by Rome. It is
only after the Fake Decretals that we meet with the idea
that a bishop cannot be deposed and his place filled without
the consent of the pope. And it should be noticed that this
idea was put forward, not by the pope with the object of increas-
ing his power, but by the opinion of the Church with a view to
defending the bishops against unjust sentences, and especially
those inspired by the secular authority.
It was admitted, however, throughout the whole Church that
the Holy See had an appellate jurisdiction, and recourse was
had to it on occasion. At the council of Sardica (343) an
attempt had been made to regulate the procedure in these
appeals, by recognizing as the ri^t of the pope the reversing of
judgments, and the appointment of fresh judges. In practice,
appeals to the pope, when they involved the annulling of a
judgment, were judged by the pope in persoiL
But the intervention of the Holy See in the ecclesiastical
affairs of the West, which resulted from these appeals, was only of
a limited, sporadic and occasional nature. Nothing could have
been more removed from a centralized administration than the
condition in which matters stood with regard to this point.
The pope was the head of the Church, but he exercised his
authority only intermittently. When he did exerdse it, it was
far more frequently at the request of bishops or princes, or of
the faithful, than of his own initiative. Nor had any adminis-
trative body for the supreme government of the Church ever
been organized. The old Roman clergy, the deacons and priests
of the church at Rome {preshyteri incardinalitCardinaks)ionaed
the pope's council, and when necessary his tribunal; to them
were usually added the bishops of the neighbourhood. The body
of ecclesiastical notaries served as the staff of the chancery.
The Roman Church had from a very early date possessed
considerable wealth. Long before Constantine we find ber
employing it in aid of the most distant churches. rM9«ofM
as far afield as Cappadoda and Arabia. Her real iVntniMf
property, confiscated under Diocletian, was restored •'<•• "•ft'
by Constantine. and since then had been conlinxially**
increased by ^f ta and bequests. In the 4th and 5th centn
6^^
PAPACT
► Tt>ii*'
i«l<hc<
wmpwtm hU tmsttdeA lU cttoK, or
0t iW M<4f Sm cmw t* be ci mtm ri timmi fiitdy lo iuly.
In a« lioM «l Sc Ofcforr tkcw MtMitcd ooljr whai by m
UfiMMim luly, Ubi Lc«ibwd» hftVMg Moftrated tke piapntjr
1/ llM Oni rcfc M vdl M tte faBpCTMl d fli i riM Dufuv tbe
<Mttrr<l» Utvtc* Ihc paptcx Md tte BjrzaatiM Eapifc her
dMMio* in Snmtt SuJy m4 Skiljr alM diaappcwvd » tine
wtiit on, Md Ibe tett'twlUX pPMfntoni of the gnima Ckofdl
wcf « tAmtnUMUA to the Aeigliboarlwod ol Heme.
U «•• ihuk, iowu4» ibe middle el the Scb aauuy, that
Cbe pope, who elfcsdy cxercbed a greet iaflueooe over tht
jg^^K^ l^/vcrnmci»i of (he dty eod province of Rome,
•^ deUodiAg her ptaceiuUx end with dadkultjr egauiMi
Umptnl the edvenciog Lomherd conqucsU, few that he
^v**^' wee ioifjtA, fhort of the proiectioo of the Greek
Empire, lo pot hioMcU uodcr the proiectioo of the Fnnkish
prliiiet. ThiM there eroie e kind of MverdgDty, disputed,
II ia Irup, \rf ConAianlinople, but which auc cee d cd in nain-
Uinlng itirlr, Rome, t//gcthcr with auch of the Byzantine
terrilorlrt m MiU tul/iUftd in her neightfburhood, waa cooaidered
aa a domain lecred to the apoatle Peter, and cntrufted U> the
admlriifti ration oi hla auccctaor, the pope. To it were added
the caarchate tA Ravenna and a few other districts of central
Italy, whkh had been recently conquered by the Lombarda
and retaken by the Krankiah kinp Pippin and Charlenafoc.
8m h was the foundation of the papal state.
'Ilie hifhcr places in the government were occupied by the
chrgy, who (or matUrs o( detail made use of the dvil and
military ofluiala who had carried on the administration under
Iht Hyaantina rule. Hut these lay oiTidab could not long be
content with a aubordinaie position, and hence arose incessant
friction, which called for consUnl intervention on the part of
the Frankish sovereigns. In 824 a kind of protectorate was
ofgsnlicd, and serious guaranteca were conceded to the Uy
trlslo< racy.
Shortly afterwards, In the partition of the Carolingian Empire,
Italy passed under the rule of a prince of Its own, Louis II.,
wIki. with the title of emperor. mac{e bis authority felt in political
maltrrs. Shortly after his death (87s) fr»b upheavals reduced
lo nothing the (mwer of the Carolingian princes; the clergy of
Komf found Ksclf without a protector, exposed to the animosity
uf the lay arlstmra* y. The authority of the pontificate was
serloiitly iinpsirnl by ihrso circumstances. One of the great
fanilllfs of konitf, that of the vestararius Thcophylact, took
|M)B«rMluit of till* triniKjrnl authority, and succeeded in influencing
thr pupal eirtttona. After Thcophylact the power passed lo
hit dsughipr MaroAJA, a woman of the most dcbaaed character;
Ihrn til hrr son Albrrlc, a serious-minded prince; and then to
Alhtili's stin (htavlus, who from "prince of the Romans"
bcitutf pn|Ht (John XII.) when yet a mere boy. After Marozia
anil Altirrli and the rrst another branch of the aame family,
thf (VfMvniii. Mrrtlvtl the temporal powers of the Holy See;
and after them the same regime waa continued by the counta
of Tusi'ulum, who were sprung from the some stock, which
sometimes provided the Roman Church with the moat unllkdy
ai>d leaat honourable |K>nti(Ts.
The pope, like all the bishopa, was chosen by means of election,
in which both the clergy and the laity took part. The Utter
^^^.^ were itprctentcd In the moat csKntial functions
Trniffr ^ ^^* elcvtion by the aristocracy: at first by the
senate, and later by the txtnUut r^wunuSf or rather
ol Its staff, composed of n>'santine officers. It wu the Utter
whiih gave rlae to the feudal aristocracy which we see appear-
ing under the Carolinglans. Tht new pope was chosen by the
principal members of the cleigy and nobl^ and then set before
the assembled people, who gsvc their decision by acclamation;
and this acclamation was accepted as the vote of the assembly
of the faithful. The ix>pc>clect was then put in possession of
(he episco|>al house, and after waiting till the next Sunday his
cOMscratloft waa proceeded with. Tbia ceremony was at first
t.i
;thn-
T^
■I the ioch«
whoactaaByi
the SeacA easpcfDCS (Ocio L, IL and HL). i
ceatwy «f the losds «f T^acohs. the htter I
seivca aad <h<wai i ig fmheia of
pontihcate. Whea the tm^tm Hcwy IIL (rotO P«t ■
to thia inipnashm k waa only Co whstifitfr amothcr.
popca of TuacaiaM dU. at lent, bdoag to the caaatry.
the Gemma kiiV choae bishopa fraa the aihcr aUe of the .^4s.
Such waa the state of aflaiiB ap to the tiase of Uaddheaad.
The entry of HUdebeaAd iaca the coaaaela af the p^nrr
marfca the beginning of a peat chaage ia this JaaiiimiQa. Hs
cannot, however, claim the hoaoar of haviag 4
the way which he impelled his pradecesaofs to
even before following it himself. All i
were calling for reform; bishopa, princes, and
agreement on thia point when they spoke or acted acoordlrT \>
their convictions. Many of them had tried to effect aaaneth.**.
but these isoUted cfioiu were often oottntcnnined by tnmwy ^
Ueaima, and had produced no sefiouaicaulta. Itbiathesopccae
huA of the Church that the movement ought to have fc^>i
ita origin and inspiration. There waa no dispute am to ka
posaesaing the authority in spiritual matters aeocaaary to iai^aa
reform and overbear the mists noe which might arine; ao c=e
waa better qualified than he to treat with the bolden of i^
temporal power and obtain the support which waa nece9B.7
from them. The Fathers of the Church had repeated tlca
without number that the priesthood sCaada ahcrve cvee the
supreme secular authority; the Bible waa fuU of atories mc%t
aptly illustrating thia theory; nobody qnestioaed that, witi^j
the Church, the pope waa the Vicar of Christ, and that, as rA>.
his powers were unlimited; aa proof poaitivc couhl be ci^-i
ooundU and decretala-~whether authentic or apunooa; at aar
rate all authorized by long usage and taken aa received awlL -
riliea. It only remained to take poascasaon of thia inoootcatai 'e
power and use it with firmness and consistency. The esaspic
of Nicholaa I., two centurica before, had ahown the poaiuaa
which a pope could occupy in Chriatoidom; but for a kmg tkm
past the man had oome short of the institution, the lanffliaaii cf
his tool Under Leo IX. (1048-1054) the pope auddcnly came
forward as the active and indefatigable rhampton of ieior:a;
simony and incontinence of the clergy were attacked by the uet
most qualified to purify the Church of theoL Hea c rf oat h ;f«
way was open, and it became dear that, given good popes, ti^
reform movement might be carried into effect. The choke d
the pope was then subject to the pleasure of the nofvcrcica J
Germany, against whom the Roman feudal kada, devoted is
they were to the old abuses, were in constant icvolt. le the
midst of the frequent changea of pope which went on dvrirg
these yean, and the political vidsaitudea of Italy, HildciKxr.
took such meaaures as enabled him to rhrrkmatf the opposit^j-.
of the Roman barons by turning against them, now the aivkn.
force of the Normans, mw the inflwencr of the ^>*^-*'' kicg *
> On the 5th of April losflL six days after the death of Pope
Steohen X. John^b^hop gl Ve lletri, the nomine e^crf j he Rom^
nobles, wss enthroned es Pope Benedict jC Hi ldc b rawg set -^
Gcfud, bidiop of Fkaeacc, as a r
the Romans to his cause, and as
rapert «
<d
regent Agnes at the Dkt of
pooe at Siena (as Nicholas ._ . ^ , .
Bed from Rone on the th f atiu u 01 B e ne di ct X. A
St Sotfi. at which the powerful Godfrey, deha of I laiiha mwA
5ipoteto, Md rosigrave of Ttesoaay. and the chaaoeAar '
were pment. Meuurcs vete here foncctted anJna ^ae Be
who was driven out of Rone ia Jmaaary 1099^ Nichama U
PAPACY
wiy-13051
Side by side with the genen! movement towards refonn, he had I
set before himself the object of freeing the pajwcy, not only
from its temporal oppressors but also from its protectors. He
was successful at the council of 1059, the pontifical election
was placed out of reach of the schemes of the local feudal lords
and restored to the heads of the clergy; certain reservations
were made with regard to those rights which the Holy See was
considered to have conceded personally to Henry of Germany
(the young king Henry IV., son of the emperor Henry HI.), but
nothing more. At the election of Alexander 11. (1061-1073)—
a rival to whom was for a long time supported by the German
king^-Hmd even at the election of Hildebrand, this rule had its
effect. Henceforth the elections remained entirely free fh)m
those secukr influences which had hitherto been 90 oppressive.
In X073 Hildcbrand was raised to the pontifical throne by
the acclamation of the people of Rome, under the name of
Gregory VII. ^ . , ^
The work of reform was now in a good way; the freedom
of the pontifical elections had been assured, which gave some
angpry promise that the struggle against abuses would be
w/., conducted successfully. All that now remained,
JMI-IMA was to go on following wisely and firmly the way
that had already been opened. But thb attitude was not likely
to appeal to the exuberant energy of the new pope. Hitherto
he had had to reckon with obsUcIes more powerful than those
which were now left for him to conquer, and, what was more,
with the fact that his authority depended upon the wiH of others.
But now that his hands were no longer tied, he could act freely.
The choice of the pope had been almost entirely removed from
the sphere of secular influence, and especially from that of
the German king. Gregory claimed that the same condition
should apply to bfahops, and these were the grounds of the
dispute about investitures—a dispute which could find no
solution, for it was impossible for the Teutonic sovereigns to
renounce all interest in a matlrr of such importance in the
workings of their state. Since the time of Clovis the German
sovereigns had never ceased to intervene in such matters.
But this question soon fell into the background. Gregory's
contention was that the secular sovereigns should be entirely in
the power of the head of the Church, and that he. should be
able to advance them or dispossess them at will, according to the
estimate which he formed of their conduct. A terrible struggle
arose between these obviously exorbitant demands and the
resistance which they provoked. Its details cannot be described
in this place (see Investttuees); we need only say that this
ill-fated quarrel was not calculated to advance the reform
movement, but rather to impede it, and, further, that it ended
in failure. Gregory died far away from Rome, upon which he
had brought incalculable evils; and not only Rome, but the
papacy itself had to pay the penalty for the want of moderation
of the pope. Great indeed was the difference between the state
in which he iweived it and that in which he left it. We must
not, however, let this mislead us. This struggle between
spiritual and secuhir powers, owing to the tremendous sensation
which it created throughout Christendom, showed the nations
that at the head of the Church there was a great force for justice,
always able to combat faiiquity and oppression, and sometimes
to defeat them, however powerful the evil and the tyrants might
seem. The scene at Canossa, which had at the moment a merely
relative importance, remained in the memories of men as^ a
symbol which was hateful or comforting, according to the point
of view from which it was considered. As to Gregory's political
pretensions, zealous theorists were quick to transform them into
legal principles; and though his immediate successors, some-
what deafened by the disturbance which they had aroused,
seem to have neglected them at first, they were banded on to
more distant heirs and reappeared in future struggles.
Gregory himself, in his hal moments, seems to have fdt that
It was impossible to maintain them, for Didier, abbot of Monte-
resulariy enthroned on the 24th of the same month. A synod
assembled at the Uteran in April patwd the famovs new regulatioiw
for the dictioas to iIm papvy. CSea CoNctAVfl aad Latssam
Coiwcat.)— IEp.1
691
Cassino (Victor HI., 1086-1087). whom he nominated as his
successor, was well known for his moderation. It was no k>nger
a question of continuing the policy of Gregory VII., but of
saving the work of Hfldebrand. (V- !>•*>
Il.^Peri4)d from 1087 h 1305.
Gregory VH. had dearly revealed to the world the broad
lines of the reliipous and political programme of the medieval
papacy, and bad begim to put it into execution. TteWMt
To reform the Church in every grade and purge •iQnguy
the priesthood in order to shield it from feudal ^
iniluenca and from the domination of lay sovereignties; to
convert the Church thus regenerated, spiritualized, and detached
from the world, into an organism which would be submissive
to the absolute authority of the papal sec, and to concentrate
at Rome all its energies and jurisdiaions; to establish the
supremacy of the Roman see over all the Christian Churches, and
win over to the Roman Church the Churches of the Byzantine
Empire, Africa and Asia; to establish the temporal domain of
St Peter, not only by taking possession of Rome and Italy, but
also by placing all the crowns of Europe under the supreme
sovereignty of the popes, or even in direct vassalage to them;
and, finally, to maintain imity of faith in Christendom and
defend it against the attacks of unbelievers, Mussulmans, heretics
and pagans— these were the. main features of his scheme. The
task, however, was so gigantic that after 150 years of strenuous
effort, at the period which may be considered as the apogee
of its power, that is, in the first half of the X3th century,
the papacy had attained only incomplete results. At several
points the work remained unfinished, for decadence followed
dose upon the moment of extreme greatness. It is more
parliculariy in the part of this programme that relates to the
internal policy of the papacy, to the subjection of the Church
to the Curia, and to the intensive concentratfon of the ecdesi-
astical forces in the hands of the leader of Christendom, that
Gregory went farthest in the execution of his plan and
approached nearest the goaL For the rest, so formidable were
the external obstacles that, without theoretically renouncing his
claims, he was unable to realize them in practice in a manner
satisfactory to himself.
In order to give a clear idea of the vicissitudes through which
the papal institution passed between the years X087 and 1305
and to show the measure of its success 01 failure at different
stages in its course, it is convenient to divide this section into
four periods. , .
1. Period from Urban IL to Calixius IL {1087-1124).—
Gregoiy VII.'s immediate successors accomplished the most
pressing work by liberating the Church from feudal yg^„g^
subjection, either by force or by diplomacy. This t^gg,/^
was, indeed, the indispensable condition of its internal
and external progress. The great figure of this period Is
unques|ionabIy the French Cluniac Urban II., who led the
Hildebrandine reformaUon with more vehemence than Gregory
himself and was the originator of the crusades. Never through-
out the middle ages was pope more energetic, impetuous or
uncompromising. His inflexible will informed the movement
directed against the enemy within, against the simoniacal prelate
and the princely usurper of the righu of the Church, and pre-
scribed the movement against the enemy without, against the
infidel who held the Holy Sepulchre. Urban set his hand to
reforms from which his predecessor Gregory had recoiled. He
simuluneously ezoonununicated several sovereigns and merd-
lessly persecuted the archbishops and bishops who were hostile
to reform. He took no pains to temper the zeal of his legates,
but indted them to the struggle, and, not content with pro-
hibiting lay investiture and simony, expressly forbade prelates
and even priests to pay homage to the dvil power. Distrusting
the secular dergy, who were wholly sunk in the jg^^^^^
world, he kwked to the regular dergy for support, g^ckmt^
and thus led the papacy into that coune which it ^
continued to pursue after his death. Henceforth the !■"■■
was to be the docile iastrumcnt of the wishes of Roir
6g2
PAPACY
l»»^-3»|
oppoaed to Uie official priesthood acooiding to Rome's needs.
Urban was the first to proclaim with emphasis the necessity of
a close association of the Curia with the religious orders, and
this he made the essential basis of the theocmtic government.
As the originator of the first crusade, Urban is entitled to
the honour of the idea and its execution. There is no doubt
that he wished to satisfy the complaints that emanated
from the Christians dwelling in Jerusalem and
from the pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre, but It is
no less certain that he was disturbed by the fears
STOUsed throughout the Latin world by the recrudescence of
Mussulman invasions, and particularly by the victory won by
the Almoravides over the Christian army at Zalaca (xo86)
The progress of these African Mussulmans into Spain and
their incessant piracies in Italy were perhaps the occasional
cause that determined Urban IL to work upon the imagination
of the infidels by an expedition into Syria. The papacy of
that time believed in the political unity of Islam, in a solidarity
— which did not exist — among the Mussulmans of Asia Minor,
Syria, Egypt and the Barbary coasts; and if it waited until the
year 1095 to cany out this project, it was because the conflict
with the Germanic Empire prevented the earlier realisation
of its dream. The essential reason of Urban II.'s action, and
consequently the true cause of the crusade, was the ambition
of the pope to unite with Rome and the Roman Church the
Churches of Jerusalem, Antiocb, Alexandria and even Constan-
tinople, which the Greek schism had rendered independent.
This thought had already crossed the minds of Leo IX. and
Gregory VII., but circumstances had never allowed them to
put it into execution. Armed by the reformation with a moral
authority which made it posuble to concentrate the forces of
the West under the supreme direction of the Church and iu
leaders. Urban II. addressed himself with his customary decision
to the execution of this enormous enterprise. With him, as with
all his successors, the idea of a collective expedition of Europe
for the recovery of the Holy Places was always associated with
the sanguine hope of extinguishing the schism at Constantinople,
its very centre, by the substitution of a Latin for a Byzantine
domination. Of these two objects, he was only to realise the
former; but the crusade may well be said to have been his own
work. He created it and preached it; he organised it, dominated
it, and constantly supervised it. He was ever ready to act,
either personally or through his delegates, and never ceased
to be the effective leader of all the feudal soldiers he enrolled
under the banner of the Holy See. He corresponded regulariy
with his legates and with the military leaders, who kept him
accurately informed of the position of the troops and the pro-
gress of the operations. He acted as intermediary between the
soldiers of Christ and their brothers who remained in Europe,
announcing successes, organizing fresh expeditions, and spurring
the laggards to take the road to Jerusalem.
The vast conffict aroused by the Hildebrandine reformation,
and particularly the investiture quarrel, continued under the
ff tff f rwfgf ^^''" successors of Urban II.; but with them it
•/!*• assumed a different character, and a tendency arose
larttoimrmio terminate it by other means. The violence and
^f""*^ disorders provoked by the struggle brought about a
reaction, which was organized by ccrUln prelates who advocated
a policy of conciliation^ such as the Frenchman Ivo, bishop
of Chartres (c. X040-X116). These conciliatory prelates were
siDcere supporters of the reformation, and combated simony,
the marriage or concubinage of priests, and the immorality of
sovereigns with the same conviction as the most ardent followers
of Gregory VII. and Urban U.; but they held that the intimate
union of Church and State was indispensable to the social order,
and that the rights of kings should be respected as well as
the rights of priests. The text they preached was harmony
between the priesthood and the state. Dividing what the irrecon-
dlables of the Hildebrandine party considered as an indissoluble
whole, they made a sharp distinction between the property
of the Church and the Church itself, between the political and
territorial power of the bishops and their religious authority.
and between the feudal invatttnse which ooolen Uads it
jurisdiction and the spiritual investiture which ooofen e . .
astical rights. This doctrine gradually tallied all mocc ;
minds, and finally inspired the dircctoiB of OmstexMkr ;
Rome Itself. It explains the new attitude of Paschal II .
Calijctus II., who were both sincere reformers, but who S(r.» - >
a policy of compromise the solution of the diffimU prcb.^; *
the relations of Church and State.
History has not done sufficient justice to the Italian n- j
Paschal II., who was the equal of Urban in [uivate v}."...
personal disinterestedness, and religious oonviclioB, f^ ^- --
but was surpassed by him in ardour and ligidiiy g/m-^
of oonducL Altered dzcumstances and te nde no rs
of opinion called for a policy of conciliation. In Fr^-:
Paschal granted absolution to Philip I. — who had c
times been anathematised by his predecessors — and cec ^
him solemnly with the Church, on the sole oonditioo ll~ .
should swear to renounce his adulterous mairiace. The ^
could be under no delusion as to the value of this oath, ^ ■
indeed was not kept; he merely regularised formjJly a £.*.
affairs which the intractable Urban II. himself had sever ' -
able to prevent. As for the French question of the Invcstt.^
it was settled apparently without any treaty bcias cspr
drawn up between the parties. The kings of France coc.-.
porary with Paschal II. ceased to practice spiritual iawtsin.-
or even to receive feudal homage from the bishops. Tte>
not, however, renounce all intervention or all profit il
nominations to prelacies, but their intervention wan no .-."
exhibited under the forms which the Hildebrandine pan> . ^
to be illegaL In England, Paschal U. put an end to the . .
quarrel between the royal government and Anselm of Canirr' -
by accepting the Concordat of London (1x07). The cro>. .
F.ngiand also abandoned investiture by the pastoral stxl
ring, but, more fortunate than in France, retained the r -
of receiving feudal homage from the episcopate. As icr ^-:-
many, the Emperor Henry V. wrung from the pope, by a c^ -
of force at Rome, concessions which provoked the inc r *
clamours of the most ardent reformers in France and i..
It must not, however, be forgotten that, in the neguL..
at Sutri, Paschal had pride and independence eiK>iish to (;. - ^
to the emperor the only solution of the conflict that vas ci* -.
logical anid essentially Christian, namely, the renunciaixc
the Church of its temporal power and the renunoatioo tr '
lay lords of all intervention in elections and invesutniry--
other words, the absolute separation of the priesthood %ati ■'
state. The idea was contrary to the whole evolution of nrd .
Catholicism, and the German bishops were the first to rcps^
it. At all events, it is certain that Paschal U. prepared the « .
for the Concordat of Worms. On the other hand, with r -
acuteness than his predecessors, he realized that the pK-
could not sustain thie struggle against Germany unless it «. -
rely upon the support of another Christian kingdom ci 1
West; and he concluded with Philip I. of France im
and Louis the Fat, at the Council of Troyes (1x07), ■*>_
an alliance which was for more than a century the '^■■"
salvation of the court of Rome. It is from this time *>.:
we fiiul the popes in momenu of crisis tnns{kNttins tbcc-
selves to CapeUan territory, installing their goveounenis a.-
convening their councils there, and from that place of t^jt
fulminating with impunity against the internal and cxter _
foe. Without sacrificing the essential principles of the rclor='.
tion, Paschal II. practised a policy of peace and reaction in e\ "
way contrary lo that of the two preceding popes, and it - -:
through him that the struggle was onoe more placed iipoe
religious basis. He refused to retain Hugo, bishop ot '■-
(d. I X06), as legate; like Urban and Gregory, he gave or oonfirr ..
monastic privileges without the protection he granted to ^ -?
monks assuming a character of hostility towards the episcop* -
and, finally, he gave an impulse lo the reformation of the chxpir-x
and, unlike Urban II., maintained the rights of the caau
against the claims of the abbots.
Guy, the archbishop of Vienae, who had been one of the
to«7-tjos]
PAPACY
693
keenest to disavow the policy of Pudul II., was obliged to
continue it when he usomed the tiara under the name of
^^ Calixtus II. By the Concordat ol Worms, which he
^SSL ^S^^ ^^^^ ^c Emperor Henry V. in xiaa, the
investiture was divided between the ecclesiastical
and the lay powers, the emperor investing with the sceptre, the
pope with the pastoral sta^ and ring. The work did honour
to the perseverance and ability of Calixtus, but it was merely
the application of the ideas of Paschal II. and Ivo of Chartres.
The understanding, however, between the two contracting
parties was very far from being clear and complete, as each
party still sought to attain its own aim by spreading in the
Christian world divergent interpretations of the concordat and
widely-differing plans for reducing it to its final form. And,
again, if this transaction settled the investiture question, it
did not solve the problem of the reconciliation of the universal
power of the popes with the claims of the emperors to the govern*
mcnt of Europe; and the conflict subsisted— slumbering, it is
true, but ever ready to awake under other forms. Nevertheless,
the two great Christian agitations directed by the papacy at
the end of the nth century and the beginning of the xath —
the reformation and the crusade — were of capital importance
for the foundation of the immense religious monarchy that had
its centre in Rome; and it is from this period that the papal
monarchy actually dates.
The entry of the Christians into Jerusalem produced an
extraordinary effect upon the faithful of the West. In it they
BthamUkt ^^ ^^ °^^^ manifest sign of the divine protection
and of the supernatural power of the pope, the
' ^ supreme director of the expedition. At its inception
"* the Latin kingdom of the Holy Land was within a
little of becoming an ecclesiastical principality, ruled by a
patriarch under the authority of the pope. Daimbcrt, the first
patriarch of Jerusa]emi« was convinced that the Roman Church
alone could be sovereign of the new state, and attempted to
compel Godfrey of Bouillon to hand over to him by a solemn
agreement the town and citadel of Jerusalem, and also Jaffa.
The clergy, indeed, received a large share; but the government
of the Latin principality remained lay and military, the only
form of government possible for a colony surrounded by perils
and camped in a hostile country. Not only was the result of
the crusade extremely favourable to the extension of the Roman
power, but throughout the middle ages the papacy never ceased
to derive almost incalculable political and financial advantages
from the agitation produced by the preachers and the crusading
expeditions. The mere fact of the crusaders being placed under
the special protection of the Church and the pope, and loaded
with privileges, freed them from the jurisdiction, and even, up
to a certain point, from the lordship of their natural masters,
to become the almost direct subjects of the papacy; and the
common law was then practically suspended for the benefit of
the Church and the leader who represented it.
As for the reformation, which tmder Urban II. and his
immediate successors was aimed not only at the episcopate
Smbofmam- but also at the capitulary bodies and monastic
«toa«/<*» clergy, it, too, could but tend to a consider-
i^iMMMfit able extension of the authority of the successors of
JJIJJ^^St Peter, for it struck an irremediable blow at
jitMrrio. ^|j^ andent Christian hierarchy. The first manifest
result of the change was the weakening of the metropolitans.
The visible symptom of this decadence of the archiepisoopal
power was the growing frequency during the Hiklcbrandi»e
conflict of episcopal confirmation^ and oonsecrations made by
the popes themselves or their legates. From an active instru-
ment of the reUgious society, the archiepiscopate degenetated
into a purely formal power; while the episcopate itself, which
the sincere roformers wished to liberate and purge in order to
strengthen it, emerged from the crisis sensibly weakened as well
as ameliorated. The episcopate, while it gyaed in iatelUfenoe
and morality, lost a part of iu independence. It was raised
above feudalism only to be abased before the two directing
lorcct of the reformatioiii the papacy and the itUgioua ordaa.
To pbtco itself in a better peetore for combating the simoniacai
and concubinaiy prelates, the court of Rome had had to multiply
exemptions and accelerate the movement which impelled the
monks to make themselves independent of the bishops. Even
in the cities, the seats of the episcopal power, the reformation
encouraged the attempts at revolt or autonomy which tended
eveiywhero to diminish that power. The cathedral chapters
took advantage of this situation to oppose their jurisdictioB
to that of the bishops, and to encroach on their prerogatives.
When war was declared on the schismatic prelates, the reforming
p<^>es supported the canons, and, unconsciously or not, helped
them to form themselves into privileged bodies living their own
lives and affecting to recognize the court of Rome as their only
superior authority. Other adversaries of the episcopate, the
burgesses and the petty nobles dwelUng in the city, also profited
by these frequent changes of bishops, and the disorders that
ensued. It was the monarchy of the bishops of Rome that
naturally benefited by these attacka on the aristocratic principle
represented by the high prelacies in the Church. By drawing
10 their skle all the forces of the ecclesiastical body to combat
feudalism. Urban II. and his successoia, with their monks and
legates, changed the constitution of that body, and changed it
to their own advantage. The new situation of these popes and
the growth of their authority were also manifested in the material
organisation of their administration and chancery. Under
Urban H. the formulary of the papal bulls began to crystallize,
and the letters amassed in the papal offices were differentiated
clearly into great and little buUs, according to thehr style,
arrangement and signs of validation. Under Paschal II. the
type of the leaden aeal affixed to the bulls (representing the
heads of the apostles Peter and Paul) was fixed, and the use of
Roman minuscule finals aubstitated for that oC the Lombard
script.
2. Period from Horwius II. to CtUslme III.{m4'ttg8)."^
After the reformation and the crusade the papal monarchy
existed, and the next step was to consolidate and extend it.
This task fell to the popes of the xath century. Two of them in
particular— the two who had the longest reigns—vix. Innoceat IL
and Alexander III., achieved the widest extension of the power
entrusted to them, and in many respects their pontificates may
be regarded as a preparation for and adumbration of the ponti&>
cate of Innocent IU. This period, however, is characterised
not oniiy by the thoroughgoing devetopment of the authority
of the Holy See, but also by the severe struggle the popes had
to sustain apunst the hostile forces that were opposed to their
conquesU or to the mere exercise of what they regarded aa
their right.
In the secuhur contest, Germany and the imperialist preten-
sions of its leaders were invariably the principal rtoa^i^
obstacle. Until the accession of Adrian IV^ how-«Mf*9
ever, there had been considerable periods of tran-g[f* J^
quilUty, years even of unbroken peace and alliance '''*^
with the Germanic power. Under Honorius U. the empire,
represented by Lothair III. of Supplinburg, sfielded to the
papacy, and Lothair, who was elected by the clergy -. . _
and protected by the legates, begged the pope to fSTriS.
confirm his election. Before his coronation he had
renounced the right, so jealously guarded by Henry V., of assist^-
ing in the election of bishops and abbots, and he even undertook
to refrain from exacting homage from the prchites sad to content
himself with fealty. This undertaking, however, dki not prevent
him from bringing all hia influence to bear upon the ecclesiastical
nominations. When the schism of iiio broke out he endear
voured topiocurt thecancellatioa of the dauseaof the Coocoidat
of Worma and to recovet hy investiture by way of oompen*
satiott for theaupport he had given to lanoont U., one of the
oompetli« popea. This scheme, however, was frustrsted by the
firmncfls of Innocent and St Bernard, and Lothair had to icsiga
himself to the acakms conservation of the privileges gmnted
to the Eaapire by the teraaa of the concordat. The ardour he
had displayed in securing the recognition of Innocent and
hia eneaiea, particularly the anti-pope
694
PAPACY
Iio87-ije«
Aucfetuft and the kingdom of the Twd Sicilies, involved him in
a coune which was not precisely favourable to the imperial
If "ghts. Innocent U. was the virtual master of this
{JJJJJJ^ 'monarch, whose championship of the papacy brought
not the smallest advantage, not even that of being
crowned emperor with the habitual ceremonial at the pUce
consecrated by tradition. It may even be maintained that his
elevation was due solely to his perK>nal claims. This was a
victory for Rome, and it was repeated .in the case of the first
Hohensuofen, Conrad III., who owed his elevation (1138)
mainly to the princes of the Church and the legate of Inno-
cent II., by whom he was crowned. He also had to submit to the
consequences of his origin on the occasion of a double election
not foreseen by the Concordat of Worms, when he was forced
to admit the necessity of appeal to Rome and to acknowledge
the supremacy of the papal decision. The situation changed
fl^toka in X153, under Eugenius III., when Frederick
Mr.* Barbarossa was elected German king. He notified
tMS'tiU, iiis election to the pope, but did not seek the pope's
approval None the less, Eugenhis m. felicitated the new
sovereign on his election, and even signed the treaty of
Constance with him (1x53). The pope had need of Frederick
to defend him against the revolted Romans and to help him to
recover his temporal power, which bad been gravely com-
promised. Anastasius IV. pursued the same policy, and
^Mate. summoned the German to Rome (1x54). Frederick,
«kMfv., however, was determined to keep the scat of the
fMf-iiM Empire for himself, to dispute Italy with the
pope, and to oppose the divine tight of kings to the divine
light of priests. When he had taken Lombardy (1x58) and
had had the principles of the imperial supremacy pro-
claimed by his jurists at the diet of Roncaglia, the court
of Rome realized that war was inevitable, and two ener-
, getic popes, Adrian IV. and Alexander III., reso-
iSSm/ ^^^^^y susl^Q^ ^bc struggle, the latter for nearly
twenty years. Victims of the communal claims
at Rome, they constituted themselves the champions of similar
claims in northern Italy, and their alliance with the Lombard
communes ultimately led to success. In his duel with Barba-
AteM- rosss, Alexander III., one of the greatest of medieval
4tr #0., popes, displasred extraordinary courage, address and
tU§-iMt, perseverance. Although it must be admitted that
the tenacity of the Lombard republics contributed powerfully
to the pope's victory, and that the triumph of the Milanese at
Legnano (X176) was the determining cause of Frederick's
submission at Venice, yet we must not exaggerate the importance
of the solemn act by which Barbarossa, kneeling before his
conqueror, recognized the spiritual supremacy of the Holy See,
and swore fidelity and respect to it. In its final form, the truce
of Venice was not only not unfavourable secularly to the Empire,
but even granted it very extensive advantages. Nor must it be
forgotten that, in the eyes of contemporaries, the scene at
Venice had none of that humiliating character which later
historians have attributed to It.
This was not the only success gained by Alexander in. over
lay sovereigns. The conflict of the priesthood with the kingdoms
jfciwiifcr "^ nations that were tending to aggrandize them-
Okamt selves by transcending the religious limits of die
riL medieval theocracy took pUce on another theatre.
'•The affair of Thomas Bedcet (9.V.) involved the
papacy in a quarrel with the powerful monarchy of the
Aiigevins, whose representative, Henry U., was master of
England and of the half of France. Aletatider's diplomatic
skill and moral anthority, reinforced by the Capedan alliance
and the revulsion of fediing caused by the murder of Becket,
enabled Idm to force the despotic Henry to yield, and even to do
penance at the tomb of the martyr. The Plaatagenet abjured
the Constitutions of ClazcndoB,recogniaed the ligbu of the pope
over the Church of England, mid augmented the privileges and
domains of the ardibisbopric of Canterbury. Althongh Becket
was a man of narrow sjrmpathics and by no means of liberal
views»ka had died f or the Uberties of his caste, and the aureole
that surrounded him enhanced the prestige and ascendancy d
the papacy.
Unfortunately for the papacy, the successors of Alexander m
lacked vigour, and their pontificates were too brief to allcw
them to pursue a strong policy against the Germanic t^0^^
imperialism. Never were the leaders of the Church «■« e^
in such jeopardy as during the reign of Barbaroasa's Bm^mt^
son, Henry VI. This vigorous despot, whose axnbi- "'"J •*
tions were not all chimerical, had succeeded where his pRd»
cessors, including Frederick, had failed. His marriage with the
hdress of the old Norman kings had made him master of SkZj
and the duchy of Apulia and Calabria, and be succeeded .s
conquering and retaining almost all the remainder of ibe
peninsuU. Under Ceiestine III. the papal state was surrocni- .
on every side by German soldiers, and but for the prcma:.-
death of the emperor, whom Abbot Joachim of Floris cal^-c
the " hammer of the world," the temporal power oC the po;o
might perhaps have been annihilated.
The Norman kingdom, which had conquered Scilj is^
southern Italy at the end of the txth century, was alroost is
grave a source of anxiety to the popes of this period. _
Not only was iU very existence an obstacle to the ^23?^
spread of their temporal power in the peninsula, ttmrmmm
but it frequently acted in concert with the pope's *T> m<i j
enemies and thwarted the papal policy. The jH^^
attempts of tionorius II. (it 28) and Innocent IL
(xr39) to wrest Apulia and Calabria from Ring Roger n., -z.i
Adrian IV.'s war with William I. (1x56), were one and aJ
unsuccessful; and the papacy had to content itself with ±t
vassalage and tribute of the Normans, and allowed theis -^
orgnnize the ecclesiastical government of their domains in ti : :
own fashion, to limit the right of appeal to Rome, and to ccr.^
the power of the Roman legates. At this period, moreo«<T
the "Norman Question" was intimately connected with ::.*
*' Eastern Question." The Norman adventurers in pooc^ >:
of Palermo and Naples perpetually tended to look for fb- *
aggrandizement to the Byzantine Empire. In the intrr»:s
of their temporal dominion, the X2th-century popes oould &'.
suffer an Italian power to dominate on the other side of .n
Adriatic and instal itself at Constantinople. This contingrr-.
explains the vacillating and illogical character of the p^\-&
diplomacy with regard to the Byzantine problem, and. t* *
o/ia, the opposition of Eugenius III. in 1x50 to Roger II t
projected crusade, which was directed towards the cooq. ^'
of the Greek state. The popes were under the constant sm av .
two contrary influences— on the one hand, the sedndng p-r^
pect of subduing the Eastern Church and triumphing ow
the schism, and, on the other, the apprehension of seeing :>e
Normans of Sicily, their competitora in Italy, incrcasang tk: :
already formidable power by successful expeditions ii.te :^e
Balkan Peninsula. Dread of the Normans, too, explains '.k*
singular attitude of the Curia towards the Comneni, of «hca
it was alternately the enemy and the protector or ally.
But, as regards its temporal aims on luly, the moat xacsa-
venient and tenacious, if not the most dangerous, advcraai)- sc
the xsth-century papacy was the Roman commune.
Since the middle of the xath century the party of y^^mm
municipal autonomy and, indeed, the whole of the SJ^^j^
European middle classes, who wished to shake off iTit
the feudal yoke and secure independence, had been
ranged against the successor of St Peter. The first s y mpto w i
of resistance were exhibited under Innocent n. (xx4i), who «ii
unable to stem the growing revolution or prevent the cstaUi&S
ment of a Roman senate sitting in the Capitol. The strvngil
of cUssical leminisoence and the insthict of liberty were ma-
foroed by the support given to communal aspiratkms by the
popular agitator and dangerous tribune, Arnold of
Bresda {q.v.), whose theories arrived at an opportune j^mI
moment to eneoorage the revolted commons. He
denied the power of clerks to possess fiefs, and allowed them o;*f
religious authority and tithes. The successors of Innocent II
were even Icsstoocemful in malntainli^ thtir sttprcBacy u
'SOJl
PAPACY
69 s
Romt. Laduft U., when caQed upon to renouace all his regalias
rights, fell mortally wounded in an attempt to drive the auto-
nomists by force from the Capitol (1x45). Under Eugenius III.
the Romana sacked and destroyed the bouses of the clerks and
cardinala, besieged St Peter's and the Lateran, and massacred
the pilgrims. The pope was forced to fly with the Sacred
College, to escape the necessity of recognizing the commune,
and thus left the field free to Arnold of Brescia (1145)- On his
return to Rome, Eugenius had to treat with his rebd subjects
and to acknowledge the senate they had elected, but be was
unable to procure the expulsion of the agitator. The more
energetic Adrian IV. refused to truckle to the municipality,
placed it under an interdict (1x55), <^nd allied himself with
Frederick Barbaroisa to;, quell an insurrection which respected
the rights of emperors no more than the rights of popes. From
the moment that Arnold of Brescia, absorbed in his chimerical
project of reviving the andeat Roman repubUc, disregarded
the imperial power and neglected to ahdter himsdf behind the
German in his conflict with the priesthood, his failure was
certain and hu fate foredoomed. He was hanged and burned,
probably in pursuance of the secret agreement between the pope
and the emperor; and Adrian IV. was reconciled with the
Romans (1x56). The commune, however, subsisted, and was
on several occasions strong enough to eject the masters who were
distasteful to it. Unfortunately for Alexander III. the Roman
question was comphcatcd during his pontificate with the des-
perate struggle with the Empire. The populace of the Tiber
welcomed and expelled him with equal enthusiasm, and when his
body was brought back from exile, the mob went before the
cortige and threw mud and stones upon the funeral litter. All
obeyed the pontiff of Rome— save Rome itself. Ludus III.,
who was pope for four years (ix8i-xi8s), remained in Rome
four months, whUe Urban III. and Gregoiy VIII. never -entered
the city. At length the two parties grew weary of this state
of revolution, and a r^mc of conciliation, the froit of mutual
concessions, was established under Clement til. By the act of
1x88, the fundamental charter of the Roman commune, the
people recognised the supremacy of the pope over the senate
and the town, while the pope on his part sanctioned the legal
existence of the commune and of iu government and assemblies.
Inasmuch as Clement was compelled to make terms with this
new power ndiich had established itself against him in the very
centre of his dominion, the victory may fairly be said to have
rested with the commune.
Although, among other obstades, the popes of the xsth century
had experienced some difficulty in subduing the faihabitants
D0r9h^ of the dty, which was the seat and centre of the
■Mflio/tt* Christian world, their monarchy did not cease to
c*«iraMf4gain in authority, solidity and prestige, and the work
gl^^' of centralization, which was gradually making them
^^ masters of the whole ecdcsiastical organism, was ac-
complished steadily and without serious interruption. If Rome
expelled them, they always found a sure refuge in France, where
Alexander III. carried on his government for several years;
and the whole of Europe acknowledged thdr immense power.
Under Honorius II. the custom prevailed of substituting legates
a lalert, simple priests Or deacons of the Curia, for the regioiury
ddegatcs, who had grown too* independent; and that excellent
instrument of rule, the Roman legate, carried the papal will into
the remotest courts of Europe. The episcopate and the great
monastic prelacies continued to lose their independence, as was
shown by Honorius II. deputing a cardinal to Monte Cassino
to elect an abbot of his choosing. The progress of the Roman
power was especially manifested under Innocent U., who had
triumphed over the schism, and was supported by the Empire
and by Bernard of Clairvauz, the first moral authority of his
time. He suspended an archbishop of Sens (1x36) who had
neglected to take into consideration the appeal to Rome, sum-
moned an archbishop of Milan to Rome to recdve the pallium
from the pope's hands, lavished exemptions, and extended
the right of appeal to such abnormal lengths that a Byzantine
ambassador is reported to have exclaimed to Lothair IIL»
"Your Pope Innocent It not a bishop, but an emperor."
When the universal Church assembled at the lecond Lateran
Coundl (XX39), this leadex of religion declared to the bishops
that he was the absolute master of Christendom. " Ye know,'*
he said, " that Rome is the capital of the world, that ye bold
your dignities of the Roman pontiff as a vassal holds bis fiefs
of his sovecdgn, and that ye caimot retain them without his
assent." Under Eugenius III., a Cisterdaa monk who was
scarcdy equal to his task, the papal absolutism grew sensibly
wepker, and if we may credit the testimony of the usually well-
informed German chronicler. Otto of Freising, there arote in
the college of cardinals a kind of fermentation which was
exceedingly disquieting for the personal power of the leader of
the Church. In the case of a difference of opinion between
Eugenius and the Sacred College, Otto relates that the cardinals
addressed to the pope this astounding protest: " Thou must
know that it is by us thou hast been raised to the supreme
dignity. We are the hinges {cariitus) upon which the universal
Church rests and moves. It is through us that from a private
person thou hast become the father of all Christians. It Is, then,
no longer to thyself but other to us that thou bdongest hence-
forth. Thou must not sacrifice to private and recent friendshipa
the traditional affections of the papacy. Perforce tbou must
consult before everything the general interest of Christendom,
and mnst consider it an obUgatfon of thine office to respect the
opinfons of the highest dignitaries o( the court of Rome." If we
admit that the c ar dinals of Eugenius III. succeeded in restricting
the omnipotence of their master for thdr own ends, it must
invariably have been the Curia that dictated its wishes to the
Church and to Europe. The papacy, however, recovered ita
aKendancy during the pontificate of Alexander III., and seemed
more powerful than ever. The recently created royalties sought
from the papacy the conservation of their titles and the bene*
diction of thdr crowns, and placed themsdves volunurily in
its vassalage. The practice of the nomination of bishops by tho
Curia and of papal recommendation to prebends and benefices
of every kind grew daily more general, and the number ol
appeals to Rome oikI eaemptlons granted to abbeys and even
to dmple churches increased oootinually. The third Lateran
CotmcU (xt79) was a triumph for the leader of the Church. At
that council wise and urgent measures were taken against the
abuses that discredited the priesthood, but the principle of
appeab and exemptions and the question of the increasing
abuse of the power wielded by the Roman legates remained
untouched, llie treatise* on canon law known as the Dtenhim
GroHanit which was compiled towards the middle of the xsth
century and had an enduring and far-reaching effect (see Canon
Law), merdy gave theoreticd sanction to the exisling situation
in the Church. It propa^ted doctrines in favour of the power
of the Holy See, established the superiority of the popes over
the councils, and gave kgal force to thdr decretals. According
to its author, " they (the popes) are above all the laws of the
Church, and can use them according to their wish; they alone
judge and caiuot be judged."
It was by its constant reliance on mooachism that the papacy
of the 1 2th century had attained thb result, and the popes cf
that period were especially fortunate in having 'o' , ^
thdr champfon the monk St Bernard, whose SJjtjJJU'i
admirable qitalities enabled him to dominate public a^^wmx.
opinion. St Bernard completed the reformation,
combated heresy, and by his immense moiml ascendancy gained
victories by wMch Rome benefited. As instances of his more
direct servfceo, he put an end to the schism of xijo and attached
Italy and the world to the side of Innocent III. Although he
had saved the papal hatatution from one of the gravest perils
it had ever encountered, the cardinals, the coon of Rome and
Inra>cent himself could not easily pardon him for being what he
had becom e a private penon more powerful in the Church
than the pope and the bishops, and holding that power by his
pcrAnal prestige. He incurred their special reproaches by has
condemnation of the irresistible evolution which impelled Rome
to desire exdusive dominion over Catholic Europe and to devote
696
PAPACY
laoa^-ijos
her attention to earthly things. Rtf did not condemn the
temporal power of the popes in plain terms, but both his writings
and his conduct proved that that power was in hisopinion diffi-
cult to reconcile with the spiritual mission of the papacy, and
was, moreover, a menace to the future of the institution. (See
Beknakd, Saint.)
At the very moment when the papacy thus attai&ed ornni'-
potence, symptoms of discontent and opposition arose. The
bishops resisted centralisation. Archbishop Hildebert
yffSf^yOf Tours protested to Honorius II. against the
Bxmeihmm appeals to Rome, while others complained of the
Mtf exactions of the legates, or, like John of Salisbury,
JJJJJ"** animadverted upon the excessive powers of the
bureaucracy at the Latcran. In the councils strange
speeches were heard from the mouths of laymen, who were
beginning to carry to extreme lengths the spirit of independence
with regard to Rome. When a question arose at Toulouse
in it6o as to the best means of settling the papal schism, this
audacious statement was made before the kings of France and
England: " That the best course was to side with neither of the
two popes; that the apostolic see had been ever a burden to
the princes; that advantage must be taken of the schism to throw
off the yoke; and that, while awaiting the death of one of the
competitors, the authority of the bishops was suflSdent in France
and England alike for the government of the churches." The
ecclesiastics themselves, however, were the first to denounce
the abuses at Rome. The treatises of Gerhoh of Reichersberg
(1093-1169) abound in trenchant attacks upon the greed and
venality of the Curia, the arrogance and extortion of the legates,
the abuse of exemptions and appeals, and the German policy
of Adrian IV. and Alexander III. In his eflorU to make the
papal institution entirely worthy of its mission St Bernard
himself did not shrink from presenting to the papacy '* the mirror
in which it could recognize its deformities." In common with
all enlightened opinion, he complained bitterly of the excessive
multiplication of exemptions, of the exaggerated extension of
appeals to Rome, of the luxury of the Roman court, of the
venality of the cardinals, and of the injury done to the traditional
hierarchy by the very extent of the papal power, which was
calculated to turn the strongest head. In St Bernard's treatise
De cmuideratione^ addressed to Pope Eugeoius lU., the papacy
receives as many reprimands and attacks as it doea marks of
affection and friendly counsel To warn Eugenius against
pride, Bernard reminds him in biblical teons that an insensate
sovereign on a throne resembles " an ape upon a housetop," and
that the dignity with which be is invested does not prevent him
from being a man, that is, '* a being, naked, poor, miserable,
made for toil and not for honours." To his thinking, poison
and the dagger were less to be feared by the pope than the lust
of power. Ambition and cupidity were the source of the most
deferable abuses in the Roman Church. ■ Tlie cardinals, said
Bernard, were satraps who put pomp before the truth. He was
at a loss to justify the unheard<of luxury of the Roman court.
" I do not find," he said, ** that St Peter ever appeared in public
loaded with gold and jewels, dad in silk, mounted on a white
mule, surrounded by soldiers and foltowed by a brilliant retinue.
In the glilter that environs thee, rather wouldst thou be uken
for the successor of Constantine Uian for the successor of Peter,"
Rome, however, had greater dangen to c«^ with than the
indignant reproofs of her friends the monks, aiid the opposition
Oi^miMmf of the bishops, who were displeased at the spectacle
M9*9 i k a l of their authority waning day by day. It was at
^*<^ this period that the CathoUc edifice of the middle
ages began to be shaken by the boldness of philosophical specula-
lioD as applied to theolocical studies and also by the growth of
heresy. Hitherto more tolerant of heresy than the local
authorities, the papacy now felt compelled to take defensive
measures against it, and cspedally against AJbigensianism,
which had made great strides in the south of France since the
nsiddle of the isth century, innocent II., Eugenius III. and
Alexander LU. excommunicated the sectaries of Languedoc
and their abet ton, Alexander even tending armed "**"***■*• to
hunt them down and punish them. But the preaching of the
papal legates, even when supported by mililarydemof»tra tiers,
had no effect; and the Albigensian question, together with otb *
questions vital for the future of the papacy, remained unsettled
and more formidable than ever when Innocent III. was elected.
3. Period /ram InnocerU III. /• Alexander IV. (tip9-ii6r) —
Under the pontificates of Innocent 111. and his five immediate
successors the Roman monarchy seemed to have tm^tatm
rcoched the pinnacle of its moral prestige, religioas *■•• '■^
authority and temporal power, and this development "•^
was due hi great measure to Innocent III. himself. Between
the perhaps excessive admiration of Innocent's biogiapber,
Friedrich von Hurler, and the cooler estimate of a later historiaa.
Y(A\x Rocquain, who, after taking into consideration Inaocen!*!
political mistakes, lack of foresight and numerous disappoiot-
menu and failures, concludes that his reputation has been raech
exaggerated, it is possible to steer a middle course and form a
judgment that is at once impartial and conformable to the
historical facts. Innocent was an eminent jurist and cnnomst.
and never ceased to use his immense power in the service of iLe
law. Indeed, a great part of his life was passed in liearir.g
pleadinp and pionoandng judgmeotsi and few soveicigm ba\T
ever worked so industriously or shown such solidtude for the
impartial exercise of their judidal functions. It la diiltcult
to oompr^end Innocent's extraordinary activity. Over ar.d
above the weight of political affairs, he bore resohiidy icr
eighteen years the overwhdming burden of the preskleBcy of
a tribunal before which the whole of Europe came to plead. To
him, also, in his capadty of theologian, the whole of Eumpe
submitted every obscure, delicate or controverted quotior.
whether legal problem or case of consdence. This, nndoubtcdiv,
was the part of his task that Innocent preferred, and it was to
thfa, as well as to his much overrated moral and theoloftcal
treatises, thai he owed his enormous contemporary pnstigc.
As a statesman, he certainly committed grave faulu — tkrocgk
excess of diplomatic subtlety, lack of forethought, and aooietinws
even through ingenuousness; but it nmist with justice be admitted
that, in spitf of his reputation for pugnadty and obstinacy, be
never failed, dther by temperament or on prindple, to cxhaLat
every peaceful expedient in settling questions. He wns averse
from violence, and never resorted to bellicose acts or to ike
emplo3rment of force save in the last extremity. U Ms fMiky
miscarried In several quarters it was eminently suocesafnl ta
others: and if we consider the sum of his efforu to achieve x\jt
programme of the medieval papacy, it cannot be denied that the
extent of his rule and the profound influence he exerted 00 h.5
times entitle him to be regarded as the most perfect type gf
medieval pope add one of the most powerful figures in history.
A superficial glance at Innocent's oorrespoodence in suffkicc:
to convince us that he was preeminently concerned for tSe
reformation and moral wdfare of the Church, and ^^ rx—^m
was animated by the best intentions for the r»-estab- r^^f
lishment in the ccdesiasiical body of order, peace and f> ' "r^
respea for the hierarchy. This was one of the pria- "'^
dpal objects of his activity, and this important side of his work
received decisive sanction by the promulgation of tlw dccrea
of the fourth Latcran Council (lais). At this conBcfl afanoot
all the questions at issue related To reform, and many give evi-
dence of great breadth of mind, as well as of a very acute nense
of contemporary necessities. Innocent^ letters, bowcwcr, doc
only reveal that superior wisdom which can take into acamnJi
practical needs and reUx severity of prindple at the tight
moment, as tvell as that spirit of tolerance and equity whkh is
opposed to the excess of seal and intellectual narrowness cf
subordinates, but they also prove that, in the bitemal ffsivctn-
ment of the Church, he was bent on gathering into Iub hnads
all the motive threads, and that he stretched the absolutin
tradition to its furthest limits, intervening in the moat triiKng
aas in the lives of the clergy* and regarding it as an ohHgnttna
of his office to act and think for aU. The hcietic petal, which
increased during his pontificate, focced him to take decasive
measuoes against the Albigenacs in the south of Fraaoa, bnt
io87->3osr PAPACY
before proscribing tbem he spent ten years (1T9S-1308) in
endeavouring to convert the misbelievers, and history should not
l>^ forget the pacific character of these early efforts. It
Aibtgamalaavtas because they did not succeed that necessity and
CruMMd— (1)0 violence of human passions subsequently forced
him into a course of action which he had not chosen and which
led him further than he wished to go. When he was compelled
to decree the Albigensian crusade he endeavoured more than
once to discontinue the work, which had become perverted, and
to curb the crusading ardour of Simon de Montfort. Failing in
his attempt to maintain the religious character «f the crusade,
he wished to prevent it from ending secularly in its extreme
consequence and logical outcome. On several occasions he
defended the cause of moderation and justice against the fanatical
crusaders, but he never had the energy to make it prevail.
It is very doubtful whether this was possible, and an impartial
historian must take into account the insuperable diflicuhics
encountered by the medieval popes in their efforts to stem the
flood of fanaticism.
It was more particularly in the definitive constitution of the
temporal and political power of the papacy, in the extension of
P^pal ^^^ °^^y ^ called Roman imperialism, that chance
Imperiattam favoured his efforts and enabled him to pursue his
••«'«■ conquests farthest. This imperialism was undoubt-
iaooctatm, gjjy ^£ ^ special nature; it rested on moral authority
and political and finandal power rather than on material and
military strength. But it is no Icsd certain that Innocent
attempted to subject the kings of Europe by making them his
tributaries and vassals. He wished to acquire the mastery of
souls by unifying the faith and centralizing the priesthood, but
be also aspired to possess temporal supremacy, if not as direct
owner, at least as suzerain, over all the natkMial crowns, and thus
to realize the idea with which he was penetrated and which he
himself expressed clearly. He wished to be at once pope and
emperor, leader of religion and universal sovereign. And, in
fact, he exercised or claimed suzerain rights, together with the
political and pecuniary advantages accruing, over the greater
number of the lay sovereigns of his time. He was more or less
effectively the supreme temporal chief of the kingdom of Sicily
and Naples, Sardinia, the states of the Iberian peninsula (Castile,
Leon, Navarre and Portugal), Aragon (which, under Peter II.,
was the type of vassal and tributary kingdom 'Of the Roman
power), the Scandinavian states, the kingdom of Hungary, the
Slav states of Bohemia, Poland, Servia, Bosnia and Bulgaria,
and the Christian states founded in Syria by the crusaders oi
the 12th century. The success of Roman fmperiaJism was
particularly remarkable in England, where Innocent was
confronted by one of the principal potentates of the West, by the
heir of the power that had been founded by two statesmen of the
first rank, William the Conqueror and Henry II. In Richard I.
and John he had exceptionally authoritative adversaries; but
after one of the fiercest wars ever waged l^ the civil power
against the Church, Innocent at length gained over John the
most complete victory that has ever been won by a religious
potentate over a temporal sovereign, and constrained him to
imaneniitt. make complete submission. In 1213 the pope
«adJ9Aifo/ became not only the nominal suzerain h^xudejacto
Bagiaad. g^^ j^ j^^yg^ (j,e veritable sovereign of England, and
during the last years of John and the first yean of Henry III.
he governed England effectively by hb legates. This was
the most striking success of Innocent's diplomacy and the
culminating point of his secular work.
The papacy, however, encountered serious obsUdes, at first-
at the very centre of the papal empire, at Rome, where the pope
had to contend with the party of communal autonomy for ten
years before being able to secure the mastery at Rome. His
lMioet0tffflL» immense authority narrowly escaped destruction
Romtaad but a stone's-thiDw from the JLateran palace; but
''^' the victory finally rested with him, since the Roman
people could not dispense with the Roman Church, to which it
owed its existence. Reared in the nurture of the pope, the
populace of the Tiber renounced its stormy libcfty in 1209,
697
and accepted the peace and order that abenefieent master gave(
but when Innocent attempted to extend Lo the whole of Italy
the regime of paternal subjection that had been so successful at
Rome, the diiBcuitics of the enterprise surpassed the powers
even of a leader of religion. He succeeded in imposing his will
on the nobles and communes in the patrimony of St Petei, and,
as guardian of Henry VI.*s son Frederick, was for some time able
to conduct the government of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies,
but in his claims on the rest of Italy the failure of the temporal
power was manifest. He was unable, cither by diplomacy or
force of arms, to make Italian unity redound to the exclusive
benefit of the Holy See. Nor was his failure due to lack of
activity or ertcrgy, but rather to the insuperable obstacles in his
path — the physical configuration of Italy, and, above all, the
invincible repugnance of the Italian municipalities to submit to
the mastery of a religious power.
As far as the Empire was concerned, chance at first favoured
Innocent. For ten years a Germany weakened and divided by
the rivalry, of Philip of Swabia and Otto of Brunswick imaomaiat
left his hands free to act in Italy, and his pontificate ««4f*«
marks a period of comparative quiet in the ardent ^•'**^
conflict between pope and emperor which continued throughout
the middle ages. Not unld 1210, when Otto of Brunswick
turned against the pope to whom he owed his crown, was
Innocent compelled to open hostilities; and the struggle ended
in a victory for the Curia. Frederick II., the new emperor
created by Innocent, began by handing over his country to Rome
and sacrificing the rights of the Empire to the union of the two
great authorities of the Christian world. In his dealings with
Frederick, Innocent experienced grievous vicissitudes and
disappointments, but finally became master of the situatiooL
One nation only— the France of Philip Augustus— was able to
remain outside the Roman vassalage. There is not ft word, in
the documents concerning the relations of Philip Augustus
with Rome, from which we may conclude that the Capetian
crown submitted, or that the papacy wished to impose upon it
the effective suzerainty of the Holy See. Innocent III. had been
able to encroach on France at one point only, when the Albigen-
sian crusade had enabled him to exercise over the southern fiefs
conquered by Simon de Montfort a political and secular
supremacy in the form of collections of moneys. Finally,
Innocent III. was more fortunate than his predecessors, and, if
he did not succeed in carrying out his projected crusade and
recovering the Holy Places, he at least benefited by the Franco-
Venetian expedition of 1 202. Europe refused to take any direct
action against the Mussulman, but Latin feudalism, LaiimCb&*
assembled at Venice, diverted the crusade by an act ««Mf •/£»•
of formal disobedience, marched on Constantinople, ''•x^^'vw
seized the Greek Empire and founded a Latin Empire In Its pUoe;
and Innocent had to accept the fait otcomplL Though con-
demning it on principle, he turned it to the interests of the
Roman Church as well as of the universal Church. With Joy
and pride he welcomed the Byzantine East into the circle of
vassal peoples and kingdoms of Rome bound politically to the
sec of St Peter, and with the same emotions beheld the patri-
archate of Constantinople at hist recognize Roman supremacy.
But from this enormous increase of territory and influence arose
a whole series of new and difficult problems. The court of Rome
had to substitute for the old Greek hierarchy a hierarchy of
Latin bishops; to force the reowining Greek clergy to practise
the beliefs and rites of the Roman religion and bow to the
supremacy of the pope; to maintain in the Greco-Latin Eastern
Church the necessary order, morality and subordination; to
defend it against the greed and violence of the nobles and banns
who had founded the Latin Empire; and to compel the leaders
of the new empire to submit to the apostolie power and execute
iu oonunanda. In his endeavours to carry out the whole of
this programme. Innocent III. met with insuperable obstacles
and many disappointments. On the one hand, the Greeks were
unwilling to abandon their religion and natienal cult, and scarcely
recognized the ecclesiastical supremacy of the pSLpkcy, On the
other hand, the upstart Latin empcion. Us fcpm proving
698
PAPACY
fiatjp-tjBf
■ubmissive and humble tools, assumed with the purple the
habits and pretensions of the sovereigns they had dispossessed.
Nevertheless, Innocent left his successors a much vaster and
more stable political dominion than that which he had received
from his predecessors, since it comprised both East and West;
and his five immediate successors were able to preserve this
ascendancy. They even extended the Ihnits of Roman imperial*
ism by converting the pagans of the Baltic to Christianity, and
further reinforced the work of ecclesiastical centralization by
enlisting in their service a force which had recently come into
existence and was rapidly becoming popular-^tbe mendicant
orders, and notably the Dominicans and Franciscans. The
TkePtian Roman power was also increased by the formation
am4t»0 of the universities— privileged corporations of
VBimnUta. masters and students, which escaped the local power
of the bishop and his chancellor only to place themselves under
the direction and supervision of the Holy See. Mistress of the
entire Christian organism, Rome thus gained control of inter-
national education, and the mendicant monks who formed her
devoted mih'tia lost no time in monopolizing the professorial
chairs. Although the ecclesiastical monarchy continued to
gain strength, the successors of Innocent III. made Teas use
than he of Ihcir immense power. Under Gregory IX, (1227-
IJ41) and Innocent IV. (ii43-"S4) the conflict between the
priesthood and the Empire was revived by the enigmatic
Frederick II., the polyglot and lettered emperor, the friend of
Saracens, the despot who, in youth styled " king of priests/' in
hter years personified ideas that were directly opposed to the
medieval theocracy; and the struggle lasted neariy thirty years.
The Hohenstaufcn succumbed to it, and the papacy itself
received a terrible shock, which shook its vast empire to the
foundations.
Nevertheless, the first half of the 13th century may be regarded
as the grand epoch of medieval papal history. Supreme in
OiAMteJCfoa Europe, the papacy gathered into a body of doctrine
•rciciv' the decisions given in virtue of its enormous de facto
P»>*f^' power, and promulgated its collected decrees and
•raada to form the immutable law of the Christian world.
Innocent III., Honorius III. and Gregory IX. employed their
jurbts to collect the most important of their rulings, and
Gregory's decrees became the definitive repository of the canon
law. Besides making laws for the Christendom of the present
and the future, these popes employed themselves in giving a
more regular form to their principal administrative organ, the
offices of the Curia. The development of the Roman chancery
is also a characteristic sign of the evolution that was taking place.
From the time of Innocent IIL the usages of the apostolic
scribes become transformed into precise rules, which for the
most part remained in force until the 15th century.
4. Period from Urban IV. to Benedict XL (1261-1 jos). —
This period comprises 13 pontificates, all of short duration
(three or four yean at the most, and some only a few months),
with the exception of that of Boniface VIII., who was pope for
nine years. This accidental fact constitutes a prime difference
in favour of the preceding period, in which there were only five
pontiffs during the first sixty years of the tjth century. Towards
the end of the 13th century the directors of the Christian worid
occupied the throne of St Ptter for too short a time to be able
to make their personal views prevail or to execute their political
projects at leisure after ripe meditation. Whatever the merit
of a Gregory X. or a Nicholas III., the brevity of their pontift-
catcs prevented any one of these ephemera] sovereigns from
beuig a great pope.
But other and far more important differences characterize
this period. Although there was no theoretical restriction to
9 •i the temporal supremacy and religious power of the
papacy, certain historioil facts of great importance
contributed to the fatal diminution of their extent.
The first of these was the preponderance of the French monarchy
and nation in Europe. Pounded by the conquests of Philip
Augustus and Loub VIII. and legitimated and extended by
the policy and norai influeBce of the crowned saint, Louis IX.,
the French monarchy enjo^*ed undisputed supremacy ftt the e^
of the r3th century and the beginning of the X4th; and tks
hegemony of France was manifested, not only by the extensioa
of the direct power exercised by the French kinp over all t^
neighbouring nationalities, but also by the cstaUishmc&t c4
Capetian dynasties in the kingdom of the Two Sialics and n
Hungary. From this time the sovereign of Rome, like oiha
sovereigns, had to submit to French influence. But,, whcrczs
the pope was sometimes compelled to become the iostrumect of
the policy of the kings of France or the adventurers of their race,
he was often able to utilize this new and pervading force for the
realization of his own designs, althou^ he endeavoured frca
time to time, but without enduring success, to shake off t^
overwhelming yoke of the FVench. In short, it was in ir^t
sphere of French interests much more than in that of the gece^
interests of Latin Christendom that the activities of these popes
were exerted. The fact of many of the popes being of Frerch
birth and France the field of their diplomacy shows that t*-e
supreme pontificate was already becoming Frenda In character
This change was a prelude to the more or less complete sobjectka
of the papacy to French influence which took place in the
following century at the period of the " Babylonish Captivity/
the violent reaction persom'fied by Boniface VIII. affording b.-t
a brief respite in this irresistible evolution. It was the FrcocV
man Urban IV. (r26i-i264) who called Charles of Anjou i&'o
Italy to combat the last heirs of Frederick II. and thus pa\H
the way for the establishment of the Angevin dynasty on the
throne of Naples. Under Clement IV. ( 1 265- 1 268) an agreemest
was concluded by which Sicily was handed over to the hrothfr
of St Louis, and the victories of Benevento (1266) «ad Tag-, a-
cozzo ([ 267) assured the triumph of the Guelph party and enat>d
the Angevina to plant themselves definitely on Neapoiitatt sc-l
Conradin's tragic and ineviuble end closed the last act of the
secular struggle between the Holy See and the Empire.
Haunted by the recollection of that formidable conflict aed
lulled in the security of the Great Interregnum, wluch was t^
render Germany tong powerless, the papacy thought Biercfy
of the support that France could give, and paid no heed to the
dangers threatened by the extension of Charles of Anjcsi
monarehy in central and northern Italy. The Visconti GfegDr>- X
(1271*1276) made an attempt to bring about a reactira
against the tendency which had influenced his two immedi^'.e
predecessors. He placed himself outside the theatre of French
influence, and occupied himself solely with the task of givii^ ic
the papal monarchy that character of universality and politi^ .-:
superiority which had made the greatness of an Aleicandcr III
or an Innocent III. He opposed the aggrandizing projects cl
the Angevins, mtervened in Germany with a view to termiaati^f
the Great Interregnum, and sought a necessary oountcipoec
to Capetian predominance in an alliance with Rudolph ei
HabsbuTg, who had become an emperor without imperilzrf
the papacy. The Orsinl Nicholas III. pursued the sane polirr
with regard to the independence and greatness of the Rooaa
See. but died too soon for the cause he upheld, and, at his death
in izSo, the ineviuble current revived with ov crpo w eiiug
force. His successor, Martin IV. (1281-1285), a prelate of
Champagne, brother of several councillors of the king of France,
prebendary at Rouen and Tours, and one of the most zcalcA
in favour of the canonization of Louis IX., ascended the papal
throne under the auspices of Charles of Anjou, and underto^
the government of the Chnreh with the sole intention of further-
ing in every way the interests of the country of his birth. A
Frenchman before everything, he abased the papal power to
such an extent as to excite the indignation of his coatemporario,
often slavishly subordinating it to the exigencies of the domestic
and foreign policy of the Angevins at Naples and the leigBi^
house at Paris. But he was prevented from cartyii^ out ths
policy by an unforeseen blow, the Sicilian Vespers (Blarch Z382),
an event important both in itself and in iu results. By rejecting
the Capetian sovereign that Rome wished to thrust upon it ro
deliver it from the dynasty of Aragon, the Uttle Island of Sicily
arrested the progress of French imperialism, ruined the vasC
M*r>i3ad
PAPACY
699
projects of Charles of A^ou, and liberated the papacy in its
own despite from a subjection that perverted and shook its
power. Uonorius IV. (U85-Z287) and Nicholas IV. (1288-1291)
were able to act with crater dignity and independence than
their predecessors. Though remaining leagued with the
Angevins in southern Italy, they dared to look to Germany
and Rudolph of Habsburg to help them in their efforts to add
to the papal dominion a part of northern Italy and, in particular,
Tuscany. But they still continued to desire the restoration of
the Angevin dynasty in Sicily and to assist the designs of France
on Aragon by preaching a crusade against the masters of
Barcelona and Palermo. The hopes of the Curia were frustrated
by the resbtance of the Aragonese and Sicilians, and Charles of
Valois, to whom the Curia eventually destined the crown of
Aragon, had to resign it for that of Constantinople, which he
also failed to secure.
Boniface VIIL himself at the beginning of his pontificate
yielded to the current, and, like his predecessors, adapted his
externa] policy to the pretensions and interests of
ggy*g*^^the great Capetian house, which, like all his prede-
cessors, he at first countenanced. In spite of his
instincts for dominion and the ardour of his temperament, he
made no attempt to shake off the French yoke, and did not
decide on hostilities with France until Philip the Fair and his
legists attempted to change the character of the kingship,
emphasized its lay tendencies, and exerted themselves to gratify
the desire for political and financial independence which was
shared by the French nation and many other European peoples.
The war which ensued between the pope and the king of France
ended in the complete defeat of the papacy, which was reduced
to impotence (1303), and though the storm ceased during the
Jrtiirrrtog "*"* months* pontificate of Benedict XI., the Sec of
•/JS» St Peter recovered neither its normal equilibrium
i>mpatyi» nor its traditional character. The accession of the
FruiM. fijjt Avignon pope, Clement V., marks the final
subjection of the papal power to the Capetian government,
the inevitable result of the European situation acated in
the preceding century.
In other respects the papacy of this period found itself in a
very inferior situation to that which it had occupied under
Innocent III. and the popes of the first half of the 13th century.
The fall of the L^tin Empire and the retaking of Constantinople
by the Palaeologi freed a great port of the Eastern world from
the political and religious direction of Rome, and this fact
necessarily engaged the diplomacy of Urban IV. and his suc-
cessors in an entirely difTcrent direction. To them the Eastern
problem presented a less complex aspect. There could no
longer be any serious question of a collective expedition of
Europe for the recovery of the Holy Pbccs. The ingenuous
faith of a Louis IX. was alone capable of giving rise to two
crusades organized privately and without the influence or even
the approval of the pope. Although all these popes, and
Gregory X. especially, never ceased theoretically to urge the
Christian world to the crusade, they were actuated by the desire
of remaining faithful to tradition, and more particularly by the
political and financial advantages accruing to the Holy See from
the preaching and the crusading expeditions. The European
state of mind no longer lent itself to such enterprises, and,
moreover, under such brief pontificates, the attenuated Roman
power could not expect to succeed where Innocent III. himself
had failed. The main preoccupation of all these popes was how
best to repair the injury done to orthodox Eurqpc and to Rome
by the destruction of the Lotin Empire. Several of them thought
of restoring the lost empire by force, and thus giving a pendant
^^_ to the fourth crusade; but the Curia finally realized
i^m!.mt *^* enormous difficulties of such a^ project, and con-
vinced themselves that the only practical solution of
the difficulty was to come to an understanding with
the Palaeologi and realize pacifically the long-dreamed
union of the Greek and Latin Churches. The nego-
tiations begun by Urban IV. and continued more or less actively
by his suficesBors were at last concluded in 1274 by Gregory X.
The Council of Lyons proclaimed the union, which was destined
to be effective for a few years at least and to be prolonged
precariously in the midst of unfavourable circumstances. The
Greek mind was opposed to the union; the acquiescence of the
Byzantine emperors was but an ephemeral expedient of their
foreign policy; and the peace between the Latins and
Greeks settled on Byzantine soil could not endure for long.
The principal obstacle, however, was the incompatibility
of the popes' Byzantine and Italian policies. The popes
were in favour of Charles of Anjou and his dxpasty, but
Charles was hostile to the union of the two Churches,
since it was his intention to seize the Byzantine Empire
and substitute himself for the Palaeologi. Almost all the
successors of Urban IV. were compelled to exert their diplomacy
against the aggrandizing aims of the man they had themselves
installed in southern Italy, and to protect the Greek emperor,
with whom they were negotiatbg the religious question. On
several occasions between the years 1271 and 1273 the Angevins
of Naples, who had great influence in Achaea and Albania and
were solidly supported by their allies in the Balkan Peninsula,
nearly carried out their project; and in 1274 the opposition of
Charles of Anjou came near to compromising the operations
of the council of Lyons and ruining the work of Gregory X. The
papacy, however, held its ground, and Nicholas III., the worthy
continuer of Gregory, succeeded in preserving the union and
triumphing over the Angevin power. The Angevins took their
revenge under Martin IV., who was a stanch supporter of the
French. Three weeks after his coronation Martin excommuni-
cated the Greek emperor and all his subjects, and allied himself
with Charles of Anjou and the Venetians to compass his downfall.
In this case, too, the Sicilian Vespers was the rock on which the
hopes and pretensions of the sovereign of Naples suffered
shipwreck. After Martin's death the last popes of the jjth
century, and notably Boniface VIIL, in vain thought to find
in another Capetian, Charles of Volois, the man who was to
re-establish the Latin dominion at Byzantium. But the East
was lost; the union of 1274 was quickly dissolved; and the
reconciliation of the two Churches again entered into the category
of chimeras.
During this period the papal institution, considered in its
internal development, already showed symptoms of decadence.
The diminution of religious faith and sacerdotal
prestige shook it to its very foundations. The ^
growth of the lay spirit continued to manifest itself
among the burgesses of the towns as well as among the feudal
princes and sovereigns. The social factors of communism
and nationalism, against which Innocent III. and his successors
had struggled, became more powerful and more hostile to
theocratic domination. That a sovereign like St Louts
should be able to associate himself offidally with the
feudalism of his realm to repress abuses of church Jurfe-
diction; that a contemporary of Philip the Fair, the lawyer
Pierre Dubois, should dare to suggest the secularization of
ecclesiastical property and the conversion of the clergy into
a cbss of functionaries paid out of the royal treasury; and that
Philip the Fair, the adversary of Boniface VIII., should be able
to rely in his conflict with the leader of the Church on the popular
consent obtained at a meeting of the Three Estates of France —
all point to a singular demoralization of the sentiments and
principles on which were based the whole power of the pontiff
of Rome and the entire organization of medieval Catholicism.
Both by iu attitude and by its governmental acU, the papacy of
the bter 13th century itself contributed to increase the discredit
and disaffection from which it suffered. Under Urban IV. and
hb successors the great moral and religfous sovereignty of
former times became a purely bureaucratic monarchy, in which
the main preoccupation of the governors appeared to be the
financial exploitation of Christendom. In the registers of these
popes, which are now being actively investigated and published,
dispensations (Ucenccs to violate the laws of the Church);
indulgences, imposts levied with increasing regularity on uni-
versal Christendom and, in particular, on the clerks; the
700
PAPACY
Umr-twi
lettlemcnt of questions rdating to church debts; the granting of
lucrative benefices to Roman functionaries; the divers processes
by which the Curia acquired the immediate disposal of monastic,
capitulary and episcopal revenues — in short, all financial
matters are of the first importance. It was in the 14th century
more especially that the Apostolic Chamber spread the net
of its fiscal administration wider and wider over Christian
Europe; but at the dose of the 13th century all the preliminary
measures had been taken to procure for the papal treasury its
enormous and permanent resources. The continued efforts of
the popes to drain Christian gold to Rome were limited only by
the fiscal pretensions of the lay soverdgns, and it was this
financial rivalry that gave rise to the inevitable conflict between
Boniface VIII. and Phib'p the Faur.
By thus devoting itself to material Interests, the papacy
contemporary with the last Capetians lost its moral greatness
««# and fell in the optm'on of the peoples; and it did
itself no less injury by the abnormal extension of
the bounds of its absolutism. By its exaggerated
methods of centralization the papal monarchy h;id absorbed
within itself all the h'ving forces of the religious world and
suppressed all the liberties in which the Church of old hail
lived. The subjection of the sccuhr dergy was complete,
while the episcopate retained no shadow of its independence.
The decree of Clement IV. (ia66), empowering the papacy 10
dispose of all vacant bishoprics at the court of Rome, merely
sanctioned a usage that had long been established. But the
control exerdsed by the Roman Curia over the episcopate had
been realized by many other means. It was seldom that an
cpbcopal election took place without a division in the chapter,
in which resided the dcctoral right. In such an event, the
competitors appealed to the Holy See and abdicated their
right, either voluntarily or under cocrdon, in manibus papae,
while the pope took possession of the vacant see. Nominations
directly made by the court of Rome, espedally in the case of
dioceses long vacant, became increasingly numerous. The
principle of election by canons was repeatedly violated, and
threatened to disappear; and at the end of the xjth century
the spectacle was common of prelates, whether nominated or
confirmed by the pope, entitling themselves '* bishops by the
grace of the Holy See." The custom in force required bishops
established by papal authority to take an oath of fidelity to the
pope and the Roman Church, and this oath bound them in a
particular fashion to the Curia. Those bishops, however, who
had been elected under nornuil conditions, conformably to the
old law, were deprived of the essential parts of their legitimate
authority. They lost, for example, their jurisdiction, which
they were seldom able to exercise in their own names, but in
almost every case as commissaries ddegated by the apostolic
authority.
The regular clergy, who were almost wholly shdtered from
the power of the diocesan bishops, found themselves, even more
than the secular priesthood, in a state of complete depen-
dence on the Curia. The papacy of this period continually
intervened in the internal affairs of the monasteries. Not
only did the monks continue to seek from the papacy the
confirmation of their privileges and property, but they also
referred almost all their disputes to the arbitration of the pope.
Their dcctions gave rise to innumerable lawsuits, which all
terminated at the court of Rome, and in most cases it was
the pope himself who designated the monks to fill vacant posts
in the abbeys. Thus the pope became the great ecclesiastical
dector as well as the univenul judge and supreme legislator.
On this extreme concentration of the Christian power was
employed throughout Europe an army of official agents or
cfiidous adherents of the Holy Sec, who were animated by an
irrepressible zeal for the aggrandiicment of the papacy. These
offidals originally consisted of an obedient and devoted militia
of mendicant friars, both Franciscans and Dominicans, who
took their orders from Rome alone, and whose efforts the papacy
stimulated by lavishing exemptions, privileges, and full sacer-
dotal powers^ Subsequently they were rcprescaUd by the
apostolic notaries, who were charged to exercise tbroogbcct
Christendom the gracious jurisdiction of the leaders oC t:x
Church and to preside over the most important acts in lir
private lives of the faithful. These toob of Rome, both der.i
and laymen, continued to increase in every diocese. Thr.
were not invested with their office until they had been czanur.<
by a papal chaplain, or sometimes even by the vice-cliaDce;kr
of the Curia.
The sovereign direction of this enormous monarchy belo cge i
to the pope alone, who was asusted in important afifairs by tlx
advice and collaboration of the College of Cardinals, wiso hai
become the sole electors to the papacy. Towards the ck&e
of the 13th century the necessity arose for an express ruling oc
the question of the exerdsc of this dectoral right. In 12*4
Gregory X., completing the measures taken by Atezander ILL
in the X2th century, promulgated the cdcbrated constituiks
by which the cardinal-electors were shut up in conclave ar^
in the event of their not having desigiuted the new pope vithx:
three days, were constrained to perform thdr duty by a pr>
grcssive reduaion of their food-allowance (see Conclave t.
But at the head of this vast body there existed a consLir:
tendency which was opposed to the absorption of all the po«^
by a sirigle and unbridled will. In the last years of this penoi
fresh signs appeared of a reaction that emanated from the Sacrx^
College itself. The cardinal-electors endeavoured to derivT
from their deaoral power a right of control over the acts of t>r
pope elect. In 1294, and again in 1303, they laid themsd^'a
under an obligation, previously to the election, to subsc-be
to the political engagements which each promised ri^otoui >
to observe in the event of his becoming pope. In geocra:.
these engagements bore upon the limitation of the number d
cardinals, the prohibition to nominate new ones without pcwk«
notification to the Sacred College, the sharing between tb^
cardinals and the pope of certain revenues spedfied by a t j^
of Nicholas IV., and the obligatory consultation ot the cr>
sistorics for the prindpal acts of the temporal and spiritual
govenmicnt. It is conceivable that a pope of Bonifiace Vlll. s
temperament would not submit kindly to any restriction oi :*k
discretionary power with which he was invested by tradiL.-^-
and he endeavoured to make the cardinals dependent on bl-
and even to dispense with their services as far as possiU-.
only assembling them in consistory in cases of extreme neces&ty.
This tendency of the Sacred College to convert the Rosr^
Church into a constitutional monarchy, in which it should iiicH
play the part of parliament, was a sufficiently grave synpt'.vn
of the progress of the new spirit. But throughout the ecclesi-
astical society traditional bonds were loosened and anarchy v^
rife, and this at the very moment when the enemies of t^;
priesthood and its leaders redoubled thdr attack. In £ee
the decadence of the papal institution manifested itself in 12
irremediable manner when it had accomplished no more tlua
the half of its task. The growth of national kingdoms, the
antl-dcrical tendcndes of the emandpated middle dasBcs,
the competition of lay imperialisms, and all the other dements
of rcsistarce which had been encountered by the papacy in .3
progress and had at first tended only to shackle it. now pr*>
sented an insurmountable barrier. Tht papacy was vcakesH
by its contest with these adverse dements, and it was tfarcudi
its failure to triumph over them that its dream of Eurapeaa
domim'on, both temporal and spiritual, entered but vcsy
incomplctdy into the field of realities. ^A. Lo.)
///.— /Vn'flrf from 130$ to 1599.
The acccsdon of the Gascon Clement V. in 1305 narks tlie
begiruung of a new era in the history of the papacy; for tlLs
pope, formerly archbishop of Bordeaux, remained |-^,,,,j ^
in France, without once crossing the threshold Of gMt-UH.
the Eternal City. Clement's motive for this reso- *»"5T*^
lulion was his fear that the independence of ihe**^'**""'
ecclesiastical government might be endangered among tSc
frightful dissensions and party conflicts by which Italy wis
then convulsed; while at the same thne he yidded to the prcsssrc
ISQ5-I990|
PAPACY
701
eacereiKd ob him by tlw Tttaidk king Pfaffip the Fair. . In Mardi
1309, Ctemeot V. transferred his residence to Avignon, a town
which at that time belonged to the king of Naples, but was sur-
rounded by the countship of Venalssin, which as early as 1228
bad passed into the possession of the Roman See. Clement V.
remained at Avignon till the day of his death, so that with Mm
begins the so*€aUed Babylonian Exile of the popes. Through
this, and his excessive subservience to Philip the Fair, hts reign
proved the reverse of saluUry to the Church. The pope's
sabsefvience was above all conspicuous in his attitude towards
the proceedings brought against the otder of the Temple,
which was dissolved by the council of Vienne (see Teicplass).
His poasesiidn of Ferrara involved Clement in a violent struggle
with the republic of Venice, in which he was ultin»tely
victorious.
His successor John XXII. a native of Gabon, was elected
as the result oLvery stormy negotiations, after a two years'
j^^jpjp- vacancy of the see (1316). Like his predecessor
Uts-t3S4, ^c ^^ ^^ permanent residence at Avignon, where
he had formerly been bishop; But while Clement V.
had contented himself with the hospitality of the Dominican
monastery at Avignon, John XXII. nistalled himself with
great- state in the episcopal palace, hard by the cathedraL
Ctanetfof The essential features of this new epoch in the
jMMrjp B— history of the papacy, beginning with the two popes
'^f^f^ mentioned, are intimately connected with this
lasting separation from the traditional seat of the papacy, and
from Italian soil in general: a separation which reduced the
head of the Church to a fatal dependence on the French kings.
Themselves Frenchmen, and surroimdcd by a College of
Cardinals in which the French element predominated, the popes
gave to their ecdesiastical administration a certain French
character, till they stood in more and more danger of serving
purely national interests, in cases where the obligations of their
office demanded complete impartiality. And thus the prestige
of the papacy was sensibly diminished by the view, to whidi
the jealousy of the nations soon gave currency, that the supreme
dignity of the Church was simply a convenient tool for French
statecraft. The accusation might not always be supported by
facts, but it tended to shake popular confidence in the head of
the universal Church, and to inspire- other countries with the
feeling of a national opposition to an ecclesiastical regime now
entirely Gallidzed. The consequent loosening of the ties
between the individual provinces of the Church and the
Apostolic See, combined with the capricious policy of the court
at Avignon, which often regarded nothing but personal and
family interests, accelerated the decay of the ecclesiastical
organism, and justified the most dismal forebodings for the
future. To crown all, the feud between Church and Empire
broke out again with unprecedented violence. The most
prominent leaders of the opposition to the papacy, whether
ecclesiastical or political, Joined forces with the German Ung,
Louis of Bavaria, and offered him their aid against John XXII.
a atuuiuatti'^^ clerical opposition was led by the very popular
iHfS^, and influential Minorites who were at that time
engaged in a remarkably bitter controversy with
the pope as to the practical interpretation of the Idea of
evangelical poverty. Their influence can be clearly traced
in the appeal to a general council, issued by Louis in 1324 at
Sachsenhausen* near Frankfort-on-the>Main. This document,
which confused the political problem with the theological, was
bound to envenom the quarrel between emperor and pope
beyond all remedy. Side by side with the Minorites, th^
spokesmen of the specifically political opposition to the papacy
were the Parisian professors, Marsilius of ?adua and John of
JanduA, the composers of the "Defender of the Peace'*
(dafensor ^is). In conjunction with the Minorites and the
Ghibellincs of Italy, Marsilius succeeded in entidng Louis to
the fateful expedition to Rome and the revolutionary actions
of 1328. The conferring of the imperial crown by the Roman
populace, the deposition of the pope by the same body, and
tiie eiection of on onti^popein the person of the Miiv>rite Fletxo
da Corvara, transited ioto acts the doctrines of the defensor
pacts. The struggle, which still further aggravated the depen-
dence of the pope on France, was waged on both sides with the
otmost bitterness, and the end was not in si^t when John XXIX.
^ed, full of years, on the 4th of December. 1334.
Even the following pope, Benedict XII., a man of the strictest
morality, foiled, in spite of his mild and padfic disposition, to
adjust the conflict with Louis of Bavaria and the ^
eccentric FraticellL King Philip VI. knd the car- uiHSiir^
dinals of the French party worked energetically
against the projected peace with Louis; and Benedict was
not endowed with sufficient strength of will to carry through
his designs in the teeth of their opposition. He failed, equally,
to stifle the first beginnings of the war between France and
Enghind; but it is at least to his honour that he exerted' his
whole influence in the cause of peace.
His efforts in the- direction of reform, moreover,' deserve
recognition. In Avignon he began to erect himself a suitable
resideiice, which, with condderable additions by later popes,
developed into Uie celebrated papal castle of Avignon. This
enormous edifice, founded on the cathedral rock, b an extra-
ordinary mixture of castle and convent, palace and fortress.
It was Benedict XII. also who elevated the doctrine of the
beatific vision of the saints into a dogma.
Benedict XH. was again succeeded. In 1342, by a Frenchmoa
from the south, Pierre Roger de Beaufort, who was bom in the
castle of Maumont, in the diocese of Limoges. He . .^
assumed the title of Gement VI. In contrast with SSSSSzT,
his peace-loving predecessor, and in accordance
with his own more energetic character, he pursued with decision
and success the traditions of John XXIL in his dealings with
Louis of Bavaria. With great dexterity be turned the feud
between the houses of Luxembmg and Wittebbach to the
destruction of Louis; and the death-struggle between the two
seemed about to break out, when Louis met his tmtimely end.
To ail appearances the victory of the papacy was decisive;
but it was a Pyrrhic victory, as events were quickly to prove.
In Rome there ensued, during the pontificate of Qement, the
revolutions of the visionary Cola di Rienzo (q.v.) who restored
the old republic, though not for long. By his purchase of
Avignon, and the creation of numerous FVench cardinals, the
pope consolidated the dose connexion of the Roman Church
with France: but the interests of that Church suffered severely
through the riches and patronage which Cement lavished
on his relatives, and through the princely luxury of his court.
His generosity^-which degenerated into prodigality^-compelled'
him to open fresh sources of revenue; and in this be succeeded,
though not without serious detriment to^the interests of the
Church.
It was fortnnate for the Church that Qement VI. was followed
by a man of an entirely different temperament— Innocent. VI.
TTiis strict and upright pope appears to have taken ^^^y,
Benedict XH. for his example. He undertook, uSSS^i
though not with complete success, a reformation of
ecclesiastical abuses; and it was he who assisted in restoring the
Empire at last to some measure of stability. But the culmina-
ting glory of his reign was the restoration of the almost ruined
papal dominion in Italy, by means of the highly-gifted Cardinal
Albomos. The restoration of the Apostolic See to its original
and proper seat was now possible; and the need for such a step
was the more pressing, since residence in the castle at Avignon
had become extremely precarious, owing to the ever-increasing
confusion of French affairs. Innocent VI., in fact, entertained
the thou^t of visiting Rome^but age and illness prevented
his doing so.
The intention of Innocent was put into execution by his
sucoessor--the learned and pious Urban V. Two events ol
the first magnitude make his reign one of the most »^_y
memorable in the century. The first of these was jjgMin,
the return to Rome. This was an object which the
emperor Charles IV. had prosecuted with all his energies; which
okme could revive the IsngHishing reputation of the papacy*
7oa
PAPACY
by witbdnwnsitfnatbe
•nd bring witina tbe '
T4
iW».
1J67 it
onbeA^o-Fi
«l poaibilitjr tbe w
kal afiunw la
fatL TaniBK »
to tlie lonaMtsucxs ol tbe Fiocfc Uqf aod dbe
Frendi cudinab^ tbe pope qnictcd Anpu* oa tlie ijtk of
April 1367; aad OA tbe i6th of Ocfobcr he catctcd Rone, dov
compleUly lallcn to tmn. Tbe eosang jcar, after bb rudb
to tbe Etcxnal Cky, witatmed tbe •eoood grai badaaifc in
Che iciSD of Uxbea V.--ihe Ronaa rtpr^Hkm of Cfaaiies I V^
mndthrrrn— *'**^ *"*'^*^ '****'**** '***" * ""^^-'T**"^'^
Charch. Unfottimetdy, tbe pope faOtd to dcd ffkfeftoriljr
with the highly oMBpliated ataatko ia Italjr; aad the lesolt
WM that, OP the 17th of SepUaher ijto^ he l e Uim e d to Avipw,
where he died od the UOamiDg 19th of J kiraiher.
It was the opmioa of Fletxaxch that, had Uihaa iCBamcd
in Rooe, he would have been entitled to laak with the aost
distinguished men of his em; and, if we diaronnf this ngk
act of weakness, he nmst be daaaed as one of theaohlotand
best of popesw E^Kcial credit if dot to his atrqaks againit
the moral oormptions of the day, thoqgh they pKDf«d inadequate
to dinunate an traces of the prnraleot disoideci^
Gicfoiy XL, thongh equally distingnished for hb tra£tiaB
and pure morals, his piety, modesty and wisdom, was fated to
TT °*^ deafly for the wcaknos of his pccdeeesaor in
2fCSvii ahanrtontng .Rome so eady. He hved to see the
national spirit of Italy thonoghly araoaed
a papacy turned Frendt. The dtsastioos error of almast ez<
chuivdy appointing Provencals, fiocdgncn ignocant of both
the ooontiy and the people, to the government ot the P^pal
Sutes, now found a terrible Nemcsb: and then came a national
opbeaval, soch as Italy had not yet witnessed. The feod
between Italian and Frenchman broke out in n violent £orm;
and ft was hi vain that St Catherine of Siena proffered her
mediation in the bloody strife betwixt the pope and the Floren-
tine republic Hie leUezs that she addressed to the pontiff,
on this and other occasions, art documents, whidi are, pcriaps,
unique hi their Und, end of great literary beanty. It was
also St Catherine who prevailed on Gregory XL to return to
Rome. On the X3th of September 1376 he left
Avignon; on the 17th of Januaiy 1377 he made his
entxy into the dty of St Peter. Thus ended the
eiile in France; but it left an evil legacy in the schism under
Gregory's successor. Gregory, the last pope whom France
has given to the Church, died on the 37th of March 1378. after
taking measures to ensure a speedy and unanimous election
for his successor.
The conclave, which took place in Rome, for the first time
for 75 years, resulted m the election of Bartolomeo Prignano
IMm vt ^^^ ^' '^7^)» ^^ ^<^ ^ ™^>ne of Pope Urban VJ.
un-SMt! CanonicaUy the dcction was pcrfecUy vaUd;> so
that the only popes, to be regarded as legitimate, are
the soeemsors of Urban. It is true that his dectipn was imme-
diatdy fanpugned by the cardinals on frivolous grounds; but
the responiibilily for this rests, partially at least, with the
pope himself, whose reckless end inconsiderate seal for rdorm
was bound to exdte a revolution among the worldly cardinals
still yearning for the fleshpoU of Avignon. Ihh revolution
could already be foreseen with tolerable certainty, when Urban
embroQcd Umself even with hh political friends— the queen of
Naples and her husband, Duke Otto of Brunswick. Similarly,
he quarrelled with Count Onorato Gaetano of Fondi. The
cardinals, csdted to the highest pitch of irritation, now knew
where they could look for suppon. Thirteen of them assembled
at Aaagnt, and thence, on the 9th of August, issued a passionate
— " Ko, snaoundng the bvalidity of Urban's election, on
9i the ground that It had been forced upon the oondave
» by the Roman populace. As soon as the rebellious
"^cardinals were further assured of the protection of
tbt Fmch king, Charles V., they elected, with the tadt consent
of the thrst IiaUan cardinals. Robert of Geneva as anti-pope
•SiS FiMtor, CtiMdil* d<r Fipa§, t., lai.
(Foom, Sept. se7«
andth»ChristCBdo.w.an.».^ -r- -^— ^ Cfc-^Vl
«7).
was n oeauon of the Av^aoti b * m«» -s.^»_^ — *»
themiaR, m the bst lesort, be
sibfe for this TT»"S"g adaa
attaches to Charles V., of Frn^oe.
di^Htte^ as to the extent to which Utoki^^ ?^^ ^ nm k-
wasduetothemstigationof the TbIJjS!; * *^**« «» the jda-"
Wnc* the slight.* donbt U^riTSS^r*''^-^!^
factor mpeqietuatmg and wkknii«^*j^;;^vms the deosi^T
wasrecogmaednotonlybyChaiiesof Fr^!!?*r- ''^^•MifMvt
state*— Naples e « *«* * «t— >— >«= ^ -^^ ™*JQnev «# •l. *. ..
with
^oymn^^/^^It^
r^-jil_r'*^ l^rbaa,
'^**?e«eofCaxd^
9e;his rival failed tohold h^^^TT^yy^
, the actual dedsion virtnXTt "^ i^*^- .
the tune thai followed. Urban waa ruOiv^ .P'*'«^«»»M^
««n«. his pexaonal intcmts, ai5i2r,*Li^ •'**"~*
eisal point of view which ouSiJr?^
policy. The stiugi^ a^aast his SS^^** **^
frontier. Queen Joanna of xSeT^y^
great
^nth wfaia
guiding motive; and thus he was led^^?
of binndexs. He eaooounnnicated the o^Jn ^^'^^'^ labyriar.
adhomt of the French anti^wpc, and inTSt ^? «iff-«e«Ai.
00 the amhitioos Charies of Donzeo with i???'*'**'* '^'*#-»
inextricably embroiled; while, a liiUc'ut-Ti!??^ i* was ««
new College of CardinalTon tiTicSTJ^^ •«
died, with few to lament hiuL «« ijUi of October
•«t with fca
Kr zjSg, M
After the death of Urban VL, foQite» m^
obedience assembled, and after kig^S^^Sf?^*^
sdon of a noble Neapolitan famS^cSK^^S" «■«
was that of Boniface DC The ~^ -— -^ **''^
«i ^
nd t^
of high moral character, great sagadtyrfi;?..?^
kindly dispodtM»--st once instituted « «iS^?Sfll^^^
i>oc ha^
from that pursued tyhbpredecesBoe. This •;«".___
case m his treatment of Naples. In iHJ^ *^»ecaaBy thr
the son of Chadcs of Durano, who had^in*^^ t^dWlsrs.
the February of 1386, received the roval m ^ * *" * *'"*'**! ^
ofapapallepte. To his cause B^SS STS^!!; *^ >-»^
himself; and his siq)port of the king sgaintttheASL*****^*
him enormous sums, without which LadialamienB^^^™* **'
secured his victory over the French claimant. ^roT **** ****
the schism was averted from Italy, and NsdIol
Roman obedience. The dtuation in the panU ^
Boniface found in the greatest confuaoo waaar tk
more difficult to deal with. But here aio he attjSLS
a considerable measure of succm, although t^*^
empbyed were scarcdy above criticism. BamaSZ
however, was gained in the Eternd aty itself- for^T
after many vicissitudes, to induce the Romans u>*J?^?**^^
republican constitution and admowledge the p rm l * * "'*'" t fegr
even In mtmidpal matters. * r^ *^— ^i— i j .
To give this supremacy a firmer htsb. Boni&^ff.«i.«.£^
Vatican and the Capitol, and restoredtheoS^^^^ *^
which had previously been used as a quany-iTOvi^.!^^*****^
waUs and battlements, and erecting a tower hi them* * *^*^
castle, indeed, yielded a safe shdter to the poue^^?" "'^^
1400, when the Colonnas made thdr attempt toaittDS^*'**'^
However, the adventure failed; and by the aki of IL^S^ *o»e
castles of the Colonnas m the vidnity of Rome woTiSSl?** ^^
In X401 this powerful family made its submisskui arr?**** ^ » d.
favourable teims which the pope had had the •boA*'^*** *^
PAPACY
703
r:»'
ofisr« HEBCBfonmd (poet iMwrubd* sod Bonnocmbd n ft
ttcm master in Rome. But he wet loon coniiraated with an
cxtxemely daageioaa enemy, in the person of Duke Gian
Galeuao Visoonti of Milan, who was aiming at tlie sovereignty
of ail Italy. In July x4oa he made himself master of Bologna;
and his death in September of the same 3rear was a stroke of
good fortune for the pope. Bolqpia was now recovered for
the Chttich (Sept. 2, X403)» and soon afterwards Perugia also
surrendered.
Thus Boniface DC., as a secular prince, occupies an important
position; but as pope his activity must be unfavourably judged.
Even if Dietrich of Niem frequently painted him too black,
then is no question that the means which Boniface emplo]^
to fill the papal treasury seriously impaired the prestige of the
highest spiritual office and the reverence due to it. His nepotism,
again, casts a dark shadow over his memory: but most regret-
table of all was his indifference towards the ending of the schism.
Yet it should be borne in mind, that, when Clement VII. died
suddenly on the x6th of September 1394, and the Avignon
f Miw«i« immediately elected the Spaniard P^ro de Ltma as
anti-pope (under the title of Benedict TOIL), Boniface DC was
left face to face with an extraordinarily skilful, adroit, aiui
onscmpukms antagonist.
On the death of Boniface (Oct x, 1404), the Roman rsrdinals
once more elected a Neapolitan, Cosimo dd Migliorati, who, at
tmmwmmi the age of 65, assumed the name of Innocent VII.
nL.MM> Innocent, who was animated by a great love for the
*^^^ wdeaca aiui all the arts of peace, enjoyed only a brief
pontificate, but his reign is not without importance, if only
as an example of the generous patronage which the papacy —
even in Its darkest days^as lavished on literature and science.
Significant also is the foothold gained at this time m the Curia
itself by the humanisU— Poggio, Bmni and others. The
appointment of these skilled humanist writers to the Chancery
was a consequence of the difficult conditions of the time. The
crisis which the Catholic Church \uiderwent, during this terrible
epoch, was the greatest in all her history: for whQe everything
was thrown into the utmost confusion by the life and death
struggles of the rival popes, while the ecclesiastical revenues and
emoluments were used almost exclusively for the reward of
partisan service, while everywhere the worldlincss of the clergy
had reached its highest pitch, heretical movements, by which
the whole order of the Church was threatened with overthrow,
were galntng strength in England, France, Italy, Germany and
especially in Bohemia.
The crisis came to a head in the pontificate of Gregory Xn.
This pope, so distmguished in many respecU, owed his election
Oiw g m j mainly to the circumstance that he was considered
xa,Mi^ 9, zealous champion of the restoration of unity within
''*' the Church: and he displayed, in fart, during the
earlier portion of his reign, an exalted enthusiasm for this great
task. Later his attitude changed; and the protracted negotia-
tions for a conference with Benedict XIII. remained fruitless.
The result of this change in the attitude of Gregory was the
formation of a strong malcontent party In the College of
Cardinals; to counteract whose influence, the pope— faithless
to the conditions attached to his election— resorted to the
plan of creating new members. Stormy discussions at Lucca
followed; but they failed to prevent Gregory from nominat-
ing four fresh cardinals (May 9, 1408). The sequel was that
seven of the cardinals attached to Gregory's Roman Curia
withdrew to Pfaa.
At the same period, the relations of Benedict Xm. with
France suffered a significant modification. In that country,
ifcMiir it became more and more manifest that Benedict
XM.aa d had no genuine desire to heal the schism in the
'^'"'^ Church, in spite of the ardent zeal for union which
he had displayed immediately before and after his dcction.
In May r4o8 France withdrew from his obedience; and it was
not k>ng before French policy succeeded in effecting a recondlia-
tion and understanding between the cardinals of Benedict XIII.
and those who had acceded from Gregory XII. Predsdy as
if the Hdy See wen vaomt, the caidinak began to act as the
actual rulers of the Church, and issued formal invitntioiis
to n council to be opened at Pisa on the Feast
of the Annunciation (March 35) 1409. Both popes Shl
attempted to foil the disaffected cardinals by
convening ooundls of their own; but their efforts were doomed
to failure.
On the other hand, the cmmdl of the cardinals— though,
by the strict rules of canonical kw, its oonvocatwn was abso-
lutely Ulcgal— ftttahied the utmost importance. But these
rules, and, in fact, the whole Catholic doctrine of the primacy
were abnost entirdy obscured by the schism. Scholais like
Langenstdn, Gerson and ZabareMa, evolved a new theory as to
ecumenical councils, which from the point of view of Roman
Catholic piindples must be described as revolutionary. At the
synod of the disudent cardinals, assembled at Pisa, ^news of
this type were in the ascendant; and, although protests were
not laddng, the necessities of the time served as a pretext for
ignoring all objections.
That the oouivdl was raerdy a tool in the hands of the
ambitious and adroit Baldassare Cossa, was a fact unsospected
by its members who were animated 1^ a fiery enthusiasm for
the re-establishment of eodesiastical unity; nor did they pause
to reflect that an action against hdk popes could not possibly
be lawfuL Since whole univernties and numerous scholars
had pronounced in favour of the new theories, the Pisan synod
diiwnisBeri all canonical scruples, and unhesiutingly laid daim
to authority over both popes, one of whom was necessarily
the legitimate pope. It was in vain that Cario di Malatcsta, a
suncfa adherent of Gregory, sought at the eleventh hour to
negotiate a compromise between Gregory and the synod. It was
in vain that this cultured prince, imbued with the prindples
of humanism, represented to the cardinals that this new path
would lead quickly to the goal, but that this gosl could not be
unity but a triple schism. The council declared that it wn
canonically convened, ecumenical, and represenUtive' of the
whole Catholic Church; then proceeded immediatdy to the
trial and deposition of Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII. The
synod grounded its procedure against the rival popes on a fftct,
ostensibly patent to all, but actually believed by none— that
they were both supporters of the schism, and not merdy this,
but keretia in the truest and fullest sense of the word, since
thdr attitude had impugned and subverted the article of faith
concerning the one Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. On
the ground of tha extremely dubious declaration, designed to
compensate for the absence of any authentic and firm foundation
in ecclesiastical law, the Pisan assembly on the 5th of June
announced the deposition of Gregory XII. and Benedict ^OIL,
as manifest heretics and partisans of the schism. AMxaaHi
The next step was to dect a new pope; and on the k^mi^
36th of June 1409 the choice fdl on the venerable "'^
cardinal-archbishop of Milan, the Greek Petros FHargis, who
assumed the title of Alexander V.
The premature and futile character of these drastic and
violent proceedings at Pisa was only too speedily evident.
The powerful following which Gregory enjoyed in Italy and
Gennany, and Benedict in Spain and Scotland, pught to have
shown from the very first that a simple decree of deposition
could never suffice to overthrow the two popes. Thus, as
the sentence of Pisa found recognition in France and England,
as wdl as m many paru of Germany and Italy, the synod,
which was to secure the restoration of unity, proved onty the
cause for worse confusion— histead of two, there were now
three popes.
Alexander V., the pope of the councO, died on the 3rd of May
1410. The cardinals at once elected his successor^BaUassare
Cbssa, who took the name of John XXIII. Of all ^^
the consequences of the disastrous Pisan council, MiStf&
the election of this man was the most unfortunate.
True, it cannot be demonstrated that all the fearful accusations
afterwards levelled at John XXIU. were baaed on fost: b«t
it is certain that this cunning politician was so far infadail-flAk
704
PAPACY
|i3i»-<ai»
the conuptioa of Us' aire thii he wis not in the leaet degree
fitted to fulfil the requiremenU of the eupreme ecci e ai eet fc ai
dignity. Fiom him tiie welfare of the Church had nothing to
hope. All eyes were oomequently turned to the energetic
German king, Sigismund, who wab inspired by the best motives,
and who succeeded in sur m ou n ti n g the formidalile
{ ^y.5L obstacles which barred the way to an ecnmenical
conndL It was mainly due to Sigiimund'a inde-
fatigable and magnifioent activity, that the conndl of Constance
met and was so numerously attended. It is lemaricable how
fortune seemed to assist his efforts. The capture of Rome by
King Ladialaus of Naples had compelled John XXIIL to take
refuge in Florence (June 1413), where that dangerous guest
received a not very friendly welcome. Since John's most
immediate need was now protection and assistance against
his terrible opponent Ladialaus, he sent, towards the doie of
August X413, Oirdinals Chalant and Francesco Zabarrila,
together with the celebrated Greek Manuel Cbzyaoloras, to
King Sigismund, and commissioned them to determine the
time and place of the forthcoming ooundL ThjB agreement
was soon concluded. On the gth of December John XXIIL
signed the bull convening the conndl si Constance, and pledged
his word to appear there in person. He might have hoped
that his share in convening the synod would give him aoertain
li^t to regulate its proceedings, and that, by the aid of his
numerous Italian prdates, he would be able to influence it
more or leas according to his views. But in this he was greatly
decdved. So soon as he realised the true position of affairs
he attempted to break up the council by his flight to Schaffhausen
(March so^i, 1415)— a project in which he would doubtless
have succeeded but for the sagadty and energy of Sigismund.
In spite of everything, the exdtement in Constance was
unbounded. In the mldat of the confusion, which reigned
supreme in the coundl, the upper hand was gained by that
party which held that the only method by which the schism
could be ended and a reformation of ecclesiastical dia d plin e
ensured was a drastic limiution of the ps|>al privileges. The
limitation was to be effected by the general coundl: con-
sequently, the pope must be brought under the jurisdiction of
that council, and— in the opinion of many— remain under its
jurisdiction for all time. Thus, in the third, fourth and fifth
general sesskMS it wss enacted, with characteristic predpiution,
that an ecumenical coundl could not be dissolved or set aside
by the pope, without lU consent: the corollary to which was,
that the present council, notwithsta n d in g the flight of John
XXm., continued to exist in the full possession of iU powers,
and that, in matters pertaining to belief and the eradication of
schism, all men— even the pope— were bound to obey the general
coundl, whose authority extended over all Christians, induding
the pope himself.
By these decrees— which created as the supreme authority
within the Church a power which had not been appointed as
such by Christ' — the members of the council of Constance
sought to give their position a theoretical basis before proceeding
to independent action agaian the pope. But these dedarations
as to the superiority of an ecumenical council never attained
1^ validity, in spite of their defence by Pierre d*AiUy and
GerMNi. Emanating from an assembly without a head, which
could not possibly be an ecumenical council without the assent
of one of the popes (of whom one was necessarily the legitimate
pope)— enacted, in opposition to the cardinals, by a majority
of persons for the most part unqualified, and in a fashion which
inpnnme was thus distinctly different from that of the old
•ij^hm councils — they can only be regarded as a coup de
^^^^ main, a last resort in the universal confusion. On
the soth of May the council deposed John XXIIL
The legitimaU pope. Gregory XIL. now consented to resign,
but under strict reservation of the legality of his pontificate.
* Here of coune the author speaks of the papal supreinacy and
not of papal infallibility in matters of faith and. morals— a doc-
trine which was formally declared a do^ma of the Church only at the
Vaiicaa council in 1&70.— (£i>.l
By coDsentlDg to (Us, the syasd fedfavctly admowMged that
its pcevioos sessions had not poisesicd an ecumenical charac-
ter, and also that Gregory^ piedcoesaon, up to am^mi^m
Urban VL, had been legitimate popes. In presence •i^nmrr
of the council, reconstituted by Gregory, Malatcsu ^^
announced the resignatioB of the latter; and the giatcfU
assembly appointed Gregoiy legaUo a laitre to the marrhrs
of Ano(K»*« dignity wUch he was not drtfined to enjoy for
long, as he died on the iStKof October 1417. (See CoMSxaiKz,
COOMOLOV.)
From the abdjcatien dL Gregoiy XIL to the dection of
Martin V., the Apostolic See waa vacant; and the ooundl» iteviy
convened and authorised by the legitimate pope "ifu if
before his resignation, conducted the government of <a*«abr
the Church. After the condemnation and burning of ^*^
John Huas (gjt.), the reformation of the Church, both in its
head and members, dained the main attention of the fathers <A
the coundL Among the many difficulties which beset the
question, not the lesst obvious was the length of time during
which the Church mtist remsin without a ruler, if— aa SipsBmnd
and the German nation demaDded—the papal election weis
deferred till the completion of the internal reforms. The itsolt
wss dedded by the policy of the cardinals, who since May
X417 had opeidy devoted their whole energies to the accelera-
tion of that elecdon; and union was preserved by meana of a
compcoBuse arranged by Bishop Henry of Wincheier, the unck
of the English king. The terms of the agreement weee that
a synodal decree should give an absolute aasnance that tbe
work of reformatbn would be taken in hand immediately after
the election; reforms, on which all the nations were already
united, were to be published hefort the dection; and the mode
of the papal election itself was to be determiaed by deputies
When the last-named ooadition had been fulfilled on the s&th
of October the conclave began, on the 8th of November 14 17,
in the Kaufhaus of Constance; and, no later than St Martin s
day, the cardinal-deacon Oddo Coloana was elected Pope
Martin V.
With the acoession of Martin V. unity was at last leatorcd
to the Church, and contemporary Christendom gave ^
way to transports of joy. Any secular powci^-a utr-fgfr
bitter opponent of the papacy admita— would have
succumbed in the schism: but so wonderful was the oisaniaatioa
of the spiritual empire, and so indestructible the conception
of the papacy itself, that this (the deepest of all deavages)
served only to prove iu indivisibility (Gregoiovitis, Cnckick4
R»ms vi. ). Martin V. appeared 10 possess eveiy quality which
could enable him to represent the universal Church with strength
and dignity. In order to maintain his independence, he ener-
getically repudiated all proposals that he should '*»*V>iffh h\s
residence in France or Germany, and once more took np ha
abode in Rome. On the 30th of September 1420 he made Ks
entry into the almost completely ruinous town. To repair the
ravages of neglect, and, more especially, to restore the decayed
churches, Martin at once expended large sums; while, later, he
engaged famous artists, like Gentile da Fabriano and Masarrin.
and encouraged all forms of art by every means within his power.
Numerous humanists were appointed to the Chancery, and the
Romans were loud in thdr praise of the papal regime. But be
was not content with laying the foundations for the renovation
of the Eternal City: he was the architect who rebuilt the p&f ai
monarchy, which the schism had reduced to the verge of li "-
solution. To this difficult problem he brought remarkable &V. .1
and aptness, energy and ability. His temporsl sovereignty
he attempted to strengthen through his family connenoos, asi
magnificent provision in gecersl was made for the members <d
his house.
Nor was the activity of Martin V. less successful in potiticftl
than in ecdesiastical reform, which latter included the ctsni-
bating of the FraticeDi, the amendment of the cleig}-, tl.«
encouFagentcnt of piety by the regulation of feast-days, lite
recommendation of increased devotion to the sacrament of tl^*
altar, and the strengthening of the conception of the ChuTLh
t3P»-id9(4 PAPACY
by the great JuhOee of 1493. At the ame time the cnwning
rewaid of his laboun was the effacing of the last traces of
the schism. He prosecuted successfully the conHict with the
adherents of Benedict Xill., who, till the day of Us death >
dung to tiie icmnants of his usurped authority (see BsKftoicT
XIII.)' An attempt on the part of Alphoaao V. of Aragon
to renew the schism failed; and, in 1429, the Spaniard was
compelled to give up his anti-pope, Qement VIIL Count John
of Armagnac, whom Martin luul exoommuaicated as a protector
of schismatics, was abo driven to make submissiott. Martin
rendered the greatest Service by his admission of a whole serws
of distinguJsbed men into the College of Cardinals; but he was
less fortunate in his struggles against Husshism. His death
took place on the 20th -of Februaiy 1431, and the Inscription
on his grave— still preserved in the Lateran church—styles
him " the felicity of his age" (Ump^rum suontm fdkUns),
The Colonna pope was followed by the strict, moral and
pious Gabriel Condulmaio, under the title of Eugenius IV.
Cbfvvtot/v. ^** pontificate was not altogether happy. At the very
Nsi'»«4T 'first, his violent and premature measures against the
Mtf <*• Colonna family, which had received such unbounded
^^^ favour from his predecessor, embroiled him in a
sanguinary feud. Far worse, however, were the
conflicts which Eugenius had to support against the Council
of Basel—Already dissolved on the 1 8th of December 1431.
At the beginning, indeed, a recondliatioA between the pope
and council was effected by Sigismund who, on the 31st of May
i433i was crowned emperor at Rome. But, as early as the 39th
of May 1434 a revolution broke out in Ronle, which, on the 4th
of June, drove the pope in fiight to Fbrence; where he was
obliged to remain, while Giovanni YiteUeachi restored order in
the papal sute.
The migration of Eugenius IV. to Florence was of extreme
importance; for this town was the real home of the new art,
and the intellectual focus of all the humanistic movtmcnis in
Italy. At Florence the pope came into ckwer contact with
the humanists, and to this circumstance is due the grsdual
dominance which they attained In the Roman Curia^-a domi-
nance which, both in itself, and even more because of the
frankly pagan leanings of many In that party, was bound to
awaken serious misgivings.
The Italian troubles, which had enUiled the exile of
Eugenius IV., were still insignificant in comparison with those
conjured up by the fanatics of the Coundl in Basel. The
decrees enacted by that body made deep inroads on the rights of
the Holy See; and the conflict increased in violence. On the
3jst of July 1437 the fathen of Basel sumraoscd Eugenius IV.
to appear before their tribunal. The pope retorted on the
18th of September by transferring the scene of the council to
Ferrara^-ftfierwards to Fk>rence; There, in July 1430, the union
with the Greeks was effected: but it remained simply a paper
agreement. On the 35th of June 1439 the Sjmod— which
had already pronounced sentence of heresy on Eugenius IV..
by reason of his obstinate disobedience to the assembly
of the Church— formally deposed him; and, on the 5th of
November, a rival pontiff was ekaed in the person of the
aoabitious Amadeus of Savoy, who now took the
title of Felix V. (See Basel, CouNaL of, and
Feux V.) Thus the assembly of Christendom at
Basel had resulted, not in the reformation of the Church, but
in a new schism! This, in fact, was an ineviuble sequel to
the attempt to overthrow the oKmardacal constitution of the
Church. The anti-pope— the last in the history of the papacy
—made no headway, although the council invested him with
the power of levying annates to a greater extent than had ever
been claimed by the Roman Curia.
The crime of this new schism was soon to be expiated by
its perpetrators. The disinclination of sovereigns and peoples
to a division, of the disastrous consequences of which the West
had only lately had plentiful experiences, was to pronounced that
> May 33. 1423: vide the Ckroukk of Uartiu d* Alpartil, edited
> May 33. 1433: 1
by Ehrle C1900T
705
the viohnt proceeding of the Basel fathers alienated from them
the sympathleB of neariy all who, till then, had leaned to their
side. While the prestige of the schismatics waned, Eugenius IV.
gained new friends; and on the 38th of September 1443 hi>
reconciliation with Alphonsoof Naples enabled him to return to
Rome. In consequence of the absence of the pope, the Eternal
City was onoe mo^ little better than a ruin; and the work of
restoration was immediately begun by Eugenius.
During the Chaos of the schism, France and Germany had
adopted a semi-schismatic attitude: the former by the Pragmatic
Sanction of Bouiges (June 7, 1438); the latter by a dedaeatkB
of neutrality in March 1438. The efforts of Aeneas SiNiiia
Piccolomini brought matters into a channel more favourable
to the Holy See; and an understanding with (Sermany was
reached. This consummation was soon followed by the death of
Eogenius (Feb. 33, 1447)* No apter estimate of his character
can be found than the words of Aeneas Salvhis himself: "He
was a great-hearted man; but his chief enor was that be was a
stranger to moderation, and regulated his actions, not by his
ability, but by his widies." From the charge of nepotism h4
was entirely exempt; and, to the present day, the purity of his
life has never been impugned even by the voice of faction. He
was a father to the poor and sick, in the highest sense of tho
wmd; and he left behind him an enduring monument in his
amendment and regeneration, first of the rdigkras orders^
then of the clergy. Again, the patronage which he showed
to art and artists wss of the greatest importance. All that
could be done in that cause, during this stormy epoch, was done
by Eugenius. It was by hh commission that Filarete prepared
the still-extant bronxework of St Peter's, and the Chapel of
the Holy Sacrament in the Vatkaa was painted by Fictole.
On the death of Eugenius IV. the situation was mcnadng
enough, but. to the surprise and joy of all, Tomaso Parento*
cclli, cardmal of Bologna, was elected without disturbance^ as
Pope Nicholas V. With him the Christian Renaissance
ascended the papal throne. He was the son of ^Mf^Hi^'
physician from Sarxana, who was not too well
endowed with the gifts of fortune; and the boy, with all hit
talents, could only prosecute his studies at great personal
sacrifices. He was poss es s ed of a deep-seated enthusiasm for
science and art, of a sincerely pbus and ideolntic temperamcntt
and of an ardent love for the Church. After his ordinal km,
his great learning and stafaUess IKe led him to office after office
in the Church, each hi^ier and more mfluential than the hut.
Not only did he love the studies of the bumainst, but he himself
was a Christian humanist. Yet among all his f ar-rvachlng plans
for the encouragement of art and science, Nichobs V. had
always the well-being of the Church primarily in view; and the
highest goal of his pontificate, which inaugurated the Maeoena-
tian era of the popedom, was to ennoble that Church by the
works of intellect and art. It is astonishing to conteoiplate
how much he achieved, during his brief reign, in the cause of
the Renaissance in both art and literature. True, his designs
were even greater, but his term of government was too short
to aUow of their actual execution. A simply gigantic plan was
drawn out, with the assistance of the celebrated Alberti, for the
reconstruction of the Leonhie City, the Vatican and St Peter's.
The rebuilding of the Ust-iuuned was rendered advisable by
the prccark>us condition of the structure, but stopped shott hi
the early stages. In the Vatican, however, Fiesole completed
the noble frescoes, from the lives of St Stephen and St Lawrence,
which are still preserved to us. Nicholas, again, lent the pro*
tection and encouragement of his powerful arm to science as
well as art, till the papal court became a veritable domain of the
Muscs^ He supported all sdentiflc enterprises with unlimled
generosity, and the most £smous savants of all countries flocked
to Rome. Vet it fa surprising— and scarcely excusable — that
Nicholas, whflc sdecting the men whom he oonsuiered necessary
for his literary woric, passed over much which ought to have
aroused grave suspicion in his mind. Thus the active I
istic life, called into existence by the enthusiasm of 1
was not without its dark side. Quite apart from tJK
job
PAPACY
l»S09-fS»D
Rome became the icene of a ckronique seandaltuu among these
acholan, there was something uonalural io the predominance of
the humanists in the Curia.
The fostering care of the sdence-Ioving pope extended also
to the field of ecclesiastical liteiature; and the greatest import
lance attaches to the energy he developed as a collector of
manuscripts and books. Uia agents travelled as far as Prussia,
and even into the East. AU this activity served to enrich
the Vatican library, the foundation of which is for Nicholas V.
an abiding title to fame. In political and ecclesiastical affairs
be similariy manifested great vigour; and his extraordinarily
pacific disposition did more than anything else towards
diminishing the difficulties with which he had to contend on
his entry upon office. An agreement was very quickly concluded
with King Alphonso of Naples. In the Empire the affairs of
the Church were amelioratcd'-Hhough not so quickly — ^by the
Concordat of Vienna ( 1448). The Council of Basel was compelled
to dissolve, and the anti-pope Felix V. to abdicate: and, though
even after the termination of the synod men like Jacob of
jQterbogk iq.9,) were found to champion ecclesiastical parlia-
mentarianism a^ the more advanced ideas of Basel, they wen
cunfrontR], on the other hand, by an array of sedoubtablc
controversialists, who entered the lists to defend, both in speech
and writing, the privileges of the Apostolic See. Among these,
Torquemada, Rodericus Sandus de Arevalo, Capistrano and
Piero del Monte were espcdaUy active for the restoration of
the papacy. Fortunate as Nicholas was in the haute pdUiqwt of
the Church, he was equally to in his cfloru to re-establish and
ina«n?^"! peace in Rome and the papal state. In Poland,
Bohemia, Hungary, Bosnia and Croatia— even in Cyprus itself
— ^he was xeidous for the peace of the Church.
The long-hoped ceaution of civil war within the Church
had now come, and Nicholas considered that the event could
j^^n^^ not better be celebrated than by the procUimation of
f^g f^ a universal jubQee— an announcement which evoked
a thrill of joy in the whole of Chriuendom. A special
point of attaction in this jubilee of 1450 was the canonization
of Bernardino of Siena; and, in spite of the plague which broke
out in Rome, the celebrations ran a brilliant course.
It was the wish of the pope that the jubilee should be followed
by a revival of religious life in all Christian countries. To put
this project into execution, the Church opened her " treasuries
of grace," connected with the jubilee dispensation, for the
peculiar benefit of those nations that had suffered most from
the turmoils of the last few decades, or were pKvcnted from
visiting the Eternal City. Nicholas of Cuaa was nominated
legate for Germany, and began the work of reformation by
travelling through every province in Germany dispensing
blessings. It was under Nicholas V. that the last imperial
coronation was solemnized at Rome. There » a touch of
tragedy in the fact that, in the following year, the pope saw
his temporal sovereignty — even his life-Hihreatencd by a con*
spiracy hatched among the adherents of the pseudo^humanism.
The prime mover in the plot, Stefaoo Porcaro, was executed.
Nicholas had scarcely recovered from the shock, when news came
of the capture of Constantinople by the Turks; and his efforu
to unite the Christian powers against the Moslem failed. This
(hrkened the evening of his life, and he .died in the night of the
a4-a5th of March 1455. From the universal standpoint of history
the significance of Nicholas's pontificate lies in the fact that he
put himsdf at the head of the artistic and literary Renaissance.
By this means he introduced a new epoch in the history of the
papacy and of civilization: Rome, the centre of ecclesiastical
bf e, was now to become the centre of literatoie and art.
The short reign of the Spaniard, Alphonso de Borgb, as
Pope Caliztus III., is almost completely filled by his heroic
^^^■PH-m efforts to arm Christendom for the common defence
ftl^^fflff 'against IsUm. Unfortunately all the warnings
and admonitions of the pope fell on deaf ears,
though he himself parted with his mitre and plate In order
to eqoip a fiect against the Tbrks. The Mahommedans, indeed,
1MR severely punished at Belgrade (1456), and in the sea-
fight of Melelino (i4S7): but the faidolence of the Euniptaff
princes, vrho failed to push home the victory, rendered the
success abortive. Bitterly disillusioned, Colixtus died en the
14th of August 145S. His memory would be nainlcss bat for
the deep shadow cast on it by the advancement vbkk he
conferred upon his relatives.
When Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini was elected pope as FSus IL
the papal throne was ascended by a man whose naaae sns
famous as poet, historian, humanist and statesman, m^^m,
and whose far-seeing eye and exact knowledge oC Mtf n^t
affairs seemed peculiarly to fit him for his position.
On the other hand, the troubled and not impeccable past o(
the new pontiff was bound to excite some misgiving; vrbde,
at the same time, severe bodily suffering had brought c^ a^e
on a man of but 53 years. In spite of his infirmity and the
brief duration of his reign, Pius II. accomplished much for the
rcstomtkm of the prestige and authority of the Holy See. Bb
indefatigable activity on behalf of Western civilization, now
threatened with extinction by the Ottomans, excites admifatiaa
and adds an undying Itistre to his memory. If we except
the Eastern question, Pius 11. was principally exerdsed by
the opposition to papal authority which was gaining srouci
in Germany and France. In the former country the moveeMat
was headed by the worldly archbishop-elector Dicther of Halni;'
in the latter by Louis XI., who played the autocrat in cc cWsia sti-
cal matters. In full consciousness of bk high-pricstly digcity
he Kt his face against these and all similar attempts; and hk
zeal and firmness in defending the authority and rights of tJ«
Holy See against the attacks of the conctliar and national
parties within the Church deserve double recognition, in >icw
of the eminently difficult circumstances of that period. N«
did he shrink from excursions in the direction of reform, now
become an imperative necessity. His attempt to reunite Bohemia
with the Church was destined to failure; but the one great am
of the pope during his whole reign was the organization of a
gigantic crusade — a pioject which showed a correct apprccialiao
of the danger with which the Churdi and the West in general
were menaced by the Crescent. It is profoundly affecting to
contemplate this man, a mere wreck from gout, shrinking froa
no fatigue, no labour, and no personal sacrifices; diarcgardir^
the obstacles and difficulties thrown in his way by cardiaal>
and temporal princes, whose fatal infatuation refused to sec
the peril which hung above them all; recurring time after tia«,
with all his intellect and energy, to the realization of his sdiciBe;
and finally adopting the high-hearted resolve of pUdng hinaelf
at the head of' the crusade. Tortured by bodily, and siHl more
by mental suffering, the old pope reached Anoona. There he
was struck down by fever; and on the 15th of August 1464
death had released him from all his alDictions— a tragic done
which has thrown a halo round his memory. In the sphere
of art he left an enduring monument In the Renaissance to«a
of Pienza which he built.
The humanist Pius II. was tooccedcd by a splcndow-loriac
Venetian, Pictro Barbo, the nephew of Eugenius IV^ who ■
known as Pope Paul II. With his accession the
situation altered; for he no longer made the Tuiklsh
War the centre of his whole activity, as both hs
immediate predecessors had done. Nevertheless, he was far from
indifferent to the Ottoman danger. Paul took energetic measures
against the principle of the afcoolute supremacy of the suu as
maintained by the Venetians and by Louis XI. of France,
while In Bohemia he ordered the deposition of George Podiiyrad
(Dec. X466). The widely diffused view that this pope was
an enemy of science and culture is unfounded. It may be
traced back to Pbtlna, who, resenting his arrest, avcBgcd
himself by a biographical caricature. What the pope actuaCy
sought to combat by his dissolution of the Roman Acadctcy
> Diether von Ttenbnrg it^l^-\^\), second son of Coant Dirthcr
of Ittnburf-BOdinfea: lector of the nnivcnity of Erfurt. 1434:
archbishop of Mainz, 1459., He led the movement for a iclorai «l
the Empire and the oppositioa to the papal encroadi meats, au^
pofttng the theory of chutch Kowmment enunciated at Constaaoe
and Basel and coodemned in Pius ll.'t bull £»cyaMlis.-»{Eo.]
I909-IS94
PAPACY
707
Slste*/V.» ,
WM simply the non-ChrntiaB tendency of the RenaiSBince,
standing as it did on a purely pagan basis— ^* the stench of
heatiiendom/' as Dame described it. In other respects
Paul II. encouraged men of fteaniing and the art of printing,
and built the magnificent palace of San Marco, in which he
esUblished a noble collectioi^of artistic treasures.
The long pontificate of the Franciscan Francesco della
Rovere, under the title of Pope Sixtus IV., displays striking
contrasU of light and shade; and wiih him h^gaa
^^ the series of the s<xalled " poUUcal' popes." It
remains a lamentable fact that Sixtus IV. frequently
subordinated the Father of Christendom to the Italian prince,
• that he passed all bounds in the preferment of his own family,
and in many ways deviated into all too worldly courses.
The decay of ecclesiastical discipline grew to alarming propor-
tions under Status. During his reign crying abuses continued
and grew in spite of certain reforms.
The nepotism in which the pope indulged is especially inex-
cusable. His feud with Lorenzo de' Medici culminated in the
Pazzi conspiracy, the tragic sequel to which was the assassination
of Giuliano de' Medici (April 36, 1478). That the pope himself
was guiltless of any share in that atrocious deed is beyond
dispute; but it is deeply to be regretted that his name plays a
part in the hbtory of this conspiracy. Sixtus was far from
blind to the Turkish peril, but here also he was hampered by
the indifference of the secular powers. Again, the dose of his
reign was marked by the wars against Ferrara and Naples,
and subsequently against Venice and the Colonnas; and these
drove the question of a crusade completely into the background.
In the affairs of the Church he favoured the mendicant orders,
and declared against the cruel and unjust proceedings of the
Spanish Inquisition. His nominations to the cardinalate
were not happy. The College of Cardinals, and the Curia in
general, grew more and more infected with worldlincss during
his pontificate. On the other side, however, the pope did
splendid service to art and science, while to men of letters he
allowed incredible freedom. The Vatican library was enriched
and thrown open for public use, Platina— the historian of the
popes —receiving the post of librarian. The city of Rome was
transfigured. At the papal order there arose the Ponte Sisto,
the hospital of San Spirito, Santa Maria del popolo, Santa
Maria dcUa pace, and finally the Sistinc Chapel, for the decoration
of which the most famous Tuscan and Umbrian artists were
summoned to Rome. This fresco-cycte, with its numerous
aUusions to contemporary history, is still preserved, and forms
the noblest monument of the Rovere pope.
The reign of Innocent VIII. is mainly occupied by his troubles
with the faithless Ferdinand of Naples. These sprang from his
imaunat participation in the War of the Barons; but to this
v/fx., /4M- the pope was absolutely compelled. Innocent's bull
/#«. concerning witchcraft (Dec. 5, r484) has brought upon
him many attacks. But this bull contains no sort of dogmatic
decision on the nature of sorcery. The very form of the
bull, which merely sums up the various items of information
that had reached the pope, is enough to prove that the
decree was not intended to bind anyone to belief in such
things. Moreover the bull contained no essentially new
regulations as to witchcraft. It is absurd to make this docu-
ment responsible for the introduction of the bloody persecution
of witches, for, according to the Sachsempufid, the civil law
already punished sorcery with death The action of Inno-
cent VIII was simply hmited to defining the jurisdiction of
the inqubitors with regard to magic. The bull merely
authorized, in cases of sorcery, the procedure of the canonical
inquisition, which was conducted eidusively by spiritual
judges and differed entirely from that of the later witch-trials
Even if the bull encouragied the persecution of witches, in so
far aa it encouraged the inquisitors to take earnest action,
there is still no valid ground for the accusation that
Innocent VIII. introduced the trial of witches and must bear
the responsibility for the terrible misery which was afterwards
brought on humanity by that institution.
During the Ust three decades of the isth century tbe Roman
Curia, and the College of Cardinals in particular, became
increasingly worldly. This explains how on the AMxmitt
death of Innocent VIII. (July 35, 1492), simoi^acal vk, i4U»
intrigues succeeded in procuring the election of "^
Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, a man of the most abandobed morals,
who did not change his mode of life when he ascended the throne
as Pope Alexander VI. The beginning of his reign was not un>
promising; but all too soon that nepotism began which attained
its height under this Spanish pope, and dominated his whole
pontificate. A long series of scandals resulted. The cardinals
opposed to Alexander, headed by Giuliano della Rovere, found
protection and support with Chadea VIII. of France, who laid
claim to Naples. In prosecution of this design the king appeared
in Italy in the autunm of 1494* pursued his triumphant march
throngii Lombardy and Tuscany, and, on the 31SI of December,
entered Rome. Charles had the word reform perpetually on
his lips; but it could deceive none who were acquainted with
the man. At first he threatened Alexander with deposition:
but on the isth of January 149$ an agreement was conduded
between pope and king.
While the French were marching on Naples there arose
a hostile coalition which compelled them to beat a hasty retreat
— the Holy League of March 1495. AH their conquests were
lost; and the pope now determined to chastise the Orsini family,
whose treachery had thrown him mlo the hands of the Freacb.
The project miscarried, and on the aslh of January 1497 the
papal forces were defeated.
In June occurred the mysterious assassination of the duke
of Gandia, which appeared for a while to mark the turning-
point in Alexander's life. For some time he entertained serious
thoughts of reformation; but the matter was first postponed and
then forgotten. The last state now became worse than the first,
as Alexander fell more and more under the spell of the hifamous
Cesare Boigia. One scandal foUowed hard on the other, and
opposition naturally sprang up. Unfortunately, Savonarola,
the head of that opposition, transgressed all bounds in his well-
meant seal. He refused to yield the pope that obedience to
which he was doubly pledged as a priest and the member of an
order. Even after his excommunicatron (May x>, 1497) he
continued to exercise the functions of his office, under the shdter
of the secular arm. In the end he demanded a council for the
deposition of the pope. His fall soon foUowed, when he had
lost all ground in Florence; and his execution on the a^rd of
May 1498 freed Alexander from a formidable enemy (see
Savonakola). From the CathoUc standpoint Savonarola
must certainly be condemned: mainly because he completely
forgot the doctrine of the Church that the sbiful and vidous
life of superiors, including the pope, is not competent to
abrogate their jurisdiction.
After the death of Charies Vm. Alexander entered into an
agreement and alliance with his successor Louis XII. The
fruits of this compact were reaped by Crsare Borgia, who
resigned his cardinal's hat, became duke of Valentinois, annihil-
ated the minor nobles of the papal state, and made himself
the true dictator of Rome. His soaring plans were destroyed
by the death of Alexander VI., who met his end on the i8th
of August 1503 by the Roman fever—not by poison.
The only bright pages in the dark chapter of Alexander^
popedom are his efforts on behalf of the Turkish War (i499-'iSot),
his activity for the diffusion of Christianity in America, and his
judidal awards (May 3-4, 1493) on the question of the colonial
empires of Spain and Portugal, by which he avoided a bloody
war. It is folly to speak of a donation of lands which did not
belong to the pope, or to maintain that the freedom of the
Americans was extinguished by the decision of Alexander VI.
The expression ** donation *' simply referred to what had already
been won under juH tillt: the decree contained a deed of gift,
but it was an adjustment between the powers concerned and
the other European princes, not a parcelling out of the New
World and its inhabitants. The monarchs on whom the
^rnileiium was conferred received a right of priority with
7o8
reaped to tlie provinces first discovered by them. Precisely
MM to-day inventions are guarded by patents, and literary and
artifetic creations by the Uw of copyright, so, at that period,
the pspal buH and the protectbn of the Roman Church were
an effective means for ensuring that a country should reap
where she had sown and should maintain the territory she had
discovered and conquered by arduous efforts; while other
claimants, with predatory deidgns, were warned back by the
ecclesiastical censorship. In the Vatican the memory of
Aleiander VI. is still perpetuated by the Appartaaenta Borgia,
decorated by Pinturicchk) with magnificent frescoes, and since
restored by Leo XIII.
The short reign of the noble Pius III. (Sept. 33-Oct. 18, isoj)
witnessed the violent end of Cesare Borgia*s dominion. As
earty as the ist of November drdinal Giuliano
2JX ^*^ Rovere was elected by the conchive as
Julius II. He was one of those personalities in
which everything transcends the ordinary scale. lie was
endowed with great force of will, indomitable courage, extra-
ordinary acumen, heroic constancy and a discrimi-
sShiSik 1^^^ instinct for everything beautiful. A nature
formed on great broad lioes—a man of ^Mntaneous
impulses carrying away others as he himself was carried
away, a genuine Latin in the whole of his being— he belongs
to those imposing figures of the Italian Renaissance whose
character is summariiBed in contemporary literature by the
word terribiUt which is best traasbted "cztraordinaiy" or
" magnificent." *•
As cardinsi Julius IL had been the adversary of Alexander
VI., as pope he stood equally in diametrical opposition to his
predeces so r. The Borgia's foremost thought had been for his
famUy; Julius devoted his effort to the Church and the papacy.
His chief idea was to revive the world-dominion of the popedom,
but first to secure the independence and prestige of the Hoiy
See on the basis of a firmly csUblished and independent territorial
sovereignty. Thus two problems presented themselves: the
restoration of >the papal state, which had been reduced to chaos
by the Borgias; and the liberation of the Holy See from the
onerous dependence on France— In other words, the expulsion
of the French " barbarians " from Italy. His solution of the
first problem entitles Julius 11. to rank with Innocent III.
and Cardinal Albomoa as the third founder of the papal sute.
His active prosecution of the second task made the Rovere pope,
in the eyes of Italian patriots, the hero of the century. At the
beginning of the struggle Julius had to endure many a hard
blow; but his courage never failcd--or, at most, but for a
moment — even after the French victory at Ravenna, on Easter
Sunday 1512. In the end the Swiss saved the Holy See; and,
when Julius died the power of France had been broken in Italy,
although the power of Spain had taken its place.
The conflict with France led to a schbm in the College of
Cardinab, which resulted in the ctticUMkiUum of Pisa. Julius
adroitly checkmated the cardinals by convening a general
council, which was held in the Lateran. This assembly was
also designed to deal with the question of reform, when the
pope was summoned from this worid (Feb. to-si, tsij). Of
his ecclesiastical achievements the bull against sinumy at papal
elections deserves the most honourable mention. Again, by
hb restoration of the papal state, after the frightful era of the
Boigiasi Julius became the saviour of the pspal power. But
this does not exhaust his significance; he was, at the same time,
the renevcr of the papal Maecenate in the domain of art. It
is to his lasting praise that he took into his service the three
greatest artistic geniuses of the time — Bramante, Michelangelo
and Raphael— and entrusted them with congenial ttfks.
Bramanu drew out the plan for the new cathedral of St Peter
and the reoonslmctkNi of the Vatican. On the x8th of April
1506 the foundation-stone of the new St Peter's was laid; 120
years later, on the 18th of November 1636, Urban VIIl.
oonsectated the new cathedrsl of the world, on which
twenty popes had laboured, in conjunction with the first
uchitects of the day. modifying in many points the grandiose
LmmX^
PAPACY t>M-tsi»
original design of Brsnante, and ttedvk^ the ooatribotioaB
of every Christian land.
St Peter's, indeed, is a monument of the history ol art. not
merdy within these lao yean fro«i the aeni^ of the Rrnahance
till the transition into Baroque— from
Raphael, Michebmgeb, to MaderSia tuu
but down to the x^th oentuiy, fai which Canova y****
and Thorwaldaen erected there the last great papal "*^^
monuments. But a still more striking period of art is icpresect ed
by the Vatican, with iu antique coUmions, the Sistioe and t U
Stance. Here, too, we are everyw h ere oonfronted with the
name of Julius II. It was he who inauguimted the ooilectioo
of ancient statues in the Belvedere, and caused the wooderi^
roof of the Sistiae Chapel to be painted by MicheUnguo
(cf. Steinmana, Dk xisim, Kapelle II., 1905). SimuUnneou^,
on the oonunission of the pope, Raphael draanted the Vaticu
with frescoes gbrifying the Church and the papacy. In the
Camera deUa Segnatura he depicted the four intellect ul
powers— theoktgy, philoeophy, poetry and law. In the Stsna
d'Eliodoro JuUus II. was visibly extolled as the Head ol the
Church, sure at all times of the aid of Heaven.^
As so often occurs in the history of the papacy, Julius II. w»
followed by a man of an entirely different type — Leo X.
Though not yet 37 years of age, Giovanni dc' Medici*
distinguished for his generosity, mildness and
courtesy, was elevated to the pontifical chair by
the adroit manceuvres of the younger cardinals. His polk'w -
though offidaily he declared his intention of foUowin^ in : x
steps of his predecessor— was at first extremely reserved. I.-1
ambition was to play the rdle of peacemaker, and his concilia: jo
policy achieved many successes. Thus, in the very first }ti:
of his reign, he removed the Khism which had broken out ul-r:
Julius U. As a statesman Leo X. often walked by very crook. .
paths; but the reproach that he allowed his policy to be smzyz^
exclusively by his family interests is unjustified. It c^/ je
admitted that he dung to his native Florence and to his iiz:
with warm affection; but the* really decisive factor %b ^
governed his attitude throughout was his anxiety lor '.^
temporal and spiritual indepoidcnce of the Holy See. T-r
conquest of Miisn by the French led to a peisoonl initr> .-«
at Bobgna, where the " Concordat " with France was coodi. : : .
This document annulled the Pragmatic Sanction of Bo%sf%
with its schismatic tendencies, but at the same time oonfin-
the preponderating influence of the king upon the CxJL .-
Church— a concession which in spite of iu many dubious aspr^
at least made the sovereign the natural defender of the Cl.-
and gave him the strongest motive for remaining CaiK.
The war for the duchy of Urbino (1516-17) entailed disas:'. .
consequences, as from it dates the complete disorgnniuti -
papal finance. It was, moreover, a contributing cause «.: /-
conspiracy of Cardinal Petrucci,* the suppression of which m^
followed (July, 1517) by the creation of 31 new cardinal> .-
one day. This— the greatest of recorded creations— tu.-
the scale once and for all in favour of the papal nutboni:. .
against the cardinals. The efforts of Leo to prooMMc a crl^
which fall mainly in the years 15x7 and 1518, deserve aU rvr . .-
tion, but very various opinions have been held as to the ai:. . .
of the pope towards the Imperial deaion consequent oe 1
death of Maximilian I. The fundamental motive for lus ;-
cecdings at that period was iwt ncpotistic tendencies — ^
doubtless played their part, but only a secondary oxte — b.- .
anxiety for the moral and temporal independence of the 1
See. For this reason Leo, from the very first, entertainer -
genuine desire for the selection either of Charles V. or Frarc--
of France. By pUying off one against the other he succt <
in holding both in suspense, and induced them to ceo*..
agrecmenu safeguarding the pope and the MedicL Of the - •
*The closer conaenon of these froooes with oontr«»piv.-
bistorv was fint elucidated by Pastor, in hUCeukidkU^er Pcpu:
iii.. which also contains the most comi^ete aocoom of the m
this the accond Rovere pope. — (Ed.1
> AUonao Peinioci <d. isiT). n SmeasL
byUoX.— (£0.1
rrri-
the caidiaalaie t
Uei
IjOS-ljMI
PAPACY
709
the French king appeared the less dangeieus, and the resuU was
that Leo championed his cause with all his energies. Not till
the eleventh hour, when the election of the Habsburg» to whom
he was entirely opposed, was seen to be ceruin did he give
way. He thus at least avoided an open rupture with the new
emperor— a rupture which would have been all the more
perilous on account of the religious revolution now imminent in
Germany. There the great secession from Rome was brought
about by Martin Luther; but, in spile of hja striking personality,
the upheaval which was destined to shatter the unity of the
Western Church was not his undivided work. True» be was
the most powerful agent in the destruction of the existing
order; but, in reality, he merely put the match to a pile of
inflammable materials which had been collecting for centuries
(sec Reformation). A main cause of the cleavage in Gcrnuny
was the position of ecclesiastical affairs, which— though by bo
means hopeless— yet stood in urgent need of emendation, and,
combined with this, the deeply resented financial system of the
Curia. Thus Luther assumed the leadership of a national
opposition, and appeared as the champion who was to under-
take the much-needed reform of abuses which clamoured for
redress. The occasion for the schism was given by the conflict
with regard to indulgences, in the course of which Luther
was not content to attack actual grievances, but assailed the
Catholic doctrine itself. In June 15 18 the canonical pro-
ceedings against Luther were begun in Rome; but, owing to
political influences, only slow progress was made. It was not
till the X5th of June 1520 that his new theology was con-
demned by the bull Essurge, and Luther himself threatened
with excommunication— a penalty which was only enforced
owing to his refusal to submit, on the 3rd of January 1521.
The state of Germany, together with the unwise behaviour
of Francis L. compelled Leo X. to side with Charles V. against
the French king; and the united forces of the empire and papacy
had achieved the most brilliant success in upper Italy, when
Leo died unexpectedly, on the ist of December 1521. The
character of the first Medician pope shows a peculiar mixture
of noble and ignoble qualities. With an insatiable love of
pleasure he combined a certain external piety and a magnificent
generosity in bis charities. His financial administration was
disastrous, and led simply to bankruptcy. On music, hunt-
ing, expensive feasts and theatrical performances money was
squandered, while, with unexampled optimism the pope was
bund to the deadly earnestness of the times.
Leo's name is generally associated with the idea of the
Medicean era as a golden age of science and art. This con-
ception is only partially justified. The reputation of a greater
Maecenas— ascribed to him by his eulogists— dwindles before
a sober, critical contemplation, and his undeniable merits are
by no means equal to those which fame has assigned to him.
The love of science and literature, which animated the son of
Lorenzo the Magnificent, frequently took the shape of literary
dilettantism. In many respects the brilliance of this long
and often vaunted Maecenate of Leo X. is more apparent than
teaL There are times when it irresistibly conveys the im-
pression of dazzling fireworks of which nothing remains but the
memory. The genuine significance of Leo lies rather In the
stimulus which he gave. From this point of view his deserts
are undoubtedly great; and for that reason he possesses an
indefeasible right to a certain share in the renown of the papacy
as a civilizing agent of the highest rank.
As a patron of art Leo occupies a more exalted plane. In
this domain the first place must be assigned to tbe splendid
achievements of Raphael, whom the pope entrusted with new
and comprehensive commissions— the Stama deW incendio,
the Logge, and the Upestry-cartoons, tbe originals of the last
named being now in London. But, though illuminated by
the rays of art, and loaded with the exuberant panegyrics of
humanists and poets, the reign of the first Medicean pontiff,
by its onbounded devotion to purely secular tendencies and
its comparative neglect of the Church herself proved disastrous
for the See of St Peter.
By a wonderful dispeiisatioa the tucccnor to this acion of
the Medici was Adrian VI. — a man who saw his noblest task,
not in an artistic Maecenate, nor in ihe prosecution
of political designs, but in the reform of the Church ^SSSaL'
in all its members. Careless of the gk>ries of
Renaissance art, a stranger to all worldly instincts, the earnest
Netherlander inscribed on his banner the healing of the moral
ulcers, the restoration of unity to the Church— especially in
Germany— and the preservation of the West from thie Turkish
danger. How clearly he read the causes of religious decadence,
how deeply he himself was convinced of the need of trenchant
reform, is best shewn by his instructions to Chjeregati, his
nuncio to Germany, in which he laid the axe to the root of
the tree with unheard-of freedom. Unfortunately, it was all
in vain. Luther and his adherents overwhelmed the noble
pope with unmeasured abuse. The two great rivals, Francis I.
and Charles V., were deaf to his admonitions to make common
cause against the Turks. The intrigues of Cardinal Soderini
led to a breach with France and drove Adrian into the arms of
the Imperial league. Soon afterwards, on the 14th of September
1533, he died. Long misunderstood and slandered, Adrian VI.,
the last German pope, is now by all parties ranked among the
most revered and most worthy of the popes. No one now denies
that he was one of those exceptional men, who without self-
seeking spend their lives in the service of a cause and fight
bravely against the stream of corruption. Even though, in
his all too brief pontificate, he failed to attain any definite
results, he at least fulfilled the fiirst condition of any cure by
laying bare the seat of disease, gave an important impetus
to the cause of the reform of the Church, and laid down the
principles on which this was afterwards carried through. His
activity, in fact, will always remain one of the brightest chapters
in the history of the papacy.
Under Leo X. Cardinal Giulio de' Medici, the cousin of that
pope, had already exercised a decisive influence upon Catbolk
policy; and the tiara now fell to his lot. Clement chm§mt
VIL— so the new pontiff styled himself— was soon vit., tsu»
to discover the weight of the crown which he bad "^
gained. The international situatk>n was the most difficult imagin-
able, and altogether beyond the powers of the timorous, vacillat-
ing and irresolute Medician pope. His determination to stand
aloof from the great duel between Francis I. and Charles V.
failed him at the first trial. He had not enough courage and
perspicadty to await in patience the result of the race between
France and Germany for the duchy of Milan — a contest which
was decided at Pavia (Feb. 34, 1525). The haughty victors found
Clement on the side of tbeir opponent, and he was forced into
an alliance with the emperor (April i, 1525). The overweening
arrogance of the Spaniards soon drove the pope back into the
ranks of their enemies. On the 33nd of May 1526 Clement
acceded to the League of 0)gnac, and joined the Italians in
their struggle against the Spanish supremacy. This step he
was destined bitteriy to repent. The tempest descended on the
pope and on Rome with a violence which cannot be paralleled,
even in the d.iys of Alaric and Genseric, or of the Norman
Robert Guiscard. On the 6th of May 1527 the Eternal City
was stormed by the Imperial troops and subjected to appalling
devastation in the famous sack. Clement was detained for
seven months a prisoner in the castle of St Angelo. He then
went Into exile at Orvieto and Viterbo, and only on the 6th of
October 1528 retmited to his desolate residence. After the
fall of the French dominion in Italy he made his peace with the
emperor at Barcelona (June 99, 1529); in return for which he
received the assistance of Charles in rc-establi^ng the rule of
the Medici In Florence. During the Italian turmoil the schism
in Germany had made such alarming progress that it now proved
impossible to bridge the chasm. With regard to the question
of a oouttdl the pope was to obsessed by doubts and fean that
he was unable to advance a single step; nor, till th«'4^Qf||lt
death covid he break off his pitiful vacillation betwer-'
V. and Francis I. While laige portions of Germany
the Church the revolt from Rome proceeded apace tr
7IO
PAPACY
I*J99-IS
and the Scandin&vian' eonntries. To add to tlie disutexs,
the divoKe of Henry VIII. led to the English schism. Whether
another head of the Church could have prevented the defection
of England is of course an idle question. But Clement VII.
was far from possessing the qualities which would have enabled
him to show a bold front to the ambitious Cardinal Wolsey and
the masterful and passionate Henry VIII. At the death of
Clement (Sept. 3$, 1534); the complete disruption of the Church
seemed inevitable.
When all seemed lost salvation was near. Even in the reign
of the two Medici popes the way which was to lead to better
things had been silently paved within the Churcn. Under
Leo X. himself there had been formed in Rome, in the Oratory
of the Divine Love, a body of excellent men of strictly Catholic
sentiments. It was by members of this Oratory — especially
St Gaetano di Tiene, Carafa (later Paul IV.), and the great
bishop of Verona, Giberti— that the foundations of the Catholic
reformation were kud. Under Clement VII. the establishment
of new religious orders— Theatines, Somascians, Bamabitcs
and Capuchins — had sown the seeds of a new life in the ancient
Church. The harvest was reaped during the long pontificate
of the Famesc pope, Paul III. With his accession
^Si-SiP, ^^^^^^^ ^^ religion and the Church began to regain
their old mastery. True, Paul III. was not a
representative of the Catholic reformation, in the full sense of
the words. In many points, especially his great nepotism —
witness the promotion of the worthless Pier Luigi Farncse —
he remained, even as pope, a true child of the Renaissance period
in which he had risen to greatness. Nevertheless he ponessed
the necessary adaptability and acumen to enable him to do
justice to the demands of the new age, which imperatively
demanded that the interests of the Church should be the first
consideration. Thus, in the course of his long reign be did
valuable work in the cause of the Catholic reformation and
prepared the way for the Catholic restoration. It was he who
regenerated the College of Cardinals by leavening it with men
of ability, who took in hand the reform of the Curia, confirmed
the Jesuit Order, and finally brought the Council of Trent into
existence (Sessions I.-X. of the council, first period, i545~»549)'
In order to check the progress of Protestantism in Italy
Paul III. founded the Congregation of the Inquisition (1542).
Political differences, and the transference of the council to
Bologna in 1547, brought the pope into sharp collision with
the emperor, who now attempted by means of the Interim to
regulate the religious affairs of Germany according to his wishes
—but in vain. The disobedience of his favourite Otuvio
hastened the death of the old pope (Nov. 10, 1 549).
Under the Famese pope art enjoyed an Indian summer. The
most important work for which he was responsible is the " Last
Judgment" of Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel. In 1547
Michelangelo was further entrusted with the superintendence
of the rcconstruaion of St Peter's. He utilised his power by
rejecting the innovations of Antonio da Sangallo, saved the
plan of Bramante, and left behind him sufiident drawings to
serve the completion of the famous cupola. Titian painted
Paul's portrait, and Guglielmo della Porta cast the bronze
statue which now adorns his grave in St Peter's.
After a protracted conclave Giovanni Maria dd Monte was
dected, on the 7th of February 1550, as Pope Julius III. He
. , _ submitted to the emperor's demands and again con-
Jtf l^ f^' vened the council (Sessions XI.-XVI., second period),
but was obliyed to suspend it on the sand of April
155s, in consequence of the war between Charles V. and
Maurice of Saxony. From this time onwards the pope failed
to exhibit requisite energy. In his beautiful villa before the
Porta del Popolo he sought to banish political and ecclesiastical
anxieties from Us mind. Yet even now he was not wholly
inactive. The religious affairs id England especially engaged
Us attention; and the nomination of Cardinal Pole as his legate
to that country, on the death of Edward VI. (1553), was an
cztiemdy adroit step. That the measure was fruitless was not
the fault of JuUnt UL, who died on the ajid of March is$s*
The feeble regime of Julius had made it evident that a pope
of another type was necessary if the papal see were to preserve
the moral and political influence which it had regained
Paul III. On the loth of April isss, after a condave
which lasted five days, the reform party secured 2^
the election of the distinguished Marcellus II.
Unfortunately, on the i^t of May, an attack of apoplexy ret
short the life of this pope, who seemed peculiarly adapted for
the reformation of the Church.
On the 23rd of May 1555 Gian Pietro Carafa, the strictest of
the strict, was dcctcd as his successor, under the title of Paxil IV.
Though already 79 years of age, he was animated by the fjcry
zeal of youth, and he employed the most drastic methods fur
executing the necessary reforms and combating the
advance of Protestantism. Always an opponent ""^
of the Spaniards, Paul IV., in the most violent and
impolitic fashion, declared against the Habsbiugs. The conff^rt
with the Colonna was soon followed by the war with Spa:?.,
which, in spite of the French alliance, ended so disastrously a
1557, that the pope henceforward devoted himself cxdusivdy 10
ecclesiastical affairs. The sequel was the end of the ncpot.s-.
and the relentless prosecution of reform within the Chur h
PrDtesuntism was successfully eradicated in Italy; but tV«^
pope failed to prevent the secession of England. After hi
death the rigour of the Inquisition gave rise to an insurrection a
Rome. The Venetian ambassador says of Paul IV. that, althrv^
all feared his strictness, all venerated hb learning and wisdoo.
The reaction against the iron administration of Paol IV.
explains the fact that, after his decease, a moce woddl%-
minded pope was again elected in the person of .^.„^'
Cardinal Giovanni Angelo de* Medid— Pius IV.
In striking contrast to his predecessor he favoured
the Habsburgs. A suit was instituted against the Canfa,
and Cardinal Carafa was even executed. To his own id>
tives, however, Pius IV. accorded no great influence, the
advancement of his distinguished nephew, Carlo Bomcto
(q.t.). being singulariy fortunate for the Church. The inoa
important act of his reign was the reassembling of the Comer
of Trent (Sessions X VII.-XXV., third period, 1 s6>-i 563) . It vu
an impressive moment, when, on the 4th of December 1 563, the
great ecumenical synod of the Church came to a dose. TX
the last it was obliged to contend with the most fom&idab^
difficulties! yet it succeeded in effecting many notable feforks
and in illuminating and crystalliaing the distinctive doctrines
of Catholicism. The breach with the Protestant Rcformatica
was now final, and all Catholics fdt them^lves once mote united
and brought into intimate connexion with the centre of uaetj
at Rome (see Trent, Council or).
The three great successors of Pius IV. inaugurate the herobc
age of the Catholic reformation and restoration. All three
were of humble extraction, and sprang from the ^
people hi the full sense of the phrase. Pius V., 2£-m.
formerly Michele Ghisleri and a member of the
Dominican Order observed even as pope the strictest rules d
the brotherhood, and was already regarded as a saunt by la
contemporaries. For Rome, in espedid, he cnmpleted the tasi
of reform. The Curia, once so corrupt, was completciy iDc*a-
morphosed, and once more became a tallying point for xntn &
stainless character, so that it produced a profound impressKS
even on non-Catholics; while the original methods of St PhL.p
Neri had a profound influence on the reform of popular monk
In the rest of luly also Pius V. put into execution the rcforB->
tory decrees of Trent. In 1 566 he gave publidty to the Tiidcs-
tine catechism; in 1568 he introduced the amended Romaa
breviary; everywhere he insisted on strict monastic disdi^nc.
and the compulsory residence of bishops within thdr seea. At
the same period (^rio Borromeo made his diocese of MSau the
modd of a reformed bbhopric. The pope supported Maz>
Stuart with money; his troops as^sted Charles DC. of Fnnct
against the Huguenots; and he lent his aid to PhOip U. a^alcsi
the Calvinists of the Netherlands. But his greatest foj was
that he succeeded where Pius II. had failed, despite til his cffons.
isp^-iiM PAPACY
by bringiag to a head aa catcrpriM afiiott the TMa— then
maaten of the MeditcrnuieaiL He ncfoUated an aUiance
between the Venatians and Spaniards, contributed ships and
soldien, and lecufcd the election of Don John of Austria to the
supreme command. He was privileged to survive the viaory
of the Christians at Lepanto; but on the tst of May in the
foUowiag year he died, as piously aa he had lived. The last
pope to be canonised, h» pontificate maxlcs the senith ci the
Catholic refocmation.
The renewed vigour which this internal itfonnatlon had
infused into the Church was now manifest in iu oteraal affects;
and Pius V., the pope of reform, was followed by the popes of
the Catholic restoration. These, without inteimitting the
work of reformation, endeavoufed by every means to further
the outward expansion of Catholicism. On the one hand
missions were despatched to America, India, China and Japan:
on the other, a strenuous attempt was made to reaanez the
conquesU of Pkotcstantism. In a word, the age of the Catholic
restoration was beginning— a movement which has been mis*
named the counter Reformation. In this period, the newly
created religious orders were the right arm of the papacy,
especially tl^ Jesuits and the Capuchins. In place of the earlier
supineness, the battle was now joined all along the line. Every-
where, in Germany and France, in Svritieriand and the Low
Countries, in Polaind and Hungary, efforts were made to check
the current of Protestantism and -to reestablish the orthodox
faith. This activity extended to wider and wider areas, and
enterprises were even set on foot to regain England, Sweden
and Russia for the Church. This univenal outburst of energy
for the restoration of Catholicism, which only came to a
standstill in the middle of the tyth century, found one of its
ttwgety nuMt sealous promoters in Ugo Boncompagni—
X//I.. Pope Gregory XIIL Though not of an ascetic
MTJ'UtS, nature, he followed unswervingly in the path of his
predecessors by consecrating his energies to the translation of
the reformatory decrees into practice. At the same time
he showed himself anxious to further the cause of ecclesi«
astical instruction and Catholic science. He created a special
Congregation to deal with episcopal affairs, and orgam'sed
the Congregation of the Index, instituted by Pius V. On
behalf of the diffusion of Catholicism throughout the worid
he spared no efforts; and wherever he was able he supported
the great restoratk>n. He was especially active in the erection
and encouragement of educational institutions. In Rome he
founded the splendid College of the Jesuits; and he patronised
the Collegium Ccrmanicum of St Ignatius; while, at the same
time, he found means for the endowment of English and Irish
colleges. In fact, his generosity for the cause of education was
so unbounded that he found himself in financial difficulties.
Gregory did good service, moreover, by hb reform of the
calendar which bears his name, by his emended edition of the
Corpus juris canonki and by the creation of nunciatures. That
he celebrated the night of St Bartholomew was due to the fact
that, according to his information, the step was a last rrsort
to ensure the preservation of the royal family and the Catholic
religion from the attacks of the revolutionary Huguenots. In his
political enterprises he was less fortunate. He proved unable
to devise a common plan of action on the part of the Catholic
princes against Eliiabeth of England and the Turks; while he
was also powerless to check the spread 6L brigandage in the
papal state.
On the death of Gregory XIII., Felice Feretti, cardinal of
Montalto, a member of the Franciscan order, ascended the
SI tmmv Apostolic throne as Sixtus V. (April isSs-August
MsHsML '59o)- His first task was the extirpation of the
bandits and the restoration of order within the papal
state. In the course of a year the drastic measures of this
born ruler made this state the safest country in Europe. He
introduced a strictly ordered administration, encouraged the
sciences, and enlarged the Vatican library, housing It in a
splendid building erected for the purpose in the Vatican itself.
He was aa active patron of agriculture and commcroe: he even
711
interested himself to the draiatag of the FMithM nanbcs. The
financial system he almost completely reorganised. With
a boldness worthy of Julius II., he devised the most gigantic
schemes for the annihilation of the Turkish Empire and the
conquest of Egypt and Palestine. Elisabeth of England he
wished to restore to the Roman obedience either by convenion
or by force; but these projects were shattered by the destruction
of the Spanish Armada. Down to his death the pope kept a
vjgQant eye on the troubles In France. Here his great object
was to save France for the Catholic religion, and, as far aa
possible, to secure her positioB as a power of the first rank.
To this fundamental axiom of his policy he senuuned faithful
throughout all vidssitodet.
In Rome itself Siztns displayed extiaoidinaiy activity. The
Pindan, the Esquiline, and the south-castcriy part of the CaeHaa
hills received essentially their present form by the creation
of the Via Sistina, Felice, delle Quattro Fontane, di SU Ooce
in Gerusalemme, ftc; by the buildings at Sta Maria Maggiore,
the Villa Montalto, the reconstnxtion of the Latcran, and the
aquedua of the Felice, which partially utilised the Alexaadrina
and cost upwards of 300,000 scudi. The erection of the obcUsks
of the Vatican, the Lateran, the Piaasa dd Fnpolo and the
square behind the tribune of Sta Maiia Maggkire lent a lustre
to Rome which no other dty in the world couU rival. The
columna of Trajan and Antoninus were restored and bedecked
with gilded statues of the Apostles; nor was this the only case
in which the high-minded pope made the monuments of antiquity
subservient to Christian ideas. His prindpal architect waa
Domcaico Fontana, who, in conjunction with Guglielmo della
Porta, completed the uniqudy beautiful cupola of St Petcr'a
which had already been designed by Michelangelo in a detailed
modd. In Santa Maria Maggiore the pope erected the noble
Sistine Chapel, in which he was laid to rest. Indeed, the monu-'
mental character of Rome dates from this era. The organising
activity of Sixtus V. was not, however, restricted to the Eternal
City, but extended to the whole administration of the Church.
The number of cardinals was fixed at seventy— dx bishops, fifty
priests and fourteen deacons. In 1588 followed the new regula-
tions with respect to the Roman Congregations, which hence-
forth were to be fifteen in number. Thus the pope laid the
foundations of that wonderful and silent engine ii universal
government by which Rome still rules the C^tholicB of every
land on the face of the globe.
When we reflect that all thia was achieved In a sfaigle pontifi-
cate of but five years' duration, toe energy of Sixtus V. appears
simply astounding. He was, without doubt, by far the most
important of the post-Tridentine' popes, and his latest biographer
might well say that he died overweighted with services to the
Church and to humanity. (U v. P.)
l\.— Period from /jpo to tSjo,
The history of the papacy from 1590 to 1870 falls into four
main periods: (i) 1590-1648; territwial expansion, definitely
checked by the peace of Westphalia; (2) 1648-17^; waning
prestige, finandal embarrassments, futile reforms; (3) 1789-
1 814; revolution and Napoleonic icorganlxation; (4) 1814-1S70;
restoration and centralixatioB.
1. 1590-1648. The keynote of the counter Reformation had
been struck by the popes who immediatdy preceded this
period. They sought to reconquer Europe for the Rooian
Catholic Church. In the overthrow of the Spanish Armada
they had already recdved a great ddeat; with the Peace of
Westphalia the Catholic advance was baffled. Sixtus V. was
succeeded in rapid succession by three popes: Urban VII., who
died on the 27th of September 1590, after a papacy of only is
days; Gregory XIV. (Dec 1590 to Oct. 1591)1 Innocent DC
(Oa. to Dec. 1 591).
The first noteworthy pontiff of the period was CliM'^yin.,
who gained a vast sdvantage by allying the j
rising power of France. Since 1559 the popr
been without exception in favour of Spain,
firmly poeseMcd of Milan oa the nonh aad of
7"
PAPACY
&dBo-ii9»
on the soutli, held tBe Stiii«S df the Church as in t vice, and
thereby dominated the politics of the peninsula. After Henry IV.
had talcen Paris at the price of a mass, it became possible for
the popes to play off the Bourbons against the Habsburgs;
bat the transfer of favour was made so gradually that the
opposition of the papacy to Spain did not become open till just
before Clement VIII. passed off the stage. His successor,
Leo XI., undisguisedly French in sympathy, reigned but
twenty-seven days— a sorty return for the 300,000
1^ ducats which his election is rumoured to have cost
Henry IV. Under Paul V. Rome was successful in
some minor negotiations with Savoy, Genoa, Tuscany and Naples;
but Venice, under the leadership of Paolo Sarpi (9.V.), proved
unbending under ban and interdict: the state
Zs-iiit, defiantly upheld its sovereign rights, kept most of the
clergy at their posts, and expelled the recalcitrant
Jesuits. When peace was arranged through French mediation
in 1607 the papacy had lost greatly in prestige: it was evident
that the once terrible interdict was antiquated, wherefore it
has never since been employed against the entire territory of
a state.
During the second and third decades of the X7th century
the most coveted bit of Italian soil was the Vallellinc. If Spain
could gain this Alpine valley her territories would touch those
of Austria, so that the Habsburgs north of the Alps could send
troops to ihe aid of their Spanish cousins against Venice, and
Spain in turn could help to subdue the Protestant princes of Ger-
many in the Thirty Years* War (1618-1648). From the Grisons,
who favoured France and Venice, Spain seized the Vallelline in
1630. incidentally uprooting heresy there by the massacre of
six hundred Protestants. Paul V. repeatedly lamented that he
was unable to oppose such Spanish aggressions without extend-
ing protection to heretics. This scruple was, however, not
shared by his successor, Gregory XV., who secured
JlJ]!]^ • the consent of the powers to the occupation of the
ValtelUne by papal troops, a diplomatic victory
destined, however, to lead ere long to humiliation. Gregory's
brief but notable pontificate marks nevertheless the high-
tide of the counter Reformation. Not for generations had the
prospects for the ultimate annihilation of Protestantism been
brighter. In the Empire the collapv of the Bohemian revolt
led ultimately to the merciless repression of the Evangelicals
Th0 in Bohemia (1617), and in the hereditary lands of
^JJJJ^V^ Austria (1628). as well as to the transference of the
Uri^rmmaom. ^1^^^^^,! dignity from the Calvinlstic elector of the
Palatinate to the staunchly Catholic Max.milian of Bavaria.
In France the Huguenots were shorn of almost all their military
power, a process completed by the fall of La Rochelle in 1638.
In Holland the expiration of the Twelve Years' Truce in i6ai
forced the Dutch Protestants once more to gird on the sword.
England, meanwhile, was isobted from her co-religionists.
King James I., who had coquetted twenty years previously
with Clement VIII., and then had avenged the Gunpowder
Plot (1605) by the most stringent regulation of his Roman
Catholic subjects, was now dazxied by the project of the Spanish
marriage. The royal dupe was the last man in the world to
check the advance of the papacy. That service to Protestantism
was performed by Catholic powers jealous of the preponderance
of the Habsburgs. In view of these antipathies the treaty of 1627
between France, Spain and the pope b but an episode: Instruc-
tive, however, in that the project, originated apparently by the
pope, provided that England should be dismembered, and that
Ireland should be treated as a papal fief. The true tendency of
affairs manifested itself in 1O79, when the emperor Ferdinand II.
(1619-T637), at the eenith of his fortunes, forced the Protestant
princes of Germany to restore to the Roman hierarchy all the
ecclesiastical territories they had secularized during the past
seventy-foor years. Then France, freed from the fear of domest ic
enemies, arose to help the heretics to harry the house of
Habfibuig. Arranging a truce between Poland and Sweden,
she unleashed Gustavus Adolphus. Thus by diplomacy as wdl
as by force of Arms GatlioGc France made poeaible the cmtiaued
existence of a Protestant Gennany, end helped to create the
babnce of power between CathoUc, Lutheran and R clc wntd
within the Empire, that, crystallized in the Peace of Wmfpliii •
fixed the religious boundaries of central Europe for upvaxds at
two centuries.
If it was Richelieu and not the pope who was the sol nriMirr
of destinies from 1624 to 164a, Urban VIII. was t
In Italy he supported France against Spain in the '
controversy over the succession to Mantua (>637- '
1631). In the Empire he manifested his antipathy
to the overshadowing Habsburgs by plotting for a time to cany
the next imperial election in favour of Bavaria. He is naid la
have rejoiced privately over Swedish victories, and cerlaicJy
it was unerring instinct which told him that the great £uiopcia
conflict was no longer religious but dynastic Anti-Spajiah u
the core, he became the greatest papal militarist since Julius U .
but Tuscany, Modena and Venice checkmated fai^ in ra
ambitious attempt to conquer the duchy of Pama. Like bmbi
of the papal armies of the last thnt centuries^ Urban *s troaps
distinguished themselves by wretched strategy, cowatdioe ^
rank and file, and a Fabian avoidance of fighting which, discreet
as it may be in the field of diplomacy, has invaziably iaiied u
save Rome on the field of battle.
The States of the Church were enlarged during tlus pervi^
by the reversion of two important fief a—namely, Fertara (i5c-<
and Urbino (i63r). Increase of territory, so far ^
from filling the papal treasury, but postponed for SlJ^'^
the moment the progressive pauperization of the
people. After annexation, the dty of Ferrara saikk rafadh
from her perhaps artificial prosperity to the dead lewd, hisj^
two-thirds <A her population in the process. The fa»««>f «*
difficulties of Italy were due to many causes, notably to a «Kif;.,-;
of trade routes; but those of the papal states seem cauao^
chiefly by misgovemment. Militarism may account for ratt>
of the tremendous deficit under Urban VIIL; but the nil
cancer was nepotism. The disease was inherent in the bocj
politic. Each pope, confronted by the spectre of ^
feudal anarchy, felt he could rely truly only on those '
utterly dependent on himself; consequently he raised his o«a
rcUtions to wealth and influence. This method had helped ihe
House of Valois to consolidate its power; but what was ic&<
for a dynasty was death to a state whose headahip was electa^ r
The relations of one pope became the enemies of the next. iM
each pontifl governed at the expense of his succcsaoiv t'r kr
Clement Vlll. the Aldobrandini, more splendidly under Paul \
the Borghesi, with canny haste under the short-lived Gregory X\
the Lodovisi, with unparalleled rapacity Urban's Barbcr.n
enriched themselves from a chronically depleted treasury. T*
raise money ofliccs were systematically aold, and issue zivj:
issue of the two kinds oS mra/s-sccurities, which may be naigk'y
described as government bonds and as life annoiti^ ««
marketed at ruinous rates. More than a score ol years after
the Barbertni had dropped the reins of power Alexander VIL
said they alone had burdened the sute with the payment cf
483,000 scudi of aimual interest, a tremendous item in a bad|:Ti
where the income was perhaps but >,ooo,ooo. For a «bile
interest charges consumed 85% of the income of thegovenuncsL
SkQful refunding postponed the day of evil, but cash on hari
was too often a temptation to plunder. The financial woe» u
the next perkxl, which is one of decline^ were laigdy the kgvr/
of this age of glory.
The common people, as always, had to pay. The fannUf
of exorbitant taxes, coupled as it was loo often with dishonest
oonccsaions to the tax farmer, made the over-burdened pr^v
antry drink the doubly bitter cup of exploitation and injusricc
Economic distress increased the number of highway robberies
these in turn lamed commercial intercourse.
The tale of these glories, with their attendant woes, docs not
exhaust the history of the papacy. Not as diplonatists. net
as governors, but as successive heads of a sparititti kingdoai,
did the popes win their grandest triumphs. At a lime wbn
the non-Catholic theologians wera chiefly imall tty, hcni «■
^5p»"l*m
PAPACY
7«3
petty or sulphnoot pofemfa, great Jeniit teacbeis Bke Bdlar-
miae (d. 1631) laid akge to' the veiy foundations of the
C»ain*wr* Proteitant dUdeL Theie thmkeit performed for
aiaimd tho unity of the faith in France and in the
r Catholic itatos of Oeimany services of tnnacendent
menty eiceedlng far in importance thoie of their
flourishing alliesi the Incroisitions of Spahi, Italy, and of the
Spanish Netherlands (see DrQuismoN). But the most funda^
mental spiritual progress of the papacy was made by its devoted
nmsionaries. While the majority of Protestant leaders left
the convctsioa of the heathen to some remote and inscrutable
interpoiition of Providence, the Jesuiu, Franciscans, Dominicans
and kindred orders were busily engaged in making Roman
CathoUcs eC tiie nations brought by Oriental commerce or
American ooloniai enterprise into contact with Spain, Portugal
and France. Though many of the specucular triumphs of the
cross in Asia and Africa proved to bo evanescent, nevertheless
South America stands the impressive memorial of the greatest
forward movement in the history of the papacy: a solidly
Roman continent.
9. 164S-1789. From the dose of the Thirty Yean' War
to the outbreak of the French Revolution the papacy suffered
abroad waning political prestige; at home, progressive fuandal
cmbamasment accompanied by a series of inadequate govern-
mental reforms; and in th6 world «t large, gradual diminution of
reverence for qilritual aathorfty. From dow beginnings these
factors kept gaining momentum until they oompassed the
overthrow of the mighty order of the Jesuits, and culminated
in the revolutionary spoliation of the Chureh.
At the dectmn of Innocent X. (x644'-i655) the favour of the
Curia was transferred from France, where it had rested for over
forty years, to the House of Habsbuig, where it
^SSiu i^oudned, save for the brief reign of Clement IX.
(1667-1669), for half a century. The era of t^sion
with France coincides with the earlier yeats of Louis XIV.
(i643-r7X5); its main causea'were the Jansenist and the Gallican
controversies (see Jamsenisic and GALiicANisit). The F^nch
crown was wilUng to sacrifice the Jansenists,. who disturbed
that dead level of uniformity so grateful to autocraU; but
GslKfanfwn touched its very prerogatives, and was
Jawakm u p^j^j ^ honour which could never be abandoned
nmm^^i^m. , outright. The regalia controversy, which broke
out in 1673, led up to the classic dedaration of the
Gallican dergy of 1682; and, when aggravated by a conflict
over the Immunity of the palace of the French ambassador at
Rome, resulted in x6S8 in the suspension of diplomatic relations
with Innocent XT., the imprisonment of the papal nundo, and
the seisure of Avignon and the Venaissitt. So pronounced an
enemy of Frendi preponderance di& Innocent become that he
approved the League of Augsburg, and was not sorry to see the
Ditholic James II., whom he considered a tool of Louis, thrust
from the throne of England by the Protestant William of Orange. 1
Fear of the coalition, however, led the Grand Monarch to make
peace with Innocent XII. (z69i~t70o). The good rdations
with France were but a truce, for the Bourbon poiiren became
so mighty in the x8th centuxy that they practically ignored the
territorial interests of the papacy. Thus Clement XI. (r7oo-
X731), who espoused the losing Habsburg side in the War of the
Spanish Succession, saw his nundo etduded from the negotia-
tions leading to the Peace of Utrecht, while the lay rignatories
disposed of Sicily in defiance of his alleged overlordshlp. .Simi-
larly Clement XII. (1730-1740) looked on impotently when the
sudden Bourbon conquest of Naples in the War of the Polish
Succession set at nought his daims to feudal sovereignty, and
established Tannucd as minister of justice, a positwn hi which
for forty-three years he regulated the relations of church and
state after a method most repugnant to Rome. No better
fared Clement's medieval rights to Parma; nor could the laga-
dous and popular Benedict XIV. (1740-1758). who refused to
press obsolete claims, either keep the foreign armies in the War
of the Austrian Succession from trespassing on the States of
the Church or prevent the Ignoring at the Ptace of Aix-la-
Ciapelle of the papal overtordship over Parma ancl Pkoenza^-
la fact, since the doctrinaire protest of Innocent X. against th«
Peace of Westphalia, at almost every important settlement
of European boundaries the popes had been ignored or other-
wise snubbed. Not for two centuries had the political prestige
of the papacy been tower. Moreover, a feeling of revulsion
against the Jesuits was sweeping over western Europe: they
were accused of being the incarnation of the most baneful prin-
dples, political, intellectual, moral; and though Clement XIIL
(1758-1769) protected them sgainst the pressure , _
of the Bourbon courU, his successor Clement XIV. 227**"
(1769-1774) was forced in 1773 to disband the ^.f,^
army of the Black Pope (see Jesuits). The sacri-
fice of these trusted soldiers failed however to sate the thirst
of the new age. Pius VI. (x77S-i799)f was treated with
scant respect by his neighbours. Naples sefused him tribute;
Joseph II. of Austria politely but resolutely introduced funda-
mental Gallican reforms (" Josephism '*); in 1786 at the Synod
of Plstota {q.9.) Joseph's brother Leopold urged similar prin-
dples on Tuscany, while b Germany the very archbishops were
conspiring by the Punctation of Ems to aggrandize themselves
like true Febronians, at the expense of the pope (see FtsRONiAif-
ISM). These aggressions of monarchy and the episcopate were
rendered vain, outside the Habsburg dominions, by the revolu-
tion; and to the Habsburg dominions the derical revolution
of X790 caused the loss of what is to-day Belghxm. However,
the dduge which shattered the opposition to Rome in the
great national churches submerged for a time the papacy
itself.
In the States of the Church, during the first part of the perir '
the outstanding feature in the history of the Temporal Powe^
is the overthrow of nepotism; hi the second, a dull
conffict with debt. The chief enemies of nepotism JJ^jJ^"**
were Alexander VII. (1655-1667), who dignified cbare^
the secretaryship of state and gave it its present
preeminence by refusing to deliver it up to one of bis relations;
and Innocent XH. (1691-1700), whose bull Romanum deed p&niP-
ficem ordered that no pope should make more than one nephew
cardinal, and should not grant him an income over twelve
thousand scudi. Thus by 1700 nepotistic plunder had practi-
cally ceased, and with the exception of the magnificent pecula^
tions of Cardinal Cosda under Benedict XIII. (1734-1730), the
central adminbtration of finance has been usually considered
honest. Nepotism, however, still left its scars upon the body
politic, shown in the progressive decay of agrioiltnre in the
Campagna, causing^ Rome to starve In the midst of fertile but
untilled nepotistic laHfmiiia, The fight against the legacy
of debt was slower and more dreary. One pope, Innocent XI.
(1676-1789), threatened at first with bankruptcy, managed tp
leave a surplus; but this condition, the product of se v ere economy
and oppressive taxation, could not be maintained. In the
18th century it became necessary to resort to fiscal measures
which were often harmful. Thus Cement XI., at war with
Austria in 1708, debased the currency; Clement Xn. (1730-1740)
issued paper money and set up a government lottery, exoom-
municatixig all subjects who put their money into the lotteries
of Goioa or Naples; Benedict XTV. (1740-1758) found stamped
paper a failure; and Clement Xm. (1758-1769) niade a forced
loan. The stoppage of payments from Bourbon countries
during the Jesuit struggle brought the annual defidt to nearly
500,000 scudi. Under Phis VI. (1775-1 799) the emission of
paper money, followed by an unsuccessful attempt to market
government securities, produced a panic. By 1785 the taxes
had been farmed for years in advance and the treasury was in
desperate straits. Retrenchment often cut to the bone; wiser
reforms shattered on the inexperience or corruption of officials.
Grand attempts to increase the natknal wealth usually cost
the government more in fixed charges of j^tew»t than they
ytelded in rentals or taxes. The Stat«* *h, like
France, were on the brink of bankr dis-
grace they were, saved by a more i» *^
RevoIntioD.
7»4
PAPACY
Tlie revolt a^idBSt fpiritual authority beloag* nther to the
hbtoiy ol modem thought than to that of the papacy. The
f ReoaiBsance and Protestantiam had their effect in
I producing that FpVg*F*tr"**"*^ which awept over
» western Europe in the x8th century. Although
^^^*^' Descaitea died in 1650 in tJie rommunion ol. the
Church, his philosophy contained seeds of revolt; and the
sensualism of Locke, popularized in Italy by Genovcsi, pre-
pared the way for revolution. In an age when Voltaire
preached toleration and the great penologist Beccaria. attacked
the death-poialty and torture, in the States of the Church
heretics were stUl liable to torture, the relapsed to capital
punishment; and in a backward country like Spain the single
reign of Philip V. (r 700-1746) had witnessed the burning of
over a thousand heretics. If ecclesiastical authority fostered
what was commonly reined as intolerant obscurantism, to
be fnligfr^^*^ meant to be prepared in spirit for that reform
which soon developed into the Revolution.
3. 178^x814. In the decade previous to the outbreak of
the French Revolution the foreign policy of Pius VI. had been
fB^A^sgrdirccted chiefly against decentralisation, while his
ytft^f, chief aim at home was to avoid bankruptcy by in-
*""^''"* creasing his income. From X789 on the Frenth
situation absorbed his attention. France, like the States of
the Church, was facing finanrial ruin; but France did what
the government .of prints couU not: namely, saved the day
by the confiscation and sale of ecclesiastical property. It
#as not the aim of the Constituent Assembly to pauperize or
annihilate the Church; it purposed to reorganize it on a juster
basts. These reforms, embodied in the Gvil Constitution of
the Clergy, were part of the new Fundamental Law of the
kingdom. The majority of the ppesU and bishops re(used to
iwear assent to what they held to be an invasion of the divine
right of the hierarchy, and after some months of unfortunate
indeciaibn Pius VL (1775-1799) formally condemned it. Thence-
forward France treated the papacy as an inimical power. The
sullen toleration of the non-juring priesU changed into sanguinary
persecution. The harrying was halted in 1795; and soon after
the directory had been succeeded by the consulate, the Catholic
religion was re-esUbliahed by the concordat of 1801. From
1790 on, however, the rising power of France had been directed
against Rome. In SeptemlMBr 1791 France annexed Avignon
and the Venaissin, thus removing for ever that territorial pawn
with whose threatened loss the French monsrrhs had for centuries
disciplined their popQS. In 1793 Hugon de Bassville iq.v.)^ a
diplomatic agent of France, was murdered at Rome, a dttd not
avenged until the Italian victories of Bonaparte. In the peace
of Tolentino (Feb. 1797) the pope surrexulered his claims to
Avignon, the Venaissin, Bologna, Fcrrara and the Romagna;
he also promiied to disband his worthless army, to yield up
certain treasures of art, and to pay a large indemnity. Bona-
parte believed that after these losses the temporsl power would
collapse of its own weight; but so peattful a solution was not
to be. During republican agitation at Rome the French general
Duphot was killed, a French army advanced on the dty, and
-^ y- carried the aged pontiff a prisoner of war to Valence in
jjjj tf Ti Dauphin^, where he died on the a9th of August 1799.
His successor Pius VU, elected at Venice on the
14th of the following March, soon entered Rome and began his
reign auspidonsly by appointing as secretary of stale Ercole
Consalvi (f.s.), the greatest papal diplomatist of the 19th century.
The political juncture was favourable for a reconciliation with
, ^^ France. In the oonooidat of 1801 the papacy
^SS. lucogniaed the vaUdity of the sales of Church
prapeity, and still further reduced the number of
dioceses; it provided that the government should appoint and
support the archbishops and bhdiops, but that the pope should
confirm them;' sad France recognized the temporal power,
though ahon of Fenara, Bologna and the Romagna.
The supplementary Organic Articles of April 1802, however,
centralized- the administration of the Chu»ch in the hands
of the First Consul; and some of these one-sided regulations
by RoBi e to be
nevertheless, the Napoleonic arrangrascnU remained in 1
with but brief esceptioos, till the year 1905. The f
of the pope and his advisers was not deep eneegh to l
the r atification in 1803 of a somewhat simihtf ooacoidt fer the
Italian Republic. In 1804 Pius fonssnted to aaoiot Nnpoleau
emperor, thus casting over a conquered aown the Isilo «C
legitimacy. The era of good feeling was, howe v er, aooa ended
by friction, which arose ^ a number of points. At Icngih,
in ^809, Napolecm annezed the papal states; and Piua, who
fT<iommunifalrd the invaders of his territory, was wwDwcrii to
France. Ilie captive was, however, by no Bieaaa powcr te a a ;
by refusing canonical institution to the French hiahmii he
involved the fCflcsiastiral system of Napoleon in incxtrkafale
confusion. After the return from Moscow the empesor nccob-
ated with his prisoner a new and more eiafting conoovdai, bet
two months later the repentant pope abrop^ed thia treaty a^
declared all the official acts of the new French Mshnpa to be
invalid. By this time Nspoleon was tottering to his laiL;
shortly before the catastrophe of Elba he allowed the pope to
return to the States of the Church. Pius entered Rook amii
great rejoidog on the a4th of May 18x4, a day vhkh sazka
the beghining of a new en in the history of the papacy. la
September of the same year, by the bull Sdlidimi^ mmmam
eecUsiantm, he reconstituted the Society of Jesus.
Though the reUtions with France dominatfd the papal
policy during the revolutiooary period, the affaiis of Gavaiiy
received no small share of attention. The peace oC Loufviik
(x8oi) esublished the French boundaxy at the Rhine; and the
German princes who thereby lost Unds west of the liver woe
indemnified by the se^ilariisfion of firl fsiasTirsI Jta^to^^
territories to the east; The scheme of readjust- ^J^im «r
ment, known as the Enactment of the Dclegatea oC "*^
the Empire {ReicksdeputatUmskauplKUuss) of X803, aecularued
pracrically all the ecdesiasticsl states of Qermany. Tfans at
one stroke there was broken the sge-k>ng direct politiosl pows ci
the hierarchy in the Holy Roman Empire; and the "»>t"^«»7
heir of the bulk of these lands was Protestant Prussia.
4. X8X4-X870. The foreign policy of the papacy so leatg sa
conducted by Consalvi, or in his spirit, was cuproaely succcsrfuU
From x8x4 to X830 Europe witnessed the restoration ya^f^a^
of legitimate. monarchy. The once f rilrd Hynestifi ^^ _
conscientiously re-established the legitimate Qmrch,^^""^^^
and both conservative powers madq common cause asainst
revolutionary tendencies. Throughout Europe the govcxa-
ing classes regarded this " union of throne aiki altar " «a
aziomatic For the pope, as eldest legitimate sovcrcisB a^
protagonist sgainst the Revolution, Consalvi obtained from the
Congress of Vienna the restitution of the Sutca of the Chonh
in practically their full extent. By coiuiuding concordats with
all the important Catholic powers save Austria he made &
possible to crush Jansenism, Febronianism and Gallicaxusi&
By bulls of circumscription, issued after coosultatioB whh
various Protestant states of Germany, he rearrsage<i their
Catholic dioceses and readjusted ecclesiastical incoaaca. By
unfailing taa he gained the good will of Great Britain, wrl^re
before him no cardinal had set foot for two centuries, and secorvd
that friendly uxulexstanding between the British govcmncnt
and the Vatican which has since proved so valuable to Rome.
Alter Consalvi's retirement, Leo XII. (x823«x8a9) oootinQcd
his policy and secured further advantageous ^^'^ri^i^TTlata la
the sixteen months' reign of Pius VIII. (x8a9^83e) caae tW
achievement of Catholic emancipation in ^r%f^»r^ axxl ihe
Revolution of X830; and the pope departed from the priikczple
of legitimacy by recognizing Louis FhiUppe as king of the FreDch.
The pontificate of Gregory XVL (i83X>x846) waa aingnkrly
infelicitous. The controversy with Prussia about the cdacatioQ
of children of whose parents but one was Roman Catholic l«d to
the imprisonment of Droste-Vischering, archbishop of Cok^nt,
and later of Dunin, archbishop of Gnesen-Posen; but the
accession of the royal romanticist Frederick William IV. in x&to
brought a pacific reversal of the Prussian policy* 1
«»*-t«I«!
PAPAClf
7'5
judged won beMvoInt tbaa inte. '.In Fnuee ■gftation «u
directed duefly egunst the Jesuits,' active in the mavenient to
displace anckat local cateeUame and litiugiea by ibe Roman
tests, to. emoU the laity in Roman oonlmtemitiesy and to in-
duoe the biabope to visit Rome more Irequeiitly. To check this
oltnnontaae pcopaganda the fovenunent secuxed from the
papaqr fai x^S ^ promise ti> dose the Jesuit houses and
hovitiatea in Feaote.
In Italy, however, lay the chief bbeudes to the sucoees of all
papal undertakings, llie revolution ol i830» though somewhat
tazdEy felt in the Sutes of the Church, compelled Gregory to
rest his rule on foreign basnets. In return he was obliged to
lend an ear to the propoeals of France, and above all to those of
Austria. This meant oppoaition to all schemes for the unifies^
tion of Italy. In 18x5 the Italian peninsula had been divided
into seven small states. Berides the government of the pope
there were three kingdoms: Sardinia, Lomfaardo-Venetia and
Naples; and three sluchies:Farma,Modena, Tuscany. To these
regions the Napoleonic regime had given a certain measure of
unity; but Mettemicb, dominant after 1815, hdd Italy to be
merdy a geographical term. To its unification Austria waa the
chief obstade; she owned Lombardo-Veaetia; she controlled
the three duchies^ whose rulen were Austrian* princes; and she
uphdd the autocracy of the king of Naples and that of the pope,
against all revohitionary movementa. To the Italian patriot
the papacy seemed in league with the oppressor. The pope
sacriiked the national aspirations of his subjects to his inter*
national rdations as head of the Church; and he sacrificed their
craving for liberty to the alliance with autocracy on which
rested the continued emten ce of the temporal power. The
dual position of the pope, as supreme head of the Church on
earth and as a minor Italian prince, was destined to break down
througli iu inherent contradiction; it was the task of Pius DC.
to postpone the catastrophe.
The reign of Pius IX. falls into three distinct ports. Until
driven tmm Rome by the republican agitation of 1848 he was
■ a popular idol, open to liberal political views. From
2^2^ his return in X850 to 1870 he was the reactionary
ruler of territories menaced by the movement for
Italian unity, and sustained only by French bayoneu; yet he
was interested primarily in pointing out to an <^ten incredulous
world that most of the vaunted, intellectual and religious
p rogress of the 19th century was but pestilent eiror, pioperiy
to be condemned by himself aa the infallible vicegerent of God.
The third division of his career, from the loss of the temporal
power to his death, inaugurates a new period for the papacy.
At the outset of hia rdgn be faced a crisis. It was dear that
he could not continue the repressive tactics of his predecessor.
Tte papa^lttly and Europe were astir with the Libecal agitation,
mmiUMaam which hi 1848 culminated in the series of revolutions
CteKrb by which the settlement of 1815 was destined
to be profoundly modified. liberal cfanrdbmen in Italy,
while rejecting Massini's dream of a republic, had evolved
projects for attaining national unity while preserving the tem-
poral power. The esiled abb£ Vinoenso Gioberti championed
an Italian confederacy under the presidency of the pope; band
in band with the unity of the nation should go the unity of
the faith. In allusion to medieval partisans of the papacy this
theory was dubbed Neo-Gnelphism. Towards such n solution
Plus JXm was at first not unfavourably incKned, but the revolu-
tion of 1848 cured him of his liberal leanings. In November
of that year he fled in disguise from his capital to Gaeta, in the
kingdom of Naples,, and when French arms had made feasible
his restoratton to Rome in April 1850 he returned la a temper of
stubborn resistance to all rdform; hencaefortb be was no kmger
bpen to the Ittihience of men of the type of Roesi or Rosminf,
but took the inspiration of his poUcy from Cardinal AntonelU
and the Jesuits. The same pope who had signalised hie aoees*-
sion by carrying out a certain number of Liberal reforms set
his name in 1864 to the famous SyfUAus^ which was In effect
a dedaration of war by the papacy against the leading prindplcs
of modern dvihaitaoo (^ SnAABOt).
As>frem 1849^ to 1870 the fate of the papaqr was detemdned
not so much by domestic conditions, which, save for certain
slight ameliorations, were those of the preceding reigns, as by
foreign politics, it is neoessary to consider the relations of Rome
with each of the powers in turn; and in so doing one must trace
not merdy the negotiations of kings and popes, but must seek
to understand also the aims of parliamentary parties, which
from 1848 on increasingly determine ecclesiastical legislation.
The chief aUy of the papacy from 1849 to 1870 was France.
The policy which made Louis Napoleon dictator forced him
inta mortal conflict with- the republican parties; andi^afeA^o-
the price of the parliamentary support of the Catholic ii— aarf tf
majority was high. Even before Napoleon's dec- ^»*v«
tion as president, Fallouz, the Catholic leader, had promised
to secure intervention in favour of the dispossessed -pop&
Napoleon, however, oould.not forget that as a young man he
hiinsdf had vainly fought to obtain from Gregory XVL those
liberties which Pius IX. still refused to grant; he therdore
essayed diplomacy, not arms. Neverthdess, to forestall the
rescue of the pope by Austrian troops, he sent, in August 1849^
an army corps under Qudinot to Civiu Vecchia.' By heading
off leactionary Austria Napoleon hoped to conciliate the French
Liberals; by hdping the pope, to satisfy the Catholics; \y
concessions to be wrung both from Pius and from the Roman
triumvirs, to achieve a bloodless victory. As ndther party
yieUed, Oudinot listened to liis Catholic advisers, attacked
Rome, with whidi the French Republic was technically at
peace— and was roundly repulsed by Garibaldu To rdieve
their ingbrious predicament the ministiy hurried the Liberal
diphunatist, Ferdinand de Lesseps, to Rome to prevent further
conflict. At the moment when Lesseps had secured the signing
of a, treaty with the Roman Republic permitting peaceful
occupation of the dty by the French army, be was peremptorily
recalled and Oudinot was as unespectedly ordered to take the
dty by storm. This amaw'ng reversal of policy was' procured
by the intrigues of Catholic dipWmatisU and German vtmmm
Jesuits, conveyed to Paris by Prince de'k Tour g^fco var
d'Auvergne. For the honour of the anny and the *"**■
Church republican France thereupon destroyed the Roman
republic. Napoleon lost laoo in dead and wounded, actually
secured not a single reform on which he had insisted, and drew
upon himsdf the fateful obligation to mount perpetual guard
over the Vatican. As the catspaw of clerical reaction he had
also to acquiesce in that " Roman campaign at home " that
resulted m the Falloux Act of 1850, which in the name of
liberty of education put the university in bondage A^a^Miifc
to the archbishops, militated against lay teachers aatfct*
in cxondary and primary schools, and set them ***■•''
under deriotl control, made it ominoudy easy for members
of religious congreg a tions to become instructors of youth»
and cut the nerve of the communal school system. That
education was delivered up to the Church was partly the result
of the terror inspired in the middle classes hy the sodalistie
upheavals of 1848. The bourgeoisie sought the support of the
clergy, and irreHgion becsme aa unfashionable among them as it
had been among the nobility after 1793. Religion was thought to
be part of a fashionable edncadon, and the tninlng of girls came
almost exdnsivdy into the hands of the rdigious orders and
congregations. So long as the alliance of the autocratic empire
and the dergy lasted (1853-1860), intdleaual reaction rdgned; «
the university professotsbipa of history and philosophy were
suppressed. This alliance of the empire with the ckigy was
shaken by the Italian War of 1859, which resulted in the loss
by the pope of two>thirds of his territories. Napoleon waa
evidently retoming to the traditions of his youth, and in the
September Convention of 1864 it looked as if he wouU abandon
Rome to its manifest destiny. This solution was spoiled by the
impatience of GaribaMi and the supineness of the Romans thcm*
sdves. In 1867 Napoleon made himself once more guardian
of the Holy See; but the wouders wrought by the new French
chastefoU at the battle of Montana cost the friendship of Italy.
Thereafter Napoleon was blindly stagyering to his faU. He
7t6
PAPACY
fttj
aimed at lionotir in upholding the pope, in drSviiiK tlie Austrian
tyrant from Italy; in atUcklng Prussia. The Anstrian support
on which he relied confidently in 2870 proved delusive, for he
could obtain nothing from Austria unless he had Italy with him,
and nothing from Italy without the evacuation of Rome. Even
after the war with. Prussia had actually broken out he refused
Italian aid at the price of the abandonment of the dty, a step
which he nevertheless revevsed huiriedly twenty days too late.
With Napoleon fell the temporal power; but the French hier-
archy still kept hJs gifu in the shape of the congregations, the
pro-Catholic colonial policy, and a certain control of education.
Of these privileges the Church was to be deprived a generation
later. The Third Republic can never forget that it was to the
support of the temporal sovereignty of the pope that N^Mdeon
m. owed his empire and France her deepest humiliation.
On the withdrawal of the French garrison Rome was occupied
by the troops of Victor Emmanuel This monarch had always
jkkftw 0^ been a thorn in the side of the papacy. Under him
c*iMiiM«/ Sardinia had adopted the Siccazdi Laws of 1^50,
A"** which had taken away the right of a^lum and the
furisdiction of the Church over its own clergy. His repute
tion for sacrilege, increased five years later by the aboUtion
of many monasteries, became notorious when the formation
of the kingdom of Raly (x86i) took away all the dominions of
the pope except the. patrimony of Peter, thereby reducing the
papal provinces from twenty to ^ve, and their population from
over 3,000,000 to about 6S5,ooow This act was foUowed in
1867 by the confiscation of church property, and on the soth of
September 1870 by the triumphant selsure of Rome.
If France was the right arm and Italy the scourge' of the
papacy under Pius IX., the Spanish-speaking countries were iu
f^f^a^obedient tools. .Tom by dvil wars, their harassed
Madtkm rulers sought papal recognition at a cost which
5m^»^ more experienced governments would have refused.
^**^'*' Thus Isabella II. of Spain in the concordat of
1851 confirmed the exclusive privileges of the Roman religion
and gave the control of all education to the Church; but after
the Revolution of x868 Spain departed for the first time from
the principle of the unity of the faith by esublishing liberty
of worship, which was, however, a dead tetter. On the Spanish
model concordats were arranged with variou|i Central and
South American republics, perhaps the most irondad being
that conduded with Ecuador in 1862 (abrogated 1878).
Aroong^ the more stable governments of Europe reaction in
favour of conservatism and religion after 1848 was used by
ftiMiiisi clerical parties to obtain concordats more systematic
wHh and thoroughgoing than had been conduded even
^*jj|*^ after 1814. Austria, for instance, although long
^^ the political mainstay of the papacy, had never
abandoned the broad lines of ecclesiastical policy laid down by
Joseph II.; but the young Frands Joseph, seeking the aid of
Rome in curbing heterogeneous nationalities, in 1855 nesotiated
a concordat whose paragraphs regarding the censorship, educo*
tion and marriage were far-reaching. It was, moreover, the first
document of the sort in which a first-dass power recognised
that the ri^ts of the Church are based upon " divine institution
and canon law," not upon governmental concession. Violated
by the Liberal constitution of 1867, which granted religious
liberty, depotentiated by laws setting up lay jurisdiction over
. matrimonial cases and state control of education, it was abrogated
in X870 by Austria, who alleged that the prodamation of papal
tefallfbiUty hod so altered the status of one of the contracting
partica that the agreement was void.
Passing over Portugal, the remaining European stale which
Is Roman Catholic b Bdgmm. Tom from Austria by the
'0, III,,,, clerical revolution of 1790, after many vidssiludcs
it was united in 18x5 with Holland and placed under
the ink of the Protestant WOliam I., king of the United Nether-
lands. The eonstitutional guarantee of religious liberty had
fram the outset been resisted by the powerful and lesolute priest-
hood, supported by numerous sympathizers among the nobility.
As the arbitiaiy king oljoiated the liberal GsUmUcs^ who were
stin moie or lets under the BpeB of the ffrendi BevtolariiMft, the
Catholic provinces took advantage of the uphcavBls of m^^ \m
form the independent kingdom of Bdgium. Iu FiiiiilnHMBBil
Law of 1831, concdved in the spirit of the Englisift Wliass, aad
later imitated in the European ooontfies, graatod fibcsty ti
worship and of education. Strangely enough, this KbcRy ^uasi
increase of power for the Clericals; ibr besides putuac *» <^
to stringent state interference in the education of fucare priests^
it made possible a free and far-reochbig Catholic acfaool systo:
whose crown was theepisoopaUy oontnlled univesia&ty of Loowaa
(1834). The Education Act of 1842 led to the Ibmatloa «f the
Liberal party, whose bond of union was rwiatiure to desi^disBs.
whose watchword was the *' independenoe of the dvil pom.'*
The Catholics and Liberals were alternatdy in oontrol mtil xfi««,
when the tenfold cnbrgement of the electoiate
the Liberal party eompietdy. The chid theme of <
developed through many a noteworthy phase, has been the
question of schools. In the half •century' frosa iQjo to xSSo the
doisters likewise prospered axMl multiplied fivefbhL Tlse rrnilr
of this evdutioB is that Belgium is to-day the moot stanocMy
Catholic hud north of the Alps.
In Holland, as in Belgium, the edncatioB questka bos tea
uppermost. Here, even after z8i3i the Roman CatboUos cod-
stituted three-df^ths of the population. AUied with -.^., .
the Liberals against the orthodoa Protestants, who
were threatening religious liberty, the Catholics oasistea in x8r
to establish a system of non«erftiirian state school^ where otticad-
once is not obligatoxy nor instiuction gBatnitoug. ^"^'yp^
front, in z868, in Icttgue with the orthodox, they tried to moU
these denoDEunationoi; but as the Libcsals defeated their f*^iT*p.
they founded schools of thdr own.
In the non-Catholic oouatriea of Europe dndBg the reign of
Plus IX., and in fact during the whole 19th century, tbe impor-
tant gains of Rome were in strategic position xother ntin ■■■
than in numbers. The spread of toleration, which raf aaa
always favours minorities, broke down between 1S4S ^■■■•■"
and X873 the Lutheran exduaiveness of Norway, Denmark
and Sweden; but as jret the Catholics form a disi^ipcaiiT^
fraction of the population. In European Russia, as a result
of the partiUoos <^ Poland under Catherine IL <i76»-i790',
about one-tenth of the people ore Roman ^**}*^Yr^ Tbe
Ruthenians had united with Rome at Bxtst in 1596, foziiB^
a group of Uniates distinct from the Poles, wbo bckmged le
the Latin rite. In spite of the assurances of Catherine, Rus&^
has repeatedly persecuted the Ruthenian Uniates, in older t»
incorporate them into the Holy Orthodox Church; aad she hsa
occasionally taken drsstic measures against the Poks, pnnkc-
larly after the revolu of 1830 and 1863. After more thoa 1
century of reprenioa in 1905 the Edict of Toleration bcougk
some relid.
The remarkable eztensioB of (he Catholic hfczirchy by Pins DL
into Protestant lands, legally possible because of toleiatj«,
was in some cases made practicable because of immigratiaiL
Though this factor was periiaps not prominent in tbe case «f
Holland (1853) or Sootknd (1878) it was Irish inusaigratioa
which made it feasible in England (x8so). For a time tbe RaBiaa
propaganda in England, which drew to itsdf High Churduna
like Newman and l^Ianning, was viewed with apptebe ns ioa;
but though the Roman Catholic Church has grown greatly ia
influence in the country, the number of its adherents, n
proportion to the growth of population, has not voy gieaily
increased.
In the United Sutes of America, however, the Catbohe
population has increased by leaps and bounds through immigra-
ttOQ. The famines of the 'forties, with their subsequent politkal
and economic difficulties, transferred to America miliioas of the
Irish, whose genius for organisation in poUlics has not lalka
short of .thdr seal for reli^n. The German-speaking immi-
grants have also had a crediuble share in the work of church
extension, but the Italians have manifested no marked ardour
for thdr faith. The losses in transplantation liave been huge,
but it is impossible to e^timat^ Jhem acquately, (or ev«n tbe
>3jo~i900l
PAPACV
717
euneat figures for the Catholic popalation are. bated on detailed
estiinatea ratha than on aa actual count.
: Summing op the iiiitoiy of the papacy from the Congresa of
Vienna to the fall of the temporal power, one findi statistical
gains in Protestant countries offset perhaps by relative losses
in Catholic lands, both largely due to the closely related forces
of toleration and immigration. While the hold of the popes
on the States of the Church iras constantly weakening, their
power over the domestic policies of foreign govtrttments was
increasingi and the transition from autocracy to parliamentary
rule acoderated this process, at least in non-CathoUc territories.
The nnparalleled spread of ultramontane ideas (see Ultba*
montanxsm) brought about a centralization of authority at
Rome such as would have appalled the xSth century. This
centralization was, however, for the time not so much legal
as doctrinal. In 1854 Pius IX. by his sole authority cstab*
lished a. dogma (see Immaculate CoNcspnoN); and the
infaUibility implied in this act was openly acknowledged in
X870 by the Council of the Vatican (see Vatican Council and
Infalubiuty). Thus were the spiritual prerogatives of the
papacy exalted in the very summer that the temporal power
was brought low. (W. W. R.*)
V.'-Pmod from 1870 to igoo.
The few months that elapsed between the i8th of July 1870
and the x8th of January 1871 witnessed four events that have
been fraught with more consequence to the papacy than any-
thing else that had affected that institution for the past three
centuries. They were as follows: (i) The proclamation of the
Infallibiiity of the Pbpe on the x8th of July 1870; (2) the fall
of the Napoleonic empire and the establishment of the third
French republic on the 4th of September 1870; (3) the occupation
of Rome by the Italian forces on the 20th of September 1870,
resulting in the incorporation of the remaining states of the
Church in the kingdom of Italy; and (4) the foundation of the
German Empire by the proclamation, on the x8th of January
1871, of the king of Prussia as hereditaiy German emperor.
These changes, which so greatly disturbed the current of all
European relations, could not fail to react upon the papal policy
in various ways. They brought its existing tendencies into
greater relief, set before it new aims and diverted it into new
channels. Essential modifications could not, of course, be at
once effected or even indicated in a power whose life-blood is
tradition, and whose main strength has always hiin in calmly
abiding the issue of events and in temporizing. The eight
years that Pius IX. was permitted to see after the loss of his
temporalities entirely harmonize with this character. The veil
that hides the negotiations which, during the closing months of
the Franco-German War, were carried on between Bismarck
and the pope, through the agency of Cardinal Bonnhose, has
not yet been lifted, and perhaps never will be. According to
BitmMttk ^"^ Bismarck's own account of the matter, as
MB4ib» given in his Gtdanken und Erinnerungent these
nrnporar negotiations were initiated by the chancellor, who,
'•^*''' between the sth and 9th of November 1870, enter-
tained pourparkrs with Archbishop Ledochowski on the question
of the territorial interests of the pope. The chancellor, acting,
as he himself says, in the spirit of the adage, " one hand washes
the other," proposed to that preUte that the pope should give
earnest ol the relations subssting between him and Germany
by influencing the French clergy in the direction of the con-
chision of peace. The cool reception his endeavours met with,
both at the hands of the French ecclesiastics aa well as in
Rome, satisfied Bismarck "that the papal hierarchy hcked
either the power or the good will to afford Germany assistance
of sufficient value to make it worth while giving umbrage to
both the German ProtesUnts and the Italian national party,
and risking a reaction of the latter upon the future reUtions
between the two countries, which would be the inevitable
result were Germany openly to espouse the papal cause in
Rome.^* These utterances are eminently characteristic. They
show how far Bismarck was (even at the ckwe of 1870) from
comprehending the traditional poficy of the papacy towards
Germany and German interests, and how little he conceived it
possible to employ the reUtions between the future empire and
the Vatican as a point of departure for a successful and con^
sistent ecclesiastical policy. Rome, in a certain sense, riiowed
itself possessed of far greater foresight. The German politicians
and the Prussian diplomatists accredited to Rome had worked
too openly at undermining the papal hierarchy, and had veiled
their sympathies for Piedmont far too lightly to lead the Vatican
to expect, after the 20th of September 1870, a genuine and firm
intervention on the part of Prussia on behalf of the temporal
power of the Holy See. To satisfy the demands of Bismardt
in November 1870 would have cost the Vatican more than it
would ever have gained. It could neither afford to trifle with
the sympathies of the French Catholics nor to interrupt the
progress of those dements, which would naturally be a thorn
in the side of the young German Empire, thus undo Bismarck's
work, and restore the Vatican policy to its pristine strength and
vigour. It was soon to be perceived how carefully the Ouia had
made its calculations.
The address of the Catholic deputies to the emperor William
in Versailles on the x8th of February 1871, pl^uiing for the
restoration of the States of the Church and the temporal sove-
reignty of the pope, and for the reconstitution of the Catholic
group formed in the Prussian Landtag in i860 as the Centrum
or Centre Party in the new Reichstag (April 1871), mtist not
be regarded as the origin but rather the immediate occason
of the KuUurkampf, The congratulations which the pope sent
to the emperor William on receiving the announcement of the
establishment of the German Empire (March 6, 1871) were a
last exchange of civilities^ and the abolition of the Catholic
department in the Prussian ministry of public worship (July 8,
1871) quickly followed, together with the appointment of Falk
as KuUitsminisler (Jan. 22, 1873), and the School Inspection
Law of the 9th of February 1872.
On the 30th of January Bismarck took the opportunity of
inveighing against the formation of the sectarian Centrum as
being "one of the most monstrous phenomena in
the world of politics," and he left no room for doubt J^Jj***
in the minds of his hearers that he regarded the
leadership of Windthorst as constituting, in his eyes, a peril
to the national unity. In his Memoirs (ii. 126) he declares
that the Kultttrkampf was mainly initiated by him as a
Polish question. This declaration, in view of the development
of affairs, must appear as strange as the chancellor's confession
(Memoirs t ii. 129 seq.) that he endeavoured to persuade the
emperor of the advantage of having a nundo accredited to Berlin
(in lieu of the Catholic department of public worship). The
refusal of the emperor William to entertain this project shows
that in such matters ha judgment was more correct than that
of his counsellor, and the inadent proves that the latter had
anything but a dear insight ini the historical position. He was
drifting about with no higher aim than a " band-to-mouth **
policy, whilst the Holy See could fed the superiority with which
the consdousness of centuries of tradition had endowed it, and
took full advantage of the mistakes of its opponent. The
chancellor never realized the gravity of the onslaught which,
with his Kultitrkampft he was making upon the consdence and
liberty of his Catholic fellow dtizens. He dealt with the great
question at issue from the standpoint of the diplomatist, rather
than from that of the sutesman weQ versed in ecdesiasticaL
history and possessing an hisight into what it implies; and by
his violent, inconsiderate action he unwittingly drove into the
ranks of Ultramontanism the moderate dements of the Catholic
population. This conflict, moreover, brought tHtramontanism
the enormous advantage that, even after the abolition of the
May Laws, it had still left to it a well-dlsdplined press, an
admirable organization, and a network of interests and
interested parties; and all these combined to make the Centrum
the strongest and the most influential psUH^ ]»ty in
Germany for the remainder of the X9t> ' "-^ to
these draimstances, the tile and futt> *he
7i8
PAPACY
fcriingirf '"^
11k puciy cockaastJcftl poiky ol FSa» DL was smded kf^ tbe
>««i#t dcsR ta see tbe docuiBe cC Fiipil lafaZ^iuity
to omnU reoovutkM. TW 4tfaitia» «f «^
CoMcplMO (iSs4) nd t^ pndHMtioB «f ife SyflabM (itt«)
««f«fii«9«piMUpaBti^tkc«aytotkeCOTBcii«f lATOk. TW
naie fa^ becD grmf*^*^ tk«t tke pmrtiwitiM cC tbe mem
I wnU be cAedcd viiboid difialxy wd viiboid dacH^
;«iul«faeBtbepraDcaaoeBeBtactBaIl]rBMl«itbflnMitiaa,
be was botb wpp riaed ead cmbittttcd. For a ■HMOft tbe idea
vas estcrtaiaed «( p^rias «ay to tbe cppo pti oM and dciemac
a decson ia tlK jaat&er, or, ia tbe mwmn «f tbe fubcn aa tbe
OMUKfl o( Tkcat, ad joanBi« it to tbe GeeA kakada. B«t tbe
paxty Uttt needed ior its
pemiaded FSos DC tbat if tbe
at a dcdaiaa fainiaiahk to tbe papacy, this vaald be taal^
Bonnt to a aoMS drfeai ol tbe Holy See aad aa opea nktmy
for tbe Gafficaa sf^btmu Tbt fuawgurarr was tbe bcB PmttM
ocfamw, vbicb Fins DC isoed oa tbe istb «l Jaiy. TVs<Sd
aot by aay meaia "f^"*^ al tbe dr^sads of tbe Jtiit i , and
it was cxMxbed IB tcnes vbicb appeared aot waooqitable to tbe
maiodty of tlK Caibo&x Tbe tact tbal
pRpsved to forcBO tbdr oppoBtioa was Bsft
Itwasaatkipatedby tbeantbooiies. Bat ia Gcraaay, as aka
m Fiaaoe, tbe waves of aati-lnfiri-ihffiiy woe raffias •» Mb^
tbat tlK hmber dnrckpoMBt of e««au was Tiewcd vitb ao sBoll
OMKna. Under aonaal ^t-*'<^^'*». tbe sitaaxioa oowld not ful
lotoniaaUfavmiablySartbeVaiicaa. TbaXthe ir a 'r g i — j/
bad IbDowvd so npidly qxm tbe war was tbe pealol pkoe of
food factvae tbat ooold bare befaBca tbe Holy See. Tbe war
dfBiiiwIfil botb ia Cenauy and Fxaace tbe saaiiGe ^i al
avaibfak cnocr ■»! pobiic ^int; wbile tbe KmUmkamff, hf
fariasn« Bto rdkf tbe qocstioa of tbe external cnsteaoe of tbe
Church, tbnist all baaaal dngtaatir iatocsU and peoblens
compktcly iato tbe huhciDnnd. Tbe csrepoos htaadBr ia tbe
Hay Laws was tbe pizxutive daaacs <firecxed a^iast tbe iaferior
dofj. Instead of **»<^?«g tbeaa as fdends the Pnwmn
fH nfiit oDotxned by wild and waatoa p ericmTi on to aafce
tbea its ocsia. Tbe open protectkw it accorded to tbe Old
^ ffiwJ'M- ao vco ent oootiibated ia nosaall pffH"* toctfcaa^e
tbaae iBflneciift: ckaacsis vhkb, whOst iavocnagtbe aup p w J siu B
of UlxxaaMCtaac trndmrin , desovd no schism in tbe Cbocb,
and vvwed wj± bocror tbe idea of a Kaxioaal Onrcb ia
h.s^MMKk'% leeK (hx Cho Ctxaoucs^. Tbn ve find tbat tbe
k'.ter ycaa of tbe KtlUrkemff n*Dn,*rA tbe Valicaa from ooe
of tbe jsxot ^'^'^*^ fct -J 1* >-«-,» s. vhjrX s, had ever beca placed.
Pms DC ooh«l atrv iJ^ b» bands. k» iar as tbe fatare was
ooocexned. h is ^*Z. known that be kd «a isspiialiaos, and
frf<*^ each day the ad^xst of loase mpoxsissal ocourence
which ifaoLjd bn£« about the trivg.xA U the Ckorch. In this
foae of mkA, oa the 24th of Jane x%;2, be addreaBed tbe
Ccnaan Laaertm^ and rcf exred u> tbe tiooe tbal woald soon
fa3 Iron OD h:«h and crmh the fact of the CGfoamL Yet the
sueie has not Ullca from the noaucat cf tbe faciy \S1, and tbe
CtMMtui of the Ccrman Ec^cte has not cra&Ued into dnst,
vixrfb b asore than can be said ior the pope's Issp^zatioBS, which
fed hia to cspect tbe sadcSea witbdzawal of tbe kafiaas from
Eoeae, and a soiuiioo of the Bomaa qaestioa in tbe
mspand by his visiocaaxy policy. Tbe BcJy See directed all its
cnefgka towatds the tcfecioa of tbe probkas; in the event of
as pcofiac to be iasokJie, it WDold take caxc tbat it iboald
Rmam a fctteriflc sore in tbe body of tbe aooanhy. (For
the KallwiMi^ see farther GmujrT: Hotary.)
Tbe tfrmmrai* of tbe Vaticaa Coaacfl which have beea
paS^cihcd lince 1870 leave no room for dooht tbat tbe procia-
SttXioc of Papal InfaBOaEty was tntciwlfd ta be loflowed fay a
farther dedaxaiion, to the cfieci tbat tbe doctxiae of the tempoeal
powB of the pope fbocJd be ae^rded as a zevcakd anicle of
faith; ytt tbe advasta^ sad aeccsKty of tbe ieapocal powet
woe not to be resaxded as a arweakd do^ma prepcrly speahisc
bnt as a tnth gr***-*'**^ by <^ doctrinal body of the Bo^
I Ae 9A
naloos^y chanTBcned by tbe ■■'—■■* of tbe Jca
reweal tbe waBir imr dtifxx farw^iblte niairi <i :
Tbe
o< tbe liMiiffii^kmaf tbe
oi kal
b was qaite ia kecp^ tint R« OC a
to tbe fafl of tbe (lor laai) laa i takM dbases of tfe Ii^ .
Law of fiirtifTs (>£ay 13, itrO* «bik nfanc <^ o^ -
of three aad a oaancr irtlBna far paavided for bis aac a.:.
of Deptties («1 dmmiwk diSi^J
ialtalyasaaataoloML Akbo^b tbe Ufacnl xer.-
of tbe pope was a thiaf «< tbe past, aad his policy bad. w
inly identified wkb tbe 1
lecnBectioa as to aBow of FSas DC^ appeaxas to ana
ibebsht«(«MtiooalbemL Aad i«btly; (or be b^
a wana heart far Italy; aad bad it aot beea ior tbe ;
astical policy oi tbe boaae of Fiedanat, be >
*gitii% bawe been wbofiy awtoe finaa :
hitherto aapahfahcd ooncspooAsoe of the po^ vitb ^ . •
Emaaaoel otiTas 11 mill alii proofs ia asvpaet of ---
fwamiiinfi. and a farther oocrebnralina CM aha be piu I .^
tbeooadliataiyatxitadeaf FfaBDCoatbedeatbfli t^k^
FSas dMd oa tbe jib of Fcbraaiy 1S7S, only a lew v-^
later tbaa lis oppoBCBL He bad lai« pawd t^
jfvars of Peter's poatificate. bad I
wearer of tbe tiara, aad bad s
iSawMy {laey. On his death be kit tbe Cbaicb ab^na *.£ ^
Italy tbe Holy See was aarmanded by a boatile iaacr, mz j<
"pcisoaer- tbe krd of tbe %'atican declared ^11 1 W to .-.
In Spain aad ftetngal, aad alsa in Bdcioa^ a I
to tbe dorcb was in pom. fVimni.
Gcxaaan stateih was ia arms asaiast pope 4
Frarxc tbe CacserTttire bloaarchical party bad j
inability to preserre tbe Crown, whilst tbe Rcpobfic bad aacn -t.
itsdf fixadbr by deaoaadbe tbe deqar as its caoqr. Tboci-
baidly a aufaeiga or a saveiameat in Cbriitcadoia a^naai vt -i
FSas DC bad not cither protested or j^uast wbidb be 1^ :.:
opealy declared war. Sacb was tbe heritage tbat lit roltwi go
Leo Xm. oa his ckctioa oa the aoth of Febiaaiy sSjft.
LroXnL broBsht to bis new dignity aaay *r— g*^ t.*-:^
cansed his dectio^ to be s yaip al brtifaDy wic ite d , la <
to bis peedecnaBar, be was a aaa of dow aad <ate
deSibentioa, aad it was nataral to aqiporo tbat be
was fittK if at aS. anmyihlr to hiipiilwi of tke
with a ccrtaia srhr ila siic cmdalioa, aad c^ioyvd tbe 1
of bciag a good Latinist. As aaacao ia Bramek be ^d bee: -
acqaaiatod with tbe txaas-Alpine world, aad bad beea ^'* - z^
inlo tbe wotki&s of tbe Ufcalai i riy of BMidefa p*'^*^ «b4 ^wcci.
paxfiaaMstary covecnmeat. Tbe fact that be h*d far ao k~f
beea afaseat from Rome aSoaded ponad far tbe bdief tteft be «u
aot indiaed to identify biaaelf with aay of the |
Vaiicn court. Tbeae wcse the <
potTicaXMi aad rwrwtina of aeis of 4.
iUi't'wd (Sm aho liAfcr; fFiilwji
187(^^9^]
tbc Moderates in the Saaed OoUec* to fix their eyes vpon Um.
The appointment ol Fnncbi as sccretaiy of state was a bid for
peace that was viewed by the Irrecondlables with ill<diiguised
vexation. The following years of Leo XIIL's pontificate only
tended to increase their dissatisfaction. The first care of the
new pope was to pave the way for the restoration of peace with
Russia and the Geman Empire, and it was owing to his patience,
persistence and energy that these efloru for peace were
crowned with success. In the case of Gennan)r he made many
oottcemions which appeared to the Ztlamti to be excessive, and
made even still greater ones to Frsnce and Russia, to the great
distress of the Poles. But at Ust Leo XIIL could
Pjpittmiit!! ^^^^^^t ''^ ^y ^^ having re-established diplomatic
relations with most of the powers, but also of having
entered into a convention with the great powers of the North,
which accorded him, in conjunction with the three emperors, a
leading position as champion of the conservative interesu of
humanity. How proud Leo XIIL was of his importance in
this position is shown by the beautiful encyclical, D* ciriuaum
ecnstiifUione ckriitiana (" Immortale Dei " of Nov. i. iSSs), m
which he adopted the strongest attitude against the principle
of the Bovere^ty of the people («r tit omImi PwUJiatm prm-
scriptis Hhd cmtiino inSettigi nteeut ttt^ orium putiicm pouiuuis
a Deo ifsot fien a muUUudint r^peti paste), refuting the nodon
that the principle of public power emanates from the will of
the people alone {prineipatttm non ettt nisi p^ptdi tUuntaUm),
and absolutely rejecting the sovereignty of the people as such.
But this attitude was adopted by Leo XIIL not as an end but as
a means. The real aims of his rule were dJ K lo s ed in the second
phase of his pontificate. .
At its very commencement, the pope in his firrt encydical
(Easter 1878) proclaimed the necessity of a temporal hierarchy.
Thb was at the time regarded merely as a formality imposed by
circumstances, and one not to be seriously entertained; but it
became more and more-evident that the recovery of the tempor*
alitics was the real mainspring of Leo's whole policy. In the
negotiations with Germany, it was clearly seen that it was from
that side that the pope expected intervention in favour of resti*
tution; and, according to all appearances, Bismarck did for a
while keep alive these representations, though with more tact
than candour. After peace had been concluded, Leo, by the
agency of Galimberti, reminded the chancellor of the settlement
of the Roman question. Bismarck replied that ht was '*un*
aware of the existence of any such question." The two visits
paid by Emperor William 11. to the Vatican ooold not fail to
remove any doubts in the mind of the pope as to the fact that
Germany did not dream of giving him back Rome. The Austro-
Gcrman-Itallan triple alliance was a dire blow to his expectations,
snd Crispi's policy with iu irritating and galling pin-pikks
caused the cup to overflow.
Thus slowly, but yet dellbeiately, between 1887 and 1893, a
transformation took place in Leo's spirit and policy, and with
tMX/JX.Mtfit was brought about one of the most momentous
rft* prtmcb changes hi the attitude of the Church towards the
*•'"*■'' problems of the times and their impelling forces. A
rapproehemeni with France inevitably entailed not only an
alliance with modem democracy, but also a recognition of its
principles and aims. In Rome there was no room for both pope and
king. The note of the pope to RampoHa of the 8th of October
1895, in consequence of the celebrations on the 40th of September,
declared, in terms more dedded than any that had until then
been uttered, that the papacy required a territorial sovereignty
hi order to ensure its full independence, and that its interests
were therefore incompatible with the existence of the kingdom of
Italy as then constituted. The inevitable consequences ensued.
Italy regarded the pope more than ever as a foe within its walls;
and the poh'cy of the pope, as regards Italy, aimed at rephtdng
the kingdom by one or more republics, in which the temporal
power should, In some form or other, find a place. But the
continuance of the Republic in Paris was a condition precedent to
the estabUshment of a republic in Rome, and the first had no
chance of existen^-if the democracy in France did not remain
PAPACY 719
in power. The result was the policy of the J^affioMMl. Instruct
Uons were given to the French Catholics to break with monarchi-
cal principles, and both extemally and internally to cleave
to the Republic as representing the best form of constitutional
government. In carrying out the regime of RampoQa, which
waa, in every respect, a bad Imit-ition of that of Antonelli, the
Vatican kft no stone untuned hi its attempt to coerce the
conscience of the French royalist »; it did not even stop at dis-
honour, as was evidenced by the ca^e of the unhappy Mgr d'Hulst,
who, in order to evade the censorship of his pamphlet on Old
Testament criticism, had to abandon both his king and hb
principles, only to die in exile of a broken heart. The case was
characteristic of the whole Cathohc monarchical party, which*
owing to the pope's interference in French politics, became dis-
integrated and dissolved, a fate that was all the more painful
seeing that the Ralliewunl fsaled to influence the course of events.
The " atheistic " Republic did not for one moment think of
putting on sackcloth, or even ol giving the Church a single proof
of esteem and ^srmpathy.
In one respect it was impossible for the papacy to continue
on the path it had taken. In hih first encyclical, Leo XIIL
had sounded the clarion for battle against the Social nt pf9
Democracy; his encsrdical NMorum return en- •mtsmka
deavouied to show the means to be employed, O^mtnQt*.
mainly in view of the condition of things in Belgium, for solving
the social question on Christian lines. But the Christian
Democncy, which, starting in Belgium and France, had now
extended its activity to Italy, Austria and Germany, and was
striving to arrive at this solution, degenerated everywhere into a
political party. The leaders of this party came into close
contact with the Social Democrats, and their rehitions became
so cordial that Social Democracy everywhere declared the
" IMmocratie Chrttienne " to be its forerunner and pk>neer. The
electioneering allianfrs, which were everywhere In vogue, but
particularly in Germany, between the Catholics and popubr
party and the Social Democrats, throw a lurid light upon the.
character of a movement that certainly Went far beyond the
intottions of the pope, but which it was now difficult to undo
or to boki in check. For it is the essence of the matter that
there were further oooskientions going far beyond the Roman
questfon and fordng the Curia to adhere to the toveretgnty ol
the people.
The external refaabOiUtion of the Church had beoone, in
many points, a/mf tetompli, but, interoaUy, events had not kept
pace with it. Catholic romanticism had withered juitmamm
away hi France, as it had hi Germany. "Liberal •##«•
Catholicism," which was iU o£Eq>ring. had died with B4meata4
Montalembert, after being placed under a baa by q£^
Rome. The national reli^ous movement, associated
In Italy with the great names el Rosmini and Gioberti, had
simOarty been disavowed and crushed. The devckipment of
the Ust decade of the t^th century had deasly diown that the
educated bourgeoitie, the titrt itai, in whose hands the supreme,
power had since 1848 become vested throughout Europe, was
either entirely lost to the Churdi or, at all events, indifferent to
what were called Ultramontane tendendea. The educated
bouTitoititt which ooBtrob the ficUs of politics, science, finance,
admhkistration, art and literature, docs not trouble itself about
that great spiritual universal monarchy which Rome, as heir
of the Caesars, dahned for the Vatican, and to whidi the Curia
of to-day still dings. This te«rt«o«sw and the modem state
that it upholds stand and foil with the motion el a constitutional
sute, whose magna carU ia municipal and spiritual liberty,
institutions with which the ideaa ol the Curia are in direct
conflict. The more the hope ol behig able to regain thcaa
middle classes of aodety disappeared, the moie deddcdiy did
the Curia perceive that it must seek the support and the
regeneratfon ol ita power bi the steadily growing democncy,
and endeavour through the medium of univcnal Hiffrace to
secure the influence which this new alUance %
The poMificate of Leo XIIL in its fint
serving a ceitaia balaooe of power. Whil
7«o
PAPACY
(I900rl9l0
the tendendcb of tbe Jesuits, Leo yet shoiicd Uniidf well
disposed towards, and even amenable to, views of a diainetri-
rtf rtpKj ""v opposite kind; and as soon as the Vatican
threw itself into the arms of France, and bade fiare-
well to the idea of a national Italy, the policy of
^'equilibiium had to be abandoned. The second phase
fai Leo's policy could only be accomplished with the aid of the
Jesuits, or rather, it required the submission of the ecclesiastical
hierarchy to the mandates of the Society of Jesus. The
further consequence was that all aspirations were subjected to
the thraldom of the Church. The pontificate of Leo XIU. is
distinguished by the great number of persecutions, prosecutioaa
and injuries iaBictcd upon Catholic satantSt from the prosecution
of Antonio Rosmini down to the proscription directed against
the heads of the American Church. Episodes, such as the
protection so long extended to the Leo Taxil affair, and to the
revelations of Diana Vaughan (the object of whxh last was to
bring Italian freemasonry and its ostensible work, the unity of
Italy, into discredit), together with the attitude of the Ultra-
montane press in the Dreyfus affair, and bter towards England,
the invigoration of politicsi agitation by the Lourdes cdebration
and by anti-Semitism, were all manifestations that could not
raise the " system " in the estimation of the cultured and dviliccd
world. Perhaps even more dangerous wns the employment of
the whole ecclesiastical organtcatiODr and of Caihoficism
generally, for political purposes.
No one will be so foolish or so imjust as to hold Leo XIIL
responsible for the excesses committed by the subordinate
departments of his government, in disclosing prosecuting and
sometimes even fraudulently misrepresenting his aims and ends.
But all these details, upon which it is not necessary to dwtU,
are overshadowed b^nd all doubt by the one great fact that
the ecclesiastical r^'me had not only taken under its wing
the solution of social questions, but also daimed that political
action was within the proper scope of the Chuidi, and, moreover,
arrogated to Itself the right of interfciing by means of " Direc-
tives " with the political life of nation*. This was nothing new,
for as early as ist$ the English barons protested against it.
But the weakening of the papacy had allowed this daim to
lapse for centuries. To have revived it, and to have earned It
out as far as is possible, was the work of Leo XIII.
It would be both presumptuous and premature to pass a final
verdict upon the value and success of a policy to which, whatever
else be said, must be accorded a certain meed of praise for its
daring. Even in 189a Spttller, in his essay upon LamcnnaM,
pointed out how the latest evolution of Catholicism was taking
the course indicated by Lamennais in his Litre du peuplt(iSz7)t
and how the hermit of " La Chtoaie," who departed this life
in bitter strife with Rome, declared himself to be the actual
precursor of modem Christian Socialism. He hinted that the
work of Leo XIII. was, in his eyes, merdy a new attempt to
build up afresh the theocracy of the middle ages upon the ruins
of the old monarchies, utilizing to this end the inexperience of
the young and easily beguiled democrades of the dawning solh
century. To comprehend these views aright, .we must first
remember that what in the first half of the iQth century, and
«Iso in the days of Lamennais, was undentood by DeoMcracy
was not coinddent with the meaning of this expression as it was
afterward* used, and as the Christian SodaUsU understood it.
Down to 1848, and even still later, " Democracy " was used to
cover the whole mass of the people, pre-eminently represented
by the broad strata of the btiiirteoiHe; in 1900 the Democratic
party itsdf meant by thia term the rule of the labouring dass
organised as a nation, which, by its nomerical superiority,
thrust aside all other dasses, induding the boitrieoisie, and
excluded them from participation in iu rule. In like manner
it woukl be cnroneotis to confuse the sense of the expression as
it obtains on the continent of Europe with what is under-
stood under thb term in England and America. In this latter
case - the term " Democracy," as applied to the historical
devdopment of Great Britain and the United States, denotes '
a constittttioBal stale in which every dtiaeo has righu
propoitionate to his eneigy and InteOigence. The todaHstk
idea, with which the " Dfmocratie Chritienne " had identified
itself both in France and Belgium, regards numben as tha
centre of gravity of the whole state organism. As a natter
of fact it recognises as actual dtixe&s only the labonrer, or,
in other words, the proletariat.
On surveying the situation, certain weak points in the policy
of the Vatican under Leo XIII. were manifest even to a coo-
temporsry observer. They might be summed up as foUowa:
(i) An unmistakable decline of religious fervour in church life^
(a) The intensifying and nurturing of all the passions and
questionable practices which arc so easily encouraged by practical
politics, and are incompatible in almost all poinu with the
priestly office. (3) An eyer>increasing dispUcement of all the
refined, educated and nobler dements of sodety by such as are
rude and uncultured, by what, in fact, may be styled theccdcsi-
astical "TtottorL" (4) The naturally resulting paralysis ol
intelligence and sdentific research, which the Church either
proscribed or only sullenly tolerated, (s) The increasing decay
and waxing corruption of the Romance nations, and the fostering
of that diseased state of things which displayed itself in France
in so many instances, such as the Dreyfus case, the anti-Scmiiic
movement, and the campaign for and against the Assumptionista
and their newspaper, the Crouf, (6) The increasing estrange-
nent of German and Anglo-Saxon feeling. As against these,
noteworthy reasons might be urged in favour of the new
devdopmenL It might well be maintained that the faults just
entmierated were only cankers inseparable from every new and
great awvement, and that these excrescences wpuld disappear in
course of time, and the whole movement enter upon a more
tranquil path. Moreover, in the industrial districts of Germany,
for example^ the Christian industrial movement, supported by
Protestants and Catholics alike, had achieved considerable
results, and proved a serviceable means of combating the
seductions of Socialism. Finally, the Church had reminded the
wealthy classes of Ihdr duties to the sick and loiiers, and by
making the social question its own it had gone a long way
towards permeating all social and poh'iical conditions witii
the cpirit of Christianity. (F. X. K.)
yi,-^Period from zpoo to jgio.
On the 3rd of March 1903 Leo XIII. celebrated his JubHce
with more than ordinary splendour, the occasion bringing him
rich tributes of req)ect from all paru of the world, Catholic
and non-Catholic; on the 20th of July following be died. The
succession was expected to fall to Leo's secretary of stale.
Cardinal RampoUa; but he was credited with having inspired the
French sympathies of the late pope; Austria exercised its right of
veto (see Conclave, ad fin.) ^ and on the 8tb of August, Giuseppe
Sarto, who as cardinal patriarch of Venice had shown a friendly
disposition towards the Italian government, u-as dcctcd pope
He look as his secretary of state Cardinal Raphad ^^ ^
Merry dd Val, a Spaniard of English birth and cduca- ^^
tion, well versed in diplomacy, but of well-known ultramontane
tendencies. The new pope was known to be no politidan, but
a simple and saintly priest, and in some quarters there were hopes
that the attitude of the papacy towards the Italian kingdom
might now be changed. But the name he assumed, Pius X.,
was significant; and, even had he had the will, it was soon dear
that he had not the power to make any material departure from
the policy of the first " prisoner of the Vatican." What was
even more important, the new r£giroe at the Vatican soon m&de
itsdf fdt in the relations of the Holy See with the world oi
modem thought and with the modem conception of the state.
The new pope's motto, it is said, was " to esublish all things
in Christ ** {instaware omnia in Ckristo); and since, ex kypciAtsi,
he himself was Christ's vicar on earth, the working out of this
principle meant in effect the extension and consolidation of the
papal authority and. as far as possible, an cad to the com*
promises by means of which the papacy had sought to make
friends of the l^Iammon of unrighteousness. It was this spirit
whidi informed such decrees as that on "mixed marriages"
I900-X9I01
PAPACY
721
{IT* Utker'e) H>t 1907/ wMdi widened sGII furtWtlie'aocial guU
between Catholics and Protestants (see MAa&XAGEi Camm Law),
or the refusal to allow the French bishops to accept the Associa-
tions Law passed by the French government after the denunda-
tioD of the concordat and the separation of Church and State
(see Fiance: History): better that the Church in France should
link into more than apostolic poverty than that a tittle of the
rights of the Holy See should be surrendered. Above all it was
this spirit that breathed through every line of the famous
encyclical, Pasctndi gregist dkected against the " Modernists "
(see Roman Catrouc Chuich: Bistory), which denounced with
bitter scorn and irony those so-called Catholics who dared to
attempt to reconcile the doctrine of the Church with the roults
of modern science, and who, presumptuously disregarding the
authority of the Holy See, maintained " the absurd doctrine that
would make of the laity the factor of progress in the Church."
That under Pius X. the papacy had abandoned none of its
pretensions to dominate consciences, not of Catholics only, was
again proved in x 9x0 when, at the very moment when the pope
was praising the English people for the spirit of tolerance wUch
led the British government to introduce a bill t%alter the form'
of the Declaration made by the sovereign on his accession into a
form inoffensive to Roman CathoUcs, he was remonstrating with
the government of Spain for abrogating the law forbidding the
Spanish dissident churches to display publicly the symbols of
the Christian faith or to conduct their services othenmse than
semi-privately.
In pursuance of the task of strengthening the Holy See, the
Vatican policy under Pius X. was not merely one of defiance
towards supposed hostile forces within and without
the Church; it was also strenuous in pushing on the
work of internal organization and reform. In 1904 a
conomission of cardinals was appointed to undertake the stupen-
dous task of codifying the canon law (see Canon Law), and in
^ ^ X908 an extensive reorganization of the Curia was
pStx!* carried out, in order to conform its machinery more
nearly to present-day needs (see Cuua Rouana).
In taking England, the United States and other non-Catholic
States from underthe care of the Congregation of the Propaganda,
the pope raised the status of the Romaii Catholic Church in
those countries. All these changes tended to consolidating the
centralised authority of the papacy. Other reforms were of a
different character. One of the earliest acts of the new pontifi-
tale was to forbid the use in the services of the Church of any
music later than Palestrina, a drastic order justified by the
extreme degradation into which church music had fallen in
Italy, but in general honoured rather In the spirit than in the
letter. More, important was the appointment in X907 of a
commission, under the presidency of Abbot Gasquet, to attempt
the restoration of the pure text of the Vulgate as St Jerome
wrote it.
[ Such activities might well be taken as proof that the papacy
at the outset of the 20th century possessed a vigour which it was
CamMffth»^^^ from possessing a hundred years earlier. Under
R0vtrai0t Pius VI. and Pius VII. the papacy had reached the
tfPapmr* lowest depths of spiritual and political impotence
since the Reformation, and the belief was even widespread
that the prisoner of Fontainebleau would be the last of the
long line of St Peter's successors. This weakness was due not
to attacks from without — for orthodox Protestantism had long
since lost its aggressive force~-but to disruptive tendencies
within the Church; the Enlightenment of the x8th century had
sapped the foundations of the faith among the world of intellect
and fashion; tfatt development of Gallicanism and Febronianism
threatened to leave the Holy See but a shadowy preeminence
over a series of national churches, and even to obliterate the
frontier line between Catholicism and Protestantism. It was
the Revolution, which at one moment seemed finally to have
engulfed the papacy, which in fact preserved it; Febronianism,
as a force to be seriously reckoned with, perished in the downfall
of the ecclesiastical principalities of the old Empire; Gallicanism
perished with the constitutional Church in France, and its
prindpka feQ Into discredit with n genemtim wUch associated it
with the Revolution and its excesses. In the reaction that
foQowed the chaos of the Revolutionary epoch men turned to the
papacy as alone giving a foothold of authority in a conf dsed and
quaking world. The Romantic movement helped, with its
idealixation of a past but vaguely realized and imperfectly
understood, and Chateaubriand heralded in the Catholic reaction
with his CiniU d» CknOiamme (x8oi) a btilliant if superfidsl
attack on the encyclopaedists and their neo-Pagaidsm, and a
glorification of the Christian Church as supreme not only in the
regions of faith and morals, but also in those of intellect and art.
More weighty was the Du Pape of Joseph de Maistre (1819),
closely reasoned and fortified with a wealth of learning, which had
an enormous influence upon all those who thought that they saw
in the union of " altar and throne " the palladium of society.
The Holy Empire was dead, in spite of the pope's protest at
Vienna sgainst the failure to restore " the centre of political
unity "; Joseph de Maistre's idea was to set up the Holy See in
its place. To many minds the papacy thus came to represent
a unifying principle, as opposed to the disruptive tendencies of
Liberidism and Nationalism, and the papal monarchy came to be
sunounded with a new halo, as 01 some sort realizing that ideal
of a " federation of the world " after which the age was dimly
feeling.
So far as politics are concerned this sentiment was practically
confined to certain classes, whidi saw their traditional advantages
threatened by the revolutionary tendencies of the nePapa^
times; and the alHance between the throne and the aadiMMtrm
altar, by confusing the interests of the papacy with '**w^^
those of political parties, tended— as Leo XIII. had the wit to
realize— to involve the fate of the one with that of the other, as
in France. Far stronger was the appeal made by the authori*
tative attitude of the papacy to all those who were disturbed by
the scientific spirit of the age: the ceaseless questioning of aU
the foundations on which faith and morality had been supposed
to rest Biblical criticism, by throwing doubt on the infallibility
of the Scriptures, was undermining the traditional foundation
of orthodox Protestantism, and most of the Protestant Churches,
divided between antagonistic tendencies, were ceasing to speak
with a oertab voice. To logical but timid minds, like that of
J. H. Newnum, which could not be content with a compromiss
with truth, but feared to face ultimate realities, the rigidly
authoritative attitude of Rome made an irresistible appeal The
process, maybe, from the point ol view of those outside, was to
make a mental wilderness and call it peace; but from the papal
point of view it had s double advantage: it attracted those in
search of religious certainty, it facilitated the maintenance of
its hold over tiie Catholic democracy. The methods by which
it has sought to nuiintain this hold ate criticized in the article
ULTRAMONTANIfiM.
There can also be little doubt— though the Curia itself would
not admit it— Chat the spiritual power of the papacy has been
greatly increased by the loss ci the temporal power, f^ ^^ ^
The pope is no longer a petty Italian prince.who, in thaTtm toett
order to preserve his dominions, was necessarily '^■^"'
involved In the tangile of European diplomacy; he is the naonarch
of a vast, admirably organized, spiritual world-empire, and when
—as must needs happen— the overlapping of the spiritual and
temporal spheres brings him into conflict with a secular power,
his diplomacy is backed, wherever Catholic sentiment is sCrong,
by a force which the secular power has much difficulty in resisting;
for in spiritual matten (and the term coven a wide field) the
Catholic, however toyal to his country he may be, must obey
God, whose vicegerent is the pope, rather than man. Even
Bismarck, in the end, had to " go to Canossa."
It is, indeed, possible to exaggerate this power. The fact that
the Vatican presents a great force hostile to and obstructive of
certain characteristic tendencies of modem life and thought has
necessarily raised up a powerful opposition even in countries
traditionally Catholic. France no tonger deserves the title of
eldest daughter of the Church; the Catholicism of Italy !s largely
superficial; even Spain has shown signs of lestiveness. On the
722
PAPACY
Other haad, the wnU opportunity now open to the papecjr on
iU spiritual side^ is proved by the growing respect in which it
has been held since 1870 in the English-speaking countxks,
where Romaa Catholics are in a minority and their Church is
in no sense established. Without doubt, opinion has been
influenced in these countries t»y the fact that Rome has not been
sufficiently strong to exercise any' disturbing influence on the
general course of national affairs, while in boih its conspicuous
members set a high example ol private and dvic conduct.
(W. A. P.)
Lut of Ike PonUffs of Ike Raman Ckwrck. >
Date of Election
or Conaecration.
Date of Death
C. At
B. PBTSUS
39 vi, f .
65-67
C.67
S. Linus
SS;
^ 79
C.79
S. Cletua MamdUM)
c 91
c. 91
S. Clemena 1
ut
c 100
c.ioo
S. Evariatus
c. 109
C.109
S.A)exander
2r;.
c. 119
C.I 19
?I38
S. Sii^tu* {Xyitia}
CI36
S, TtlnphE>ry«
si*
137
C.138
S. HvEbui
Hi*
■^
c.i4a
S. Piui
II vii;
t. 1^6
'iS
S. Anicctus
17 iv.
167
S. Sottf
33 hr,
«. 176
177
5. Eicuthfras
36 V,
189
C.190
St Victor I.
30 iv.
36Wii,
<.302
f.20»
317
3l8
14 X.
333
»»
S. Urt>ADui J.
35 V.
330
330
S. PonliaQUt
m. 38ix.
l^
335 (31 Jd, ocd.)
S^ Anteruj
3i.
Si. Fabiiniri
30i,
350
JsiOii-eL)
& Comtliua
14 ix^
353
3S3el.
S. Lucius
5%
254
a54(iav?.eL)
S. Siephjnu^ L
3vrii,
1
257 viu ,,
Sl Si^xu* [Xysiiai II.
6 viii.
359a»vii,cl,
ad9 5i,cL
Sl Dion) uuB
36 xii.
S. Felijt
30 xii.
S
375 c. 5 i
38A 17 xii
396 30vi
5. EuTychknui
''8 xii.
St GaJui
33 iv.
S. MAi^d^jiiiu
(? 25 x)
> 3<H
307 d. ^
S* MarctUii*
15 i.
309
309iv,d.
S. E\i*ehim
I7vin,
309
3103 vii
5. Md.jFiL.dcs iUaHodos) 1
II i.
314
tusi,
S.Silvr:-,c.^
S. M rrcLl
3ixii«
7h
^
337 6 u. eL
S. Julius
S. Lil-rrius
S. DfmJ^Ul
12 iv.
10 xii.
i
398xHdl
S-SlruJut
26x1,
S. Ani^tAtiui !. t Mrl aano
401-3
402
S. Ir ri'-KcntIm 1,
36x3,
417
422 CIO ix
S. Zt- imm
418
S. Br'fttiladai 1.
t^!4^»
433
43a
432 31..VU,
461 12 XI, CS.
S.Sl/1- Hi.
S. Lt
1 18 viil,
10 xi.
»?
S. H
]"%
468
468 25 ii, ca.
S. Si
483
483 ...
492 1 111, CS.
S. G-U'iut
'YAk
496
496f. 24XLCS.
498 33 Xi.
S. Ar. ^'iJMa* IL \et Sep. 19 xi,
S. S3 r . pEi ivh IU iet upuh. 19 vtl.
S. Ii- r rti i^l ii . t sepitU. I viil,
S.ki.*iV. ti#M. I3x(?]
498
514
514 30 VU. Ci.
523 13 viii
526 12 VU, CS.
530
530 17 ix. rf.
Bonifactus II. t
Toannea II.
b. Agapctua I.
S. ^hreriua. txd \
upul. 17 X,
532
532 31 »i. CS.
sepel. 37 y.
C538
|gi;?.3:
fMiv,
[Waovj,
537 29 iu..a.
555 p. 7 VI. ct.
560 14 yu, ca.
574 3vt,c«.
578 27 XI, CS.
».t.
tupi'lt
\sepd.i2ii
^
Joannea IIL \
BenadictuaL
Pelagiua IL
13
S903ix.cs.
604 13 IX. ca.
S. Gregoriua I.
604
Sabinianua
tMii.
$opel.i2jd.
606
607 19 Ii. ca.
608 I5ix,ci.
Bonifaclua III.
607
S. Bonifadua IV.
3i'ii
S!i
615 19 X, ca.
S.Deuadedit
619 23 xii, ca.
Bonifadua V.
x^. 35X.
Zl
625 3 xi. ca.
Honoriua
sepel. 12 X.
Date of Election
or Consecration.
640 38 v. ca.
640 35 XU, CS.
643 34xi.CB.
649v»-^. ca.
654 10 viil. ca.
657 30 vii. ca.
673 II IV, ca.
676 3 xi. ca.
678 vi-vii. ca.
683 17 viil, ca.
684 36vi.ca.
685 33 vii. ca.
686 31 x,ca.
687 x-xii, el.
7oi30x,ca.
705 I iii, ca.
708 18 i (?)
708 35 iii, ca.
715 19 V, ca.
731 II 11. eL
753 ex. iii, eb
757 29 V, ca.
767 5 VUj cs.
768 7 viu, ca.
773 I ii, eL •
795 36 xii, eL
816 vi, eL
817 35 ij CS.
834 v-^«a
837
827ex.aa«.
«44i
847 10 IV, ca,
855 39 ix. CS.
8<8 34 iv, CS.
867 14 xii, CS.
873 14 xii
883 c. xii
884 c V, eL
885 c. ix, cL
891 c ix
896 c 33 V. eL
896 a. II vi,intrus
897 vii, .ca
892eiS.cs.
9006-36 vii
903 c. viii
903 fx
904 29.». ca.
911 e. n, ca.
913 c. xi, cs.
94 15 V, CS.
928 C. VII, CS.
929 c. ii. CB.
931 e. iii, CS.
936 o. 9 i« ca.
939 A. 19 vii.cona.
9420. II xi,coos.
946 c. iv
9«5 c xi, ca.
963 4 xii, eL
964v,eL
965 I Xj ca.
973 «9 I. cat
974 X
985 I Ix, cat
996 3v.ca.
999 M. IV, ca
1003 13 vi, cs.
1003 25 xii, ca.
1009 p. 30 vi, ca.
roi3 33 vi, ca.
1034 34vi-i5vii,ca
'1033 i,ca.
104X I V, lotr.
1046 35 xii. ca.
1048 17 vii. ca.
1049 13 ii, CS.
1055 13 iv, CS.
1057 3 viii, el.
1058 5 iv, d.
DateofDvtk
tfi
Sevcrinus
JoainealV.
Thecdonial.
:x Martiaus
S. Eugcniua L
S. Vitalianua
Adeodatua
Donua
S. Agatho
S.LeoIL
S. Benedictus IL
Joannes V.
Conon
S. Seiglua L
ioannea VI.
oannca VII.
isinniua
Conatantinua I.
S. Gregoriua II.
S. GrKoriua 111
S. Zacnariaa
Stephanua 1 1.
Stephanua IIL
S. Paulua I.
Coqatantinua IL
Stephanua IV
Hadrianua I.
S. Leo IIL
Stephanua V.
S. j^halia L
Eugcniua 1 1.
Valentinua
Gregoriua IV.
Semus IL
S. Leo IV.
Benedlctuf IIL
S. Nicolaua I.
Hadrianua II.
Joannes VIIL
Marinua I.
Hadrianua IIL
Stephanua VI.
Formoaua
Bonifadua VI. t ^
Stephanua VL«(VII.) amol.\
Romanua . t e.
Theodonia 1 1, t Posi ao dies
Ioannea IX. t
Beaedictua IV. t
LeoV.
ChriatopKonis
Sergiua IIL
Ahastaaius IQ.
sepd, 3 vitt,
sejpeL 13 X,
tepeL 14 V,
t «xiii 16 ix,
**pd. 3 vi,
sepeLayl
sepd. 16 vi,
i$ep. II iv,
«^IOi.
«p. 3vd,
sop, 8v,
t a viii.
sepH. 33 ix.
upd. 8ix,
sepd. io«ii i,
t Sep. 18 X,
\up. 7i«.
J 9!y
}pd. It u.
t «e^ 39 xi,
\.\i*P- I5..»ji.
\ex. m,
^ Sep. 96 iv.
t38vi.
depos. 6 viii»
t 35 ai,
t *ep. 13 yi,
^ t24».
tc l4Vj,
t vui,
r.aaii ^
^'\,
17V11,
7 IV,
13 XI,
tc I xii,
15 xii,
'•V .
c. viu-ia,
f. ix,
I
xi.
\c.
Joannea X.
LeoVL
Stephanua Vllt
Joannes XL
Leo VL (VIL)
Stei^nua IX.
Marinua IL
Agapettia II.
tc V,
\m€arcere
\e. Ii,
jisol.
640
642
649
655
657
67a
.676
678
681
68*
-St
687
701
705
;3
715
751
741
75^
752
757
767
768
77a
ni
•17
8*4
«a7
827
n
•67
8*4
S^
891
896
896
S'
897
900
iW3
903
904
911
9ri3
914
9>9
9^9
931
M6
9^
»4^
Joannea XI L
Leo VIIL
Benedict V.
Joannea XIII.
Benedict VI.
Beaedictua VIL
Ioannea XIV.
Bonifadua VIL
Joannea XV.
Gregoriua V.
Sytveater IL iCorhtrf^
Ioannea XVlL {Skc»)
Joannea XVIIL
Sergiua IV.
Beii^ict VIIL
Joannes XIX.
Benedictus IX.
Gregoriua VI.
Gemena II.
Damaaua IL
S. Leo IX.
Victor ir.
Stephanua X.
Benedict X.
it vii, 939
c X, 94^
t. 85; %
'V963)tt4T,964
4xin963)1
\c. lU,
extd
\vc€%s. vn,
. .t «...
JOCCU. 30 VUI,
t vii,
tta. !v,
* ii»
«!^
7XU,
VI,
9«5
972
1^
999
1003
1003
1009
l6-«3 vi, IOI3
rrf^cnol.
IV,.
rtsignai. 30x11,
38 vii,
13901,
txpmU. c. I
1024
10*3
1045
1046
1047
1048
■OS4
1057
l<^
1099
* Aa recorded in the rcgiatera of the Roman Church /from P. B. Cams, 5wk» <piKa|iigrasi Jfa»ignas<6dltria#).
PAPACr
723
Date of EkctioQ
or CoMocratioQ
lom 34 i, ct.
to6i I X. eL
J 33 IV, d.
34 V, el.
(088 13 ui. el.
109Q 13 viH, eL
[I18341. eL
[I193 ti; el.
134 15-16 xiLd.
130 14 ti, eL
143 30 ix. el.
144 I3tii, eL
I45l5ii,.el.
153 13 vu,-c«.
154 4 «t. el,
[l«9 7a.cl.
181 I ix
18535x1
187 31 X, el.
[187 >9xii, d.
191 30 iii, eL
.19881
i3i6 18 vit
[337 19 iii
341 X ^
243 25 ▼»
^§4 25xH.
361 39 VUI
365 5 ji
1371 I IX
[376 33 ii cs.
[376 13 vii, eL
1376 13 ix
[377 25 xi
081 33 u
J 385 3 iv
t388 15 ii
13945VU
1394 34x2
[303 23 X
1316 7 viil
133420X1I
i343 7v.eL
1353 18 xu
[363 38 X
1370 30 xii
1378 8 iv
[378 30 ix
139428 a
389 2 xi
404 17 X
406 2 xii
409 36 vi
410 17 ▼
417 II xi
1431 3 Hi
447 6 ju
455 8 IV _
'458 19 vm
1464 31 viii
147 1 9 viii
1484 34 viii
!493 II viii
J 503 23 ix
1503 I xi
[513 iSui
53391 .
523 19 w
534 U, X
1550 8 ti
r555 9 IV
1555 23 V
35 xii
I6i7j,ct.
•336^
IS
.,J5i v^ct.
1590 15 tx, el.
'5905x2
1591 29 X. el
1061
1073
1085
1087
109Q
1118
X119
14 H,
'U
Nicolaus IL t ^7 ^*
Alexander II. 3i iv,
S. Gregoritts VII. 35 ^
Victoi- III. ' 10 ix.
Urbanus IL 39 vii«
Paachalis II. 31 i,
Gelasius II. 39 L
Calixtui IL I3-;I4 xii,i 134
Honorius II. """
Innocentius II.
Coelestinus IL
Lucius II.
Eugenitis III.
Anastadut IV.
Hadrianus IV;
Alexander III.
Ludut III.
Urbanus lU. ^
Gregorius VIII.
Clemens III.
Coelestinus III.
Innocentius IIL
Honorius III.
Gresorius IX.
Comtinus IV.
Innocentius IV.
Alexander IV.
Urbanus IV. t 3 x.
Gemens IV. 29 xi,
Gregorius X. 1 1 i.
Innocentius V. 33 vi.
Hadrianus V. 17 viii,
Joannes XXI. 16 v.
Nicolaus III. 33 vtii,
Martinus IV. 38 iii,
Honorius IV. 3 iv,
NicoUuslV. t 4^iv,
S. Codestinus V. (f 19 v, 1396)
ns. 13 xii,
Date of Death.
vii.
3xii,
I IX,
30 viii,
35x1,
30 X.
»7a».
ui.
8L
16 vii,
i8iit,
viil,
17-X8 xi, 1341
13 xii, X3S4
35 V, I36t
1 130
1143
1 144
II45
I153
I154
I159
I181
II85
I187
I187
I191
1198
I3l6
1337
I341
BonifadusVlIL
Benedictus XI.
Clemens V.
Joannes XXII.
Benedictus XII.
Clemens VI.
Innocentius VI.
Urt)anus V.
Gregorius XI.
Urinous VI.
Clemens VII. antipapa Attn.
Benedict XIU. (0X10136 vii)
1417
Bonifacius IX.
Innocentius VII.
Gregorius XII. (f 1419)
nsitnoL
Alexander V.
Joannes XXIII. (t 33 xi.
X419) amo$
Martinus V.
Eugenius IV.
N'icoUusV.
Calixtus IIL
Pius II.
Paulus IL
Sutus IV.
Innocentius VIIL
Alexander VL
Pius in.
Julius IL
LeoX.
Hadrianus VL
Qeroens VIL
Paulus IIL
iulius III.
4arceUus IL
Paulua IV.
Pius IV.
S-PiusV.
Gregorius XIII.
SixtttsV.
UrbuiusVIL
Gr^usXIV.
Innocentius IX.
OemeAs VIIL
Leo XI.
II X.
7vli.
30 tv,
4xiH
13 ix.
19x11,
37 "U
15 X.
16 ix.
i23v,
6x1,
4 vii,
t 3v,
34 V,
30 U,
34 ill.
6 viii,
15 viii,
38 vii,
13 viii,
liviii,
18 X,
",%
14 ix,
35 ix,
10 xi,
33 iii,
30 iv,
xivtii,
9xii.
IV,
10 iv,
.27 viii,
27 ix.
x30xH.
5«rf.
ta7iv.
1364
1368
1376
1376
1376
1377
1380
1385
1387
1393
1294
1303
1304
1314
1334
1342
X352
1363
1370
1378
J389
1394
I423I
IP
I415
1410
1415
1431
1447
1455
1458
1464
1492
1503
1503
1513
1521
1523
1534
1.^9
1555
1555
1559
1565
1573
1585
1590
1590
1591
1591
1605
^605
Date o( Electloa
or Consecration.
Date of Death.
1605 x6 V, d.
PftuIusV.
^38L
]631
I63i9ii
Gregorius XV. 8vt!,
1633
1633 6 viil, eL
Urbanus VIIL 39 viL
1644
164415 a
1667 30 vi
Innocentius X. 7 i*
llif
Alexander VIL 33 v.
QemensIX. 9x11.
1669
1670 39 iv
Clemens X.
33 vU,
}SS
1676 31 ix
1689 6 X
Innocentius XI. 13 vii,
Alexander VIIL iii.
169I
1691 13 vu
Innocentius XII.
»7a.
1700
I700 33xi,d
OemensXL
i9"».
I73I
1731 8 V
Innocentius XIIL
7ja.
1724
1734 39 V
Benedictus XIIL
31 n.
1730
1730 13 vH
Clemens XIL
6ii.
1740
1740 17 viil
Benedictus XIV.
3v,
1758
1769
1758 6 vU
1769 19 V
Clemens XIIL
aii.
Clemens XIV. 23 ix.
Pius VL 39 vui,
Pius VIL 30 viii.
1774
1775 15 a
1800 14 td
1833 38 ix
\m
Leo XIL
xo ii.
1839
1839 31 iii
PiusVIII.^^^^
30 xf.
1830
1831 3 ii
Gregonus XVL
'vi*
1846
1846 16 VI, d.
Pius IX.
30 vii.
1877
1877 vi. d
Leo XIIL
1903
1903 4 vifi, eL
PittsX.
BiBLlOGRAPHT. — ^The works mentioned bdow are for the most
parr those no^t iiicluded in tli£ icpante btblkicraplues to thearticla
on the iodividuiil pupci (^g.p.}.
Gerur^.—Oi cmydQfmvd\3.s. may be mentiunod the JVh* Schaff-
Hctr^^S Encyil^pittdia o/Rciiiidnu Knirnkdit (New Vovk, itjoS sqi- } ;
thi.- Catkiiik Encyclopaedia (Nrw York, i^j *qfj-h HcRo^-Hauck
RtoUifcyklopAdit Cjrd rd., LfituiK^ 18^ s^l^^l ); WclMf and Wtlie,
Moroni, Dftionariif di ^rttdKiont slitrk^^i^ijtiiastk^ (Vtnirt^ 184^
sqq>)» alt of u-hich coDtaim articte^ on ijidrvidual pcpa and cubjects
coiiiit-ctL-cI ivJEh ihc papacy, with titblios;raphics+ For chrDnolo^krAt
dct.dil, *M Z. V. Lobkowitip Slaiktik der Fopiti {FnriburE i. B.,
Careful ty inde^nl kourcc mattrijU in tSc ongirui] languEift*
aff- jjivcfi bv C. Mirbt, Queliftt iut Gcsckkki^ dfS PopsUvms latd de£
l^'S).
tK^ien Knihoiizf^mti: {jrid cnlaroiu'd «!-, Tkibincrn, 1901); crany
fni^mtnts tn iniriil^ tif n ynder '^rapacyj* in i/ijXory /cr Read^f
RtJtrfncf. <TJ. by J, N. Utnibci (volfl, iv., vi-, vii, Spnntfield, i8^S-
10] '.'J. ildtjFijf Church hiJiiDncs are F. X. FuiiV, Lehfbvch ief
Kui^fKicahkhU (jii cd,* PadcHKim, 19107); A. Knftpflcr, Lrkrbuch
der K irchfnitMhiikU {4th ed., Fmbum i. B.^ 1906), both Romiui
OitNolk; al!$o the Lutheran work of J. H, Kurtj, LeArtmek der
KtTLlifnseichkktt, cd, N. Bflflttctadi and P, Tschackcrt (i4(h cd*,
i'triod I.To i'-y8j.—h\'-- " ^-- > . - ' ...... ,^.y
during the firet eleven ctniuiiL^ ■■-'-■ Jd i^iiiLi J. t -■■. .m. •..,-. .,..,.,:,cr
of works on the hbtory of the Chiya-h during this period. Qf these
a sdected list will be found in the bibliography to the article
Church History. Here it must suffice to mention certain modem
works bearing more partkularlv on this period. Hamack, X«^<
T DbgmeHgeukukle, 3rd ed. * "* — *■"" ■^-— *■—
. roL L If 33-35. 74: Sohm^ - _
ling, CesclUckU des deutxhtn Kirchenf^iL'i (iS7S>: Ducht^ne,
bnckier .
redU, voL L
L400et8eq.; Hioachius, A trcAM-
Sohm, KirckenrHM, vol. jL J ap Pt =«].;
^ises siparfes (1905), Les Premiers lemps dt Uiai poniifi^ai U^h
II., see E. mnz. Papst Pasckaiu IL (BruJau. i»77Vi W. SLhura,
Di€ PoliHk Papst PascJuds IL gegen Kenft UHnrkk V. im Jahrt
1112 (Erfurt, 1877); and the excellent " Elude des tdatioiu cnu«
le Saint-Si^ et Ic royaume de France de 1099 * 1108," published
by BemaidMonod in the PasUiotu des tkhes des Hhes de rScoU
des Charles C'904}- The Btdlarium of Calbctus II. and the History
i Paris, 18911 of his pontificate have been published by Ulysse
lobcrt. CthA. Maurer, PapsI CaiixS IL (Munich. 1889)., Besides
these monographs, usdul information on the history of the popea
of this period will be found in the foUowing: R. RShncht. CeukuhU
des K&tiireichs Jerusalem annsbruck, i898)^and CeschtMs dts
ersten Kreuxeuia annsbruck. .1901): H. von Sybd, Cesekukle des
ersteuKreuxMuts (3nd ed., Ldpng, 1881): H.Hagenmeyer. Peter. <f^
Eremit (Ldpag. 1879) : F- Chalandon, Essai smr le r^fAUxuL
Comnhu (fins, 1900); G. Meyer von Knonau, JoMQcher da
dei^scken Reickes unler Heinrick IV, wtd Hetmh V. (LeiWB.
iSooetseq.); Carl Mirbt. Die PMitisHh m ZetlaUer Creiors VII,
(Leii^ffri894): Ernst Bemhdm, Zmr CkseUckU des Vahmct
Jr<mlorAite/(GOttingen. 1878): Martin Rule. Tke Idfe and Timet
ofSlAuseim (3 vols.. London. 1883): and Klemm. Der /mcsfitef-
Ureit ttnter Hnmriok 7.
(») P/mm 1124 10 ii^.— Monographs dealiag cxpcenly with tlie
7H
PAPACY
c popei i/k-m ttt: laund in inc worns on inc. grcst iwxwm-
Un.^- W. DemhiMdi, Lalkar wn Suppiittbari ^LtijjJiE,
imrad II J. ^ Leipzig, iM^): H. Pruti, ftotrrr friednchj.
^e, tJii7i-i874>; P. Sch(;ffi;T-Boichor6t, Kaher f-rnd-
pontificates of this period are scarce. Mention, however, must be
inade of H. Reuter's CtsckichU Alexanders III. tmd der Kirche
j«n^r Zcit ',3 w.:',.. Bt^itm. it^o icU). ^.'..:\ \\:^:.rT7.zt\r.Ti ,Z7. the
poLicy ol thtac popei u'atli in- laund in the works on the grc^t l.H'X!M»n•
aK1» of the tkn?: '" rr„..t...j: r.-L C.^^hJ^L..-^ /r".. :...:-
1079), and Komrad
rukj i. Ittaier Jirin'j mif if<r Kuril (Brriin, iSb^); jjtitii Fiiker,
HeimiSdvoH DnjJti {CcAagnt. iB^oJ^ Th^Toeebe, A'awiw Ittintich VI.
(Ucip£if', 1867); J' JjEirow and O. Vp\lQier, Dm^jfAf Gt-itkuhte im
7^tii^lrT drr fUiimiiiivfen {1 vo]t., fieri in, 1697-tvui); F- \X)n
Raufncr, Geir^uA^^ ^p^ )il^Jirnifau/fn iind «J^^ Znf l^ih cit-n 6 ^ols.,
Lcipiiii;, ]tt7B); A, Hauimth, Amoid von BfKMciAi (LcipizLgt i^i^yt);
Du'tr. Hlr^ch, Snidiiti car CesihicJUt Ki^mtLudwigi VII. wn frLinh'
uiik (Leipcifl, I8lgj)i O. Carte Elierip Mt ^ugfr von Saimilhiiis
tBerUn, ifc^I F. Vaciridard, ^'K d* 6. Btmcrd {1 voli,. i'aris,
1895)^ J* Thiek Pm j^t/ti^Ae TkaliiktU da Abta Bemkard von
Ckiifwoux (KdiiSt*btrg, iSSs); A. Luduine, Imiii VII., Pkiiitpe-
Aupute, Ltmu VlII, (vol, lii. pi* t. of Lavi*fte'» liiitoirf de Fraju$);
H, liifhrnt*, Kir<hi und Sluot in En^nA itnd in dcr Nonthindf^^ im
XL. und XI L lakrhMndirt. (Ltiprtig. 11*99} s Ka(t Norpie^ ^n^iund
itndtr iHr Angevin kinii (Londoii> if^j}; 4ftd P. Sclicfrer-Bokljurst,
*' Hat P;ipit Hadrim LV. lu Guimen dc^s engliachcn Kdiiig« u1)er
IrLiDd vcrfUt^t 1^ " ID AiiJlnttitt^mdcs InsUiuU Jtif &skrr^ C£it:hi£fU$'
f^fchani (ShUpplementkiry vol. iv.^ 1^3)-
(c) F/crn ti^ ki /j^j.^On the poati&catc' ol Tnnoccnt HI. in
[ep^'riii. »c F. von ^[u^lL-T, £rfjf AifJIfe fa^j^ Itmncem IIL fird dad
»nd t-d.. 4 vDJv^ Hjmbur^. ]d4i-i944]i; ^'Uid A. LtichHine, Tanottrnt
///., ^omt ei fltaiu (ind ed,, Pirii, 194:15), /nnwotf ///. iii frui^jds
dj"? a/^if fciJ (I^ATu, 190O, iTtntKfTft Ill-t 14 ^j^»M at V<ir'<f4re
(Parta^ 1906), /jtrKic^f //f.* fa qutitum. d'otitni tPaHi, t^oC). ^nd
Jntitrcfni HI., Ui rBTQulfj vaiiaks d« Saini-Si^ge (Pari*, nycS).
Cf, E. Wilttkeliniaiijlit Phiiipp von Sih^s^^bm und Otto IV. mn Bfaan-
frJhmff {7 voU., Lcipfi);. i»73-i^7B): W. Nonlcfi, i>i^ Pa^iiTiJiiii
und Bytiitii (Gkirlctt, 1903}^ a cmiMdenble part ol wbJch Ie d'.". ;ed
tt> tnn'Ot.'cal !![,; E- Gcrljnd^^fJL'Ai'fAj'j c£rJ J^ajCctnijchfn iCuiJfrr- kci
tw ra /i * ' n ;ia n/i rti' jT'i-/ \ 1 h>:ri b -j n; , E 'ju^ 1' : R D.^ > i > J i*jl J ti . /-'jV Hi { .' T/.
Innocent III. und die deuische JCtrcke wdkrend des Tkronstnites
ton ttQ8-i208 (Strassburg. 1883); Else GQtschow, Innocent III.
und England (Munich, 1904) ; and roanv other dcuiled monographs.
The pontificate of Honorius III. is dealt with by J. Clausen in his
Papa Honorius III. (Bonn, 189S). and his registers have been pub-
lished by P. PftssutU (3 vols.. Rome, 1884 and 18W-1895). On
Creiroiy IX,. «» J. Fdten, Papsi Cretor IX. (Freiburg I Br.,
iBS^); p. BaUii, Si^rM ,ii Crewrio IX. e dei suoi temjn (^^vots..
Creiroiy IX,. «» J. Felten, Papsl Crttor IX. (Freiburg
iS8^); p. B*Uii. Si^rM ,« Crewrio iX. e dei suoi temJn {xvt
Modena, 1873^187^^1 an.J J. Mara, Die vita Cregorii tX. (Berlin,
lESn). Tht pubUcjtIon uf the registers of this pope was begun
by L. Auvray in tht Bibiiothixjue des icoles de lumte et d'Atktnes
(PAm. t^ et xa.}. Oa Innocent IV.. see E. Bcrger, St Louis et
InnBieKt IV. (Parti, tHMsj; E. Winkelmann, Kaiser Friedrick II.
ia voU, Ldpijg, iBFcy-ii'^y); P. Aldingcr, Die Neilbesetsunz der
'^vtfchsn BLsiikifner MnicT Patk Innocent IV. (Ldpzie, 1901): and
tL Rodr^r^bcr^ /nniv^n: }V. uud das Kdnigreici Swlien (Halle,
il^^ Ittc publiiiJtivJi u^ the registers of Innocent IV. was under*
tdlccD ty £Ut Bcf£«f [i^^l et seq.). and those of Alexander IV.
by J . dc Loyv. A- Coulan :ind C Bourel de la Ronddre (1895 et seq.).
Aj ih? hi^ory of the Uter Hohenstaufcns is intimatelv bound up
with thai of ihc coiit/'^f^orary popes, mention must be made of
F. W. Schirrmachcr, Ih'- Uttten Hohenstau/en fC^dttingen. 1871):
A. K^r^K Gfukkhie Af.ifif'tds vom Ende Pnedrichs II. bis tu seiner
^*/„iu^>y i\\,i\.n. \y^^-.: \nd K. Hampe, Geschickte Konradins von
• (d) From 1261 io tjos- — L. Dorc - and 1 Gtiinud, mcmben of the
French school at Rome, benn t) puLlicatioa of tb« Ti^^^^ters of
Urban IV. (1802 et seq.); E. Joi JsJn. tb^st ol Clemeat IV
etaeq.): and J. Guiraud and L. Cidicr. thocir oif Grvgofy X
et seq J. On Gregory X., see F Waiter^ Die Poiuit der Ki^rie
unter Cretor X. (Berhn. 1894). The poniificatt of Tobn XXL ^as
been dealt with by R. Supper, Fup7t Jchaftnei XXL (Mun ter
L W., 1898). and that of Nicholas 1 1 : f v .\ Dcr:i Vi. P.j p r A^t> ' w
Id. (MQflster i. W., 1904), in voL vL m »« •.w.^-^-bw^^^..-^
Studien^ ed. by KnOpfler. Schrftrs and Sdcalek. The publication of
the registers 01 Nicholas III. was undertaken by J. Gav (1898 et acq.).
Much infomution on the policy of these popes will be found in the
following: R. Stemfield, Ludwigs des HeiUgen Kreuttugnack
Tunis und die Politik Karls I. von SiviHen (Berlin. 1896); Ch. V.
Ungtois. U lUpu de PkUippe III. U Hardi (P&ris. 18871; ^ Lecl6re,
Les RapporU de la papauti et de la Prance sous PkUippe III.
(Brussels. 1889); C Minieri-Ricdo. AkumfaUi rigimardantt Carlo I.
d' Angid.,. (Naples. i874)> and 77 Regno de Carlo I. fAngfd, in the
Ankmo ^orico ttaliano (j^ scries, vols. xsdi.. xxiiL. xnv.. xxv.,
xxvi. ; 4th series, vols, ii., iu., iv.. v., vii., 1875-1881): A. Busaon. Die
Idee des deuiscken Erbreicis und die ersten HohAurpr (Vienna,
1878): G. del Giudice. La Famigtia di re MamfreH (Niplea, 1880):
and H. Otto, Die Bettekungen Rudolfs von Habshurg an Papst Cregor
(Innsbruck, 1895). There is a good account of the policy of
' in O. Cartellieri. PMsr von Aroion uud die riaiRan' '
X.
Martin tV.
Vesper mt
the codplete edit
On Hooonus iV.,
! introduction to
I (tSa^888).
E. Langlois has published the registers of Nicholas IV. (1886-1891^),
and Otto Schiff deals with his pontificate in his Studien sur Gcscktcku
Papst Nikolaus IV. (1897)- On Cclestine V.. see H. SchuU. PeUr
" • '" CoeUsUn F.), Berlin. 189 -" '** '
w as becun _ . .
Faucon and A. Thomas (1884 et seq.). Cn the va^ literature 00
von Murrkone {Papst
of the registers of Boniface VIII. was
'Hn V.)t Berlin, 169X. The publicatioo
un by G. Digard. M'
thb pontificate we must content ourselves with dting: Hctarsch
Finke. Aus den Ta^en Bonifat' VIIL (MQnster L W.. 1902); Ch. V.
Langlois, " Su Louis, Philip^ le Bd, Les Demiers capdtiens directs **
(vol. iiL, pt. iL of La^sses Histoire de France); Ernest Rcnaa«
Etudes sur la politioue rdigieuse du rkgne de PkuiPpe le Bd (1899) ;
A. Baudrillart, " Des Idtes qu'on se faisait au jUV* si^de sur le
droit d 'intervention du souvcrain pontife en mati^ politique," Sn
the Revue d'kistoire et de littirature rdirieuses (voL iii«, 189ft} ; *n<l
R. Holtzroann, Wilkdm von Nogaret (Frdburg i. Br., iSoSk The
pontificate of Benedict XI. is dealt with by F: Funke in h» PapU
BenediktXI. (MOnster i. W.. 1891). O. Ch. Gnuidjean, " Rcchercbcs
sur I'administration financi^ du pape Bcnolt XI," in the MHauges
d'arcktologie el d'kistoire (vol. iu., 1S83). publisbed by the French
School at Rome. Grandjean has publisnca the registers oC Benedict
XI. (1883 et seq.).
Among works of a more general character that throw Cght oa
the history of the papacy during the 12th and 13th centuries, thp
first place must be given to Walter Norden's Das PapsUum umd
Bytant. Die Trennung der beiden Udckle und das Problem ikrer
Wiedervereinwtng bis turn Untergange des byaantinisckem Reicks
(Berlin, 1903). which contains an account of the question of th«
East in its relations with the papal policy, from the rise of the schism
down to the end of the middle ages. See also F6lix Rocquain.
La Papauti au moyen Age (Paris, 1881) and La Cour de Rome et lesprii,
de rijorme avant Luther (3 vols., Paris, 1893-1897) ; J. B. SfigmUHer.
Die TkdUgkeit und SteUung der Cardinile bis Papst Bontfiu, VIII.
(Frdbure 1. Br., 1896); and A. Gottlob, Die pdpsUicken Kreussu^s-
steuem aes 13. Jakrkunderts (Hetligenstadt, 1892) and KreutabUin
und^Almosenablass (Stuttgart, 1906). ^A. Lo.)
Period III. 1305-1^90. — Baluxe, Vitae paparum aventoniensium
r:?:" -2 I. (Pans, 1693); Raynaldus. Annates eccles. ab amm
U: .
l/^i [to i^fjtl j.naotated and added to by J. D. Mansi (115 voU.,
Lucca , 1 74 7^ 1 7 S^ ^ : Mansi, ConcU. cMectio ; Theodericus 01 N icn.
De ifhixnuiit, ^d. Erlcr (1890): Christophc, Histoire de la papamtd
(i i II'. ConcdltengackickU (Freibure i. B.. 1855. acq.):
Hi .'.;,i..-nesisckcn Pdpsle (1871); Crcighton, Uistary of
tki 1 5: J. seq.); L. Pastor, CtsckukU der Pdpsle (Freiburg
i. 11., ij;<.^/j. !^<j., Log. trans, by F. I. Antrobus, 1891, seq.); Pastor,
AttJi pcmfifU. li<^'4); N. Valois, La France et le g^and sclusme, 4 t.
ri&<76. *eq.): Haller, PatsUum und Kirckenreform (1903). For the
Pa^>iry in . .uMioxion with the Renaissance, see E. MQnUe, Les Arts
Jit^.M,:->: V..i|.:[, WiederbeUbung des klassuchen AUertums (1893);
. Burkhardt, Cmiur der Renaissance iu Italien^ 2 B. (ed. L. Ceieer,
1907). For the palace at Avignon, see Ehric, BibL rom. potU^. L
(1890).
To the authorities for the lives of individual popes attached to
the biographies under their several headings, and to the articles
on the coundls of Basel, Constance. Trent, may be added:
Clement V.-i-Boutaric. Philippe le Bel (1861); Konig. PdpstL
Kammer unter Clemens V. u. Jokann XXII. (1894); Finke. Ada
Aragonen. (1908). John XXJI.— Bohmer, Regest. Lud%oigs d€S
' ' ^*^--"-*- ^-'— /.o„.x. ^Icsier, Literarischo
t mit der Curie (1879-
VaHkanisehe Aden (1891); Riezler, Literarischo
4); MUller. Kampf Ludvnts mit der Curie (1879-
1880); Coulon. Lettres secretes de Jean XX II., rdat. d fa Fraute, L
Baiem (1839T;
Widersacker (1874); MUUer. Kam0
(1907); MoUat. Lettres commun. de Jean XXII., L-iv. (1907).
Clement VL— Werunsky, Kaiser Karl IV., i. (1800), u. (i88>-
1886); PApencordt. Cola di Rienao (1841): Dftpres. Ldf. eiosa
1901 seq. Innocent VI.— Werunsky, Itol. PoliHk luuoc. VI.
u. Karl IV. (1878) ; id.. Karl IV. u. (1882-1886), iii. (1892) ; CerasoU.
Arckioio naPolU. 22-23; Kirsch, KoUectorien (1892); Daumct,
Innocent Vt. et Blancke de Bourbon (1899). Urban V.— Magnao.
Urbain V. (1863); Werunsky. Karl IV. iii. (1892); Prou. RelaL
poUt. avec lesroisde Franu (1888) ; Wurm. Albomot (1892) ; Kirsch.
ROckkekr der PdpsU Urban V. und Cregor XL nock Rom (1806):
Letacheuz, Lettres secrhtes (1903, seq.). Gregory XL— ^irot.
Retour du St SAm d Rome (1899) : Toromaseo. Lettere di S. Caterimm
(i860) : M. A. Mlgnaty. Catkerinede Sienne (1886). Boniface IX.—
Kilo, ap. Muratori. Script. iiL 2; Cosmodromium, Ck>beliM Person*,
ed. Jansen (1900); Jansen. Bomfacius IX. u. die deutuke KircMo
(1904). Innocent VII.-Gregory XIL, i •' '
, schismatic popes, coundl
of Onstanoe, Ac Monum. coneU. gen. sac*. XV. (1857-1806):
" "' ' , ed. Ehrie (1906); Hiemetfrieder, LScrramJU
[artinV.— Kite«,ap.Muratoi* "* '" ' '
BuUenregis^ Martins V.u.Eug^iy, (1885).
Alpartits, Ckronka, ed. Ehrie (i{
Pelemik (i^og). Martin V.—Kite«,ap
Muratori, iiL 2: Ottentbal,
EUCEKIUS IV. —
ita,ap. Muratori. 5cf«^. iiL 2: ReperU germanu. I (1897); Mdnts.
(5 ArU (1878-1879); Vakns, Prapuatioue taucttou (15P7X
ICBOLAS v.— Manetti, Vita Nkolai K., ap. Muratori, Script iii. a ;
, by Zippel.
Ktto, ed. Qairiai (1740); Crdghtoo, Papacy in.
(18^): MQnts. Les ArU Vx. (1879). SiXTVS IV.— InfesMira, Dwi*.
PAPEETE— PAPER
725
Steffi, B* 2; JaooborVolatemnM. Di^um, ap. Muratori. Script,
xxiii. : Schmaraow, Mthno da Forll (1886) ; Stetnmana, Sixtiniuke
Cab€U€ \. (1901): Schlecht, Andrea Zamonulic i. (1893). Innocent
VI 1 1. — Iniessura. op. eit.-, Burehardi. Diartum i.-ii. ^. cit. (also for
Alexander Vt.): Burehardi, Diarium^ ed. Thuasne. i. (1883).
Junius II.— BroKh. Juiims II. u. 4. Kirckintlaat (1878) j CeymQUer.
EntarOrftfilr St Peltr (1875-1880) : Schulte. Maximaian ah Candidat
Jar dtn JdtsUkhen StuU (1906). Leo X.— Hergciu«ther. Rtz.
ed. BoMi <i8t6)s JaiuRfi, Ce$ek d, dtutscJun Volks i. tS-H. 18
(1897); Schulte, Fuaer m Rom (19(H): Kalkdff. lMtk$rs fdmisdur
ProMess (1Q06). Adrian VI.— Burmann, Adriamus VI. (1737).
Clbmbnt Vll.— Friedcnsburg. NuniiaturberkhU I (iSoaij Elwea,
Documente ntr CeschickU derEkescheidunt Heinrkks VIII. (1893);
EhK9, Cane, indent, iv. (1904): Fraiktn, Nonciatures d* Ftana \.
(1906). Paul 111.— Friedeoabuis. NtaUiaturberkhtg ii. mm. (189a*
IQ08): Vtuetianiuht Deptscken vom Kaiserkof i. (1889): EbM»,
Concit. trident, iv. (1904): Mcrkle, ConcU. IridenL 'diaria l;
Maurenbrechcr, Kari V. (1865); de Leva, Carlo V. iii.-v. (1867 seq.);
" limsbeitrebungen Karh V. (1879): Janasen, DeutscM
. 18. (1899). Juuus III.— Mananelli, ap. DOUinger.
€nt (1876): de Leva. Carlo V, v. (1890). Mabceu^us
us, vtta (i744)* Pius IV.— PalUvicini, ConcUio di
): Durvy. Cardinal Carafa (1888): SusU, Curie und
fMon II h (Paris, 1907), expoeiag secret aeKotiations: A.
btdour, L'Sglue catholtque el Vital sous la troistme rtptMiqtu
iris, 1906-1900), valuable though strongly anti-clerical; R. de
..•BU,v»vivi.i,wi, •*.»>* r . \tw^f , vit &ATU, vurvv r . ill.— ▼. \t867 SCq.) }
Pastor, ReunioHsbeslrebtmfen Karh V. (1879): Janssen, Deutseke
CeschickU tii. 18. (1899)- Juuus III.— Massanelli, ap. DOUinger.
Cowtl. ». Trwai (1876); de Leva. ^ ' " '" ' ^-
Il.-Pollidorus, ^^ ' -
Trento (i6$6);
ConeiL Uii. (1904-1009); ^tmYvtn,' NwUiahtrberichte i. and tiL
<|897-<I903)- nvs v.— Guglielrootti. Mareantonio CaUmaa (1863).
Crbcory XIII.— Theincr, AnnaUs eutesiastici (1856): Maffci,
Annali (1746); Brosch. Kirchemtaat I (1880); Nuntialurberitht€t
ed. Hansen, and Schellhass. i. (1893); Stdnhubcr, CoUetium ger-
manicum i. a-ii. 3 (1907); Duhr, JesuiUn in DeulseUandi. (1907);
Astraia, Ccmp. de Jesue de EspaMa (a vols., 1903). Sixtus v.—
Uemcrie autografe, ed. Cagnoni, Arcbivio d. Soc. Rom. (i88a);
Nuntialurherickte, ed. Gdrreseescllschaft. i. seq. (1895); Balzaoi, in
Cambridge Modem History; HQbner, SixU-QuinU (1870).
(L. DB P.)
Perieds /K., K., VL ifQO mwards.-^la addittan to the geneial
works already mentioned, see M. Brosch, Cesckiekte dee Kireken-
staaUs (Gotha, 1880-18S3), utilizing Venetian archives: L. Ranke,
History of the Papacy in the t6th and 17th centuries (1840 and fre-
fuently); A. R. Pennington, Epochs of the Papacy (Liondon, 1881):
. NipMkI, The Papacy m Me NineteetUh Century (New York,
1900): a. Labanca, II Papato (Torino, 1905). with Italian biblio-
graphy; F. Nielsen, The History of the Papacy in the Nineteenth
Century (London, 1906), the scholarly and fascinating work of a
Danish Lutheran bishop; A. Galton, Church and Stale in France,
JjoO'iQO/ (London, 1907); C< Bourgeoia and E. Clermont, Rome el
NaPoUon IIIj, "^ ' ...
Debtdour,
Cesare. ttoma e lo slato del papa dot rilorno' di Pio IX. ('3 vols.,
Rome. 1907): in abridged traiislation, Thg Last Days of Papal
Rome (Boston. 1909). (W, W. R.^
PAPBVTB, the capiUd of the VUAc itlind of Tahiti, and the
chief port and trading centre, and the seat of government of the
French esubliahmenU in Oceania. Pop. 4380 (3500 French).
The town, lying on the noith-wtst coast of the island, on a
bcnntiful harbour entered by two psssages through the protect-
ing reef, and backed by five mountains, is French in character
as far as concerns the richer quarters. It has a cathedral,
barracks and trsenal, government buildings and a botanical
garden. The Chinese quarter and the picturesque native
market contrsst strongly with the European settlement. Of
the entrances to the harbour, which is of fair extent and depth,
that of Papeete has about seven fathoms depth; that of Taunoa
is shallower, though wider and more convenient.
PAPBNBURO, a town in the Prussian province <A Hanovtr,
97 m. by rail S. by W. of Emden, and near the right bank of the
Ems, with which it b connected by a canal 3 m. long. Pep. (1905) ,
7673. It lies in the centre of extensive moors and in appearance
resembles a Dutch town. The industries include shipbuikling,
oil and ^an mills, and manufacture of chemicals, eement,
nickel goods and machineiy. It is a very prosperous port and
its trade, cairled oft mainly by water, is mostly in the agricultural
produce of the extensive moon and pasture lands which lie
around it. Papenbuig was founded in 1675 and became a town
intSte.
PAPB (Ft. papkr, from Lau papynaX the general name for
the substance commoiily used for writing upon, or for wrapping
things in. The origin and early history of paper as a writing
material aro involved in much obscurity. The art of making it
from fibrous matter appcaia to have been practised by the
CbiocR at a very diaiant period. DUftitnt wiiteci have timced
it back to the snd century^ B.C. But, however remote its ago
may have been in eastern Asia, paper first became available for*
the rest of the worid in the middle of the Stb century. In 751
the Arabs, who had occupied Samarkand early in the century,
were attacked there by Chinese. The invasion was repelled by
the Arab governor, who in the pursuit, it is rdaled, captured
certain prisoners who were skilled in paper-Making and who
imparted their knowledge to their new masters. Hence began
the Arabian manufacture, which rapidly spread to all parts of
the Arab dominions. The extent to which it was adopted for
literary purposes is proved by the comparatively large number of
eariy Arabic MSS. on paper which have been preserved dating
from the plh century.'
There has existed a not inconsiderable diflSculty In regard
to the material of which the Arab paper was composed. In
Europe it has been referred to by old writers as charta bpmbycina,
gessypitia, cullunea, xylina, damaseena and serica. The last
title seems to have been derived from its glossy and silken
appearance; the title damaseena merely points to its great central
emporium, Damascus. But the other terms indicate an idea,
which has been persistent, that the paper manufactured by the
Arabs was composed of the wool from the cotton-pbnt, reduced
to a pulp according to the method attributed to the Chinese;
and it had been generally accepted that the distinction between
Oriental paper and European paper lay in the fact that the former
was a cotton-paper and the latter a rag-paper. But this theory
has been disturbed by recent invcstigalions, which have shown
that the materia of the Arab paper was itself substantially Imen.
It seems that the Arabs, and the skilled Persian workmen whom
they employed, at once resorted to flax, which grows abundantly
in Khorasan, as their principal material, afterwards also making
use of rags, supplemented, as the demand grew, with any
vegetable fibre that would serve; and that cotton, if used at all,
was used very sparingly. Still there remain the oM titles ekarta
bemhyeinot &c., to be explained; and an ingenious solution has
been offered that the terra eAaWa6om6yrt;M, or x^^fin* fiottfiiicunn,
is an erroneotis reading of charta bambycina, or xi4'rfp0a4ifiimratf
paper manufactured at the Syrian town of Baml^ce or fia^tfiinai,
the Arab Mambidsch (Karabacek in MiUheHungen aus der
Sammlung der Papyrus Erxkenog Rdiner, ii.-iii. 87, iv. ri7).
Without accepting this a* an altogether sufficient explanation
of so widely tued a term as the medieval charta bon^ina, and
passing from the question of material to other differences, paper
of Oriental manufacture in the middle ages was usually distin-
guished by its stout substance and glossy surface, and was devoid
of water-marks, the employment of which became universal in the
European factories. Besides the titles referred to above, paper
also received the names of charta and papyrus^ tran^erred to
it from the Egyptian writing material manufacttired from the
papyrus pbnt (see Papyrvs).
It was probably first brought into Greece through trade with
Asia, and thence transmitted to neighbouring countries. Theo-
philus presbyter, writing in the lath century (Sthednla dtper-
samm artiumt u S3), refers to it under the name of Greek
parchment, pergamena graica* There b a record of the use of
*■ A few of the eartiest dated examples may be Instanced. The
CharUm 'l-Haidth, a treatise on the rare and curious words in the
sayings of Mahomet and has cocnpanioqs, written in the vear 866,
is probably one of the oldest paper MSS^ in existence (Pal. Soc.
Onent. Ser. pi. 6). It is preserved In the University Library of
Leidien. A treatise by an Arabian phyrictan on the nourishment
of the different members of the body, of the year 960^ k the oldest
dated Arabic MS. onpaper in the British Museum (Or. MS. a6oo:
Pal. Soc., pi. 96). Tne Bodleian Library possesses a MS. of the
Dldwnu *l-Adab. a grammatical work of a.d. 974, of particular
interest as having been written at Samarkand on paper oresumably
made at that seat of the first Arab maaufactare (i'oi. Soc. pL 60).
Other eariy examples ate two MSS. at Paris, of the yean 9te
{Fonds arabe, suppl., 9^2) and 980 {Fonds arebe, 55): a volume of
poems written at Baghdad.'A.D. 990, now at Leipzig, and the Gospel
of St Luke. A.D. 99). in the Vatican Library (Pal. Soc., pis. 7, si).
In the great collection of Syriac MSS., whsh were obtaioed from
the Nitrian desert in Egypt and are now in the British Muscam,
there are many volumes written 00 paper of the loth century.
The two oldest dated examples, however, are not earfier than
A.D. 1075 and 1064. '
726
PAPER
lEARLY HISTORY
paper by the empress Irene at the end of the nth or begioning
of the ixth century, in her rules for the nuns of Constantinople.
It does not appear, however, to have been very extensively used
in Greece before the middle of the 13th century, (or, with one
doubtful exception, there are no extant Greek MSS. on paper
which bear date prior to that period.
The manufacture of paper in Europe was first established by
the Moon in Spain in the middle of the 12th century, the head-
quarters of the industry being Xativa, Valencia and Toledo.
But on the fall of the Moorish power the manufacture, passing
into the hinds of the less skilled Christians, declined in the quality
of iu production. In Italy also the art of paper-making was no
doubt established through the Arab occupation of Sicily. But
the paper which was made both there and in Spain, was in the
first instance of the Oriental quality. In the laws of Alphonso
of 1263 it is referred to as cloth parchment, a term which well
describes its stout substance. The first mention of rag-paper
occurs in the tract of Peter, abbot of Guny (a.d. xxa2-xiso),
adversKS JudceoSt cap. 5, where, among the various kinds of
books, he refers to such as are written on material made " ex
rasuris veterum pannorum."
A few words may here be said respecting MSS. written in £uro-
pean countries on Oriental paper or paper made in the Oriental
fashion. Several which have been quoted as early instances
have proved, on further examination, to be nothing but vellum.
The ancient fragments of the Gospel of St Mark, preserved at
Venice, which were stated by Maffd to be of paper, by Mont-
faucon of papyrus, and by the Benedictines of bark, are in fact
written on skin. The oldest recorded document on paper was a
deed of King Roger of Sidly, of the year 1x02; and there are
others of Sicilian kings, of the xath century. A Visigothic paper
MS. of the X2lh century from Silos near Burgos is now in the
Biblioth&que Nationale, Paris. A notarial register on paper, at
Geneva, dates from X154. The oldest known imperial deed on
the same material is a charter of Frederick II. to the nuns of
Goess in Styiia, Of the year xaaS, now at Vienna. In 1231,
however, tlM same emperor forbade further use of paper for
public documents, which were in future to be inxribed on vcUum.
Transcripts of imperial acts of Frederick IL about a.d. X24I are
at Naples. In Venice the Libtr plegiorum, the entries in which
begin with the year 1233, is made of rough paper; and similariy
the registers of the Council of Ten, beginning in X325, and the
register of the emperor Henry VIL ( 1308- «3»3) preserved at
Turin, arc also written on a like substance. In the British
Museum there is an older example in a MS. (Arundel :t68) which
contains some astronomical treatises written on an excellent
paper in an Italian hand of the first half of the X3th century.
The autograph MS. of Albert de Beham, X33$-X3S5, at Munich,
is on paper. In the Public Record Office there is a letter on
paper from Raymond, son of Raymond, duke of Narbonne and
count of Toulouse, to Henry III. of England, written within
the years 12x6-1222. The letters addr^aed from Castile to
Edward L, in X270 and following years (Pauli in 5ertcA/, Bert,
Akad.^ 1854)1 are instances of Spanish-made paper; and other
specimens in existence prove that in this latter country a rough
kind of ckarta bombycina was manoiactured to a comparatively
bte date.
In Italy the first place which appears to have become a great
centre of the paper-making industry was Fabriano in the marqul-
sate of Ancona, where mills were first set up in x 276, and which
rose into importance on the decline of the manufaaure in Spain.
The earliest known water-marks in paper from this factory are
of the years 1293 and X294. The jurist Bartolo, in his treatise
De tHsinniis d armU, refers to the excellent paper made therein
the middk of the 14th century, an enoomiun which will be
supported by those who have bad occasion to examine the
extant MSS. on Italian paper of that period. In 1340 a factory
was esublished at Padua; another arose later at Treviso; and
others foUowed in the territories of Florence, Bologna, Parma,
Milan, Venice and other districts. From the factories of
Qorthera Italy the wanu of southern Germany were supplied as
late as the xsth century. As an instance the case of GorliU
has been died, whkh drew Its ptper from Milan and Venice for
the half century between X376 and 1426. But in Germany aho
factories were rapidly founded. The earliest are said to have
been set up between Cologne and Mains, and in Maiaa itself
about 132a At Nuremberg Ulman Stromer established a mil
in 1300, with the aid of Italian workmen. Other places of early
manufacture were Ratisbon and Augsburg. Western Germany,
as well as the Netherlands and England, is said to have obtained
paper at first from France and Burgundy through the markets
of Bruges, Antwerp and Cologne. France owed the esublisli*
ment of her first paper-mills to Spain, whence we are told the an
of paper-making was introduced, as early as the year 1x89, into,
the district of H6rault. At a later period, in 1406, among the
accounts of the church of Troycs, paper-mills appear as moHns d
toile. The development of the trade in France must have been
very rapid. And with the progress of manufacture in France
that of the Netherlands also grew.
In the second half of the X4th century the use of paper for afl
literary purposes had become well established in att western
Europe; and in the course of the xsth century it graduaOy
superseded vellum. In MSS. of this bttcr period it is not
unusual to find a mixture of vellum and paper, a vdlum sheet
forming the outer, or the outer and iimer, l^ves of a quire whale
the rest are of paper.
With regard to the eariy use of paper in Engbnd, there b
evidence that at the beginning of the X4th century it was a not
uncommon material, particulariy for registers and accounts.
Under the year X310, the records of Merton CoDege, ^cford,
show that paper was purchased " pro registro," which Professor
Rogers (HisL Agrictd. and Prices, i. 644) is of opinion was pro-
bably paper of the same character as that of the Bordeaux customs
register in the Public Record Office, which date from the first
year of Edward IL The college register referred to, which was
probably used for entering the books that the fefiows borrowed
from the library, has perished. There is, however, in the British
Museum a paper MS. (Add. 3X,233), written in England, of even
earlier date than the one recorded in the Merton archives..
This is a register of the hustings court of Lyme Regis, the entries
in which begin in the year X309. The paper, of a rough manu-
facture, is similar to the kind which was used in Spain. It may
have been imported direct from that country or from Bordeaux;
and a seaport town on the south coast of England b exactly
the place where such eaxly idics might be looked for. PraCesaor
Rogers also mentions an eariy spedmen of paper in the archives
of Merton College, on which b written a bill of the year x^i;
and some leaves of water-marked paper of 1333 exist in the
Haridan collection. Only a few years later in date b the first
of the registers of the King's Hall at Cambridge, a series of which,
on paper, is preserved in the library of Trinity CoUqge. Of the
middle of the X4ih century also are many muaidpal books aad
records. The knowledge, however, which we have of the histoey
of paper-making in Engbnd is extremdy scanty. The first
maker whose name b known b John Tate, who b said to have set
up a mill in Hertford eariy in the x6th century; and Sr John
Spilman. Queen Elisabeth's jewdler, erected a paper-asill at
Dartford, and in X589 obuined a licence for ten yean to make
all sorts of white writing-paper and to gather, for the purpose, al
manner of linen rags, scroUs or scraps of parchment, old fi^iiag
nets, &c (Dunkin. Hist, 0/ Dvtfard, 305; HarL MS. 2996^
f. X24 6). But it b ittcredible that no paper was made in the
country before the time of the Tudors. The comparativdy
cheap rates at which it was add in the xsth centuiy in iiUeiid
towns seem to afford ground for assuming that thoe was at that
time a native industry in thb commodity.
As far as the prices have been observed at which diffctcat
kinds of paper were sold in Engbnd, it has been found that n
1355*1356 the price of a quire of small folio paper was 54-t bpth
in Oxford and London. In the xsth century the avenge price
seems to have ranged from 3d. to 4d. for the quiie, and f ton
3S. 4d. to 4S. for the ream. At the hegioning of the 16th ocntmy
the price fell to 2d. or 3d. the qtiire, and t03Su 0r3s.6d.ther
hut in the second half of the century, owing to the <' '
llANUPACniREI
PAPER
727
of the coinage, it raee/in comnon with aU other oomnMxBties,
to nearly 4d« the quire, and to rather more than 5s. the ream.
The relatively higher price of the ream in this last period, as
compared with that of the quire, seems to imply a more extensive
use of the material which enabled the trader to dispose of broken
bulk more quickly than formerly, and so to seD by the quire at a
comparatively cheap rate.
Brown paper appears in entries of X570-X57X, and was sold
in bundles at n. to ». 4d. Blotting paper b appaxently of
even earlier date, being mentioned under the year 1465. It was
a coarse, grey, unsized paper, fragments of which have been
found among the leaves of xsth-century accounts, where it had
been left after being used for blotting. Early in the x6th
century blotting-paper must have been in ordinary use, for it is
referred to in W. Herman's Vulgaria, 15x9 (p. 80 6): " Blottyng
papyr serveth to drye weete wryttynge, lest there bc'taade blottis
or Uurris "; and early in the next century " charta- bibula " is
mentioned in the Pinacolkeca (i. 175} of Nidus Erythracus.
It is remarkable that, in spite of the comparatively early date
of this invention, sand continued generally in use, and even at the
present day continues in several countries in fairly common use
as an ink absorbenL
A study of the various water-marks has yielded some results
in tracing the different channels in which the paper trade of
different countries flowed. Experience also 0^ the different
kinds of paper and a knowledge of the water-marks (the earliest
of which is of about the year X382) aid the student in fixing nearly
exact periods of undated documents. European paper of the
14th century may generally be recognized by its firm texture,
its stoutness, and the largfe size of its wires. The water-marks
are usually simple in design; and, being the result of the impress
of thick wires, they are therdore stron^y marked. In the course
of the istb century the texture graduaUy becomes finer and the
water-marks more elaborate. While the old subjects of the
latter are still continued in use, they are more neatly outlined,
and, particulariy in Italian paper, they are frequently enclosed
In drdas. The practice of inserting the full name of the maker
in the water-mark came into fashion early in the x6th century.
But it is interesting to know that for a very brief period m the
X4th century, from about 1307 to X330, the practice actually
obtained at Fabriano, but was then abandoned in favour of
simple initial letters, whidi had already been used even in the
X3th century. The date of manufacture appears first in the
water-marks of paper made in 1545. The variety of subjecu
of water-marks is most extensive. Animals, birds, fishes, heads,
flowers, domestic and warlike implements, armorial bearings,
ftc, are found from the earliest times. Some of these, such as
aifmorial bearings, and national, provindal or personal cogni-
zances, as the imperial crown, the crossed keys or the cardinal's
hat, can be attributed to particular countries or disUicU; and the
wide dissemination of the paper bearing these marks in different
countries serves to prove how Urge and international was the
paper trade in the X4th and xsth centuries.
AuTROBntBs.--G. U»9rma» cf doetmnm vinrum ci cum ttisldaM
alfui obsenati<ma de ckartae wulgaris teu lintat ohpmt (the naiae.
1767); J. G. Schwandner, Charta linta (Vienaa, 1788); G. F. Welin.
Vom Papier (Halle. 1789); J. G. J. Breitkopf. Vrspnmg der SpiO-
karUn und EinfaJ^w$t d4s Lntunpapierts (Leipng. 1784-1801);
Mt Koops, Hutorieal AceotuU, Ac. (London, 1801): Sotsmann.
** Ober die ftltere Papicrfabrikation." in Sempttim (Leipdg, 1846);
C. M. Briqoet, " Rocherches sur lea premicra papieis, dn a* an nv*
Slide." In Mem, mli^uains de Franu, xlvi. (Paris, 1886), and Le
Papiiw orahi au moyem dee (Bern, 1886); C. Faoli, " Carta di ootone
e carta di lino," tn ArtktPie itmieo Haliam, act. 4, torn. sv. (1883) ;
]. Karabacek. MiUkeihtnien aus der SamwUuwder Papyrus Erakeraeg
XatNC, ii.-iii. 87 (I887I, iv. 117 (1897); Midoux and Matton,
^' '-•'*" --W* (Paris, ir"' ^ - -
Etvdr sur les PUtgranes \
1868); C. M. Briquet, Les PUigrnues:
Dklionnaire kistpriqtie des marques du papier dis leur apParitioH
ters t98»jusqu*en 1600 (Paris, 1907), with a bibliography 01 works
on water-marks: W. Wattenbach, Das Sekriftwesen tm MiUetaUer
(Leiprig. r896); J. E. T. Rogers, History of Agriculture and Prices
in Eng^nd (Oxford, i866-l8la). (£. 14. T.)
PaPEK MANU7ACnnLB
In the modem sense " paper ** may best be described as a more
or less thin tluue composed of any fibrous material, whose
individual fibres, first sepanted by mechanical action, are then
deposited and felted together on wire doth while suspended in
water (see Fxbbis). The main constituent in the stmcture of all
plants is the fibre or cellulose wliich forms the casing or walls of
the different ceUs; it is the woody portion of the plant freed from
all foreign substances, and forms, so to speak, the skeleton of
vegetable fibre to the amount of 75 to 78%. Its forms and com-
binations are extremely varied, but it always consists of the same
chemical elemental carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and in the
same proportions. It is the object of the paper-maker to
eliminate the glutinous, resinous, siliceous^nd other intercellular
matters and to produce the fibre tA pure and as strong as possible.
Linen and cotton rags, having already undergone a process of
manutacture, consist of almost pure fibres with the addition of
fatty and odbuiing matters which can be got rid of by simple
boiling under a low pressure of steam with a weak alkaline
solution; but the substitutes for rags, esparto, wood, straw, &c.,
being used as they come from the soil, conuin all the intercellular
matter in its origiiml form, which has to be dissolved by strong
chemical treatment under a high temperature. The vegetable
fibre or cellulose, bdng of a tougher and stronger nature, is
untouched by the action of caustic soda (which is the chemical
generally employed for the purpose), unless the treatment be
carried too far, whilst animal fibres or other organic matters are
rendered solable or destroyed by iL The cellulose, after its
resolution by chemical treatment, is still impregnated with
insoluble colouring matters, which have to be eliminated or
destroyed by treatment with a solution of chlorine or bleaching-
powder. Tlie object of the paper-maker in treating any one
particular fibre is to carry the action of the dissolving and bleach-
ing agents just so far as to obtain the fibre as free from impurities
and as white in colour as is desired. The usefulness of a idant
for a good white paper depends upon the strength and dastidty
of its fibres, upon the proi>ortion of cellular tissue contained in
them, and upon the ease with which this can be freed from the
encrusting and intercellular matters. Although experiments
had previously been made with numy fibrous matprials, paper
was nude in Europe, untU the middle oJF the X9th century, almost
entirely from rags, dther linen or cotton. At that period other
fibres began to be adopted as substitutes, due in part, no doubt,
to inauffident supply of rags for the increasing consumption of
paper, and to the consequent rise in price. The most important
of these substitutes are esparto-grass, wood and straw, and these,
together with flax (linen), hemp, jute and cotton rags, form the
prindpal raw material for the manufacture of paper.
Paper was first cntirdy made by hand, sheet by sheet, but in
X798 the invention of the paper machine by Louis Robert, a
derk in the employ of Messrs Didot, of the Esaonne Paper
MDU in France, gave a new impettis to the industry. The inven-
tion was introduced into England by Henry Fourdrinier (1766-
1854), the proprietor of a mill at Dainford in Kent He secured
the assistance of Bryan Donkin (X768-X8S5), an engineer, and
after much toil and perseverance, attended with great expense,
for which he received no recompense, succeeded in X803 in erect-
ing a machine at Frogmore, Herts, which worked coasparativdy
wdL This machine, by the subsequent Improvements of Dickin-
son, Causon, Crompton and others, has been brought to the state
of perfection in which it now stands. It embraces a multitude
of most ingenious and delicate operadons, and produces in a few
minutes, and in one continuous process from the prepared pulp,
sheeu erf paper ready for use. Machine-made paper has now
gradually supplanted that made by hand for all except special
purposes, such as bank-note, ledger, drawing and other higliedasi
papers— in one word, in cases where great durability is the chief
requisite.
The various uses to which paper is put in the present day
are multitudinous, but the main classes may be grouped into
four: (i) writing and drawing papers; (2) printing and news-
papers; (3) wrapiMug papene; (4) tissue and dgarette papers.
The process of paper manufacture consists of two main divi-
sions: (x) the treatment of the raw material, induding denn-
ing, dusting, boHing; washing, bleaching and reducing to pulp;
728
PAPER
pHANtJPACTURS
( 3) the methods by which the prepared pulp or fibres tre converted
into paper ready for the market; this is paper-making proper,
and includes the operations of beating, sizing, ooburing, making
the sheet or web, surfacing, cutting, &C.
Ran arrive at the mill from the rag merchants, dther roughly
sorted into grades or mixed in quality and material, and the first
tt^m. P^'Of* ** to free them from sand, dust aad other im-
^^ purities. To effect this they are usually passed in
bulk through an ordinary revolving duster. They arc then sorted
into grades, and cut to a workable sise about four inches souare. For
Che beat work, hand-cutting, done by women, is still preferred, but
it is expensive and good machines have now been designed for this
purpose. After further thrashing and dusting, the rags are ready
for boiling, the object of which is not only to get rid of the dirt
still remaining in them and to remove some of the colouring matter,
but also to decompose a particular glutiiious substance which would
impair the flexibility of the fibres and render them too harsh and
stitt for readily maidng into paper. Various forms of vessels are
used for boiling, but usually they are made to revolve by means of
suiuble gearing, and arc either cylindrical or spherical (ng, I).
Fig. I. — Revolving Spherical Rag Boiler.
In these the rags are boiled with an alkaline solution under a
low steam pressure for six to twelve hours. The next' step is that
of washing and " breaking in," which takes place in an eitsine
called the '* breaker." This (fig. 2) is an obbng shallow vessel or
trough with rounded ends and dished bottom, usually about 13 ft.
long by 6 ft. wide, by about 2 ft. 6 in. in depth, but the aixe varies
greatly. It is partly divided along Uie centre by a partttbn or
° mid-feather." and furnished with a heavy cast-iron roll fitted
round- its circumference with knives or bars of steel in bunches or
clumps. Underneath the roll and fixed in the bottom of the trough
is the " plate." consisting of a number of parallel steel bars bedded
in a wooden frame. The roll can be rsised or bwcred on the plate
so as to increase or diminuh, as denred, the cutting action of the
bars and pUte on the materiaL The duty of the roU is to cut and
tease out the rags, and also to act as a lifter to cause the stuff to
circulate round the trough. The breaker is half filled with water
and packed with the boiled rags; an ample supply of dean wafer w
run into the engine for washing the rags, the dirty water being
withdrawn by the " drum-washer," a hollow cylinder fitted with
buckets and covered with fine wire-cloth. During the washing
process the roll is gradually bwcrcd on the pbte to tease out the
rags into their original fibres; chb operation Ukes from two to
four hours. As soon as all signs of the textile nature of the material
are destroyed, the washing water u turned off; the drura-wa&hcr
lifted, and a solution of chlorine or bleach is run in to bring the pulp
up to the degree of whiteness desired, after which the nig " nali-
stuf!," as it is now called, is emptied into steeps or drainers, where
it » stored ready for use.
In treating eH>ano (the use of which tor paper-making is almost
confined to orcat Britain) the object is to free it from all encrusting
P^ ^ and intercellular matter. To effect this it is digested
^ with a strong solutkni of caustic soda under a high
tempenrture. ia boilers which are almost invariably statkmary.
The most usual form is that known as Sinclair's patent (fig. xi.
This boiler is constructed of wrought -iron or steel plates, and tiofds
from 2| to 3 tons of (crass. It is chan^ througn the opening at
the top A, and the boiled material taken out from a door B at the
side: the grass rests 09 a false bottom of perforated plates C. through
which the hqfintft drains, and by means of two " vomiting "
P, D. at, tha sides of the boOer, oooneetiag tha space at the botum
with a similar space at the top, a continuous circulation of steam
and liquor is mainuined through the grass. The steam pressure
is kept up to 30 to so lb per sq. in. for three or four boors; tbca
the strong liquor or lye, whkh contains all the resinous aad iatcr-
cellular matters dissolved by the action of the caustic soda, is nw
off and stored in tanks for subsequent recovery xi the soda, while
the grass is Uken to the " potcher *' or washmg engine. In con-
struction and working this u similar to the breaking engine 1
for rags: in it the grus b reduced to pulp, and washed for al _.
twenty minutes to Ires it from the traces of soda liquor grmMinii^
r about
Fic. 2.— Rag-breaking Engina.
after the partbl washing in the boiler. As soon as the 1
u running dear it u shut off. and the accessary quantity of a aofanaoa
of bbaching powder or chbrine (averaging about 6 to &% oa the
raw material) is run into the potcher, and the contenU are heated
by steam to a temperature ol about 90* F. After about four to
six hours the bleacninc b complete, the drum-washer b let down,
fresh water run into the potcher, and the grass washed to free k
from all traces of chlorine, an operatba naerally assisted by the
use of a littb antichlor or hyposulphite 01 soda. The esparto, as
shipped in bales from the Spanish or African fields, b mind with
roots, weeds and other impurities; and as most of these do wot
boil or bleach as rspidly as the esparto they would, if aoc takes
out of the pulp, show up in the finished paper as specks and spots.
To get rid of them the esparto pulp when washed and bleached b
run from the potcher into storage chests, from which it b pumped
over a long, narrow serpentine settling table or "sand-table.**
made of wood ami fitted with divisions, or " weirs," behind which
the heavy impurities or weeds fail to the bottom and are caughc
The pulp b next passed over what b known aa a " prcsse-pAte **
(fig. 4) or " half-stuff " machine, very similar to the wet end of a
paper machine, consisting of strainers fitted srith Goarse<ut strainer
pbtes, a short wire and a pair of couch and prem rolls. The pulp
u drawn by suction through the strainers, which keep bvk the
finer impurities that have passed the saad-table. and then ffowa on
to the wif«<loth in the form of a thick web of pulp. After pasniag
through the couch and press rolls, the pulp kavcs the machine
with about 70% of moisture, and b ready for the beatiiw c
the first operation of papcr-makiag proper. Thb b tne
process, though various imxtifications are iiuroducod ia diffetviK
mills and for differmt purposes.
Most kinds of strsw can be Atilixed for making into paper, the
varieties generally used bdng rye. oat, wheat and barley; of thae,
the two farmer are the most importaat, as thty give ^
the bn^ yield in fibre. Germany and France are the «''"^-
two pnndpal users of straw, whbh ckiarly resembles esparto ia
its chcmkal constitutbn, and b iteduced to a pulp by a somewhat
simibr process.
Scandinavb, Germany, the United States and Canada are tJle
countries which mainly use wood as a material for paper-making.
MANUFACTURET
PAPER
729
owing to their possession of large forest anas. They also export
large quantities of wood-pulp to other countries. In Europe the
_^ Scotch fir {Pinus sytwestris), the spruce (Picea exulsa),
*^*** the poplar {Po^us aiha) and the aspen (Populms
Irrmula), are the timbers principally employed; and in America the
black spruce {Piua m'tra), the hemlock ( tsufa eaHadensis), the poplar
(Poputus iraMdidtntata) and the aspen {Populus trtmmloides). Two
kinds of wood-pulp are used for paper manufacture, one prepared
mechanically and the other chemically. The former is obtaiood
bv disintegrating the wopd entirely by machinery without the use
of chemicals, and is. as may roodily lje understood, a very inferior
pulp.
In the manufacture of cbeoucal wood-pulf>, very great
about seven or eight iKMirs, in a rfmtlar manner to esnnrto and
straw, though it requires much severer treatment. Ihc steam
e varies f " . . «
from 90 lb to as much as 150 lb per so. in., and
the amount of soda required is about 16% of NafO, estimated on
the barked and cleaned wood. The essential feature of the sulphite
process is the emplo>'ment of a solution of sulphurous acid com-
bined with a certain amount of base, either magnesia w lime. As
the acid reaction of the bisulphite siolulion would attack any ex-
posed ironwork with which it comes in contact, the boilers in all
cases should be lined with lead. The type of boiler employed
x-aries according to the process adopted. The principal natcnts
conaeaed with the sulphite process are those of Tilghman, Ekman,
Fxc 3.->Sincbir Esparto Boiler,
advances have been made since 1880; and wood-pulp has grown 10
be one of the most important fibres for paiicr-making puriMisoA.
Two methods are in use, known respectively as the sodn or alL-vlinc
process, and the sulphite or acid process, according as stMla or sul|)hnr
(or rather sulphurous acid) forms the baite of the reoKcnt cm|>loyc<l.
Trees of medium age are usually selected, varying from seventy to
eichty years' growth and running from 8 to 12 in. in diameter.
Tncy are felled in winter and reach the mill in logs almut 4 ft.
long. .After being freed from bark and the knots taken out by
machinery, the logs are cut into small cubical chips almut 4 to
I in. in sue by a revolving cutter. The chipH are then liniixetl by
being passed between two heavy iron rolls to albiw the boiling
solution thoroughly to penetrate them, and arc conveyed to the
boilers over a screen of coarse wire-cloth, which separates out the
fine sawdust as well as any dirt or sand. In the soda procew the
wood is boiled in large revolving or upright statkmary boilers for
Francke. Rittcr-KcHncr, Mltscherlich, and Partington. The sub-
fic(|ucnt o|K.*nitinn!t. in lioth the acid ami alkaline processes of
washing, bleaching and straining the pulp, arc all very simiLir to
those dcsrrilied for esparto. Wood-pulp pru<luce<l by the sulphite
process clifTcrs in a mnrkctl degree fntni that maile by the soda
process; the fibre in Ihc former ca«te U harsher and stronger, and
papers mafic from it arc characterized by their linrdncKs and trana-
ixirency, whereas those ma<k from soda pulp arc softer and mofe
mellow, corresponding in some %T\y to the dilTcrcnce lietwcen linen
ami cotton fibres. Each class of pulp is brgely used, both alone
ami mixed with other materials.
Within recent >'cars imponanr modifications and imp i wements
haNT been adoptcfl in the prrftamiion of esparto and wood half-
stuff with a view to reduce the niHt of maniiiacturcsnd save waste
of material. From the lioiler to the liesiicr the proccsn becomes a
continuous one, so that the prepared pulp requires practically no
Fia 4.—^ Pita sc Ptte/* or Half-stuff MachtoeL
73°
PAPER
handling till it is made into finished paper at the end of the machine :
this effects a considerable saving in cost of hbour and reduces the
waste of material incidental to a series of disconnected operations.
From the potcher or breaking engine the esparto or wood pulp
is discharged, by means of a patent circubtor or pump, tnco the
first of a series of upneht bleaching towers. These towers (fig. 5)
are built up of wrougnt-iron rods and a special kind of cement.
They are usually about 16 ft. high in the (nrallel by 8| ft. in
diameter; the bottom of the tower is conical and connected
to a powerful circulator or pump, which dischai]^ the pulp into
the top of the tower and causes thereby a continuous arculation
nnd a thorough mixing of the
pulp and bleach. A special
form of concentrator is fixed
on the top of the first tower,
which reduces the water in
^he pulp as it leaves the
potcher to the minimum
•quantity necessary for per-
lect circulation in the tower;
t>y this means a considerable
wving is effected in the
iiuanuty of bleach required.
After the necessary concen-
uation of the pulp in No. l
cower, the bleaching liquor is
.idded and the circulator at
che foot of the tower put in
motion. A two-way valve
in the discharge pipe allows
the pulp to pass on to tower
No. 2, and so on through the
series. The circulator in
each tower is only put in
working for a short time once
in every hour and there is
never more than one circu-
lator working in the series at
onetime. There is no manual
labour in working the pro-
cess, perfect cleanlinesa, and
a great sa^dng in power over
the old process. Each tower
will hold about two tons of
dry pulp. When the pulp b
fully bleached in the last
tower of the series, fresh
water is nm into it, and a
second concentrator, similar
to the one on the first tower,
is put in motion and washes
out all traces of the pleach in
about 35 to 30 minutes.
These concentrators effect
also another purpose, takins
to some extent the place 01
the presae-pftte machine for
removing roots, weeds and
other impurities.
From the last tower and
concentrator the bleached
pulp is pumped through aline
of pipes to the beaters, valves
being fixed in the line of pipes
to discharge into whichever
beater is desired. These
beaters are constructed in
tower-form like the bleach-
ers, the roll and plate being
fixed on the top of the tower
and the circulation effected
in the same way as in the
ICawoi. Soon ud Co.. Ud. bleachers. Fig. 5,»hows plan
cTr. ir.«.w«nu.^ks—.«x "n** elevation of such an
^^^' **""i&KL m.^ ^ arrangement of beaters and
Beating Plant. bleachers arranged in scries.
The beaters are made to bold each about 1500 lb of dry paper and a
series of four of tbe« can make from 55 to 60 tons of paper per week.
Fio. 6.— Poiioo Evaporator.
(MANUFACTUSB
Fibres like rate, hemp, mMHa, Ac, are cMely vaed for the
manufacture of coarse papers where strength b of more inportaaoe
than appearance, such as wrappinc-papers, paper for tacgrapb-
forms. &c. The boiling processes Tor tbero are similar to thoae
used for esparto and straw.
The alkaline liquors in which nags, esparto and other paper-
making materiab had been boiled were formeriy ran into the
nearest water-course: but now, Partly because it b ^,^_
insisted upon in England by the Rivers PollutNMi Acts, g ^ , ,
and partly because the recovery of the soda can be
made remunerative, all these liquors are pres er ved and the soda
they contain utiliaed. One of the best and noat eoononical ol
the simple recovery planu b that invented by Porion. a French
distiller, and named after him. This consuls of an evaporating
chamber A, on the floor of which a few inches of the liquid to be
evaporated rest. By che action of fanners B. B revolving at -a
high speed and dipping into the lk)uid, it b thrown up in a fine
spray through whicfi tbe heated gases pass to the chimney. After
being concentrated in the evaporating chamber the liqukl fkiw*
into the incinerating furnaces C.C. where the remaining water b
driven off bv the heat of the fire D. and the mass afterwards ignited
to drive oft the carbonaceous matter. A considerable feature in
thb evaporator b Menzies and Davis's patent smell chamber E, a
chamber filled with masonry in which the strongly-amelling ^aea
from the incinerating furnace are allowed to remain at a red heat for
a short time. After being recovered, the soda, in the form of crude
carbonate, b Uxivbted and re-cauatkized by boiling irith mBk of
lime.
Porion's method b open, however, to the objection that the
whole of the sulphur in the coal emplo^ for the furnaces finds
its way into the recovered soda, and forms sulphur compounda.
thus reducing the value of the ash for boiling purposes: in addition,
a considerabte amount of soda is volatilized during the evaporation.
By the application of the system of multiple-effect evaporation to
the recovery of waste liquors these drawbacks disappear, and an
important change has been made in the soda-recovery plant of tlie
paper-mill. Thb system of multiple-effect evaporation, orinnally
introduced by M. Rillieux, was perfected by the inventkM of Hocner
T. Yaryan, of Toledo, Ohio. U.S.A. Thb type may here be taken
for description, though other typei of evaporator are now abo
employed, notably the ordinary vertical tube multiple effect evapor-
ator as used for concentrating sugar liquors. The Yaryan evapor-
ator was originally applied in the Dnitea States to the concentration
of the waste alkaline liquors of paper-milb; it then came into
extensive use for the manufacture and refining of sunr. the ^to-
duction of glucose and a variety of other purposes. The prinapte
of multiple-effea evaporation b to utilize the latent heat of a vapour
given off from a liquid under a certain pressure to vaporize a further
quantity of the liquid under a pressure mainuined by mechanical
means below that of the first. The essential feature which dis-
tinguishes the Yaryan evaporator consists in the bmling of the
liquor to be treatea while it b passing through a series of tubes,
which constitute a coil and are heated externally by steam or vapcur.
The quantity of liquor entering the coil is so controlled that it b
only pemutted partblly to fill the tubes, and thus leaves room for
the insuntaneous liberation of the vapour and iu free escape.*
As the liquor descends from tube to tube it becomes concentrated
and reduced in volume until it ultimately passes into a " aeparator."
where it impinees on a plate 00 disk, which causes a coofdete
separation crt the vapour and liquid; each then pasaes on to the
next " effect," the liquid through the second coil of tubes and the
vapour to the chamber enclosing them. This combination of a
scnes of tubes, or coil, and separator constitutes a vessel or ** effect."
and the evaporator consists of a series, usually three or more, of
these vesads, one above the other (fig. 7) . The vital feature, it will be
understood, is therefore that the latent
heat of the original steam, after per-
forming its funaion in the first cllect«
is passed on to the second and then to
the third or more effects, in each of
which an equal atnoont of work b done
before passing to the final condenser,
where a vacuum b maintained. Thisa.
if the total temperature be divided three
times, the result b a triple-effect, if
four times, a quadruple-effect. Takinc
an evaporatkm of 10 lb of water per
pound of coal, a single-effect apparatus
will evaporate 10 lb of water, a
Mn England, it shouM be stated, it
b found that both for paper liquors »nd
other liquors equally good evapora-
tion resulu are obtained and the tubes
kept dcaner by keeping them under
a head of liquor, t>. the Ik)oor b fed
into the bottom row of tubes and has
to ascend row by row to the top row,
from which it j^ows to the separator.
n
MANUPACTUREI PAPER
double^eet ao lb, a triple^eet jo lb, and to on.> The
liquor to be concentrated ii pumped from the storage tanks to
tbie top or first effect of the \ aryan apparatus through a series of
multiple-effect heaters, correspondinff to the number of effects in
the machine, by means of which the liquor b heated to as near the
boiling point as possible of the liquor io the tubei of the fint effect.
73 «
3s
'■■ i[!
ill,',,
iiij[f
-/t
-/•
Th« ICbilMi Wstaoa Co.. Ltd.
Fic. 7.— The Yaryan Patent Multiple Effect Evaporator.
Live steam is Introduced into the chamber surrounding the tubes
of the first effect, and from the separator of the last effect the
concentrated liquor is pumped to the incinerator.
Any form of indncrating hearth can be used in conjunction with
the multiple^ect evaporator, but one very siiital)!e to the con-
tinuous work of, and the high degree of concentration prnducitl
by, the Yaryan machine is that known as the Warren rotary furnace
This consists of a revolving iron cylinder lined with brick, alwut
13 ft. long by 10 ft. in diameter. The lining bcinff 6 in. thicker at
the inlet 'than at the discharge, the interior of the lurnacc is conical
in form so that the ash gradually works forward and is eventually
discharged fully Inimt into truclcs for storage, or on a travelling
band, and ao carried automatically to the dissolving or lixiviating
lanl^ The strong liquor runs in at one end in a slow continuous
atream; by the rotation of the hearth the burning mass is carried
up the sides and drops through the flame again to the bottom,
much in the same manner as rags do in a revolving duster. In
this way all^ the labour required to stir the ash of the ordinary
hearth is dispensed with, and the burning material comes con-
tinuously in dose contact with the flame, a complete and thorough
combustion being the result. The fire>liox is siiuatcd at the delivery
end of the furnace, and is mounted on (rycks ' so that it can be run
back when cleaning or repairing the Imckwork. The waste heat
is utilised in raising steam in a steam boiler set behind the furnace,
and often in keeT>ing the thick liquor hot after Icavii^ the evaporator
and before entering the rotary furnace.
Paper- making proper from prepared pulp, whether of rags,
esparto, wood or other raw nuUerial, may be said to begin with
the operation technically known as " beating " which is
* The figures given here are theoretical rather than actual. In
practice a double effect is not caiialrfe of evaiMvaiing twice as mtich
with 1 lb of coal as a single-effect, owing to loss of emdcncy through
radiation. Ac
•This was the original Warren principle, but has largely been
abandoned in favour of a parallel brick lining throughout ; the ash
gradually works forward and is discharged as described.
■ A later method is to build the fire-box on the descending mde
of the rotary furnace, while a specially constructed door and ash
discharge sboot^ are provided at the ascending side, which gives
access to the inside of the furnace and providesalT the other essentials
without the loss ct heat which reftulicd from the portable fire-box,
due to leakage between the boa and the rotary furnace proper.
carried out in one of tbe varfous forms of beating engine or
" lIolULndcr." The object of the beater is to reduce the fibres
to suiuble lengths and also to beat or bruise them
into a stiff pulp of sufficient consistency to absorb ^^
and carry the water necessary to felt them together on the wirei
Elevation
Utmon, Scott ft 0>.. Ltd.
Fic. 8.— Taylor's PSatent Beater.
cloth of the paper-machine. This operation is one of the most
important and most delicate processes in the manufacture,
requiring experience, skill and careful manipulation. Not
only does every class of fibre demand its own special treatment,
but this treatment has to be modified and varied in each case
to suit the quaUties and substances of the papers to be maile
from iL
Althouffh there are now in use a great many forms of beating
engine, iney arc all. more or less, modifications of the original
Hollander, w;hich in its enseniial details differs little from the
breaking engine already dejvrilx'd. 1'here are usually more bars
in the roll and plate than in the breaker; the bars of the pbte are
set at a slight angle to the fly-l»ars of the roll to act as shears in a
similar nunner to a pair of scissors. Bars and plates of bronze
are frequently used for the higher grades of pa|ier to avokl rust and
dirt and to produce a softer and less violent action on the fibres.
The lime re(|uircd for the beating process varies from 3 to 4 hours
up to 10 and la and even more. Beating engines fitted with
mechanical circulation by pumos or otherwise liave been extensively
adopted, more iiarticularly lor working esparto and the other
substitutes for rags. Fig. 8 shows one of these beaters, known as
the Taylor Ixviter; the roll and plate arc fixed above the trough of
the iKSiter, which has no partition or mid-feather, and from the
lower end a fiowerful circulator or pump circulates the pulp through
the beater and dischar^^s it through a pipe in a continuous stream
in front of the roll. In the i>ipc is fixed a two-way valve, so that
when the locating operation is complete the finished pulp can lie
run into the stuff-chests of the pa[>cr machine. The advantaf>es
of this form of beater are that a quicker and more thorough rir-
culatran of the pulp takes place than when the roll has to do the
double duty of making the pulp travel and beating it up at the
same time, and thus tends to reduce the time of the operation.
AIm) more bars can be fixed in the roll, increasing its effect on the
pulp, and less power is rcquiretl than when the roll revolves in the
middle of the stuff as in the ofdinary form of beater.
Beatjne engines of quite a different construction are now largely
used in Amcncan mills, and also to some extent in Great Britain.
These arc known as " refiners." and the most important forms are
the Jordan and Kingsland beaters (so called from the names of
the mventora), or modifications of them.
The first (fig. 9) consists of a conical plug pr roll fixed on a shaft
and revolving at a high rate of speed within an outer casing of
corresponding shape: Imth the plug and the casing are furnished
with stcd bars parallel %-ith the shaft, but let at slwhtly different
angles, uking the place of the bars in the roll and plate of the
ordinary beater. TiiSs conical plug or roll can be moved il|^|0p
direction parallel to its axis and by this means the culll^
73«
PAPER
(IIMH^ACTURB
of the two wtt of bare can be increased or reduced. The pulp
flows into the top of the Itcater at the smaller end of the cone
through a box provided with an arrangement for regubting the
flow and posses out through an opening in the casing at the other
end. The roll or plug revolves at I mm ^50 to 400 revolutions
per minute* and requires a power to drive it of from 35 to 40 h.p..
Fig. 9.— Jordan Beater.
according to the work to lie done, and one engine is capable of
n;issin(! as much as 1000 Hi * eight of dr>* pulp per hour. The
KincHlind beater consists of a circubr Inx or casing, on both
in«i«ic faces of which are fixed a numlx*r of knives or liars of steel
or lirunxc: inside the cam b a revolving disk of metal fitted on both
sides with corrc«|Mmtiing and simibr bars. The contact between
the revolving ami siaiionarv liars can be a^bted. as in the Jordan
engine, to gnx; the nxiuircu amount of licating action on the pulp.
The rchner is cssrniially a finishing process as an adjunct to the
beating process i»ro|icr. The advant.iges to be derived from its
use are a con«ddcrjl>le saving in the time occupied in Ixrating and
the production of a more uniform ami :>\'enly divided pulp, par-
ticularly where a mixture of different fibres is used. By the use
of the refiner the time occupied in the lieater can lie rraucetl by
nearly one-half, the half-txaten pulp passing thixnigh the refiner
from the beater on its «'ay lo the painrr-inachine. It U not, however,
generally einployetl for tlie best kinds of fxiper.
During the o|K'ration of lx^ating various materials' and chemicals
are added to the pulp for the purposes of sizing, loading, colouring.
&c. Tapers for writing and most of those for printing purposes
must be rendered non-absorlKni of ink or other liquid applied lo
them. To effect this some form of animal or vegetable size or
glue must be applied to the paper, either as a coating on the finished
web or sheet, or mixed >*-ith the nulp in the lieating engine. The
former, called "tub-sizing" wilf^bc descrilied later; the btter
which is known as " engine-sizing ** consists in filling up the inter-
stices of the fibres u-ith a chemical precipitate of finely-divided
resin, which, when dried and hcaietl on the cylinders of the paper-
machine. posseseM>s the property of being with difficuliy wetted
with water. Except in the very liest qualities of paper, it is usual
to add to the pulp a certain quantity of cheap loading material,
such as china-cby or kaolin, or pearl-hardcnlng, a chemically
precipitated form of sulphate of lime. The addition of such loading
matcTul to a moderate extent, say 10 to 15%, is not entirely in
the nature of an adulterant, as it serves to close up the pores of
the paper, and for ordinary writing, {irinting and lithographic
papers renders the material softer, enaiiling it to take a much better
and more even surface or glaze. Uut if added in excess it is delri-
mcnial to the strent^ih and hardness of the sheet. Most materials,
however well bleached,^ have a more or less >Tllowi!th tinge; to
produce the desired white shade in the paper certain quantities of
red and blue in the form of pigments or dyes must be added to the
pulp. The blues usually employed are ultramarine, smalts and
the anlltne blues, while the red dyes are generally preparations of
either cochineal or the aniline dyes. Other colours are required
in the manufacture of papen of different tints, and with one or
two exceptions they must be mixed u-ith the pulp in the beater.
There are two distinct processes of prodadng the finished
paper from the pulp, known rcspcciivcly as " hand-made "
and " machine-made." The expense of mana-
laclure of hand-made paper and the consequent
high price render it too costly for ordinary use; the entire process
on the machine occupies a few minutes, while in the ordinary
state of the weather il could not be done by hand in less than a
week.
A brief description of the hand-made process will suffice and
it win al the same time fadliiaie the right comprehension of
the machine proeos. Only the finest qtialities of rags Are taed
for hand-made paper; and the preparation of the half-stuff is
the same as that already described under treatment of rags.
The pulp after being prepared in the beating engine is run into
«-
Fig. la
large chests from which the vat is supplied; before reaching this
il is strained as on the paper-machine (see bdow). The sheet
of paper is made on a mould of fine wire-doth with a removable
frame of wood lo keep the pulp from running off, extending
slightly above the surface of the mould, called the " deckd.**
To form the sheet, the paper-maker dips the mould into a vat
(sec fig. 10) containing the prepared pulp, lifting up just so much
as will make a sheet of the required thickness; as soon as the
Fic. II.— Mould and Deckel for hand-made paper.
mould is removed from the vat, the water begins to drain
through the wire-doth and lo leave the fibres on the suriaoe
in the form of a coherent sheet, the fdling or intertwining being
assisted by a btcral motion or '* shake " given to the mould
by the workman; the movable deckel is then taken off, and the
mould is given to another workman, called ihc " toucher ."
who turns it over and presses it against a fdt, by this means
transferring or " couching " the sheet from the wire to the fdt.
A number of the sheets thus formed arc piled one above another
altcmalcly with pieces of fell, and the whole is subjected to
strong pressure lo expel ihe wal^; the fdls are then removed
and the sheets arc again pressed and dried, when they are ready
for sizing. Any pallern or name required in thesheet is obtained
by making the wire-doth mould in such a way that it is sHg^tty
raised in those parts where the pattern is needed (fig. 11);
consequently less pulp lodges there and the paper is proportkm-
aldy thinner, thus showing the exact counterpart of the pattern
on the mould; such are known as *' watermarks.'* The expense
of manufacturing paper in thb way is very much greater than
by machinery; but the gain in strength, partly owing to the time
allowed to the fibres lo knit together, and partly to the frer
expansion and contraction permitted them in drying* still
maintains a steady demand for ihb class of paper.
The paper-machine (fig. 19) constats essentblly of an ewdles
mould of fine wirt<loth on which the palp flows and o« which a
continuous sheet of paper is formed: the sheet then p ass es thrvsufb
a series of press roMs and over a number -)f steam-heated cytisider s
until it b dry. From the besting engiaes, the pulp b coiptbd
IIANUPACTUB3] PAFEIt
into florafie tanks or stuflT-chett*, fitted with revolving amifl or
agiutore; Trom thcae the pulp is pumped into a lone upright supply
box at a higher level, called the stuff box, which ooromunicatca
with the nnd trap or table by means of a rcgubtins valve. With
the pulp a certain amount of water is allowed to flow on to the
Mnd trap so as to dilute it sufficiently to (grm oa the wirB<k>th U
733
WET END
(ace of ft npidly-ievoiviaft dkk driven by a pair of speed-conei,
so that the speed of tha saaks can be altered. The object of thia
shake is to interlace the fibres tocether, but it also assisu in keeping
the water from passiiw through tne wire too rapidly before the paper
has been properly formed. Moat machines have two suction-
boxes with the " dandy-foU " revolving between them on the top
Fic. 12. — Papcr-Maktng Machine.
the paper-machine. The sand trap consists of an elevated table
in which is sunk a shallow serpentine channel lined on the bottom
with rou^h felt and divided throughout its length by a number of
sniall strips of wood, behind which the impurities collect as the
pulp flows over them on its way to the strainers.
The strainers arc made of plates of brass or some hard and durable
composition with fine parallel slits cut in them, through which the
. fibres pass, all knots and improperly divided portions
siratmM^ remaining behind; the pulp is nude to pass through
them by the rapid vibration of the plates themselves or by a strong
suction underneath them, or sometimes b^ a combination of the
two. From the strainers the pulp flows mto a long wooden box
or trough, of the same width as the paper machine, called the
•* breast-box," and thence on to the wirc-cloih. The wire consists
of a continuous woven brass ck>th, supported horizontally by
small brass rolls, called " tube-rolls," carried on a
2J'J2L frame: it is usually 40 to 50 ft. long and is stretched
tmtsa^t. jjgi^^ Q^p^ j^Q j.jj||j^ Q^g j^j P3^l^ ^,^j qJ ^Y^^ frame.
caHed respectively the " breast-roll " and the " lower-couch roll."
The ordinary gauge for the wire-ckMh is 66 meshes to the inch for
writings and printings: finer wires are sometimes used, howexer.
up to 80 to the Inch; for lower eradcs the mesh is coarser. The
water, mixed with the pulp, flows from the wire-cloth by gravitation
along the lines of contact between it and the tube-rolls; this water,
which contains a considerable percentage of fibre, especially from
finely beaten pulps, drops into a fl^t copper or wooden tray, from
which it flows into a tank and is pumped up with the water for
dilutinK the pulp so that none of it shall be wasted. From the
tube-rolls the wire conveys the pulp over a pair of suction-boxes
for extracting the remaining water from the web. The width of
the web of paper is determined by two continuous straps of vulcan-
ized rubber about 1 1 in. square, one on each side of the wire, called
the " deckel-straps : the distance between these straps can be
increased or dimmished; they serve to guide the pulp from the
FlC. 13.— Dandy-roll,
moment it spreads on the wire until it arrives at the first suction-
box, where the web is sufficiently dry to retain its edges. The
^^ frame of the machine from the breast-roll to the first
suction-box is hung on a pair of strong hinges, and is
capable of a slight horizontal motion imparted by a horizontal
connect ingrod. one end of which is eccentrically keyed on to the
of the iNjIp (so called because it can be made to eive to the paper
any desired water-marking). The " dandy-roll " (fig- 13) i» a light
skeleton cylinder covered with wirc<loth on which small _
pieces of wire are soldered rrprrsenting the watemnark ^'"fT
to be reproduced in the paper. From the last suctbn- T^^^
box the half-dried sheet of pulp passes between the c^-tj^,
" couch-rolls." so called from the corresponding operation ^
of couching in hand-made paper, which, by pressing out most of the
remaining moisture, impart sufficient consistency to the paper to
enable it to leave the wire; both rolls are covered with a felt jacket,
and the top one is provided with levers and weights to increase or
diminish the pressure on the web. The paper is now fully
formed, and is next earned by means of endless felts ^^IffH^L
between two and sometimes three pairs of press-rolls •■■'''''^*
to extract the remaining moisture, and to obliterate as much as
possible the impre ssi on of the wire-cloth from the under-side of
the web. The web of paper is finally dried by passing it over a
scrkw of hollow steam-heated drying cylinders driven one from the
other by gearing. The slower and more gradual the drying proccm
the better, as the change on the fibres ol the web due to tne rapid
contraaion in drying is thereby not so excessive, and the heat
required at one time is not so great nor so likelv to damage the
quality of the paper; the heating surface should therefore be as
large as possible, and a great number of cylinders is rcouired now
that the machines are driven at high speeds^ The cylinders are
so traced that both surfaces of the web are alternately in conuct
with the heating surface. All the cylinders, except the first two or
three with which the moist paper comes in contact and where the
ercatest evaporation occurs, are encased by continuous travelling
lelts. The drying cylinders are generally divided into two sets
between which is placed a pair of highly polished chilled iron rolls
heated by steam, called " nip-rolls.' or smoothers," the purpose
of which is to flatten or smooth the surface of the paper while in
a partially dry condition. Befoie being reeled up at the end of
the machine the web of paper is pasMd througn two
or more seu of " calenders, ' according to the degree
of surface or smoothness required. These calenders consist of a
venical stack of chilled iron rolls, generally five in number, revolvioK
one upon another, and one or more of which are bored and heated
by steam: pressure caa be applied to the stack •» required by
means of levers aad screws. The web of paper is bow wound up
in lonf reeb at the end of the machine.
Paper«nachines are now usually driven by two separate steam
engines. The first, runnhig at a constant speed, drives the strainers,
pumps, shake motion. &c.. while the secottd, workiae the pa|^-
machine, varies aa speed according to the rate at wUbb k raQuirea
73+
to M QtVttlL Tot power C O HWU HBO bv tM two CflClim will ATera(6
from 40 to too h.p. The dryinf cyiinden oC the paper-machine
iorm a coovenient and economical condenser for tne two steam-
enginea, a«d it it cttttoniary to exhaust the driving engiine into the
drying cyUnders and utiUae the latent beat hi the iteam for drying
the paptfv supplementing the soppiv when necessary with live
steam. The vpttd of the machine has frequently to be altered
while in motion. An alteration of a few feet per minute can be
effected by changing the driving-speed of the steam-engine governor ;
for a maicr change the machine must be stopped and other driving-
wheels substituted. Arrangements are made in the driving-gear
by which the various parts of the machine can be slightly altered
in speed rebtivriy to one another, to allow for the varying con-
traction or expaiuion of the paper web for different lunch and
thicknesses of paper. The average speed of a paper-machine on
fine writing-papers of medium weight is from 60 to 90 ft. per minute,
but for printing-papers, newspapers, &c., the machine is driven
from I ao up to as much as 100 and 400 ft. per minute. The width
of machines varies greatly in different mills, from about 60 in. to
as much as 150 in. wide. Milb running on higher classes of papers
as a rule use narrow machines, as .these mabe a closer ana more
even sheet of paper than wider ones. On fine writing-papers an
average machine will make from ao to-40 tons per week, while for
common printing and newq>apers the weekly output will amount
to «> to 70 tona.
. All hand-made P^p^ >nd manv of the best cUsses of machine-
' J papers, insteaa of being lixed in the beater with a prepr—- — 1
of resin are what is calkxl " tub-sized,** thab is, i
^ with a solutfen of ^[elatin. Such papers, when nt . -
made, are reeled off the machine straight from the drying cy Ur,> 1. rs
in the rough state. The web is then led slowly through a u^' <>r
vat containing a heated solution of animal glue or gelatin inU^ d
with a certain amount of alum; after passing through a r >ir r,f
brass rolls to squeeze out the superfluous size, the web is ntl-i ip
again and atlowied to remain for some time for the size to set. Tt^e
Ciper is then led by means of continuous travelling tapes over a
Dg scriea of open skeleton drums, about 4 ft. in diameter, inside
PAPER piANUFACniRE
The cheaper kinds of paper are glaaed on the papernnnchme la
the calenders as before dexribed. For the better dasa or very
highly-glaaed papen and those that are tab-staed, a g^^^^
subsequent glazing procesa is required; this is effected ^^T'.
by sheet or plate-glazing and by super^aleaderiag or ■■■■■*
web-glazinf. The pfaitc-glazing process is adopted maid^ far the
best grades of wriunp-papers, as it gives a smoother, higher and
more permanent gloss than has yet been imiuted by the roU<aleadcr.
In this method each sheet is placed by hand be t we en two oac or
copper plates until a pile of sheeu and plates has been fanned
sumcient to make a handful for passing through the glaiin^-rollft:
this handful of about two quires or 48 sheets of p^per, la then
passed backwards and forwards between two chilled-iron rolla
geamng together. A considerable pressure can be brought to bear
upon the top rdl by kvers and weighty or by a pair of screws; the
pressure on the rolls, and the number of times the handful b pSMaed
through, are varied according to the amount of gloss raqviccd on
the papier. The supercalender (see fig. 14) is used to imitate the
platc^lazed surface, partly as a matter of economy in coat, but
principally for the high surfaces required on papers for books and
perioaicals to show up wood<uts and photographic illustratiooaL
It usually consists of a stack of chilled cast-iron rolls, altematiiw
with rolls of compressed cotton or paper so that the web at eacK
nip is between cotton and iron; it will be seen from the niustntioa
that there are two cotton rolb together in the stack for the pvipoae
of rexTrsing the action on the paper and so making both sides alike;
prnsure is applied to the rolb at the top by compound levers aitd
weights or screws. A very high surface can be quickly given to
paper by friction with the assistance of heat; the proces* b know*
as " burnishing," and is used mostly for envelope pnpers and
wrappings where one surface only of the web b required to be
glazed. It b produced by the friction of a chiUed-iron roll on ooe
of cotton or paper, the ratio of the revolutions being as 4 to SS
steam b admitted to the burnishing iron roll.
At the end of the 19th century a Urge and increaang dennnd
sprang up for papers embossed with a special pattern, such aa
linen-nnish, &c.: these are used principally for fanc^ writing-
papers, programmes, menu<ards, Ac Thb embossing is cffectol
usually on the plate-glazing machine, in the case 01 linen and
simibr finishes by enck>sing each sheet of paper be t wee n two
pieces of linen or other suiublc material to give the desired texture
or pattern on the surface of the sheet. Each sheet of paper with
its two pieces of cloth b pbced between zinc plates ana pnaaed
backwards and forwards between the rolb of the m a ch i ne as ia
plate-glazing.
Except for specbl purposes, such for example as for ore in a
continuous printing-machine, paper is usually sent from the mill
in the form of sheets. A number of reels of paper b ^^^
hung on spindles between two upright frames to feed '^■^^
the cutting-machine (see fig. 15); the various webs of paper are
drawn forward toeether through two small rollers, and npped into
widths of the required sire by means of a number of pairs 01 circular
knives or " slitters "; they then pass between another pair of rollers,
and over a long dead-knife fixied across the cutting-machine, on
which they are cut into sheets by another transvene knife fastened
to a revolving drum and acting with the dead-knife like a large
pair of shears. The cut sheeu then fall upon an endless travelling
felt, from which they are stacked in piles by boys. It b often
necessary, as in the case of water-marked papers, that the aheeta
slioukl be cut with great exactness 90 that the designs sbaU appear
J.ICBMftSH.Ll4.
Fic. 14.— Super-calender.
The bottom roll and the wd. 6th, 8th and loth rolls, all reckoned
from the bottom, are made of highly polished chilled cast-iron;
the others of highly compresaed paper.
whkrh revolve fans for creating a circulation of hot air; rows of
ateam-pipes underneath the line of drams furnish the heat for
drying. Slow and gradual drying b essentbl to thb process to
ttt the full benefit of the siting properties of the geUtin. In
hand-made papers, the sheets are pasaed by handfub of three or
five on an endless fdt through the gebtin solution and between
a pair of rolls, and then sk>w1y dricdon rope Hnsa or ** tribfaks '
ia a itaam-hMtcd and wcU-veatiUtad loft.
JiMMBntaaftSg*.!
Fic. IS— Reel Paper Cutter.
in the centre of the sheet: the ordinary cutter cannot be 1
ri for thb purpose and in iu place a machine called a " single^
t cutter " IS used. In thb cutter only one web of paper b cut
at a time; bet we en the circubr slitters and the transverse kniven
S^'
laced ft measuring-drum., which receivu aa ooe^latiiigD
can be adjusted bv suiuble mechanism to draw .
aoMunt of paper forwara for the length of sheet required.
All that now remains to be done before the paper b ready for
the market is overhauling or sheeting. This operation coaaiata ia
sorting out all speckled, spotted or damaged sheets, or ahacts el
INDU PAPER]
PAPER
735
different shades o( colour, ftc.; this entaOs considerable time and
expense as each sheet has to be oassed in review separately.
^ This sorting is usually performed by >vomen. Papers are
•■•*^* as a rule sorted into three different qualities, known m
the tcade respectively aa " perfect," " retree '• and " broke "; the
best of the defective sheeto form the second quality " retree," a
term derived from the French word reiirer (to drsw out), and are
sold at a reduced price; sheeu that are torn or damaged or too
badly marked to pass for the third quality " broke," are returned
to the mill to be repulped aa waste paper.
Paper Is sold in sheets of different sizes and b made up
into reams containing from 480 to 516 sheets; these sizes
5r»M •# correspond to different trade names, such for example
^v^ as foolscap, post, demy, royal, &c; the following
are the ordinary sizes: —
Writing Papers.
Pott. . . .
Foobcap . .
Doable foolscap
Foolscap and third
Foolscap and half •
Pinched post .
Small post . .
Urnpost . .
Double large post .
Medium. . .
Inches.
12
\i
w X19
i6{ X at
31 X55
18 X33
Drawing and Book Papers.
Demy. . .
Medium . .
Royal . .
Super>royal .
Imperial
Elephant
Double elephant
Colombier^^
Atlas . .
Antiquarian
Inches.
iSiXao
17I X 22i
19. X 24
19J X 27
22 X30
23 X28
26«X40
33lX34i
25 X34
3« X53
Of not less Importance ire the quaUtles which belong to paper
as a chemical substance or mixture, which are: (i) iu actual
composition; (3) the liability to change under whatever con*
ditiona of storage and use it may be subjected to. For all
papers to be used for any permanent purpose these physical
and chemical qualities must ultimately nuU: as regulating the
consumption and production of papers.
In England and Wales in 1907 there were 307 mills, using 409
machines and 99 vats for hand-made paper; in Scotland, 39 nulls
and 111 machines: in Ireland. 7 mills and 11 machines. A rough
estimate of the amount of capital embarked in the faidustry may be
formed on the basis that average mills would represent from £20,000
to £ao.ooo and upwards per machine.
The table at foot of page shows the amounts and values of the
British imports and exports of paper
Printing Papers.
Demy . .
Double demy .
Quad demy
Doable foolscap
Royal . . .
Double royal
Dottbks crown .
Quad crown
Imperial . .
Inches.
«7f X 22|
Ml X 35
35 X45
17 X37
20 X25
and paper-making materials in 1907.
AuTHORJTiBs.— Amot, "Techno
With the enormously increased production of paper and the
great reduction in price within recent years, it has been found
that the "science" of paper-making has scarcely
meQmaa^ advanced with the same rapid strides as the art
itself. Although a sheet of paper made to-day differs
little as a fabric from the papers of eariier epochs, the introduc-
tion of new and cheaper forms of vegetable fibres and the
auxiliary methods of treating them have caused a great change
in the quality, strength and lasting power of the manufactured
article. The undue introduction of excessive quantities of
mechanical or ground wood-pulp in the period 187&-1880 into
the cheaper qualities of printing-papers, particulariy in Germany,
first drew attention to this matter, since it was noticed that
books printed on paper in which much of this material had been
used soon began to discolour and turn brown where exposed
to the air or light, and after a time the paper became brittle.
This important question began to be scientifically investigated
in Germany about the year 1885 by the Imperial Testing
Institution in Berlin. A scheme of testing papers has been
formulated and officially adopted by which the chemical and
physical properties of different papers are compared and brought
to numerical expression. The result of these investigations has
been the fixing of certain standards of quality for papers intended
for different purposes. These qualities are grouped and defined
under such heads as the following: —
Strengtk, expressed in terms of the weight or strain which the
paper wtll support.
Elastieity and Uxturet measured by dongation under strain and
resistance to crumplins or nibbing.
Bmlk, exp r es sed in the precise terms of specific gravity or weight
per unit of volume.
of the Paper-trade." Cantor Lectures.
Sodety of Arts G^ndon, 1877); Clapper-
tun, Practical Paper-Making (London.
1894); ^^^^ *>>° Bevan, Report on
Indian Fibres and Fibrous Substances
(London. 1867); id., Celtnhse (London,
189s- 190S): id., A Text-Book 0/ Paper-
Making (London, 1888) ; Clayton Beadle,
Chapters on Paper- Makint (London);
Davis. The Manufacture of Pater (Phila-
delphia. 1886); Dropisch. Die Papier
Machine (Brunswick, 1878); id-. Papier-
Jdtffikmi&n (with itUji) {WL-imnr^ i#Rr); Gri/Bn and Li(tlt, The
Chcmiitry of Pdper-mdiiti^ tNfw Vurk, iS^); Jkntjcr^, i^apur^
ff^fung CQerliri, iftHfl; Enfj. trans* by f. >f. Evan*. Lpftdtm};
In J., Alttrasi'opijiKe UnJerivchuttt dft Fopitrs (Berlin ^ (^^7}; Hm-
irinn, Itondhtitk dn Pupifr-fiilfriteiwwi (Ekriin. 1S97); Hoycr,
jLonc^on^ i-ifyl^); Schubert, DU CftMc^c-fabrihiUfm (Bcrlirii
Article.
Exports. 1
Weight.
Value.
Weight.
Valne.
Paper, un^nted
268.036
£
3.9»7.954
621,293
1.134.56a
5.673315
906.1 SI
738334
a.396356
915^91
4*257.339
Tom.
«7/«5
129.900
(indudiii^other
paper making
iM^als.)
i
9^4*420
75^.739
Paper, pnnted
Straw- and raiUboarda . . . .
Rags, linen and cotton ....
Espsrto and other vcgeUble fifans
Wood-pulp—
Chemical
Mechanical. .
443.911
«B^3
I9».756
697*416
R*pan
/ ic^on^ i^^i<j); Schubert, DU CflMc^c-fabrfknUfm (Bcrlirii 1897):
tl.t Dii Pruris dcr Papjrrkbrikiilitm (Oeflin, iS<>H); id-, Die Itpij.-
ilcf feeder Ihlzi£kitff'fti^nl^iffn {BltIIh, 1898); Sind»It< Fapff
TctkttoJtif^y {Lant^itn, iQfH-i^'^S); " Kcport oi the Commitic? on
the Dclcrioratl^n of VAprr," Society of Art* (London, i8t)S):
U'y,itt, " rjfXT-niaLirijf,*' Proc. Inst, C. £.^ bwljt. (L^ndonn. 1*^5):
id,, " Slfiag Pjptr wiih RtHin," Proi^ /ntL C-E.^ Kcu (London,
I ^67) : Papff-M(jktrs' Uontkiy Journal (Lcmdisn, lince IS7 1) : Paprr-
Tradi Joumai (New Ygrk. since !,%23)i P^ia-Ztitttm (Bertiiu
8iiKCia7&}. (J.W, W.)
Fndin /^^per.— This name ui given to a very thla and light
but tough and opaque kind of piper, s^iroetjcjcs used ior
piiDlirg booii — wp^dally Bibles — of which it Is. desinible to
reduce the bulk and weight as far as possible without iinpaJring
llidr dtirabUily or diminjihing ibcir l>pe^ The name wa*
origio^Ey given in Engbtjdj about tbc middle of the 1 St h ctntury,
to ft. joft absorbent pjipcr d a pai«? buH shade, imported frcjin
China, where k wai mada by kind on a papher-maLing frame
f', nfrsUy unular to that used in Europe* The name probably
origLnaicd jq the prevailing tend^nry. down to the end of ibc
iSJ:h century, to dc^scribe as ** Indian " anything wfiich came
from the Far E^t (cf. Indian ink). This so-calkd India paper
was used for printing the earliest and fincit impressJoos oE
engravifigSni henCC known as " India proofj."
The mme of India paper is now chiefly associated with
European (especially Enii^h) ii:jL]jlrjc>(nade^ thin, opaque
printing papers used in the highest class
of book-printing. In 1841 aa Oxford
graduate brought home from the Far
East a small quantity of extremely thin
paper, which was manifestly more opaque
and tough, for its weight, than any paper
then made in Europe. He presented it
to the Oxford University Press, and in
1842 Thomas Combe, printer to the
University, used it for 94 copies of the
smallest Bible then in existeocc — Dia*
mond 24010. These books were scarcely
a third of the usual thickness, and were
regarded with great interest; one was
pre^nted to Queen Victoria, and the
rest to other persons. Combe tried
7j6
PAPHLAGONIA— PAPHOS
In vain to trace the xmroe of thh paper. In 1874 a copy
of this Bible fell into the bands of Henry Frowde, and eiperi-
oicnts ivere instituted U the Oxford Univerdty paper-mills
at Wolvercote with the object of producing similar paper.
On the 34th of August 1875 an impression of the Bible, similar
in all respects to thatof 184s, was placed on sale by the Oxford
University Press. The feat of compression was regarded as
astounding, the demand was enormous, and in a vtry short
time 350,000 copies of this '* Oxford India paper Bible " had
been sold. Many other editions of the BtUe, besides other books*
were printed on the Oxford India paper, and the marvels of
compression accomplished by its use created great interest at
the Paris Exhibition of 190a Its strength was as remarkable
■as its lightness; volumes of 1500 pages were suspended for several
months by a single leaf, as thin as tissue, and when they were
examined at the close of the exhibition, it was found that the
leaf had not started, the p4per had not stretched, and the
volume closed as wdl as ever. The paper, when subjected
to severe rubbing, instead of breaking into holes like 6rdinary
printing paper, assumed a texture resembling chamois leather,
and a strip 3 In. wide was found able to support a weight of,
38 lb without yielding.
The success of the Oxford India paper led to nmilar expcnmcnts
iiy other
England,
by other manufacturers, and there were in 1910 nine mills (two each in
En * '" ■' ' * * " -* . . .
made upon . ___ ^_ ...
distinction to a hand-made paper, which cannot be made of a greater
size than the frame employed in its production. The material
used in its manufacture is chiefly rag, with entire freedom from
mcchaoical wood pulp. The opacity of modem India paper, so
remarkable in ^ew of the thinness of the sheet, is mainly due to the
admixture of a large proportion of mineral matter which b retained
by the fibres. The extraordinary properties of this paper are due.
not to.the use of special ingredients, but to the peculiar care neces-
sary in the treatment of the fibres, whkh are specially " beaten "in
the beating engine, so as to give stren^h to the paper, and a capacity
the use of good ordinary printing paper — without any alteration
in the size and legibility of its type and without any loss of opacity,
which is an absolute necessity in all papers used for high<lass book
printing to prevent the type showing through. . CW. £• G. F.)
• PAPHLAGONIA, an ancient 'district of Asia Minor, situated
on the Euxine Sea between Bithj'nia and Pontus, separated from
Galatia by a prolongation to the east of the Bitbynian Olympus.
According to Strabo, the river Parthenius formed the western
limit of the region, which was bounded on the east by the Halys.
Although the Paphlagonians play scarcely any part in history,
they were one of the most ancient nations of Asia Minor (Iliad,
ii. 851). They are mentioned by Herodotus among the races
conquered by Croesus, and they sent an important contingent
to the army of Xerxes in 480 B.C Xcnophon speaks of them
as being governed by a prince of their own, without any reference
to the neighbouring satraps, a. freedom due^ perhaps, to the
nature of the country, with its Ipfty mountain ranges and
difficult passes. At a bter period Paphlagonia passed under
the Macedonian kings, and after the death of Alexander the
Great it was assigned, together with Cappadocia and Mysia
to Eumenes. It continued, however, to be governed by native
princes imtil it was absorbed by the encroaching power of Pontus.
The rulers of that dynasty became masters of the greater part
of Paphkgonia as early as the it(gn of Mithradates III. (303-
366 B.C.), but it was not tin that of Pharaaccs I. that Sinope
fell into thdr hands (183 B.C.). From tJus time the whole
province was incorporated with the kingdom of Pontus tmtfl
the fan of the great Mithradates (65 b.c). Pcmipey united
the coast districts of Paphlagonia with the province of Bithynia,
but left the interior of the country under the native princes,
until the dynasty became extinct and the whole oountiy was
incorporated in the Roman empire. AU these rulers appear
to have borne the name of Pylaemenes, as a token that they
claimed descent from the chieftain of that name who figures
b the Ilutd as leader of the Paphlagonians. Under the Roman
Empire Paphlagonia, with the greater part of Pontus, was united
into one province with Bithynia, as we find to have been the
case in the time of the younger Pliny; but the name was stJD
retained by geographers, though its boundaries are not distincf ly
defined by Ptolemy. It reappears as a sepante ptovinoe ia
the sth century (Uierodes, Synecd. c. 33).
The ethnic relations of the Paphlagonians are very uncertalo.
It seems perhaps most probable that they belonged to the same
race as the Cappadocians, who held the adjoining province of
Pontus, and were undoubtedly a Semitic race. Their language,
however, would appear from Strabo to have been distinct.
Equally obscure is the relation between the Paphlagonians
and the Eneti or Heneti (mentioned in coimexion with them
in the Homeric catalogue) who were supposed in antiquity to
be the ancestors of the Vcneti, who dwelt at the head of the
Adriatic But no trace is found in historical times of aay tribe
of that name in Asia Minor.
The greater part of PapUagonia is A rugged mouataiaous
country, but it contains fertile valleys, and produces great
abundance of fruit The mountains arc dothed with dense
forests, which are conspicuous for the quantity of boxwood
which they furnish. Hence its coasts were from an eariy period
occupied by Greek colonies, among which the flouiiduag city d
Sinope, founded from Milettis about 630 B.C., stood pr&<emxoent.
Amastris, a few miles cast of the Parthenius, became important
under the Macedonian monarchs; while Amisus, a colony of
Sinope, situated a short distance east of the Halys, ind therefore
not strictly in Paphlagonia as defined by Slrabo, rose to be alsoost
a rival of its parent city. The most considerable towns of tte
interior were Gangra, in ancient times the capital of the PapUa-
gonian kings, afterwards caUed Germanicopolis, situated near the
frontier of Galatia, and Pompciopolis, in the valley of the Amnlas
(a tributary of the Halys), near which were extensive mma
of the mineral called by Strabo sandarake (red anenic),
which was largely exported from Sinope.
See Hommaire de Hell, Voyage en Turquu (Paris, 1854-1860} ;
W. J. Hamilton, Researches (London, 1842;; W. M. Ramsay, BiO.
Ceog. of Asia Minor (Lx>ndon, 1890).
PAPHOS, an andent dty and sanctuary on the west oottst
of Cyprus. The sanctuary and older town (Palaepaphos) He t
Kouklia, about 30 m. west of Limasol, about a mile mhnd on
the left bank of the Diorizo River (anc. Bocarus), the mouth of
which formed its harbour. New Paphos (Papho or BaJfo>,
which had already superseded Old Paphos in Roman times,
lies 10 m. farther west, and x m. south of modem Ktima, at
the other end of a fertile coast-plain. Paphos was bcKevcd to
have been founded dther by the Arcadian Agapenor, returning
from the Trojan War (c. xi8o B.C.), or by his reputed contem-
porary Cinyras, whose dan retained royal privileges down to
the Ptolemaic conquest of Cyprus in 395 B.C., and bdd the
Paphian priesthood till the Roman occupation far 58 B.C The
town certainly dates back to the close of the Mycenaean Bronxe
agCi and had a king Eicandros among the allies of Assur-bani-pal
of Assyria in 668 B.C.* A later king of the same name is
commemorated by two inscribed bracelets of gold now in
the Metropolitan Museum of New York. In Bdfenic times
the kingdom of Paphos was only second to Salamis in otcnt
and influence, and bordered on those of Soli and Curium.
Paphos owes its andent fame to the cult of the " PB|J>ian
goddess" (4 Ha^ardi'airffa.or 4 Ha^, in inscriptions, or simply
4 M)t a nature-worship of the same type as the cults d Pbocn*-
dan Astarte, maintained by a coUege of orgiastic ministecs, prac^
Using sensual excess and self-mutilation.* The Greeks identified
both this and a sixra'lar cult at Ascalon with their own worship
of Aphrodite,* and localized at Paphos the legend of her birth
from the sea foam, which is in fact accumuUted here, on certain
windSt in masses more than a foot deep.* Her grave also wnas
«E, Schrader. Abk. k. Preuss. Ak. Wiu. (1879), pp. 31-36;
SUA. k. Freuss. Ak. Wtss. (1890). pp. 337-344. "''»•**'•
* Athan. c. tnecos, 10. On all these cults see J. G. FVwer, Adomis,
AUis. Osiris (London, 1 906).
• Herod, i. 105; see further Astarte, Aphrodite.
« Obcrhumroer. Die Insel Cypem (Munich, 1903), pp. loS-iro.
PAPIAS-^EAPIER MACHE
737
•lioim b this dty. She wm monUpped, uadtr the foim of
a cookal stone, in an open-air sanctuaiy of the tiiual Cypriote
lype (not vnlike those of Mycenaean Gxeece), the general form
of whikfa is known from reprcsenUtiona on late gems, and on
Roman imperial coins;* its ground plan «as discovered by
eicavations in 1888.* It soffcred repeatedly from earthquakes,
and ma rebuilt mace than once; in. Roman times it consisted
of aa open court, inegular^ quadrangular, with porticos and
chambers on three sides, and a gateway through them 00 the
east. The position of the sacred stone^ and the mlerpreUlton
of many details shown on the gems and cohis, remam uncertain.
South of the mam court lie the remams of what may be either
an eariier temple, or the traditk>nal tomb of Cinyras, ahnoat
wfaoDy destrojTcd except iU west wall of gigantic stone slabs^
I ARer the foundation of New Paphos and the extinction of
the Cmyrad and Ptolemaic dynasties, the importance of the
Old Town declined rapidly. Though restored by Augustus
and renamed Sebastd, after the great earthquake of 15 B.c:,
and visited in state by Titus before his Jewish War in 79 b.c,
it was ruinous and desolate by Jerome's time*; but the prestige
of its priest4dngs partly lingers m the exceptional privileges
of the patriarch of the Cypriote Church (see Cypstn, Chvbch or).
' New Paphos became the administrative capital of the whole
island In Ptolemaic and Roman days, as well as the head of one
of the four Roman districts; it was aho a flourishing conuncrckd
dty in the time of Strafao, and famous for its oil, and for
" diamonds " of medicinal power. There was a festal procession
thence annually to the ancient temple. In ad. 960 it was
atUcked and destroyed by the Sannena. The site shews a
Roman theatre, amphitheatre, temple mid other ruins, with
part of the dty wall, and the moles of the Roman harbour, with
a ruined Greek cathedral and other medieval buildings. Outside
the walls lies another columnar building. Some rock tombs
hard by may be of earlier than Roman date.
. See W. H. Engel, Kypros (Beritn, 1841) (classical allusions) ; M. R.
James and others, Jpnrn. HdUnie Studies, ix. 147 sgq. (history and
archaeolo^); G. F. Hill. Brit. Mus. Cat, Coins of Cyprus (London,
1904) (coins); art. *' Aphrodite" in Roscher's Lexicon der gr. u.
fdm* iiytkohgiti also works dted in footnotes, and article Cvraus.
a. L. M.)
PAPIAS, of Hierapolis in Phrygla, one of the "Apostolic
Fathers " (^.t.). His Expasitum 1/ iMe Lartt OracUs, the prime
early authority as to the Gospek of Matthew and Mark (see
GoOBLs), is known only through fragments in later writers,
chiefly Euaebius of Owsarea {H. R. iii. 59). The hitter had
a bias against Papias on account of the influence which bis work
had in perpetuating, through Irenacus and others, belief in
a millennial reign of Christ upon earth. He calls him a man
of small mental capadty, who took the figurative language
of apostolic traditions for literal fact. This may have been so
to some degree; but Papias (whose name itself denotes that he.
was of the native Phrygian stock, and who shared the enthusi-
astic religious temper characteristic of Phrygia, see Momtamism)
was nearer in spirit to the aaual Christianity of the sub-apostolic
age, espedally In western Ask, than Eusebius realised. In
Papias's cirde the exceptional in connexion with Christianity
seemed quite normal. Eusebius quotes from him the resurrec-
tion of a dead person * in the experience of " Philip the Apostle"
— ^wbo had resided in Hierapolis, and from whose daughters
Papias derived the story— and also the drinking of poison
(" when put to the test by the unbelievers," says Philip of Side,
by " Justus, sumamed Baiaabbas ") without ill effect.* Papias
^2J{ /"".^' ^:?h!^V' f^i ^V ^ f^^^ (London. 1004). pk.
xv.-«yiiL (coma of Paphos). pfc xxvi. (other coins and RcmsV
. *M.R. James, E. A. GaidDcr. and othcffs.7Mini.H«aMic .Stadias.
•iSfc Cass. Gv. 23, 7; Strabo 683; Tac. HisL a, 3 sqq.: Jerome,
V*t. Biton^nu. For the " Paphian Diamonds " (Pfiny. Sat. fiisi.
nxvU. 58). see E. Oberhnmmer, Ice. «/., p. 185. For the fame of
^phiaa oil see Horn. CM. viU. 36a sqq.; tfymn it /»*r. 58 sqq.: Isidore.
* 'The mother of Manaim - (cf. Acta xiu. i), accocding to the
dtatlon in Philip of Side.
»/lt^P* *ft '•.^*** *•■*• ^ * ^^^ *" ^^ secondary ending to
Mark a v^oapel (xvi* i8).
also believed * RvoUant i^oy ts Co the 1 . - ^
of the body of Judaa Iscariot. But if he was credukus ol
marvels, he was careful to insist on good eWdenoe for what he
ac»epted as Christ's own teochiBg; in the face of cunoA
unauthorised views. Papias was also a pioneer in the habit,
later so general, of taking the work of the Six Days iHexameroU^
and the account of Paradise as referring mysticaUy lo Christ
and His Church (so says Anastasius of Sinai).
About his date, which is important in coimexfaA with his
witness, there is some doubt. Setting aside the exphvled
tradition that he was martyred along with Polycarp ic, a.d.
155)* we have the witness of Irenaeos that he was " a cora-
pankm (4roipot) of Polycarp," who was bom not later than
A.O. 69. We may waive his other sUtement that Papias was
*' a hearer of John," owing to the possibiUty of a false Inference
in this case. But the fact that Irenaeus thought of him as
Polycarp's contemporary and " a man of the old time " (^aibr
di^p), together with the affim'ty between the religious tendendes
described in Papias's Preface (as quoted by Eusebius) and
those reflected in the Epistles of Polycarp and Ignatius, all
point to his having flourished in the first quarter of the 2nd
centmy. Indeed, Eusebius, who deals with bim along with
Cement and Ignatius (rather than Polycarp) under the reign
of Trajan, and before referring at aU to Hadrian's reign {ajk
117*138), suggests that he wrote* about a.d. iis- It has been
usual, however, to assign to his work a date e, 130-140, or even
later. No fact Is kno«vn inconsistent with c. 60-135 «* the
period of Papias's life. Eusebius (iii. 36) calls him " bishop "
of Hierapolis, but whether with good ground is uncertain.
Papias uses the term ** the Elders," or Fathers of the Christian
community, to describe the original witnesses to Christ's
teaching; tje* his personal disdples in particular. It. was their
traditkms as to the purport of that teachmg which he was
conoemed to preserve. But to Irenaeus the term came to
mean the primitive custodians of tradition derived from these,
such as Papias and his contemporaries, whose traditions Papias
committed to writbg. Not a few such traditmns Irenaeus
has embodied in his work Against Heresies^ so pxeserving in some
cases the substance of Papaaa'a ExposiHan (aee Ligbtfoot,
Apostolic Faikert, x89f, for these, as for all texts bearing on
Papias).
See aitfeica in the Did of Christian Biog., Diet, of Christ and Ou
Cospds, and Haeck'a RaaUneykhpUUt xiv., ia all of which further
lefereooes will be found. (J. V. B.)
MPUa MiGHi (French for mashed or pulped paper),
a term embtadog numerous manufactures in which paper pulp
is employed, pressed and moulded into various forms other
than oaiiorm sheets. The art has long been practised in the
EasL Penlan papier michi has bng been noted, and in Kashmir
under the name of hat-i-haUxmdanit or pen-tray woik, the
manufacture of small painted boxes, trays and cases of papier
mAch6 is a characteristic industry. In Japan articles arc made
by gluing together a number of sheets of paper, when in a
damp condition, upon moulds. China also produces elegant
papier mAch6 artides. About the middle of the x8th century
papier mich6 work came into prominence in Europe in the form
of trays, boxes and other small domestic articles, ^panned
and ornamented in imiution of Oriental manufactures of the
same class, or of bcqnered wood; and contemporaneously
papier mAch^ smifl-boses ornamented in vemis Martin came
into favour. In 177s Heniy Clay of Birmingham patented
a method of preparing this material, which he used for coadi-
buSlding, for door and other panels, and for many furniture and
structural purposes. In 1845 the application of the material
to internal architectural decoration was patented by C F.
BIdefdd of London, and for this purpose it has come into exten-
sive use. Under the name of carton pierre a substance which
is essentially papier m8ch6 is also hugdy empl^ed as a substitute
* See further Diet of Christ and the CosPels, s.v. The tuppositton
that Philip of Side implies a date under Hadrian is a mistake. For
the later date^ see J. B. Lightfoot. Essays on ** Snpematwol
RtUgm " (1889). pp^ t4**»l6.
738
PAPIN— PAPINEAD
for plaster in the moulded ornaments of roofe and waOs, and the
ordinary roofing lelu, too, are very closely allied in their com-
position to papier mich6. Under the name of ceramic papier
mich6, architectural enrichments are also made of a composition
derived from paper pulp, resin, glue, a drying oil and acetate
of lead. Among the other artidcs for whidi the substance
is used may be enumerated masks, dolls', heads and other toys,
anatomical and botanical models, artisU' lay figures, millineit'
and clothiers' blocks, minor and picturo-frames, ivAxs, kc
Thf nutcna)} for the commoneT <clas3n oT wrovk an? old waitc ind
•CFnp paptrr, rcpulfied i^nd mixed wkh a strong &i£cof glui^^ind [jj :te.
Tc thL4 vvTf oitiMi Arc adclkHj ^fR'c qcjiaiiritica of ^ound chalk, clay
aixl fine and, ^ that the prtfjaraiioii in- little more than a pl^^ter
held tosTihcr by the hUnciut pulp. Wood pulp (.fin^iij Sweden ^i it
now larselv u^eti inr makirtg tupiei' mAthiS* For iKe finest tins
of tvork €Uy\ original niothod U rrtaSnM. It consista of ioaking
KVL'Ril iheets of A «pccta1l>' nuidc [uprr in A strong jsiie oE puite
and glue, pushing tliev: tcngeibern And v>^*siac litem In the mu^ld
of the HrtJrle t^ be tn^de, 'Hie mouldod nAti b drie^J in a ktfjvt,
and, if nxasaTy. further siniilar Uvlt* of paper ate iddeiJ, till the
re(|uired thiekiu'45 i» attained. The driea object U h:ir<k'nb.'H] by
dippitiK ifi oil. after which it is variouily trimmM 4nd preptired for
japinnirvf and of eiafi]ei!iiB.iiDn. For vcfv debcdtc <plKi orn^mentSi
a pulp urKt^rji^ fjktfier t^ preparud, whicn atter dryinB i« gfttmnd to
powder miied HiEh i^istc Ana A pnipDrtiono'f potAiin, all of uhiich ue
thoroughly iiia>i-porA(«l iato a hnc •mooch stiff puna. The numer-
ous proceasei by which niriace decoration is applied to papier txAcM
differ in no way from the application of Uke ornamentation to other
•urfaocs. Papier roich6 for its wetsht is an exceedingly tough,
strong, durable substance, possessed 01 some elasticity, little subject
to warp or fracture, and unaffected by damp.
See L. E. And^. Du PabrikaHon der PapUmadt^ wii Papier-
Uoff-Waaren (Vienna, 1900); A. Winaer. Du BertUtimg und BeniU»-
•Mf itr Papmuuki tmd uadkhtr Komposiiumen (4th ed^ Weimar,
1901).
PAPnr, DRUB (1647^. 17 ts), Frendi physidst, one of the
inventois of the steam-engine, was a native of Blois, where he
was bom on the ssnd of August 1647. In x66x or x66a he
entered upon the study of medicine at the university of Angers,
where he graduated in 1669. Some time prior to 1674 he
removed to Paris and assisted Christiaan Huygcns in his experi-
menu with the air-pump, the results of which (Bxpiriences du
Vuid4) were published at Paris in that year, and also in the form
of five papers by Huygens and Papin jointly, in the Pkilosopkkal
Transactions for 1675. Shortly after the publication of the
ExpiritmeSf Papin, who had crossed to London, was hospitably
received by Robert Boyle, whom he assisted in his laboratory
and with his writings. About this time also he introduced into
the air-pump the improvement of making it with doubte barrels,
and fepUdng by the two valves the turncock hitherto used;
he is said, moreover, to have been the first to use the phite and
receiver. Subsequently he invented the condensing-pump,
and in 1680 he was admitted, on Boyle's nomination, to the
Royal Society. In the previous year he had exhibited to the
society his famous "steam digester, or engine for softening
bones," afterwards descr3)ed in a tract published at Paris and
entitled £a ManUre d'amcUir les as d de/aire centre loules sortes
de nandesenfert pen de lems et d pen defrais^ ovec wu description
de la marmite, ses propriilis el ses usages. This device consisted
of a vessel provided with a tightly fitting lid, so that under
pressure its contents could be raised to a high temperature;
a safety valve was used, for the first time, to guard against an
excessive rise in the pressure. After further experiments with the
digester he accepted an invitation to Venice to take part in the
work of the recently founded Academy of the Philosophical and
Mathematical Sciences; here he remained until 1684, when he
returned to London and received from the Royal Society an
appointment as " temporary curator of experinaents," with a
small sabry. In this capadty he carried 00 numerous and
varied investigations. He discovered a siphon acting in the
same manner as (he " sipho wirtembergicus " {PkU, Tr.j 1685),
and also constructed a model of an engine for raising water from
a river by means of pumps worked by a water-wheel driven by
the current. In November 1687 he was appointed to the chair
of nuthematics in the university of Marburg, and here he
remained until i6g6» when he removed to CasaeL From the
time of Us lettlemeat hi Germany he carried oa an adh*
correspondence with Huygens and Ldbniu, which is still
preserved, and in one of his letters to Leibnita, in 1698, he
mentions that he is engaged on a machine for raishig water to a
great height by the force of fire; in a later oommunicatioii he
speaks also of a little carriage he liad constructed to be propdfed
by this force. Again in 170a he wrote aboot a steam " baOista.''
which he antidpated would ** promptly compel Fraaoe to n&ake
an enduring peace." In 1705 Ldbnita sent Papin a sketch of
Thomas Savory's engine for raising water, and tUs stimnlaHiH
him to further exertions, which rsulted two years afterwards
in the publication of the Ars fMM ad aquam ipm odmtimktio
efficacissiwie eUvandasu (Cassd, 1707), in which his Ugh-pfcasaie
boiler and iu applications are desoibed (see Steam Enodie).
In 1707 he resolved to quit Cassd for London, and on the 24tli
of September of that year he sailed with his family from Casscl
in an ingeniously constructed boat, propelled by paddle-wheels,
to be worked by the crew, with which he apfMuentiy expected
to reach the mouth of the Weser. At MOnden, however, the
vessel was confiscated at the instance of the boatmen, who
objected to the invasion of their exdustve privileges in the
Weser navigation. Papin, on his arrival in London, found
himself without resources and almost without friends; ippGca"
tibns through Sir Hans Sloane to the Royal Sodety for gcaals
of money were made in vain, and he died in total ofasotrity,
probably about the beginning of 171s. His name is attadied
to the principal street of his native town, Blois, were also he
is commemorated by a bronze statue.
The published- writings of Papin. besMes those already lelerred
to, consist for the most part of a large number of papers, prindpally
00 hydraulics and pneumatics, contributed to toe Jmtrmm da
satans, the Nouvelles de la ripuUique des lettres, the PkUosoMeal
TtansacHons, and the Acta eruditorum; many of them were collected
by himself into a Fasciculus dtssertoHonum (Marbuiv, 1695). of which
he published also a translation into French. Reamfde amrses pAces
toudkaut qudoues tunadUs machines (Casscl. 1605). His correapoo-
dence with Leibniu and Huygens. along with a tnography, was
published by Dr Ernst Gerland {Leibnisens und Unytens Brief'
wecksd mit Papin, nebst der Bicgrapkie Pa fins (Bolin, 1881Y
See also L. de la Saussaye and E.Tten, La Vie et Us ouemges da
Denis Papin (Paris. 1869): and Baron Emoul, Denis Papim, sa via
et ses ouoragfis (4th ed., x888).
PAPmBAU. LOUIS JOSBPH (1786-X87X), Canadian rebd
and politician, son of Joseph Papineau, royal notary and member
of the house of Assembly of Lower (Canada, was bom at Montreal
on the 7th of October X786. He was educated at the seminary
of Quebec, where he devdoped the gift of declamatory and
persuasive oratory. He was called to the bar of Lower Canada on
the XQth of May x8xa On the x8th of June 1808 he was elected
a member of the House of Assembly of the province of Lower
Canada, for the county of Kent. In 18x5 be became speaker
of the house, being already recognixed as the leader of the
French Canadian party. At this time there were many griev-
ances in the country which demanded redress; but each faction
was more inclined to insist upon the exercise of its spedal rigbu
than to fulfil its common h»ponsibilities. In December x&ao
Lord Dalhouste, governor of Lower Canada, appointed Papinean
a member of the executive council; but PapincAU, finding himself
without real influence on the council, resigited in January 1823.
In that year he went to EngUnd to protest on behalf of the
French Canadians against the projected union of Upper and
Lower c»wmA»^ & mission in which he was sacoesafuL Never-
thdess hts opposition to the government became more and more
pronounced, till in X837 Lord Dalhousie rdused to confirm his
appointment to the speakership, and resigned hb govemorslup
when the house persisted in its choice. The aim of the French
Canadian oppodtion at this time was to obtain fiiuncial mxnd
also constitutional rdorms. Matters came to a head when tht
legislative assembly of Lower Canada refused supptici stad
Papineau arranged for conceited action with William Ly^o
Mackende, the leader of the reform party in Upper CanaHa
In 1835 Lord Gosford, the new governor of Lower Canada,
^fSA instrtKted by the cabinet in Lond<m to inquire into tbe
allied grievances of the French Canadianti £ut Che atdtuda
PAPINIAN— PAPPENHBIM
739
ol tlw oppow t iQO nmaiiied to kn lioitile tbu bofon, Bad in
Uatch 1037 the fDvemor was auUioriied to reject the demand
for constitutional reform and to apply public funds In his
control to the purpoees of government. In June a warning
proclamation by the fovemor was answered 1^ a series of
violent speeches by P&pineau, who in August was deprived of
his commission in the militia.
Papineau |)ad formerly professed a deep reverence for British
institutions, and he had acquired a theoretical knowledge of
the constitution, but he did not possess the qualities of a
statesman, and consequently Id his determination to apply
thestna letter of the constitution he overlooked those elements
and oompcnsating forces and powers which through custom
and usage had been incorporated, in British institutions, and
bad given them permanence. In his earlier career he had
voiced the aspirations of a section of the people at a time when
it appeared to them that their national existence was threatened.
In the course of time party strife became more bitter; real issues
were lost sight of; and Papineau, falling in with the views of
one O'CaUaghan, who distrusted everything British, became
an annexationist. Realising that his cause was not advanced
by persuasive eloquence, he adopted a threatening altitude
which caused men of sober judgment to waver in their allegiance.
These men he denounced as trsiton; but a band of youthful
enthusiasts encoursged their leader in hs revolutionary course.
The bishop of Montreal and of Quebec, and a large number of
the dttzens, protested, but nothing less than bloodshed would
satisfy the misguided patriots. On the sjrd of October i8j7
a meeting of delegates from the six counties of Lower Canada
was held at St Charles, at which resistance to the government
by force of arms was decided upon, and in which Papineau took
part. In November piepaxations were made for a general
stampede at Montreal, and on the 7th of the numth Papineau's
house was sacked and a fight took pUkce between the " con-
stitutionals " and the " sons of liberty." Towards the middle
of November Colonel Gore was comnuinded to effect the arrest
of Papmeau and hb principal adherents on a charge of high
treason. A few hundred armed men had assembled at Saint
Denis to resist the troops, and early on the morning of the 3 and
of November hostilities commenced, which were maintained
for several hours and resulted in many casualties. On the eve
of the fray Papineau sought safety in flight, followed by the
leading spirits of the movement On the xst of December
1837 a proclamation was issued, -decUring Papineau a rebel,
and placing a price upon his bead. He had found shelter in
the United States, where he remained hi safety throu^ut the
whole period of the fighting. The rebellion broke out afresh
hi the antumn of 1838, but it was toon repressed. Those taken
in open rebellion were deported by Lord Durham to save them
from the soiffold; and although 90 were condemned to death
only IS were executed.
Attempts have been made to transfer the responsibility for
the act of violence to O'CaUaghan an$i other prominent
leaders hi the revolt; but Papineau's own words, ** Hie patriots
of this dty would have avenged the massacre but they were
so poor and so badly organised that they were not fit to meet
the regnkr troops," prove that he did not discomtenance
recourse to arms. Writing of the events of 1837 hi the year
1848 he said: " The smallest success at Montreal or Toronto
would have hiduced the American government, in spite of iu
president, to support the movement." It would thus seem
that he was intriguing to bring about intervention by the United
States with a view to annexation; and as the independence
of the French Canadian race, which he professed (0 desire^
could not have been achieved under the constitution of the
American republic, it is inconsistent to regard his services to
his fellow-countrymen as those of a true patrwt. Papmeau,
in pumiing towards the end a policy of blind passion, over*
looked real grievances, and prevented remedia] actkm. After
the rebdlion relief was accorded because the obstacle was
removed, and it is evident that a broad-nundcd sutesman, or
a skflfid diiptMiaty wouU have awompiiibcd more lor Ficach
Canada (han the fieiy etequenrf and dubious methods of a
leader who plunged his followers into the throes of war, and
deserted them at the supreme moment. From 1839 till 2847
Papineau lived hi Paris. In the Litter year an amnesty was
granted to those who had participated in the rebellion in Canada;
and, although in June 1838 Lord Durham had issued a pro-
daroation threatening Papineau with death if he returned to
Canada, he was now admitted to the benefit of the amnesty.
On his return to Canada, when the two provinces were now
united, he became a member of the lower bouse and continued
to take part ui public life, demanding " the independence of
C a n ad a, for the Canadians need never expect justice from
England, and to submit to her would be an eternal disgrace."
He unsuccessfully agitated for the re-division of upper and lower
Canada, and in 1854 retired into private life. He died at
MontebcUo, in the province of Queb^, on the 34th of Septem-
ber Z871.
See L. 0. David, Ids Dmbt Papiiitam; Fcnnlnn Taykn-, Louis
Joseph Papineau (Montreal, 1865); Alfred De Cellcs, Papiueau'
Cartter (Toronto, 1906): H. J. Morean, SkeUhex of Celebrated Cana-
dians (^ebec, 1802); Roars Crchpaedis of Canadian Biofrapky
AnnuallUgisler, 1836-1837 ; Sir Spencer Walpole, History of Emofamd
(S vols., London. 1678-1886), vol iii. (A. G. IX)
PAniriAN (Aemiuus PAPtMiANVs), Roman Jurist, was
magisfer libeOontm and afterwards praetorian prefect under
Septimius Severiis. He was an intimate friend of the empero;r,
whom he accompanied to Britain, and before his death Sevenis
specially commended his two sons to his charge. Paplnhin
tried to keep peace between the brothers, but with no better
result than to excite the hatred of Cancalla, to which he fdl a
victim in the general shtughter of Geta's friends which followed
the fratricide of a.o. 2x2. The detaib are variously related,
and have undergone legendary embellishment, but the murdef
of Papinian, which took phce under Caracalla's oWn eyes, was
one of the most disgraceful crimes of that tyrant. Little more
is known about Papinian. He was perhaps a Syrian by Mrth,
for he is said to have been a kinsman of Severus's second wife,
Julia Domna; that he studied hiw with Severus under Scaevola
is asserted in an interpolated passage m Spartian {Caracd. c 8).
Papmian's phux and work as a jurist are dis c ussed under Roman
Uw.
PAPPSNHBni. OOTTVRIBD HBIintlCH, Covmr of {ss9A'
1633), imperial field marshal in the Thirty Years* War, was bom
on the 29th of May 1 594 at the little town of Pappenheim on the
Altmtthl, now in Bavaria, the seat of a free lordship of the empire,
from which the ancient family to which he belonged derived
its name.' He was educated at Altdorf and at TQbingen, and
subsequently travelled in southern and central Europe, mastering
the various hmguages, and seeking knightly adventures. His
stay in these cotmtries led him eventually to adopt the Roman
Catholic faith (1614), to which he devoted the rest of Us hfe.
At the outbreak of the great war he abandoned the legal and
diplomatic career on which he had embarked, and in his aeal for
the faith took service In Poknd and afterwardiB under the
Catholic League. He soon became a lieutenant-ooloiiel, and
displayed brilliant courage at the battle of the White Hill near
Prague (Nov. 8, 1620), where he was left for dead on the field.
In the following year he fou^t against Manrfeld hi western
^The family of Pkppenhefan is of great antkiuity. la the lath
century they were known at the "nunhalt of KaUtin (KaMen}";
in the 13th they first appear as counts and manhals of Paofwaban.
thdr right to the henNiitary marriialAip of the empire beiag ooqp
firmed to them by the emperor Louis IV. m 1334. After the
Golden BuU of 1355 they held both narshalship and castle of PXppeo-
heim a* fiefs oltbe Saxon electorate. In the 17th century the
family was represented by several hnes: those of ^ppenbeim
(whidi hdd the margraviate of ScOhlinten tiU i6S5). TieutHagen
and Aletahdm. and Uie older branches (dauag from the 13th and
14th eentOries) of the marshals of Bibwsch and of R«:hber|.
Wotingen-Hobenreichen. (x>ttfried Heinnch, who bekmged to tlie
Tieutlingcn branch, was the only one of this ancient and wKlely-
ramlfiedlamny to attain great distinctioo, though maav other sMm-
beraof it played a strenuous, if subordinate, part ia the history of
Gcrawiiy. Tlie family, mcdiatued under Bavaria In 1806, survives
•ov 00^ » the doccodanu of the Aletshetm branch.
740
PAPPUS OF ALEXANDRIA
GemuLny, and in 1623 became colonel of a regiment of culraaaien,
afterwards the famous '* Pappenheimers." In the same year,
as an ardent friend of Spain, the ally of his sovereign and the
^mpion of his faith, he raised troops for the ItaUan war and
served with the Spaniards in Lombardy and the Orisons. It
was his long and heroic defence of the post of Riva on the Lake
of Garda which first brought him conspicuously to the front.
In 1626 Maximilian of Bavaria, the head of the League, recaUed
him to Germany and entrusted him with the suppression of a
dangerous insurrection which had broken out in Upper Austria.
Pappenheim swiftly carried out his task, encountering a most
despei:atc resistance, but always successful; and in a few weeks
he had crushed the rebellion with ruthless severity (actions of
Effcrdlngcn, GmOnden, VOcklabruck and Wolfsegg, isth-joth
November 1626). After this he served with Tilly against King
Girislian |V. of Denmark, and besieged and took WolfenbQttel.
His hope of obtaining the sovereignly and possessions of the
evicted prince was, after a long intrigue, definitely disappointed.
In 1628 he was made a count of the empire. The siege and storm
of Magdeburg followed, and Pappenheim, like Tilly, has been
accused of the most savage cruelty in this transaction. But K
is known that, disappointed of Wolfenbattel, Pappenheim
desired the profitable sovereignty of Magdeburg, and k can
hardly bo maintained that he deliberately destroyed a prospec-
tive source of wealth. At any rate, the sack of Magdeburg was
not more discreditable than that of most other towns taken by
storm in the 17th century. From the military point of view
Pappenheim's conduct was excellent; his measures were skilful,
and hit personal valour, as always, conspicuous. So much
could not be said of his tactics at the battle of Breitenfeld, the
Iocs of which was not a little due to the impetuous cavalry
general, who was never so happy as when leading a great charge
of hofM. The retreat of the imperialists from the lost field he
covered, however, with care and skill, and subsequently he won
great glory by his operations on the lower Rhine and Uie Wescr
in rear of the victorious army of Gustavus Adolphus. Much-
needed reinforcements for the king of Sweden were thus detained
io front of Pappenheim's small and newly-caised force in the
north. His operations were far-ranging and his restless activity
dominated the country from Stade to Cassel, and from Hildes-
hcim to Maastricht. Being now a field manhal in the imperial
■ervice, ha was recalled to join Wallenstein, and assisted the
feneraUssimo in Saxony against the Swedes; but was again
despatched towards Cologne and the lower Rhine. In his
Absence a great battle became imminent, and Pappenheim was
huniedly recaUed. He appeared with his horsemen in the
midst of the battle of Ltttxen (Nov. 6th-i6th, 1632). His
furious attack was for the moment successful As Rupert at
Manton Moor sought Cromwell as his worthiest opponent, so
DOW Pappenheim sought Gustavus. At about the same time
M the king was killed, Pappenheim received a mortal woimd in
another part of the field. lie died on the following day in the
PleiMcaburg at Leipsig.
See KHtn$ckriftm tmi haitrucUm Oj
iSao); HvmJhUJrud ~ '
ErKh and Grtkbcr. AUfem. EncyUopodit, III. 11 (Leipzig. 1838);
Wit tich.^ in AUgtm. d*iUsck§ Bictrapkie, Band 25 (Leipag, 1887),
and works there Quoted.
FATVOS OF AlBXAXDRIA, Greek geometer, flourished
•bout the end of the 3rd century aj>. In a period of general
■taggarinn m mathematical stodiea, be stands out as a remark-
able exception. How far he was above hn contemporaries,
how Utile apfxtdated or understood by them, is shown by the
afaaeoce of references to him in other Greek writers, and by the
fact tbu bis work had no effect in arresting the decay of matho-
oatkal scanoa. In this ntpcct the fate of Pappus strikingly
itaembia that ol Diophantua. In his C^UeOioUt Pappus gives
■0 iftdkatioQ o( the date of the authors whose treatises he
makes use oi, or of the time at which be himself wrote. If we
Wd «a «i!litr inlormaUeo than can be derived from his work,
we iboa]id 01^ know that be was Uter than Claudius Pt olemy
%bom ba oUcn ctoMO. Suidas states that be was. oC ib^****"
rittm 90H bakruckm OJjiderm I. II. V. (Munich,
(frud HeintUk Graf tu Papunheim (Lciprig. 1855) ;
wr. AUiem. EncyUopddit, III. 11 (Leipzig. 1838):
age as Theon of Alexandria, who wrote cwnrnmnrta om
Ptolemy's great work, the Syntaxis matkematiea, and flouriOaed
in the reign of Theodosius I. (a.o. 379-395)- Suidaa says aOao
that Pappus wrote a commentary upon the same wovk. of
Ptolemy. But it would seem incredible that two contcam.
porariea should have at the same time and in the same JBZylm
composed commentaries upon one and the same work, and ycc
neither should have been mentioned by the other, whellier as
friend or opponent. It is more probable that PapposV c3ob».
mentary was written long before Theon's, bat was larscty
assimilated by the latter, and that Suidaa, through failnre to
disconnect the two commentaries, assigned a like date to boith.
A different date is given by the marginal notes to a loth-cnxttary
MS., where it is stated, in connexion with the reign of Diodetiaa
(a.O. 384-305), that Pappus wrote during that period; and m
the absence of any other testinxmy it seems best to accept tbc
date indicated by the scholiast.
The great work of Pappus, in eight books and entitled «UMryvy4
or CoUeetimt we possess only in an incomplete form, the first
book being kist, and the rest having suffered considerably. Suidas
enumerates other works of Pappus as follows: Xttpcypad^lm.
ofoovfKFu^, dt rd r^^apa fitfi>da drr UroKqudeiif §»eyA>m
ffwnAfybn MtiunfitOf voraitoin re^ bf Atfibjf, ftpw^iua^i ituk,
The questbn of Pappus's commentary on Ptolemy's work is das>
cuaaed by Hultsch,Pa^^ cMectic (Berlin, 1878), voL iiL pw xuL seq.
Pappus himself refers to another commentary of hia own on the
'Ai^kXiffi^a of Diodonis, of whom nothing is known. Be abo
wrote commentaries on Euclid's BlemeiUs (of which fragnkcnu
are preserved in Proclus and the Scholia, wUle that on tlie tenth
Book has been found in an Arabic MS.), and on Pto&emy'a
*Ap/ionffd.
The characteristics of Pappus's CcUtction are that it '^^^"ty^'^t
an account, systematically arranged, of the most important
results obtained by his predecessors, and, secondly, notes
explanatory of, or extending, previous discoveries. These
discoveries form, in fact, a text upon which Pappm
enlarges discursively. Very valuable are Ibe systematic intro-
ductions to the various books which set forth cfearly in outline
the contents and the general scope of the subjects to be treated.
From these introductions we are able to judge of the styk of
Pappus's writing, which is excellent and even elegant the
moment he is free from the shackles of mathematical formulae
and expresskms. At the same time, his characteristic riactntTs
makes his collection a most admirable substitute for the texts
of the many valuable treatises of earlier mathematicians of
which time has deprived us. We proceed to sununaiize htkij
the contents of that portion of the CMcclitn which has sorvxved.
mentioning separatdy certain propositions which seem to be
among the most important.
We can only conjecture that the lost book i.. at weD at book a.
was concerned with arithmetic, book iiL being deariy iatnxlaoBd
as beginning a new mbject.
Thcwhoieof book iL (the former part of which it lost, the eadsdac 1
fragment beginning in tne middle of the 14th iMX>positioo) related |
to a system of multiplication due to Apdlonius of Pnga. Oa tts
subject tee Nestelmann, Aliebra dtr Critckn (Bcrlia, 1842). p^ j
12^134: and M. Cantor. Gesck, d. Math. I* 331.
Book iiL cootaint geometrical problems, plane and solid. 1: I
(I ) On the fanoot pnotlcm d
tween two gives lines, whxi I
cube, reduoed by Hippocnta
to the former. Pan. . il tolotions of this pn>Uc. /
including a method <<] n. xstive approrimatwot to tb( /
aolution. the significance o( wbicn tx apparently failed toapprcciirr
he adds his own ao1utu>n of the more general probleni 01 fad r; j
geometrically the aide of a cube whose content is io any ^ivcn rs.? I
to that of a given one. (2) On the arithmetic, iraeietnc and k / /
monk meant between two straight lines, and the probkn of repftsc r
ing all three in one and the tame geometrical figure. This sem^
at an introduction to a general theory of means, of which Piprj» f
distinguishes ten kindt, and gives a table tepftsentiat ^^PPJ" |
of each in whole numbers. (3) On a curiout probko tugmed h /
End. L 21. (4) On the intcribing of each of the five icgubr pcH* |
hedra in a tpbcre. (5) An addiUoo by a btcr vnter 00 axjctkr 1
aolution of the fintorgblem of the book.
^.iat>-**^ ^*^*— —'—have been lost, «> thai the pro-
•-"-elf. Atthtt •
PAPUANS
74t
. {. Ai, then foRow varioas
)blem of the construction
\k tbe irdl-kiiown generaUntiori' of Eocf .
theorems on the circle, leading up to the probi
of a drde which shall circumscribe three given circles, touching
each other two and two. Thb and several other prof^tions on
contact. 9.1' cases of circles touching one another and inscribed in
the figure made of three semicircles and known as tfp^fXot (sJb«-
makers kuift) form the first division of the book. Pappus turns
then to a contideratlon of ceruin properties of Archimcdes's spiral,
the conchokl of Nicomedes (already mentioned in book i. as supplying
a method of doubling the cube), and the curve discovered roost
pro^bly by Hippias of Elis about 420 B.C.. and known by the name
i rtrptrYUHfcma^ or quadratrix. Proposition 30 describes the con-
struction of a curve 01 double curvature called oy Pappus the helix
on a sphere: it is described by a point moving uniformly ak}ng the
anc of a great circle, which itself turns about its diameter uniformly,
the point docribing a quadrant and the great circle a complete
refvofutkn In the same time. The area 01 the surface included
between this curve and its base is found — ^the first known instance
of a quadrature of a curved surface. The rest of the book treats of
the ensectlon of an angle, and the solution of more general problems
of the same kind by means of the quadratrix andf spiral. In one
solutbtt of the fonner problem is the fir»t recorded use of the property
of a conic (a hyperbola) with reference to the focus and directrix.
In book ▼., after an interesting preface concemine regular Poly'
cons, and containing remarks upon the hexagonal form 01 the
cells of honeycombs. Pappus addresses himself to the comparison
of the areas of different plane figures which have all the same ocri-
meter (fotlowii^ Zenodorus's treatise on this subject), and 01 the
voluffles of difftfent solid figures which have all the same superficial
area, and, lastly, a comparison of the five regubr solids of Plato.
Ineklentally Pappus describes the thirteen other polyhedra bounded
by equilateral and equiangular but not similar polygons, discovered
hy Archimedes, and finds, oy a method recalling that of Archimedes,
the surface and volume of a sphere.
Aooofding to the preface, book vi. is intended to resolve difficulties
oocuning in the scxalled §uKpit hrraainptb^mtoi. It accordingly
comments on the Sphaeriai of Theoaosius, the Mating Sphere of
Autolycus, Theodosius's book on Day and Night, the treatise of
Aristarchus On Ou Sim and Distances of the Sun and Moon, and
EucUd'a OftUs and Pkaenamena.
The preface of book viL explains the terms analy^ and synthesis,
and the distinction between theorem and problem. Pappus then
cnumenliea works of Euclid, ApoUonius, Aristaetm and Eratos-
thenes, thirtv-three books in all. the substance of which he imends
to give, with the lemmas necessaiy for th«r elucidation. With
the mention of the Porisme of Euclid we have an account of the rela-
tion of poriam to theorem and problem. In the same preface ts
included (a) the famous problem known by Pappus's name, often
enunciated thus: Hamng fcwii a number of sirattht Itnes, to find
4he gfometrie leeus efa^omt such that the lenttks of ike perpendwntars
upon, or {more fonerauy) the Unes drawn from U oUtquety at given
ineiinations to, IMe gioen lines satisfy the eenditian that the praduet
afcertaen ofthem may bear a constant ratio to the product of the remain-
Mg ones; (Pappus does not exprese it in this form but oy means of
oompoaition of catloa, saying that if the ratio b gieen which b com-
pounded of the ratios of pairi--<me of one set and one of another^
of the lines so drawn, and of the ratio of the odd one, if any, to a given
'8;lit line, the point will lie on a curve given im posihon); (b)
the tl
whidi were rediscovered by and named after ]
Guldint but appear to have been discovered by Ptopus himself.
Book vii. eonuins also (i)t under the head of the de determmata
ste^one of ApoUonius, lemmas which, closely examined, are seen to
be cases of the involutk>n of sbi points; (2) imporunt lemmas on the
Porisms of Euclid (see PousM); (3) a lemma upon the Surface Loci
of Euclid which states that the locus of a point such that Its disunoe
from a given point bean a constant ratio to its distance from a given
■tnitfht Una is a conic, and b followed by proofs that the conk b a
parabola, eUipse, or hyperbola aecording as the constant ratio b
oqnal to. Ins than or greater than i (the first recorded proofs of the
propeftiea, which do not appear in ApoUonius).
Lastly, book viii. treata priodpaUy of mechanics, the properties
of the centre of gravity, and aome mechanical powcrsb Inte rsj per s cd
are some questSons 01 pure geoowtry. IVoposition 14 shows bow
to draw an eUipaa through five nven points, and Prop. 15- gives a
simple construction for . the axes of an dfipae when a pair of coajugato
diameters are given.
AuTHOKiTiBs.— Of the whole work of Pappus the best edition b
that of HuUsch, bearing the title PapPi aienandrmi coUecUemu
quae supersusU a libris manuseriptis odidU talina jaterp rHation e
et commentarOs isutruxU Pridericus HuUsck (BerUn, 1876-1878).
Prevfcjusly the entire ooUectioa had been publisbed only la a Latin
translation, Pappi atexandrisvi malhtnalieae coUediones o Pedevica
Iralae (Pesaro, igliBS) (reprinted at Venice. 1389, and Pesaro^ 160a).
A second (inferior) cditioa of thb work waa pubtisbed by Cavolua
Manolessiua.
Of booka which cootain parts of Pappus's work, or treat indden-
taOy of it, we may mention the following titks : ( 1 ) Pappi aleaandnm
-_*,_^- .M. — ^ ac primm y a rs t d i du Harm, Jas^ Saten^
manm, UbH Mialf poet alien (Parisiis, 18*4) Ca) Paf
secumdi Vkn matkematicae ceUeetioHts fragmentum
edidtt latiMwn fecit nohsque iUustravit Johannes H
Ca) Pappi aUxamdrini
\entum e cediee MS,
ftcit noiuque iUustravit Johannes Waliu (Oxonii,
1688). ^) ApoUonit petgui de sectume rattonis tibri duo ex arabuo
MSm lattne tersi, accedunt exusdem de sectume sbatit libn duo rests*
tsUi, praemittitur Pappi aiexandrtni praefatto ad K//"** coUecttonu
matkematstae, mtnc Prinmm graeu edila: cum Ummatibus etusdem
Pappi ad kos ApoUcnii libros, opera et studio Edmunds UaUey
(Oxoni'u 1706). (4) Der Sammiung des Pappus von Atexandnen
stebentes und aehtes Buck griechisch und deutsch, published by C. I.
Gcrhardt, Halle, 1871. (5) The pqrtk>ns relating to ApoUoniun are
reprintfd ia Heibeig's ApoUoniuSt iL 101 aqq. (T. L. U )
PAPUAMS (Malay papitwak or puwak-pwak, "frizzled,*'
" wootty-hahred,*' in reference to their characteristic hair-
dressing), the name given to the people of New Guinea atid the
other islands of Mebnesia. The pure Papuan seems to be
confined to the north-western part of New Gmnea, and possibly
the interior. But Plapuans of mixed blood are found throughout
the island (unless the Karons be of Negrito stock), and from
Flores in the west to Fiji in the cast. The ethnological afifinities
of the Papuans have not been satisfactorily settled. Physically
they are negroid in type, and while tribes allied to the Papuans
have been traced through Timor, Flores and the highlands of
the lialay Peninsula to the Deccan of India, these *' Oriental
negroes," as they have been caHed, have many curious resem*
bUinces with some East African tribes. Besides the appearance
of the hair, the raised cicatrices, the belief in omens and sorcery,
the practices for testing the courage of youths, 8ec., they are
equally rude, merry and bobtcrous, but amenable to dIsdpUne,
and with decided artistic tastes and faculty. Several of the
above pcactices are oommoa to the Australiatts, who, though
generally inferior, have many points of resemblance (osteological
and other) with Papuans, to whom the extinct Tasmanians
were still more closely allied. It may be that from an tndigeooua
Negrito stock of the Indian archipebgo both negroes and
Papuans sprang, and that the latter are an original cross between
the Negrito and the immigrating Caucasian who passed eastward
to found the great Polynesian race.^
The typical Papuan b dbiinctly tall, far exceeding the averaga
Malay height, and b seldom shorter, often uUer, than the
European. He b Strongly built, somewhat "spur-heeled."
He varies in colour from a sooty-brown to a black, little lesa
intense than that of the darkest negro. He has a smiall dolicho-
cephalous bead, prominent nose somewhat curved and hig^
but depressed at the tip, high narrow forehead frith projecting'
brows, oval face and dark eyes. The jaw projects and the lips
are fulL Hb hair b black and frixzly, worn generally ia a mop,
often of large dimen^ns, but sometimes worked into plaits
with grease or mad. On some islands the men collect their hair
Into small bunches, and carefully bind each bunch round with
&ne vegetable fibre from the roots up to within about two bchcs
from the end. Dr Turner' gives a good description of thb
process. He once counted the bunches on a young man's bead,
and found nearly seven hundred. There b usually little hair
on the face, but chest, le^ and lore^anns are generaUy hixsute,
the hair short and crisp.
The constitution of society is everywhere simple. The
* Huxley beUeved that the Papuans were more closely aUed to
the negroes of Africa than aay other race. Later scientists have
endeavoured to klentify the Papuans with the Negritoa of the
PhiUppiaes aad the Semangs of the Maby Peninsula. Alfred
Rossef Walboe pronoaneed against thb hypothcsb in an appendix
CO hb Malay Arckipelamv (1885 ed.. p. 602), where he observes that
*' the black, wooUy-liaired noes 01 the Philippines aad the Maby
Peainsub . . . have little affinity or resemblance to the Papuans."
Dr A. B. Meyer, who sptnt several yeare in the Maby Archipebgo
and New Guuiaa, developed a contrary oonchision in his Die Negritos
der PkiUppisiem (1878), hokting that the Negritoa and Papuans are
kieotieal, and that possibly, or even probably, the former are an
offshoot of the httter, like some other Polynesian istanders. A. C
Haddon, discussing, in Nature (September 1809), a bter paper by
Dr Meyer ia Eoi^ on the oame subiect {The Dislributian of the
Negptos, Dresden, 1809), practkaUy adopted Meyer's views, after
an independent eseantaatioa ctf numerous skatts. As to how the
Pspeans, who are the aborigines of New Guinea, may have peofJed
other and much more distant isbnds, information b lacking.
* Ninelm i Yeare «s Polynesia, pp. 77» 7^
748
PAPUANS
people Uve in vfllife oonimiiiiUei vliose meoibcn appear to be
more or less inter^related. There are no priests and no heredi-
tary chiefs, though among the more advanced tribes rank is
hereditary. Totemistic dans have been observed in Torres
strait, and on the Finach and west coasts. Chiefship is quite
onrecogniaed, eaoept on the Keriwina Isknds. Possessions,
such as gardens, houses, pigs, &c, belong to individuals and not
to the community, and pass to the owner's heirs, w^o differ in
relationship in different districts. The land within certain
boundaries belongs to the tribe, but a member may take posies
sion of any unappropriated portion. There are certain degrees
of relauonship within which a man may not marry. In some
districts he may not marry into his own village, or into his
mother's tribe; in otheia he may select a wife from certain
tribes only. Payment, or a present, is always made for a wifb
to her father, brother or guardian (who is genecslly her maternal
uncle). Presents are also often made to the bride. Polygamy
is practised, but not frequently, and from the wife (or wives)
there comes no opposition. The child belongs sometimes to
the mother's, sometimes to the father's tribe. The Papuan
woman, who is, as a rule, more modest than the Polynesian, ia
the household drudge, and does the greater part of the outdoor
work, but the man assists in clearing new gardens and in di^p^ig
and planting the soiL
lo western New Guinea, aocording to the Dutch mtsaionarieB,
there ii a vague notion of a universal spirit, pFacticsIly represented
by several malevolent powers, as Manotn, the most
powerful, who resides in the woods; Narwofe, in the
douds. above the trees, a sort of Eri>Konig who carries
off children; Faknik, in the rocks by the sea. who raises storms.
As a protection against these the people construct— havmg first
with much ceremony chosen a tree for the purpose — certain rude
tma^ called karwars, each repmenting a recently dead pro-
gemtor, wboee spirit is then invoked to occupy the image and
protect them against thdr eoeniies and give success to their
undcrukingsw The karwar is about a foot high, with head dis*
proportionately large; the male figures are sometimes represented
with a spear and shield, the female holding a snake. They observe
omens, have magicians and rain-makers, and sometimes resort to
ordeal to discover a crime. Temples (ao called) are found to the
north and west, built like the houses, but larger, the piles being
carved into figures, and the roof-beams and other prominent points
decorated with representations of crocodiles or lizards, coarK human
figures, and other grotesque ornamentation; but their use b not
clear. Ndther temples nor images (exccfit small figures worn as
amulets) occur among the people of the south-east; but they have a
great dread of departed spirits, especially those of the hostile inland
tribes, and of a being called Vata. who causes disease and death.
All Papuans believe that within them resides an invisible other
sdf, or spirit, which nay occasionally leave the body in the hours
of sleep and after death hovers for some period at least round the
scenes of its embodied life. This ghost acquires supernatural powers,
which at any time it may return to exerase inlmicaHy to relations
or acquainunoes who omnd iL In the dark, and in the depths of
forests or mountains, malevolent— never embodied— spirits love
to be abroad. These are the spirits which, taking up their abode
in a village, cause disease and desth ; and to escape from such attacks
the InbabiUttU may fly the village for good, and, by dwelling
scattered in the recesses of the forest Tor a time before choosing a new
site, they hope to throw thdr enemy off their trail. Spirits of evil,
but not of TOod, therefore require to be propitiated. The powcra
of Bature--thunder, Iwhtning and storm, all supposed to be caused
by evil and angry spfnta—are hdd in the greatest dread. Under the
category of rdigious observanoes may perhaps come those hdd
preyiottsly to the departure of the great tradii« or takalai fleet:
thdr taboo-prodaimtog customs, their ceremonial and sacred
initiation ceremonies for boys and girls on reaching puberty, when
masks are worn and the *' bull-roarer " swung, mt also the harvesC
festivals, at which great trophies of the produce of fiekl and forest
are erected, preparatory to a big feast enlavened with mitdc and
dandng. In the north and north wit of New Guinea ancestor*
wonhip Is widdy practised. Amuleu are worn to ensure sueoess
In buyuig. sdliag, hunting, fishing and ia war, mt well as lor pcotectioo
against evil Grcumdaian is practised in some regions. Although
some of the coast peoples are nominally hUbommedans, and aome
few converts to Christiamty have been made, the vast ma jority of
Papuans remain jpagan.
The dead are aspooed of in vaHoos waysk The spirit ia s u pposed
not to leave the body immediately, and a corpse is cither boned for
a time, and then disanterred and the bones deaned sad depodted
in or near the deceased's dsvdltag or in some distant cave: or the
body is exposed on a platform or dried over a fire; and die mummy
kept for a few yean. Sometiraes the head, ofteair the jaw>boBB
portions of the skdetoft aft pRSWved as idcs. Utila 1
are frequently erected over the grave as a habitation for the apirie.
Soon after death food is offered to the departed— ^with an infant
a calabash of its mother's milk— and that be may have ao wantsw
his earthly possessions, after bdng broken, are laid near his nsliiig
place. A path through the jungle from the grave to the seats
often made so that the spirit may bathe. A widow must shave her
her body with black and the exudations of the <._ ^.^
and wear mourmng for a long ume. The dead are rderred to by
some roundabout phrase, never by name, for this might have -tlie
dangerous result of bringing back the spirit. These dwdl chicAy
in the moon, and are particularly active at full moon. The bmiMs
which they haunt, and beneath or near which their bodies are buiied,
are deserted from time to rime, e^iedally by a newly-married
couple or by women before child-birth.
Yams, taro and sweet potatoes constitute in some districts the
main food of the people, while in others sago is the staple dieC
Forest fruits and vegeublea are also eaten. Maiae ^ ^
and rice — whkh are not indii^nous— are eafftriy sought *••■•
after. The Papuan varies his vegetable diet with the flesh <4
the wild pig. wallabi and other small animals, which are hunted
with dogs. Birds are snared or limed. Fish abound at many part*
of the coast, and are taken by Unes^ or qieared at night by torch>
light, or netted, or a river is dammed and the fish stupefied with the
root of a roilletia. Turtle and dueong are caught. The kima, a
great mussel wdgbing (without ahdl} zo to y> m, and other abell«
fish, are eaten, as are also dogs, flying foxes, Tlxards, beetles and all
kinds of insects. Food is cooked in various ways. Cooking-poUk
made at various parts of the coast, form one of toe great exchangca
for sago: but where such vessels do not reach, food is cooked by the
women on the embers, done up in leaves, or in holes in the ground
oyer heated stones. The sexes eat apart. In the interior cdt is
difltcult to get, and sea-water, which is carried inUiid in hollov
bamboos, is used in cooking in place of it. Salt, too. is obtained
from the ashes of wood saturated by sea-water. In the Fly River
region, kava, prepared from Ptper mdhysticum. is drunk without
any of the ceremonial importance assocuted with it in Polynesia.
As a rule the Papuaiu have no intoxicating drink and do not know
the art of fermenting palm-sap or cane-juice. Tobacco b indigcwMia
in some parts, and is smokeo everywhere, except on the imfth mit
coast and on the islands, where iu use is quite unknown. lo aone
few districts a spedes of clay is eaten.
The male Papuan is usually naked save for a Idn^kith made ol the
twrk of the Hibiscus, Broussonetia aiul other plants, or a girdle ol
leaves. In the more dviliaed paru cotton nrmenis ^^.^^
are used. Papuans have usually a great ttslike to*?!"
rain and carry a mat of pandanus leaves as a protection !SfT.
against it. Except in one or two localities (on Ihe^^^*^
north-east and west), the women are invariably deceady <****»H
The Papuan loves personal adornment and looea no chance «f
diesdng himsdf up. His chid home-made ornaments are «***'H*rrs,
armleu and ear-rings of shells, teeth or fibre, and cassowary, cockatoo,
or bird of paradise feathersr— the last two, or a flower, arc worn
through the septum of the nose. With his head encirded by a
coronet of dogs teeth, and coveted with a network cap or psece of
bark-doth, the septum of the nose transfixed by a peodl of bone
or shell, and perhaps a shell or fibre armlet or two^ the Ptooan ia
in complete everyday attire. On festd occasions he decks his wcit-
forked-out and dyed hair with feathers and flowers, and sticfa
others in his ear-lobe holes and under his armlets: while a warrior
will have cnla shdls and various bones of his victims dangling from
ringlets of his hair, or fixed to his armbands or girdle. The J^puaa
comb u characteristic This is a long piece of oamboo i^t at one
end into prongs, while the other projects b^ond the firrrhrwt
somerimes two feet or more, and into it are stuck the bright fentben
of parrou and other birda. The fairer tribes at the east end tattoo^
no definite meaning apparently bdng attached to the patttfa, for
they wdooroe suggesbons from Manchester. For the women it is
simply a decoration. Men are not tattooed till they have k^lcd
some one. Raised dcatriocs usually uke the place of uttoosw with
the darker races. Rosenberg mys the scars on the breast sad arms
roister the number of sea-voyages made.
The Papuans bmld exodlent canoes and other boats, and in book
districtt there are ntofessional boat-buiidera of great akill, the beat
East Cape and the Louidades. These
craft coming from
boats are either plain dug-outs, with or without out* SSL_
rigBen, or icgutariy built by plssks tightly toeed and ^^"V>
w3i caulked to an eacavated kad. The most remsrfcable of their
vessds is the " lakatoi," composed of several capadous dug-outa.
each nearly 50 ft. long, which are strongly lashed together to a width
of some 94 ft., decfeed and fitted wiui two masts, each osrryinf
a huge mat sail pictureaqudy fashioned. On the deck bUk amtca
•re built for the reoeptioo oiT some thousanda of piecea of pottery
for oonvcyanoe annually to the Fly River district to exchange for sagOb
Pspuans are very fond of music, using Psn-pipes. a Jew's harp ol
the l^ipuans' own fabrication, and the flute
of ceremony the drum only b used— this insi
always open at one end and tapped by the fingers. TotI
mcnt of the dram, dsadng-^s a rhythmic but sta
PAPYKOS
<743
of the feet OT an evolutirauy mafdi— alriMit iimtkbly goo, but
nrdy unguig. AU torts of jintling sounds also are mtisic to the ear.
cspeaally tbe clattering ta Uine ol strings of beans in their dry shells,
and so these and other rattles are found attached to the drum,
Ictt-bandtand many of the utensils, implements and weapons.
. Nearly aU Papuan houses are buik in Malay fashion on piles, and
thUt not only on the coast but on the hillsides. In the north, the
<ea8t and south-west d the island immense coa m u n al
houses (m^ong) are met with. Some of these are between
Soo and 700 ft. in length, with a rounded, boat-shaped roof thatched
with palm-branches, and looking inside, when undiiMed, like dark
tunnels. In some districts the natives five together in one of these
giant structures, whidi ane divided into compartments. Communal
dwelUnas on a much smaller scale occur at Meroka, cast of the
Astrolabe mountains. As a rule elsewhere each family has its
independent dwelling. On the north coast the houses are not built
on pilei; the walls, of bamboo or palm branches, aft very bw, and
the projecting roof nearly reaches the ground; a barrier at the
entrance keeps out pigs and dogs. A sort of Ubie or bench stands
outside, used by the men only, for meals and for the subsequent
siesta. In east New Guinea sometimes the bouses are two-storeyed,
the lower part b^ng used for stores. The ordinary house is 60 to
70 ft. long with a passa^ down the centre, and stands on a plarform
or veranda raised on piles, with the ridg»*pde projecting coarider*
ably at the gables so that the roof may cover it at each end. Under
this shade the inmates spend much ai their time; here their meals,
which are cooked on the ground beneath the house, are served.
The furniture consists of earthen bowls, drinldng-cups, wooden
neck*rests, spoons, &c., artistically carved, mats, plaited baskets
and boxes. The pottery is moulded and fire-baked. In a few
districts villages are built at a short distance off the shore.
as a protection against raids by the inland tribes. Tbe interior
vUlaces are frequently situated on hill crests, or on top of steep>
faced rocks as difficult of access as passible, whence a clear view
all round can be had. Where such natural defences are wanting
the village is protected by high palisades and by fighting platforms
on trees commandiag its approaches. The '^dobboe?' or trae-
houses, built in high trees, are more or less peculiar to British New
Guinea. On the north-east coast many of the villans are tastefully
kept, their whole area being' dean swept, nicely sanded, and planted
with ornamental shrubs, and have m their centre little square
palaver traces lakl with flat stones, each with an erect stone pillar
as a back-rest. EaEcellcot suspension bridges span some cl the
Uiger riven, made of interlaced rattan ropes secured to trees 00
opposite banks, so very suailar to those seen w Sumatra as to suggest
some Malay influence. .. .^ r.. r.*
• Papuan weapons are the bow and arrow (in the Fly River regioa.
the north and north-east ooaats); a bdMading knife of a sharp scg-
of bamboo; a shaltcd stone club— rayed, disk-
shaped or ball-headed (in use all over the island); speara
of various forms, pointed and barbed; the spear-throwcr (00 the
Finsch coast) ; and hardwood dubs and shields, widely differing in
¥ittem and ornamentation with the district of their manufacture,
he Papuan bow i^ rather short, the arrows barbed and tipped with
cassowary or human bone. The Papuans are mostly ignorant of
iron, but work skilfully with axes of stone or tridacna sbell and bone
chisels, cutting down trees 20 in. in diameter. Two men working
on a tree trunk, one making a cut with the adze kngthwise and the
other chopping off the piece across, will soon hoAow out a brge canoe.
Every man has a stone axe, each village generally ownini;^ a large
one. Thdr knives are of bamboo hardened b^ fire. In digging they
use the pointed stick. In British New Guinea alone is the man-
catcher (a rattan k)op at the end of a handto with a pith sptke pro-
|ecting into it) met with. In the D'Entrecasteaua Islands the sling
IS in use. For war the natives smear themselves in grotesque
fashion with Gme or ochres, and in some parts hold in their teeth
against the chin a face-like mask, supposca to strike terror into the
foe. against whom they advance wanly (if not timidly), yelling and
blowing their war-trumpets. The war canoe (which is a long, narrow
dug-out outrigser, capable of boldine twenty-eight men) is only a
transport, for they never fight in it. The conch-shell is the trumpet
of alarm and call to arms. The vendetta — ^rcsulting. when success-
ful, in tbe bringing back the head of the slain as a trophy to be set
up.as a house ornament — is widely practwcd. The eastern tribes
sMttte by squeexing amultaneously the nose and stomach, and both
there and on the north coast friendship is ratified bv sacrificing a
dog. In other places they wave ereen branches, and on the south
coast, pour water over thdr heads, a custom nouced by Cook at
Mallkolo (New Hebrides).- Among other peu they keep liule pigs,
which the women suckle.
The Papuan numerals extend usually to 5 only. In Astrolabe
Bay the lunit is 6; with the more degraded tribes it is 3, or, as in
Torres Mraits, they have names only for 1 and 3 : 3 is 2-!-i.
X.aaCMaff.-->The Papuan languages or dialects are very numerous,
owing, doubtless, to the perpetual intertribal hostility which has
fostered isolatioa. In grammatical structure there is considerable
resemblance between these dialects, but the verbal differences have
become creat. Several dialects are sometimes found on one island.
The Icliawiag ai* soma broad . characteristics of tbe Papuan
languagea. GmiiMiaats are freely' used; soma of the cDosonantal
sounds being difficult to represent by Roman cbaracurs. Many of
tbe syllables arc dosed. There docs not appear to be any difference
between the definite and the indefinite article, except in FijL
Nouns are divkied into two classes, one of which takesa pronominal
suffix, while the other aevier ukes such a suffix. The prindple of
this division appcan to be a near or remote connexion between the
possessor and the thing possessed. Those things which belong to a
person, as the parts 01 his body, &c, take the pronominal suffix;
a thing possessed merely for use wouki not take it. Thus, in Fijian
the word /toe means either a son or a daughter-file's own chikl.*
and it takes the possessive pronoun suffixed, as luvena ; but the word
n^one, a child, but not necessarily one's own child, takes the pbsses*
sive pnmoun before it, as nona ngone, his child, »>. his to look after
or bring up. Gender is only sexual. Many words are used indis-
criminatdy, as nouns, adjectives or verbs, without diange; but
sometimes a noun is indicated by its termination. In most of tbe
languages there are no changes in nouns to fcMrm the plural, but an
added numeral indicates number. Case is shown by particles,
which precede the nouns. Adjectives follow their sub^ntives.
Pronouns are numerous, and tbe personal pronoun indudes four
numbers— singuUir, dual, trinal and senoral plural, also inclusive
and exdusive. Almost any word may be made into a verb by using
with it a verbal partkJe. The difference in the verbal partidcs in
the different languages is very great. In the verba there are
causative, iutensive or frequentative, and reciprocal forms.
See R. H. Codrineton, The Meianenaiu (1801), Mdatusian
LttHguagBM (1885): B. Hagen, Unkr den Pafmas (Wiesbaden, 1899);
G. von der Gabelentx and A. B. Meyer, Beiirdp tmr KetnUmss der
melanenscheH, &c., Sprtuhen (Leipzig, 1 882); A. B. Meyer and R.
Parkinson, Album von PaP^ T;^ (Dresden. 1894): F. S. A. de
Clercq, Ethnograpkiscke BesekrjfnHg van de West-en Soordknsi van
N. N. G, (Leiden, 1893): A. CT. Haddon, Decoratne Art 0/ BriUsk
New Gutnea (Dublin, 1 894)*
PAPYRUS, the paper reed, the Cyperus Papyrus of linnaeus,
in andent times widdy cultivated ia the Delta of Egypt, where
it was used for various purposes, and especially as a writing
material. The plaai is now eztina in Lower Egypt, but is
found in the Upper Nile r^ns and in Abyssinia. Thco-
phrastus {Hist, fiant, iv. to) states that it likewise grew in
Syria; and, accoiding to PUny, it was also a native plant of tbe
Niger and Euphrates. lu Greek title vdirvpoc, Lat. papyrus,
appears to be of Eg>-ptian origin. By Herodotus it is always
called fivfihos. The first accurate description of the plant is
given by Theophrastus, from whom we learn that it grew in
shallows of 2 cubits (about 3 ft.) or less, its main root being of
the thickness of a man's wrist and xo cubits in length. From
this root, which lay horisontally, smaller roots pushed down into
the mud, and the stem of the plant sprang up to the height of
4 cubits, bemg triangular and tapering in form. The tuft^
head or umbd is likened by Pliny to a thyrsus.
The various uses to which the papyrus plant was applied are
also enumerated by Theophrastus. Of the head nothing could
be made but garlands for tbe shrines of the gods; but the wood
of the root was employed in the manufacture of different utensils
as well as for fuel. Of the stem of the plant were made boats,
sails, mau, doth, cords, and, above all, writing materials. Its
pith was also a common artide of food, and was eaten both
cooked and in its natural state. Herodottis, too, notices its
consumption as food (ii. 92), and incidentally mentions that it
provided the material of which the priests' sandals were made
(ii. 37). He likewise refers to the use of byblus as tow for
caulking the seams of ships; and the sutement of Theophrastus
that King Antigonus made the rigging of his fleet of the same
material is illustrated by the ship's cable, ir\w fiifihvw^
wherewith the doors were fastened when Ulysses slew the suitors
in his hall {Odyss. xxi. 390). That the plant was itsdf used
also as the.prindpal material in the construction of light skiffs
suiuble for the navigation of the pools and shallows of the Nile,
and even of the river itself, is shown by sculptures of the fourth
dynasty, in which men are represented building a boat with
stems cut from a neighbouring plantation of papyrus (Lepsius,
Denkm. ii. 12). It is to boats of this description that Isaiah
probably refers in the " vesseb of buhushes upon the waters "
(xyiii. 2). If the Hebrew gOmer {-V*) also is to be identified
with the Egyptian papyrus, something may be aaid in favour
of the tradition that the bulrushes of which the ark was composed
UB which the infant Moses was laid were In faa papyrus. Btit
744
PAPYRUS
it Mems lumfly credible that the Cyperm fspynu could have
sufficed (or ihe many uses to which it is said to have been applied
and we may conclude that several planu of the genus Cypenu
were comprehended under the head of byblus or papynift— an
opinion which is supported by the words of Strabo, who mentions
both infeiior and superior qualities. The Cyptna dives is itill
grown !n Kgypt, and is used to this day for many of the purposes
named by ancient writers.
The widespread use throughout the ancient world of the
writing material manufactured from the papyrus plant is
attested by early writers, and by documents and sculptures.
Papyrus roUs are represented in ancient Egyptian wall-paintings;
and extant examples of the rolls themselves are sufficiently
numerous. The most ancient Egyptian papyrus now known
contains accounts of the reign of King Assa (3580-3536 B.C.).
The eariiest literary papyrus is that known, from the name of
its former owner, as the Prisse papyrus, and now preserved at
Paris, containing a work composed in the reign of a king of the
fifth dynasty, and computed to be itself of the age of upwards
of 2500 years B.C. The papyri discovered in Egypt have often
been found in tombs, and in the hands, or swathed with the
bodies, of mummies. The ritual of the dead is most fre-
quently the subject. Besides the ritual and religious rolls, there
are the hieratic, dvll and literary documents, and the demotic
and enchorial papyri, relating generally to sales of property.
Coptic papyri mainly contain Biblical or religious texts or
monastic deeds. Papyrus was also known to the Assyrians,
who called it " the reed of Egypt."
The early use of Papyrus among the Greeks is proved by the
reference of Herodotus (v. 58) to its introduction among the
Ionian Greeks, who gave it the name of hi^Skfioit " skins,"
the material to which they had already been accustomed. In
Athens it )»'as doubtless in use for literary as wdl as for other
purposes as* early as the 5th century B.C. An inscription
relating to the rebuilding of the Erechtheum in 407 B.C.
records the purchase of two papyrus rolls, to be used for the fair
copy of the rough accounts. The very brge number of classical
and other Greek papyri, of the Ptolemaic and later periods,
which have been recovered in Egypt, are noticed in the article on
Palaeocrapby. The rolls found in the ruins of Herculanetun
contain generally the less interesting works of writers ol the
Epicurean schooL
Papyrus also made its way into Italy, bot at how etxly •
period there is nothing to show. It may be presumed, however,
that from the very first it was employed as the vehicle for
Roman literature. Under the Empire its use must have been
extensive, for not only was it required for the production of
books, but it was universally employed for domestic purposes,
conespondence and legal doounents. So Indispensable did it
become that h is reported that in the reign of T%cri«s» owing
to the scarcity and deamess of the material caused by a failure
of the papyrus aop, there was a danger of the ordinary business
of life being deranged (Pliny, N.H, ziiL 13).
The account which Pliny \NJI. aaiL 11-13) has tranimitted to
us of the manufacture of the writing material from the papynn
plant should be taken strialy to refer to the proccw followed ia
his own time; but, with tome differences in details, the a
partic
nave
method of treatment had doubtlessly been practised from time
immemoriaL Hb text, however, is so oonf used, both from obecuricy
of style and from conruptions in the MSS., that there is muca
difference of opinion as to the meaning of many words and phrases
employed in his narrative, and their apnlication in particular points
of derail. In one important particular, however, affecting tke
primary construction of the material, there can no longer be any
doubt. The old idea that it was made from layers or pellicuks
growing between the rind and a central atsJk has been abandooed.
as it has been proved that the plant, like other reeds, contains only
a cellular pith within the rind. The stem was in (act cut tuo
loi«itudinaiI strips for the purpose of being converted into the writiac
maMrial, those from the centre of the punt being the broadest aad
OKMt valuable. The strips (imm, pkUynu), which were cut with a
sharp knife or some such instrument, were laid on a board aide by
side to the required width, thus forming a layer (jcAsda), acroai
which another layer of shorter strips was latd at right angles.
The two layera thus " woven." — Pliny uses the word lexcrr in de-
scribing this part of the pn atn f o rm ed a sheet ipUvda or net),
which was then soaked in water of the Nile. The mention of a
rticular water has caused trouble to the commenutors. Some
ve supposed that certain chemical properties of which the Nile
water was possessed acted as a glue or cement to cause the two
Uyen to adhere; othera, with more reason, that glutinous matter
contained in the material itself was solved by the action of water,
whether from the Nile or any other source; and othera aaaia read
in Pliny's words an implicatbn that a paste was actually oaed.
The sheet was finally hammered and dried in the sun. Any roofh-
ness was levelled bv polishing with ivory or a smooth sIkIL But
the material was also subject to other defects, such as nsoisturr
lurking between the byers. which might be detected by strokes of
the mallet; spou or stains; and spongy strips (lacino«), ia which
the ink would run and spoil the sheet. When such faults oocurred,
the papyrus must be re-made. To form a roll the several sbccts
KoXM»«ara, were joined together with paste (glue beiM too bard),
but not more than twemy sheets in a roll (ica^tu). As, bowrw.
there are still extant rolls consisting of more than the preacrifaed
number of sheets, either the reading of vtcsnoe is corrupt, or the
number was not constant in all times. The seapus seems to have
been a standard length of papyrus, as sold by toe statkmers. The
best sheet formed the first or outside sheet of the roll, and the
othen were joined on ia order of quality, so that the worst slMcts
were in the centre of the roll. This arrangement was adopted,
not for the purpose of fraudulently selling bad mateisal uoder
cover of the better exterior, but in order that the outside of the roD
should be composed of that which would beat stand wear and tear.
Boides, in case of the entire roll not being filed with the test, tbe
unused and inferior sheets at the end could be better spared, and
so might be cut off.
The different kinds of papyrus writing material and their dinseo-
sions are also enumerated by Pliny. The beat quality, farmed
from the middle and broadest strips of the plant, was originatty
named kieroHea, but afterwards, in fCstterr of tne e mp eror Aofastm^
it was called, after him, ^Nfwta; and tne ekarla Lima, or aecooo
quality, was so named in honour of his wife. The kusrmtica tkws
dcsoen<ted to the third rank. The first two were 13 digiti. or about
94 in. in width; the kteralica^ 11 digiri or 8 in. Next caaie the
charla amMthtatriea, named after the principal place of hs onaaB*
facture. tne amphitheatre of Alexandria, of 9 digiti or 64 in. vide.
The cJkiarfa Fanniana appeare to have beets a kind of popynu
«-orked up from the am^itheairic*t which by flattening and other
methods was increased m width by an inch, in the factory of a
certain Fannius at Rome. The Sattice, which took its name from
the city of Sais. and was probably of 8 digiti or s| ia., was of
a common description. The T^enwtita, named apparently from
the place of its manufacture, a tongue of land (rsula) near Alcx-
andna, was sok) by weight, and was of uncertain width, perbaps
from 4I to 5 in. And lastW there was the ctminson packing-paper,
the eharia emparelua, of 6 digiti or 4I in. Isidore (Etymial. vi. 10)
mentions yet another kind, the C&nuHmHa, fir« made trader
C. Cornelius Callus, prefect of Egypt, which, howrvcr. may ha\^
been the same as the emeMfkeoCrMa or FMmmama. The nanse of
the man who had incurred the anger of Angustus may have bei ->
suppressed by the same influence that expunged the episode > t
Gallus from the Fourth Georgic (Birt. Anhk, Bmhmam, p. xy,\
In the reign of the emperor Ciaadius also another kind was intn-
duccd and entitled DoWto. It had been found by e apwi e m e that
the tharta Antusta was. from its fineness and porous nature, ul
suited for Kierary use; it wai accordingly reserved for correspon-
dence only, and (or other purposes was replaoed by the aew paper.
PAR— ?ARA
745
The ekaria Claudia wms made from • oompoiltion of tlie first and
■econd qualities, the Auputa and the Lima, a layer of the fonner
being backed with one of the latter; and the •heet was increased
to nearly a foot in width. The largest of all, however, was the
tMerocoUcn, probably of good quality and equal to the hieratic,
and a cubit or nearly |8 m. wide. It was used by Cicero {fip. ad
Auic jxEl a5. xvi. 3). The width, however, proved idcoaveoient.
and the broad sheet was liable to injurv by tearing.
An examination of extant papyri has had the result of proving
that dieets of large size, measuring about 13 in., were sometimes
used. A large class of examples run to 10 ia.t othara to 8 in.,
while the smaller sixes range from 4 to 6 in.
An interestins[ question arises as to the aocuracy d the different
measurements given by PUnyr. His figures regarding the width of
the different kinds of papyri have generally -been understood to
concern the width (or height) of the rolls, as distinguished from
their length. It has. however, been observed that in practice the
width of exunt rolls docs not tally in any satisfactory degree with
Pliny's measurements: and a more plausible explanation lias been
offered (Dirt. Antik. Buchvufsen, pp. 3M sen.) that the breadth
(not height) of the individual sheets of which tne rolb are composed
IS referred ta
The first sheet of a roll was named v^pwrAnXXor; the last.
l«x«'o<(iXX4«». Under the Romans, the former bore the name of
the comes targitionum, who had control of the manufacture, with
the date and nsme of place. It was the practice to cut away the
portion thus marked; but in case of legal oocumcnts this mutilation
was forbidden by the laws of Justinian. On the Arab conquest
of Egypt in the 7th century, the manufacture was continued, and
the protocols were marked at first, as it appears, with inscriptions
in both Creek and Arabic, and later in the latter language alone.
There are several examples exunt. some being in the British
Museum, ranging between the years 670 and 715 {ttc facsimiles if\
C. H. Becker. Papyri SchoU-Ratthardl,u (Heidelbciy. 1906) ; and cf.
" Arabische Papyri dcs Aphrodiiofundcs." in Ztilsth. fUr Assyrio-
hgie, XX. (1906), 68-104. The Arab inscriptions are accompanied
by curious scrawls on each side, which may be imitated from words
aied in the Latin inacriptiooa of the Roman peiiod.
Papjrrus was colttyated and manufactored for writing
material by the Arabs in Egypt down to the time when the grow-
ing industry of paper in the 8th and 9th centuries Rnderad it
n6 longer a necessity (see Paper). It seems to have entirely
given place to paper in the xolh century. Vam>'s statementi
repeated by Pliny, that papyrus was first made in Alexander's
time, should probably be taken to mean that its manufacture,
which till then had been a government monopoly, was relieved
from all restrictions. It is not probable, however, that it was
ever mantifactured from the native plant anywhere but in
Egypt. At Rome there was certainly some kind of industry in
papynn, the ckarla Fanniana, already referred to, being an
instance in illustration. But it seems probable that this
industry was confined to the re-makfajgof material imported into
Italy, as in the case of the cherta Claudia. This second manu*
foaure, however, is thought to have been detrimental to the
papyrus, as it would then have been hi a dried condition requiring
artificial aids, such as a more liberal use of gum or paste, in the
process. The more brittle condition of the Latin papyri found
at Herculaoeum has been fantanced as the evil result of this
re-making of the materiaL
As to cttlthmtion of the plant in Eoiope, oocofdbg to Stxabo
the Romans obtained the papyrus plant from Lake Trssimene
and other lakes of Etniria, but this statement is unsupported
by any other ancient authority. At a later period, however, a
papyrus was cultivated in Sicily, which has been identified by
Parlatore with the Syrian variety {Cypena syriaem), far ex-
ceeding in height the Egyptian plant, and having a mere drooping
head. It grew in the east and south of the island, where it was
introduced during the Arab occupation. It was seen in the zoth
century, by the Arab travelkr Ibn^Haukal, in the neighbourhood
of Palermo, where It throve luxuriantly in the pools of the
Papireto, a stream to which it lent its name. From it paper was
made for the sultan's use. But in the 13th century it began to
fail, and fai 1591 the drying up of the Papireto caused the
extinction of the plant in that district. It is still to be seen at
Syracuse, but it was probably transplanted thither at a later
time, and reared only as a curiosity, as there is no notice of it to
be found previous to 1674* It is with this Syracusan plant that
some attempts have been made in modem times to manufacture
a writiog material similar to aodent papyrus.
LMun M^Bi. on papyrus m oooK lorm are ma extant
ibiariea of Europa. viz.: the Homilies of St Avitns. of
ury. at Buis; Sermons and Epistles of St Augnsane^
: 7U1 oentuiVj at Paria and Geneva; works of Hilary,
Even after the Intredtictkn of vellum as the orcfinary vehicle
for literature papyrus still continued to some extent In usk
outside Egypt, and was not entirely superseded until a late date.
It ceased, however, to be used for books sooner than for docu-
ments. In the sth century St Augustine apologizes for sending
a letter written on veflum histead of the more usual substance,
papyrus {Bp, xv.); and Casriodonis {Van, xi. 38); writing in
the 6th century, indulges in a higfa-fiown panegyric on the plant
and its value. Of medieval literary Greek papyri very few relics
have survived, but of documents coming down to the Sth and
9th centuries an increasing number is being brought to light
among the discoveries in Egypt.
Medieval Latin MSS. on papyrus in book form are sdl extant
in different libraries of Eur-^- «^ •• ••• -----.-
the 6th century, at Puis;
of the 6th or 7U1 century, j .
of the 6th century, at Vienna; fragments of the Digests, of tne
6th century, at Pommersfeld; the Antiquities of Josephus, of the
7th century, at Milan: Isidore, Da eanlampiu manuk, of the 7th
century, at St Gall; and the Register of the Church d Ravenna, of
the I oth century, at Munich. The employment of this matoiai in
Italy for legal purposes is sufficiently illustrated by the large number
of documents m Latin whkh were preserved at Ravenna, and date
from the sth to the loth century. In the papal chancery it waa
used at an early date, evidence of iu presence there being found
in the biography of Gregory I. But of the exunt papal deeds
the earliest to which an authentic date can be attached is a bull
of Adrian I. of the year 788. while the btest appears to be one of
I023. There is evidence to show that in the Mtn century papyrus
was used, to the exclusion of other materials, in papal oeeda.
In France it was a common writing substance in the 6th century
(Gregory of Tours, Hist, Franc, v. 5). Of the Merovingian period
there are stilT extant several papyrus deeds, the earliest of the year
635. the latest of 692. Under Cliaxkmagne and his succeason it
waa not used. By the lath century the manufacture of papyms
had entirely ceased, as appears from a note by Eustathiua m hia
commentary on the Odwey, xxi. 300.
AuTHOaiTiES. — Melch. Guilandino*s comm e nta ry on the diapten
of Pliny relating to papyms. Papyrus, hoc §st cOmmmUaHmt, Ac.
(Venice, ,1572) { Montfaucon, " Disserution sur la plante appelMe
sciences (1854). pp. 460-502; Blumncr, Tecknolotie und TermiHO-
togie der Cewerht und Kunste bei Criechen wtd Hamem, i. 308-327
(Leipzig. 187s) : C. PaoU. Det Papiro (FkMence. 1878); G. Cosentino,
" La Carta di papiro*" inArckimoslarieoticiiiano (1880). pp. i34-i64«
See also WT Wattenbach. Das SchnftwesmTua MtUddlit
(Leipzig, 1896); T. Birt, Das antike Buckwesen (Berlin, 1883);
F. G. Renyon. Tko Paiaeorrapky of Creek Papyri (Oxford. i8go);
and W. Schubert, Das Buck bei dm Gruekm and ItOmem (Beriln,
1907). (£. M. TO
PAR (Lat par, equal), technically a oommerdal and banking
term. When stocks, shares, Ac, an purchasable at the price
originally paM for them or at thdr nominal or lace value they
are said to be of ^. "When the purchase piiee is hij^ than the
face vabe^ they •» ^bam par, at at a prtrntrnm; when bdow face
value, they are balam par, exratc dssanmL Far cf aaekasiit m
the amount of money in the currency of one country which ia
equivalent to the same amount in the terms of another, both
currencies being of the same metal and of a fixed staadani of
weight and purity. (See Excsamcc)
PARi^ or Gaito PaxA, a mirthem state of BraxO, bounded N.
by the three Guianas and the Atlantic, E. by the Atlantic and
the states of Msianhlo and Goyas,' S. by Goyal and Matto
GroSBO aad W. by AmaaoMtt. It is the third brgest state of the
republic, havhig an area of 445.93a sq. m.; pop. (1890), 398,455,
(1900), 445,356. The Amaaon valley has iU outlet to the ocean
through the central part of the staU, the outlet, or neck, being
comparatively namnr aad the tenitory on both sides rising to
the level of the andent piatcau that covered this part of the
continent. In the north is the Guiana phtteau, aomethnes
called Braailiaa Guiana, which ia " blanketed " and made scma*
arid by the mountain ranges on the BmaU-Guiana frontier. In
the sooth the country rises in forested terraces and is broken Iqr
escarpments caused by the erosion of the northern slope of the
gnat centsal plateau of Bcufl. With the eiceptiaB of lh#
746
PARA
Guiana higlilands, and aome (laasy phina en th« island of
Maraj6 and in some other places, the aute is densely forested,
and iu lowest levela are covered with a network of rivers, lakes
and connecting channels.
The rivers of the suie may be grouped under three general
systems: the Amaaon and iu tributaries, the Tocantins and
its tributaries and the rivers flowing direa to the Atlantic
The Amazon crosses the sute in a general E.N.E. direction
(or about 500 m. Its channels, tributaries, juros (arms),
igftrapis (creeks, or literally, '* canoe paths "), by<hannels and
reservoir lakes form an extremely complicated hydrographic
system. From the north seven large tribuUries are received-^
the Jamund4 (which forms the boundary line with Amaaonas),
Trombetas, Maecur6, Jauary, Parik, Jary and Anauera-pucfi.
The first is, strictly speaking, a tributary of the Trombetas,
though several furos connect with the Amazon before its main
channel opens into the Trombetas. All these rivers have their
sources on the Guiana highlands within the limits of the sUte,
and flow southward to the Amazon over numerous rapids and
falls, with comparatively short navigable channels before
entering the great river. From the south two great tribuurics
are received— the Tapajos and Xingfi->both having 'their
sources outside the state (see Amazon). The Pari estuary,
usually called the Pari river, belongs to the Tocantins, although
popularly described as a mouth of the Amazon. Very little
Amazon water passes through it except in times of flood. It b
connected with the Amazon by navigable tidal furos, in which
the current is hardly perceptible. The estuary is about 200 m.
long and s to 30 m. wide, and receives the waters of a large
number ol streams, the largest of which is the Guami and its
chief tributary, the Capim. A number of small rivers discharge
into the Atlantic north and south of the Amazon, the largest
of which are the Gurupy, which forms the boundary line with
Maranhio, the Araguary, which drains a large area of the eastern
slope of the Guiana highlands, and the Oyapok, which forms the
boundary line with French Guiana.
Lying across the mouth of the Amazon and dividing it into
three channeb are the islands of Caviana and Mexiana, the first
47 m. and the second a? m. in length, north-west to south-east,
both traversed by the equator, and both devoted to cattle>
raising. Somewhat different in character is the island of
Maraj6, or Joannes, which lies between the Amazon and Par&
.estuary. It is 162 m. long by 99 m. wide, and its area is about
15,000 sq. m. This island is only partly alluvial in character,
a considerable area on its eastern and southern sides having the
same geological formation as the neighbouring mainland.- The
larger part, the north-western, belongs to the flood-plaina of
the Amazon, being covered with swamps, forcsta and open
meadows, and subject to annual inundations. There are several
towns and viUages on the island, and atock-raising, now in a state
of decadence, has bug been its principal industry. Of interest
to archaeologists is the laigest of iu several lakes, called Arary,
in the centre of which is a small island celebrated for iu Indian
antiquities, chiefly pottery. On the Atlantic coast the principal
island ia Maraci (lat. 2* N.), 26 m. long by ao m. wide, which lies,
in part, off the entrance to the Amapa river.
Pari is crossed by the equator, and iU climate is wholly
tropical, but there is a wide variation in temperature and
lainfalL In general. It is hot and dry 00 the Guiana plateau,
and hot and humid throughout the forested region. In the
latter, there are two recognized seasons, wet and dry, which
differ only in the amount of rainfall, a strictly dry season being
unknown. The trade winds, which blow op the Amazon with
much force, moderate the heat and make healthy most of the
acttlemcnU on the great river itsdf ; but the settlemenU along
its tribuUries, which are not swept by these winds, are aflBicted
with malaria. The popuktion Is concentrated at widely separated
poinU on the coast and navigaUe rivers, except on Maraj6
iriand, where open country and paatoral pursuiU have opened
ip ialaad districts. The principal occupation is the collcaing
ud naik^iag of forat products such as rubber (from ^J2*SS
~* is)« gutU-penJia, or halata {MimusoPM «!•**>•
nuu (BerlMefta czcefm), saiiapaiflla (JSmHax), tmmarm or
tonka beans (Dipterix MJarofa), copaiba {Ccpmiftn oJfUia^
arum), guarand {PaultHta sarbUis), travo (an aromatic bark of
DicypeUium coryppkiUaium) and many others. In earlier days
cotton, sugar-cane, rice, tobacco, cacao and even coffee were
cultivated, but the demand for rubber caused their abandonment
in most places. Cacao (Tkeobroma cacao) is still widely culti*
vated, as also mandioca {Manihot uiUisaima) in some localities.
Pari produces many kinds of fruits— the orange, banana,
abrico, cajfi, abacate (alligator pear), mango, sapotilha, fractn
de Conde, grape, &c., besides a large number hardly known
beyond the Amazon valley. The pastoral industries were once
important in Pari, especially on the islands of Maraj6, Caviana
and Mexiana, and included the rearing of horses, cattle, and sheep.
At present little is done in these industries, and the people depend
upon imporUtion for draft animals and fresh meat. There
remain a few cattle ranges on Maraj6 and other islands, but the
industry is apparently losing ground. Mining receives some
attention on the Atlantic slope of the Guiana plateau, where
gold washings of no great importance have been found in the
Counani and other streams. There arc no manufactures in the
sUte outside the city of Pari iq,v.).
T^ansporUtion depends wholly on river craft, the one railway
of the state, the Pari & Braganca, not being able to meet
expenses from its traffic receipts. The capital of the state is
Pari, or Belem do Pari, and iu history is largely that of this city.
Other important towns arc Alemaquer (pop. about 1500; of
the munictpio in 1890, 7539), on a by-channd of the Amazon;
Breves (mun. xa,s93 in 1890), a river port in the south-west
part of Maraj6, on a channel connecting the Amazon with the
Pari estuary; Braganfa (mun. 16,046 in 1890), a small town in
one of the few agriciiltural districts of the sUte, 147 m. by rail
nortli^ast of Pari, on the river Caet€, near the coast; Obidua
(about 1000; mun. ia,666 in 1890), on the north bank o< the
Amazon at a point called the Pauxis narrows, a little over i m.
wide, attractively situated on a hillside in a healthful kKrality;
and Santarem (12,062 in 1890); on the right bank of the TafMJus,
2^ m. from the Amazon, dating from 1661, and the most
prosperous and populous town between Pari and Manios.
PARA (officially Belem; sometimes Belem do ParA), a dty
and port of Brazil, capital of the state of Pari, and the ace of a
bishop, on a point of land formed by the entrance of the
Guami river into the Pari (86 m. from the Atlantic), in
X* 28' S., 48"* 28' W. Pbp. of the dty and rural districu of the
munidpality (1890), 50,064; (1900, estimate), 100,00a There
is a large F<muguese contingent in the population, and the
foreign element, engaged in trade and transportation, is abo
important. The Indian admixture is strongly apparent in the
Amazon valley and is noticeable in Pari. A small railway,
built by the sUte, runs north-eastward in the direction of
Bragan^a (112 m.), on the sea-coast. The Guami river is
enlarged at iu mouth to form an estuary called the hay of
Guajari, partially shut off from the Pari by several islands
and forming the anchorage of the port, and the Pari is the
estuary mouth of the Tocantins river. The Pari is about 20 ra.
wide here.
The dty is built on an alluvial forested plain only a few feet
above the levd of the river, and its streeU usually end at the
margin of the impenetrable forest. The dimate is hot and
humid, but the temperature and diurnal changes are remarkably
uniform throughout the year. The annual rainfall, accordtrg
to Professor M. F. Draenert. is 70 in. (Roclus says 120 in.), of
which 56 in. are credited to the rainy season (January to June).
H. W. Bates gives the average temperature at 81" F., the
minimimi at 73", and the maximum (2 p.m.) at 89* to 94*.
These favourable climatic conditions tend to make the aty
healthy, but through defective drainage, insaniUry habiu and
aunoundings, and improper diet the death-rate is high. The
pfauk of the dty is regular and, owing to the density of the forest,
it »Mg^„yagy« wibarba. The streets are usually narrow.
SS^^'**^ -^^ny public squares and
"'-Midlo, with a
PARABLE— PARABOLA
747
•Utue of tiie bishop of that name; the Pra^ da Independencia,
tuRounded by government buildings and having an eiaberate
momuncnt to General Gurjio; the Praca Visoonde do Rio
Branco, with a statue of Jos£ da Gama Melchior; the Pnca de
Baptista Campos, with artificial cascades, lake, island and winding
paths; the Praca da Republica, with a monument rq>re8enting
the Republic; and the Praca de Pnidente Morses, named in
honour of the first civilian president of Brazil. Another public
outdoor resort is the Bosque, a tract of forest on the outskirts
of the city. The public buildings and institutions are in great
part icUcs of an older rfgiroe. The great cruciform cathedral,
on the Pmpa Caetano Brandio, dates from the middle of the i8th
century. In the vicinity, facing on the Praga da Independencia,
are the government and municipal palaces— built by order of
Pombal {c. 1766), when Portugal contemplated the creation of
a great empire on the Amazon. The bishop's palace and epis-
copal seminary, near the cathedral, were once the Jesuits' college,
and the custom-house on the water-front was once the convent
and church of the Mercenaries. One of the most notable
buildings of the city is the Tbeatro da Paz (Peace Theatre),
which faces upon the Praca da Republica and was built by the
government during the second empire. Other noteworthy
buildings are the Caridade hospital, the Misericordia hospital
(known as the " Santa Casa '*), the military barracks occupying
another old convent, and the Castello fort, a relic of colonial
days. Par& has a number of schools and colleges, public and
private, of secondary grade, such as the Ateneo Paranense,
Instituto Lauro Sodr£ and Lyceu Benjamin Constant. There
is an exceptionally fine museum (Muscu Goeldi), with important
collections in anthropology: ethnology, sotology and botany,
drawn from the Amazon valley. The private dwellings are
chiefly of the Portuguese one storey type, with red tile roofs and
thick walls of broken stone and mortar, generally plastered
outside but sometimes covered with blue and white Lisbon tiles.
Pari is the entrepdt for the Amazon valley and the principal
commercial city of northern Brazil. It is the headquarters of
the Amazon Navigation Company, which owns a fleet of 40
river steamers, of 500 to 900 tons, and sends them up the
Amazon to the Peruvian frontier, and up all the large tributaries
where trading settlements have been established. Two or
three coost^-ise companies also make regular calls at this port,
and several transatlantic lines allord r^ular communication
with Lisbon,' Liverpool, Hamburg and New York. The port
Is accessible to Urge steamers, but those of light draft only can
lie alongside the quays, the larger being obliged to anchor some
distance out. Extensive port improvements have been under-
taken. The exports of Pari, include rubber, cacao, Brazil nuts
and a large number of minor products, such as isinglass, palm
fibre, fine woods, tonka beans, deerskins, balsam copaiba,
annatto, and other forest products.
Par& was founded in 1615 by Francisco Caldcira de Castello-
Branco, who commanded a small expedition from Maranh&o
sent thither to secure possession of the country for Portugal
and drive out the Dutch and English traders. The settlement,
which he named fiossa, Scnhora de Belem (Our Lady of Bethle-
hem), grew to be one of the most turbulent and ungovernable
towns, of Brazil. Rivalry with Maranhao, the capital of the
Amazon dependencies, slave-hunting, and bitter controversies
with the Jesuits who sought to protect the Indians from this
traffic, combined to cause agitation. In 1641 it had a population
of only 400, btit it had four monasteries and was already largely
Interested in the Indian slave traiRc. In 1652 the Par& territory
was made a separate eapitaniat with the town of Pari as the
capital, but it was reannexed to MaranhSo in 1654. The final
separation occurred In 1772, and Par& again became the capital,
continuing as such through all the political changes that have
since occurred. The bishopric of Pari dates from 1723. llie
popular movement in Portugal in 1820 in favour of a constitution
and parliament (Cortes) had its echo in Pari, where in i8ai the
populace and garrison joined in creating a government of their
own and in sending a deputation to Lisbon. The declaration
cl Bimailiaa independence of s8sa nod citatioa of an empire
under Dom Pedro I. was not accepted by Pari, partly because
of iu influential Portuguese population, and partly through
jealousy of Rio de Janeiro as the centre of political power. In
1823 a naval expedition under Lord Cochrane, then in the
service of Brazil, took possession of Maranhfto, from whirh
place the small brig ** Dom Miguel " under the command of
Captain John Grenfell was sent to Pari. This officer conveyed
the impression that the whole fleet was behind him, and on the
xsth of August the junta ffnnnctita organized in the preceding
year surrendered Us authority and Par& became part of the
newly created Brazilian empire. An uprising against the new
government soon occuned, which resulted in the arrest of the
insurgents, the execution of their leaders, andf the incarceration
of 253 prisoners in the hold of a small vessel, where all but four
died from suffocation before morning. Conspiracies and revolts
followed, and in 1835 an outbreak of the worse elements, made
up chiefly of Indians and half-breeds, occurred, known as the
" Revolu^o da Cabanagem," which was chiefly directed against
the Portuguese, and then against the Freemasons. All whites
were compelled to leave the city and take refuge on neighbouring
Islands. The Indians and half-breeds obtained the mastery,
under the leadership of Antonio and Francisco Vinsgres and
Eduardo Angelim, and plunged the city and neighbouring towns
into a state of anarchy, the population being reduced from
35,000 to 15,000. The revolt was overcome in 1836, but the
city did not recover from its effects until 1848. But 'the
opening of the Amazon to foreign trade in 1867 greatly increased
the importance of the dty, and its growth has gone forward
steadily since that event. (A. J. L.)
PARABLE (Cr. vnpoiSoX^. a comparison or similitude),
originally the name given by Greek rhetoricians to a literary
illustration avowedly introduced as such. In bte Greek it
came to mean a fictitious narrative or allegory (generally some-
thing that might naturally occur) by which moral or spiritual
relations are typically set forth, as in the New Testament The
parable differs from the apologue in the inherent probability
of the story itself, and in excluding animab or inanimate
creatures from passing out of their natural sphere and assuming
the powers of man, but it resembles it in the essential qualities
of brevity and deftniteness, and also in its Eastern origin.
There are many beautiful examples of the parable in the Old
Testament, that of Nathan, for insUnce, in a ^am. xil. 1-9, that
of the woman of Tekoah in a Sam. xiv. 1-13, and othcn in the
Prophets.
PARABOLA, a plane curve of the second degree. It may be
defined as a section of a right circular cone by a plane parallel
to a tangent plane to the cone, or as the locus of a point which
moves so that its distances from a fixed point and a fixed line
are equaL It is therefore a conic section having its eccentricity
equal to unity. The parabola is the curve described by a projec-
tile which moves in a non-resbting medium under the influence
of gravity (see Mechanics). The general relations between the
parabob, ellipse and hyperbohi are treated in the articles
Geohstry, Analytical, and Conic SicnoNS; and various
projective properties are demonstrated in the article GEOMETay,
Projective. Here only- the specific properties of the parabola
will be given.
The form of the curve Is shown in fig. i, where P is a point on
the curve equidistant from the fixed line AB, known as the
iinctrix, and the fixed point F known as
the focta. The line CD passing through
the focns and perpendicular to the
directrix is the axis or pHneipal diawuter,
and meets the curve in the 9erUs G.
The line FL perpendicular to the axis,
and passing through the focus, is the
semUatus rettum^ the lotus rectum being
the focal chord parallel to the directrix.
Any line parallel to the axis is a diameUft
and the paramekr of any diameter is
measured by the focal chord drawn
parallel to the tangent at the Ytrteznf tha diameter and Is s
7+«
PARABOLA
T
to four tiines the focal dlsUnce of Uw vertex. To construct the
parabola when the focus and directrix are given, draw the axis
CD and bisect CF at G, which gives the vertex. Any number
of points on the parabola are obtained by taking any point
£ on the directrix, joining EG and £F and drawing FP so
that the angles PFE and DFE are equal Then EG produced
nieeu FP in a point on the curve. By joining the points
so obtained the parabola may be dcscribcMl. A mechanical
construction, when the same conditions are given, consists in
taking a rigid bar ABC bent at right angles at B (fig. a),
and fastening a string of length BC to C
wm£ and F. Then if a pencil be placed along
BC so as to keep the string taut, and the
limb AB be slid along the directrix, the
— pencil will trace out the parabola.
Properties which nuy be readily de-
Fic. 3. duced by eucUdian methods from the
definition include the following: the ungent at any point
bisects the angle between the focal distance and the
perpendicular on the directrix and is equally inclined to the
focal distance and the axis; tangents at the extremities of a
focal chord intersect at right angles on the directrix, and as a
coroUary we have that the locus of the intersection of tangents
at right angles is the directrix; the drcumcirde of a triangle
circumscribing a parabola passes through the focus; the sub-
tangent is equal to twice the abscissa of the point of contact;
the subnormal is constant and equals the semilatus rectum; and
the radius of curvature at a point P is a (FP)Va' where a is the
semilatus rectum and FP the focal distance of P.
A fundamental property of the curve is that the line at infinity
a a tangent (see Geometxy, Projective), and it follows that
the centre and the second real focus and directrix arc at infinity.
It also follows that a line half-way between a point and its polar
and parallel to the latter touches the parabola, and therefore
the lines joining the ndddie points of the sides of a sclf<onjugatc
triangle form a circumscribing triangle, and also that the nine>
point circle of a self-conjugate triangle passes through the focus.
The orthocentrc of a triangle circumscribing a parabola is on
the directrix; a deduction from this theorem is that the centre
oi the circumcirde of a self-conjugate triangle is on the directrix
(" Steincr's Theorem ").
In the article Geoketkv, Analytical, it is shown that the
general equation <^ the second degree represents a parabola
when the highest terms form a pericct square.
OnmeOy. "^'^ " ^^* analytical expression of the projective
property that -the line at infinity is a tangent. The
simplest equation to the parabola is that which is referred to its
axis and the tangent at the vertex as the axes of co-ordinates,
when it assumes the form ^^'^ax where 2a » semilatus rectum;
this may be deduced directly from the definition. An equation
of similar form is obtained when the axes of co-ordinates are any
diameter and the tangent at the vertex. The equations to the
tangent and normal at the point *'/ are yy'«aa(x+x') and
a«(y-y)+/(*— i')-©, and may be obtained by general
methods (see Geouetry, Analytical, and Intinitesuial
Calculus). More convenient forms in terms of a single pant'
meter are deduced by substituting x^som', /«aam (for on
eliminating m between these relations the equation to the
parabola is obtained). The tangent then becomes my^s-k-am^
and the normal yvtnx-faam— am'. The envelope of this last
equation is 270/* 4(^—30)', which shows that the evolute
of a parabola is a semi-cubicai parabola (see below Higher Orders)*
The cartesian equaUon to_ji parabola which touches the co>
ordinate axes is Vax+Vby^^f <^nd the polar equation when
the focus is the pole and the axis the initial line is r cosV/2 »a.
The equation to a parabola in triangular co>ordinates is gener-
ally derived by expressing the condition that the line at infinity
n a tangent in the equation to the general conic For example,
in trilinear co-ordmatca, the equation to the general conic
drcumscribing the triangie of reference b l^+M7a+fni^*o;
for this to be a parabola the line aa-f-^ + rY*o
moat be a taagent. Expressing this oooditiQ& we
Vla^ Vmb^ Vnr-oasthe reiatioB which mitft hold bettPcen
the co-effidents of the above equation and the aides of the triaoi^
of reference for the equation to represent a parabola. Singady.
the oonditJoos for the inscribed conic Vila4-Viii^-l-V<*Y»o
to be a pa rab ola is Ac-f Mca-f-fMi^-*o, and the conic for which
the triangle of reference is self-conjugate h^-^m^^ni^^c m
a^fSM-f-MU-hc^'o. The various forms in areal oo-ordinats
may be derived from the above by substituting \a for l/pbiogm
and 9C for «, or directly by expressing the condition for tangency
of the line x+y+s^o to the conic expressed in aseal co-
ordinates. In tangential (^, q, r) co-ordinates the inscribed and
circumscribed conies take the forms X^+iu^^4*vM*o and
VXP'^^fMq-^pr^; these are parabolaa when X+M+^*"0
and VX* V/i«fc Vr-o respectivdy.
The length of a parabolic arc can be obtained by the metbods
of the infinitesimal calculus; the curve is directly quadrmble,
the area of>any portion between two ordinates being two thirds
of the drcumscribing paralldo^Tam. The pedal equation with
the focus as origin is t^^ar; the first positive pedal for the
vertex is the dssoid (f .v.) and for the focus the d^ectriz. (See
iNPiNiTESiifAL Calculus.)
Rbperbncbs.— Geometrical constructions of the panbola an to
be found in T.H. Eagles' PJoneCMms (1865)* Set the bibtiograidiy
to the artides Conic Sectiohs; Gkombiry, Analytical; aad
Geombtry. Projectxvb.
In the geometry of plane curves, the term parabola is often
used to denote the curves given by the general equation «*2c**
y"^*, thus axe^ is the quadratic or Apolh>nian
parabola; a*x^^ is the cubic parabola, a^x^j^ is
the biquadratic parabola; umi parabolas have the
general equation ax*~^^y\ thus ax*a*y is the semlcubical
parabola and ax^"*y* the semibiquadratic parabok. These
curves were investigated by Kenk Descartes, S^ Isaac Newton,
Colin Madaurin and others. Here we shall treat only the nkore
important forms.
The cartesian parabola Is a cubie curve which is also known as
the trident of Newton on account of its three-pronged fonn. Its
equation is xy«ox*-f-&x*-f£x+<f. and it consists of two Im
asymptotic to the axis of y and two parabolic legs (fie. 3). The
simplest form w oaey-x*— a*, in this case the serpenune portion
shown in the figure degenerates into a point of inflexion. Docartes
used the curve to solve sextic equations by determining its inter-
sections with a dncic; mechanical constructions were given by
Descartes (Geometry, Ub. 3) and Madaurin (prf^niea ieometrkd).
The ctd>tc paTab<Aa (fig. 4) is a cubie curve having the cquatioa
y^ox'-ffrx'-far-t-ii. It consists of two parabolic bnui '
tending in opposite directions. John Wallis utilixed the inte..
tions of this curve with a right fine to solve cubic equations. 1.
Edmund Hallcy solved sextic equations with the aid of a circle.
Dioerzint parabolas are cubic curves given by the
L'twrstfie faraoeuu are cutMc curves given by tbe cqua
ii«-ox*4-te«4-ex+rf. Newton discussed the live forms which i
from the relations of the roots of tbe cubic equation. When all tbe
Fig: 3.
Fic. 5.
roots are real and unequal the curve consists of a dosed oval axid a
parabolic branch (fig. 5). As the two lesser roots are made moce
and more equal the oval shrinks in si» and ultimately becomes a
real conjugate point, and the curve, the equation of which is >■-
(x-a)>(x-») (in which a>^) consists of this point and a bdl-Klce
branch resembling the right-hand member of fig. a. U two roots are
imaginary the equation is y--Cx«-»-a«) (jc-fc) and the curve
resembles the parabolic branch , as in the preceding case. This is some-
times termed the eampaniform (or bell-shaped) parabola. If the two
greater roots are equal the equation is y- (x-a) (x-*)« (in which
a<h) and the airve assumes the form shown in fig. 6. and is known
as the nodated parabola. Finally, if all the roots are eqoal. the
equation becomes >•- (r-o}';- this curve is the cuspidal or umi-
cubical parabola (fip. 7). This curve, which is sometimes termed the
Neilian parabola after William Neil (1637-1670). is the pvolute ol
the Ofdioary pacsboU* and is espedaUy iotMMiog aa bdng titt fins
PARACEISUS
749
curve to be lecttfied. Thb was aocompliahed in 1657 by Ndl in
England, and in .1659 by Heinrich van Haureat in Holland. Newton
showed that all the five varieties of the diverging parabolas may be
exhibited as plane sections of the solid of revolution of the senvi-
cubtcal parabola. A plane oblique to the axis and passing below
the vertex gives the first variety: if it passes through the vertex.
Fio. 6. Fic. 7-
the second form; if above the vertex and oblique or parallel to the
aus. the third form; if below the vertex and touching the surface,
the fourth form, and if the plane ooatains the axis, uie fifth (osm
resulu (see Curvb).
The biquadratic parabola has, in its most geneial form, the equa-
tion y-ax^+fte'+w^+djf+e, and consists of a serpentinous
and two parabolic branches (fig. 8). If all the roots of the quartk in
w u w
Fig. 8. Fic. 9. Fig. 10.
X are equal the curve assumes the form shown in fig. 9, the axis of x
being a double tangent. If the two middle roots are equal, fif^ >o
results. Other forms which correspond to other relations between
the roots can be readily deduced from the most general form. (See
Curve; and Gbometry, Analytical.)
PARACELSUS (f. i49o>x54i), the famous Gcrmnn physician
of the 16th century, was probably bom near Einsiedeln, in the
canton Schwyz, in 1490 or 1491 according to some, or X493
according to others. His father, the natural son of a grand-
master of the Teutonic order, was Wilhclm Bomlnst von
Hohenheim, who had a hard struggle to make a subsistence as
a physician. His mother was superintendent of the hospital
at Einsiedeln, a post she relinquished upon her marriage.
Paracelsus's name was Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim*
for the names Philippus and Auredus which are sometimes
added gpod authority is wanting, and the epithet Paracelsus,
like some similar compounds, was probably one of his own
making, and was meant to denote his superiority to Cdsus.
Of the early yeara of Paracelsus's life hardly anything is known.
His father was his first teacher, and took pains to instruct him
in all ihc learning of the time, especially in medicine. Doubtless
Paracelsus learned rapidly what was put before him, but he
seems at a comparatively early age to have questioned the value
of what he was expected lo acquire, and to have soon struck out
ways for himself. At the age of sixteen he entered the university
of Basel, but probably soon abandoned the studies therein
pursued. He next went to J. Trithemius, the abbot of Sponhcim
and afterwards of Wiirzburg, under whom he prosecuted
chemical researches. Trithcnuus is the reputed author of some
obscure tracts on the great elixir, and as there was no other
chemistry going Paracelsus would have lo devote himself lo the
reiterated operations so characteristic of the notions of that time.
Bui the confection of the stone of the philosophers was too remote
a possibility to gratify the fiery spirit of a youth like Paracelsus,
eager to make what he knew, or could learn, at once available
for practical medicine. So he left school chemistry as he had
forsaken university culture, and started for the mines in Tirol
owned by the wealthy family of the Fuggers. The sort of know-
ledge he got there pleased him much more. There at least he
was in contact with rcaUty. The struggle with nature before
the precious metals could be made of use impressed upon him
more and more the importance of actual personal observation.
He saw all the mechanical difficulties that had to be overcome
tn mining; he learned the nature and succession of rocks, the
physical properties of minerab, ores and metals; he got a notion
of mineral waters; he was an eyewitness of the accidents which
bef^ the miners, and studied the diseases which attacked them;
he had proof that positive knowledge of nature was not to be
got in schools and universities, but only by going to nature her-
self, and to those who were constantly engaged with her. Hence
came Paracelsus's peculiar mode of study. He atuched no
value to mere scholarship; scholastic disputations he utterly
ignored and despised — ^and especially the discussions on medical
topics, which turned more upon theories and definition) than
upon actual practice. He therefore went wandering over a great
part of Europe to learn all that he could. In so doing he was
one of the first physicians of modern times to profit by a mode of
study which is now reckoned indispensable. The book of nature,
he affirmed, is that which the physician must read, and to do so
he must walk over the leaves. The humours and passions and
diseases of different nations are different, and the physician must
go among the nations if he will be master of his art; the more he
knows of other nations, the better he will understand his own.
And the commentary of his own and succeeding centuries upon
these very extreme views is that Paracelsus was no scholar, but
an ignorant vagabond. He himself, however, valued his method
and his knowledge very difterently, and argued that he knew
what his predecessors were ignorant of, because be had been
taught in no human school. " Whence have 1 all my secrets,
out of what writers and authors? Ask rather how the beasts
have learned their arts. If nature can instruct Irrational
animals, can it not much more men ?" In this new school
discovered by Paracelsus, and since attended with the happiest
results by many others, he remained for about ten years. He
had acquired great stores of facts, which it was impossible for
him to have reduced to order, but which gave him an unqucstioo-
able superiority to his contemporaries So in 1536 or 1537, on
his return to Basel, he was appointed town physidan, and shortly
afterwards he gave a course of lectures on medicine in the
university. Unfortunately for him, the lectures broke away
from tradition. They were in German, not in Latin; they were
expositions of his own experience, of his own views, of hn
own methods of curing, adapted to the diseases that afflicted
the Germans in the year 1527, andthey were not commentaries
on the text of Galen or Avicenna. They attacked, not only,
these great authorities, but the German graduates who followed
them and disputed about them in 1527. They criticized in no
measured terms the current medicine of tLc time, and exposed
the pracUcal ignorance, the pomposity, and the greed of those
who practised it.
The truth of Paracelsus^s doctrines was apparently confirmed
by his success in curing or mitigating diseases for which the
regular physicians could do nothing. For about a couple of
yean his reputation and practice increased to a surprising
extent. But at the end of that time people began to recover
themselves. Paracelsus had burst upon the schools with such
novel views and methods, with such irresistible criticism, that
all opposition was at finrst crushed 6at. Gradually the sea
began to rise. His enemies watched for slips and failures; the
physicians maintained that he had no degree, and insisted that
he should give proof of his qualifications. Moreover, he had a
pharmaceutical system of his own which did not harmonize
with the commercial arrangements of the apothecaries, and he
not only did not use up their drugs like the (jalcnists, but. In the
exercise of his functions as town physician, be urged the
authorities to keep a sharp ey« on the purity of their wares,
upon their knowledge of their art, and upon their transactions whh
their friends the physicians. The growing jealousy and enmity
culminated in a dispute with Canon Cornelius von Lichtenfcis,
who, having called in Paiacebus after other physicians had given
up hfs case, refused to pay the fee he had promised in the event
of curet and, ss the judges, to their discredit, sided with the
canon, Paracelsus had no alternative but to tcU them his opinion
of the whole case and of their notions of justice. So little doubt
left he on the subject that his frfends judged h prudent for him
to leave Basel at once, as it had been resolved to punish him for
the attack on the authorities of which he had been guilty. He
departed in tech haste that he cairied nothing with him, and
some chemical apparatus and other property were taken charge
of by J- Oporinus (1507-1568), his pupil and amanuensis. He
went ^st to EssUngen, where he remained Cor a brief period, but
had soon to leave from absolute want. Then began his wander-
ing life, the course of which can be traced by the dales of hk
75©
PARACHUTE
various writings. He thus visited in succession Colmar, Nurem-
berg, Appenzell, Zurich, Pf&ffers, Augsburg, Villach, Meran,
Midddheim and other places, seldom staying a twelvemonth in
any of them. In this way he spent some dozen yean, till 1541,
when he was invited by Archbishop Ernst to settle at Salzburg,
under his protection. After his endless tossing about, this
seemed a promise and place of repose. It proved, however, to
be the complete and final rest that he found, for after a few
months he died, on the 24th of September. The cause of his
death, like most other details in his history, is uncertain. His
enemies asserted that he died in a low tavern in consequence
of a drunken debauch of some days' duration. Others maintain
that he was thrown down a steep place by some emissaries either
of the physicians or of the apothecaries, both of whom he had
during his life most grievously harassed. He was buried in the
churchyard of St Sebastian, but in 1752 his bones were removed
to the porch of the church, and a monuraeht of reddish-while
marble was erected to hb memory.
The first book by Paracelsus was printed at Aunbure in 1529.
It b entitled Practica D. Tkeopkrasti Paracdsit iemackt aupEuropen,
and forms a sniatl quarto pamphlet of five wives. Pnor to this,
in 1526-1527, appeared a programme of the lectures he Intended
to deliver at Basel, but this can hardly be reckoned a specific work.
During his lifetime fourteen works and editions were published,
and thereafter, between 1542 and 1845, there were at least two
hundred and thirty-four separate publicatwns according to Mook's
cnumeratbn. The first collected cditk>n was made by Johaan
Huscr in German. It was printed at Basel in i5fi9-lS9ti in eleven
volumes quarto, and is the best of all the editions. Huscr did not
employ- the early printed copies only, but collected all the nunu-
scnpts which he could procure, and used them also in forming his
text. The only drawback is that rather than omit anything which
Paracebus may have composed, he has gone to the op|)osite extreme
and included writinn with which it is pretty certain Paracelsus
had nothing to do. The second collected German edition is in four
volumes folio, 1603-1605. Parallel with it in 1603 the firat collected
Latin edition was made \>y^ Palthenius. It is in eleven volumes
quarto, and was completed in 160^. Again, in 1616-16 18 appeared
a reissue of the foUo German edition of 1603, and finally in 1658
came the Geneva Latin version, in three volumes folio, edited by
Bitiskius.
The works were originally composed in Swiss-German, a vigorous
•peech which Paracelsus wielded with unmistakable power. The
Latin veruons were made or edited by Adam von Bodenstein,
Gerard Dom, Michael Toxites and Oporinus. about the middle of
the i6th century. A few translations into other bn^uagcs exist,
as of the Otwurtjia mupui and some other works mto French,
and of one or two into Dutch, Italian and even Arabic. The trans-
lations into English amount to about a dozen, dating mostly from the
middle of the 17th century. The original editions of Paracelsus's
works are getting less and less common ; even the English versions
are among the rarest of their class. Over and above the numerous
editions, thoe b a bulky literature of an expUnatory and contro-
versbl character, for which the worid is indebted to Paracelsus'a
followers and enemies. A good deal <rf it is taken up with a defence
of chemical, or. they were called. " spa^ric," medicines against
Che attacks of the supporters of the Galenic pharmacopoeb.
The aim of alt Paraicelsus's writing is to promote the progiess of
medicine, and he endeavoun to put before physicbns a grand
ideal of their profession. In hb attempts he takes the widest view
of medicine. He bases it on the general lebtionshtp which man
bears tp nature as a whole: he cannot divorce the life of man from
that of the univcne; he cannot think of disease otherwise than as
a phase of life. He b comoelled, therefore, to rest hb medkal practice
.upon general theories 01 the present state of things; hb medical
system — if there b such a thing — b an adaptation of nis cosmogony.
It b thb Utter which has been the stumbling-bkxk to many past
critks of ParaoelMis, and unless its character b remembmd it
will be the same to othen in the future. Dissatisfied with the
AristoteUanism of hb time. Paracelsus turned with greater expecta-
tion to the Neopbtonbm which was reviving. His eagerness to
understand the relationship of man to the universe led' htm to the
Kabbala, whcie these myttcries seemed to be explained, and from
these unaubstanrial nateiials he constructed, so far as it can be
understood, hb visbnary philosophy. Interwoven with it, however,
werv the results of hb own personal experience and work in natural
history and chenucal pharmacy and practical medicine, unfettered
by any speculative generaliatioaa. and so shrewd an observer
as Paruxbus was must have often tele that hb phikMophy and hb
experience did not agree with one another.
Some of hb doctrines are alluded to in the article MsDiCtwa
(^.s.>, and it wouM serve no purpose to give even a brief sketch of
I : — teena chat their iiuluenoe has passed entirdy away, and
are oi inteiesc only in their plaoe in a general history of
Defective, however, as they may nave
that chcy
been, and unfounded In fact, hb kabbatistic doctrines led Um to
trace the dependence of the human body upon outer nature for its
sustenance and cure. The doctrine of signatures, the supposed
connexion of every part of the little world of man with a correspond-
ing part of the great worid of nature, was a fanciful and false exaser-
ation of thb doctrine, but the idea carried in its train that of soecilciL
This led to the search for these, which were not to be founa in the
bewiklcring and untested mixtures of the Galenic prcscrijptiona.
Paracelsus had seen how bodies were purified and intensified by
chemnal operations, and he thought if plants and minerab could
be made to yield their active principks it would surely be better
to employ these than the crude and unprepared originals. He had
besides arrived by some kind of intuition at the conclusion that (be
operations in the body were of a chemkal character, and that whea
disordered they were to be put riohc by counter operations of die
same kind. It may be cbtmcd lor Paracelsus that he embraced
within the idea 01 chemical action something more than the
akrhcmists did. Whether or not he believed in the phihwopber's
elixir b of very little consequence. If he did, he was tike the real
of his age; but he troubled himself very little, if at all. about it.
He did believe in the immediate use for therapeutics of the salts
and other preparations which his practical skill enabled him to make.
Technically he was not a chemist ; he did not concern himself cither
with Che compositwn of his compounds or with an explanatioa of
what occurred in their making. If he could get potent dru^ to
cure disease he was content, and he worked very tiard in an empirical
way to make them. That he found out some new compounds is
certain; but not one great and marfced discovery can be ascribed co
him. Probably, therefore, his positive services are to be summed up
in thb wide applicatkm of chemical Ideas to pharmacy and thera-
peutics; his indirect and possibly greater services are to be found in
the stimulus, the revolutionary stimulus, of his ideas about method
and general theory. It is most difiicult to appiecbte aright thb
man of fervid imagination, of powerful and jiersistent convictions,
of unbated honesty and love of truth, of keen insieht into the errors
(as he thought them) of his time, of a merciless will to lay bate theae
erron and to reform the abuses to which they gave rise, who in an
instant offends us bv his boasting, bis grossness. hb want of self-
respect. It b a fKoblcm how to reconcile hb ignorance, hb weak-
ness, hb superstition, hb crude notions, hb erroneous observations^
his ridiculous influences and theories, with his srasp of method,
his lofty views of the true scope of medicine, his lUckl statements,
hb incisive and epigrammatic criticisms of men and motives.
See Marx, Zw Wurdigune dcs Theaphnutta ••» Hokemkeim
(G5ttingcn, 1842); Mook, Theopkrastus Paracdnu, eine kritiadm
Sludie (Wurzburg. 1876) ; Hartman. Life of P. r.faracc/iiu (London,
1887); Schubert und SudholT. Paracetsnt-ForukuHgeH (Frankfurt
a.M., 1 887-1 889); Sudhoff, Verstick eitur Kriiik ier EdUkeit d£r
Pwaulsiscken Sckriftat (Berlin, 1804); Waite, Tke Btnmaic ami
Akkemical Writi ngs of ParactUus (London, 1894).
PARACHUTE (from Ital. parare, to shield, protect; cC.
"parasol," "parapet," and Fr. ckutt, a fall), an instrument
more or less resembling a large umbrella, which by the resistance
it offers to the air enables an aeronaut attached to it to descend
safely from a balloon or flying machine in the air. The princij^
of the parachute is so simple that the idea must have occurred
to persons in all ages. Simon de la Loubdre (1642-1739), in hb
History of Siam (Parb, 1691), telb of a person who frequently
diverted the court by the prodigious leaps he used to take.
having two parachutes or umbrellas fastened to his girdle. In
1783 S£bastien Lehormand practically demonstrated theefficiency-
of a parachute by descending from the tower of MontpdUicr
observatory; but he merely regarded it as a useful means
whereby to escape from fire. To J. P. Blanchard (1753-1809)
is due the idea of using it as an adjunct to the balloon. As
early as 1785 he had constructed a parachute to which was
attached a basket. In thb he placed a dog, which descended
safely to the ground when the parachute was released from a
balloon at a considerable devatioiL , It b slated that he
descended himself from a balloon in a parachute in 1793; but,
owing to some defect in its construction he fell too rapidly, and
broke hb leg. Andr£ Jacques Gamerin (176^1823) was the first
person who successfully descended from a balloon in a parachute,
and he repeated thb experiment so often that he may be said
to have first demonstrated the practicabih'ty of using the
machine, thoun^ hb elder brother, J. B. 0. Gamerin (1766-1849),
also claimed a share in the merit of perfecting It. In 1793 be
was taken prisoner at Marchiennes, and while in captivity at
Budc (Budapest) thought out the ftieans of descending from a
balloon by means of a parachute. Hb first public experiment
was made on the S2nd of October 1797. He ascended from the
park of Monceau, at Paris, and at the height of about i| m. h»
PARADE— PARADISE
75*
xdMMd the pAitclnite, which ttu atUchod to the balloon in
place of a car; the balloon, Ktieved tuddenbr of so great a weight,
nae very rapidly tifl it burst, ^hile the parachute descended
veiy fast, making violent oiciliationi all the way. Gamerin,
however, reached the earth in safety. He repeated his pacachute
experiment in England on the atst of Septembei i8o». The
paiachute was dome-shaped, and bore a resembULooe to a large
umbrella (fig. x). The case
or dome was made of
white caavaa» and was
33 ft. in diameter. At
the top was a truck or
round piece of wood xo in.
In diameter, with a hole in
its centre, fastened to the
canvas by 32 short- pieces
of tape. The parachute
was suspended from a
hoop attached to the
netting of the balloon,
^ , ,^ . , and bdow it was placed a
Fio.i.-Paxachute(Gamcrmtype). cyUndrical basket, 4 it.
hi|^ and a^ ft. in diameter, which contained the aeronaut.
The ascent took place at about six o'clock ffom North
Audley Street, London; and at a height of about (it is
believed) 8000 ft. Garfierin separated the parachute from
ihe balloon. For a few seconds his fate seemed certain,
as the parachute retained the collapsed state in which it
had originally ascended and fell very rapidly. It suddenly,
however, expanded, and the rspidity of its descent was at
once checked, though oscillations were so violent that
ibe car, which was suspended ao ft. below, was sometimes on a
level with the rest of the apparatus. Some aox>unts slate that
these oscillations increased, others that they decreased as the
parachute descended; the Utter seems the more probable. It
came to the ground in a field at the back of St Pancras Church,
the descent having occupied rather more than ten minutes.
Gamerin was hurt a little by the violence with which the basket
containing hfm struck the earth; but a few cuts and a sUght
nausea i«presented all the ill effects of his fall. A few years
later, Jofdaki Kuparento, a J^olish aeronaut, made real use of a
parachute. He ascended from Warsaw on the 24th of July 1808,
in a fire-baHoon, which, at a considerable elevation, took fire;
but he was able to effea his descent in safety by means of his
parachute.
The next experiment made with a parachute resulted in the
death of Robert Cocking, who as early as 18x4 had become
interested in the subject. The great defect of Gamerin's
urobrdla-shaped parachute had been its violent oscillation
during descent, and Cocking considered that if the parachute
were made of a conical form (vertex downwards) the whole
of this oscillation would be avoided; and if it were made of
sufficient site there would be resistance enough to check too
rapid a descent. He therefore constructed a parachute on this
principle (fig.a), the radius
of which at iu widest part
was about x? ft. It was
staled in the public an-
nouncements previous to
the experiment that the
whole weighed 225 lb;
but from the evidence at
the inquest it appeared
that the weight must have
been over 400 lb exclusive
of Cocking's wcigfat.which
was 177 lb. On the 24th
of July 1837, the Nassan
baUoon, with Charles
Green, the aeronaut, and
Edward Spencer, a solici-
tor, in the car» and having suspended below it the panchuu.
Fic. 1.— Cocking's Parachute.
in the car of which was Cocking, rose from Vauxhall Gv dens
London, at twenty-five minutes to eight in the evening. A
good deal of difficulty was experienced in rising to a suitaMe
height, partly in consequence of the resistance to the air offered
by ihe expanded parachute, and partly owing to its weight.
Cocking wished the height to be 8000 ft.; but when the balloon
reached the height of 5000 ft., nearly over Greenwich, Green
called out to Cocking that he should be unable to ascend to the
requisite height if the parachute was to descend in daylight.
Cocking acoordinglly let slip the catch which was to liberate him
from the balloon. The parachute for a few seconds descended
very rapklly, hut still evenly, until suddenly the upper rim
seemed to give way and the whole apparatus collapsed (taking
a form resembling an umbrella tunied inside out, and nearly
closed), and the machine descended with great rapidity, oscil-
hiting veiy much. When about 200 or 300 ft. from the ground
the basket became disengaged from the remnant of the para-
chute, and Cocking was found in a field at Lee, literally dashed
to pieces.
Many objections were made to the form of Cocking'sparachute;
but there is little doubt that had it been constructed of sufficient
strength, and perhaps of somewhat larger sise, it would have
answered its purpose. John Wise (X808-X879), the American
aeronaut, made some experiments on parachutes of both forms
(Gamerin's and Cocking's), and found that the hitter always
were much more steady, descending generally in a spiral curve.
A descending baUoon half<fuU of gas either does rise, or can
with a little management be made to rise, to the top of the netting
and take the form of a parachute, thus materially lessening the
rapidity of descent. Wise, in fact, having noticed this, once
purposely exploded his balloon when at a considerable altitude,
and the resistance offered to the air by the envelope of the
balloon was sufficient to enable him to reach the ground without
injury. In iiKNre recent times the use of the parachute has
become fairly common, but a good many serious accidents have
occurred.
PARADI (Fr. partde, an adaptation from Ital. parala; cf.
Span, parada, from Lat. parartt to prepare, equip, fumiah), a word
of which the principal meanings are display, show, a military
gathering of troops for a specific purpose, an assembly of people
for a promenade, the place where the troops assemble, and a
road or street where people may walk. In the military sense,
a "parade" is a mustering of troops on the parade-ground
for drill, for inspection, for the delivery of special orders, or for
other purposes, cither at regular stated hours or on special
PARADI8I (Gr. trapAJcitfos), the ikame of a supernatural
locality reserved for God and for chosen men, which occuxft ia
the Gieek BiUe, both for the earthly " garden " of Eden (sen
Eoem), and for the heavenly " garden," where true Israelites
after death see the face of God (4 Esdras viii. 52; Luke xxiii. 43;
2 Cor. xiL 4; Rev. ii. 7). The Hebrew pardes (orv), to whidi
mpUn o os corresponds, occurs thrice in the Old Testament in
late bool», in the general sense of " park, grove "; it is derived
somewhat hazardously from the Zend pairidaiza, an enclosure
(once only in the Avesto), though another word (Kara) is used
in the account of the mythical endosure of Yiroa (see Deluge).
But what interests us most is not the name, but the conception
and its imaginative vehicle. The conception is the original
godlikeness of human nature, and the necessity of expecting
a closer union between God and man m the future than is
JMttible at present. The imaginative form which this concep*
tion takes is that before the present condition arose man
dwelt near to God in God's own mountain home, and that
when the mischief wrought by " the serpent " has been undone,
man— or more strictly the true Israel— shall once more be
admitted to his old privilege. According to the fullest Old
Testament account (Esek. xxviii. 12-19; Me Adam), the holy
mountain was in a definite earthly region, and certainly it was
appropriate for worshippers of Yahweh that it should be so
(x Rings XX. 23, 28). But there are traces in that acooont
itself as well as in Gen. iL that an earlier belief placed the dhte
752
PARADOS-:-PARAFElN
kome in heaven. SfanflAily the Zoroastrlans speak of their
Furadise^mountaiii Albarz both as heavenly and as earthly
{BUttdakith, XX. i, with West's note). It appears that originally
the Hebrew Paradise-mountain was placed in heaven, but that
afterwards it was transferred to earth. It was of stupendous
size; indeed, properly it was the earth itself.' Later on each
Semitic people may have chosen its own mountain, recognising,
however, perhaps, that in primeval times it was of vaster
dimensions than at present, just as the Jews believed that in
the next age the " mountain of Yahweh's house " would become
far larger (Isa. ii. 2*- Mic. iv. i; Ezek. xl. 2; Zech. xiv. 10;
Rev. xxi. 10); compare the idealiaation of the earthly Alburz of
the Iranians " in revelation " {Bund. v. 3, viiL 3, xii. i-^).
We now return to the accounts in Exek. xzviii. and Gen. ii.
The references in the former to the precious ftones and to the
** stones of fire " may be grouped with the references in Enoch
(xviiL 6-8, xxiv.) to seven supernatural mountains each com-
posed of a different beautiful stone, and with the throne of
God on the seventh. These mountaixis are to be connected with
the seven planets, each of which was symbolised by a different
metal, or at least colour.* Esekicl's mountain theicfore has
come to earth from heaven. And a dmilar result follows if
we group the four riven of Paradise in Gen. il. with the phrase
so often applied to Canaan, " flowing with milk and hooey "
(Exod. iJi. 8; Num. xiii. 27, &c.). For this descriptive phrase is
evidently mythicsl,' and refers to the belief in the four rivcis of
the heavenly Paradise which " poured honey and milk, oil and
wine" (ShvcHtc Enoch, viil. 5; cf. Vision of Paul, xxiii.).
In fact, the four rivers originally flowed in heavenly soil, and
only when the mountain of Elohim was transferred to this
lower earth could mythological geographers think of determining
their earthly course, and whether Havilah, or Cush, or Canaan,
or Babylonia, was irrigated by one or another of them. But
what happened to Paradise when the affrighted human pair
left it ? One view (sec Eth. Enoch, xxxii. 3, 3, Ix. 8, Ixxvii.
3, 4, &c.) was that its site was in some nameless, inaccessible
region, still guarded by " the serpents and the chenibim '*
(Eih. Enoch, xx. 7), and that in the next age its gates would be
opened, and the threatening sword (Gen. iii. 24) put away by
the Messianic priest-king {Testamcnis of the Twelve Patriarchs,
Levi, 18). This agrees with the story in Gen. ii., iii., except
that the original narrator knew the site of the garden. It is a
sufficiently reasonable view, for if Paradise lay in some definite
earthly region, and if no one knows " the paths of Paradise "
(4 Esdras iv. 7), it would seem that it must have ceased to
exist visibly. This idea appears to be implied by those Jewish
writers, who, especially after the fall of Jerusalem (a.d. 70),
dwelt so much on the hope of the heavenly Paradise, reviving,
partly under emotional pressure and partly as the result of a
fresh influx of mythology, the old myth of a celestial garden
of God. To notice only a few leading passages. In Apoc,
Bar. iv. 3 it appears to be stated that when Adam transgressed,
the vision of the city of God and the possession of Paradise were
removed from him, and similariy the stress laid in 4 Esdras iv. 7,
vi. a, vii. (36), 53, viii. 52, on the heavenly Paradise seems to
show that no earthly one was supposed to exist.* Beautiful,
indeed, b the use made of that form of belief in these passages,
with which wc may group Rev. xxi. i, xxiL s, where, as in
4 Esdras viii. 5a, Paradise and the city of God are combined.
Some strange disclosures on this subject are made by the
Slopomc Enoch (c viii.; cf. xlii. 3), according to which (here are
two Paradises. The former is in the third heaven, which
explains the welI<known saying of St Paul in 2 Cor. xii. 2, 4;
* It was the Babylonian ** mountain of the lands," which meant
nor only mother earth, but the earth imaflnned to exist within the
heaven; cf. jcrenuas, Alao, pp. II. 12, 28, and Jastrow. Rditum
ef Bab. and Ass., p. 558-
" See Ztmmem. K.A.T. (3), pp. 6f6 aqq.
* See also t Esdras ii. 19. This explains Jod hr. 18; la. hr. 1 (wine
and milk). See also Yasna, xUx. k {Zendavesta)-, and cf. Cheyne,
Bmcy. Bib., cd. 2104, and especially Uscoer. Rheinisckes Museum,
Ivii. 177-192.
* The statement in Gen. iii. 24 comes from a form of the story in
whkh the " gaidco '* was sot goographically InralimI
the latter is conventionally called the Paradise of Eden. lo
fact, the belief in an earthly Paradise never wholly died.
Medieval writers loved it. The mountain of Puzgntocy in
Dante's poem is *' crowned by the delidous shades of the
terrestrial Paradise."
See further The Apoealypee ef Baruch and 71s Elkiopie mad At
Slasnnie Enoch, both edited bV R. H. Chariea; also Kautach's
Atocryfha, and Vols, JUdische Eschatologie (i9p3), Pp. 374-8, whose
full references are most useful. On the Biblical iderencea, cL
Gunkel. Genesis (2), pp. 21-35; Chevne, Ency. Bib., " Pasadiar *';
and on Babylonian views, Jeremias, ^ HMIe und Paradies *' (in Der
alio Orient). The Mahonunedaa'a Paradise is a sensuous trans-
formation of the Jewish; see especially Koran, Sura !▼., and note
the phrase " gardens of Fiidaus,'* Koran, xviii. 107. For the Koran
and the Zoroastrian books see the Sacred Boohs a the East ^Oxford
Series). The dooriceeper of the mountain-Paradlae of the Parsccs
is the Amshaapaod Vobu-manfi ( Vondidad, xix. 31). (T. K. C)
PARADOS (Fr. -• back cover), a term used in fortification,
expressing a work the purpose of which is to cover the defenders
of a line of trenches or parapet from reverse fire, ix, fixe from
the rear.
PARADOX (Gr. trapA, beyond, contrary to, tt^o, opinion),
a (MTOposition or statement which appears to be at variance with
gcncndly-received opinion, or which apparently is self -contra-
dictory, absurd or uptrue, but either contains a concealed truth
or may on examination be proved to be true. A '* pandox "
has been compared with a '* paralogism " (ropd, Xhyos, reason),
as that which is contrary to opinion only and not contrary
to reason, but it is frequently used in the sense of that whidi is
really absurd or tmtrue.
PARAFFIN, the name given to a mineral wax and oH, and
also vsed as a generic name of a particular series of hydro-
carbons.
Commercial Paraffin. — ^Refined commercial paraffin is a white
or bluish-white, translucent, waxy solid substance, of lamiao-
crystalline structure, devoid of taste and smell, and charac-
terized by chemical indifference. It consists of about 85% of
carbon and 15% of hjrdrogen. Althoiigh the credit of havii^
firit (in 1830) investigated the properties of solid paraffin,
obtained from wood-tar, belongs to Kari Reichenbacb. the
cxbtence of paraffin in petroleum had been more or leas hazily
known for some time ptevioos. In 1809 Ftichs found solid
hydrocarbons in the Tegemiee oils, and in 1819 Bucbner
separated them from these oils in comparative purity. By
the latter they were described as ** moimtaia-fata,** and tbey
were identiiicd with paraffin in 1835 by von Kobel. Reicben-
bach described the results of a scries of experiments on the
reactions between various substances and paraffin, and on
accoimt of the uiert nature of the material gave to it its present
name (from the Lat. parum, loo little, and qfinitas, affinity); he
expressly stated that the accent should fail on the second ** a,**
but uiage has transferred it to the first.
Paraffin was obtained by Laurent in 1830 by the distillation
of bituminous schist, and in 1835 by Dumas from coal-tar; but
the product appears to have been regarded only as a curiosiiy,*
and Lord Playfair has stated that prior to 1650 he never saw
a piece of more than one ounce in weight. Paraffin is asserted
to have been made for sale by Reichenbach's process from
wood-tar by John Thorn, of Birkacre, before 1835. In 1835
Laurent suggested the working of the Autun shale, and products
manufactured from this material were exhibited by SeUigue in
1839.
According to F. H. Storer, the credit of having first placed
the manufacture of paraffin on a commercial basis is deservedly
given to SeUigue, whose patent specifications, both in France
and England, sufficiently deariy show that his processes of
distilling bituminous schist, &c., and of purifying the distillate,
had reached considerable perfection prior to 1845. In its
present form, however, the paraffin or shale-oil indtastry owes
its existence to Dr James Young. In 1850 he applied for his
celebrated patent (No. 23,292) " for obtaining paraffine oil,
or an oil containing paraffine, and paraffine from bitumixwua
coals" by slow distillation. The process was extensively
parried out to the United States under licence from Youj^
PARAFFIN
753
HBtfl erode petioleam wu pnxluced la UmI comtxy ia such
abundance, and at so low a cost, that the distillatiaa of bkn-
nineai mloerab became unprofitable. The highly bitnmmous
Boghead coal, or TorbeneUll mineral, which yielded X2o to 150
gallonft ot crude oil per ton, was worked out in x86a, and since
then the Sootttth minetel oils and paraffin have been obtained
froB the bitumiBoiis shales of the coal-measures, the amount of
such shale raised in Great Britain in 1907 being 2,690,028 tons.
The following list repicaenti an attempt to aarign a geological
age to the vanoua occuntncea of oil'Sbafe and aioular subitaaees
thnNigliout the worid:^^
Oil-Sbalbs
Mioceaa . ^ Fianpa (Vaim),-ScnriBk
Eocene *■••••• Crania
Cretaceous Syria, Montana, New Zealand.
Neoconitan I^**K _
JniaMK «y • ■ • •■ Doraet, WBi tteiiiberg.
Parmiaa ••••-... Fraooe CAutun* Ac).
Carbootferoua. ...... Scotland, Yorkshire. Suffocd.
Flint, France, Nova Scotia.
Permo-Ciiboniferoua
KEaOSBHB'SBALB
. . Queensland, New South Waica,
Tasmania.
Taa-LiGNiTB
Miboeoe . Moravia, Lower Austria, Bavaria.
Rhenish Pmsria, HeaK, Saxony.
OUgooeM Bohemia, Tirol.
OOSkdU.-^The oil-shale of Scotland is dark grey or black,
and has a laminated or homy fracture. Its spedfic gravity is
about X-7S, and 30 cub. ft. of It weigh rather less than a ton.
The richer kinds yield about 30 gaUons of oil per ton of
abale, and in some cases as much as 40 gallons, but the higher
yield is usually obtained at the expense of the solid paraffin
and of the quality of the heavy oils. The inferior shales yield
about x8 gallons of oil, but a much larger amount of sulphate
of ammonia. The oil consists chiefly of members of the paraffin
and olefine series, and thus differs essentially from that obtained
from true coal-shales, in which the hydrocarbons of the bcutene
group are largely represented.
A fuU account of the Scotch shale-oil industry/ as the most
fmportant and typical, wiU be given later, the corresponding
industries in other countries and districts being dealt with first.
In addition to the Carboniferous oU-shaka of Flint and
Stafford, the Kimmeridge shale, a bluish-grey slaty day, con-
taining thin beds of highly bituminoua shale, occurs in Dorset*
shire, and. has from time to time attracted attention as a
possible source of shale-oil products^ The so-called " Kerosene-
shale " of New South Wales has been extensively mined, and
the industry is now being developed by the Conunonwealth Oil
Corporation, Ltd. The French shale-oil industry is much older
than that of Scotland, but has made far less progress, the amount
of shale distilled in 1897 being 200,000 tons, as compared with
2,259,000 tons in Scotland. The shales of New Zcaknd have
never been extensivdy worked, the ptroduction having decreased
Instead of increased. Oil-shale of good quality occurs in Servia,
and has been found to yield from 43} tQ 54) gallons of oil pes
ton. The production of mineral oils and paraffin by the dis^
tallation of lignite is carried on in Saxony, the mineral worked
being a peculiar earthy lignite, occurring within a small portion
of the Saao»-ThuriAgian brown-coal formation. Other occur-
icnces of this mineral have been indicated in the list of locaUties
above.
« Tks SkaM>il Industry efSe0aand.*-Tht modem development
of the shale-oil industry of Scotlsnd dates from the commence-
ment of Robert Bell's works at Broxburn in x86a.
The oil-shales are found In the Calcifennis Sandstone series,
lying between the Carboniferous Limestone and the Old Red
Sandstone. Tbey occur at several points in the bdt of Carbon-
iferous rocks across the centre of Scotlsnd, for the most part
in small syadiaal bssins, the largest of which is that at Pent-
lai^d, where the levels are a m. long, without important faulu.
Mining b carried on, whtm the seams sie over 4 ft. thick,
by the " piUac and stall " sjsten; seams under 4 ftr «»
wwked by tiie <' kMumft" ibMem. ' Tbe shale is Msfltcd down
by gunpowder, and passed over a x-In. rMdle, the smalls being
left underground. Before being retorted the shale is passed
through a toothed breaker, which reduces it to flat pieces
6 in. square. These fall into a shoot, snd thence into iron
tubs of 10 to 95 cwt. capadty, which tun on rails to the tops of
the retorts.
The retorts in which the shale is dlstlHed haye undergone
QOnsiderable' variation and improvement since the foundation
of the industry. Originally horieontal retorts, like those used
in the manufacture of coal-gas, were employed, and the heavy
oils and paraffin were burned as fueL When the latter product
becsme valuable vertical retorts were adopted, as the solid
fajfdrocarbons undergo leas dissociation under these conditions.
Steam was employed to carry the oil vapours from the retort.
The earliest form of vertical retort waadrcular (a ft. in daameter)
or oval (2 It. by X ft. 4 in.) and ft or 10 ft. long. Six or dght of
these were grouped together, and the heating was so effected
that the bottoms of the retorts were at the hi|^t temperatures
They were charged by mdans of hoppers at the top, the ohausted
shale being withdrawn thitMigh a wateiwseal every hour snd
fresh added, whence this is known as the " coiftinubus system,"
In the first Henderson retort (1873) the spciit sh^e was
used as fuel The retorts, which were oblong ia cross-section*
were acnmged in gronps of iour, and faada capadty of x8 cwt.
They were charged in rotatton, as follows: ^hen a suffident
tem p e ra t u re had been attained In the chamber containing
them, one retort was charged from the top, and in £our hours
the one diagonally oppoaite to it waa charged. After eight
houra the one next to the first was charged, and after twdve
hours the fourth. Up to .the sixteenth hour only ordinary
fuel was used in the furnace, but the spent shale from the first
retort was then discharged into it. The other retorts were
simihuly dischaxgcd in the above order at intervals of fontf
houa, each being at once recharged. Tie shale was black
when discharged, but soon glowed brightly. Owing to the small
amount of carbon in the spent shale, only a slow draught was
kept up. The outlet for the oil vapours wss at the lower and
m heated end oC the retorts, and steam, which had been
superheated by passage through pipes arranged abng one ude
of the retort chamber, was blown in copiously thrmigh pipes
to aid in the uniform heating of the shsle and to continuously
remove the oil vapchirs, dissodation from overheating being
thus minimlaed. It wsis bdieved that a temperature of about
800' F. produced the best results. This retort was worked on
what is known ss the '* intermittent system."
The Pentland Composite retort (1882) and the later Hcndetson
t3rpe (1889) were both continuous^working and gas-heated, the
second bdng a modification of the first, designed with a vieia
to obteiaiog a larger yield of sulphate of ammonia withovt
detriment to the crude oil. In both the upper part of the
retort was offcast iron and the lower of fire-day. The upper
portion was heated to a temperature of about 900^ F. whilst
the hiwer was maintained at about 130^ F. The charge in thv
retort gradually travelled down, owing to the periodical removal
of spent shale at the bottom, and the descent was so regulated
that no ahale passed into the highly-heated part until it had
parted with the oil it was cspable of yidding. The shale,
however, still contained nitrogen, which in the presence of
steam produced ammonia at the higher temperature.
The three daasea of retorts now eni^toyed in the distillation U
•hale in the Scottish oil- warks are covered by the foUowific patents ^To
I. /« AIM of Pum p k t rsiMt Dalmtniy and O a kh ank Wa 8971 of
1894: No. 7113 of 18955 No. 4|49 of 1897. , „. . ^.. ^ .
a. /• ««t Ay YMmf^i Parafin Lighl snd Mimnl Od Compoay^
Ud,—Vo. M.665 of 1897: No. is^sl of 1899.
%.I»tmtya» Bnxtmm OU Ctrnpnty, UL--A
The objects of the inveation '
-^No. 3Cv647 of I90I*
objects of the inveation for wkidi patent Na 8371 of 1804
was granted to Bryaon (of Pamphentoa Oil Worics), Joneo (at
Dalmeny Oil Worka). and Fraaer (of Pumphaitoa Od Corapany,
Ltd.), are dsstfihed in the spedficatkm as " to ao constnict the
retorta-aad provide them with means whertty fluaing or daodering
of the subotanee being heated ia prevented m the retorts: abo ta
ciect an. interautteat, ooatiouoo% or nearly so, ntrft m oA wiUiia
the retMt." In eider lo cany out these otijeccs^ the botte« of the
2a
75+
PARAFFIN
'dldrtitpfOtnoM villi SwdcortsbktoMippBft ths mRteriw vnUii
tW letnrt. Above the uUe tlitre is a rsvolviag arm or icnixr,
by the action of which a portion of the material is continuously
swept off the table and discharged into the hopper below. The
cotumn of material within the retort b thus caused to move down-
wards, and the tendency of the material to flux or dander is thereby
IMTvented or reduced. In order to pulverise the material before
reaching the hopper, teeth may be formed upon the lower part of
the retort and upon the table, and the revolving scraper may be
similuly toothed. A diort revolving worm or screw may be sub-
gitated lor the table or soaper. As a modification, the table may
s made oonvea and provided oo each side with rocldnr«nns
connected together above the table by a cross-arm or scraper.
The prinapal object of the invention for which patent Nd. 71 IX
hf 189s was granted to the same applicants Is stated to be socn
ent of the parts of the retort as results In the retort, after
__ated and started, requiring " practically no fuel to keep it
,« owing to the great amount of neat generated in the retort
by means of the effectual decomposition of the carbon contained in
the waste material by means of one or more jets of steam (which may
be mperhcated) being passed into the retort as near the outlet or
di8chars»<loor of the retort as possible, thus ntilising all, or aeariy
all, the neat contained in the waste material within the retort, thus
saving labour, time and expense, as well as wear and tear of the
gomg.
by mea
The object of the invention for which patent Na 4349 of 1897
was granted to Bryson is stated to be " to so oonstnict the hoppers
of the retorts that one or more retoru can be draWta br discharged
through one door, and also to provide simple and eflkient means
for operating the said door.**
Patent Na 13,665 of 1897 was granted to William Yoang and
John Fyfe for an invention the objects of which are described in
the specification In the following words: *' To reduce labour,
save fuel, and increase the products, and to enable existing but worn-
out retortk that have been erected in accordance with the above
invention to be eoonomicaily repboed upon existing foundations by
Hmilar retorts, provided with improm and enlaracd multiple
hoppers for the reception of the shale to pass througn the retortsL
and also enlaced chambers for the reception of the ash or exhausted
shale: the retorts bring provided with mechanical arrangements for
the oontinuoos passage ct the fresh shale into them from tte multiple
hopper, and the continuous discharge of the ash or spent shale into
the reoriving chamber. Those improved mechanical alterations
in the structure of the retorts greatly reduce the manual labour,
enabling .most of the wtwk to be done during the day, the multiple
hopper aad spent-shale chamber being of such dimensions as will
fupply fresh sliale and receive the spent shale duriqg the nii^t-shift,
the only labour then required being the supervision, regulaung tem-
perature of the retorts, and seeing that the mrrh a n i ral amngemenu
are working property.
The multiple hoppen are coostnictcd of mild ateei plates with
flat bottoms to whkh the retorts are bolted by flaiipes, the steel
bottonw admitting of the differential expansion, to which the retortt
are subject, Uking place without damage to the retorts or hoppcra.
To ensure the shale rcgulariy passing from the hoppers to the retorts,
each hopper is provided with a rocking-shaft to whkh are attached
rods or cnains hanging into the mouths of the retorts, these rods or
' t made to rise or faU. The spent shale receiving-
chambers at the lower end of each retort are of greatly enlarged sixe.
and the lower end of each retort b provided with a mechanical
device for the continuous discharge of the spent shale into these
chambers. The improvements are stated to be specially appUcabte
to retoruof the Young and Beilby (Pentland) type.
Patent Na X5,3l8 01 1899 was obtained by the same mventors for
improvements dengoed to obviate objections found to attach to
retorts constructed 00 the ordinary Young and Beilby system. In
the use of such retorts, composed of an upper metallic section and a
tower fire-brick section, with chambers or hoppers at their upper
ends, these upper ends became gradually filled up with hard carbon-
aceous matter, and thb ncoessiUted the periodical stopping of the
working to have such matter removed. Moreover, the shale residues
beeaaie fluxed and fixed to the walls of the tower sectton of the
retorts. The residues were further liable to pass through the retort
in an imperfectly exhausted condition, and to pass more quickly
down the front or side of the retort next the discharving door. It
was also found that when air and steam were used diflkutties arose
in regulating the quantities aad proportioas of steam and air used
tn bun the carboa out of the shale residues while preventing
obstnicttons due to fluxing of the residues. To
df a w b a iks each retort b composed of four sections, vu: a hoppv
" *" ' chamber at the ton, a metalUc section, a fire-bnek
«wHu«r, w>d a combustion chamber of large capacity at the bottom.
The combustion chamber b not externally heated, but receives the
4pent shale from the retort m a red-hot condition, and the further
'y of heat In thb chamber b whoUy due to the burning of the
ji by the introduced air and steam, the danger of the fluxmg and
I of the shale residae to the walb of the chamber being thus
jaiaed. To successfully bum the carbon remaining in the shato
wnidue when it teaches the combustion chamber, so as to obtain the
mmsimwm yield of amaaooia, careful rcgulatioa of the quantity and
■uppiy
carbon
propofftioQB
isprovidedi
of the air aad alMm to neeeasary, and a specSal device
._ forthisi
The inportaat oonatruction of retorts for wUch patcaC N<K aM<7
of 1901 was granted to N. M. Henderson of the Broxburn Oil Worio.
relates to such retorts as are described in the same inventor's prr\ir>L9
patent, Na 6726 of 1889. The patentee dispenses with the cfaairtvr
or space between the upper and lower retorts, the upper cast-«roa
retorts beiqg carried direct on the upper eaa of tne tower brick
retorts, thus formina practically one continuoua retoet Iroas top to
bottom; and instead of one toothed roller being employed for tSr
purpose of withdrawing the exhausted residue, a pair of toochrd
roUers b used for each retort. Thb improved cooatnictioo tostatcd
to give " better and laraer results with less labour and eqieaae in
working and for repain. .
•The vapour from thoe letoits, Ainoiiiiting to abottt 5000
cub. f L per ton, u partially condensed by being passed throogh
70 to too vertical 4-in. pipes, whose tower ends fit into a
chest. About one-third ol the vapour b amdensed, the
liquid, consisting of about 75% of ammoniattl Uqiior and
S5% of crude oil, flowing into a separating tank, whence the
two products are separately withdrawn for further treatmenL
Part of the uncondensed gas b sometimes purified aad used for
inumtoating purposes, when it gives a light of about 2$ candle-
power. The remainder bused as fuel, usually after conpRMiaa
or scrubbing to remove all condensable vapouxs.
Crude shale-oil b of dark green colour, has a spediic gravity
0'86o to 0*890, and as at present manufactured, with tbe Dcwer
forms of retorts, has a setting point of about 90* F. Il contains
from 70 to 80% of members of the paraffin and olefine scries,
together with bases of the pyridine series, ^xnd some cresob
and phenols. Beilby states that average Scotch shale-«il con-
tains from x*x6 to x*4S% of nitrogen, mainly removable by
sulphuric add of specific gravity X'a2o, and mostly remainlcg
in the pitchy residues left on dbtiUaUon. The lightest dis-
tillate, known as naphtha, contains from 60 to 70% of olefincs
and other hydxocaxbons acted upon by fuming nitric add, acd
the lubricating oib consbt mainly of olcfines. The paraffin wax
chiefly dbtib over with the oil of specific gravity above 0-840.
In the lefimng of crude shale-oil, the greatest care b exercised
to prevent dissociation of the paraffin, large volumes ol super-
heated steam being passed into the still, through a perforated
pipe, at a pressure of from xo to 40 lb, to facilitate dbtillattoa
at the lowest possible temperature. The original system of
intermittent distillation b now employed only at the works ci
Young's Company. The stUb have cast-iron bottoms acd
malleable-iron upper parts, their former capacity being xsoo
to 1400 gallons, but those now made usually holding aooo to
2500 gallons. Each still has its own water-condenser, the
flow of water being regulated according to the nature of the
dbtHlate. The usual condensing surface b S30 fL of 4-tn.
pipe. The process now in general practice b, with slight varia-
tions, the Hendenon system of continuous dbtillation (patent
No. 13,0x4 of 1885). It consbts of a primary wa^on-still,
connected with two slde^tilb, which are further connected
with pot-shaped coking-stills. The oil b heated in feed-beaten
by the gases evolved from the hottest still before passing into
the first still, where the temperature b so regulated mm to
drive off only naphtha up to about 0*760 specific gravity. The
heavier portion of the oil passes to the other stiBs, the outermost
receiving the heaviest only.
In both these systems the naphtha b collected separately,
whito the remainder of the distiUate, known as " ooce-nin oil.**
b condensed without fractionation. Thb *' once-run oil '* b
treated with sulphuric add and alkali at a temperature of
xoo* F. In agitators of varying construction— sonse being
horizontal cylinders with a shidft carrying paddles, while otbcrs
take the form of vertical cylindricid tanks with egg*4haped
bottoms— in which agitation b produced by means of compresBed
air. The loss of oil during the agiutton b estimated at i-$
to s-c %.
The oil b next fractionated, either by the intermittent or
the continuous system. After the most volatile fractions bavw
dhtilled off, steam b Uown iff through a pipe at the bottom of
the sttU. In many cases the <fistillate, whh a density up to
PARAFFIN
755
•*yyOi cMitiUtcs the cnide dkiAUm, tmt tbat vp to a deotity
•f 0*850 tbe buning oiL The leoitijider ot the dittiUatc,
which loMdififfi at conioum temperatures, consuts chiefly of
lubfkacing oils and paraflin. These three fractions are delivered
from the condenaers into separate tanks. Although tbe crude-
oil stills €< Henderson nay be employed Jor the continuous
distillation of the onoe-run or other oils obtained in the piocess
of refining, the inventor prefers another focm of apparatus
which he patented in 1883 (No. 54o)» and this is now generally
used. This consists of three horizontal ^lindrical stills, 7 ft, in
diameter and 19 ft. in length. The oil enters through a pipe
which passes through one end of thestill and dischargesat the
opposite end, while the outlet-pipe is fitted below the inlet-pipe
at the bottom of the end through which the latter passes, inlet
and discharge being thus as far as possible from each other.
The oil drcuktes as in the crude-oil stills. Tbe burning oil
is next treated with add and alkali, and subsequently again
fractionally distilled, the heavier portion yielding paraffin scale,
while the residues are redistilled. The final chenUcal purification
ef the burning oil resembles that last referred to, but only half
the quantity of acid is employed. The lighter products of these
distiUations form the crude shale naphtha, which is treated
with addand alkaU, and rtdistiUed, when tbe lightest fradiens
constitute the Scotch ** gasoline " of conuneice^ and the re-
mainder is known as " naphtha."
Tbe soUd paraffin, which is known in iu crude state aa paraffin
scale, was formerly produced from the heavy oil obtained in
the first, second and third distiUations, that from the first
giving " hard scale," while those from the second and third gave
** soft scal&" The hard scale was ciystallised out in ahaUow
tanks, and the oootaned oil driven out by compression of the
paraffin in filter bagt Soft scale was obtained by refrigeration,
cooled revolving dnima being caused to dip into trays con-
taining tbe ofl, when the paraffin adhered to the drums and was
aomped off by a mechanical conttivanoe. Later improved
appliances have aimed at the skew oooUng of oil in bulk, whereby
bige crystals of paraffin are produced. Several processes have
been invented, the most genierally used being that patented
by Henderson (No. 9557 of 1884). His cooler consisU of a
jacketed trough having a curved bottom, and divided into a
aeries of transverse casings by metal disks, each consisting* of
two thin plates bolted together, but with a space between, in
which, as also in the jacket surtoundmg the trough, cold brine
is drcuiated. The paraffin crystallizes on the cold surfaces,
from which it is constantly removed by scrapers, so that
successive portions of the oil are cooled. The solid paraffin
accumulates in a well or chaand, where it is stirred up by rotary
arms, so that it may be readily drawn away by a pump to the
filter-press, whereby the solid paraffin is freed from oiL In
the improved process of cooling employed at the works of the
Oakbank Oil Company the oil to be coded is pumped through
coils submerged In tbe expressed oil from tbe filter-presses
into the iimer space of vertical coolers formed of two cast4ron
tubes, and thence direct to the filter-presses. In the inner
. chamber of tbe coolers are fitted revolving scrapers, while in
the outer annular space compressed ammonia is expanded.
The crude paraffin is then refined, for which pmrpoae the
" naphtha treatment " was formerly employed, but this has
now given place ahnost entirely to the " sweating process,"
In the former the paraffin is disadved In naphtha and then
crystallized out. The sweating process consisU hi heating tbe
crude wax to such a temperature that the aofter portions ass
melted and flew away with the ofl. In the process patented by
N. M. Henderson (Nos. 1391 of 1887 and 11,799 of 1891), a
chamber, 5a ft. by 1$ ft. by 10 ft. high, heated by steam-pipes,
and provided with Uatfi doors and ventilators for cooling, la
fitted with a number of superimposed trays, sx ft by 6 ft. by
6 in, deep. These rest on transverse heating pipes^ and each
tray has a diaphragm of wire gauze. The bottoms communicate
with short p^ fitted with sw5vd nozzles, worked on a vertical
shaft. Tbe diaphragma are covered with ) hi. of water, and
tbe crude paisfibi Is ndted and pumped thsougb charginfiM^
on to ito surface. When tlie paraffin has solidified, the water
b drawn off, leaving the cake resting on the gauze. Doon and
ventilators are then dosed, and the chamber is heated, where-
upon the liquefied impurities are drained off until the outflowing
paraffin sets on a thtfmometer bulb at 130* F. The remainder
is mdted and decolorized by agitation with findy powdered
charcoal. The charcoal is mainly separated by subddence,
and .the paraflin drawn off into filters, whence, freed from the
suspended charcoal, it runs into moulds, and b thus formed
into cakes of suitable size for packing. Tbe lubricating oils
are refined by the use of sulphuric add and alkali, substantially
in the same manner as the burning oils.
The foDowing Ubie shows the average yickl, in 1895. of the various
comnwfdal products from crude shale-dl at two of the priaopd
Scottish refineries. The percentages arc, however, often varied to
suit market requirements. —
reasf'j Pamfin Ut^t mit liinenl OQ Co.
Gasohne and nafMitha ••.... fi*09
BuminfoUs 3f84
Intermediate and heavy oHs 23*97
Psrsffin scale . . i3'S3
Total
75-43
S4-57
Broxburn Oil Co,
Naphtha
Burning on 30*0
Gas oil .9*0
Lubricating oU >
I^uaffio
F^om tbe ammoniacd Kquor the ammonia is driven off by the^
application of heat in stiDs, the evolved vapour being conducted
into " cracker-booces," which are now usually of drcular form,
from 5 to 8 in. in diameter, and 6 to ra in. in depth. In these
boxes the smmonia ia brought into ooittact with sulphuric
add of about 50* Tw., and is thus converted into sulphate.;
Wilton's form of cracker-box, which is now generally in use. Is
provided with#n arrangement for the automatic discharge on'
to a drying table of the sulphste of ammonia as it is dcpodted!
in the weD of the box, and the process is worked continuously.
For the heating of theammonlaral liquor the ordinary horizontal
boiler-stnis formerly used have been superseded by '* column-*'|
stiUs, in which the liquor Is exposed oyer a large area, as it.
passes from top to bottom of the still, to the action of a current
of steam. (B. R) f
pAXAtniv/in diendstry, the generic name given to .the hydro-
carbons of the general formula CiHto4t. Many of these
hydrocarbons exist as naturally occurring producU, the lower
(gaseoos) members of the series being met with as exhalations
from decaying organic matter, or issuing from fissures in the'
earth; and the higher memben of the series occtv in petroleum
(chiefly American) and ecokerite. They may be synthetized by
redudng the slkyl halkies (preferably tbe iodkles) with nascent
hydrogen, using dther sodium amalgam, zinc and hydrochloric
add, concentrated hydiiodic add (Berthelot, Jour, prak, CileM.|
1868, 104, p. ro3), aluminium amalgam (H. WisUcenus, Ibid.,
1896 (r), S4) or the sinc-coppcr couple (J. H. Gladstone and
A. Tribe, Ber., r873, 6, p. soa seq.) as reducing agents.
They may also be derived from alkyl halidea by heating to ISO-ISO*
with aiumfaUam dhloride in Che proportieo d three molecules of aUgl
halidetoooe raoleculed ahmtimiam dUoride (B. KAhnldo, BotniitiL
by watv. ZnR««faH,0»sRH+Za(OH)«: by
i Gri||Mrd reagent with. metallic aaignesiom aad
decompontkm of this other by water, dilute ackls or prefi
ammoniam chloride (J. Houben. B*r.. 190^, 18. p. 3019), ***
H«0-RH -I- MeKOH); by the acrion of potr
(H. - •
Cmtut wnrf a i, i9es. I34. P- 389)s Md by
ds or preferably
75*
PARAdON^-PARAGUAY
of aodittm, in abnlate ether eohitioii (A. Wartz» Ann. ekim. fkj$.,
i«55 C3)»,44. p. af5). aRI+aNa-RR+2NaI. They.mav al» be
obtained by the reduction of the higher fatty acids with hydnodic
acid (F. Krafft. Ber., i88a, 15. PP- 1687. 1711). CJli.O.+eHI-
C.HfM+aH^+alr. by the conversion of ketones into ketone
chkindea by Uie actk>n oC phosphonia pentachloride, thea being
thea leduced by hydnodic add,
by the reduction of uiisatii raced hydnocarWM with bydragen in
the presence of a " c ontatt " «uhj^tAnt«. &tu:h, lot exinii:>kp bs roduced
nickel, copper, in>rt or cobalt (P* SatsLli^ and J. B. Senderens.
Ann. ckim. pkys., 1905 FSJ. 4. Pp- 3*9* 4331: by the rliinlnation ol
carbon dioxide from 1 ivr Tativ D{;id» on heacina thtir aaki with soda-
lime or baryta, C\ I ,r.O,Na +NaOH --CH t+^aiCO,, or by heating
their barium salts wjth, aoditim mcthyLite im vacuff {I. Klai, JStrr.,
1889, 22, p. 21M) : bv ihc? u!«tfol™5 of tht latty adds (H. Kolbe^
iiiS., X849. 69TP -?C,H4Qi-C,H,+jCa+l(,0: and by the
action of the zub. ^''.kvh oa the ketone diloridf!^. (CH|)«CCU+
Zn(CH,),-Caiii+ZnCU. . , ^ ^ .../...
The principal members of the series are shown m the loUowuig
table^^
Name.
Methane . .
Ethane . .
Propane . .
Nonnal Butane
Isobntane
Nonnal Pentane .
Pentane
Tertiary
Hexane
Heptane .
OcUne
Nonane
Decane .
Undecane .
Dodecane.
Tridccane
Tetiadecane
Pentadecane
Hexadecane
Heptadecane
Octadecane
Nooadocane
H«
Docosane .
Tricosane
Tetracoeane
Hexaoosane
Hentriacontane .
Dotriacontane
Pentatriacontane .
Dimyricyl . .
Formula.
CH4
CH.
C«H»
C.Hi4
CHm
CJitt
C^tlw
C«Ha
CuMm
C.JIw
Oilli,
C»\lu
C„Um
CtjH««
CmHm
' Im
Melting-
point.
-184*
— I72'l'
-45*
Boiling-
— 164* (760 mm.)
-84i*(749»)
-»7
j-36-3:
+35*4
The lowest members of the seiie^ are gases at ordinary tem-
perature; those of carbon content C» to Cu are colourless
Uqiiids, aAd the higher members from Cn onwaxds are aystalline
folids. The highest membeis only volatilize without decom^
position when distilled under diminished pressure. They are
not soluble in water, althoogh the lower and middle members
of the series are readily soluble in alcohol and ether, the solubility,
bowevtt-, decreasing with increase of molecular weight, so that
the highest members of the scries are almost insoluble in these
solvents. The specific grarity increases with the molecular
weight but always remains below that of water. The paraffins
are characterized by their great inertness towards most chemical
reagents. Fuming sulphuric acid converts the middle and
higher members of the series into sulphonic adds and dissolves
the lower members (R. A. Worstall, Amer. Ckem. Joum., 1898,
eo, p. 664}. Dilute nitric add, when heated with the paraffins
in a tube, converts them into secondary and tertiary nitR>-
derivative* (M. Kooowalow, Bar., x8^s, 28, p. 1853), whflst
tong boiling with strong nitric add or nitro-su^huric add
converts Hm middle and higher members of the scries partly
into primary mono- and di-nitro compounds and partly oxidizes
them to carbonic, acetic, oxalic and succinic adds (Worsuit,
ibid., ao, p. 202; it, p. 2x1). Fuming nitric add only reacts
•bwly wiUx the normal paraffins at ordinary temperature,
but witb thoae containing a tertiary cnrboo atom the leactioo
is very energetic, oxidation products (fattjr adds aiid <fil»iie
adds) and a smaH quantity of polynitfo compounds are cAMaiaed
(W. Markownxkow, CentralbtaU, 1899, x, p. X064; Ber., 1899.
33, p. X44x). Chlorine reacu with the paraffins, readily sob-
stituting hydrogen. Isomeric hydrocarbons in thit aeiies first
appear with butane, the number increasing rapidly as xht
complexity of tlie xnolecule increases. For a means of deter-
mining the number of isomets see E. Cayley, Bn^ tS7S» 8,
P.X056; F. Herxnann, Ber^ 1898, 31. p. 91^
For Metkttnt see Marsh Gas. Ethane, CsHii, occurs in crcde
petroleum. It may be pic p a i e d by the ffeneral methods giiwn
above; by heating mercury ethyl with eoncefitiated Mlphwic aod
aceuldehyde, which then oxidises to oxides of carboa ami waco
(W. A. Bone; see Flame), whilst in ozonized air at xoo* it givesctb>I
alcohol, together with aceuldehyde and traces of {ormaldeb>de
(Bone, Prec. Chtm. Soc., 1904, 291 p. 127).
Dim
is p rep ar ed by in
; myriryl
^ sdiS^so<UumTC.~H<^ and C Hftsde; 3cr., x'889t m, p-'soi).
It is only very slightly soluble in alcohol and ether.
PABAGON, a term for that which b a model el cr Kcn rnrf
or pattern of perfection, hence some person or thtog which has
no equaL. The word was adopted ficom the O. Ft. por^i^»^
Mod. parangom^ ItaL paragone and ^>an. poragom. The Spuish
has usually been taken as the source, and the wocd caepUdxied
as from the prcpositioxud phrase para con, in oompcrisoBi with.
But the word first appears in Italian, meaning a ** toochstone.*
The Italian word xnay be connected with the Gr. npaasriy, to
shaipen by the me of a whetstone (dxop^). The term has bca
iised in several technical applications, e.g. in printing, of a
laxve style of type between "great primer" and "doohle
pica," xww ttsiludly called "two-line kmg pximer"; o£ a
diamond weighing more than xoo carats; and formerly cl a
fabric used for hanigings in the 17th and x8th centuries.
PARAGRAPH, a term for a section or divisioii of writtcB
or printed xnatter, which, as begixuxxng a new subject, marking
a break in the subject, &c., is signified by begiiming the sectioa
on a new line set back or indented; also by the symbol, now^,
a reversed P, formeriy (| or t), to mark audi a drrisioa. The
Gr. vopaYpo^ (ropd and fpA/^tat, to write aiflmgridr or
beside) was osed of the short horizontal line or itroke whkh
marked a line in a MS. where such a division occius; and
n^Tpa^of a marginal xiote, also the division so marked
The word ** paragraph,'* besides these technical typogiapfakal
meanings, is also applied to the separate numbered arrtinas
in an affidavit or other legal document, or in a statute, kc^
and in journalism to a short item of news Or brief notice of
events.
PARAGUAY, an failand republic of South America, betwcca
to' 16' 14* and a6» 31' S. and S4* 3/ and 62' W. It m
bounded on the N.W. by Bolivia, N. and E. by BraaiU SX.,
S. and W. by Argentiiui. Pop. (1905 estimate), 631,347,
induding 50,000 Iguassii Indians; area, about 97*700 feq. m.
By the treaty oi 1872 the Brazilian frontier was drawn op the
Paran& from the mouth of the IguassA or Y-Guazik (2$* 50^ S )
to the Saho Grande or Great Cataract of La Guayra (24* 7'),
thence west along the watershed of the Sierra de Maiacay6, north
along the Sierra de Ambaya to the sources of the Ap4, and
down that stream to its juxiction with the Paraguay. The
Buenos Aires treaty of the 3rd of February 1876 fixed the
frontier between Argentina and Paxnguay, and assigned to
Paraguay the portion of the Gran Chaco between Rio Verde and
Bahia Negra; the appropiiation of the portion between Rao
Verde and the Pilcomayo was submitted to the arbitratioa
of the president of the United States, who in 1878 assigned
it to Paraguay. The frontier line taeraidi Bolivia has long
been in dispute.
Physical Piaittns. — ^The river Paraguay, nmnuig from north
to south, divides the republic into two sections, the eastern
aectipi^ or Paraguay Chacntal, hetng the moat impor^aiit. Thi
PARAGUAY
757
wcstecn tection fomu part of the great plain oiUed \hn Gnm
Chaco (see Mgemtina), and is to a large extent unexplored.
Paraguay pi^per, or the country between the Paraguay and the
Paran&i is traversed (rom north to south by a broad irregular
belt of iugblanda» ixrhich are known as the CwdiUera Aoibaya,
Cordillera Untcury, &c., but partake rather of the character
of plateaus, and form a contianation and outwork of the
great interior plateau of Brazil. The elevation nowhere
much exceeds aaoo ft. On the western side these highlands
terminate with a more or less sharply defined edge, the
country sloping gradually up to their bases in gentle undula-
tions with open, ill-deCiocd valleys; on the eastern side they
■end out broad spurs enclosing deep<ut valleys, and the
whole country retains more of an upland character. The
tributaries that How wc&tward to the Paraguay are conse-
quently to some extent navigable, while those that run eastward
to the Pacini are interrupted by rapids and fails, often of a
formidable description. The Pilcomayo, the largest western
tributary of the Paraguay, and an important frontier river,
is only navigable in its upper «od lower reaches. From the
Asuncion plateau southwards, near the confluence of the
Paraguay and Paraai, there is a vast stretch of marshy
country, draining partly into the Ypoa lagoon, amd smaller
tiacu of the tame character are foimd in other parts of the
lowlands, especially in the vaUey of the Paraguay. Many
parts of the country slopijB« to the Paranfi. are nearly covered
with dense foKst, and have been left. in possession of the
apBrscly scatteied native tribes. But the country sloping to
the PsfBguay, and comprising the greater part of the settled
districts, is, in keeping with iu pcoxSmity to the vast plains
of Aisentina, grassy and open, though the hills are usuaUy
covered with forest and clumps ol trees are frequent in. the
lowlands. Except in the marshy regions and along the rivefa,
the soU is dry, porous and aandy.
G^«f«(y.— Little is known of the geofogy of Paraguay. - A laige
part of the area is Govcrod by Quaternary depoatt, which com-
pletely conceal the solid foundation on which they rest. The bills
and pbteaus appear to be composed chiefly of the same sand*
stone leries which in the Brazilian province of Rio Grande do Siit
contains scams of coal, with plant remains similar to thote of the
Karharbari acfies of India (Penaian or Upper GarbonifcTous).
It is probable, alio, that the Palaeoi^ rocks oC Matto Grosso
extend into the northern part of the country.
Minerals.— The sold mines said to have been concealed by the
iesuits may have had no existence; and though iron was worked
y F. S. Lopea at Ibieuy (70 m. sooth-cast of Asunck>n>. and native
copper, oxide of manganese, marbles, Hme and salt have been
found, the real wealth of the country consists rather in the variety
and value of its vegetable products.
C/tmete and Fauta.— The yt»T in Paraguay b divided into two
seaion»-~** summer," lasting from Octol)cr to March, and ** winter,"
from April to September. December* January and February are
generally the hottest months, and May. June, July and August
the coldest. Tlie mean temperature lor the year seems to be
about 75" or 76*: for summer 8i*, for winter 71*. The annual
rainfall is about 46 in., fairly well dtstributed throughout the year,
chough
and Oct<
the heaviest
precipitation oocure in August, September
availing winds blow from the north or south.
and October. The prcvailine
The south wind is dry, cool and invigorating, and banishes mos-
quitoes for a time; the north wind b hot. moist and idaxing. Violent
wind stonns generally come from the south.
The faana of Paraguay proper is prsctkaUy the same as that of
Braiit Caymans, water-Dogs (fo^nckos), several kinds of deer
{Cervus paludosus the largest), ounces, opossums, armadillos,
vampires, the American ostrwh, the ibis, the jabiru. various species
popularly called partridges, the paU rtal or royal duck, the Palo*
ssedM ceriNifa. parrots and parakcifts, are amoos the mere notable
fmms. Insect life is peculiarly abundant: the red stump-hke
ant-hiUs are a feature in evefy landscape, and bees used to be kept
in all the mission viRages.
Popiiia/feii.— The great majority of the inhabitanu are of
lodiaii (Guaiani) descent, with very slight Iracea of foreign
bkHxI. CitUixatien has not made much progrcaa, and the
babiu of the people are more primitive than thoae in the more
advanced neighbouring republica. As a general rule the Pata-
guayans are indolent, especially the men. Oimatic cooditioas
oVvdate the necessity ol any superfluity of clothing. A cotton
chemise, and a white mania wrapped in Moorish fashion over
head and body, constitute the dress of the women; a cotton
shirt and trouaers that of the men. Boots and shoea are worn
only by the upper classes. Goitre and leprosy are the only
endemic diseases; but the natives, being underfed, are prone to
diarrhoea and dyspepsia. The common language of the country
is Guarani, although in a few districu Tupi is spoken. The
country people as a rule undenund a Uttle Spanish, if living
near any trading centre. " New Australia '* b a pastoral and
agricultural settlement, originally founded in iSgj by immigrants
from Australia as an experiment in communism. The colony
failed at first, and was reconstituted in i8<h« The settlers
numbered i6t In 1908. Immigration b on a small scale (1024
m 1908), but tends to increase; it b encouraged by the govern-
ment, which seeks to divert to Paraguay some portion of the
Italian bbour immigrant Into Btaxil and Aigentina. In 1908
the total foreign population numbered about 18,000, half of
whom were natives of Argentina. The principal towns are
Asuncion, the capital (pop. 1905, 60,250)1 ViUa Rica (35,000),
Concepdon (15,000) and Villa del Pilar (10,000); these are
described in separate artides. Encarnadon on the Pa^n^ has
a large transit trade.
CowrnmenL-^The constitution of the republic was voted by
a constituent aaaembly on the 15th of November 1870. Legis-
lative power TS vested In a Congress consisting of a Senate and
a Chamber of Deputies, elected by universal manhood suffrage
in the propoition of onesenalor for every ta,ooo inhabitants and
one deputy for every 6000. Every member bf Congress receives
a sabry of about £300. The head of the executive b the
president, chosen by an electoral college for four years, and
only re-eligible after eight consecutive years. He b aided by
a cabinet oif five minbtets, responsible to Congress. Should he
die during his term, or otherwise become unable to fulfil hb
duties, the president b succeeded by the vice-president (similarly
elected), who b ex egUU chairman of the Senate. The highest
judicial authority b the Supreme Court, which b empowered
to dedde upon the constitutional validity of acts passed by
Congress; Us three members are appointed for four years by
Congrcw^ subjea to the approval of the president. There arc
five courts of appeal, and inferior tribunab in all the large
towns. The dvil and crimmal codes at Argentina have been
adopted, almost without change. For purposes of local
administration the republic b divided into 23 oountics (parHdos),
which are subdivided into communes.
ReHtiw and InslruetiM.'^RomAn Catholicb^ b the established
religion, but the constitution guarantees full tllierty to all other
crseds. Asuncion, the only bishopric in the state, is In the arehi*
episcopal province of Buenos Aires. Education is backward and
was long neglected. By bw it is ffee and compulsory, but in
some districts the attendance of many children is impossible. In
I90T there were 9S# primary schools with 41 .000 popib.
DeftHce.-*-ln 1908 tl^ standing army, indudinc cavalry, infantry
and artillery, numbered about 1150 men; and there were five
government steamers uA;d for (rAasport and revenue purposes.
Piiience.*^The financial situatioS of Paraguay has been a sounee of
anxiety for many years. In 1885, after interest had been unpaid
for II years on bonds amounting to £1.505400. an agreement was
made for the tssue of new tctip to the vbuic ol £850,000 in quittance
of alt cbtms for capital and arrears of interest, ceitain public bnds
being abo ceded to the bondholders as compensation. In 1895 an
arrangenient was made for a letfuctkm of the rate of interest, for
the funding of the arrears, and for the creation of a sinking fund.
The govemmeilt wcne unable to meet their obligations under the
new contmct, and in 1898 the outstanding amount had risen to
£99s,6oo< Prov i giew has now been made for the service of this
loitign debt, and the authorities have been able Rgularly to meet
the service of the coupons. The total outsunding on the 3tst
of December 19O8 was £831.850. Besides the London debt, there
' * * I Parag
af« many ochcr cbims on Paraguay, including (1906) about
£f ASO.000 due to Druil. about £7,500.000 due to Arsentina, and
an itttemal debt of £890«odo. The ;
guamntce debt due to the
Paraguay Central railway eaoceeds ii.Soo.ooo; and the total
indebtedness of the republic on the 31st el December 1908 imiy be
estimated at iyfiiofiOf^
The revenue is derived mainly from import duties* and the most
tmpcntent branches of cxpendKure are \fie salanes c€ piASs q^P^a'ISt
the army, public instruction and ddn. The estimate
expenditure for the three years 1906^1908 areshewwl'
758
PARAGUAY
1906
1907
1908
Revenue
Expcnditufo
£45a.8"
454.564
£635.000
677.98a
£S99.8a8
506.502
The budget for 1906 remained in (orce in 1907 and 1908.
Jndustry. — ^The principal indurtries arc the cultivation and
preparation oC yerha maH (Pasacuayan tea), cattle-farming, fruit-
crowing, tobacco-planting and tirober-cutttng. Verba malit dasi-
ned as Ikx txtraguayensts, is a shrub. The leaves are stripped,
withered, rolled and sorted, then packed in sacks and exported,
chiefly to Aigentina. Paraguayan tea is used in place of the
ordinary tea or coffee in many paru of South America. Medkal
experts state that the beveraoe infused from the leaves has a
stimulating effect, and is also sli^tly cKuretic The total amount
exported from Paraguay in 1008 was 4133 tons. The majority
of the ytrhtUes (tea plantations) were formerly the proper^ of the
government, but have boea acquired by private enterprise. An
important feature about wrNi laal^ is the small expense necessary
for iu production, and the cheap rate, notwithsunding the hjigb
tariff on its importation, at which it can be placed on the Argentine
market as compared with ordinary tea or Braalian coffee.
The cattle industry comes next in importance. The number of
animals was estimated at 5,^,000 on the 31st of December 1908:
an increase of about 45% since the census of 1890. The antmah
are small, but Durham and Hereford bulb have been introduced
from Argentina to improve the breed. The increase in the herds
has caused the owners of uladerc estafaUshraents in Argentina and
Uruguay to try the working of, factories m Paraguay for the pre-
paration of tOMJo Oerkod oocO And the manufacture of extract of
meat. Both grasses and climate are against sbeep^larming on a
large scale.
Oranges are exported to Buenos Aif«a« Rosario and Montevideo,
and are largely used for fattening hogs. The orange groves are
often uncultivated, but yield ^undantly; 10,700,000 downs of
oranges were exported in 1908. Pineapples are also exported, and
sugar-cane, cotton, coffee and ramie are cultivated. Tobacco,
although of inferior quality, is grown to a conuderable extent: the
quantity exported rase from wout 35 tons in X900 to 50x4 tons in
1908. Tobacco is chiefly exported to Germany. , The staple diet
of the Paraguayans is still, as when the Spaniards firit came,
maize and manoioca (the chief ingredient in the excellent chipa or
Paraguayan bread), varied, it may be, with the seeds of the Vuloria
rwHi, whose niagni6oent bkMSoms are the great feature of several
oithe lakes and riven.
The forests abound in such timber as quebracho, cedar, curupey,
lapacho and urundey. Some of these, such as the lapacho and
quebracho, are of rare eaocllenoe and durability, as is shown by the
wonderful state of pretervatioa in which the woodwork of early
'csuit churches still remains. Fifteen plants are known to furnish
Jyes, and eight are sources of fibre—dhe caniguauy especially
being employed in the manufacture of the exquisite HawhUy or
spider web lace of the natives. Rum, sug»r, bricks, leather, furmture
and extract of meat are manufactured. ,
CoMNMfcs.*— The commercial situation of Paraguay has improved
In consequence of the inves t ment of foreign capital ia industrial
enterprise. The principal articles imported are textiles, hardware,
wines, rioe, flour, canned goods and general provisions; the exports
are ytrha maU. hides, hair, dried meat. wood, oranges, tobacco.
Most of the export trade is with Buenos Aires or Montevideo. The
values for the Bve years 1904-1908 wcre^~
I
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
Imports
Exports
£7I3«146
639.353
^I2ISJ
539.038
£1.573,355
^7.232
£814.591
773.4*9
Of the imports into Paraguay. 19 % came from Germany in 1908,
31 % from the United Kingdom and 19% from Argentina.
Otmmunkahmu. — Numerous ocean-going liners, most of which
fly the Brazilian or the Argentine flag, pi^r on the Paraguay and
the ParanA. smaller vessels ascend the tributary streams, which
are also utilized for floating lumber down to the ports. Out of
1330 ships whkih entered Asuncion in 1908 and 1184 which cleared,
none was of British or United Sutcs nationality. The Braxilian
Lloyd S^ Co. proivides direct and regular oommunicatbn between
Asuncion and New York. The only railway ia the republic is the
Paraguay Central which was open m 1906 between Asuncion and
Pirapo (154 ro.). The completion of the line to Encamadon was
then urakrtaken (1906-191 1>, a train-ferry across the Parani
affording connemon with Posadas. These extennons, and the
alteratioa of gauge to that of the Aiseatine North^Eai^em, were
carried out mainly at the cost of the Arnntine government, which
acquired a controlling interest in the Paraguay CentiaL They
were intended to shorten the ioumey between Buenos Aires and
Asuncion from 5 daya to 36 houni There are some fairly good
wagon roads, and the government appropriates annually a con*
sidcrable sum for their extension.
P9sl and r«(«|fa^.'-Parasuay entered the Universal Postal
Union in 1884. Telegiaph lines eonnect Aaandoh villi other
towns, and two cables pat the republic in coramunkaCioa wkli tha
rest of the world by wayof Corrientes and Posadas.
Monty and Cr$dU.~-The banks open for business in 1904 were
the Mercantile Bank, the Territorial Bank, the Bank of Los Rioe ft
Co., and the Agricultural Bank: the last named has a capital of
£307,900, advaaoed by the aovenunem, and leads ooocy to tW
agrKultucal and industrial cUases. The "^ "* *
a capital of £600,000. was opened in 1005^ and the state bank (Banco
de a. RcpoDlica), with a total authorized capital of £4/>oojooo,
was opemed on the 30th of June 1908. The CoavcriSoa OiBoe.
which is authorised to sdl or lend gold, reoeiveB a fixed i
of £30,000 from certain impact and export dues; it was rearcaiuaed
in 190A for the administration <rf the public debt. In the sanae year
the sold and silver coinage of Paraguay were legally standardufed
as hfentical with those of Argentina (5 gdkl dollars or pcsos*£i ) ; bat
paper money is about the only circulating medium, andgcild oosn-
mands a high premium (1600% in December 1908). The normal
value of the paper or currency dollar is about 4s. 8d. (For pur-
poses of conversion the gold dollar has been taken at 5 ■*£x thfough-
out this article, and the currency dolhu" at 50 ■>£!•)
but the weights in common use are the Umdada (3035 B»). the
quintal (101*4 lb), the arroba (35*35 lb), the libra (1*014 ^^ ^^
the onxa f-o6i6 tt>). The unit for liquid measure is the cuarta
1665 eallon); for dry measure the elmnd (-66 bushel) and/s■^fa
\\ bushels). The land measures are the Ugna (3*689 »•)• w sta»
(69! sq. yds.), and the Ugtta cuadrada (i2\ sq. m.).
History.— 'hi 1537 Sebastian Cabot reached Pftnguay ftnd
built a fort called Santo Espiritu. Asuncion was founded ob
the X5th <rf August 1535 by Juan de Ayolas, and his successor.
Martinez de Irala, determined to make it the capital of iht
Spanish possessions east of the Andes. From this centre
Spanish adventurers pushed east to La Guayra, beyond tlie
Paranft, and west into the Gran Chaco; and before long vast
numbere of the less wariike natives were reduced to serfdoos.
The name Paraguay was applied not only to the country beiwcca
the Paraguay and the Parani, but to the whole Spanish tetxitoiy ,
which now comprises parts of Brazil, Uruguay and the Axceatine
provinces of Buenos Aires, Entre Rios, Corrientes, Mianoes,
and part of SanU F6. It was not till 1630 that Paraguay proper
and Rio de la Plata or Buenos Aires were separated as (&tinct
governments, and they were both dependent on thevke-royalty
of Peru tiO 1776, when Buenos Aires was erected into a vice-
royalty, and. Paraguay placed under its jurisdiction. The
first (Christian missions in Paraguay were cstablisbed by tb«
Franciscans— Armenia, Hebron, Solano (who was aftersrards
canonized as the " Apostle of Paraguay ") and Bolanoa^-^twcca
1543 and 1560; but neither they nor the first Jesuit mxssiooarics,
Salonio, Field and Ortega, were allowed to make their enterprise
a permanent success. This fell to the lot of the second band td
Jesuits, Cataldino, Mazeta and Lorcnzana, who began work
in 1605. Though they succeeded in establishing a kind of
impainm in imperiOt and were allowed to drill the natives to the
use of arms, the Jcstdts never controlled the government of
Paraguay; indeed they bad nearly as often to defend themselves
from the hostility of the governor and bishop at Auincion as from
the invasions of the Paulistas or Portuguese settlers of SAo Paulo.
It was only by the powerful assistance of Zabala, governor
of Buenos Aires, that the anll-JcsuIt and quasi-national party
which had been formed under Antequcra was crushed in X7js.
In 1750, however, Ferdinand VL of Spain ceded to the Portu-
guese, in exchange for the fortified village of Cotonia del Sacra-
mento (Uruguay), both the district of La Oua3rra and a territory
of sojtne 30,000 sq. m. east of the Uruguay. The Jesulu
resisted the transference, and it was only after several engage*
mcnts that they were defeated by the combined forces of Spain
and Pbrtugal. The treaty was revoked by Spain in 1761, but
the missions never recovered their prosperity, and the Jesuits
were finally expelled in 1769. In xSzz Paraguay declared
itself independent of Spain; by 1814 it was a despotism in the
hands of Dr J. G. R. Franda (f .*.). On Franda'ii death, ia
1840, the chief power passed to his nephew, Carioa Antonio
Lopes (9.V.), who In 1863 was succeeded by his son Frand^co
Solano Lopez. In 1864 a dispute arose between the yonngcf
Lopes and the Brazilian government, and Lopez marched an
army through Argentine territory to invade soothcm BcaziL
PARAHYBA— PARAHYBA DO SUL
759
This act induced the governments of Brazil, Uruguay and
Argentina to combine for the purpose of suppressing Lopez.
The invasion of Paraguay then took place, and a struggle
involving an enormous sacrifice of life and treasure lasted for
five years, only coming to a close when the Paraguayan forces
were totally defeated and Lopez was killed at the battle of
Aquidaban on the xst of March zSja During this warfare
every male Paraguayan capable of bearing arms was forced to
fight, whole regiments being formed of boys of from 12 .to 15
years of age. Even women were used as beasts of burden to
carry ammunition and stores, and when no longer capable of
work were left to die by the roadside or murdered to avoid any
01 consequences occurring from their capture. When the war
broke out the population of Paraguay was z ,337*439; when
hostilities ceased it con»sted of 28,746 men, 10^6,254 women
above 15 years of age, and 86,079 children. During the retreat
of the Paragiuiyans the dictator ordered every town and village
passed through to be razed to the ground, and every living
animal for which no use could be found to be slaughtered,
^^cn the end came the country and peoplo were in a state of
absolute prostration.
After the death of Lopes the government was administered
by a triumvirate consisting of Cirilo Rivarola, Carlos Loizaga
and Jos^ Diaz dc Bedoza, until, in November 1870, the present
constitution was formulated. The policy of Brazil was for a
time directed towards the annexation of Paraguay; the debt
due to Brazil on account of the war was assessed at £40,000,000,
a sum which Paraguay could never hope to pay; and it was
not until 1876 that the Brazilian army of occupation was wholly
withdrawn. But the rivalry between Brazil and Argentina,
and the necessity of maintaining the balance of power among
the South American republics, enabled Paraguay to remain
independent. No violent constitutional change took place after
1870, though there have been spasmodic outbreaks of revolu-
tion, as in x88i, in 1894, in iSqIs, in December 1904 — ^when a
somewhat serious dvil war was ended by the peace of Pilco-
mayo— in July 1908 and in September 1909. None of these
disturbances deeply or permanently affected the welfare of the
republic, nor were all of them accompanied by bloodshed. Under
the presidency of J. B. £gusquiza (1894-1898) the boundary
dispute with Bolivia became acute; but war was averted, largely
owing to the success of the revolution, which forced the president
to resign. The main interest of recent Paraguayan history is
economic rather than political. In that history the gradual
development of commerce, the financial reforms in 1895, and
the extension of the Paraguay Central railway after 1906, were
events of far greater importance than any political movement
which took place between 1870 and 1910.
Bibliography.— For an account of phvucal features, inhabitants,
pnxluctt, &c., see H. Decoud, Geografla de la rtpuHkn del Paraptay
(5th ed„ Leipzig. 1906); E. de B. La Dardye, Paraguay: the Land
and Uu Pw^, ed. E. G. Ravenstein (London, 189a); W.^Vallcntin,
"* - . . ^ ...... . ^ ., ^ Trevcn-
Wirt'
Mn^en
fit tht IltdiOMS
of Ike Paragiayan Ckaco (Condon, 1904) ; E. BoUand, Exptoracunut
pnutkadas en d Alto Paraguay y eu la Latuna Caiba (Buenos
Aires, 1901). Commerce and Finance: Britidi consular reports
(London, annual); Report of the Council of the Corporation of
Foreign Bondholder! (London, annual) ; statistical publications of
the Ruaguay government and presidential measans, in Spanish
(Asuncbn. annual); Repue du Paraguay (Asuncion, monthly);
Paraguay (Washington, Bureau of Amor. Republics. 3nd ed. 19C»}.
Hislory: P. de Angelis, Coleccion de decumentos, Sbc. (1835): H.
Charlevoix. Histoire de Paraguay (183O: G. Funcs, Ensayo de la
'" ~ " (1816); Locano, HiUdrta de la
conquista dH Paraguay (Buenos AirM, 1873-1874); R. B. Cunning*
hame Graham, A Vantshed Arcadia (London. lOO! ) ; C. A. Washburn,
The History of Paraguay (New York, 1871); E. C Jourdan. Cuerra
do Paraeuay (Rio de Janeiro. 1890): R. F. Burton, Letters from the
BauU^dds ej Paraguay (London. 1870); A. Audibcrt, Questum de
limiUs entre el Paraguay y Bolivia (Asuncion. 1901); H. Decoud.
List of Books . . . rdattng to Paraguay (Washington. 1905).
PARAHYBA (Paiuhiba or Parahyba do Noetc), a state
of north-eastern Brazil, bounded N. by Rio Grande do Norte,
E. by the Atlantic, S. by Pernambuco, and W. by Ccari. Pop.
(1890). 4S7,a3»; (<90o), 490.784. Area, 18,854 sq. m. It
consists of a narrow coastal zone, 50 to 40 m. wide, along the
seaboard, behind which the country rises sharply to a highland
region forming part of the great central plateau of Brazil.
The long, dry season (April to October), together with occasional
devasuting droughts {siccas) lasting two or more years, prevents
the development of forests and damages the agricultural and
pastoral industries of the state. There is only one river of
imporUnce, the Parahyba do Norte, which crosses the southern
part of the state from west to east with a course of about 240 m.
The stale is pooriy watered and covered with a scanty vegetation
suitable for pasturage only. Stock-raising is favoured by the
existence of a bromeliaceous plant, callni mecamhira, which
is sufficiently juicy to satisfy the thirst of the animals. On
the low lands and along some of the river valleys agriculture
is the chief occupation of the people; cotton and sugar are largely
produced and some tobacco is grown. The exports include
hides, skins, cotton, sugar and tobacco. Rubber of the Cear&
type is also found and forms an item among the smaller exports.
The eastern extremity of the state is served by a railway
originally called the Conde d'Eu railway but now forming
part of the Great Western of Brazil system, which runs westward
and northward from Parahyba to Independencia (72 m.),
where it connects with the extension of the Natal and Nova
Cruz line, and a branch runs southward to Pilar, 15 m. from its
junction and 46 m. from Parahyba. Another small branch
runs westward from the station of Mulungii to Alag6a Grande
(14 m.). The capital Is Parahyba (9.9.), and other important
towns, with the populations (in 1890) of their municipalities,
which include large rural distrias and sometimes several other
towns, are: Arcia (26,590); Bananeiras (30,058); Campina
Grande (21,475); Guarabim (26,625); Mananguape (20,754);
Pilar (10,133, town); Pombal (12,804); and Souza (11,135).
Parahyba formed part of the original grant, known as the
capitania of Itamaraci, from the Portuguese crown to Pero
Lopes de Souza. It was not settled until 1584, when a fort was
erected near the present port of CabedeUo under the name
of Sflo Fih'ppe.
PARAHYBA (Pasabyba do Noste), a dty and port of
Brazil, capital of Parahyba state, on the right bank of the
Parahyba do Norte river, ix ro. above iu mouth and 65 m. N.
of Recife. Pop. (1890), 18,645, including several suburbs and
Cabedello; (1908, estimate), 30,000. Parahyba is the starting-
point of the Conde d'Eu railway, now a part of the Great
Western of Brazil system, which includes a main line to
Independencia, where it connects with the Natal & Nova Cruz
line of Rio Grande do Norte, and a branch to Cabedello. The
entrance to the Parahyba do Norte River being obstructed by a
stone reef and sand bars, only vesseb drawing less than 14 ft.
can effect an entrance. The ** Varadouro," as the lower part
of the city is called, Is built on the margin of the river and is
devoted principally to commerce. Behind this is a low hill on
whose northern slope and broad summit the upper city is built,
and a tramway line runs to the suburb of Trinchcira. There
are some good public buildings, Including the parish church
imatriz) of N.S. das Neves, the old Franciscan convent and
church, the government pabce, and the treasury. There are a
normal school, a lyceum, a national gymnasium, and a school for
marine apprentices. Parahyba was founded in 1585. It was
called prcderickstadt by the Dutch, who occupied the Franciscan
convent as a government house, and Felipp^a In honour of the
kmg of Spain when the Dutch were expelled. Its original
name was resumed on the separation (1640) of Portugal and her
colonies from Spanish rule.
PARAHYBA DO SUL, a river of BrazQ, having its source on
the campos of Bocaina, on the northern slope of the Scrra do
Mar in the western part of the state of Sgo Paulo, and flowing
at first south-westeriy and then after a horse-shoe curve in the
vicinity of Jacarehy in a general E.N.E. direction to the Atbntic
in lat. 31* 38' S. Its upper course for a distance Of S^ j«« or
to the confluence of the Parahybuna, Is known ^"
hytinga. The ntvigafale channel from Sio T
760
PARAI^DEHYDE— PARALLAX
Atlantic b 54 m. long, and the total length of the river, including
the Parahytinga, is 540 m. tts source is about 4930 ft. above
$ea-leveL The Farahyba passes through a fertile, long-set iled
country, a part of which was for many years the principal
coffee-producing region of Brazil. Its lower course passes
through the rich alluvial sugar-producing district of Canopos.
Among the towns on the Farahyba are Campos, SSU> Fidelis,
Farahyba do Sul, Juiz de Fora, Barra do Firahy (railway
junction), Rezcnde, Queluz and Lorcna.
PARAU)EHTDE. in medicine, a clear colourless h'quid (for
the chemistry see Aldehydes), soluble in i m 10 of water and
freely in alcohol. Paraldehyde is a powerful hypnotic, giving
a refreshing quiet sleep which is not followed by unpleasant
after effects. As it does not depress the heart when used in
medicinal doses, it may be given to patients suffering from
cardiac disease. It is much used to produce sleep in the insane.
As it is largely excreted by the lungs it may be found useful in
bronchial asthma. When taken continuously the drug soon
loses its power as a hypnotic. Its unpleasant taste usually
prevents the formation of a paraldehyde habit, but it occasionally
occurs with symptoms resembling dclj^ium tremens. When
taken in an overdose paraldehyde kills by producing respiratory
failure.
PARALLAX (Gr. iropaXXA^, alternately), in astronomy, the
apparent change in the direction of a heavenly body when
viewed from two different points. Geocentric parallax is the
angle between the direction of the body as seen from the
surface of the earth aiul the direction in wliich it appears from
the centre of the earth. Annual parallax b the angle between
the direction in which a star appears from the earth and the
direction in which it appears from the centre of the sun.
For stellar parallaxes sec Stak; the solar parallaj( is discussed
below.
Solar Parallax.— The problem of the distance of the sun
has always been regarded as the fundamental one of celestial
measurement. The difficulties in the way of solving it are very
great, and up to the present time the best authorities are not
agreed as to the result, the effect of half a century of research
hiving been mert^ to reduce the uncertainty within continually
narrower limits. The mutations of opinion on the subject
during the last fifty years have been remarkable. .Up to about
t^e middle of the 19th century it was supposed that transits of
\'cnus across the disk of the sun afforded the most trustworthy
rricthod of making the determination in question; and when
Encke in 1824 published his classic discussion of the transits
of 1761 and 1769, it was supposed that we must wait until the
transits of 1874 and 18&2 had been observed and discussed
before any further light would be thrown on the subject. The
liarallax 8^5776" found by Encke was therefore accepted without
question, and was employed in the Nautical Almanac from 1834
to 1S69. Doubt was first thrown on the accuracy of this number
by an announcement from Hansen in 1862 that the observed
parallactic inequality of the moon was irreconcilable with the
accepted value of the solar parallax, and indicated the much
larger value 8-97'. This result was soon apparently confirmed
by several other researches founded both on theory and observor
tion, and so strong did the evidence appear to be that the
value 8-95' was used in the Nautical Almanac from 1870 to 1881.
The most remarkable feature of the discussion since 1862 is that
the successive examinations of the subject have led to a con*
tinuolly diminishing value, so that at the present time it seems
possible that the actual parallax of the sun is almost as near to
the old value of Encke as to that which first repbced it. The
value of 8-848', determined by S. Newcomb, was used Xrom 1882
to 1900; and since then the value 880' has been employed,
having been adopted at a Paris conference In 1896.*
Five fundamentally different methods of determining the
distance of the sun have been worked out and applied. They
are as follows:^ —
I. That of direct measurement. — From the measures of the
parallax of either Venus or Mars the parallax of the sun can
> R. S. BalU Spherial Attr$mmy» p. y)^
be immediately derived, because the ratios of diftancci te
the solar system are known with the last degree of rrt%€%wt
precision. Transits of Venus and observations of Dtmrmm^
various kinds on Mars arc all to be included in this <*•«•
class.
II. The second method is !n principle extremely sunple,
consisting merely in multiplying the observed velocity of light
by the time which it takes light to travel from the sun to the
earth. The velocity is now well determined; the difficulty is
to determine the time of passage.
III. The third method is through the determination of the
mass of the earth rcbtive to that of the sun. In astronomical
practice the masses of the planets are commonly expressed as
fractions of the mass of the sun, the latter being taken as unity.
When we know the mass of the earth in gravitational measure,
its product by the denominator of the fraction Just mentioned
gives the mass of the sun in gravitational measure. From this
the distance of the sun can be at once determined by a funda-
mental equation of planetary motion.
IV. The fourth method is through the parallactic bequafity
in the moon's motion. For the rchtion of this inequality to
the solar parallax see Moon.
V. The fifth method consists fn observing the displacement
in the direction of the sun, or of one of the nearer planets, due to
the motion of the earth round the common centre of gravity of
the earth and moon. It requires a precise knowledge of the
moon's mass. The imcertainty of this mass impairs the accuracy
of the method.
I. To begin with the results of the first method. The transits
of Venus observed in 1874 and 1882 might be expected to hold
a leading place in the discussion. No purely
astronomical enterprise was ever carried out on so JJJJJ*"'
large a scale or at so great an expenditure of money
and labour as was devoted to the observations of these trasuts,
and for several years before their occurrence the astronomers of
every leading nation were busy in discussing methods of obser-
vation and working out the multifarious details neccssar>' to
their successful application. In the preceding century reliance
was placed entirely on the observed moments at which Venus
entered upon or left the limb of the sun, but in 1874 it was
possible to determine the relative positions of Venus and the
sun durbig the whole course of the transit. Two methods
were devised. One was to use a heliomcter to measure the
distance between the limbs of Venus and the sun during the
whole time that the pbnct was seen projected on the sobr di^,
and the other was to take photographs of the sun during ihe
period of the transit and subsequently measure the negatives.
The Germans hid the greatest stress on measures with the
heliometer; the Americans, English, and French on the photo-
graphic method. These four nations sent out well-equipped
expeditions to various quarters of the globe, both in 1874 and
1882, to make the required observations; but when the resuhs
were discussed they were found to be extremely unsatisfactory.
It had been sup{x>sed that, with the greatly improved telescopes
of modern times, contact observations could be made with nuck
greater precision thai) in t^6l and 1769, yet, for some reason
which it is not easy to explain completely, the modem obser\'»-
tJons were but little better than the older ones. Discrepancica
difficult to account for were found among the estinutes of cvca
the best observers. The photographs led to no moie definite
result than the observations of contacts, except perhaps those
taken by the Americans, who had adopted a more complete
system than the Europeans} but even tbeM were by no mcaas
satisfaetoty. Nor did the measures made by the Germans with
heliometets come out any better. By the American photographs
the distances between the centres of Venus and the sun, and the
angles between the line tdjoinii^ the centres and the meridian,
could be separately measuted and a sepante result far the
parallax derived from each. The results were:—
Distances; par. -8-888%
' '^ Pos. angles; „ - 8*873 '.
;.»73'.
«77a'.
TrtaaUaiMt: D^a«»i
PARALLl^X
761
Tlito German nmsoftt irfth the bdlotaeter c»v« appaxe&Uy
oonconUat results, as foIlows^~
TnnsUcfi97A' par.-8'876'.
Tramit^iSla: „ -8-879'.
The oombioed result from both these methodi b 8'8S7', while
the comUnatioii of all the contact obeenratioBS made by all the
pattica gave the much smaller sesult» 8*794'. Had the internal
contacts akne been used, which many astronomers would
have considered the pfoper couise, the result would have been
8-776'.
In 1877 Sir David Gill mginiurd an eq>edition to the idand of
Ascension to observe the parallax of Man with the heUometer.
By measuremenU giving the pesidon of Man among
the neighbouring stan in the morning and evening,
the effect of panUax could be obtained as well as
hy observing fnun two different sUtions; in fact the loUtaon
of the earth caxsicd the obsecver himself round a panM of
latitude^ so that the oomparison of his own morning and
evening observatiou could be used aa if they had been made at
different sUtions. The lesuU waa 8*78'. The faUure of the
method based on tnuoiU' ol Venus led to an Intatnatiaaal
effort carried out on the initiativn of Sir David Gill to meanre
the paraUaz by obeervntkina on those minor planeta which
approach nearat the earth. The scheme of obsttvations wo
niganised on an extended scale. The three bodiea chosen
for observation were: Victoria Gnne 10 to Aug. atf, 1889);
Iris (Oct. 13 to Dec: io» x888)i and Sappbo (Sept. x8 to Oct. as,
1888). He distances of these bodies at the times nfoppoeitaoo
were somewhat len than unity, though more than twice as great
aa that of Mai» in 1877. The dmwback of greater dittaace
was, however, in Gill's opinion, more than compensated by the
aocuiacy with which the obeervatioBs could be nade. The
instrumenta used were heliometers, the oontuuction and use of
which had been greatly improved^ largely through the efforu of
Gill himself. The planeU in question appeared in the telesco|)e
as atar«like objecu which could be ooni|»red with theaun with
much greater accunwry than a planetaiy disk like that of Mars,
the apparent form of which was changed by ita varying phase,
doe to the different directions of theaun's iUunination. Hiese
dbeervationa were woriced up and discussed by Gill with great
ebboration in the iinno^t c/ fAe Ca^t Oflwrsstary, vols. vi. and
fiL The resulu were for the solar pandkx v:—
From Victoria, ir - 8»8oi»«fcO-oo6'<
„ Sappbo, »-8.798;*»ori;.
,» Iris. »-8-8ia'ifco-oo9\
The general mean result was 8*8oa^ From the meridian observa-
tions of the same planets made for the purpose of controlling
the elements of motion of the phinets Auwen found r*8*8o6'.
In X898 the remarkable minor phnet Eros was discovered,
which, on those rare occasions when in opposition near perihelion,
would approach the earth to a disunce of o*id. On these
occasions the actual parallax would be six times greater than that
of the sun, and could thercf<n« be raeasuned with much greater
precision than in the case of any other planet. Such an approach
had occurred In 1899, but the planet was not then <fisoovered.
At the opporition of 1900-1901 the minimum distance was
0-33, much less than that of any other planet Advantage
was taken of the occasfon to make photographic measures for
parallax at various points of the earth on a very hrge sdale.
Owhig to the dlffictdties inherent In determining the position
of so fiaiot an object among a great number of stars, the results
have taken about ten years to work out. The photographic
jight ascensions gave the values 8-80' + 0-007' ± 0-0027'
(Hinks) and 8-80' + 00067' ± 00025' (Pertine); the
micronetrie observations gave the value 8'8o6'^o-oo4 (Hinks). >
n. The velocity of li^t (g.e.) has been measured with all
the pfedsion necessary for the purpose. The latest result is
#99,860 kilometres per second, with a probable error of perhaps
30 kHometres— that is, about the ten-thousandth pan of the
quantity Itself. This d^rne of predskm is far beyond any we
« MoH, NoL Jtil.5.(May 1909.) p 544: Ibid. (June 1910), p. 588.
can hope to reach In the solar paraOaz. The -other element
which enten into oonsideratioa is the time required for light to
pass from the sun to the earth. Here no such precision can
be attained. Both direct and indirect methods aro available.
The direct method consists in observing the times of some*
momentary or rapidly varying celestial phenomenon, as it
appean when seen from opposite points of the earth's orbiL
'Ae only phenomena of the sort available are eclipses of Jupiter'a
satellites, especially of the first. Unfortunately these edipsesv
are not sudden but sk>wly changing phenomena, so that they
cannot be observed without an ern^r of at least aevexal seconds,
and not infrequently important fractions of a minute. As the
entire time required for light to pass over the radius of the earth's
orbit b only about sdb seconds, this error is fatal to the method.
The indirect method is based upon the observed constant of
aberration or the displacement of the stats due to the earth's
motion. The minutenen of this displacement, about 20-50%
makea ita precise determination an extremely difficult matter.
The moat careful determinations an affected by systematic
erron arising from those diurnal and annual diangea of tempera-
ture, the effect of which cannot be wboUy eliminated in astro-
nomical observation; and the recently dispovered variation of
latitude haa introduced a new element of uncertainty into the
deternihiation. In consequence of H, the values formerly
found were systematically too small by an amount which even
now it is difficult to estimate with precision. Strave's classic
number, universally- accepted during the second half of the X9th
century, was 20-445'. Serious doubt was first cast upon its
accuracy by the observations of Nyrfo with the same instrument
during theyean 1880-1882, but on a much larger number of stars.
His result, from his observations alone, was 2o-5i'; and taking
Into account the oth^r Pulkowa results, he concluded the most
probable value to be oo'iga'. In 1895 Chandler, from a general
dbcusnon of all the observatkms, derived the value of 20- $0'.
Since then, two elaborate series of observations made with
the aenith telesco^ for the purpose of determining the variation
of latitude and the constant of abenation have been carried
on by Professor C. L. DooUttle at the Flower Observatory near
Philadelphia, and Professor J. K. Rees and his assistants at the
observatory of Columbia University, New York. Each of these
works b sdf-consisfent and aeetnin^y trustworthy, but there
b a difference bet ween, the two which it b difficult to account
for. Recs's result b *0'47'; Doolittle's, from 20-46' to 2056'.
Thb last value agrees very dosdy with a determination made by
GUI at the Cape of Good Hope, and most other recent determina-
tions give values exceeding 20-50'. On the whole it b proba))le
that the value exceeds 20-50'; and so far as the results of direct
observation are concerned may, for the present, be fixed at
20-52'. The corresponding value of the solar paiaUax b 8-782*.
In addition to the doubt thrown on thb result by the dbcrepancy
between various determinations of the constant of aberration,
it b sometimea doubted whether the latter constant necessarily
expresses with entire prvision the ratio of the velocity of the
earth to the velocity of light. While the theory that it does
seems highly probable, it cannot be regarded as absolutely
certain.
III. The combined mass of the earth and moon admits of being
determined by its effect in chan^'ng the position of the plane
of the orbit of Venus. The motion of the node of j|^^^^,
thb plane b found with great exactness from observa- g^^^
tibns of the transits of Venus. So exact is the latter
determination that, were there no weak point in the subsequent
parts of the process, thb method would pvc far the most certain
result for the solar parallax. Its weak point b that the apparent
motion of the node depends partly upon the motion of the
ecliptic, which cannot be determined with equal precision. The
derivation of the distance of the sun by it b of such interest
from its simplicity that we shall show the computation.
From the observed motion of the node of Venus, as shown by the
four transiu of 1761, 1769, 1874 and 1882, b found
763
PARALLELISM-^PARALYSIS
In ciwvltalioMl iiritt of iiimIi iMtied on the netve Md tprond
•• imiti of length and tioae,
Log. earth's taiM«i4*6ooss
„ mooa'k „ -I2-6895-
The wm of the cuci rm w ndie g imniben miiltiplied bf jp^oo
givn
Log. lua's maat" 30* 12773.
Putting « for the mean distance of the earth from the tun, and
II for It! aeaa motioa in one lecoiid. we use the fundamental
cquatioa
/ o>ii«-M«-»-M'.
M« being the tun'a raav, and M' the combined maftcs of the earth
and moon, which are. however, too small to affect the result. For
the mean motion of the earth in one second in clreular measure,
webav«
the denominator of the fraction bdna the number of seooada in the
sidereal year. Then, from the formiua
-^•-:^^*
Log. a in metres*
Log. equat. tad. Q
Il*i7«53
6-4047O
Sine O 'a eq. hor. par. S*6a8i7
Sun's eq. hor. par. a-763 .
IV. Tbe detenninatioD of the solar iMraUaz tlirbugh the
parallactic inequality of the moon's motion also involvea two
„^. ^ demeata-^ne of observation, the other of purely
nrnL mathematical theory. The inequality in question
has its greatest negative value near the time of the
moon's first quarter, and the greatest positive value neat the
third quarter. Meridian observations of the moon have been
heretofore made by observing the trauit of iu illuminated
limb. At first quarter iu fiist limb is flhuninated; at third
quarter, its second limb. In each case the resulu of the observa-
tions may be systematically in error, not only from the uncertain
diameter of the moon, but in a still greater degree from the
varying effect of irradiation and the personal equation of the
observers. The theoretical dement is the ratio of the parallactic
inequality to the aolar parsUay. The determination of this
ratio is one of the most difficult problems in the lunar theory.
Accepting the definitive result of the researches of E. W. Brown
the value of the solar parattaz derived by this mathod is about
»-773'.
V. The fifth method is, as we have said, the most uncertain
M^mm e# of all; it will therefore suffice to quote the nauk.
OMtfe. vhichis
The following may be taken as the most probable values of
the solar parallax, as derived independcntiy by the five methods
we have described:—
From I
s of parallax
vdocity of ticht
101 *
»• par.
»• luoB
. . the earth
tneq. of moon
••781'
8.76a'
The question of the possible or probable error of these results
is one on which there h a marked divergence of opinion among
investigators. Probably no general agreement could now be
reached on a statement more definite than this; the last result
may be left out of consideration, and the value of the solar
parallax is probably contained between the limits 8- 77' and
8-8o.' The most likdy distance of the sun may be stated in
round numbers as 93,000,000 miles. (S. N.)
PARAIXBU8H. PSTGHOPHYSICAI^ !n pyschology, the
theory that the conscious and nervous processes vary concomi-
tantly whether or not there be any causal connexion between
them ; in other words " that modifications of consciousness emerge
contemporaneously with corresponding modifications of nervous
process " (Stout). The theory u the third possible alternative
in considering the relation between mind and body, the others
being interaction and one-sided action (e.g. materialism).
It should be observed that this theory is merely a statement,
not an explanation. (See Psycbology.)
PARALLEL HOTION, a form of Unk-work invented by IsMi
Watt, and used in steam-engines (see Steam-Eitcinb, | 88),
to connect the head of the pbton rod, moving up and down m
a vertical path, with the end of the besm. moving in the arc
of a drde. An ordinary form b shown diagrammatlcally ia
figure. MN is the path In
which the piston-rod head,
or croisheadi aa it is often
called, is tobeguided. ABC
the middle Une of half
the beam, C being the fixed
oentxe about which thebeam
osdllatea. A Uak BD oon-
oecu a point in the beam
with a radius link ED, which
oscillates about a fixed centra at £. A
BP : DP :: EN : CM,
A*«;-. '*....
Watt's Parallel Motieik
point P in BD,
80 that BP : DP :: KM : CM, move in a ' path
which coincides very dosdy with the straight line if PN.
Any other point F hi the line CP or CP pradnoed is mad*
to copy thb motien by means of the links AF and FG, pataJld
to BD and AC. U the cnilnary appllcatioa of tha
pacaild motion a point such as F is the point of attach-
ment of the phton-rod, and P Is used to drive a punp-iod.
Other pohtta in the line CP produced are «ccasioaaliy au4t
use of by adding other links paralld to AC and BD.
Watt's linkage gives no more than an approximatioD ta
straight-line motion, but hi a well-designed example the amoimt
of deviatwn need not exceed one four-thousandth of the length
of stroke. It was for k>ng believed that the production of aa
exact stzaigfat*line motion by pure linkage waa imposiblc,
until the problem was solved by the invention of the PeaoccUicr
cell. (See also hfiauNiCi: Applied MtdumUs^ §| 77, 78.)
PARALLBJ, in siegecraft, a term used to express the trsachea
drawn by besiegen in a geaeially paralld dfaeotkia to the froiit
of a fortress chosen for attack. Paxallds are employed along
with "xlgiag approaches " in the " formal atuck " or SK«e
proper. Th^ are traced in short tigsaglengtha (the prolonfatioa
of each length falling dear of the hostile works), in order to avoid
enfilade; but thdr obliquity is of course nmde as slight na la
oondstent with due protection in order to save time and labour.
The ''first paralld "isopened at a amvenient distance from the
fortress, by numerous working parries, who dig (under cover
of night) a continuous lane of entrenchments facing the point
or poinu of attack. Zigsags are next dug to the rear (when
necessary) to ^ve shdtoed access to the parallel, and froB
this new zigzags are pushed out towards the defenders, to be
connected by a *' second paralld," and m on until finally a
paralld is made sufficiently dose to the fortress to permit of
an assault over the open, the parallfls becoming stronfcr and
more solid as they approach to doser range. This system of
parallels provides, within range of the ddendcrs' veapoaa,
shdter in which the besieger can safdy mass men and material
for the prosecution of the attacL Parallels and approaches
axe constructed dther by ordinary '* trench work," executed
dmultaneously t^ a large number of men strung out along thn
intended line, or by *' sapping " in which one trained " sapper,"
as it were, burrows a trench in the required dinakm, others
following him to «iden and improve the work.
PARALUS and SALAMIRIA, the name of two aadent
Athenian triremes used for sacred embassies, the conveyance ol
despatches and tribuu money, the transportaUon of state crtmi-
nals, and as flagships in time of war. It Is probable that &
third vessd of the same kind (called Delia) was used exclusivdy
for Ddiaa embasdes, dthough it has been identified by sooae
with the Salaminia.
PARALYSIS, or Palsy (from Gr. irepaX£w, to rdax; Wydifle
has potay^ and another old form of the word is pnluy), a term
which in ita wider acceptation indicates abolition ol motor,
sensory, sensorid or vaso-motor functioos, but in medicd
nomendauire is usually restricted to the loss or impaiimcnt of
voluntary muscular power. Pasdysis is to be rcgsrdcd rather
as a symptom than a disease p€r w, it may arise (t) from injury
PARALYSIS
763
or dbeaw of nervous and muscular structures, and is tben termed
organk paralysis] or (2) from purely dynamic disturbances
in tbe nervous structures of the brain which preside over
voluntary movement. The latter is functional motor paralysis,
a symptom common tn certain neuroses, especially hysteria.
For general paralysis of ike insane, see Insanity.
Whether the loss of motor power be functional or organic In
origin, ft may be generalized in all the muscles of the body,
or localized to one or many. The different forms of paralysis
of the voluntary muscles which may arise from organic disease
can be understood by a consideration of the motor path of
voluntary impulses from brain to muscle. There are two
neural segments in this path, an upper cerebral and a lower
spinal; the former has ita departure platform in the brain and
Its terminxis in the whole of the anterior grey matter of the
spina] cord, whence issues the lower spinal segment of the motor
path to the muscles. The nerve fibres of the upper cerebral
segment are prolongations of the large psycho-motor cells;
the nerve fibres of the lower segment are prolongations by the
anterior roots and motor nerves of the hrge ceHs in the grey
matter of the cord. Disease or destruction of any part of the
upper cerebral segment will give rise to loss of voluntary power,
for the influence of the mind on the muscles Is removed in
proportion to the destruction of this efferent path (see diagram
in Neukopathology). Disease or destruction of the lower spinal
segment causes not only loss of voluntary power but an atrophy
of the muscles themselves. Paralysis may therefore be divided
into three great groups: (x) loss of voluntary power without
muscular wasting except from disuse, and without electrical
changes in the muscles due to injury or disease of the upper
cerebral segment of the motor path of volition; (3) loss of
muscular power with wasting and electrical changes in the
muscles due to disease or Injury of the lower spinal segment
formed by the cells of the grey matter of the spinal cord,
the anterior roots and the peripheral motor nerves; (3) primary
wasting of the muscles.
The more common forms of paralysis will now be described.
I. Hemiplegia, or paralysis affecting one side of the body,
is a ftequent result of apoplexy {q.v.); there Is loss of motion of
the tongue, face, trunk and extremities on the side of the body
opposite the lesion in the brain. In a case of severe complete
hemiplegia both arm and leg are powerless; the face Is paralysed
chiefly in the lower part, while the upper part moves almost
as well as on the unparalysed side, and the eye can be shut at
will, uoUke peripheral facial paralysis (Bell's palsy). The tongue
when protruded deviates towards the paralysed side, and the
musclM of mastication contract equally in ordinary action,
although difficulty arises in eating, from food accumulating
between the cheek and gums on the paralysed side. Speech
is thick and indistinct, and when there Is right -sided hemiplegia
in a right-handed person, there may be associated various
forma of aphasia iq.v.), because the speech centres are in the
left hemisphere of the brain. Some muscles are completely
paralysed, others arc merely weakened, while others, e.g. the
trunk muscles, arc apparently unaffected. In many cases of
even complete hemiplegia, improvement, especially in children,
takes place after a few weeks or months, and is generally first
indicated by return of movement in the muscles which arc
habitually associated in their action with those of the opposite
unparalysed side; thus, movement of the leg returns first at
the hip and knee joints, and of the arm at the shoulder and
elbow, although the hand may remain motionless. The recovery
however in the majority of cases is only partial, and the sufferer
of hemiplegia is left with a permanent weakness of one side of
the body, often associated with contracture and rigidity, giving
rise to a characteristic gait and attitude. The patient in walking
leans to the sound side and swings round the affected leg from
the hip, the Inner side of the toe of the boot scraping the ground
as it is raised and advanced. The arm is addocted at the shoulder,
flexed at the elbow, vrrist and fingers, and resists all attempts
at extensioa. According to the part of the brain damaged
variations of paralytic symptoms may arise; thus occa s hi na lly
the paralysis may be limited more or less to the face, the arm
or the leg. In such case it is termed a wwnoplegia, a condition
sometimes arising from cerebral tumour. Occasionally the face
is paralysed on one side and the arm and leg on the other aide;
this condition is termed aUemaU hemiplegia, which is due to
the fact that the disease has damaged the motor path from tho
brain to the leg and arm before it has crossed over to the opposite
side, whereas the path to the face musdes is damaged after it
has crossed. In rare cases both leg, arm and face on one side
may be paralysed— /ri^^^; or all four Umha—bilaleral kemi-.
plegia. Infantile spastic paralysis, iufamUe diplegia, or as it
is sometimes called Little's diseaae, is a birth palsy caused by
injury from protracted labour, the use of forceps or other
causes. The symptoms are generally not observed until long
after birth. Convulsions are common, and the child is unable
to sit up or walk long after the age at which it should do so.
Paraplegia is a term applied to paralysis of the lower extremi-
ties; there are many causes, but in the great majority of instances
it arises trom a local or general disease or injury of the spinal
cord. A localized transverse myelitis will interrupt the motor
and sensory paths which connect the brain with the spinal grey
matter below the lesion, and when the destruction is com-
plete, motor and sensory paralysis in all the structures below
the injury results; thus fracture, dislocation and disease of the
spinal column {e.g. tubercular caries, syphilitic diseaae of the
membranes, kx»lized tumours and haemorrhages) may cause
compression and inflammatory softening, and the result is
paralysis of the voluntary muscles, kMS of sensation, loas of
control over the bowel and bladder, and a great tendency to
the development of bed-sores. The muscles do not waste
except from disuse, nor undergo electrical changes unless the
disease affects extensively the spinal grey matter or roots as
well as the cerebral path. When It does so, as in the case of
aciUe spreading myelitis, the symptoms are usually more severe
and the outlook is more grave.
In cases of focal myelUis from injury or disease, recovery
may take place and the return of power and sensation may occur
to such an extent that the patient is able to walk long diatances;
this happy termination In cases of kxraliaed disease or injury
of the spinal cord often takes place by keeping the patient on
his back in bed, daily practising massage and passive movements,
and so managing the case as to avoid bedsores and septic inflam-
mation of the bladdcr^the two dangerous complications which
are liable to arise.
a. Paralysis may result from acute inflammatory affections
of the spinal cord involving the grey and white matter— mye^tfii
(see Neuropathology).
Infantile or Essential Paralysis. — This is a form of spinal
paralysis occurring with frequency in young children; in Scan-
dinavian countries the disease b prevalent and sometimes assumes
an epidemic form, whereby one Is led to believe that it is due to
an infective organism. The names infantile and essential paralysis
were given before the true nature of the disease in the spinal
cord was known; precisely the same affection may occasionally
occur, however, in adults, and then it is termed adult spinal
paralysis. The medical name for this disease Is acute anterior
poliomyelilis (Gr. woktAs, grey, and /w^6i, marrow), because
the anterior grey matter of the spinal cord is the seat
of acute inflammation, and destruction of the spinal motor
nerve path to the muscles. The extent of the spinal grey matter
affected and the degree of destruction of the motor nerve
elements which ensues determine the extent and permanency
of the paralysis. The term atrophic spinal paralysis is some-
times employed as Indicating the permanent wasting of muscles
that results.
Infantile paralysis often commences suddenly, and the
paralysis may not be observed untO a few days have elapsed ;
the earliest symptoms noticeable are fever, convulsions and
sometimes vomiting; and, If the child is old enough, it may
complain of pains or numbness or tingling in the limb or Umte
which are subsequently found to be paralysed. It is character-
istic, however, of (be disease that there is no loss of ie^^^"
76+
PARALYSIS
in the panl>-8ed limb. The whole of the limb it not necessarily
paralyid, often it is only a group of muscles, and even if the
paraljrsis affects both legs or the ann and leg on one side, it
generally fails in the uniform distribution of the previously
described paraplegia or hemiplegia. The affected muscles
rapidly waste and become ffacdd, the electrical reactions change,
and finally the musdes may cease to respond to electrical stimu-
lation whether of the continuous or interrupted current. In
the less severe cases (and they are the most common) only a
group of muscles undergo complete paralysis and atrophy, and
there is always hope of some return of power in a paralysed
limb. Associated with the withered condition of the limb
due to the muscular atrophy b an enfeebled circulation, rendering
the limb cold, blue and livid; the nutrition of the bones and
other parts is involved, so that a limb paralysed in early
infancy docs not grow and is shorter than its fellow. Deformities
arise, some the result of simply failing muscular support; others
due to permanent changes in the position of the limbs, for
example clubfoot. There is absence of bladder and bowel
troubles, and bedsores do not occur; the disease Itself is rarely,
if ever, fatal. About a month after the onset of the disease
local treatment of the atrophied musdes should be commenced,
and every effort should be made by massage, by suiuble positions
and passive movements to promote the drculation and prevent
deformities in the affected limbs. Should these measures fail,
surgical aid should be sought.
Sub-acute and chronic forms of atrophic and spinal paraljrsis
have been described, but some of them were undoubtedly cases
of peripheral neuritis.
Wasting Palsy. Progressvfe Musadar Atrophy.— Thii is a
chronic disease characterized by slow and insidious weakness
and wasting of groups of muscles due to disease of the anterior
spinal grey iflatter. It begins mostly in adult life between
25 and 4$ years of age, and affects males more than females.
In the majority of cases it commences in the upper extremities,
and the small musdes of the hand are especially liable to be
affected. The palmar eminences of the thumb and little
finger, owing to the wasting of the muscles, gradually disappear,
and a flat ape-Uke hand is the result; in extreme cases all the
small muscles of the hand are atrophied, and a claw-like band
is the result. The muscles which are next most liable to atrophy
are those of the shoulder and upper arm, and tfie atrophy may
thence spread to the musdes of the neck and trunk, and the
intercostals and even the diaphragm may be affected, causing
serious difficulties of respiration. The lower extremities are less
often and later affected by wasting. This disease generally runs
a slow and progressive course; it may however be years before It
spreads from the hand to^the arm, and a period of arrest may
occur before other muscles become involved. A characteristic
feature of the disease is fibrillary twitching of the wasting
musdes. The dcctrical excitability of the muscles is diminished
rather than changed, except where the wasting is very extreme,
when a partial reaction of degeneration may be obtained.
Sensation is unaffected, as the disease is limited to the motor
cells of the anterior grey matter (sec Neuropathology). There
is no affection of the bowel or bladder. Death usually occurs
from Intercurrent diseases, e.g. bronchitis, pneumonia, or
broncho-pneumonia. Some patients die owing to failure of
the respiratory muscles; others from the disease spreading
to the medulla oblongata (the bulb of the brain) and causing
bulbar paralysis. The chronic morbid process leading to decay
and destruction of the spinal motor cells which is the essential
pathological feature of this disease is generally accompanied,
and sometimes preceded, by degeneration of the path of volun-
tary impulses from the brain. It is then called amyotrophic
lateral sclerosis^ a rapid form of progressive muscular atrophy.
Bulbar Paralysis. — A number of different morbid conditions
may pve rise to a group of symptomi^, the prindpal features
of which are paralysis of the musdes concerned in speech,
swallowing, phonation and mastication. These symptoms may
arise suddenly from vascular lesions or Inflammatory processes,
which involve the nuclei of origin of the cranial nerves supplying
the muscles of the tongue, Ups, phaiynz«xid larynx. But tkctt
is also a slow degenerative insidious progressitc bulbar paratysit
affecting both sexes pretty equally; it came on betvecn 40
to 60 years of age, and the cause is unknown. Slight indistinct-
ness of speech, especially in the utterance of consonants requiring
the elevation of the tip of the tongue to the dental ardi and
palate, is usually the first symptom. Later the explosive lip
sounds are indistinctly uttered; simultaneously, owing to
paralysis of the soft palate, the speech becomes nasal in ohancter
and sooner or later, associated with this difficulty of speech,
there is a difficulty of swallowing, partly because the tongue
is unable to convey the food to the back of the mouth, and it
accumulates between the cheeks and gims. Moreover the
pharyngeal musdes are unable to seize the food and start the
process of swallowing on account of the |>aiBlysis of the soft
palate; liquids arc apt to regurgitate through the nostrils, the
patient must thereforp be nourished with soft semi-solid food.
As the disease proceeds, the difficulty of speech and swallowing tt
increased by the affection of the laryngeal musdes; the pitch
of the voice is lowered and the glottis is imperfectly dosed
during deglutition; there is consequently a tendency for liquids
and food to pass into the brynx and set up fits of ooughiag,
which, however, are ineffectual Later the musdes of sMstlca*
lion are affected and the disease may extend to the respira.toi7
centre, giving rise to attacks of dyspnoea. The intellectaa]
faculties are as a rule unimpaired, although the facial exprrniion
and the curious emotional mobility of the countenance, with a
tendency of the patient to burst into tears or laughter, would
suggest weak-mindedness. Whilst the lower half of the face
is strikingly affected, the upper half retains its normal ezpressioa
and power of movement. This disease is usually rapidly fatal,
since it affects the vital centres, and liability to broodxK
pneumonia exdted by the entrance of food into the eii
passages is also a constant danger in the later stages.
Bulbar Paralysis loithout Anatomical Change. — ^This rt^i^ui^^
is also termed " myasthenia gravis "; it differs from aaatc imI
chronic bulbar disease by the absence of muscular aiiopby,
by normal dcctrical excitability of the musdes, by a ir^r^rii
devek^ment of the paralysis by fatigue, and by f«^pff4*fH^r
remissions of the symptoms. The bulbar symptoms axe the
most prominent, but all voluntary musdes are more or hm
affected, especially the eye-musdes. It b a rare disease affecting
both sexes equally at almost any age, the causes and pathdbgy
of which are unknown.
3. Paralysis resulting from disease or injury of the :
path to the musdes in the peripheral nervous eysleai.
iVeifri/»j.— Paralysis may arise in a musde, a group of 1
a whole limb, the lower extremities, or there siay be a generaliacd
paralysis of voluntary musdes as a result of neuritis. A typical
example of neuritis giving rise to paralysis owing to inffafliroatoiy
swelling and compresion is afforded by the facial nerve; t^m
purely motor nerve as it passes out of the skull through a nanw
bony passage is easily compressed and its function interfered
with, causing a paralysis of the whole of one side of the iacx
and Bellas Palsy. Exposure to a cold draught in a peiwyi with
rheumatic diathesis is a frequent cause. As an *»impif of
simple mechanical compression producing paralysia, ermldk
palsy may be died; it is the result of continuoua oompresaioai
of the musculo-spiral nerve as it winds round the hooe <tf the
upper arm.
Lead poisoning may give rise to a localised neuritis affecting
the posterior inter-osseous nerve, eq>ecially in painters and ia
those whose occupations necessitate eacessive use of the *«**"rrii
of the forearm; the result is wrisl drpp or had polsy.
Sciatica is a painful inflammatory ooadition of the adatic
nerve, in which there may be weakness of the nuades; hot
Inability to move the limb is more on account of the pain it cauaea
than on account of paralysis of the musdes. Espoaute to oold
and wet, e.g. sitting on a damp aaat, may lead to aciatka in a
gouty or rheumatic person.
Multiple neuritis is a painful geaeealiaed inflammatian of the
peripheral nervotia ayatem and anacs in naay tone coodtdoaa
and cbiDaic aloobol poisoning. It aJao ocean in diabetes* diph-
theria, bcri-berf and other conditioos (see NsuaoPAnofcoOY).
A short dcaoiption of the commooest form will be given. U
OCCIU8 in chronic alcoholism and especially in women, and k
most frequently due to a combination of a septic absorption
from some internal disease and the abuse of alcohoi In a
marked case the patient may suffer from forapUgia^ hut it is
distinguished from the paraplegia of spinal disease by the fact
that there is kMs of control of the sphincters only when there
is associated dementia, and that instead of the limbs being
insensible th^ are extremely painful on deep pressure. There
is wasting of the muscles» and ekarical changes in them;
frequently thcie is anaesthesia and snelggsia of the skin, wfaidti
takes a stocking-lake distribution. In severe cases the upper
limbs may be affected, and all the muscles of the body are more
or less liable to be paralysed— even the heart may sulfer.
The mental condition in such a severe case is usually quite
chancteristic; there is delirium, the patient is the subject of
hallucinations and dehisioBs; there is loss of knowledge of
time and pbce, and illusions of personal identity. A constant
symptom is the loss of memory of recent events, while those
of early life are easily recollected.
Paralyses— termed medically muscular dystrophies— may.
arise from a primary atrophy of muscle appsrently independent
of any discoverable change in the nervous system, but due to a
congenital developmental defect of the muscles. Heredity plays
an important part in the incidence of these diseases, members
of the same family being affected with the same type of disease,
and at the same period of life. There may be a tendency in a
family to the affection of one sea and not the other; on the other
hand, children of both seiies may suffer in the same family. It
tA airioos that the majority of cases are males, and that it is
transmitted by women who are not themselves its subjects.
Many diffcfent clinical types have been described based upon
the age of onset, the groups of muscles first affected, and the
presence or absence of apparent hypertrophy; they are however
all varieties of one affection, and in a case where there is an
apparent enlargement of muscles there is really atrophy of the
contractile muscle fibres and overgrowth of fat and intetstiiial
fibrous tissue; consequently this form of the disease is called
psemdO'kyperlropkic paralysis. -
The muscular dystrophies may be divided into two groups
according to the period of life in which the malady manifests
itself: (i) Those occorring in childhood; (3) those occurring
In youth or adult life. In the first group the nnisdes may be
atrophied or apparently hypertrophied. A progressive atrophy
of muscles associated with progressive weakness and varicius
disabilities oif movement is soon recognised in the relation of
cause and effect; but the parents whose first child looks Uke an
infant' Hercules, with abnormally large calves and buttocks,
cannot for some time appreciate any connexion of this condition
with a muscular weakness which is manifested in various ways.
The child slands with Its feet widely separated; it waddles
along rather than walks; it falls easily and rises with difficulty,
having to use the hands to push against the floor; it then rests
one hand on the knee, and then the other hand on the other
knee, and climbs, as it were, up its own thighs in order to assume
the erect posture. In this pseudo*hypertn>phic form of paralysis
the outlook is very grave, and there is little hope of the patient
reaching adult life.
Paralysis agitans^ Shakinf Palsy or Parkinsai^s Diuase is a
chronic progressive disease of the nervous system occurring late
in life, and characterized by weakness, tremors and stiffness
of the muscles associated with a peculiar attitude and gait.
The first sign of the disease is weakness followed by tremor
of one hand; this consists of continuous movements of the
thumb and forefinger as in rolling a pill, or of movements of
the hand like beating a tom-tom; then the other hand is affected,
and later there is tremor at the ankle. In some cases there is
a continual nodding movement of the head. These tremors
are at the rale of five per second and cease during sleep. The
forward, tad the patient in beginning to walk takes slow step^
whith soon become short and quick as if he were running af te^
his centie of gravity. Hie intellect is clear and in marked
contrast to the mask»like expression. This disease lasts for
years, and but liule can be done in the way of treatment, except
passive movements of the limb to prevent contracture.
Tnaimmt.-—Th»n are certain geoeml principles in the treatment
of all forms of panlyus which may be summarised at follows.
'• Ro»t in bed and attention to the vital functions of the body,
the heart s action, the respiratory functions, nutrition and excretion.
The Dulse is the best guide to the administration of drugs and
aCimulantB. As regards the respiratory function, one of the Angers
of pacaiysis is an mtercurrent pneumonia— somettroca unavoidable^
often due, however. to_f ttempts^to^give noarishroent to a patient
in an irtscnsible stotc, with the result that some of the fluid enter*
the bronchial tubes, when either the rpfl^v nrntt>rtiw> mnaV '
not excited or b ineffectual.
the bronchial tube8,_when either the reflex protective coughing is
Attention to the bowels and bladder
IS noBt iroporunt. A puree at the onset of paralysis is indicated
when the pulse is fuU and of high tension, and the regular action
of the bowels is necessary ii\ ajl conditions. Retention of urine
should be carefully avoided, if necessary by the passing of a catheter,
bat too much emphasis cannot be laid ujMm the importance of
adopting aseptic precautions to avoid infection of tlie bladder^
Daily iospectv>n of the back should be made of all paralysed patients,
and precautions taken to keep the skin of all parts exposed to pre»^
sure clean; the back should be laved with eau-de-Cofogne or spirit
to harden the skin. Any sign of a red spot on the back or buttock
of the paralysed side shoold be a warning note of the posslbiKty of
a bedsore; zinc powder or ointment shoukl be applied and the
effect of pressure on the part be removed if possible by change of
posture and by the use of a water-bed. It is imjporunt to cover
alt warm bottles with flannel, for owing to insensibility large blisters,
which heal with difficulty, may result. Incases of paraplegia the
legs should be covered with warm wooUeo hand*knittcd stockings,
and a cradle* employed to protect the feet from the continuous
weight of the bed-clothes, a fruitful source of foot drop.
2. As soon as the acute symptoms have passed off passive move-
ment and massage may be employed with advanuge; In some
cases ekctrical treatment is indicated: but as a rule, especially in
childreo. electrical treatment offers the disadvantaee of being
painful and not accompUshinjr more than can be effected by massage
and passive movements. When the passU'e movements are being
made the patient shoold be instructed by the operator to will the
movement which he Is performing, and thus try to re-establish the
connexk>n of the brain with the muscles through the point of
interruption or by a new path if that is not possible.
(F. W. Mo.)
PARAHARIBO, the capital of Dutch Guiana or Surinam
(see Gumma), in 5" 44' 3©' N., 55' i»' 54* W., ao m. from the
sea on the right bank of the Surinam, here a tidal river nearly
a mile broad and 18 ft. deep. Pop. (1905), 33,821. Built on
a plateau about 16 ft. above h>w-water level, Paramaribo is
well-drained, clean and in general healthy. The straight canals
running at right angles to the river, the broad, straight tree-
planted streets, the spacious squares, and the solid plain public
buildings would not be unworthy of a town in the Netherlands.
The Indian village of Paramaribo became the site of a French
settlement probably in 1640, and in 1650 it was made the capital
of the colony by Lord Willoughby of Parham. In 1683 it was
still only a " cluster of twenty-seven dwellings, more than half
of them grog-drnps," but by 1790 it counted more than a
thousand houses. The town was partly burned down in 183 1«
and again in 1833.
PARAMECIUH, a F. Mfiller, (often misspelt Paramaecium,
Paramoedum). a genus of aspirotrochous dilate Infusoria (^.t.),
characterized by its slipper-like shape, common in infusioDSi
espedally when they contain a h'ltle animal matter. It has
two dorsal contractile vacuoles, each receiving the mouths of
five radiating canals from the inner layer of the ectosarc, and a
large ovoid megaiiudeus, and one or two micronudci. From
its abundance, the ease with which it can be cultivated and
observed, its relatively simple structure and adequately large
sise (rif In.), it is most frequently selected for dement aiy study
and demonstration, as well as for purposes of research.
PARAMINT (Fr. paremenl, from Late Lat. pofamentuwt,
adornment, parare, to prepare, equip), a term applied by
ancient writeis to the hangings or ornaments of a lOBBfttf
state. ■-'*■**"
766
PARAMOUNT—PARANOIA
PARASOUIIT (Angii>*Fr. panmmiit up above, par d ment,
op or oa top of the mowntaiii), superior, supreme, holding the
highest authority, or being of the greatest importance. The
word was firrt used, as a term of feudal law, of the lord, the
"lord paramount," who held his fief from no superior lord,
and was thus opposed to " mesne lord," one who held from a
superior. 'To those who held their fiefs from one who was not
a " lord paramount " was given the correlative term " paravail,"
^ a sol, in the valley. The word was confused by English
iawyexs with " avail," help, assistance, profit, and applied to the
actual working tenant of the land, the lowest tenant or occupier.
PARANA, a sute of southemr Brazil, bounded N. by Sio
Paulo, E. by the Atlantic, S. Ly SanU Catharina and the republic
of Argentina, and W. by Matto Grosso and the republic of
Paraguay, with the Paiani river as its western boundary line.
Area, $sasi iq. m.; pop. (1890), a49>49i; (i9«>)> 3»7>i36-
It indodes two dissimilar regions— a narrow coastal sone,
thickly wooded, swampy, and semi-troi»c&l in character, and
a high plateau (2500 to 3000 ft.) whose precipitous, deeply
eroded eastern escarpments are known as the Serra do Mar,
or Serra do Cnbatio. The southern part of the state is densely
forested and has htrge tracts of Paraguay tea {Ikx^agHayemis),
known in Brazil as kerva mati, or matk. The plateau sk>pes west-
ward to the Parani river, is well watered and moderately fertile,
and has a remarkably uniform climate of a mild temperate
character. The larger rivers of the state comprise the Parana-
panema and its tributaries the Cinza and Tibagy, the Ivahy,
Piquicy, Jejuy-guassfi, and the Iguassii with its principal tributary
the Rio Negro. The Paranapanema and a smsJl tributary,
the Itarare, form the boundary line with Sio Pattk> west of
the Serra do Mar, and the Iguassfi and Negro, the boundary
line with Sanu Catharina and Argentina— both streams having
their sources in the Serra do Mar and flowing westward to
the ParanA. The other streams have shorter courses, and all
are obstructed by falls anfl rapids. Twenty mfles above the
mouth of the Iguassu are the Iguassfi Falls, 415 ft. high, broken
into twenty or more falls separated by rocks and islands, and
surrounded by a wild, unsettled and wooded country. The faUs
are reached by occasional light-draught steamers on the Parani
between Posadas (Argentina) and the mouth of the Iguassii,
and thence by canoe to the vidnity of the falls. The surface
of the plateau b unduhiting and the greater part Is ad-
apted to agricultural and pastoral purposes. There are two
railway systems — the Paranagua to Curitjrba (69 m.) with an
extension to Ponta Grossa (iiS m.) and branches to Rio Negro
(55 m.), Port9 Amazonas (6 m.) and Antonina (10 m.); and the
Sto Paulo. & Rio Grande, which crosses the state from north-
east to south-west from Porto Uniio da Victoria, on the Iguassfi,
to a junction with the Sorocabana line of Sflo Paulo at Itarare.
The upper ParanA is navigable between the Guayri, or Sete
Quedas, and the Urubu-punga Falls. The chief ezi)ort of Parani
is Psraguay tea (a forest product). There is a large foreign
dement in the population owing to the immigrant colonies
cstabltthed on the uplands, and considcnble progress has been
made in small farming and education. Besides the capital,
Curityba, the prindpal towns are ParanaguA; Antonina, 4^ the
head of the Bay 01 ParanaguA, with a population of 7739 in 1890;
Campo Largo, so m. west of Curityba (pop. 10,643 in 1890);
Castio, N Jf .W. of the capital on the SSo Pauk> ft Rio Grande
line (pop. of the munidpio, 10,319 in 1890); and Ponta Grossa
(pop. of munidpio, 4774 in 1890), north-west of Curityba at
the Junction of the two railway systems of the state.
ParanA was settled by goM prospectors from Sio Vwaio and
.formed part of that captaincy and province down to 1853, when
it was made an indqxndent province. The first missions
of the Jesuits on the ParanA were situated just above the
CuayrA Falb in this state and had reached a highly prosperous
ooiMUtlon nhax the Indian sbve hunters of Sio Paulo (called
Mamehioos) compelled them to leave their settlements and
emigrate in mass to what is now the Argentine territory of
Miaioaes. The ruins of their prindpal missioo, known as
jCitttel KmI, an overgrown with forest
PARAMA, a dty and port of Atgentltti, cipHil of Iti p nwfen
of Entie RIos, and the see of a bishopric, dtoated oa the kft
bank of the ParanA river, 410 m. by navigable chanacb (abcntt
a40 m. direct) N.W. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (189s), S4,a6i;
(1904, cstimau), 37.000. The -dty occupies a gently nilliaf
siu ISO ft. above the river and about s m. from its il i mifcl e
port of Bajada Grande, with which it is connected by niKEay,
tramway and highway. It ia classed as a seapoit, and ocean-
going vcsseb of not over t» ft. draught can ascend to Bajada.
There is also a dally ferry service serosa the river to Saau FA
(7 m. distant), which is connected by railway with Roaario
and Buenos Aires. ParanA is also the western tOBunns of a
provincial railway system, which connects, with ConcepciAn and
Concordia, on the Uruguay river, and with other iapoitanc
towns of the provnice. The mean annual teasperstnre is abcoc
66* F. and the dimate is bracing and healthful lu poet o<
Bajada Grande, on the river shore below the bluBs, has the
custom-house and a fine wharf for the accommodation of the
Entre Rios railway and river craft. ParanA was Ihonded in
1730 by colonists from Santa FA and was at first known as
Bajada (a landing place). It was made the capital of the
province by Gcnoal Msnsilla In iSai- (Co n c e pdAa had pre-
viously been the capital), but in 1861 General Urqviza reitorrd
the seat of government to CoocepdAn, where it remained
until i88s. when PaianA again beome the capitaL ParanA
was also the capital Of the Argentine Confedoation tnam
185a to 1861.
PARANAOUA, a seaport of the state of PkranA, Brazil, on tbe
southern shore of the Bay of PannaguA, about 9 m. from the
bar of the maha channeL . Pop. of the munidpality (1890).
ti,794, of which a little more thaia one haH belonged to the town.
ParanaguA ia the principal port of the state, and is a port of call
for steameis in the coastwise trsde. It is the coastal tensinos
of a railway running to Curityba, the capital (69 m.), with exten-
sions to other inland towns and a branch to Antonfaa, at the
head of the bay, io| m. west of ParsnaguA by water. lu
eaqwrts consist duefly qf motif or Paraguay tea. The towa was
founded in 1360.
The Bay of ParanaguA opens into the Atlantic hi laL 2^ 3a' S.
through three rhannris and extends westward from the bar
about 19 m. It is hregular in outline, reodves the waters of
a large number of small streams, and is oompaiatlvelj dkallow.
Light*dranght steamers can asccad to Antonina at the head of
the iMy. The broad entrance to the bay, which Is the gateway
to the sUte of ParanA is nearly filled by the huge Ilha do Aid
(Honey Island) on which stands an antiquated fort conaaadiiv
the only practicable channel
PARANDHAR. a hill fort of British India, in Poena (Sstrict,
Bombay, 447s ft. above the sea, ao m. S.E. of Fooaa: pop.
(1901), 944* It figures repeatedly in the rising of Sivaji against
the Aiihommedans, and was the favourite stronghold of the
Peshwas whenever the unwalled dty of Poena was threatened.
It gave its name to a treaty with the Mahrattas, signed ia 1776
but never carried into effea. It ia nam utilized aa'a saoatonum
for British soldiers.
PARANOIA (Gr. vopA, beyond, and j*oar, to understand),
a chronic mental disease, of whidi systematized ''*^"*Ti*ns
with or without hallucinations of the senses are the prominent
characteristics. The ddusions may take the form of idpas of
persecution or of grandeur and ambition; these may exist
separatdy or run concurrently in the same individual, or they
may bcGome transformed in the course of the patient's life
from a penecutoiy to an ambitious character. Tbe disease
may be^ during adolescence, but the great majority c( the
subjects manifest np symptoms of the affection nntil fall
adult life.
The prominent and distinguishing symptom of paxanota is
the ddusion which Is gradually otgai^sed out of a mam of
original but erroneous beliefs or convictions until it forms an
integral part of the ordinary mental processes of the subject and
becomes fused with his personality. This slow process of the
growth of a fslsa kjea istrfhajraHy known is *'
occur from time to time in individual cases, and it may even
happen, though veiy rarely, that the delusion may permadently
disappear.
It is necessary to pobt out that there Is undoubtedly what
may be called a paranoiac mental constitution, in which
delusions may appear without becoming fiied or in which they
may never appear. The characteristics of this type of mind
are aeduUty, a tendency to mysticism and a certain aloofness
from reality, combined, a« the case may be, with timidity and
suspicion or with vanity and pride. On such a soil ft is
easy to understand that, given the necessary drcuiDStances» a
systematized delusional insanity may develop.
The term paranoia appeais to have been first applied by
R. von Krafft-Ebing in 1879 to all forms of systematized
delusional insam'ty. Werner in 1889 suggested its generic use
to supplant Wahnsinn and VarUcklkeit, the German equivalents
of mental states which originally meant, respectively, the
delusional insanity of ambition and the delusional insanity of
persecution — terms which had become hopelessly confused
owing to divergences in the pubUshed descriptions of various
authors.
The rapid development of clinical study has now resulted in
the isolation of a comparatively small group of diseases to which
the term is applied and the relegation of other groups bearing
more or less marked resemblances to it to their proper categories.
Thus, for example, it had formerly been held that acute paranoia
was frequently a curable disease. It is now proved that the
so-called acute forms were not true paranoias, many of them
being transitory phases of E. Kraepelin's dementia prautcox,
others being terminal conditions of acute melancholia, of acute
confusional insanity, or even protracted cases of delirium tremens.
While it removes from the paranoia group innumerable phases of
delusional insanity met with in patients labouring under secon-
dary dementia as a result of alcoholism or acute insanity, such
a statement does not exclude patients who may have had, during
their previous* life, one or more attacks of some acute mental
disease, such as mam'a, for the paranoiac mental constitution
may be, though rarely, subject to other forms of neurosis.
Attempts have been made to base a differential diagnosis of
paranoia upon the presence or absence of a morbid emotional
element in the mind of the subjects, with the object of referring
to the group only such cases as manifest a purely intellectual
disorder of mind. Though in some cases of the disease the
mental symptoms may, at the time of observation, be of a
purely intellectual nature, the further back the history of any
case is traced the greater is the evidence of the influence of
preceding emotional disturbances in mouldmg the intellectual
peculiarities. Indeed it may be said that the fundamental
emotions of vanity or pride and of fear or suspicion are the
groundwork of the disease. We are justified therefore in
ascribing the intellectual aberrations whkh are manifested by
delusions, in part at least, to the preponderating influence of
morbid emotions which alter the perceptive and aperceptive
processes upon which depend the normal relation of the human
mind to its environment. Although, generally speaking,
paranoiacs manifest marked intellectual clearness and a certain
amount of determination of character in the exposition of thefr
symptoms and in their manner of reacting under the influence
of their delusions, there is, without any doubt, an element of
original abnormality in their mental constitution. Such a
mental constitution it particularly subject to emotional dis-
turbances which find a favourable field of operation in an innate
mysticism allied with credulity which Is impervious to the
tittonit) ippcil of \hp int^^ilk-rt. In ihow irsprct^ ihc patiiii>oimc
Ortscnts m uagger^itkin ofj and a departure trQm, the p^cbkal
cannot be answered. However that may be, it^ is frequently
ascertained from the testimony of friends and relatives tha(
the patients have always been regarded as " queer/' strange,
and different from other people in their modes of thought. It
is usually stated that nervous or mental diseases occur in the
family histories of over 50% of the subjects of this affection.
Paranoia is dassified for clinical purposes according to the
form of delusion which the patienU exhibit. Thus Uiere are
described the Persecutory, the Litigious, the Ambitious and the
Amatory types. It will be observed that these divisions depend
upon the prevalence of the primary emotions of fear or suspidoi^
pride or vanity and love.
Accordidg toV. Magnan, the course of paranoia is progressive,
and each individual passes through the stages of persecution
and ambition successively. Many authorities accept Magnan's
description, which has now attained to the distinction of a
classic, but it is objected to by others on the ground that many
cases commence with delusions of ambition and manifest the
same symptoms unchanged during their whole life, whOe other
patients suffering from delusions of persecution never dcvdop
the ambitious form of the disease. Against these argiunents
Magnan and his disciples assert that Cbe relative duration of
the stages and the relative intensity of the symptoms vary
widely; that in the first instance the persecutory stage may
be so short or so indefinite in its symptoms as to escape obser-
vation; and that in the second instance the persecutory stage
may be so prolonged as within the short compass of a human
life to preclude the possibility of the development of an ambitious
stage. As however there exist types of the disease wluch,
admittedly, do not conform to Magnan's progressive form it
will be more convenient to adopt the ordinaiy description
here.
X. Persecutory Pcaranaia. — ^This form is characteriaed by
delusions of persecution with hallucinations of a painful and
distressing character. In predisposed persons there is often
observed an anomaly of character dating from early life. The
subjects are of a retiring disposition, .generally studious, though
not brilliant or successful workers. They prefer soUtude to the
society of their fellows and are apt to be introspective, self-
analytical or given to unusual modes of thought or literary
pursm'ts. Towards the commencement of the insanity the
patients become gloomy, preoccupied and irritable. Suspicions
regarding the attitude of others take possession of their minds,
and they ultimately come to suspect the conduct of their nearest
relatives. The conversations of friends are suj^xised by the
patient to be interlarded with phrases which, on examination,
he believes to contain hidden meanings, and the newqiapers
appear to abound in veiled references to him. A stray word,
a look, a gesture, a smile, a cough, a shrug of the shoulders <m
the part of c stranger are apt to be misinterpreted and brooded
over. The extraordinary prevalence of this imagined con-
spiracy may lead the patient to regard himself as a person of
great importance, and may result in the formation of delusions
of ambition which intermingle themselves with the general
conceptions of persecution, or which may wholly supplant the
persecutory insanity.
At this juncture, however, it generally happens that hallucinap
tions begin to appear. These, in the great majority of instances,
are auditory and usually commence with indefinite noises
in the ears, such as ringing sounds, hissing or whistling. Gradu-
ally they assume a more definite form until isolated words and
ultimate^ formed sentence are distinctly heard. There is
great diversity in the completeness of the verbal haflnglpations
tti diffi^rtnt pAllcnts^ Sorrn; riatienr!! M"Wef — --^^^^— — —
Lhin the subjecUve innoyiace <d i3oJ4ted
768
PARANOIA
of an bitukiog dutncter, wUle others sre compeDed to listen
to regular dialogues carried on by unknown voices concerning
thctDSdves. A not uncommon form of verbal hallucination b
formulated fai the complaint of the patients that "all their
thoughts are read and pnxrlaimed aloud." Even more than the
enforced listening to verbal hallucinations this ** thought read-
ing " distxcBes the patient and often leads him to acts of violence,
for the privacy of his inmost thoughts is, he believes, desecrated,
and he often feels helpless and desperate at a a>ndition from
which ihert is no possible escape.
Though some of the subjects do not develop any other form
of halludnation, it is unfortunately the bt of others to suffer, in
addition, from hallucinations of taste, smcU or touch. The
misinterpretation of subjective sensations in these sense organs
leads to the formulation of delusions of poisoning, of being
subjected to the influence of noxious gases or powders, or of
being acted on by agencies such as ekctridty. Such are the
persons who take their food to chemists for analysis; who
complain to the police that people are acting upon ihcm inju>
riously; who hermetically seal every crevice that admits air
to their bedrooms to prevent the entrance of poisonous fumes;
or who place glass castors between the feet of their beds and the
floor with the object of insulating electric currents. Such
patients obtain little sleep; some of them indeed remain awake
an night— for the symptoms are usually worse at night— and
have to be content with such snatches of sleep as they arc able
to obtain at odd times during the day. It is obvious that a
person tormented and distracted In the way described may at
any moment lose self-control and become a danger to the com-
ftiunity. But perhaps the most distressing and most distracting
of all hallucinations are those which for want of a better name
are termed ** sexual." The subjects of these hallucinations,
both male and female, under the belief that improper liberiies
are taken with them, are more clamant and threatening than
any other class of paranoiac.
During the course of a disease bo distressing ui Its symptoms
the patient's suspicions as to the authors of his penecution
Vary much In fndefinitcness. He often never fixes the direct
bl#me upon any individual, but refers to his persecutors as
*'they*' or a Society," or some corporate body such as
•* lawyers," " priests " or ** freemasons." It not infrequently
happens however, that suspicions gradually converge upon
•ome individual or that ftom an early stage of the disease the
patient has, generally under the influence of hallucinations,
(bed the origin of his trouble upon one or two persons. When
this takes place the matter is always serious from the point of
view of physical danger to the inculpated person, especially
If the patient is of a violent or vindictive disposition.
The persecutory type of the disease may persist for an indefi-
nite period— even for twenty or thirty year»-^without any
change except for the important fact that remissions in the
intensity of the symptoms occur from time to time. These
remissions may be so marked as to give rise to the belief that the
patient has recovered, but in true paranoia this is hardly ever
the case, and sooner or later the persecution begins again in all
its former intensity.
s. Amhitiaus Paranoia.— Mttt a long period of persecution
a change in the symptoms may set in, in some cases, and the
intensity of the hallucinations may become modified. At the
same time delusions of grandeur begin to appear, at first faintly,
but gradually they increase in force until they ultimately
supplant the delusions of persecution. At the same time the
hallucinations of a disagreeable nature fade away and are
replaced hy auditory hallucinations conformable to the new
delusions of grandeur. Undoubtedly, however, this form of
paranoia may commence, so far as can be observed, with
decisions of grandeur, in which case there is seldom or never
a transformation of the personality or of the delusions from
grandeur to persecution, although delusions of persecution
may engraft themselves or ran side by side with the predomi-
Muit ambitiotts delusions. •
The emotional basis of ambitious paranoia is pride, and every
phase of human vanity and aspiration is represented in the
delusions of the patients. There is moreover considerably
less logical acumen displayed in the explanations of their betiefs
by such patients than in the case of the subjects of persecutioo.
Many of them affect to be the descendants of historical person-
ages without any regard for accurate genealogical detaiL They
have no compunction in disowning their natural parents or
explaining that they have been " changed in their cradles " in
order to account for the fact that they are of exalted or evte ol
royal birth. Dominated by such beliefs paranoiacs have been
knov^-n to travel all over the world in search of confirmation of
their delusions. It is people of this kind who drop into the can
of confiding strangers vague hints as to their exalted origin and
kindred, and who make desperate and occasionally alarmirg
attempts to force their way into the presence of princes and
rulers. The sphere of religion affords an endless field for the
ambitious paranoiacs and some of them may even aspire to
divine authority, but as a rule the true paranoiac does not lose
touch with earth. The more extravagant delusions of persons
who call themselves by divine names and assume omnipoteni
attributes are usually found in patients who have passed through
acute atucks of insanity such as mania or dementia praecoz
and are mentally enfeebled.
A not uncommon form of paranoia combining both ambition
and persecution is where the subject believes that he is a man
of unbounded wealth or power, of the rights to which he is,
however, deprived by the machinations of his enemies. These
patients frequently obtain the knowledge on which th^ base
their delusions through auditory hallucinations. They axe
often so troublesome, threatening and persistent in their deter-
mination to obtain redress for their imagined wrongs, that they
have to be forcibly detained in asylums in the public interest.
On the whole, however, the ambitious paranoiac is not trouble-
some, but calm, dignified, self-possessed, and reserved on the
subject of his delusions. He is usually capaUe of reasoning as
correctly and of performing work as efficiently as ordinary
people. Many of them, however, while living in society are
liable to give expression to their delusions under the influence
of excitement, or to behave so strangely and unconvaitionaOj
on - unstiitablc occasions as to render their sedusma cither
necessary or highly desirable.
3. Amatory Paranoia.— A distinguishing feature of this fona
of paranoia is that the subjects are chivalrous and idealistic
in their love. Some of them believe that they have been
" m3rstically " married to a person of the opposite sex usually
in a prominent social position. The fact that they may have
never spoken to or perhaps never seen the person in question is
immaterial. The conviction that their love is reciprocated and
the relationship understood by the other party is unshakable,
and Is usua^y based upon suppo^tions .that to a normal mind
would appear either trivial or wholly unreal The dbjiea of
affection, if not mythical or of too exalted a position to be
approached, is not infrequently persecuted by the admirer, who
takes every opportunity of obtruding personally or by letter
the e\idenccs of an ardent adoration. The situation thus
created can easily become complicated and embarraasiqg before
it is realised that the persistent wooer is insane.
The failure of their schemes or repeated repulsfcs nay, in
the case of some patients, originate delusions ol pcrsecutSon
directed, not against the object of affection, but a^iinst those
who are supposed to have conspired to prevent the success of
the patient's desires. Under the influence of these ddustons
of persecution the patient may lose self-control and resort to
violence against his supposed persecutors.
The subjects of this form of paranoia are tn the majority
of instances unmarried women wdl advanced in yean who bav«
led irreproachable Uvea, or men of a romantic disposition idw
have lived their mental lives moreinthe realm of chimeras than
in the region of real facts. The delusions in this form of paianoi*
are never accompanied by hallucinations.
Closely allied, if not Identical with amatory paranoia, ii
the form in which jealousy forms the basa of ma^t&d suaipkiont
objects ot tbeir jealovsy, whether husbands, wives or sweethearts.
Their conduct in this respect is fertile in producing domestic
dispeace and unhappiness, and in the case of uiunarried persons
in creating complicated or delicate situations. It not infre-
quently happens, just as in the case of the class of amatory
paranoiacs, that delusions of persecution establish themselves,
usually directed towards persons who are believed to have
secured the affections of the object of jealousy. The disease
then follows the ordinary course of the insanity of persecution
but usually without hallucinations of the senses. The subjects
are hi^y dangerous and violent. Under the influence of
their deltuions murder and even mutilation mav be resorted
to by the malei and poisoning or vitriol-throwing by the female
tubjects.
4. IMighus Paratuna {paranoia qtterulans). -^Tht clinical form
of litigious paranoia presents uniform characteristic features
which are recognized in every dvilized community. The basic
emotion is vanity, but added to that is a strong element both of
acquisitiveness and avarice. Moreover the subjects are, as
r^ards character, persistent, opinlonalive and stubborn. When
these qualities are superadded to a, mind of the paranoiac type,
which as has been pointed out, is more influenced by the passions
or eraotloM than by ordinary rational considerations, it can
readily be appreciated that the subjects arc capable of creating
difficulties and anxieties which soontr or later may lead to
their forcible seclusion in the interests of social order.
It Is important to observe that the rights; such people lay
claim to or the wrongs they complain of may not necessarily be
imaginary. But, whether imaginary or real, the statement of
their case is always made to rest upon some foundation of fact,
and is moreover presented, if not with ability, at any rate with
forensic skill and plausibility. As the litigants arc persons of
one idea, and only capable of seeing one side of the case — their
own — and as they are actuated by convictions which preclude
feelings of delicacy or diffidence, they ultimately succeed In
obtaining a hearing in a court of law under circumstances which
would have discouraged any normal Individual Once' in the
law courts tbeir doom is scaled. Neither the loss of the case
nor the payment of heavy expenses have any effect In dishearten-
ing the litigant, who carries his suit from court to court until
the methods of legal appeal are exhausted. The suit may be
raised again and again tm aome side lame, «r tome different
legal action nwy be initialed. In spite of the alienation of the
sympathy of his relations and the advice of his friends and
lawyers the paranoiac continues his futile litigation in the firm
belief that he is only defending himself ftom fraud or seeking to
regain his just rights. After exhausting his means and perhaps
those of his family and finding hiimielf unable to continue
to litigate to the same advantage at formeriy, delusions of
persecution begin to establish themselves. He accuses the
judges of comiplion, the lawyers of being in the pay of bis enemies
and imagines the existence of a conspiracy to prevent him from
obtaining justice. One of two things usually happens at this
stage. Though well versed in legal procedure he may one day
lose self -control and resort to threats of violence. He is then
probably arrested and may on examination be found insane
and committed to an asylum. Another not uncommon result
b that finding himself non-suited in a court of law he commits
a technical assault upon, it may be, some high I^sal functionary,
or on some person in a prominent social position, With the object
of securing an opportunity of directing public attention to his
grievances. The only result is, as in the former instance, his
medical certification and incarceration.
Paranoia is generally a hopeless affection from the point of
view of recovery. From what has beea stated regarding its
< and slow development it is apparent that no form of
As has been frequently stated, the subjects of most forms of
paranoia are liable to commit dime, usually of violence, which
may lead to their being tried for assault or murder. The que»»
tion of their responsibility before the law is therefore one of the
first importance (see also Insanity: Lam), The famous case of
McNaghten, tried in 1843 ^^ the murder of Mr Drummond,
private secretary to Sir Robert Peel, is, in this connexion, highly
important, for McNaghten was a typical paranoiac labouring
under delusions of persecution, and his case formed the basis
of the famous deliverance of the judges in the House of Lords,
in the same year, on the general question of criminal respensi-
bility in insanity. Answer 4 of the judges' deliverance contains
the following statement of bw: If ' he labours under such
Pfirjtial delusion only and is not in other respects insam we
think he must be considered in the same situation as to responsi-
bility as if the facts to which the delusion exists were real. For
example if under the influence of his deliisioo be supposes
another man lo be in the act of attempting to take away his
life, and he kills that man, as he supposes, in self-defence, he
would be exempt from punishment. If his delusion was that
the deceased haid inflicted a serious injury to his character and
fortune, and he killed him in revenge for such supposed injury,
he would be liable to punishment."
In considering this deliverance it must be remembered that
it was given under the influence of the enormous public interest
created by the McNaghten trial It has also to be remembered
that in a criminal court the term responsibility means liability
to legal punishment. The dictum laid down in answer 4 is
open to several objections, (i) It is based upon the erroneous
assumption that a person may be insane on one point and sane
on every other. This is a loose popular fallacy for which there
is no foundation in clinical miedicine. The systematization
of a delusion involves, as has been pointed out, the whole
personality and affects emotion, intellect and conduct. The
human mind is not divided into mutually exclusive compart-
ments, but is one Indivisible whole liable to be profoundly
modified in its relation to its environment according to the
emotional strength of the predominant morbid concepts, (s)
It does not take into account the pathological diminution of
the power of self-control. The influence of continued delusions
of persecution, especially if accompam'cd by painful hallucina-
tions, undermines the power of self-control and tends ultimately
to reduce the subject towards the condition of an automaton
which reacts reflexly and blindly to the impulse of the moment.
(3) The opinion is further at fault in so far as it assumes that the
test of responsibility rests upon the knowledge of right and
wrong, which Implies the power to do right and to avoid wrong,
an assumption which is very far from the truth when applied
to the insane. The number of insane criminals who possess
DO theoretical knowledge of right and wrong is very few indeed,
so few that for practioil purposes they may be disregarded.
The true paranoiac is a person of an anomalous mental
constitution apart from his insanity; although he may to out-
ward appearances be able, on occasion, to converse or to act
rationally, the moment he is dominated by his delusions he
becomes not partially but wholly insane; when in addition his
mind is distraicted by ideas of persecution or hallucinations, or
both, he becomes potentially capable of committing crime, not
because of any inherent vicious propensity but in virtue of his
insanity. There is therefore no middle course, from the medical
point of view, in re^>ect to the criminal responsibility of the
subjects of paranoia; they aro all insane wholly, not partially,
and should only be dealt with as persons of imsound mind.
See Bianchl. TexAook of Insanity (Eng. trsns.. 1906): Ooostoo.
Menta Diseases (6th ed.); KraHt-Ebins. Textbook of Imsassity
(American tiaasi^ 1904) » Kraepeiia, Fsyckiathe if>th ed., Lcipaif.
770
PARAPET— PARASITIC DISEASES
1899): BUgBM. U DUirt <AfWiifN« (Pftd4| 1890); SjKmut Pktom
Psyekialry (Philadelphia, 1905); Percy Saitli, "Paranoia," in
Jcurn. ofUenUa Scitnu (1904). p. 607. 0- MM.)
PARAPET (Ital. parapeUo, Fr. para^, from p«fo, impenUve
of Ital. pararc, to cover, defend, and fdh, breast, Lat. peehw,
the German irord is Bnutwekr)^ a dwarf wall along tbe edge
of a roof, or round a lead flat, tenaoe walk^ &c., to prevent
persons from falling over, and as a protection to the defenders
in case of a siege. ParapeU are citlier plain, embattled, perfor-
ated or panelled. The last two are fowid in aU styles except
the Romanesque. Plain parapets are simply portions of the
wall generally overhanging a Uttle, with a coping at the top and
€orb€l table below. Embattled parapets are sometimes panelled,
but oftener pierced for the discharge of arrows, &c. Perforated
parapets are pierced in various devices— as circles, trefoils,
quatrefofls and other dcsigns-so that the Ught is seen through.
Panelled parapeU are thtee ornamented by s series of psnels,
either oblong or square, and more or less enridied, but are
not perforated. These are common in the Decortted and
Perpendicular periods.
PARAPHBSNAUA (UL parapkemaiia, tc h&na, from Gr.
vop&^ra; iropd, beside, and ^^^, dower), a term originayy
of Roman law, signifying all the property which % married
woman who was nti juris held apart from her dower {dos).
A husband could not deal with such except with bis wife's
consent. Modem systems of law, which are based on the
Roman, mainly follow the same principle, and tbe word preserves
iu old meaning. In English and Scottish law the term fa
confined to articles of Jeweby, dress and other purely personal
things, for the law relating to which see Husband and Wipe.
The word fa aho used In a general sense of accessories, external
equipment, cumbersome or showy trappings.
PARAPHRASE (Gr. Tap&^^f, from vopa^tMy, to relate
something in different words, rap&, beside, and ^p6Xv», speak,
tell), a rendering into other words of a passage in prose or verse,
giving the sense in a fuller, simpler or clearer fashion, also a free
translation or adaptation of a passage in a foreign language.
The term fa spcdficaUy used in the Scottish and other Presby-
terian churches of metrical versions for singing of certain
passages of the Bible.
PARASCOnUH (Gr. in^MundlKor), in a Greek theatre, the
wall on either side of tbe stage, reaching from the back wall
{9KtiHi) to th e orchestra.
PARASm \(From Gr. *opd, beside, atroi food), literally
" mess-mate," a term originally conveying no idea of reproach
or contempt, as in later times. The early parasites may be
divided into two classes, religious and dvil. The former were
assfatants of the priests, their chief duty being to collect the
com dues which were contributed by the farmers of the temple
lands or which came in from other sources (Athenaeus vi. 235;
PoUux vi. 35). Considerable obscurity exfats as to their other
functions, but they seem to have been charged with providing
food for the visitors to the temples, with the care of certain
offerings, and with the arrangement of the saaifidal banquets.
In Attica tbe parasites appear to have been confined to certain
demes (Achamac, Diomeia), and were appointed by the demes to
which the temples belonged. The " dvil " parasites were a dass
of persons who received invitations to dine in tbe prytaneum
and subsequently in the tMos) as dfatlnguished from those
who had the right to dine there ex cffieio. An entirely different
meaning (** sponger ") became attached to the word from the
character introduced into the Middle and New Comedy, first by
Alexis, and firmly csUblished by DiphUus. The chief object
of tbfa dass of parasites was a good dinner, for which tbey
were ready to submit to almost any humiliation. Numerous
examples occur in the comedies of Plautus; and Aldphron and
Athenaeus (vL 236 sqq.) give instances of the insults tbey had
to put up with at the hands of both host and guests. Some of
them played the part of professional jesters (Lfke the later
buffoons and court foob), and kept collections of witticisms
ready for use at tbdr patrons' table; others relied upon flattery,
others again condescended to the most degrading devices
(Plutarch, Dt adulatore, sj; De edueatioite pnennm, 17). Tbe
term parasite, from meaning a " ha^ge^oo,'* has hea
ferred to any living creature which lives on another one.
Sec Juvenal v. 170 with J. E. B. Mayor's note, and the cxbaindvc
artideby M. H. Meier in Erachand CT}A)tt'sAUiewi€ituEiuycUp^u,
PARASmC DISEASES. It has k)Qg been recognized that
various spedfic pathological conditions are due to the presence
and action of parasites (see PASAsmsM) in the human body,
but in recent years the part played in the causation of the
so-called infective diseases by various members of the Schizo-
mycete^— fission fungi— and by Protozoan and other animal
parasites has been more widdy and more thoroughly investigated
(see 'Bactcxxolocy). The knowledge gained has not only
modified our conception of the pathology of these diseases, but
has had a most important influence upon our methods of treat-
ment of sufferers, both as individuals and as members of com-
munities. For dinical and other detaifa of the diseases mentioned
In the following classification, see the separate artides on them;
the present article fa concemed mainly with important modem
discoveries as regards aetiology and pathology. In certain
cases indeed the aetiology fa still obscure. Thus, according to
Guamieri, and Councilman & Calkins, there fa associated with
vacdnia and with small-pox a Protozoan para^te, CytarycUs
varidae. Guar. Thfa parasite fa described as present in tbe
cytoplasm of the stratified epithelium of the skhi and mucous
membranes in cases of vaccinia, but in the nudd of tbe same
celfa in cases of variola or small-pox, whifat it fa suggested that
there may be a third phase of exfatence, not yet demonstrated,
in which it occurs as minute spores or germs which are very
readily carried in dust and by air currents from point to point.
In certain other conditions, such as mumps, dengue, epadrmic
dropsy, oriental sore — with which the Leishman-Donovan
bodies {Htkosoma tropicum, Wright) arc supposed to be dosdy
associated (see also Kdla-dtar bdow)— verruga, frambocsia
or yaws— with which fa commonly associated a spirochaete
(Castellan!) and a spedal micrococcus (Pierez, NichoDs>— and
beri-beri, the disease may be the result of the action of ^>ecific
micro-organfams, though as yet it has not been possible to
demonstrate any aetiologica relationship between any micro-
organfams found and the special disease. Such diseases as
haemoglobinuric fever or black-water fever, which are also
presumably parasitic diseases, are probably associated directly
with malaria; thfa supposition fa the more probable in that both
of these are recognized as occurring specially in those patients
who have been weakened by malaria.
The following classification fa based partly upon the bidofkal
reUtlons of the parasites and partly on the pathological pheno-
mena of individual diseases:—
A«— Maeaaat doe to Vegetable Paradlaa
I.— To SCRBOMTCBTSS, BaCTSRIA Ol FiSSION FOWGI.
1. Caused hy the PyoieneHc Micrococci.
Suppuration and Septicaemia. EryaipelasL
Inlective Endocarditis. Gonorrhoea.
3. CttMsei hy Specific BadOL
(a) ^lorfi U*c«fr» Arvws.
Cholera. Infective Menipgitia.
Typhoid Fever Influenza.
Nfalta Fever. Yellow Fever and WdTsDiseaae.
Relapaing Fever. Diphtheria.
Pbgue. Tetanus.
(ft) iMefv CftfM*ia*c<h« IMmmm (tfnw^MnMM).
Tuberculoaia. Glanders. L^proey
II.— -To UlOKSa VftCBTABLS PAlAStTSS.
ActuiomycoMS, Madura Foot, Aspergilloafa and other Mjoosea.
B.— Dlseasea due to Anhnal Parailtet.
I.— To PaoTOwoA.
MaUria. K&U-4ttr.
Amoebic Dysentery. Tsetse-Ay Disease.
Haemogkibuiuric Fever. Sleeping Sickncsi.
Syphilis.
11.— To OTRKB AlflM^t PAKASITta.
Filariasis. Ac
HydrophMa. Scarlet Fever.
I>. — ^Infeetire DiieasM not jeC proved to be doe to mlcro-ofKanlais.
SfnAll-P<n.
Mumps.
Whooping Coogh, Ac
A.— DfsMsts diw to Vacetable ParailtM.
I. ^TO SCHUOIIYCETES, BaCTCUA OK FiSSIOIf FUNGI.
I. Caused by the Pyogenelic Micrococci*
Sn^pti^otimt and SepHeaemia.—lt Is now recognized that
glth^vgfc nitrate of silver, turpentine, castor oil, perchloride
of mercury and certain other chemical substances are capable
of producing suppuration, the most coouaon causes of this
coitdition are undoubtedly the so<alled pus-produdng bacteria.
Of these perhaps the most Important are the staphylococci
(cocci arranged like bunches of grapes), streptococci (cocci
^rtmnged in chains), and pncumococd, though certain other
organisms not usually associated with pus-formatiott are
undoubtedly capable of setting up this condition, e.g. BcciUus
pyocyaneus, BaciUus colt communis, and the typlioid badilus.
Xhese organisms (the products of which, by chaalcal irritation,
stimulate the leucocytes to emigration) bring about the death
and digestion of the tissues and fluids (which no longer " clot **)
with which they come In contact, pus (matter) being thus
formed: this accumulates fai the tissues, in the serous cavities,
or even on mucous surfaces; septicaemia or bkx>d-poisoning,
secondary infection of tissues and organs at a distance from
the ufii^iii.Ll bite ai iiilcLliuti, or pyai^inia, \lIlL '•..],^. ^.v^.^^^l.,):: of
secondary abstcssts, may thufi be wl up.
In seplieacmia the pus^formint; orgnnisms grow hI the scat
of inlrwluclion, and prwluct special poisons Of loxins,
which ^ absorbed into I he blooJ, give rise to syrnploms of fever.
From the point ol introduction^ however^ lb? organisnij cnay
be iwcpt away either by lh«' lymph or by tKp blopod, and cmicd
to positions In whidi I hey set up further inflatumatofy or
suppurative; changes. In the strcptococCpil inilarmtiationi
spT«Adi.t3g by the lymph channeU apiwpjs lo be ipccbily pre-
vj.1crL In the bluod the cir;gai]binj« if m small nuntibers,
are muiHy destroyed by tlir plisma, which has a powerful
b:itlericidal action; should I hey escape, however, I hey are
I carriied without mulUplkalion inlo the rapilla/ics of the gi^nerail
I circulation, of tlir lunE, or of the U^ct. wheren being stopped,
tbcy tnay give rise to a si^conil fotui of mfwtton, espedilly if
al the ^int ol impaction the vitnlity of the iLssuci^ is tn any way
lowcTtd. Unle!u the blood is very much impoverished, iti
tactericidal aclion h usiially ^uCTiciently powerful to bring obout
ihe destruction df «nythin{^ but comparatively large maises
of pyofftnetk orginismaH Thist bactericidal power^ however,
may be lDit;ui such ca^ the pus-foririLng tugsniMOi tnay actuary
muUiply, a gcneial hctemjc inkction retulElng. Should micro-
orpninni br coaveyrd ^y the veins to the heart, and there be
deposit ed an in injured vbIvc, an inftfthf rndatafditis b the
result; Eiom such a deposit ntitncrou^ on^niitfts rnay be
♦ conViTHiQusly pourtd Into thf drcmlilion. Simple thfombi or
doll Trt4> alio bcTOflfte irferted -with mitr^-organisms. Frag-
m^-titi ol ibae, waihcd airay, nrny form sepijc plugfl m the
vr.flcti and [Ivt rtw toibirtssrt at ( he points where they become
IP Im^^HttJ, Adbtlnnien must be drawn Wtween saprsfmia and
sniikfltiTils, In saparmii the tone proJutti of Mprophytk
^ ofgMllimi j« Kburbtd Itom a gangrenous or necrotic m^fl-i.
' Ittufl ftn yVeii(in| (urfncr, or from a lofKe surface on'whicfi
ypniphytk DtpmlHM ITT living and feeding on dead tiLsucs:
lor mmplf.nt may have such a condilfon in (be clots that
somrtme^ Twinb aJtcr rtiiWbtrth on the inner surf«r of ihc
*all i>t tlie wnttib. So Ion IT ^ii no micro-organ tsm* lolloiw the
t<>tiiii, iht cnndititjti ii puftty -jjpraemic, but thmild any
utRwnm* mitkf vhriT wiy Into and multiply in the bloovf, the
tWillWB becwm vAt c^ leptitaemii. The term pyaemia is
V* vui^i^uai
occurs in the lungs, the secondary or metastatic
abscesses usually occur in the vessels of the general or systemic
circulation, and less frequently in other vessels of the lung. When
the primary abscess occurs in the systemic area, the secondary
abscess occurs first in the lung, and less frequently in tbe
systemic vessels; whilst if the primary abscess be in the portal
area (the veins of the digestive tract), the secondary abscesses
are usually distributed over the same area, the lungs and systemic
vessels being more rarely affected.
Infeciiwe Endocarditis. — Acute malignant or ulcerative endo-
carditis occurs in certain forms of septicaemia or of pyaemia.
It is brought about by the Streptococcus pyogenes (see Plate II.
fig. a), the pneumococcus, or the Slaphyiococcus pyogenes
aureus (see Plate I. fig. 4), or, more rarely, by the gonococcus,
the typhoid bacillus or the tubercle badilus, as they gain access
to acute or chronic valvular lesions of the heart. The aortic
and mitral valves are usually affected, the pulmonary and
tricuspid valves much more rarely, though Waahboum states
that the infective form occurs on the right side more frequently
than does simple endocarditis. A rapid necrosis of the surface
of the valve b early followed by a deposition of fibrin and leuco-
cytes on the necrvMcd tissue; the bacteria, though not present
in the circulating blood during life, are found in these vegetal
tions which break down very rapidly; ulcerative lesions are thus
formed, and fragments of the septic clot (/.«. the fibrinous
vegetations with their enclosed bacteria) are carried in the
circulating bloo<i fo different parts of the body, and, becoming
impacted in the smaller vessels, give rise to septic infarcts
and abscesses. The ulceration of the valves, or In the first
paft qI the aorta, imiy \k ig ex tensive dial :ineuryim, or even
perforation, m^y ensue.
In ccTtkiin catci of sircpiococcic endoca^rdjlls i lie use of intU
stTtptficoceic wnim apjieafs to have been stlemJud With good
result*. Sir A. Wright ioufid that the introduciion of vaccJnti
prepared from the pUi-pwducing ofgaFiistns afitr fim lowering
the opMnic iadet alniosi iovariably^ after a very ^hoit interval^
causes it to rise* He found, too^ that the vaccine b »prdaUy
eff^cadcHj» IV hen il ts prepared from the orgdnj^ms tssoriatcd
with tbe special form of suppuration Lo be treated. Whenever
ihe aphonic indejc becomea higher under ihU treatment the
suppurative process gradually sulfsidea: bolb, acnt^ pu^^tulcs^
carbuncles all giving way to ihtf vaccme ireatmtiil* The
immunity 40 obtained is aUrlLuled to the mcre^^ed acLivltjpi
ol the frcriim as the result of the presence of ao increa^d aaiuunt
of opsonins. Further^ Bier m^iiiLaLOS that a pa^&ivc conges-
tion and ocdtina induced by cojutriciJon ol a pail by means of
4 ligature or by a mudifituiliun of the old oii^hod of cuppitig
without brrxiLing the tkin appears lo have a similar e^ect in
modifying localired suppurative procesw^, that i* procrssea
&ct up by pus-ppoduciNg b^Kkriia, Wrii^ht holiis that thi&
treatn^eot is alwajn more cHeclivc when the ofisotiic indes is
high and thai the mere accumulation of oedcDiatous fluHf in
the part is sufltdent tu nsise the opsonic Indtx ut that Auid
and therefore to bring about a greater phagocytk activity of
the leucocytes that aro found in tnch tnormous numbers
in (he neighbourhood of suppuntivc organisms askd ihcir
products
Erysipelas, — In t3S;| Fchlctun demonstrated that in ^"Q ca«£>
of Adive erysipelatous inflammation a stivptoccxcua (^^ cYi^^
of mirrtttocd (similar to tho» met with in certain friii;!^ ^
suppuration) rnay be found in the lymph spaces in ^v^^ ^^^^Ta
The muUiplying jtrrptococri foirmi in the lymph stta ^*^^^
tn active poison, which* *ctin|Dron the blood -vessels » t^tx^^!*^^**
to d[lMe;
protif erst i
Thc*c Cflli^ — fierna^t oy iudik wp ■'' itvtiuaiMc ^^i.'v^ " ^^ iTT A' jl,
fere with the gix>Ti h of 1 he srtcptornrct*i and act a^ ^^^Wrft^ (4*^*
taking up or devouring the dead 01 weakened *>*^ri^^5^^^^^^ t ^
Both mild and ievei* phlrgntonow eatrt pf ^^^^^-^ "^^if ff ^
the KsuU of the act ton of this S(>n:Ut a
77a
comblMUoa wUli otbcr nrginhiM It has btn ohtcrvtid that
cancerous and other mailfntat tumoon appear to recede under
an attack of eryiipelaa, and certain caaci have heeo recorded
\ty both Fehleben and Colcy in which complete cettation of
growth and degeneration of the tumour have followed such an
attack. Aa the atreptococcua of cryilpelaa can be isolated and
grown In pure culture In broth, it waa Uiought by theae obtervert
that a lubcutaneoua injection of auch a cultivation might be of
value in the treatment of cancerous tumours. No difficulty was
experienced in setting up erysipelaa by inoculation, but in some
caict the process was so acute that the remedy was more fatal
than t be disease, llie virulence of the streptococcus of erysipelas,
as pointed out by Fehlelsen and Colcy, ia greatly exalted when
the coccus Is grown alongside the BaiUlta prodigiotm and
certain other saprophytic organisms which ftourish at the body-
temperature. It is an easier matter to control the action of a
non- multiplying poison, even though exceedingly active, than
of one capable, under favourable conditiona, of producing an
IndcAnite amount of even a weaker poison. The erysipelatous
virus having been raised to as high a degree of activity u possible
by cultivating it along with the BaeiUut prodiglosus-Hhe
bacillus of *' blee<llng " bread— in broth, is killed by heat, and the
tvsuliing fluid, which contains a quantity of the toxic aubstancca
that set up the choracterlstlc erysipelatous changes, is utiUxed
for the production of an inflammatory process— which can now
be accurately controlled, and which is said to be very beneficial
in the treatment of certain malignant tumours. The accurate
determination of the aetiology of cryslpebs has led to the
adoption of a scientific method of treatment of the disease.
The Slrtpto€0€<ui trjfsiptUtlis la found, not spcdally in the aooe
in which inflammation haa become evident, but in the tissues
outside this »oe: In fact, the atreptococci appear to be moat
numerous In the lymphatics of the tiuucs in which there is little
change. Before the appearance of anv redncsa there Is a dilata-
lion of the lymph ^»acca with fluid, and the tissues become
slightly oedematoua. As soon, however, as the distension of
vessels and the emigration of leucocytes with the accompanying
swrlling and redneaa, become marked, the stivptococci disappear
or are imperfectly stained^-they are undergoing degenetalivc
chsnges— the inflammatory ** rsactiea ** apparently beii« sufi-
dent to bring about this tcautt
If it wtfv ponible to art ep tYie same leactien oetaide the
adNsmiitt Ktrp|Uucocc{ ini(hc not a bartWr be raiacd agatiut their
atlvunct* ThU tHvorv ik«» trsicd on animal*, and it was found
th.tt the api^ioAiion ol iodine, oil of mintard. cantharidc« and simiUr
liitH'Unrnu ^whiM prrvrm the advance of crrtatn mknKornnbma.
Tht* inNHmcut ««• applied to ffyiiprlatoiw patient t with the moat
eaiivfaf t«wv rcanU, the nmd of the diaeaw being prrvrntcd when-
•\Tr the nvnf of inflammation wa« extended qxtt a tuAiv icntly midc
ana. The mefr ••linging*' of the red patch by nitrate oiahTr
«ir «vne Mh«r vimnar tiritant, aa at o««e time iT\^«vmnien<led. it not
wiilb te^H : it ia n e ctswiry that the raactioa shouKi extend (or aome
httle dmaner beyond iheaone to whkk the stirptocood have already
ad\aoctd.
<?flaaiit»as. A akm^tfanisa, the f onooo c c us» is the
cause «4 fowewimea. It b found ia the pas of the urKhrm
and in the coigwantva lying between the epithelial ccUa. whcie
It arts up cenwdetaMe inilatioa and caudalMci; it occurs in the
gutd of ioints ti paticfits affected with foaonhoe e l aithriiis;
aK> in the picwritic etusion aad in ihe \xfc(atioM of taooirhoeal
en«1vxai\htis. It b a small diplocorcus^ the drmcnuof which
err flattened or i%htly concnve disks awwafd to oae awolber*
th<<M>. dh>^di«g tnuMvrt«ciy, soaMiunca focsa tcttads. Tbcy arc
trstftd in brge nomber^ tmuny in the kntocytca* adfaeicM to
the efAheHal eels or K-ing (ito, TWy stain readfly wilh the
ta«« amkne djvsk Wn loar this stain wl«w treated by Graaa'S
wh ( r>«A. Tne |paix*<v>ccwi is best grown on wimen Mood-
nn:v<t^ with agar OVTrth«MaV th«mijh k g iww a nn Ofdiwar>-
fK4v.i»(ed M<wd«(Viim or on blood agar Like like fmttno
<VH\-tt\ <t MM) 4br« owt, wntafiv before the cigMk or ninth oa)\
nnkr^ itiiwvobitKwn are wiade It lenaa a acwn^taaa^arcwt
^k-hiT fn^mth. with satar^rhiat iwvgnlsr wta r p HW or with
mn>t fwwv^-i i. ffVMwnK owl bii owi tke aaaia cahony. It acts
(o wcana «l tonoa. whick ka%« been
PARASITIC DISEASES
wbeBia|acte4 edthott the
ol tbe eye of tbe nbbit.
a. Caused by SpedJU BactBL
ifi) AcMti It^tOm Fmn.
Cibfcro.— In 1884 Koch, in the report of the German Cholcia
Commission in Egypt and India, brought forward oiverwhdBii^
evidence in proof of hia contention that a apodal bacteiiom is
the catisal agent of cholera; subsequent observers in all countries
in which cholera has been met with have confirmed Koch's
observation. The organism described b the *' coouna " bacillus
or vibrio, one of the spirilla, which usually occurs as a slightly
ctirved rod i to sa in length and 0-5 to 0-6^ in thickness. These
comnuL-shaped roda occur atngiy or in pairs; they may be joined
together to form drcles, haU-drdcs, or " S "-shaped curves (see
Plate U. fig. 3).
In cuhivationa in spodally prep a red media they may be aa
crouped aa to form long wavy Of apiral threada. «adi of which may
ue made up of ten, t wcoty, or even thirty, of the snort curved vibrios :
in the itools of cholera paticnta, es^clatly during the earfier sueet
of the disease, they are found in considerable numbers; they may ai»
tie found In the contents o( the 'lower bowd and ia the aubatanoe
of the muooua menbmne of the lower pert of the small intestiae,
especially in the crypts and in aid around the epaheUum lioinj;
the follicles. It Is sometimes difficult, in the later stages of the
disease, to obtain these organisms in suflktcntly lai^e nurnbers to be
able to distinguish them by direct microscopic examinackm, but by
using ihe Dunbar-Schottelius method they can be detected even
when present in snuU numbers. A quantity of faintly alkaline
meat broth, vrith 2 %of peptone and 1 % common salt, U looculatcd
with some of the contents of the intestine, and is pbced in aa
incubator at a temfMRatura of 35* C. <or atMot twelve noura, when,
if any cholcfu bacilli are present, a delicate peUkle. oonaistiag
almost entirely of short " comma '* bacilli, appears on the auriace.
If the growth be allowed to continue, the bacilli increase in length,
but after a time the pelBcle is gradually lost, the cholera orgamsias
being overgrown, as it w«ve, by the other organiana. In order to
obcam a pure cultnre of the ckolerm bacillus, remove a smnfl frag>
ment of the young film, shake it up thoroughly in a little broth, and
then BUike gclatinc>plate cultivations, when most characteristic
colonies apoear as small greyish or white points. Each of thrs«.
when examined under a lo w p ower tens, haa a ydlow tinge: the
margins are wavy or crenaled; the surface b gmnubr and has a
pecttlbr ground-glaas appearance; arouod the jrowing cnioay
liquefaction takes place, and the colony gradually stoka to the
bottom of the Uquef>>{ng area, which now appears as n dear ring.
The organiwn grows very luxoriaotly in milk, in which, howevvr.
it gives ri« to no very notioenble alteratkin: its p r cs e me can osly
be reoogniaed by a lunt aromatic and sweetish smelt, wkkfa caa
scarcely be distinguished from the aioaiatic smcU of the ni3k itscli.
except by the most practised nose.
The cholera badllus may tcaaaia aEve ia water for somf
tiase, but it appeals to be las rcsistaat than many of the putre<
faaive and saprophytic organisms. It grows better in a taLrjt
eolutioa (bcadJsh water) than in perfectly fresh watery h
floutishcate serum and other albuminous Asids, especially wbcn
peptones are pitacnt lu power oC forming poboooussubscaaoes
appeaia to ^aiy dbectly with the amount and natare of tLe
aibaasca prcecat ia the vuttint mc«fium; and though it grcws
most readily in the piescnoe of prptnar, it appean to fom t^^e
most vinalent poison wbca grown aa some fona or other cf
crude aibuawa to which thcnt b aot too free acccsa of oxyg.c
From the eiprtiawn u canied oat by Koch, Nicaii and Rict>. ^
aad hladeod, there appeaia to be no doubt that the bral.iT
atoaaach aad intestine are aot favounblc bceedUv-vooads Lr
the dioien bacSus. Ia the firtt. pUoe, it inquires aa »R«' -r
j uMdium ior itt fdl aad active dtvtkp tm , aad the add fc^
; in a heshhy rinmsrh eeewK to caert aa «»«^**^1^'|fj dcktenc ^
, infhseaoe upoa k. Secoadly, it appcaxa to he inra|iabW c
deveiofiiageacaiit when left at icst« an that the aoiwe pcrsia:.^
' MMUVcmcat of the iatcsitne inurfocs wi'th iu deveiopBr< i
' >loveo««K,lt toraaitspotsoa moat easilj-ia the pre9caceotfcr..<
albumea. it is ialcRstiag to aote what aaimpoctaat bc-*$
these lacu have oa the p < 1 a ana l aad geaeral spread ot cb^c-o.
Larve qaaatkies of the cholcn hacilkas but he a^iccted sau» t'«
stomach of a gv^nea-pit withoat aay inrorirarrve ce oihcr
M-r.p«««B of choksa saaLmg their apficj>raace. T\rJ:rsr
% hea^Jv sadividaals have saaMOwo^ wsLhotii amr A cCect. j- -
rKordcd in which "artificial" infection of the human subject has
undoubtedly taken place, WhiJst, as Metchnikoff dentonstrated,
very young rabbits, deriving mUk from mothers whose mammary
glands have been smeared with a culture of the chotera vibrio,
soon succumbed, suffering from tlie classical symptoms of this
disease.
If, however, previous to the injection of the cholera badllus
the acidity of the stomach be neutralized by an alkaline fluid,
especially if at the same time the peristaltic action of the intes-
tine be paralysed by an injection of morphia, a characteristic
attack of cholera Is developed, the animal is poisoned, and
in the hirge intestine a considerable quantity of fluid faeces
containing numerous diolera bacilli may be found. There
appear to be slight diffcienccs in the cholera organisms found
in ooooezion with different outbreaks, but the main character-
Istici are pvtserved throughout, and are sufficiently distinctive
to mark out all these organisms as belonging to the cholera group.
Amongst the known predisposing causes of cholera are the
incautious use of purgative medicines, the use of unripe fruit,
insufficient food and intemperance. These may be all looked
upon as playing the part of the alkaline solution in altering
the composition of the gastric juices, and especially as setting
up alkaline fermentation in the stomach and small intestine;
beyond this, however, the irritation set up may bring about an
accumulation of inflammatory serous fluid, from the albumens
of which, as we have seen, the cholera organism has the power
of producing very active tonns.
The part played by want of personal cleanliness, overcrowding
^d unfavourable hygienic conditions may be readily under-
stood if it be remembered that the choLcra bacillus may grow
outside the body. The number of cases in which epidemics of
cholera have been traced to the use of drinking-water contami-
nated with the discharges from cholera patients is now consider-
able. The more organic matter present the greater is the
virulence of water so contaminated; and the addition of such
water to milk has, in one instance at least, led to an outbreak.
If chokca dejecta be sprinkled on moist soil or damp Uocn, and
kept at bhwd-heat, the bnnllii? r— *'— *it» at an enormous rate
in the first twenty-four ot ibiiLy-j^ix hours; but, as seen in the
Dunbar-Schottclius method, at tlic- cuii of three or four days
it is gradually overcome by the other bacteria present, whiLh>
growing strongly and asserting themselves, cause it to die out.
The importance of this saprophytic growth in the propagation
of the disease can scarcely be over-estimated. Water which con-
tains an onUoary amount of organic and inorganic matter in solu-
tion does not allow of the multiplication of this orgamsn^ which
may soon die out; but when organjc matter is present in excess,
as at the margin of stagnant pools and tanks, development
occurs, especially on the floating solid particles. This badllus
grows at a temperature of 30** C. on meat, ege^ vegeubles and
moistened bread; also on cheese, coffee, chocolate and dilute
sugu solutions. In some experiments carried out by Cart wright
Wood and the writer in connexion with the passage of the
cholera organism through filters it remained alive in the charcoal
iiliering medium for a period of at least forty-two days, and
probably for a couple of months. It must be remembered
that cholera bacilli are gradually overcome or overgrown by
«lher ocganisros, as only on this supposition can the immunity
enjoyed by certain regions, even after the water and soil have
been coalaminated, provided that no fresh supply is brought in
" to relight the torch," be expUined. In most of the regions
in which cholera remains endemic the wells are merely dug-out
pits beneath the slightly raised houses, and are open lor the
' reception of Kwage and excreU at all times. These dejecta
coQtaia otganic material which serves as a nutriment on which
Inlcciivc organismi, derived from the soil and ground-water,
m*y flourish. Not only dejecta, but also the rinsings from soiled
hnen aod uteuvls wed by cholera patients should be removed
uwott at possible, "without aUowing them to c»me into contact
*im xhv viT^Kc ill iht toil, wit^ ^v\W or wiLh vcgetftl>lf!s
«*d Ik iikt tU diworciy cf Koch'i t^mffii UuHuj hi* i*
now study the conditions under which the bacillus can multiply
and be disseminated, instead of concerning ourselves with the
cholera itself as some definite entity. Telluric agencies become
merely secondary factors, the dissemination of the disease by
winds from country to country is no k>nger regarded as being
possible, whilst the spread of cholera epidemics aJong the lines
of human intercourse and travel Is now recognized. The
virulent badllus requires the human organism to carry it from
those localities in which it is endemic to those in which epidemics
occur. The epidemiologist has come to look upon the study
of the cholera organism and the conditions under which it
exists as of more importance than mere local conditions, which
a^ only important in so far as they contribute to the propaga-
tion and distribution of the cholera bacillus, and he knows that
the only means of preventing its spread is the careful inspection
of everything coming from cholera-stricken regions. He also
recognizes that the herding together of people of depressed
vitality, under.unhygienjc and often filthy concLltions, in quaran-
tine stations or ships, b one of the surest means of promoting
an epidemic of the disease; that attention should be ONifined
to the careful isolation of all patients, and to the disinfection
of articles of clothing, feeding utensils, and the like; that the
comma bacillus can only be driven out of looms by means of
light and fresh air; that thorough personal, culinary and house-
hold cleanliness is necessary; that all water except that known
to be pure should be carefully boiled; and that all excess, both
in eating and drinking, should be avoided. The object of the
physician in such cases must be first to isolate as completely
as possible all his cholera patients, and then to get rid of all
predisposing causes in the paUents themselves, causes which
have already been indicated in connexion with the aetiology
of the disease.
Attention has frequently been drawn to the fact that patients
who have Uved for some time in a cholera rQgion» or who .have
already suffered from an attack of cholera, appear to enjoy a
partial immunity against the disclose. Haffkioe, working on
the assumption that the symptoms of cholera are produced by a
toxin formed by the cholera organism, came to the ooodusion
that, by introducing first a modified and then s more virulent
poison directly into the tiuues under the skin, and not into the
ah'mentary canal, it would be possible to obtain a certain iasu^
ceptibility to the action of thb poison. He found that for this
purpose the cholera bacillus, as ordinarily obtained in pure
culture from the intestinal canal, b too potent for the preliminary
inoculation, but b not suSidently active for the second, if any
marked proleaioo b to be obtained By allowing the organbm
to grow in a well-aerated culture the virulence b gradually
diminished, and thb virulence, once abolished, does not return
even when numerous successive cultures are made 00 agar or
other nutrient media. On the other hand, by passing the
cholera badllus successlvdy through the peritoneal cavities of
a series of about thirty guinea-pigs, he obtains a vnrus of great
activity; thb activity b soon lost on agar cultivations, and it b
necessary, from time to time, again to pass the bacillus through
giunea-pigs, three- or four paswgrs now being sufficient to
reinforce the activity.
From thoe two cultures the vaoeines are prepared as fotto^'*!
The surface of a slant sear tube b smeared with tb« tnoK^^^?
cholera organism. After thb has been allowed to grow fo^ V*^^^.
four hours, a small quantity of sterile water is poured ii\tt^ \\),c ^^^tv
and the turfaoe^growth b carefully soaped off and i«\»r\/\<^^ «.*^
emulsion in the water; thb b then poured off, and t.|w^ 'kP'^'^C^
repeated until the whole of the growth has been r«Q^ 16^ c"^
mwture b made up with water to a bulk of 8 ex., so tK^'^c^V c']^^
toiected the patient receives i of a surface-growth ; it ^^ ''^ ^^
this quantity, when injected subcuuneously into ^^ \<n^l^^
gives a dbtinct reaction, but does not cause necrosis ^^ <%,^^<^0
If the vacdne b to be kept for any length of time, t^SJ^ ^ij^ji^
if the vacdne b to be kept for any length of time,
made with o*s % carbolic add solutioa, prepare<|
sterilised water, and the mixture b made up to C ,
8 C.C., since the carbolic add appears to interfere «S^,
activity of the vtnw. The stronger viru« b pr"^
- iv- The prHimliiiirv
I 1-^. :^. Li l.:'l!'ifWixl by 3 tuai m t-
iS^^^S'
^^
77*
PARASITIC DISEASES
After tbree orlbitr liovn tiiem b norimihk swellinK and ■ome pain;
and after ten hour* a rise in temperature, usually not very marked,
ooeun. These signs soon disappear, and at the end of three or four
days the second injection b made, usually on the 4|ppo«te side.
This is also (bllowcd by a rise of temperature, by swelluiK, pain and
local redness: these, however, as before, soon oass off, and leave no
ill effectt behind. A guinea-pig treated in this fashion b now immune
against some eight or ten times the lethal dose of cholera poison,
and* from all staristirs that cap be obtained, a sioiilar protection b
coniened upon the human being.
Pfeiffer found that when a smaO qnantity of the cholera vibrio
b injected into the peritoneal cavit^f of a guinea-pig highly
immunised against cholera by Hafflane'a or a similar method,
these vibrios rapidly become motbnless and gruiubr, then very
•luch swollen and finally " dissolve." Thb b known as PfeifFcrs
reaction. A simtUr reaction may be obtained when a 9uantity of
a culture of the cholera vibrio mixed with the serum derived from a
guinea-pig immuniaed against the cholera vibrio, or from a patient
9onvalnoeat fromjthe ducase, b injected into the peritoneal cavity
o( a guinea pig not subjected to any preliminaiy treatment; and,
«p further, it was found that the dissolutkM of the
cholera vibrio i
J b brought about even when the mixture of vibrio
and senim b made in a test tube. On thb series of experiments
as a fonnda t faa, tba theory of meqitktd immuaity baa been
icared.
( Evfdenot haa been collected tliat ki^rilU, almoit Identiod in
tppearanoe with the cfaolen badllus, may be present in water
and In healthy itoob, and that it b in many cases almost impos-
sible to <)iagnose between these and the cholera badllus; but
ilthough these spirilla may interfere with the diagnoss, they do
•ot invalidate Koch's main contention, that a special form of
the comma bacillus^ which gives a amplete gr&up of reactions,
h the cause of thb disease, especially when tbcae reactions
tre met with in an organism Ikai cam^ from Ike human itUestine.
Typhoid Fe9er.'~-Oiir information concerning the aetiology
of typhoid fever was largely increased during the last twenty
years of the 19th century. In 1880 Eberth and Klebs Indepen-
dently, and in x88a Coats, described a bacillus which has since
been found t6 be intimately associated with typhoid fever.
Thb oiganism (Plate n. fig. 4) usually appears in the form of
a short badllus Irom a to 3^ in length and 0^3 too* sm in breadth;
ft has slightly rounded ends and b stained at the poles; it may
$)fo occur as a somewhat longer rod more equally stained through-
out. Surrounding the young organism are numerous long and
well-formed flageOa, which give it a very characteristic appear-
gnce under the microscope. At present there b no evidence that
the typhoid badllus forms spores. These badlli are found in the
adenoid follicles or lymphatic tissues of the intestine, in the
mesenteric glands, in the spleen, liver and kidneys, and may also
be detected even In the small lymphoid masses in the lung and
la the post-typhoid absMsses formed In the bones, kidneys, or
other parts of the body; indeed, it b probable that they were
first seen by van ReckHnghaosen in 1871 in such abscesses.
They undoubtedly ooeur in the deject of patienU suffering
from typhoid f^vcr, whilst in recent yean it has been demon-
strated that they may abo be found In the urine. It b evident,
therefore, that the urine, as well as the faeces, may be the vehicle
by means of which the disease has been unwittingly spread in
certain otherwise inexplicable outbreaks of typhoid fever,
cspedatly as the badllus may be present In the uilne when the
acute stage of the disease has gone by, and when it has been
assumed that, as the patient b convalescent, he b no longer a
focus from which the infection aoay be spread. Easton and
Knox found typhoid badlU in tlie urine of 31% of a series of
their typhoid patients.
In IQ06 Kayser demonstrated what had previoudy been suspected,
that the typhoid badlli may persist for considerable periods in
the bile duct and call bladder, whence they pass into the intestinal
tract and are discharged with the einacuatiDoSb Patienu in whom
thb occun are spoken of as " typhoid carriers" They become
convalescent and except that now and again they suffer froin Blight
attacks of dbrrhoca they appear to be perfectly healthy. It has
been observed, however, especially during these attacks of diarrhoea,
that typhoid badlli may he found in the faeces. Curiously enough
the bacilti are as virulent as are those isobted when the disease b
at its height. Heooe these typhoid carriers are exceedingly danger^
OU9 centres of infection, and as women act as " carricn " much mora
frequently than do men. althoogh, as b well known, typhoid fever
*~~ *" i fffnnffnriy than — pntftj^ ihe lac
for the dbcribvtioa of the dbeiss me i
act as kundresses, -cooks, housemaids,
states that out of 6708 typhoid patienu 310 excreted bacUIi Ibr mora
than 10 weeks after convalescence; 144 of these were no longer
infectiva at the end of three months; 64 had ceased to be infective
at the end of a year, and lOS at the end of three and a-hall yean;
further back than thb no authentic records could be obtaiaied. but
from a critical eaaminatioa of the histories of 35 such carrier cases
he was convinced that I4 had been continuously infective for fitMn
four to niae y«ars. Dr tXmakl Greig, hi 1908. reported a case in
whidi the patient appean to have been a typhoid carrier for fifty-
two yean from the time of convalescence. Frosch pointed out.
what has now been fully oonfirfned, that the badlli in these cases
though often present in the faeces ui enormous nuttben may dis*
ap^r and afpUn reappear from time to time and that a oootinuoos
series of examinations b necf iw ar y before a ooavalesomt patient
can be acquitted of bang a " typhoid carrier.** In thb connexion
it b interesting to note that Blumenthal and Kayser have discovered
typhoid badlu ra the Inrerior of gall-stones. I>n Alexander and
f, C. G. Ledingham, examining the 90 feoaale patients and attendants
w a Scottish asylum in which, during some four or fitve years. 31
cases of typhdd had occurred in smalTgroups in which the sottice of
Infection could not be traced to any recognixod channel, found
amongst them three " typhoid carriers.'* The Imporranoe of soch a
discovery amongst asylum patients nay be readily understood when
the cardeaa and uncleanly habits of insane, pattenta are borne in
mind. As it has been demonstrated that the typhoid badHus b
found, not merely in the lymphatic tbsue but, in 7S% of the cases,
actually drcobting in the blood, the apocaranoe of the badllus in
the seeretiras and excretions may be readily understood.
There can be little doubt that typhoid badOI are not, as b
very frequently assumed, present merely in the lymphatk
glands and in the spleen (see Plate II. fig. s) : they may be found
in almost any part of the lymphatic system, in lymph spaces,
in the connectivie tissues, where they appear to give rise to
marked proliferation of the endothelial cdb, and espedally in
the various secreting organs. It b probable that the profifcra-
tfcm often noticed in the minute portal spaces in the liver, in
cases of typhoid fever, b rimply a type of a aimlbr praUfentkm
going on In other pans and tissues of the body. It was for long
assumed that the typhoM badllus could multiply fredy in water,
bat recent experiments appear to indicate that thb b not the case,
unless a much larger quantity of soluble organic matter b present
than b usually met with in water. The fact, however, that the
oiganbm may remnin alive in water b of greal importance; and«
as in the Case, of cholera, it must be recognized that certain of
the great epidemics of typhoid or enteric fever have been the
result of "water-borne infection." The badllus, a facuHative
parasite, grows outside the body, with somewhat characteristic
appearances and reactloas: It flourishes specially well on a
slightly add medium; in the presence of putrefactive organbms
whkh develop strongly alkaline products it may gradually die
out, but it appears to retain lu vitality longer in the presence
of add-forming otgaidsms. It aoay, however, be stated seneraDy
that after a time the typhoid badllus becomes «reskencd, and
may even db out. In the presence of rapidly growing putielactive
organbms. In dbtlUed water it may remain alive for a cotk*
nderable period— five or six weeks, or even kmger. It grows
on all the ordinary nutrient media. It does not ooaguiate
milk; hence it may grow luxuriantly in that metfium witboot
giving rise to any alteration in its physkal dianfctecs; ooa-
taminated AHk, therefore, b spedally dangerous affording as it
doen an esodlent vehicle for the disseminatkm of the typhoid
bacUtus which may also be conveyed by food and even by
water. To food the badllus b readily conveyed by flies, oa
their limbs or by the probosds, which become infected by the
excrement on which they crawl and feed. The observations of
physldans working amongrt the British troops in South Africa
afford abundant evidence that the typhoid badttusmny also
be carried akmg with dust from excreta to fresh patleats. far
akbough these badlli die very rapidly whep they are desiccated,
they remain aKve suflideatly long to enable them to nultlpiy
and flourish when agsin brou|^ into contact with mote food.
milk,te.
When Inoculated on potato, careful esaminatioo wV levv^
the fact that certain ahnost invisible mobt patches are present;
these are made up of rapidly multiplying typhoid badDi. ' The
typhoid badllus g^ws in gelatia, espedally. on the 1
FARASniU DlSKASfiS
toraewhat Vkt the bacfllos coV communb, bat with a less
hixuriant growth. This organism, when taken from young
broth cultures twelve to twenty-four hours old — during the
period at which flagella are best seen-— and examined micro-
scopically, exhibits very lively movements. When, a& pointed
out by Gruber and Durham, blood-serum, la certain dilutions,
from a case of typhoid fever is added to such a culture, the broth,
at first turbid, owing to the suspended and moving micro-
organisms, gradually becomes dear, and a deposit is formed
which is found to be made up of masses or clumps of Hyphoid
bacilli which have lost their motility. This reaction is so
characteristic and definite, that when the mixture is kept under
examination under the microscope, it is quite possible to follow
the slowing-down movement and massing together of the
organisms. It is found, moreover, that normal diluted blood-
serum has no such eflFect on the badlli. This property of the
blood-serum is Acquired at such an early date of the disease —
sometimes even at the end of the first week— and occurs with such
regularity, that typhoid fever may now actually be diagnosed
by the presence or absence of this " a^utinatrag " property
in the blood.- If serum taken from a patient supposed to be
suffering from typhoid fever, and diluted with saline solution
to I in to, to X in 50, or in still greater dilution, causes the bacilli
to lose thdr motility tnd to become aggregated into clumps
within an hour, it may be conduded that the patie-:t is suffering
from typhoid fcVer; if this agglutination be not obtained with
a dilution of x in 10, in from x 5 to 30 minutes, experience has
shown that the patient is not suffering from this disease.
Certain other diseases, such as cholera, give a simflar specific
lenim reaction with their spedfic organisms. These sera have,
in addition, a slight CQmmon action — a general agglutinating
power— which, however, is not manifested except in concentrated
solutions, the higher dilutions failing to give any clumping
Action at all, except with the spedfic bacillus assodated with
the disease from which the patient, from whom the serum is
taken, is suffering.
WriKht and Seraple. working on Haffklne's rines, introduced a
method of vacdnation against typhoid, corresponding somewhat
to that devised by HalFkuie to protect against choleta. They first
obtained a typhoid badUus of fairly consunt virulence and ot such
strength and power of multiplication that an agar culture of 24
hourr growth when divided into four, and injected hypodcrmically.
will kin four fairly large guinea-pigs, each wdghing 350 to 400
grerotnes. A simitar culture emulsified in bouillon or nlme solution
and kiUol by heating for five minutes at 60* C. is a vacdne sufficient
for from four to twenty doses. In place of the agar culture a bouillon
culture heated for the same period may be used as the vaccine. In
efither case the vaccine is injected under the skin of the loin well
above the crest of the ileum. This injection b usually followed
by local tenderness and swdltng within three or four mnirs, and
■welling and tenderness in the position of the nearest lymphatic
glands, marked malaiae, headache, a general feeling of restlessness
mnd ducomfort and a rise of temperature. The blood of a patient
•o treated early causes agglutination of typhokl badlli and acts on
these bacilli much as does cholera serum m Pfeiffer's reaction. At
the .end of ten days a second and stronger dose is giver. After each
iniectioa there a, according to Wright, a "negative phase" during
wfiich the patient is somewhat more susceptible to the attacks of
the typhoid bacillus. Thts^ negative phase soon passes off and a
flistiiict positive or prat
of this is that wherever
infected area should be \
There seems to be no doubt that if thb be done a very marked^
though not complete, protection b conferred. For a time the agglu-
tinative and lytic powers of the serum continue to rise and the patient
•o vaccinated is far less susceptible to the action of the typhoid
badllus. It b recorded in favour of this method of treatment that
of 4503 soldiers of the Indian army inoculated 0-98 % contracted
typhoid, while of 315,851 soldiers of the same army who were not
Inocutited over 9)% (a^M) contracted typhoid. Siraibriy, at
Ladysmith, of the whole olthe besieged soldiers only 1705 had been
inoculated, but of these only 2 % contracted typhoid, whilst of 10,539
lininoculated men 14% were attacked. Wright, who has been
Indefatigable in carrying out and watching this method of treatment,
baa been able to aoeumulate aUtiatics dealing with 49^600 individuab
Medilerranean or UaUa Frwr.— Until comparatively recently,
Meditccraneaii fever was looked upon 'as a form of typhoid
fever, which in certain fcspeett ft resembles; 1
curve, however, has a more undulatory chan
the malignant type, where the temperature
throughout the course of the attack. Accord
this disease is widely distributed in the cow
upon the Mediterranean south of latitude 46* ^
Red Sea littoral. Analogous forma of fever givi
serum reaction with the micrococcus of this disc
with in parts of India, China, Africa and Amei
The Micrococcus mcitlensis vd BrucH ( 1887), wli
abundantly in the enlarged spleen of the patien
Malta fever, b a very minute organism (o>33m in
or neariy round, arranged in pairs or in very sh(
drop of the blood taken directly from the spleen
the surface of agar nutrient medium, minute trans
colonies appear; in thirty-six hours these have a sli
and in four or five days from their first appearai
opaque. These colonies, which flourish at tne tei
human bloody cease to grow at the room-tempci
summer, and if kept moist, soon die at anything bclc
when dried they retain their vitality for some time,
grows and multiplies in broth there is opacity of th
end of five or six days, this being followed by prcc
a comparatively clear supernatant fluid remains,
on media slightly less alkaline than human btood; il
and may resist desiccation for several weeks.
This organism is distinctly pathogenetic to n
virulence may be so increased that other animals
by it. Though unable to live in dean or virgin ;
a saprophytic existence in soil polluted, with
Hughes maintains that the " virus " leaves the b
of man along with the faeces and urine. Th^
this in ambulatory cases b very evident, espe(
remembered that goats feeding on grass, &c. 1
in contact with such urine are readily infecl
appears to be carried for any considerable dist
is not conveyed by the sputum, sweat, breatl:
the skin of patients, and infected dust does not
very important part in produdng the disease,
the fever into three types. In the malignant U
sudden, there are headache, racking pain over I
nausea and sometimes vomiting; the tongue U 1
swollen, and the breath very offensive; the tc
continue for some time at 103** to 105** F. Tl;
diarrhoea which b sometimes present may be
At the end of a few days the lungs become congi
monic, the pulse weak, hyperpyrexia appears, ai
A second type, by far the most common, b th(
type, in which there is remittent pyrexia, sepai
in which the patient appears to be improving,
curves, from one to seven in number, average
each, the first bdng the longest, — eighteen to tw*
In an intermittent type, in which the temperatu
resembles the hectic pyrexial curve of phthisis
the "undulatory" character b also marked,
number of toxic symptoms make thdr appeal
neuritb, synovitb, anaemia, emaciation, bionchii
ness of the heart, neuralgia, profuse night-swe
conditions. Patients otherwise healthy usual!
after prolonged attacks of the disease, but the m<
patients suffering from organic mischief of an]
comparatively high. The dlagnosb from m;
rheumatic affections and pneumonia may, in moa
fairly easily, but the serum agglutinating reacli*
strated by Wright in 1897) with cultures of 1
mdilensis, corresponding to the typhoid rea
typhoid badllus, b sometimes the only trusi
by which a diagnosb may be made between th
above-mentioned diseases. About 50% of the
give a positive agglutinative reaction and abo
milk which contains the micrococcus.
Sir David Bruce, in his investigations on the t:
pointed out that certain wild animab altho'
in good health might serve as reservoirs for, or
the N'gana parasite. He was therefore quite (
u an uumai wbiw nugni snow duk sugoi, u any, manuceiauons
of Malta fevei. IndicaUons as to the direction in which to
look vr€n given in the following fashion. There was a strike
tmongst the daicymen supplying the barracks in Malta and it
became necessary to replace the goat's milk in the dietary of
the troops by condensed milk. What followed? In the first
hall of the year 1906 there had been 144 cases (in 1905 there had
been 750 cases), in the second half after the alteration of the
milk supply, only 32 cases were recorded and in 1907, 7 cases
during the whole year. In the navy during the same period
there were, in 1905, 498 esses. In 1906, 348 cases and, from
January to September 1 907 . not a single case.
The most common mctnod of infection is by the ingestion of milk,'
but the milk when handled may alio give rise to infection through
finding its way into cuts, bruises, &c. In the goat the disease is
of an extremely mild character, the clinical symptoms, which
are present for two or three days only, being easily overlooked.
In spite of thb the goat is highly susceptible to the infection cither
by the various methods of inoculation or as the result of feeding
with contaminated or infected material. The micrococcus is often
found in the circulating blood from which it may be excreted along
with the urine and faeces. In time, however, it disappears, first
from the general circulation and most of the viscera, pcrasting
longest in the spleen, kidneys and lymphatic glands. In the later
stages of the disease the micrococcus is lound in the milk even after
it has disappeared from the above glands. It b during this suge
that the nulk of the goat is so dangerous, as now and again it may
contain an enormous number of tne specific micrococcus varying
" within wide limits from dav to day," although bearing " no rela-
tionship to the severity of the infection, air terai>eraturc, &c.; the
presence of the Micrococcus mdiUnsis in the milk appears to be
merely the result of a mechanical flushing of the mammary glands
by means of which the coed multiplying therein are removed?' As
pointed out by the Mediterranean Fever Commission the micrococcus
of Malta fever from its vantage ground in the milk may make its
way to ordinary ke^rcams and to native cheeses, in which it appears
to retain its tnil virulence. Monkeys axe especiallv susceptible
to this disease* contracting it readily when they are fed with milk
from an infected goat. In 1905 an interesting experiment was,
unintentionally, carried ouL An official of the United States
Burvaa of Animal Industry visiting Malu in the summer of that
year purchased a herd of 61 milch-goats and four billy goats. These
were shipped via Antwerp to the United States. On arrival at
Antwerp the goats were tranflriterrcd to a quarantine station, where
they remained for five days and were then consigned by steamer to
New York. On board the SS. "Joshua Nkhokon." which took the
goau from Malta to Antwerp, were twenty-three officers and men;
ten out of the twenty-three were afterwards traced. One was found
to have been infected by U. mditensis at an unknown date, and
dght had subsequently^ suffered from febrile attacks, five yielding
condusve evidence of infection bv M. nulitensis. It is interesting
to note, however, that two men who boiled the milk before drinking
it, and an officer and a cabin-boy who disliked the milk and did not
drink it at all, eame off scot free.
These cases taken by themselves might leave the question some-
what open, as there was a posribillty that the men attacked might
have been in contact with infected patients in Malta. A far more
conclusive case was the following. A woman at the quarantine
station at Athenia, N. J., U.S.A.. who partook freely of the mixed milk
from several goats, over a considerable period, suffered from a typical
attack of Mediterranean fever some nine or ten weeks after the goats
had been landed in America. In this case " contact ** with and
other modes of expoeiuc to infection by buraaa patienUoouM all be
eliminated.
It may be held then that the M. mdiUntis leads a more or less
passive existence in the body of the Maltese goat, only exercising
Its full pathogenic action when it gains cntraaoe to the human body.
There is some slight evidence that the Mkncoceiu mdiUnsis may
remain alive with its vimleoce unimpaired even when taken up by
the mosquitoes Acartomyia and Stcgomyia, and again in the common
Mood-sucking fly, Stomoxys. for a short period, four or five days.
it can be recovered for a (onger period and still in a fairiy viriilcnt
condition fstmi the excreta oithese insects. In spite of tnisi, trans-
mission ol the diseasrby these ioaects. though apparently possible,
does not ^mear to be of very frequent occurrence. Inoculation
with a vaccine prepared from the iiicroceuta melitensis appears
to exert a protective Influence for a period of about four months,
after which tine there is a marked disumitioo in the immunity
confencd by this vaodnatioo.
Relapsing Peter.— The specific cause of relapsing fever (famine
fever) appears to be the SpiriOum Ottermeiari, an organism
which occurs in the blood (during the febrile stages) of patients
suffering bom this disease. Between the febrile stages are
parioda of intennisskm. during which the spsriUum disappears
aiseasc, in epiocniic xorm, louows in ine loouicps 01 lamino
and destitution, specially affecting young people between the
ages of fifteen and twenty; it seldom attacks children' under
five years of age, but when it attacks patients over thirty it
assumes a very virulent form. In monkeys inoculated with blood
containing Ihe Spirillum Obermeieri the first symptoms appear
between the second and sixth days. In the human subject
this incubation period may last as long as three weeks; then
comes an attack of fever, which continues for about a week,
and is followed by a similar period of apparent convalescence,
00 which ensues a pyrexial relapse, continuing about hadf as long
as the first. The spirilla, the cause of this disease* are fine
spirals with pointed ends, three o^ four times as long as the
(hameter of a red blood cotpuscle. Although it has as yet been
found impossible to cultivate these spirilla outside the body,
human beings, and monkeys injected with Uood containinc
them, contract the disease; and in monkeys it has been found
that during the period before the rebpso the spirilla have made
their way into the cells of the spleen. As yet little is known
as to the mode of development of these organisms, and of the
method of their transmission from one patient to another, but
it is thought that, as in the case of malaria and the tsetse-fly
disease, they may be carried by bloodsucking insects. Relap^ng
fever is distinguished from typhoid fever by its sudden onset,
and by the distinct intermissions; and from influenza by the
enlargement of the spleen and liver. The moat satisfactory
method of diagnosis is the examination of the blood for the
presence of the spirillum during the febrile stage. The post-
fuartem appearances are those of a toxic (bacterial) poisoning.
Curious infarction-like masses, in which are numerous spirilla,
are found in the spleen; in the liver there is evidence of acute
inteistitial hepatitis, with cloudy swelling of the liver cells;
and similar changes occur in the kidney. Fatty degcncratioD
of the heart and voluntary muscles may also be met with.
Plague, — During recent years opportunities for the study
of plague have unforttmately been only too numerous. In
patients suffering from this disease, a micro-organism, capable
of leading either a saprophytic life or a parasitic existence in
the human body, and in some of the lower animals, was descrUwd
independently by Kitasato and Lowson and by Yentn, 1S94,
in Hong-Kong. It is a short moderately tMck oval badllus,
with rounded ends, which stain deeply, leaving a clear band ia
(he centre (see Plate II., fig. 7). It thus xeaembles the short
diphtheria bacillus and the influenza bacillus. Certain other
forms are met with— long rods and ** large oval bacilli, pear-
shaped or round, imperfectly stained pale involution forms " —
but the above is the most characteristic It grows readily oa
most media at the temperature of the body, but, like the glandrcs
bacillus, soon loses its virulence in cultivations. It may be
obtained in pure oUturcs from the lymph glands, and from
the abscesses that are formed in the groin or other positioas
in which the glands become enlarged and softened. It may
also be found in the spleen and in the blood, and, in the caae
of patients suffering from the pneumonic form of the du^ase,
even in the lungs and in the sputum. It has also been found
in the faeces and urine. (It a very important that these esrcre^
tions from plague patients should always be most carefully
disinfected) This organism, when obtained in pure culture
and inoculated into rau, mice, guinea-pigs or rabblta, pioducet
exactly the same symptoms as does material taken fresh froas
the softened glands. The symptoms are local swelling, enlarge-
ment and softening of the lymphatic glands, and h^ fever.
The difficulty of explaining the spread of plague, at one Lsaie
apparently almost insuperable, has at hst been overcome, as
it has been found that although the acute pneumonic pfaijgue
is imdoubtedly highly contagious, the spread of the bubonic
and septicaemjc forms could not be ekplaiaed on the nun*
bypothesb. As the pnetuionic fonn is met with hi txAf aboot
3*5% of the whole of the cases, transmission by direct comas^oa
seems to be an utterly inadequate explanation. In the autumn
of 1S96, when the plague broke out in India, and those «*'^*^Tg
easily warised with. Thb prooea of prepamtion may have to be
comuined for from six montlis to a year. The horse u then bled and
from tlie obt the terum m tepant«]. care betn^ taken to determine
by miection «l the blood into mice that no livinff bacilli have by
accident made their way into, and remained in^ the horK'a blooa.
The serum is not coostdnned to be sufficiently active until a drop and
a half wilt protect the mouse against a dose of living bacilli fatal to a
control mouse in from 48 to 60 hours. When thb serum is injected
in aufikicntly large doses subcutaoeousiy in mild cases, ana sub-
CMUneously and intravenously {Liuuet, igot, i. 1387) in more aeverB
cases in doses of 150 to 300 cc. the results seem to be excellent,
especially when the serum is injected into the tissues around the
bubo or swelling formed in this disease. Calmette and Salimbeni
used the serum m 142 cases in the Oporto outbreak. Amongst these
they had a mortality of under 15%, whilst amongst 7a patients
liot so treated the death-rate was over 63 %. This scrum Kills the
bacilli and at the same time neutralizes the toxiA formed during
the coarse c(f the disease. The best results are obtained when large
doses are given, and when the serum injected subcutaneously Is
thrown into the area^ in which the lymph flows towards the bubo.
As in the case of the diphtheria antitoxic serum joint pains and rashes
may follow its exhibition.. but no other ill effects have been noted.
PvcanMiMd.— The case in favour of acute lobar pneumonia
being an infective diseaoe was a very strong one, eyen before
it was possible to show that a special organism bore any aetio-
logical relation to it. In x88o, Friedlftnder claimed that he
had isolated such an oiganism, but the pneumo-badUua then
described appears to be inactive as compared with the pneumo-
coccus isoUted by Fraenkel and Talamon. This latter organism
which is usually found in the spotum, is an encapsuled diplo-
coccus. Grown on serum or agar over which sterile blood
has been smeared, it occurs -as minute, glisieningi rather promi-
nent points, almost like a. fine spray of water or dew. When
the organism ja cultivated in broth the capsule disappears, and
chains of diplecocri are seen. It resembles the influenxa badllua
Sn a most fsmarkable manner. It may be founid, in almost
every case <rf pneumonia, in the " rusty " or " prune-juice "
sputum. Injected into rabbits, it produces death with very.
^reat certainty; and by passing the organism through these
animals iu virulence may be markedly increased. Like the
influenza bacillus and even the diphtheria bacillus, this ocganism
may be present in the mouth and lungs of perfectly healthy
individuals, and it is only when the vitality of the system is
towered by cold or other depressing influences that pneumonia
is induced; two factors, the presence of the bacillus and the
towered vitality, being both necessary for the production of this
disease in the human subject. It is quite possible, however,
that, as in the case of cholera, a slight inflammatory exudation
may supply a nutrient medium in which the bacillus rapidly
acquires greatly increased vinilence, and so becomes a much
fltore active agent of infection.
It is daimed by the brothers Klemperer, by Wadiboum and by
others, that they have been able. to produce an anti-pneumococctc
serum, by means of which they are aole to treat successfully severe
cases of pneumonia. The catarrhal pneumonia so frequently met
with dunn; the courw of whooping-cough, measles and other
qxcific infective fevers, is. also in at! probability due to the action of
some organbm of which the influenta bacillus and the Diplocouus
pmunwiiae aie types.
InfecHm wuutMgUit is, in most of the recent works en medicine,
divided into four forms: (x) the acute epidemic cerebro-spinal
form; (3) a posterior basic form, which, however, Is closely
allied to the first; (3) suppurative meningitis, usually associated
with pneumonia, erysipelas, and pyaemia; and (4) tubercular
meningitis, due to the spedfic tubercle bacillus.
I. The first form, acute infective or epidemic ccrebro-spinal
meningitb, is usually associated with Weichselbaum's Diph-
eocau inlnueUtdans menm^idit (two ckaely apposed disks),
which b found in the exudate, especially in the leucoc3ftes, of
the meninges of the btain and cord. It grows, as transparent
colonicsj on blood-agar at the temperature of the body, but
dies out very rapidly unless leinoculated, and has little patho*
genetic effect on any of the lower anhmab, though under certain
conditions it has been found to produce meningitis when injected
under the dura mater.
Move or lem auoceasfal atlempu have been made to treat acute
' t by means of .-^-•— ^
a. zr».*.ytt-»i^M._A *x^ w^a^^a^j &s#«^i^
from different sources. FIcxner uses the senim oC L
been highly immunised against numerous etrains of the mrninar»^
coccus, the process of immunixation extending over four or five
months. Miebter, Lucius and Brllning sup^y Rnopd's anti-
bacterial serum derived from animals inununued againat aeiHefal
strains of meningococcus of high pathogenic activity. Both these
sera may be looked upon as polyvalent sera. Ivy Macfcenxie and
Martin, pointing out that the cerebro-spinal fluid, even of patients
who have recovered from thb form of menineitis, contains no anti-
bodies, tried and recommended inieetboa of the patient's own blood
serum into the spinal caoaL la all cases the acthw seems to be nusdi
the'same. These sera contain immune body and complement, and
are dbtinctly bactericidal, acting 00 the meniitoKoccus and render-
ing it much more easily taken up and digested by the white blood
cocposdes. It b possible that these sera nun^ also ei£ert some sUghe
anutoxic action. The serum b injected directly into the spmal
canal, a corresponding quantity of the oerebro-spinal fluid having
first been withdrawn by lumbar puncture. The treatment thus
resembles the treatment of kKkjaw, where the antitetanus aeroa
b brought as directly as possible mto contact with the nerve osntres.
The dose of these sera nnges from 13 to 40 oc according to the
severity of the disease. Although the general mortality ol the disease
b from $0 to 80%, it b suted that where Flexner's serum b used
the mortality falls to 53%. The result corr es ponds somewhat
closely to those obtainedwitb antidiphtheria scrum in diphtheria.
' ' '" the disease the mortality wan
In patients injected on the first day <:
only I "^ --" ' ' -' '
but a'
the t ^__
of the meniagocoocttsand the neotrslication of the toxins |
it cannot make good any damage already done to the tissues.
Mackenzie and Martin treated 20 cases with the Uood taken from
patients suffering, or convalescent, from meningitis. Of 16 acute
cases treated 14 received serum fraih patients who had already
rec o ve r e d from the disease. 8 of the patfents moovcred, 6 died, and
2 cases .which received their own serum both noovcred. in the
;nce of these anti-oerebro-spinal-fever sen the meningeal oood
~ diminished in number and do not stain so readily, whilst.
ly about 15%, on and from the fourth to the seventh day :
t after the seventh day ^6% From thil it b evident that alth
t serum has a dbtinct effect in bringing about the phagocy
simultaneously, tbepolymorpho-nuclcar leucocytes seem to be dimin-
bhed in number. The serum should be given until the tempeiatare
becomes normal. Mackensie and Martui-assert that even normal
human blood contains substances which are bacteriddal to the
meningeal coccus, but that these substances increase *' In amount
and activity in the bkxxl serum of patients suffering from an acute
or chronic meninsocoode infection, and the semm of a pnticnc
recently recovered from an infection shows the evidence of the
presence of these substances 10 a still greater degree." They were
able to demonstrate, moreover, that the destructive action on the
coed depends on an immune body which requires the presence til a
compleosent to compfete the process. The CNcbn>^piiial fluid differs
from the serum in that it ones not contain subsunoes whidi kill
this meningeal coccus in ntra, nor are the immune body and complc'
ment present in the blood, found in this crrebro-spinalfluid. Hence
the emcacv of the blood when it b called upon to replace the fluid
in the oerebro*spinal canal.
s. Pasknar bMC memngUis, accoidiag to Dr Still, **is
frequently seen during the first sis months of life, a period at
wUch tuberculous aad epidemic cerelir<h«pinal meningitis aic
quite uncommon." The organbm found in this diseaae rcaemfalea
the diplaeouus intraceUtUarit meningitidis very dosdy. but
differs from it in that it remains alive without recultivatioa for
a oonsadersbly longer period. It b less pathogenetic than that
organbm, of which possibly it b simply a more highly sapro-
phytic form. Thb b a somewhat important point, as it would
account for the great resemblance that exists between the
sporadic and the epidemic forms of meningitis.
3. In gufpwMim meaingUis these two organisms may still
be found in a certam proportion of the cases, but thdr place
may be taken by the pneumococciis or Diphcoccus pmeuwionict
or Fraenkd's pneuaococctts— iX^<ecocaif fanecstoi uj w h ich
appears to grow in two forms. In the first ft b an encap-
sulated organism, consuting of small oval coed arranged In
pairs or in short chains; the capsule is nnsrsimd When the
poeumecoccus grows in cfaain»*Hhe aeoood form— as when
cultivated outs&de the body, on bkmd-aeram or on agar over
the surface of which a small quantity of sterile Uood haa been
smeaied, it produces vccy minote translucent oolonici. Like
Wdchselbaum's bacillus* it must be Becidtivated every thice or
four days, otbefwise it soon dies out. Unlike the other loraa
previously described, it -may, when passed throngh aninab,
become extremdy virulent, very small quantities being sofikicai
t» kill a tnbbit. Although the pnevmococcss is found In the
majority of these cases, esprriaHy in ' "
■ppcan, wo isr, »i may rsic, •» it» ium.iivc |wwcf » wm,«<u«;uy
from the blood, Mcretiom and tIsMicfl of the patient. Further,
there to no evidence that the infective virus is ever transmitted
directly from the patient in secretions or in fact in anything
btit Mood or blood-serum. The infective material, then, to present
hi the human aubject for about eight days, during which the
Mood and even the Mood'Serum may serve as a vehicle for
the infective agent. If during thto period the patient to bitten
by the Stegomyia the mosquito cannot dntributc the infection for
twelve days, but after thto the power of transmitting reinfection
persists for weeks and even months during cold weather when
the insect is torpid. As soon, however, as the warm weather
comes round and the mosquito becomes active and again begins
to bite there to evidence that it still maintains iu power of
transmitting infection; indeed Boyee sUtes that mosquitoS
Infected in one year are capable of transmitting infection and
starting a fresh epidemic in the following warm season. When
h is remembered that a mosquito by a single bite to capable of
setting up an attack of the dtoease, we see how important to
this question.
The Stegomyia, known ai the domestic or house mosquito,
to spoken of as the " Tiger '' mosquito, " ScoU' Grey," or ** Black
and White Mosquito," from the fact that there to " a lyre-
shaped pattern in white on the back of the thorax, transverse
white bands on the abdomen, and white spots on the sides of
the thorax; while the legs have white bands with the last hind
tarsal joint also white " (Boyce). It to atoo spoken of as the
*' cistern mosquito," as it breeds in the cisterns, barreb» water
butts, &c., conuining tbe only water-supply of many houses.
It may pass through its various stages of development in any
small vesietof but the larvae are not usually found in natural
coUecttons of water, such as gutters, pooto or wells, if
the ovipositing Insect can gain access to cleaner and purer
water.
The egg of the Stegomyia deposited on the watte develops in
from lo to so hours into the larval form, the acxalled *' wiggle-
waggle." It remains in thto stage for from i to 8 days, then
becomes t pupa, and within 48 hours becomes a fuBy developed
mosquito. The larvae can only develop if they arc left in
water, though a very small amount of water will serve to keep
them alive. The eggs on the other hand are very testotAnt,
and even when removed from water may continue viable for
as long a period aa three months. The Stegomyia affects clean
water-butts and ctotema by preference. Consequently its
presence is not confined to unhygienic dtotricts; they may,
however, " seek refuge lor breeding purposed in the shallow
street drains and weUs in the town." The Stegomyia doca m>t
announce iU advent and attack by a " ptng " such as that made
by the Anophdca, it works perfectly noiaeleaBly and almost
ceasd^ssly (from 3 pjn. to early moraing) so that any human
beings in iu neighbourhood ore not safe from its attacks either
afternoon or oighL
The most important prophylactic meaauics against the Stego-
myia are ample moaquito nets " with a gauge of eighteen
meshes to the inch " (Boyce), so arranged that the person skfcping
may not come near the net; these nets should be used not only
at night but at the afternoon siesta. Then the fiviog room
should be screened against the entrance of these pests* tfaoiougb
ventilation should be secured; and all pooto and stagnant waters,
tspedally in the neighbourhood of houses, should be drained,
water-butts and dstems should be screened and all stagnant
watcn oiled with keroseoe or petroleum, where drainage to
impoasibk. What has been done through the carrying out
ol these and similar measures may be gathered from the record
of the Panama CaaaL In 18&4 the French Panama Canal
OBBVMiy, employing from §5.000 .to i$,ooo nms, kat kqr death
in many large English towns. Similar nrampirs might be dtcd
from other ptocea* but the above to suffidentlj strildng to catry
conviction that the methods employed in carrsring on the
warfora against tropical diseases have been attended with
unexampled success. These diseases, at one time so greatly
feoned, are now ao much under control that some one has said
" ere long we shall be sending OBT patknU to the tsoplcs in search
o< a health resort."
WeiTs disease, a disease which may be oonsdcred along with
acute yellow atrobhy and yellow fever, to one in which there to on
acute febrile condition, associated with jaundice, inflaromation of
the kidney and enlargement of the spleen. It appears to be a toxic
condition of a leas acute character,' however, than the other two.
in which the functions and structure of the liver and kidney are
specially interfered with. There is a narked affection of the gastro-
intestinal system, and the nervous system to also in some cases
profoundly involved. Haemorrhage into the mucous and serous
membranes to a marked feature. The liver cells and kidney epithe-
lium undecso fatty changes, though in the earlier atages there to a
cloudy swelling, probably also toxic in origin. Ofgaaisms of the
Proteus group, which appear to have the power, in ceruin circuco-
stanccs, of forming toxic substances in larger quantities than can be
readily destroyed by the liver, and which then make their appear-
ance in the kidney and spleen, are supposed to be the cause of thto
condition.
J>iphtherta.-^ln regard to no disease has medical opinion t
gone greater modification than it has in respect of diphtheria.
Aci;urately applied, bacteriology has here gained one of its
greatest triumphs. Not only have 'the aetiology and disgnnato
of thto disease been mode dear, but knowledge acquired in
connexion with the production of the disease has been appBcd
to a moat successful method of trratmrnt. In X&75 Kleba
described a small badllua with rounded ends, and with, here
and there, small dear unstained spaces in its substance. He,
however, also described streptococd as present in certain cases
of diphtheria, and oonduded that there must be two hinds of
diphtheria, one associated with each of these organisms. In
1883 he again took up the question; and in the following ycnr
Lodffler gave a systematic description of what to now known
as the Klebs-Loeffler bsdUus, which was afterwards proved by
Roux and Yetsin and many other obaenren to be the «aa»«
causons of diphtheria. This bacillus to a sUgfatly-curved rod
with rounded, pointed, or dub«hapcd end or ends (see Plate
IL fig 9). It to usually fiom i>2 to s;^ or mora in length and
from o*3 to o<5|i in breadth; nrdy it may be oonsideably
larger in both dhnensionak It to non-motile, and may exhibit
great variety of lotm, according to the age of the culture and the
nature of the medium uponwhich it to growing. It to stained
by Gcam% method if the decolorizing ptooeas be not too pto-
longed, and atoo by Loefikr'a methyVmc-blue method. Except
in the very yoimg forms, It to resdily racOgnizoble fay a aeries
of tronsvcTK alternate stained and nnVainfd bands. Thr
bacillus may be wedge^haped, spindle^haped, comma-shaped
or ovoid. In the shorter fotms the polar staining to usoofly wcD
marked; in the longer bacilli, the transverse striotion. Very
cbaracteiistic chib^baped fonns or branching fitomewis ore met
with in old odtures, or where there to a superabundance of nutri-
tive materiaL In what may be called the handle of the cfaib
the banded appearance to spedafly weB marked. These apedfic
badlli are found -la large numben on the surface of the diphttoer-
itic membrane (Plate II. fig. to), and may caai^ be detadbed
for bacteriological examination. In certain cases thiey may be
found l>y direa microaoopic exominotiott, especially when they
are stained by Cram's m^hod, but it to fair more eaqp to demosi-
stnte thdr pe mn c e hy the cnhnre method. Cta LoefBer's
special medium the bacilli fkwissh so well at body^empctoture —
about 37* C— that, Uke the cholera bacflhia, they outgrow the
present, and any be obtained in opoipafnUvdbr
exerts th» action apon the Vactieria« Tbe opsQnic index is obtained
by oomparing the averafe number oC bacilli taken up by, say,
IOC leucocytes, to which the serum from a tuberculous patient
has been added, with the number o( bacteria uken up by, a hundred
similar corpuscles to which normal serum has been added, the
ratio between the two giving the OMonic index. Wright main-
tains that after the injection of smail^ doses of tubercuun during
a negative phase which first appears, t.f. whilst there is a fall in
the number of bacilli taken up by the leucocytes of the blood, the
Ktient is more susceptible than before to the atucks of the tubercle
cUIbs. Folk>wing this, however, there b a gradual rise in the
opsonic index until it passes the normal and the patient enters
a positive phase, during which the susceptibility to the attacks
of the tubercle bacillus is considerably diminishod. When the
effecta of this dose are passing off a fresh iniection should be made;
this again induce* a negative phase, but one that should not be so
marked as in the first instance, whilst the positive phase which
succeeds shouki be still more marked than that first obtained. If
this can be repeated systematically and regularly the patient
■hould begin, and continue, to Improve. The difficulties involved
in the determination of the opsonu: index arc, however, exccedinely
treat, and the personal faaor enters so largely into the question
that SQuie observers are very doubtful as to the practical utility
of this method. In Wright's hands, however, and in the hands of
those who work with hira, very satisfactory results are obtained.
The tuberculin treatment, fortunately, docs not stand or fall by
the success of the opsonic index determination* especially as most
valuable information as to the course of the disease and the effects
of the tuberculin may be obtained by a study of the daily tempera-
ture chart and of the general condition of the patient.
Tuberculin should not be injected more frequcmly than about
once in lo or 14 days, and it is well not to increase the dose too
rapidly. Wherever the temperature continues hi^h, even a degree
bevond normal, and where the pulse is over 100, it is not wise to give
tuberculin, nor does it seem to be of any great value where the
disease is making rapkl headway or has become generalized,
especially where there ts menii^itis or bleeding from the lungs.
, It is mteresting to note, m connexion with the diagnostic
Significance of the opsonic index, that in non-tuberculous subjects
the administration of a small dose of tuberculin is followed by no
negative phase such as is met with in the tubereulous subject ^
The phagocytic power of the white blood oorpusckis b determined
by noting the number of organisons taken up by the leucocytes when
mixed with equal parts ol a standard cmukion of tubcrck; bacilli
and blood scrum mcubated in fine glass tubes for 15 minutes at
a temperature of 37* C. If the perk>d of incubation is much shorter
than thb the results are irregular, whibt if the period is longer so
many organisms are taken up that it becomes impossible to diffe-
rentiate two sets of sera.
As an example we might adduce the following. Taking a tubereu"
bus patient's serum 4- leucocytes <f tubercle bacilli, kst us say we
have an average of fS baciUt per leucocyte in 50 or 100 leucocytes
counted; with normal sprum + corpuscles + tubercle bacilli the
avcTPge number of bacilli per leucocyte in the same number of
cells counted is 3. From these figures the opsonic index obtained
b 1*8 4- 3 <« 0*6 "■ opsonic index.
Leprosy. — Armauer Hansen in 187 1, and Neisser in xSSi;
described a " leprosy bacillus " corresponding in size and in
certain points of staining reaction to the tubercle bacillus, and
it is now generally accepted that this bacillus is the direct and
specific causal agent of leprosy. The discovery of this organism
paved the way for the proof that the tubercular and anaesthetic
forms of leprosy are essentially the same disease, or rather are the
nanifestations of the action of b oommon organism attacking
different series of tissues.
To demonstrate the presence of the leprosy bacillus, tic an
indiarubber ring firmly around the base of one of the leprosy
tubercles. As soon as the blood is driven out, leaving the
noduje pale, make a puncture with the point of a sharp knife.
From thb puncture a clear fluid exudes; this, dried on a covcr-
gjass, stained with carbol-fuchsin, and rapidly decolorized with a
weak mineral add, shows bacilli stained red and very like
tubercle bvdlli; they differ from that organism, however, in
that they are somewhat shorter, and that if the add be too strong
or be allowed to tct on them for too long a time, the colour is
dischaiged from them much more readily. These organisms,
which are from 4 to 6fi in length and o<3|i in breadth, arc as a rule
more rigid and more pointed than are the tubercle badlli (see
Plate n., fig. 16). It b doubtful whether they form spores.
They are fouwi in large nnmbcrs lying embe4/dcd in a kind of
gdatinous substance in the lymphatics of theskin, in certain ceUs
of Nvhich they appear to be taken up.
it ia curious that these bacilli affect spedallj the skin and
nerves, but rarely the hiogs ind serous membnDBi» thus being m
sharp contrast to the tuberde bacillus, which affects the latter
very frequently and the former more rardy. They are seldom
found in the blood, though they have been described as occuring
there in the later stages of the disease. It b stated that leprosy
has been inoculated directly into the human subject, the patient
dying some five or six years after inoculation; but op to tbe pre-
sent no pure culture of the Ic^osy badllus has been obtained; it
has therefore been impossible to produce the disease by the
inoculation of the badllus only. What evidence we have at our
disposal, however, is all in favour of the transmissibility of the
disease from patient to patient and through the agency of the
kprosy bacillus. None of the numerous oon-bacilUxy theories
of leprosy account at all satbfactorily for this transmissibility
of the disease, for its progressive nature, and for the peculiar
scries of hbtological changes that are met with in various parts
and organs of the leprous body. Leprosy occun in all dinutei.
It is found where no fish diet can be obtained, and where pork and
rice are never used, though to these substances has been assigned
the power of giving nse to the disease. Locality appears to
influence it but little, and with improved sanitation sad increased
deanliness it b being gradually eradicated. The only factor
that b common in all forms of leprosy,, and b met with in every
case, b the specific bacillus; and in spile of the fact that it lutt
yet been found impossible to trace the method of transmissioa.
we must from what b known of the preecooe and action of badlli,
in other diseases, especially In tuberculosis, assign to the leprosy
bacillus the r61e of lepro^y-produccr, until much stronger evidence
than has yet been obtained can be brought forward in favour ol
any of the numerous other causes that have been assigBed. Two
cases are recorded in which people have contracted leprosy from
pricklog their fingers with needles whiUt sewing a leper's dothes;
and a man who had never been out of Dublin b said to ha%'e
contracted the disease by sleeping with hb brother, a soldier wbo
had returned from India suffering from leprosy.
Glanders, — Farcy in the human subject resembles the same
disease experimentally produced in animals with material from
a glandered animal, and as there b no pathological dbtinctioB
between the two, from the actiological standpoint, they may be
considered together. If the ptis from 4 glanders abscess be
mixed with a little sterile saline solution and spread over the
cut surface of a boiled potato kept at the body -temperature,
bright yellow or honcy-colourcd, thick, mobt>looking colonics
grow very rapidly and luxuriantly. These colonies gradually
become darker in colour, until they assume a caJi-au-laU, or eve a
a chocobte, tint. On examining one of them microscopically, it
b found to be made op of bacilli 3 to sm long and i lo 1 of their
.own length bn^ad (see Plate I., fig. 3 and fig. 6). The badllus 's
usually straight or slightly curved and rounded at one end; it
appeare to be non-motile. As first pointed out by Loe£Ber aa3
SchQtz, when a portion of a culturc b inoculated subcuianeously.
typical farcy, with the acute septicaemia or blood-poisonins s^j
characteristic of certain cases of glanders and farcy, b the resiill.
The human subject b usually inoculated through wounds or
scratches, or through the application of the nasal dbcharge of a
glandered animal to the mucous membrane of the nose or mouth.
Man is not specially susceptible to the glanders virus, but as be
frequently comes into contact with glandered horses a consider-
able number of cases of farcy in man are met with, akhouirh
amongst knackers it is a comparatively rare disease. Catt*e
never contract it by the ordinary channels, and even when inocu-
lated exhibit nothing more than localized ulceration. The goat
appears to occupy an intermediate position between cattle and
the horse in thb respect; in sheep, which are faiHy susceptible
the disease runs its course slowly, and appears to resennblc
chronic farcy in man. In rabbits and the dog the disease runs
a very slow and modified courK. Although fidd^mioe arc extra-
ordinarily susceptible, white mice and house mice, unless
previously fed on sugar or with phloridzin, are unaffected by
inoculation of the glanders bacillus. The pigeon b the orW
bird in which glanders has been produced. Lions and ttgos are
said to contract the disease, and to take it b a very severe asd
Plate IIL
PARASITIC DISEASES
i
-■ "Sv^
f *-' . >
\ ***^ .
■^ ^
V
u«
i?
Sf^ih on Texas (tvet\nA^^ ".cwcuo-ny parasite, by A. J.
bU>od para^ of &Jf k^ ^' ^' J^y^^ Hewitsoaoo the
S^tidy ^^Z^A^ opened up the way for the rurther
JinbenodouUM^ji?2r^'«^'*^^^J>«»»nU^^^ There
^porulation of th^ l^^^ '^K^^ *>« ^« mulUpUatUon and
fge anaemia lUSLwi^ ?^H^ ^^ ^ *«"•» p«oxy.m:
^xic subSaWtr^ ^ ^'^'^^ **^^ <>' Wood cwpuilc
?7the urin^^ir.i*^ '^ ^^« P«»f in the increased toxicity
^W neooUc A^ . PMOxywnal stages of the disease; more-
^reduced by o?h!^ ^°**^ ^ ^*»ose found in acute toxic fevers
g^ in mind S^r J5!f^'^^ ItisweUto
^Irpusdes in t K-T » accumulation of d6bris of parasites and
^^^rfosis. e^iiSfii**^ . *^^ nuy be an additional factor in this
^^^^tSmi n^^? when to this is added the impairment of
**H45 B»^SbSS^ evolved by the impoverished condition of
tP^.
It is interesting to note that, although.
■^ rtointed cu.T 'l'v *^ ** mtereslmg to note tliat, aitbougli,
^^loMh^« i^ ?^**^^ ^« Italian and Tiiolese peasantry
1»* ,..h fhlr ^^y ^ ^ opinion that nuOada is tiansmitted
t^^in /«.• *?^^' »»d although the American, Dr Josiah
'f^^ A'^ 1!1! '«f«rcd to malaria as if the mosquito theory had
•^ JL K ^^vanced, UtUe attention was given to this
a«»**ir,fc.V ..T*^ ohaervers. StiU eariicr, Rasori (in 1846) had
^j^tca inai for many years I have held the opinion that inter-
Bdittcnt levers axe produced by parasites, which renew the
paio^^^i ^ **^^ of their reproduction, which recurs more or
lesn ^P»dly according to the variety of the species"; and this
»ppe*» ^o be the first well-authenticated reference to this subject.
^uttaU* who gives an excellent summary of the literature on the
g^ooquito hypothesis of malaria, assigns to King the honour of
^gain drawing attention to thk question. Laveran in 2891,
^och in 1892, Manson in 1894, Bignami and Mendini in 1896,
^d Grassi in 189S, all tuned their attention to this hypothesis.
Manson, basing his hypothesis upon what be had observed as
legarda the transmission of Pilaris by the mosquito, suggested a
aeries of oqierimcnts to Major Ronald Ross. These were carried
out in 1895, when it was found that in mosquitoes that had taken
up blood containing amoeboid parasites, crescents, which were
first described ss rrils, appeared in the stomach-wall after four
or five days; these contained a number of stationary vacuoles
and pigment granules, ten to twenty in number, bunched to-
gether or distributed in lines. Grassi, Bignami and Bastianellt
confirm and supplement Ross's observations; they find that
Anopkeles davipr, taking the bkxxl from a patient suffering
from malaria, aoon devcbps haemosporidia in the intestine.
These poraaitcs axe then found between the muscular fibres of
tbe stomach; they increase in sise, become pigmented, and more
and more vacuolated, until they project into the body-cavity.
On the sixth day these large spheres contain an enocflKNis
nuntber of minute bodies, refractive droplets like fat, aad *
diminishing amount of pigment. On the seventh day numerous
fiUments, arranged in rows around several fod, are seen. They
are very delicate, are stained with difficulty, and appear to be
pecfeOly indepaadeot of each other, though grouped within a
capsule. After the capsule has ruptured, these thread-like
" spoioaooites," escaping into the body-cavity, gradually make
thdr way to and accumulate in the cells or tubules of the aalhraxy
gkuids, whence their passage through the probosds into the
human blood b easily understood.
Thus two phases or cycles of existence hsw been demon-
strated— one within the human body, the second nstfae raosqnito.
B^mhfmimt That within the human body tppears to be capable
mfum of going on almost indefinitely as long as the. pattent
lives, but that in the mosquito appears to be an
offshoot or an intf^rmHiate stage- Th* flwiwt^
. ^C pf^Lopb^di, lI.i: ,
%hldi klYC .
cycle again, increasing in sixe and forming spores, and so 00
indefinitely. Gametocjrtes (the true sexual form) are in certnin
species, to outward appearance, very similar to the spococyte,
but in others they assume the cresoentic shape, and can thus be
reoognixed. The male cell resembles the female ceil very closely,
except that the protoplasm is hyaline and homogeneous-looking,
whilst that of the female cell is granular. It has already been
noted that when the blood is withdrawn from the body certain
of the malarial, parasites become flagellated. These ia^eiU
may be looked upon as sperm elements, which, forming In the
male gametocyte, are extruded from that cell, and, once set free,
seek out the granular female gametoqrtes. A single flagellum
becomes attached to a small projection that appears on the female
cell; it then makes its way into the protoplasm of the female
cell, in which rapid streaming movements are then developed.
In certain species the female cdl is somewhat etongated, and laay
be peculiady constricted. It becomes motile, and appears to
have the power of piercing the tissues. In this way the first stages
of development in the mosquito are passed. The gametocytcs,
taken ak>ng with the blood into the stomach of this insect,
passV through the" various phases above mentioiied, tboogh
the zygote form of the human malarial parasTte has not yet been
traced. In the blood of a patient bitten by an infected mosquito
the ordinary malarial parasite may be demonstratet^ witlwia
any difficulty at the end 6f a week or ten days, and the cTcle
recommences*
This theory,, now no longer a nypoChcais, in which the
mosquito acts as an intermediary host for one stage nf the
parasite and transmits the parasite to man, affords an cx«
planation of many apparently anomalous conditions asMxiated
with the transmission of malaria, whilst it harmonises witli
many facts which, though frequently observed, were verx
difficult of explanation. Malaria was supposed to be asiodated
with watery exhalations and with the fall of dew, but
a wall or a row of trees was seemingly quite sufficient to
prevent the passage of tnfectioiL It was met with oa wet
soils,* on broken ground, in marshes, swamps and jangles;
on the other hand, it was supposed to be due to the poisoooas
exhalations from rocks. All this is now explained by the fact
that these are the positions in which mosquitoes occur: wherever
there tie stagnant pools, even of a temporary nature, mos-
quitoes may breed. It has been observed that although the
malarial "miasma" never prodnom any iU effects in p*ti*«i»y
living at more than a few feet from the surface of the ground,
malaria may be found at a height of from 7000 to 9000 ft. above
sea-level; and the fact that a belt of trees or a wall will stop the
passage of the poison » readily .explicable on the mosquHo
theory. These insects are incapable, owing to their limited power
of flight, of rising more than a few feet from the ground, aisd
cannot make their way through a belt of trees of even moderate
thickness. Broken ground, such as is fotmd in cennexiaB with
railway cuttings and canals, may be a focus from which mslaxia
may spread. In such broken ground pools sxe of oosnaMMi
occurrence, and afford the conditions for die devdc^unent el the
mosquito, and infected tools used in one area may easily oonvey
the ova to another. All these facts afford further support off
this theory. The conditioos of climate under which mslaria is
most rife are those which are most suitable for the developaeBt
of the mosquito. The protection afforded by fires, the tecogniaed
valne of mosquito curtains, the simultaneous disappesnace
of Anopheles sund malaria on the complete draining of a neigh-
bourhood, the ooinddence of malaria and mosquitoes, nnd the
protection afforded by large rxpanwrs of water near waOs and
trees are also important in this connexion.
The iiHnquiton spmsHy essodsted with the tTmsmiiskr*
gj aiidAzh i& iL^: hum3.i4 subjc>.^ ItJong apparciiLly to the g^ma
nam I wmcii may uc ooisinco reaay piv|»fcu iiuui vsiuuki, vh
Leipzig, under the name of " CiemsaVhe Lflsung fOr die Roman-
owBky F&rfouQg," is nuule as follows: Azur ll.-eodn compound, 3.
grms. and Axwr II. 0-8 grm. are mind and dried thoroughly in
the de$aocator avtt sulphuric acid; this mixture is then uf^ finely
pulveriud, passed through a finc-meahed silk sieve and dissolved
at 60* C. m Merck's glycerin, 350 gnns., the mixture being well
shaken: 250 gnns. of methyl-alcohol (Kahlbaum !.)• which has
been prevwusty heated to 60 C, is then added. The whole, tfter
being wdl shaken, ia allowed to stand for twenty-four hours and
filtered. The solution, now leady for use, should be kept in a
yellow glass bottle. To i ex. of ammonia-froe distilled water add
I drop of this stain. Stain for from a quarter to three<njarten of
an hour. Wash in nsnning water, blot, dry, and mount in Canada
balsam. Longer exposure to the action of a more dilute Ciemsa
flukl often gives exoeUent results.
The stained organbms may be seen as delkate, reddish, regular
spirals with pointed extremities. They usually measure from 4
to 1411 in lei^th, though they may resich 18 or 29n; the breadth
is about o-aSM* In a section of the liver from a case of comsnital
syphilis an enormous number of these spirochaetes may be found.
Stain by Levaditi's method as follows: Fix fragments of tissue
not more than i mm. thick in 10% fonnol solution for twenty-
four houra. Rinse in dutilled water and harden in 96% alcohol
for twenty-four hours. Then wash in distilled water lor some
minutes, tdC until the pieces fall to the bottom of the vessel, and
transfer to a i-S— 3% solution of nitrate of silver C3% is prefer-
able when the tissues have been obtained from the faving patient).
This impregnation should be carried on at a temperature of 38" C.
for from three to five days, acoordiiy to the nature of the tissue.
" Reduce " the silver in the following solution: Pyrogallic ackl,
3-4%, Formol. sec, Aq. dest., 100 ex. Allow this solution to act
on the tissues for from twenty-four to forty-eight hours at room
temperature. Again wash in distilled water, ddiydrate with
alcohol, clear with xylol and cedai^oil, and embed in paraffin.
The sections should not be more than 511 thick. In a section so
stained the spirochaetes are seen as dark spirals standing out against
a pale yellow background. On staining with a weak counterstain
many 01 the spirals may be seen actually within the liver cells.
This organism may be found in the lung, spleen and other visceral
oigans, and even in the heart of a patwnt suffering from syphilis.
It has also been found in syphilitic iesk>ns produceaexperimcntally
in the higher apes, especially the chimpanaee. As a result ol
these observations it is nowjgeneraUy accepted as being the primary
cause of syphilitic lesions in the human subject. It is certainly
present in the lesions usuallv met with in cases of primary and
secondary syphilis of the human subject, and by its action on the
Mood and tissues of the body produces an antigen, a specific (?)
sutMtance, the jiresenoe of wluca has been utilised by Wassermann
in the diognoais of syphilis. He uses the method of deviati^ of
complement by the antigen substanoes contained in the syphilitic
fluid blood or cerebro spinal fluid— by which the lytic action en
a haemolysing fluid is prevented.
Kdla-daar.—Tbt non-malarial remittent fever, met with in
China, known as dum-dam fever in India and as k&la-fizar in
Assam, is associated with peculiar parasitic bodies described by
Donovan and Leishman (Herpetomtmat Donovani} (? Htkatoma
Irofknm, Wright). This fever is characterised by iu great
cfaronfctty, associated with very profound, and ultimately fatal,
bloodlessness, in which there is not only a fall in the number of red
blood coipusdes, but a marked diminution in the number of
white blood corpuscles. Ulceration of the skin and mncoas
membrane, especially of the lower parts of the small intestine
and of the first part of the colon is often present, this being
accompanied by dropsy and by distinct enlargement of the Uver
and spleen. Leonard Rogers, who has given an excellent
account of this condition, points out that there is a marked
increase in the number of coUs in the bone^maxrow.
The Leishman-Donovan bodies have been found in large
numbers, espedaDy in the spleen (see Plate I., fig. 7); they may
also be found in the ulcerating snrfaoes and wherever the cellular
proliferation is marked. These organisms may be found in
sections, or they may be demonstrated ia film preparatioDs
made from the material scraped from the freshly-cut surface of
the spleen.
The films are best stained by Leishman's method: Solution A.^-
Medicinal methylene-blue (Griibler), i part: distQIed water, 100
parts : sodium carbonate, 1 '5 parts. This mixture is heated to 65" C.
lor twelve hours and then allowed to stand at room temperature
for ten days. Solution B.— Eosin extra B.A. (GrQbler). I part;
distilled water. 1000 parts. Mix equal parts of solutions A and B
in a laif^ open vessel and allow to stand for from six to twelve
houxsk stirring (i om* time to time with a glass rod. Filter, and wash
uuuuBU w«m MMUi uic waawtii
itu||B •«« vwK/uticaa vi wtuj m i^^ w^ j •
pale blue. Collect the insoluble residue, dry and pulverise.
. Make a 0*15 % solutkm of the powder (which may also be obtaiaei
from GrQbler ft Co., Leiprig) ia abeohite methyl aloobol (Merck's
*' for analysis ")• and tiansfer to a dean, luy, weU stoppered
bottle. Pour three or four drops of this stain on to the prepared
film (blood, bone, marrow, Ac.; and run from «de to sidc^ After
about half a minute add six or eight drops of distifled w«tcr, aad
mix thoroughly by moving the slicle or a>ver<g|ass. AQow tlie stain
to act for five minutes loafer or. if the film be thick, for tea. Wash
with distilled water, leaving a orop or two on the glass for about a
minute. Examine at once or after arying without httt and mouatiag
in xyk>l balsam.
These pectiliar parasitic bodies appear as deeply stained points,
rounded, oval or cockle-shaped, lying free or grouped in the
Urge endothelial cells of the spleen. Examined under a magnifi-
cation of xooo diameters they are found to measure from 3*5 to
2*5fi, or even less, in diameter. Their protoplasm is stained,
somewhat unequally, light blue^ and from this light blue back-
ground two very deeply stained violet corpuscles of lucqual
sise stand out prominently; the smaller of these is more deeply
stained than the larger, is thinner, somewhat more elongated or
rod-shaped, and parallel or nmning at right angles to the large
corpuscle or obliquely from it. The larger corpuscle is rounded
or oval, conical, or sometimes almost dumb-bell shaped. These
bodies may appear to touch one another, though usually they
are disconnected. Most of these Donovan-Lelshman bodies are
embedded in the protoplasm of the large endothelial or mono-
nuclear splenic cells, of similar cells in the bone marrow, or of
certain lymphatic gUnds. They may also be seen lying in the
protoplasm of the endothelial cells lining the capillary vessels
and lymphatics. They are considered by Leishman and Leonard
Rogers to be organisms in an intermediate stage of development
of either a Trypanosome or some form of Herpctomonas. Rogers,
who succeeded in cultivating them outside the body, described
changes which he considers are associated with this latter germ.
Patton goes further than this, and states that the LtUkmcni^
dotunani Lav. ct Mean, taken up by the bed bug closely resembles
in its life cycle that of the Herpctomonas of the common house-
fly. It is thought that the Leishman-Donovan bodies are the
tissue parasite stage, and that the herpctomonas stage i»prol>ablj
to be sought for in the blood of the patient.
Tsetse-Fly Disease (rry^anowmiojir).— The interesting obser-
vations carried out by Sir David Bruce have invested the tsetse-
fly with an entirely new significance and importance. In 1895
Bruce first observed that in the tsetse disease — iCgana — there
may be found a flagellated haematozoon closely resembling the
Trypanosoma EvansH found in Surra. This, like the Surra
organism, is very similar in appearance to, but considerably
smaller than, the haematozoon often found in the blood of the
healthy rat. It has, however, as a rule a single flagellum only.
A small quantity of blood, taken from an affected bu^alo, wilde>
beest, koodoo, bushbuck or hyaena— in aU of which ■**tT««i^
it was found by Bruce — when inoculated into a horse, mule,
donkey, cow, dog, cat, rabbit, guinea-pig, rat or motise, produces a
similar disease, the organisms being found sometimes in enormoiza
numbers in the blood of the inoculated animal, especially in the
dog and in the rat. He then found that the tsetse-fly can prod uce
the disease in a healthy animal only when it has first charged
itself with blood from a diseased animal, and he produced
evidence that Glossina morsitans Is not capable of producing the
disease except by carrying the parasites from one animal to
another in the blood that it takes through its probosds into its
stomach. The parasites taken in along with such blood may
remain in the stomach and alive for a period of xx8 hours, hut
shortly after that the stomach Is found to be empty, and the
parasites contained in the excrement no longer retain their
vitality. The mode of multiplication of these organisms has
been studied by Rose-Bradford and Plimmer, who maintaia
that the multiplication takes place principally in the ^Iccn and
lymphatic glands. The tsetse-fly parasite, however, is stUI
imperfectly understood, though much attention is now being
paid to its life-history and development.
la the mOy put of th» deepinriickiieM lUge pttienu oftoi
sleep more than tuual, but later do not sleep dcenively. They
become lethargic and indifferent to their •unoundings, however,
and of ten Ue with their eyes closed. When spoken to they hear
and understand what is said to them and after a longer or shorter
interval give a very brief reply.
The leucotytoais that occurs during the course of this form of
trypanosomiasis is due» apparently, to secondary or terminal
bacterial infections so frequently associated with the disease in
Its later stages. The first stage <d the disease, that of fever,
may laat for several years; the second or nervous stage with
tremors^ &c., for from four to eight months. It is quite excep-
tional for the disease to be prolonged for more than a year from
the time that the nervous symptoms beooiiie manifert, though a
European who contracted trypanosomiasis In Uganda, having
delusions and becoming drowsy within the year, did not die of
sleeping sickness until more than eighteen months from the onset
of the nervous symptoms.
The dotstna palpalis is not found in swamps.' It alfecta a
belt of from ten to thirty yards broad along banks bounding
water shaded by scrub and underwood. It may, however,
follow or be carried by the animal or human subject it 'A attack-
ing for a distance of, say, three hundred yards, but unless carried
it will not cross an artificial clearing of more than thirty yards
made in the |utural fly belt. The authorities in the phgue-
stricken areas recommend, therefore, the clearance of belts thirty
yards in width along portionsof the lake side,at fords and in such
other places as are frequented by natives.. No infected perwn
should be allowed to enter a ** fly area," so that they may not
act as centres from which the flies, acting as carriers, may
convey infection. The provision of dothing for natives who are
compelled to work in ffy areas is an important precautionary
There feems to be some doubt as to whether T>ypanosama
fambienst of Dutton it the mat organtsm and produces the same
cooditioDS as the Trypanosoma of Bruce and Nabarro from Uganda,
but moat obaervers aecm to think that the two speciet are the aame
and yield the same resulu when inoculated into animals. It is
•uppoeed that this trypanofome may pass throush ceruin itaecs
of meumorphoau in the human or animal body, and different
drup have been reoonunended as trypanoddes during these various
stages, an anensc preparation (atoxjrl) first being given, and then,
when the organisms have disappeared, injections of bichbride of
mercury, this salt appearing to prevent the relapses which occur
when atoxvl only is jpven over a prolonged period. Ehrlich,
treating animals suffenng from trypanosomiasis vrith parafucbstn,
found that although the parasites disappeared from the blood
they SQoa recurred. On the exhibition of another dose of para-
fucbsin they again disappeared. This was repeated for a con-
siderable number of times, but after a time the parafuchain lost
iu effect, the trypanoaome having acquired an immunity against
this substanoe: they had in fact become " fuchatn-fast.*' Such
fuchsin>fast organisms injected into animals still retain thdr im-
munity against paiafucfasin and may transmit it through more
than lOO generations. Nevertheleas, they cannot withstand the
action of other trypanocidal drugs. The outcmne of all this is
that large d9Ses of the trypanocidal drug should be given at once,
and that the same drug shonki never be given over too long a period,
a fresh drug often bemg effectiveeven when the first drag has lost
n.~To OTHEft AimcAL Paiasites'.
FiZiirftam.^ince Bancroft and Manaon first dticribed FUaria
noduma and its relation to the common form of fihuiasis, the
most important contribution to our knowledge has been made, at
the suggestion of the younger Bancroft, by-Dr G. C Low, who has
demonstrated that the embryos of the filatia may bs foond in the
proboscis of the mosquito {Cult* dHans), whence they probably
find their way into the dreulating blood of the human nibject
It appears that the filaria embryo after bemg taken, with the
bkxMi of the patient, into the stomach of the moaquito, losea its
sheath; after which, leaving the stomach, it passes into the
thoracic muscles of its intermediate host, and becomes more
fuUy developed, incressing considerab ly in sise and attaining
a mouth, an alimentary canal, and the characteristic trilobed
caudal appendage. It now leaves the thorsdc musdes, and,
passing towards the bead, makes its way " into the loose cellulsr
tissue which abounds in the prothoiax In the ndghbouthood ol
theasHvaryi^siids.'' Most of Ihui than ^p«M slang the ned,
enter the lower part of the head," whenoe they may pam into
the proboads. Although it has never been demonatnted that
the iilaria is directly inoculated Into the human sobjcct bom ths
proboscis of the mAsquito, it seeBBtimpooBtble to doubt that when
the mosquito ** strikes," the filaifa makes itt way into the dtoH
lation directly from the proboscis. It is hnpoitaDt to note that
the m osqu it o, when fed on banana pulp, does not eject the fihms
from iu proboscis. This, howei^er, is not to be iwade i td at,
aa the filaria is apparently unable to live on the juices of the
banana; moreover, the consistence of the banana is very (Sffeitfit
from that of the human skin. The importance of this obaer^
vation, as affordii^ an additional reason for taking neasures
to get rid of the mosquito in distrku hi whidi fiUriasb h life,
can scarcdy be over-estimated.
C— iBlMtlfs Diiesssi In which n Orgaalm hit fesn Umit
hot has not flnilly kstn toMiselsd vtth Am TMnn
Hydrophobia is usually contracted by man through fawcnlatfaa
of an abraded surface with the saKva of an animal afiiected with
rabies— through the bite of a dog, the animal in nHhich the
so-called rabies of the streets occurs. The pappy is spectafly
dangerous, as, although it may be suffering from rabies when the
saliva contains an extremely exalted viras, the animal may
exhibit nosignsof the disease almost up to the time of its death.
The other animala that may be affected " natunOy " are wolvca,
cats, foxes, horses, cowsand deer; but all warm-blooded anlnuls
may be successfully inocukted with die disease. The principal
changes met with are found in the nervous system, and indode
distension of the perivascular lymphatic sheaths, coogestioa
and oedema of the brahi and spinl cord and of the m en i n gea .
Haemorrhages occur Into the cerebral vcntridcs of the bnin,
especially in the floor of thefburth, and on the waxfMot sad faiths
substance of the meduUa obkmgata, and the spinal coed.
In addition to these small haemonhagcs, oollectioin of
leucocytes are met with in hyperaemic areas in the «■*>«*"■%
oblongata and pons, sometimes hi the conical cerebral dasae
and in the spinal cord, in the perivascular lymphaUcs of the grey
matter of the anterior bonis and in the white matter of the
postero-internal and poatero-extcnal cdumBS. Here also the
nerve cells are seen to be vacuolated, hyaUne and grsanlar, and
often pigmented; thrombi may be present in some of the saialler
vessels, and the collections of leucocytes may be so promincBt,
especially m the medulla, that they have been described as
miliary abscesses. Haemorrhages are also comason In the
various mucous and serous membranes; hyaline changes ia and
around the waOs of blood-vessels; proliferation of the cndotho-
linm; swelling and vacnohition of nerve ccUs; p*><<^t^ii«tty
infiltration with leucocytes, and faifiltration of the aalivary
glands with leucocytes (Coau). An inc re ased number of leiico>
cytes and microQrtes in the blood has also beenmade out. Tho
virus, whatever it may be^ has a power of multipIylBg ia the
tisracs, srul of producing a toxic substance which, as in the
case of tetanus toxin, appean to act specially on the oeatnl
nervous system.
In recent yesn fresh interest has been aroused m the morhM
histology of the brain and cord in hydrophobia by the appear*
ance of Negri's description of *' bodies " which he daiao aie
found in the central nervous system only is hydrophobin or
rabies (see Plate I., fig. 3). These bodies, which are roinsdcd,
oval, triangular, or shightly spindle- or sausagc^shaped, wtea
specially stained consist of a red (addophile) basis hi which stand
out small blue (basophile) granules, rods and drdes, often
situated within vacuoles. A small central pobit which is ssb^
rounded by no dear space fa supposed to co rrespond to the
nudeus of a protoooan. But thfa can he little more thn n sng-
gestaon. The Negri bodies are certainly present In the eemxat
nervous system hi esses of hydrophobia, and have not been Imind
in similar positbas in any other disease. They are present, ia
large numbers, even at aa early stage of the disease, aUhninh
th^ sre then so small that they may esafly escaps detecUeo. so
smsll Indeed that they aiay pae thxoQgh the pons of a I
and othcn tsve, homenr, ilicwa'^Aftt ia the gblidi end throjiU
U scarlet fever patients a streptococcus, to which is assigned the
chief aetiological r6le in connexion with this disease, is present.
On tlie otiier liand, it is maintained by aaany observen tint these
streptococci are nothing more than the streptococci found in
puerperal fever, erysipelas, and similar infective conditions, and
certainly the organisms described closely resemble StreptocMcus
pyogenes. In 1904 Mallory described certain " bodies " which
be considers may be associated with scarlet fever, and which
were sofgciently distinctive to justify him in suggesting that he
was dealing widi the " various stages in the developmental cyde
of a protoaoan." These bodies, which were demonstrated in
four cases of scarlet fever, " occur in and between the epithelial
ceDs of the epidermis and free ia the superficial lymph vessels
and spaces of the oofium." They are small, varying from the
siae of a blood platelet to that of a red blood corpuscle, and
<* stained deUcately but sharply with oaethylene blue." Wett
formed rosettes with nnmetoos segments may be seen, forms
which Mallory thinks may coiitspond to the phase of asexual
development oi the mahrial parsslte. He also describes
'* coarsely reticulated forms which may represent stages in
sporatony or be due to degeneration of the other forms." He
gives beantlful illustrations, both drawings and photographs, of
these orgamsms, and without dsiming that he has pio\^ any
aetiological rdatSon between these bodies and scarlet lever, states
that Us peisoaai opinion is that such relation exists.
D.— Ihlbetlva Diseases not jst provad to be doe to
5isM0-^ox.— There have been few recent additions to our
knowledge of the aetiology of small-poz, thoo^ Dr Moncktotf
Copeman now holds that the small-pox organism, like that of
vaccine, is probably a very mmute badllos, whidi, from its
behaviour in the presence of glycerin, is posirssed of the power eC
forming spores. If vaccine lymph, taken from the calf, be pro-
tected from all extraneous sporebearing organisms and treated
frith so % solution of glycerin, it, in time, becomes absolutely
sterile as regards ordinary non-sporebearing orga n is ms Even
the staphylococci and streptococci, usually found in calf lymph,
cannot withstand the prolonged action of tUssubstance, but sporo'
bearing organisms stiil remain alive and active. Moreover, the
lymph atHI rctainsitepowerof producing vaodnevesulcs,sothat the
vacdae nrganisai, in its poweraof resistance, resembles the spore-
bearing, and not the noU'Sporebearing, organisms with whidi we
are acquainted. This vaccine organism must be very minute; it
is stated that it can be cultivated only on spedal media, thoui^ it
multiplies frcdy in the superficial cutaneous tissues of the calf,
the. monkey and the human subject Perhaps the most im-
portant oatoime of Dr Monckton Copeman's work on this subject
is that he has obtained a vscdne lymph from which are elimi-
nated all streptococd and staphylococd, ant^ if the lymph be
taken with reasooable care, any other orgaaisins which could
possibiy give rise to untoward results.
Typkus Fncr.— Although It b fully rrmgniiwl that typhus
must be one of the specific infective fevers brought about by the
action of a special micio-organism, no definite informstion as to
the bacterial aetiology of this condition has been obtained. It is
always looked upon as a " filth " disease; and from the faequency
of nunute haemorrhages, and from the resemblance to the
haemorrhagic septicaennas in other respects, it appears probable
that the badlhis of typhus is the organism described by Mott in
1885 as an actively motile dumb-bdl coccus, and ten yeaa later
by Dubieff and Bruhl as. the D^pioeaecus fypkosus exanCAe-
the polar staining and general resemblance to the
^of fowl cholera, the plague badllus, thediplococcus of
"jcertain forms of swine fever and hog cbokta, and
eChcssof the haemorrhagic septicaemias, are sufficient to suggest
the generic affinity of this organism to thia septicaenric group.
We have as yet, however (1910), no absolute proof of the aetio-
logical relation of the bacShis to thb dbeaae.
Mtnk t. I n mrariri, as in scarlet fever, nucrooecd have had
•ftsibed lo them the power of setting up the specific
Canon and PieBdce have, however, desofiMd niaatc- badl
somewhat resembling thoss described as occurring in vaodss
l3fmph. These are found in the blood in the cariy stages of tht
disease, and also in the profuse catmrhalsecivtioiiSBocliar&cter-
istic of this condition. There are no records of the SBccefi^d
inoculation of this minute badllus, and until soch eviden c e a
forthcoming this oreuiism must be looked upon as bdag aa
accessory, possibly, but not the prime cause, of aseaslca.
MuMpt.-At is generdly accepted that mumps St probaUy
caused by a spedfic micro-organism, the infective materiai
making its way in the first instance through the dwcts to the
parotid and other salivary glands. It appears to brioc about a
peculiar oedematous inflammation of the interstitial tissoe of ti»e
glands, but slight parenchymatous changes may also be oboerved
The virus is present in the tissues for seme daya befocc there h
any manifestation of parotid swdfing, but during this period ii is
extremely active, and the disease may be readfly transmitted f n^n
patient to patient. The infectivity continues for some time.
probably, for neariy a week after naked-eye insngcstatioins of the
diseased condition have disappeared.
Wkoopini^9uth.—h diplococcus, s streptococcus^ fisd various
higher fungi have in turn been put down as the cause of tho
disesse. It must, from its resemblance to the other apcc36c
infective fevers, be ■considered as an infective disease of mkiobK
otipn, i^ch goes through a regular period of incnbatioa acd
invasion, and In which true nervous lesions, especiaHj of the
poeumogsstric and superior laryngeal. nerves^ ace ;
Aflfanas8!e£P, and later Kbplick,have described a
badllus, wiUi rounded ends and Ix-polar staining, wbidi
the mucus discharged at the end of a paroxysm of whoopug-
cou|^. Koplick examined sxteen cases, and found Uiis orrganisa
in thirteen of them. There can be littie doubt that the ialccti^-e
material is contained in the expeaoration. It may remain active
for a considerable period, but is then usually attached to
solid partidca. It is not readily carried by the brea'Jt
and multiplies specially in the mucous membranes, setting (.;
inflammation, probably through its toxic products, wfaidi appei:
to be at^iorbed, and, as in the case of the tetanus poison, to XikvA
spedsBy slong the lymphatics of the local nerves. AScctioos d
the lung— brondiitis and broncho-pneumonia— may be dixcrJ;
associated with the disease, but it is much more Kkdy tlsat y*»^^
affections are the result of secondary infection of tiasoeaalicaifjr
in a weakened condition.
AtrrnoltiTiss.— GenersI: Allbutt and Rotlcston, System «f Jfd^
cine (snd ed., London, 1005 et seq.) ; Castellani and Chalcners^ami{
«f Tropikat iitUcnu (London, iQic^i Fiadier. Th* Sbw€i^9 «vi
FamlMAr ^ Baekria, txana. by K. Coppea joaea (Oafapd. 19a >
Manam, Sir P., Tr«pteal Disease (3fd ed., London* 1903) ; Kakx«..
" On the R6le of Insects, &c., as carriers in the spn^d of baictcr-^
and parasitic diseases of man and animab* (Jckms H^ptr*:
Hospital RgporU, viit., 1899); Schnddemttbl. Ukrb, d. werHn k
Putk u. ThtrapU d. Maucktm a. d. Jiaiatkkm (Lcspcic. iis«.
Woodhead, BaOaia and their Pndnds (Loadim. 1691). Acto»
mycosis: Bostrdin, Zieg^'s BeUr. s. paUuL ifaolMna. Bd a.
(ia9t); Illich. Beitrat a. Kimik d. Achiumykcse (Vieana. i9(^
M'Fadyean, Jpmm, Compat, Pctk. m»d Tkemp.^ voL ~
-•'••' Msnmi^fia: ~ "
GouacaaMn, Malfery aod
Rep, Bd. heaUh, Mass. (Boston. 1696); Davis, Joum, iwOaa. Jh>
eases, iv. 558 (1907): Mackenxie, and •- • -
Baetenol. xu. 539 (1908]
0: Mackenxie and Martin, /owm. PmUL «W
_ 08) : Ruppd. DetOscU wed. Wochemschr., S. 1 f i
'1906); Shennan and Ritdue, /Mm. FoA, and Baeteriai, laL z
>908}; Syoaners and others, BriL Med. Jotrm, iL
Aolaxa; Dunbar, in Lubandi u. Ostertsa 'a Bft/i
Ostotsg'sEfcc^d. _
vol. i. (1896). Diphtheria: Bebriog. " Die Geschichie d.
(Ldpag?. 1893), and various othw papers, jirinctr""*
Hyvau, BdTfi. (1B9S) oowaidsj EhrikS, ** cSeWf
DiphtheriefaetlBerums u. d. theoret. Griindhgea,'* Omiac^s Jmk^
Bdrvi. (1897) ; Kkbs, " Ucbcr Diphthcrie." Verk. 4. II, Cemr •
inn. Mtd. m Wiesbaden (1883); Loeffler, " Unters. A. d. B«dm .:
Mikro-of«. f. d. Entst. d. Diphtheritis b. Meoachcn. Btc^" M^tk. i
d. k, Gesundkeitsamie, Bd. 1^(1884); Mama. Sidney. Gorist.
Lectiues, BriL Med. Joan. voL i. (1892); NotlallaiidGaihBMS
Tki Baeterielon ef Dipktkeria (Cambridgv. 1908) ; Rooaaad Yi
"Contrib. a T'^tude d. L DiphtMe." ifmailts de rimst.Pm,
t. ii.-iv. (188S-189Q). Dysentery: KaftoKs» "Die Ai
dysemerie." in KoDcand Wasaenmnn's Handk. 4. fmk. Mt
' Bd. p. 147(1906): Oder, "Oa the Amoeba oaBm*^
The tenns symbiosis and commensalism have been ai^lied to
conditions really outside the definition of parasitism, but closely
related and usually described in the same connexion. Both
terms cover the physical consorting of organisms in such a
fashion that mutual service is rendered.
The name symbiosis was invented by the botanbt A. de Bary
in 1879, and is applied to such an extraordinary commtmity as
the thallus of a lichen, which is composed of a fungus and an
alga so intimately associated, physically and physiologically,
tl^ it was not until z868 that the dual nature of the whole
was discovered. The presence of chlorophyll, which had always
been associated only with vegetable orgam'sms, was detected
by Max Schultxe in 1851 in the animals Hydra and Vortex^ and
later on by Ray Lankester in SpongiUa and by P. Geddes in
some Turbellanan worms. On the theory that the chlorophyll
occurs in independent vegetable cells embedded in the animal
tissues, such cases form other instances of symbiosis, for the
oxygen liberated by the green cells enables their animal hosts
to live in fouler water, whilst the hosts provide shelter and
possibly nitrogenous food to their guests.
The term commensalism was introduced in 1876 by P. J. Van
Bencden to cover a hirge number of. cases in which "animals
have established themselves on each other, and Uve together on
a good understanding and without injury." The most familiar
instance is that of fishes of the genus Fierasfer which live in
the digestive tube of sea-cucumbers {Hotuikitria; see Echino-
dekma). a variety of commensalism was termed mutualism
by Van Beneden and applied to cases where there appeared to be
an exchange of benefits. A well-known instance of mutualism
is the relation between sea-anemones and hermit crabs. The
hermit crab occupies the discarded shell of a mollusc, and
anemones such as Sagartia or Adamsia are attached to the out-
side of the shell. The bright colours of the anemone advertise
its distasteful capacity for stinging, and secure protection for
the crab, whilst the anemone gains by vicarious locomotion and
possibly has the benefit of floating fragments from the food of
the crab.
It is plain that such terms as symbiods, commensalism and
mutualism cannot be sharply marked off from each other or
from true parasitism, and must be taken as descriptive terms
rather than as definite categories into which each particular
association between organisms can be fitted.
R. Leuckart has made the most useful attempt to classify
true parasites. Occasional, of temporary, parasites are to be
distinguished from permanent, or stationary, parasites. The
former seek their host chiefly to obtain food or shelter and are
comparatively little modified by their habits when compared
wilh their nearest unparasitic relatives. They may infest
either animals or plants, and as they attack only the superficial
surfaces of their hosts, or cavities easy of access from the exterior,
they correspond closely with another useful term introduced by
Leuckart. They are Epizoa or Ectoparasites, as distinguished
from Entozoa or Endoparasites. They include such organisms
as pbnt-lice, and caterpillars which feed on the green parts of
plants, and animals such as the flea, the bed-bug and the leech,
which usually abandon their hosts when they have obtained thdr
object. Many ectoparasites, however, pass their whole lives
attached to their hosts; lice, for instance, lay their eggs on the
hairs or feathers or in rugosities of the skin of birds and mammals;
the development of the egg, the larval stages and the adult life
are all parasitic. Permanent or stationary parasites are in the
most cases endoparasitic, inhabiting the internal organs;
bacteria, gregarines, nematodes and tapeworms are familiar
uistanccs. But here also there are no sharp lines of demarcation.
Leuckart divided endoparasites according to the nature and
duration of their strictly parasitic life: (1) Some have free-living
without a migratory stage.
Oripn of Parasitism. — ^Now that the theory of 1
generation has been disproved, the problem of parasitism is do
more than detection of the various causes which may have led
organisms to change their environment. Every kind of parasite
has relations more or less dosdy akin which have not acquired
the parasitic habit, and every gradation exists between tem-
porary and permanent parasites, between creatures that have
been only slightly modified and those that have been
profoundly modified in relation to this habit. Tlieie aic
many opportunities for an animal or plant in its adult or em-
bryonic stage to be swallowed accidentally by an animal, or
to gain entrance to the tissues of a plant, whilst in the case of
ectoparasites there is no fundamental difiefence betwceo an
organism selecting a dead or a living environment for food or
shelter. If the h'ving environment in the latter case prove
to have spedal advantages, or if the interior of the body first
reached accidentally in the former case prove not too dilFerrat
from the normal environment and provide a better shelter, a
more convenient temperature, or an easier food supply, the
accident may pass into a habit. From the extent to which
parasitism exists amongst animals and plants it is dear that it
must have arisen independently in an enormous number of cases,
and it may be supposed that there must be many cases in which
it has been of recent occurrence; £. Metchnikoff, indeed, has
suggested that amongst parasites we are to look for the latest
products of evolution. In any case it is impossible to suppose
that parasites form a natural group; no doubt in many cases
the whole of a group, as for instance the group of tapeworms,
is parasitic, but indications point clearly to the tapeworms
having had free-living ancestors. Parasitism is in short a
physiological habit, which theoretically may be assumed by any
organism, and which actually has been assumed by members ol
nearly every living group.
List of PARAsms
A. — Animals,
Vertehrata.—Thote are rnrely parasitic, and cases are unknowa
amongst mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibia. Amongst feA
and cyclostomcs, Myxine burrows into codfish. Kemara attaches
itself to the external surface of diarks; Rhodms amtarus, tke
bttterling. a small, carp-like fresh-water fish, injects its eggs inlo
the mantle-cavity of pond-muswis, where the fry develop, whibt
the mollusc reciprocates by throwing off its embryos oo tlie
Krent fish; StegopkUus insidiosus, a small colourless 6sh from
aztl and the Argentine, lives parasitically in the giU-caviry
of large cat-fishes and sucks the blood in the gills of a large Siturid ;
VandcUia cirrhosa, the candiru of Brazil, a minute fish 60 nun.
in length, enters and ascends the urethra of people bathing. bcMig
attracted by the tnine: it cannot be withdrawn, owing to the
erectile spines on its gilt-covers. The natives in some parts of
the Amazon protect themselves whilst in the water by wearing
a sheath of minutely perforated coco-nut sheH.
MoUusca, — Few if any are true parasites. The Gasteropods.
Eulimae, Styiifrrae and Entoconeka* lodge in Echinodenns, the bttcr
at least being truly parasitic.
Protochorda and Hemic fwrda. — Most of these are sesnie and mtaj
lodge on other animals, but arc not parasitic.
Araehnida. — Idilet and Ticks are Arachnids, the vast majoritT
of which are parasitic, and species of which infest abnoct every
vertebrate group, but there are some free-living forms. Pycno
gonids are parasitic in their youthful stajges on Hydroids. whilst the
Pcntastomids have been so much roodincd by parasitisro that they
were long regarded as worms; they may occur in most vertebratr%
Crustacea. — These contain an immense number of forms in all
stages of parasitism. Some Copepods are amon^ the moat de^
generate parasites known, the so-called fish-liee being for the nnyst
part Copepods with piercing mouth-organs, elaborate dining
apparatus, and degenerate organs of locomotion. In Lemea. tke
female, iftcr becoming attached to its host, undergoes a retro-
gressive mctamorphoMS, losing almost completely the segmenutuTS
of the body and discarding the appendages and aense-organv
whilst the male. atiKough not so degenerate in structure, is dwsrfrd
in size and itself becomes a parasite.o( the female. The C i n i p t ii
witb twellii^s oa tue law'tMiie oi cattle and kangarooa, Dut baa
been found in pigs and human beings.
The fungi parasitic on plants are much better known and are
responsible for a lar^c number of diseases. They display every
gradation from occasional to complete parasitism. Amongst the
Fyriuomyctks, the group Erysiphtae contain a large number of
common parasites; the main body of the fungus is usually epiphytic
as in various mildews {q-v.). trgot {q.v.) is the roost familiar
example of the group. The Discomycetes are chiefly saprophytic,
being common on dead fruits, roots and so forth, but many ot
them kill living plants: Exoascus on plums, peaches and cherries.
Sckrolinia is most common on dead )uicy fruits, but will destroy
turnips in store, and has been known to attack living Pkaseolus
and Petunia. The HymenocyUs are naturally saprophytes, but
when they gain access throueh wounds are the most destructive
parasites of living timber. The UstUagiiuae are endoparasites in
Phanerogams, and are specially notorious for their attacks on
grain-crops and grasses. The species of UsliUto set up hypertrophy
in the tissues of their hosts, and the enlarged spaces thus formed
become filled with the spores of the parasite. The Uredinepe are
also endoparasites of the higher plants and produce the diseases
known as rusts which specially afTcct cultivated plants. The
Peronosporeae are all parasites of plants and are the most destructive
enemies of agriculture and horticulture. Phytopkthora inJeUans
(de Bary), the potato^isease fundus, is a typical example.
Aliae.^TYxt chlorophyll-containing green and jyeUow cells found
in Hydroids and Planarians referred to in connexion with symbiosis
and the small green alg^ae that infest the hairs of sloths are on
the border-line of parasitism. A species of Nostoc occurs in the
intercellular spaces of other plants; Chlorochytrium is found in
the tissues of Lemna^ and Ph'^aiphon arisari (KUhn) infests the
parenchyma of Arum arisarum.
^ The nowering plants have a considerable number of representa-
tives which have become epiphytes and which exhibit various
degrees of parasitic degeneration. The Monotropeae allied to the
heaths, are degenerate, with no chlorophyll and With scale-like
leaves but the evidence as to their parasitism is more than doubtful;
they are possibly onlv saprophytic. The allied Lennoaceae, a
email group also devoid of chiorDphyll and with scsle*lcaves, are
true root-parasites. The genua Cuseuia of the Convolvulaceae
cooststs of the true parasites known as dodders. Tbey are destitute
of chk>rophyll and attach themselves to other plants by twining
stems on which occur haustoria that penetrate the tissues of the host
and absorb nutritive material. Cuuuta eurof>aea, the groat dodder, is
a parasite of nettles and hops; Custuta epilimum is the flax dodder;
CuHuta epilhymum attacks a number of k)w-growing plants; and
Cuicutum tri/olii u very destructive td clover. Several genera of
Scrophulariaceae are partially^ parasitic; they contain chlorophyll
but have dcffenerate roots with haustoria. Euj^raiUXt the eye-
bright, attacKs the roots of grasses; PedUularts, the lousewort.
liktmtntkus, the rattle, JdeiampyruMf the cow-wheat and Bartsia
arc all partly parasitic on the roots of other plants. The Oroban-
chaceae or broomworts, are all destitute of chlorophyll and have
scak-leaves; they arc para&itk on the roots of other plants, species
attacking various Lcguminosac,^ ivy, hemp and hazel. The
Cytinaceae are true parasites devoid ol chlorophyll and leaves, with
deformed bodies ana conspicuous flowers or inflorescences. Most of
them are tropical, and the group is widely scattered throughout
the world. The SanlalaUs are all parasitic; some members like
Theiium linophyllum (the bastard toad-flax), a root parasite, and
Viscum album (tne mistletoe), parasitic on branches^ have chlorophyll,
but rather degenerate leaves; others like the tropical Oalanophora-
ccae are devoid of chlorophyll and foliage leaves and have deiormed
bodies. Of the Lauraccac, a few genera such as Cassytha (the tropical
" dodder-laurels,**) are true parasites, without chlorophyll and with
twining stems.
Eifftci of ParasUhm on Pcrasita.—Tht pbcnoiRciis of parasi-
tism occur 90 generally in the animal and vegetaMe kingdoms
and arc repealed in degrees so varying thM no categorical
suteinents can be laid down as to the ejects produced on the
organisms concerned. All living creatures have a certain degree
of correspondence with the conditions of their environment,
mnd parasitism is only a special case of such adaptation. The
widest generalization that can be made regarding it is that
parasitism tends towards a rigid adaptation to a relatively
limited and stable enviromnent, whilst free life tends towards a
looser correspondence with a more varying environment. The
tmmmum Umum of a parasite is to reacb and maintain existence
favourable environment the degenerate, or ■pectaliicd parasite
is best equipped for successful existence, but the nnallest change
of environment is fatal. Such a gencralizatbn as has been
formulated covers nearly all the peculiarities of parasitism.
Organs of prehension are ixHably developed; parasitic plants
have twining stems, boring roots and special clinging or^gansj
parasitic animals display' hooks, suckers and boring apparatus.
The normal organs of locomotion tend to disappear, whether
these be wings or walking legs. Organs of sense, the chief
purpose of which is to make animals react qukkly to changes
in the environment, become degenerate in proportion as the
changes which the parasite may have to encoimter are
diminished. The changes correlated with nutrition equally
conform with the generalizal km. The chlorophyU of the plant
becomes imnecessary aiu) tends to disappear; the stem hn no
longer to thrust a spreading crown of leaves into the tenuous air
or groping rootlets into the soil, but absorbs already pftparcd
nourishment from the Aissues of its host through compact
condtnts. And so the parasitic higher plant tentb to lose its
division into stem and leaves and roots, and to acquire a compact
and amorphous body. The animal has no longer to seek its
food, and the lithe segmentation of a body adapted for locomotioB
becomes replaced by a squat or insinuating form. Jaws ghre
place to sucking and piercing tubes, the alimentary canal
becomes simplified, or inay disappear altogether, the parasite
Hving in the juices of its host^ and absorbing them through the
skin. So, also, parasites obtainihg protection from the tissues
of their host lose their intrinsic protective mechanisms.
The reproduction of parasites offers many pecuh'arUJes, all of
which are readily correlated with our generaiixatNiA. A ctcature
rigidly adapted to a qxcial environment fails if It does not
reach that environment^ and hence species most successful in
reproduction are able to alTord the largest number of misses to
sectire a few hits and so to maintain existence^ High tcpro*
ductive capacity is still more urgent when the parasites tend to
bring to an end their own environment by killing their hosts.
Reproduction in parasites, so far from being degenerate^ displays
an exuberance of activity, and an extraordinary effidency. la
parasitic flowering plants the flowen tend to be highly coo>
spicuous, the seeds to be numerous, and specially adapted to
ready diffusion. Amongst the fungi, the reproductive processes
axe most prolific, spores are produced by myriads, and very many
special adaptations exi^t for the protection of the latter during
their traifiference from host to host. It is notorious that the
spores of bacteria and the higher fungi resist changes of tempera-
ture, desiccation, and the action of physical and chemical agents*
to an astonishing extent. Vegetative reproduction is cx ti eindy
active under favourable conditions, and resting reproductive
bodies of varying morphological character are pixiduced in
great abundance. Amongst fungi, a phenomenon known as
heteroecism is devekiped as a special adaptation to parasiiic
conditions, and recalls the simflar adaptations in many animal
parasites. At one stage of its existence, the fungus fs adapted
to one host, at another stage to another host. J*u£cinia iraminis,
the fungoid rust affecting many grasses, is a typical instance.
It inhabits wheat, rye and other grasses, developing a mycelium
in the tissues of yming plants. During the summer, the myce>
Hum gives rise to huge numbers of simple processes which break
through the tissues of the host and bud off orai^e-ooloured
findogonidia. These small bodies are scattered by the wind,
and reach other plants on which they g erm in ate, enter the new
host through the stomala and give rise to new mycelia. Towards
autumn, when the tissues of the host are becoming hard and diy»
darker-oolourrd teltutogomdia are produced, and theso remaia
quicsoeiit dtiring the winter. In spring they genmnate, pcoduce
on Ihc gm^'plixiii, thiit it was described 05 a distinct fvinguf
{Asiidium berberidis), below iLs rctatbn wilh ihe tU^ of grascs
was knomi. Tbc sfKiires o( ilie i4ecMfiiim wbca they reach
frasses give rise lo thii Pitccinia sttge agam.
Tke reproduttivc processes of aniniol porasitcs ore equally
ciuberanL In the first pUce, hermaphroditism is vciry common p
and Lhr ommals in many cases aie cap.'ibJe of self-fertilLzalion.
Farthcms^jeneUc reprcduction and va.tious farm» of vegct alive
budding &re (ouod in ail siagis of ihe life-hi&tory of animBil
parasites. iWproHficnes&of many parasitic is almost incredible.
R. Lcuck^rt poinicd out thai a human ta|>ewoim has an
average life oi two ycars^ &iid prtHluccs in that time about
tjoo pmgkitUdes, eatrh containing t»ctwetn fifty and sixty
(houund ege;s, sa that th« single tapeworm has over eighty
mill to D chances <tt successruUy rcprodudng ki kind* The
devices for nouti&hin^ and protecting the egi^ and embryos
are numcjx>us and elaborate, ajid many cotnptct casc^ ot laJtval
migration and comjilicated oLsem ol beteTOecism occur* iStx
TvEMAtoaE a«d Tapeworil)
Tbe physio^logical adaptations of psra^ite^ ape naubti^^
especially Jn cases livbcTc the hosts are warm-bbodfd.^ The
parailtes tend to become so specialized mi to be pecnUaf lo
partiadai hosU; cetop&rasttes fjiequemly di0er from bpcc\c% to
ipecics of host, ojid the Hca of one mammal, for imi jncc, ntay
nifHdly die H it be tmnsfeircd to onothcr akhough ^.tmiLit hcHii.
T^ larval &.nd adult stages of endoparosiies bcconte ^jmiiarly
t|)edaliied, mad although there are mjuiy c^^e^ jti tvhich the
parasites that excite a disease in one kind ol animal are abJe
to infect oEiimab ol different species, the gcncrcd tendency is in
lh« direction of absolute htniution ot one parasite, and indeed
ant stage of on« parasite to one Iticid of host. Tire series of
events seems to be a graduaJ progresskm fnom temporary or
occasiaaal p^fasjtism to obli^^tory parasitism snd to a further
ivitriction of the obligatory parasite lo a particular Idnd o(
host.
Eft£t of Parojitism m l/arfJ,— The intensity of the effect ol
purasitisra on the hosts of the pdf*siics ranges from the slightest
local injury to complete destmction. Host animals and plant*
harbour a number of pjvosiics, and seem to be unalTccicd by
them. On the other bsuid. as special knowU^dge intreasM^ the
mn^e of tbo direct and indirect eflcct ol parasites is seen lo be
greater. It is probabk that in a majority of c&s^^ the tissues
of animals and plants re^t the entrance of mkfiot»a usika there
b some abroMon or wound. In the cise of jilAfits llie «ctiiaJ
bcal damage caused by niiirnal or vegetable ecttiparftsitci may
b« inslgnilicant, but lh(i ivoundt afford a ttady entrance to the
tpoTd or hyphae of d(3tiue;iix*c endoparasites. So Siha in the
case of nttinmis, it iA probable that few microbes can enter
the skin or penetrttte the walls of the alimentQry can^l If these
be Mnda^miigcd. But &s knowledge advances the indirect cilect
of pansites is seen to be of more and more im^portanec. Through
the wtauflds caused by biiing-inscfts the tnictobes of vuriouB
tkia diieases and Inflammations may gain cnf mncc subsequently,
or tlie inscets may themselves, be tlic carriers of the dangerous
emkiparasites^as in the cdiSf^ of mosquitoes and moUria, flca5 and
plague, lletsc i^» nod sLoepdng stckncssL Similarly the wounds
caused by snuH iotcstiiiBi worms may be ia ttienQselves trifling,
but afford a ra*ani of entracic« to microbes. It has been shown,
for itutancc, thai there is •« asuKiation betw«n appcndidiis
tad the presence of sniall n^maioda. The latter wotind ihe
co«cum and allow the »iicioh« ihat set up the subsequimt
inRammatbn to reach their nidus. It has hten suggested th;it
the presence ot similar wottnding parasttea pnjccdea Hibercular
infection of the gut.
The parasites themselves may cayic direct mechanical
Injury, and such injury » griratiy aggravated where rtctive re-
mductloD takes place tta or in the host^ with Urval migrmtioiiL
pea.rb) or hyperf rOphics^ Migrations of the parasite or larvae
m:iy cause^ serious or fatal damage. The abstraction of food-
substancot from the tbsnes of the host nvxy be insignificant
even if the p;ira5Jtcs are numerous, but it is notable that in many
cases the cifixt is not merely that of enuring an extra drain on
(he food-«upply ol the host which might be met hy increased
appetite. The Action is freqticnlly selective; particoiir sub-
sLanci:^ such as glycogeji, 4re absorbed in quantities, or particular
organs are spcriatly aLtacked, with a conscquiznt overthrow of
the mctnbolic Lialance. Smous anaemia out of all proportion to
the mass of parasite present is frequently produced, aod the
boats become weak and fall to thrive. A. Clard has worked
out the special cast which he has designated as '^ pjirasilic
cist rati on " and shown to be frequent amongst animal hosts.
Sometimes by direct attacks on the primary seximt organs, and
sometimes by secondary disturbance of metaifoiitm, the prcscnee
of the paimsilcs retards or inhlhili scntat maturity, with the
result that the secondary seKual chatticlers fail to apjicar The
most usual and serious effect on their hosta of poj-oiiifc^ is,
ho^vcver, the result oi tQjtins hherated by them. (Sec pAaAsiric
DtSJtASES.)
Rnally, the attacks of parasites have led to the development
by the hosts of a gml series of pmtective mocbaniams. Such
atiipta lions range from ihe presence of thickened cuticles, and
hairs or opines, the discharge of waxy, sticky or slimy secretions^
to the most elabonitc n'acllons ol the tisanes ol the host to ihe
toxins Ube rated by the pamslEcs*
Hhtowy Hfdf Liittfolutt of Faj^asiiitm.-^TlK h^ory and titemtuit
of parautiiin ant incvirieably involvml with the lilstorv and liten^
ttjre oH xooloc'y, botany,, inedkij^c and pathijlagy, t'Lmy recog~
nized the misLktoe sts a dtitm-ct jieirasitic plant and ^avc an aqeount
of its reproduction by H;ed. Until the rith ce-ntury tittte mare
wai done. In T755 FfcilTcr in hii ireotiee tm Funiut mfi(trfitit
I'rn LinrtaeiiB's ifMrtfiitof. (Kod. Dissert. LXV. vol. Iv.] made a group
of parasitic flowering plants, but included epiptiytes like the ivy.
In I liu A. de CandolEe {Phyfiol. viif{4if. vol. iitj attempted to divide
and clossifv Bo^'crine paraiite^ on mofphoto^ical ami phyfiotogical
grokindK, and iiDife then, ihe btudy of parasitiscti has bees a ftttl of
all boranic^l tro*ii«-8- With rv|:ani lo Fungit A. de Ikry's ("-'-—
on the Comparative Morpkaioiy and Bioipgy of iiu fungi^ Mycetavii
and Bacteria (En^^cJ.. ^Mj) remains the standard wurk- There W
in addition a br^c special literature 00 bocteriQlog)'; With tef;4fti
(a animal parafires, the hnt tr^l steps in knoi^ ledge we» ihc
refutafioo ol ipontaneous Keneintion i^iett BiooE?msi«J. Linn»ei$i
traced the deicent ol the li^Tr fluki; ol sheep from a ffee<liHn(t
atjge, and although Kls particiilar ab«<^rvali(}n» ii^'en: err(mqi>ui,
they laid the lourvdation on whkh beer obsrnTr- ■ >nd
fxiinted ihe way towardii discovery of lanral migt.r . '<:•-
roecnm. O. Fr. Muller in 1773,^ aria L. tL Bajirsu;^ . mi|;
of the t<>th DenfuFy rcachHi more nearly to ;i l • ;-. ^lll]on.
J. J. Steemtrup In hii (amout niDnni^jsli t\;nglj^h
editiim was pubiishtd by i he Ray Society to i- 1 < '(ernahoit
of GfKtTiHiiyns, er tkt preparation arid J}ffi!i'prruni of Auimats
i)trotif^ Aiifrnitte GtnttaiUfiii) fntcTpTctcd many watteiTd obferva-
tiorti oy a clcaf and cgheiwit ibean^ Theretifter there wa* n atcady
and consistent pfDf»», and tl ' > of gnicial parasites
merges in that of gencfal b»1' 'O b?«t known names
am ttio*<' of T. S* CobbeM {ta: r^^niidimn lo the Siaiy
' " ' . ■ ifflfy. iM^) and R Lcui^^^rt niftf Far^isitei &J M^»,
iS!ii6K the' former dcs^nbing a verjf large nuoib^ of
;3ie latter adding cOQnitcLi:£<iy to KLk-niific koowledfie
. 1 in-- ;e>u<iu]!id and life- history* Ol nrwjne modern books, C.
Flerninjf* Eng. cd. of L. G* Neumann'ii Por^it^ ewi J*dr*fi»Mtc
Dis^its of ik* Domejticitttd AmimaJi, and the Ena, ed. oi M**
Bniiin's Ammai Para^Hgj of Man (1906}» &re tba nwt entn-
prtrhen&iwe* (P* C» M.)
PAHAS14ATH* n hiH *nd plice of Jain pOgrinug^ la British
India, in Haiaribagh diaJrici, Bengal; 44*° ft- ■bova the sea.
t a m . from Giridih sta i ion nn t he East Ind Jan rail w»y . It deii v^
its name feom the lost of ihe twenty-four Jain saint*, who a
believed to ha^-e hert; attnincd mrwan^ ©t beatific annibiUiiew^
li is cTttwded with temples^ «jme of secent d«le; and the scr^ pl^
€i{ the J aim have pre ven ted il from betojg ni itiMd a» ti s
fur which purpoae it is other wue well adapiad.
4
negro chiefs of West Africa reserve to themselves the privilege
of bearing parasols of consderable size and substantial con-
itniction» the size varying and denoting gradations in rank
PARAVICINO Y ilRTEAGA, HORTBHSIO PEUX (1580-
1633), Spanish preacher and poet, was bom at Madrid on the
12th of October 1580, was educated at the Jesuit college in
Ocafla, and on the xSth of April x6oo joined the Triniurian
order. A sermon pronounced before Philip III. at Salamanca
in 1605 brought Paravidno into notice; he rose to high posts
in his order, was entrusted with impourtant foreign missions,
became royal preacher in 1616, and on the death of Philip III. in
162 X delivered a famous funeral oration which was the subject of
acute controversy. He died at Madrid on the x 2th of December
1633. His Oracionts ebangllicas (1638-X64X) show that he was
not without a vein of genuine eloquence, but he oftenxk^enerates
into vapid dedamalion, and indulges in far-fetched tropes and
metaphors. His Obras pdsthumdSt divines y kumanas (r64i)
include his devout and secular poems, as well as a play entitled
Cridonia; his verse, like his prose, exaggerates the characteristic
defects (rf Gongorism.
PAIlAY<4Ai>M0iaAU a town of east-central France in the
department of Saone-et-Loire, 58 m. WJ*I.W. of MAoon by the
Paris-Lyon railway, on which it is a junction for Moulins,
Lozanne, Clermont and Roanoe. Pop. (1906), 3382. It lies on
the slope of a hill on the right bank of the Bourbince and has a
port on the Canal du Centre. The chief building in the town
is the priory church of St Pierre. Erected in the X2th century
in the Romanesque style of Burgundy, it closely resembles the
abbey church of Cluny in the length of the transepts, the height
of the vaulting and the general plan. The town is the centre
of a district important for its horse-raising; bricks, tiles and
mosaics are the chief manufactures of the town. In the xoth
century a Benedictine priory was founded at Paray-le-MoniaL
In the x6lh centiiry the town was an industrial centre, but its
prosperity was retarded by the wars of religion and still more
by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. In 1685 the visions
of Marguerite Marie Alacoque, a nun of the convent of the
Visitation, who believed herself to possess the Sacred Heart of
Jesus, attracted religious gatherings to the town, and yeariy
pilgrimages to Paray-le-Monial still take place.
PARCEL (Ft. parcelU, ItaL parliceUa^ Lat. parlicula, diminu-
tive of parSf part), a small part or division of anything) particu-
larly, in the law of real property and conveyancing, a portion
of a manor or estate, and so the name of that portion of a legal
document, such as a conveyance or lease relating to lands,
which contains a description of the estate dealt with. The
word is also used of a package of goods contained in a wrapping
or cover for transmission by carriage, &c., or by post; hence the
term " parcel-post " for the branch of the post-office service
which deals with the transmission of such packages. " Parcel "
was formerly used in an adverbial or quasi-adverbial sense,
meaning " partly," " to some extent," thus " parcel-Protestant,"
*' parcel-lawyer," &c This use survives in " parcel-gilt," i^.
partly gilt, a term applied to articles made of ^ver with a gilt
Kning.
PARCHIK (Pakcbzu), a town of Germany, in the grand
duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the Elde, which flows
through it in two arms, 23 m. S.E. of Schwetin, on the railway
from Ludwigslust to Neubrandenbuig. Pop. (1905), xo,397.
It was the birthplace of Moltke, to whom a monument was
erected In X876. It is an ancient place surrounded with walls,
and contains a Gothic town hall and two interesting churches.
Founded about x2io, Parchim was during part of the X4th
itwy tHc reidence of one braoch of the family of the dukea
particular methods, have supplied writing material on which has
been inscribed the literature of centuries. Such a durable
substance, in most cases easily obtainable in fair abundance,
would naturally suggest itself for the purpose, and we are
therefore prepared for evidence of its use, and also for the
survival of actual specimens, from very ancient times. The
tradition of the employment of skins as writing material by
the ancient Egyptians is to be traced back to the period of the
Pharaohs of the IVth Dynasty, and in the British Museum and
elsewhere there exist skin-roUs which date back to some 1500
years b.c. But the country which not only manufaaurcd but
also exported in abundance the writing material made from
the papyrus plant (see Papyrxts) hardly needed to make use
of any other material, and the instances of skin-roUs inscribed
in E^Fpt must at all times have been rare. But in western
Asia Uie practice of using skins as writing material must have
been widespread even at a very early period. The Jews made
use of them for their sacred books, and it may be presumed
for other literature also; and the old tradition has been main*
tained by this conservative race down to our own day, requiring
the synagogue rolls to be inscribed on this time-honoured
matexial. No doubt their neighbours the Phoenicians, so ready
to adapt the customs of other nations to their own advantage,
would- also have followed the same practice. The Persians
inscribed their annals on skins; and skins were employed by the
Ionian Greeks, as proved by the words of Herodotus (v. s8)«
There is no evidence forthcoming that the same usage was
followed by the western Greeks and by the Italic tribes; but it is
difficult to suppose that at a remote period, before the importa-
tion of pi4>yrus, such an obviously convenient writing materisi
as skin was not used among the early civilized races of Greece
and Italy.
The method of preparation of skins for the service of literature
in those distant ages is unknown to us; but it may be assumed
that it was more or less imperfect, and that the material was
rather of the character of tanned leather than of the thinner axMi
better prepared substance which was to follow at a later time.
The improvement of the manufacture to which we refer was to
be of a nature so thorough as to endow the material with a new
name destined to last down to the present day.
The new manufacture was traditionally attributed to Eamenes
II. of Pergamum, 197-158 B.C. The common story, as told
by Pliny on the authority of Varro, is that Eumenes, whea seek-
ing to enlarge the library of his capital, was opposed by tht
jealousy of the Ptolemies, who -forbade the export of papyros
from Egypt, thus hoping to check the growth of the rival libimry;
and that the Pergamene king was thus compelled to revert to
the old custom of using skins as writing matoial. It is "t'^m ii
to regard this story as literaOy true, or as other than a popidar
explanation of a great devdopment of the manufacture of skia
material for txx>ks in the reign of Eumenes. In fdfmcr tiaaes
the prepared skins had been known by the natural titles h4^k*
poi, li^pAtfoi, the Latin membranaef and these were at fint
also attached to the jiew mantifaaure; but the latter sooo
received a special name after the pUce of its origin, and 1
known as wtfya/aiyfit ckarta fergamena, from which T
our English term parchment, through the French ^
The title of pergamena actually appears fiist in the edict Dt
pretiis rtrum of Diodetian (aj>. jox), and in a passage in one
of St Jerome's Epistles.
The principal improvement in the new manuhctiue was the
dressing of the skins in such a way as to render thesa fspsbk
of receiving writing on both sides, the older methods probabty
tmdfig only one »dfi fnr the poipose, ■ practice whldi vl*
su^tlcal iii Liciies when ibe roU was Lhc ondiisu^f fofm oi 1
Boo
PARDo bazAn— pa;
vbL zxL of Ordonnmuis dfs tris de Fraku (i849)» preceded
bjr an Buai sur Vatuiame ^ganisation judkiaut, which was
leprinted in part in 1851. In 1843 Pardeasiis pabKshed a critical
edition of the Loi scligue, followed by 14 dissertations, which
greatly advanced the knowledge of the subject. He died at
Fimpencau near Blois on the ajtb of May 1853.
See nottccs in Journal gSnirai de rins^uUicu finUique (July 37,
1653). in the BibKolkiqut de VkxU da ekarUs (3rd series. 1854.
V. 453). and in the " Histoire de Tacad^ie det inscriptioas et
belles lettrcs " <vol. xx. of the Miwioirti de racadimie, 1861).
PABDO BAZiN. EHIUA (1851- ), Spanish author, was
bom at Corunna, Spain, on the s6th of September 1851.
Married in her eighteenth year to Sr D. Jos£ Qniroga, a Galidan
country gentleman, she interested hcneU in poUtkst and is
believed to have taken an active part in the subterranean
campaign against Amadeo U Savoy and, later, a^unst the
republic. In 1876 she came into notice as the successful com-
pctitor for a liicrary prize offered by the miinicipaUty of Oviedo,
the subject of her essay being the Benedictine monk, Benito
Jcr6nimo Fcij6o. This was followed by a series of articles
inserted in La Ckncia cristiana^ a magazine of the purest
Orthodoxy, edited by Juan M. Qrti y Lara. Her first novel,
PoMcual L^pet (1S79), is a simple excrdse in fantasy of no
remarkable promise, though it eonuins good descriptive
passages of the romantic type. It was followed by a more
ftriking story, Un Yiaje de nomas (x88i), in whidi A discreet
attempt was made to introduce into Spain the methods of
French realism. The book caused a sensation among the literary
cliques, and this sensation was increased by the appearance ol
another oaturalbtic tale. La Tribuna (1S85), wheidn th
influence of Zola is unmistakable. Meanwhile, the writer
reply to her critics was iasued under the title of La Cuestl
pelpltonte (1883), a clever piece of rhetoric, but of no spef
value as regards criticism or dialectics. The naturalistic acf
of £f CUne de VUamorta (1885) are more numerous, more '
pounced, than in any of its predecessors, though the autb'
shrinks from the logical application of her theories by supp
a romantic and inappropriate ending. Probably the b*
Sra Pirdo BazAn's work is embodied ia Le» Pomos de
(1886), the painfully exact history of a decadent arisr
family, as notable for its portraits of types like Nuc
Juliin as for its creation of characters like those of the
bravos, Barbacana and Trampeta. Yet perhaps *
abiding merit lies in its pictures of country life, its poet'
tion of Galician scenery set down ia an elaborate, higbl;
style, which, if not always academically correct* b
effective. A sequel, with the significant title of
naiurakza (1887), marks a further advance in t'
naturalisffl, and heoccforward Sra Pardo Bazl'
vcrsaUy recognized as one of the chiefs of the nev
movement in Spain. The title was confirmed by t)
ot'IntelacUH and MorriAa, both issued in 1889.
her reputation as a novelist reached its highci
later stories, La Cristiana (1890), Cuenios de am
Iris (1895). Uiiterio (1903) and La Quimera (k
wanting in charm, awakened less interest. In tc
a play entitled Verdad, remarkable for its bok
for lis dramatic qualities.
PARDOE. JUUA (1806-1863), Englidi m
Beverley, Yorkshire, in 1806. When fourt
published a volume of pocras. In 183s she
nople and her experiences there funikhcd
for vivid pictures of Eastern life in the CUy
Homance of the Harem (1839) and Beau'
(1830). Her other works, not always
iorhide Louis XJV, and Ike Court of Fr
Century (1847): Tke Court and Reign of
Life and Memoirs of Marie de Medici (i?
Hul^y during tke Coptulate and Mr
and several sprightly and pleasant w
granted a dvil list pension. She died
PABDOlKt!
a debt or ot 1
power eatru
attached to 1
with the r 1
Beccaxia, i
prince see
deiU pene
valuable.
thediffr
miscan< !
aoieprp
c. 24 f
treaso<
from I
the J- I
that I
kinr I
the
mr
tk
n
I
readily catcS the eyt. Parenzo is Uie teat of the Proviiicial
Diet of Islria, and is also an episcopal see.
Parento (Lat. Pareifimm)* conquered by ibe Romans in 178 b.c,
was made a colony probably by Augustus after the battle of
Actium, for its title in inscriptions is Colonia Julia and not, as it
has often been given, Colonia Ulpia. It grew to be a place of
some note with about 6000 inhabitants within its walls and
10,000 in its suburbs. The bishopric, founded in 534, gradually
acquired ecclesiastical authority over a large number 01 abbeys
and other foundations in the surrounding country. The city,
which had long been under the influence of Venice, formally
recognized Venetian supremacy in 1267, and as a Venetian town
it was in 1354 attacked and plundered by Paganino Doria of
Genoa. The bishoprics of Pola and Parenso wccc united in
iSa7.
See John Mason Nesle» NoUi on Do/MOtM, /sfrto, <fc. (London;
1861), with ground pbn of cathedral; E. A. Freeman, Skekhes/rmn
the Subjetl and Neighbour Lands of Venice (London, 18BO; and
Neumann, Der Dom von Parenzo (Vienna, 1902).
PAROA* a seaport of Albania, European Turkey, in the
vilayet of lannina, and on the Ionian Sea. Pop. (19^5), about
$000, of whom the majority are Creeks. Parga has a rock-built
citadel and a harbour formed by a mole which 'the Venetians
construaed in 157a. It exports citrons, wool, oak, bark and
skins. Originally occupying the site of the ancient Toryne
(or PaIaeo>Parga), a short distance to the west, Parga was
removed to its present position after the Turkish invasion in the
15th century. Under Venetian protection, freely accepted in
1 401, the Inhabitants maintained their municipal independence
and commercial prosperity down to the destruction of the
Venetian republic in 1797* though on two occasions, in 1500 and
I s6o, their city was burned by the Turks. TheattCEopts of Ali
Pasha of lannina to make himself master of the place were
thwarted partly by the presence of a French garrison in the
citadel and partly by the heroic attitude of the Pargiotes them-
selves, who were.anxious to have their dty incorporated with the
Ionian Republic To secure their purpose they in 1814 ezpdled
the French garrison and accepted British protection; but the
British Government in 1815 determined to go back to the
convention of 1800 by which Parga was to be surrendered to
Turkey, though no mosque was to be built or Mussulman to
settle within its territory. Rather than subject themselves to
the tyranny of Ah Pasha, the Pargiotes decided to forsake their
country; and accordingly in 18 19, having previously exhumed
and burned the remains of their ancestors, they migrated to the
Ionian Islands. The Turkish government was constrained to
pay thein£i4>*435 by way of compensation.
PAEGBTTIIIO (from O. Fr. part/det or parjeter; par, all over,
and jeUr, to throw, i^. *' rough cast "; other derivations sugges-
ted have been from LaU spargcre^ to sprinkle, and from parits, a
wall, the last due to writing the parja in the form paridl), a term
applied to the decoration in relief of the plastering between the
studwork on the outside of haU*timber houses, or sometimes
covering the whole wall. The devices were sumped on the
wet plaster. This seems generally to have been done by sticking
a number of pins in a board in ceruin lines or curvesi and then
pressing on the wet plaster in various directions, so as to form
geometriol figures. Sometimes these devices are in relief, and
in the time of Elizabeth represent figures, birds, foliages, &c;
fine examples are to be seen at Ipswich, Maidstone, Newark,
ftc. (See PiASTEft-woKK.) The term is also applied to the
lining of the inside of smoke flues to form an even surface for
the passage of the smoke.
PARIAH, a name long adopted in European usage for the
** outcastcs " of India. Strictly speaking the Paralyans are
the agricultural labourer caste of the Tamil country in Madras,
and are by no means the lowest of the low. The majority are
ploughmen, formerly adscripH gtebae, but some of them arc
weavers, and no less than 350 subdivisions have been dtstin-
guisbed. The name can be traced back to InscriptionB of the
nth century, and the " Pariah poet," Tiruvalluvar, author of
fht famous TamS poem, the Kunal, probably lived at about that
The accepted derivmtioo of the word it fron the Tama
parai, the large drum of which the Paraiyans are the hcicditafy
beaters at festivals, &c. In 1901 the total number of Pacaiyana
in all India was si millwna, almost confined to the south of
Madras. In the Telugu country their place is taken by the
Midas, in the Kanarese country by the Holiyaa and in the
Deccan by the Mahars. Some of their privileges and duties
seem to show that tbtry represent the original owaers^ the land,
subjected by a conquering race. The Pariahs supplied a notable
proportion of Clive's sepoys, and are still enlisted In the Madras
sappers and miners. They have always acted aa domestic
servants to Europeans. That they are not deficient in iatdli-
gence is proved by the high positioo which some of them, when
converted to Christianity, have occupied in the piofcisioin.
In modem oflkial usage the *' outcastes " generally are termed
Pancbamas in Madras, and special efforts are made for their
education*
Sec Caklwc41, ComparoHm Grammar of Ike DrmoiiiaM Lanpmfu
(pp. 540-554)1 and toe Madias Cnuai ReporU for 1891 and 1901.
PARIAH DOO, a dog of a domesticated braed thai has
reverted, in a greater or less degree, to a haU-wild condition.
Troops of such dogs are found in the towns and villages of
Eastern Europe, Asia and Africa; and they probably iotertMrecd
with wolves, jackab and wild de^ The Indtaa braed is near
akin to the Australian dingo.
PARIAN CHROmCLB {Ckroniam or Marmm ParimM), a
marble tablet found in the island of Paras in 1697, now aaoMtg
the Arundel Marbles at Oxford. It originally emhcaccd an
outline of Greek history- from the reign of Geciops, hydary
king of Athens, down to the archonship of Diognetus at
Athens (264 bjC.). The Chronicle seems to have been set up by
a private person, but, as the opening of the inscriptioQ has
perished, we do not know the occasion or motives which prooipted
the step. The author of the Chronicle has given much attcatioa
to the festivals, and to poetry and music; thus he has recorded
the dates of the establishment of festivals, of the introduction
of various kinds of poetry, the births and deaths of the pocta,^
and their victories in contesu of poetical skill. On the dhcf*
hand, important political and military events are often entirely
omitted; thus the return of the Heradidae, Lycurgus, the wan
of McsMne, Draco, Solon, Clcisthenes, Perides, the Pdoponaeaiaa
War and the Thirty Tyrants are not even mentioned. The years
are reckoned backwards from the archonship of Diognetus, and
the dates are further specified by the kings and archoos ol
Athens. The reckoning by Olympiads is not employed. The
Chronide consists of 93 lines, written chiefly in the Attic dialect.
The Parian Oironick* (first paUisbcd by Scklen in 1698) Is printed
by A. Bfekh in the Corpus inuripUonum trauarmmt vol. ii.. No. si74,
and by C. W. Miillcr in the Frapnenta kisiorkorum traeeorum, «^ •. ;
.1- j:.! — byj. Flacr '
there are separate editions by J. Flach (1883) and
A New fragment was discovered in •" — *-- —
down to the year 299 (cd. Crispi and
arthaeototiscken Instituls, aikeniuke Abtkeiluni, vol. xxii.
bnnging the Chn
ifhelm in MiUkeOnrntem des
also " Notes on the Text of the Parian Marble " and review of
VMS
1897). See
lacoby's edition by J. A. R. Munro in CUusi€4d Renew (March and
October. 1901 and June 1905).
PARIHI, GIUSEPPE (1729-1799), Italian poet, was bon at
Bosio in the Milanese, on the aaod of May* 1729. His paicnta,
who possessed a small farm on the shore of Lake PWano. sent
him to Milan, where he studied under the Baraabitesia the
Academy Ardmboldi, maintaining himself latterly hy copying
manuscripts. In 1752 he publ^hcd at Lugano, under ibc
pseudonyin of Ripano Eupilino, a small volume 9f uioUa
verse which secured his election to the Accademia dci
Trasformati at MOan and to that of the Arcadi at Rome. His
poem, // Mttliina, which was published in 1763, and whidi
marked a distinct advance in Italian blank verse, conritfcd of
ironical mstroctions to a young noUenaa aato the best method
of spending his mornings. It at once cstablisbcd Parini*a
popularity and Influence, and two years later a continuatiaaof
the same theme was published Hadcr the title of H Meuagiarms.
The Austrian pknipolentiary. Count Firmian, inUrested himself
la procuring the poet's advaacaneat, appointiai Imb. in t^
and wonder-working. Tbe king ordered the churchyard to be
closed in 1732, but earth which had been taken from the grave
proved equally efficacious and helped to encourage the disorder
which marked the dose of the Jansenisl struggle (see Jansenbii).
Lives fay B. de la Bruy^ and B. Doyen (1731). See also P. P.
Matthicu. Histoire dei mirades el <Us cownUiionnaires de Si Mi4ard\
M. ToUemache, French JanunUU (U>ndon« 1693).
' PARIS.. LOUIS PHIUPPB ALBERT D*0R|1AN8. Comtc de
(1838-1894), son of the due d'Orldans, the eldest son of King
Louis PhiUppe, was bom on the J4th of August 1838. His
mother was the princess Helen of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, a
Protestant. By the death of his father through a carriage
accident in 184a, the count, who was then only four years of
age, became heir-apparent to the French throne. On the
deposition of Louis PhiUppe in 1848, the duchess of Orlians
struggled to secure the succession to her son, and bore him
through an excited populace to the chamber erf deputies. The
chamber itself was soon invaded, however, and the Republic
prorlaiiAcd. The Orieanists were driven into exile, and the
duchess proceeded with her two sons, the oorate de Paris and
the doc de Chartres, first to Eisenach iu Saxony, and then to
Claremont in Surrey. After his mother's death in 1858 tho
count made a long foreign tour. In 1861 he and his brother
accompanied their uncle, tho prince de Jdnville, to the United
States. The brothers were attached to the staff of General
McClellan, oommanding the " Army of the Potomac." In April
1862 the count took part in the siege of Yorktown, and was
present at t he action of Williamsburg on the 5th of May. He was
also with McClellan at the battle of Fair Oaks, and was personally
engaged in the sanguinary battle at Gaines Mill on the 27th of
June. When difficulties arose between France and the United
States with regard to the affairs of Mexico, the Orl^uis princes
withdrew from the American army and returned to Europe.
During the winter of 1862-1863 the count took a special- interest
in the organization of the Lancashire Cotton Famine Fund, and
contributed an article to the Ranu des deux momdes entitled
" Christmas Week in Lancashire." On the 30th of May 1864 he
married his oousm, the princess Marie Isabelle, daughter of the
due de Montpensier; and his son and heir, the due d'OrKans^
was bom at York House, Twickenham, in 1869. The count was
refused pemisaion to serve in the Fnuico-Prusfiian War, but after
the fan of Napoleon III. he relumed to France. Abstaining
from putting himself forward, he lived quietly on his estates,
which had been restored to him by a vote of the Assembly. In
August 1873 there was an important political conference at
Frohsdorf, the result of which was that a fusion was effected,
by which the comte de Paris agreed to waive his claims to the
throne m favour of those of the comte de Chambord. By the
death of the latter in 1883 the count became undisputed head
of the house of Bourbon; but he did not show any deposition to
push his claims. The popularity of t he Orleans family, however,
was shown on the occasion of the marriage of the comte de Paris's
eldest daughter with the duke of Bnganca, sun of the king of
Portugal, in May 1886. This so alarmed the French government
that it led to a new law of expulsion, by which direct claimants
to the French throne and their heirs were banished from France
(jone II, 1886). The comte de Paris again retired to England,
taking up his abode at Sheen House, near Richmond Park.
Here he devoted his leisure to his favourite studies. In addition
to his tk-ork Les Associatioms outrihes en Angietene, which was
published in 1869 and translated into English, the count edited
the letters of his lather, and published at intervals in eight
volumes his Hisloire de la guerre civile en Amirique. In his
later years the count seriously compromised the prospects of
the Royalist party by the relations inlo which he entered with
General Boulanger. He died on the 81 h of September 1894.
PARIS, the capital of France and the department of Seine,
situated on both banks of the Seine, 233 m. from it& mouth and
aSs m. S.S £. of London by rail and steamer via Dover and
and surrounded by a line of Jurassic heights. The grautic
substratum is covered by Jurassic, Cictnceotts and Tertiary
formations; and at several points buildmg mateiia b fkaul one,
limestone or gypsum— have been laid bare by erodon. It is
partly, indeed, to the existence of Sttch qnarrits in fu ncjgbbour^
hood, and to the vicinity of the grain-bearing regions of the
Beauce and Brie that the dty owes Its devekypment. Still
more important is its position at the meeting-place of the great
natural highways leading from the Mediterranean to the ocean
by way of the Rhone valley and from Spain northwards over the
lowfauids of western France. The altitude of Paris vaiiea
between 80 ft. (at the Point du Jour, the exit of the Seine from
the fortifications) and 420 it' at the hill of Montmartre in tlm
north of the dty; the other chief eminence is the hill of Ste
Geaevidve, on the left bank.^ Since 1840 Earis has been com-
pletely surrounded by » wall, which since x86o has served also as
the limit for the collection of municipal customs dues (ocI^m).
Proposals are constantly being brought forward to demolisb this
Walb-Hvhich, with iU talus, is encircled by a bsoad and deep
ditch—either entirely or at teaat from the Point du Jour, where
the Seine inteisects the wall bdow the dty, to Pantin, ao as to
extend the limits of the dty as far as the Seine, which runs
almost paralld with the wall for that distancci Within the waO
the area of the dty Is 19,279 acres; tlie river rans through ie
from east to west in a broad curve for a distance of nearly 8 m.
aimaie. — Pari* has a fairly uniform climate. The mtan tempera-
ture, calculated from observations extending over fifty years (1841-
~ ' ' ' The highest reading (obaerved in July 1874 and
1890). is 4Q*-8 F. Th
again in July i88i)isi
The monthly means 1
. , roi*F.,thek)we5t(mDecembcrl879)is -I4*c
monthly means for the fifty yean 1841-1890 were: January
35**9, February 38*'3. March 42M, April 49*-S. May $5**6, Jwne
6i*-7. luly 64 '6. August 63*-s. Sqpterobcr 58^-2, October 49*-8w
November 40 -s. December 36*6. The Seine Treeies when the teok-
perature falls below 18*. It was frozen in neariy its whole extraC
from Bercy to Auteuil in the winten of 1819-1B30, lB39--i890»
1879-1880 and 1890-1891. Rain falls, on an average, on about
200 days, the average quantity in a year bei n^ between 22 and 2} in.
The rainfall from December to April inclusive is less than the average.
while the rainfall from May to November exceeds the average ror
the whole year. The driest month is February, the rainiest June—
the rainfall for these months bdng respectively i*t in. and 2'3 ia.
The prevailing winds arc those from the aoulh, sbutn-west and west.
The general character of the climate, somewhat continental in winter
and oceanic in summer, has been more closely c^served since the three
observatories at different heights on the Eiffel Tower were added in
1889 to the old*established ones of the parks of St Mavr and Moot-
souris.* The obtervato^ at the old church-tower St Jacques (l6ch
century) in the centre 01 the city, and since 1806 a municipal cstabK
lishment, is of special interest on account of the study made there
of the transparency and purity of the air. There are barely too days
in the year when the air is very dear. Generally the dty is cow e r e d
by floating mists, possibly 1 500 ft. in thickness. Dtffihg the prrva-
Icacc of north-easterly winds the sky is most obscured, since on that
side lies the greatest number of factories with smoking chimneys.
Defences. — Paris, described in a recent German acaaint na
the greatest fortress in the world* possesses three pedectly
distinct rings of defences. The tvfo inner, the enoante and the
drcle of detached forts around it, are of the bastioned type which
French engineers of the Noicet school favoured; th^ wcm
built in the time of Louis Philippe, and with veiy few ^^H^^iitm
sustained tlie siege of 1870-71. The outer worka^ of more
modem type, forming an entrenched camp which in area is
rivalled only by the Antwerp system of defences, wen buih
after the Fmnco>German War.
The enceinte (" the fortifications " of the guide-hooka) is of
plain bsstion tracer without mveUns but with a deep dry «iicck
(escarp, but not countcsscarp revetted). It is nearly as m. ia
perimeter and has 93 baatkms, 67 gates and 9 milway paiingn*.
The greater part oi the eocdnte has, however, been given t^p^
and a larger one projccted-^ts at Antnreip^l^ oaonectiiiK iip
the old detached forts.
* The ofaservatotws of the Tottr St Jacoucs and of Montsomis
belong to the maniclpatity of Pkfis: that of St Maur depends o« ihe
Ceotial Bureau of Metcorakgy* a national inslitataon.
VUlettc; the Boulevard Magenta, from Montmartre to the
Place de la R^publique; and the Rue de Turbigo, from this
piace to the Halles Centrales. On the left side of the river the
aaain thoroughfare is the Boulevard St Germain, beginning at
the Pont Sully, skirting the Quartier Latin, the educational
quarter on the north, and terminating at the Pont de la Concorde
after traversing a quarter mainly deviated to ministries, embassies
and other official buildings and to the residences of the noUesse.
Squaw. — Some of the chief squares have already been mentioned.
The finest is the Place de la Concorde, laid out under Louis XV. by
I. A. Gabriel and noted as the scene of the execution of Louis XVI.,
Marie Antoinette and many other victims of the Revolution. The
oentral decoration consists of an obelisk from the great temple at
Luxor in Upper Egypt, pcesented to Louis Philippe in 1831 by
Mehemet Ali, and flanked by two monumental fountains. The format
tion of the Place Vcnd6me was begun towards the end of the 17th
century. In the middle there is a column surmounted by a statue
of Napoleon I. and decorated with plates of bronse on whicji are
depicted scenes from the campaign oif 180%. The Place de I'Etoile
is the centre of twelve avenues radiating irom it in all directions.
The chief 01 these is the fashionable Avenue des Champs filys^
which connects it with the Place de la Concorde; while on the other
■de the Avenue de la Grande Arm6e kads to the fortifications, the
two forminsa section of the main artery of Paris; the wdl-wooded
Avenue du Bois de Boulogne forms the threshokl of the celebrated
park of that name. In the centre of the Place, the Arc de Triorophe
de r^toile, the largest triumphal arch in the world (i6a ft. high by
t47 ft. wide), oomroeroorates the military triumphs of the Revohi*
tioviary and Napoleonic troops. The finest of the sculptures on its
(si^dM is that representing the departure of the volunteers in 179a
by Frangns Rude. The Place de la R6publique. in whkh stands a
huge statue of the Republic, did not receive its present form till 1879.
The Place de la Basblle sUnds a little to the east of the site of the
famoos sute prison. It con^ns the Cotonne de Juillet erected in
memory of those who fell in the revolution of July 18m The Place
du Carrousel, enclosed within the western wings ol theLouvre and so
named from a revel given there by Louis XIV., was enlarged about
the mkklle of the 19th century. The triumphal arch on its west side
oonunemocates the victories of 1805 and formed the main entrance
to the Tuileries palace (see bebw). Facing the arch there is a stone
pyramid forming the background to a statue of Gambetta. Other
squares are the Place des Viaoircs, dating from 1685, with the
^uestrian statue of Louis XIV.; the Place des Vosees. formeriy
Place Royale, formed by Henry IV. on the site of the old Toumelles
Palace and containinK the equestrian statue of Louis XIII.; the
Place de THOtcl de Vule. once the Place de Gr^ve and the scene of
many sute executions from the beginning of the 14th century till
1850: the Place du Chfttekt. on the site of the prison of the Grand
Ch&telet, pulled down in i8oa, with a founuin and a eolumn com-
memorative of victories of Napoleon, and the Place de la Nation
decorated with a fountain and a bronze group reorcaenting the
Triumph of the RepubHc, and with two columns of 1788 surmounted
by sutues of St Louis and Philip Augustus, corresponding at the
cast of the city to the Place de rEtoiie at the west.
South of the Seine are the Place St Michel, adorned with a monu-
mental fountain, and one of the great centres of traffic in Paris;
the Carrefour de rObservatoire, with the monument to Frauds
farmer, the explorer, and the statue of General Ney sanding on
Che spot where he was shot ; the Placedo Pknth6on ; the Place Denfert
Rochcnau, adorned with a colossal lion symbolising the defence of
Bdlfort in 1871; the Place St Sulpice, with a modem founuin
embellished with the sutues of the preachcre Bossuet, F^neloo.
Massillon and FMchier; the Place Vauban. behind the Invalides;
and the Place du Palab Bourbon, in front of the Chamber of Depu-
ties. On the lie de la Cit6 in front of the cathedral is the Place
du Parvis-Notre-Dame, with the equestrian sutue of Charlemagne.
Besides those already mentioned, Paris possessed other
monumental fountains of artistic value. The Fontaine des Inno-
cenu in the Square des Innocenu belonged to the church of that
name demolished in 1786. It is a graceful work of the Renussance
designed by Pierre Lescot and reuins sculptures by Jean Goiijon.
On Its reconstruction on the present site other carvmgs were added
by Angustin Paj<Mi. A fountain of the first half of the 18th century
in the Rue de GreneOe is remarkable for itk rich deooratkm. while
another in the Avenue de I'Obseryatoire is an elaborate modem
work, the centrsl group of which by J. B. Carpeaux represcnu the
four quarten of tfte globe supporting the terrestrial sphere. The
Fontaine de Medids (17th century) m the Luxembourg garden
tt a work of Sak>mon Debrosse in the Doric style: the fountain m
Che Place Louvob (1844) reoresenting: the rivera of France, b by
Louis Viscond. In 1873 Sir Richard WaUace gave the muniapahty
ifty drinking-fountains which are placed in different paru of the
city.
Passerelle de ITstacade, between the He St Louis and the right
bank, the Pont des Arts and the Passerdle Debilly (dose to the
Trocadiro) — are for foot passengen only; all the others are for
carriages as well. The most famous, and In its actual state the
oldest, is the Pont Neuf , begun in 1578, the two portions of which
rest on the extremity of the island called La Qt4^ the point at
which the river Is at its widest (863 ft.). On the embankment
below the Pont Neuf stands the equestrian statue of Henry IV.
Between La Q't^ and the left bank the width of the lesser channel
is reduced to 95 ft. The river has a width of 540 ft. as it entcn
Paris and of 446 ft. as it leaves it. After its entrance to the dty
it passes under the bridges of Tolbiac, Bercy and Ansterlitx,
that of Sully, those of Marie and Louis Philippe between the lie
St Louis and the right bank; that of La Toumelle between the
tie St Louis and the left bank; that of St Louis between the tie
St Louis and La Cit^. The Cit6 communicates with the ri^t
bank by the Pont d'Arcde, the Pont Notre-Dame, buih on
foundations of the isth century, and the Pont-au Change, owing
iu name to the shops of the money-dangers and goldsmiths
which bordered its medieval predecessor; with the left bank by
that of the Archevteh6, the so-called Poot au Double, the Petit
Pont and the Pont St Michel, the original of which was hmlt
towards the end of the 14th century. Bdow the Pont Neuf
ccme the Pont des Arts, Pont du Carrousel, Pont Rojral (a fine
stone structure leading to the Tuileries), and those of Solf6ino.
La Concorde, Alexandre III. (the finest and most modem bridge
in Paris, its foundation-stooe havhig been laM by the czar
Nicholas II. in 1896), Invalides, Alma, I6na (opposite the Champ
de Man), Passy, Crenelle and Mirabesu. The Seine has st
times caused disastrous floods in the dty, as in January 19x0.
(See Seinb.)
The houses of Paris nowhere abat direetly on the river banks,
which in their whole jextent from the bridge of Atisterlitz to
Pauy are protected by broad embankments or " quais." At the
foot of these lie seyeral ports for the unloading and toaditig U
goods, &C-— on the right side Bercy for wines. La Rap6e for
timber. Port Mazas, the Port de I'Arsenal at the mouth of the
St Martin canal, > the Port Henry IV., des Cdestins, St Paul.
des Onnes, de l'H6tel de Ville (the two latter for fruit) and the
Port St Nicolas (foreign vessels); on the left bank the Port de la
Gare for petroleum, St Bernard for wines and the embaraitioa
of sewage, and the ports of La Toumelle ((rfd iron), Otsay
(building material), the Invalides, Gros CaOlou, the Cygms,
GreneUc and Javd (refuse). Besides the river ports, the p«t
of Paris also indudes the canals of St Martin and the p ort i on s of
the canah of St Denis and the Ourcq within the walls. ABtkrce
debouch in the busy and extensive basin of La ViOctte in the
north-east of the dty. The traffic of the port b ddclly in coal,
building materials and stone, manure and fertillMrs, agrkukurai
produce and food-staffs.
Promenades and Parks.^ln the heart of Paris are situated
the gardens of the Tuileries * (56 acres), designed by Andr€ Le
Notre under Louis XIV. Though added to and altered after-
wards they retain the main outlines of the original plan. They
are laid out in parterres and bosquets, planted with cbestirat
trees, lindens and plane trees, and adorned with playing foun*
tains and basins, and numerous statues mostly antique in sub-
ject. From the terrace along the river-side a fine view ia to be
had over the Seine to the park and palace of the Trocad£ro; and
> This canal (3 m. long) leaving the Sefaie below Ausierlitt bridcc
passes by a tunnd under the Place de la Bastille aad Boulevwzd
Richard Lenoir, and rises by sluices to the La Villette baain« twom
which the St Denis canal (4 m. k>ng) descends to the Seine at Ss
Denis. In this way boats going up or down the river can avcad
passing through Paris. The canal de I'Ourcq, which sapplica the
two canab mentioned, contributes to the watcr-sapphr off ¥mtm
as well as to iU transport facilities.
*Thcse gardens ars the property of the state, the Other anasa
rtyolthet
mentioned being the property <
tllf fvqrftai ol tK* Cntadi 0«l«ib asd it ti^ ^v^ lo k tbe
¥r<cl«4 «A ti»* rtww frwrt by OtliiriTK df MextkL Emd Bvnry J V.
Ol liwi* |»* wImtWl on difr oMtfc is occvpied by tbe immitry
«| InftAffi. 'Fht W4i]f «f tb» ptiKt of iht Tuif fKes (so cjilJcd
In tlKaton l« tke HIi ifti %liA Mcuf^ied Us ^ic) ts inUinately
MUMCltd iMll ll«t «l Ite tevvn, tts orieia being due Lo
iMMm^iMMmd Umxy IV tht ]iu» buUi tbe wing,
I Jli% vtbkh ututifd it wilb ihc' GtildiIc
J irfaj^e iiD the Dorih side dating from
Uv 141b ctntury. Tbe palace iLsclf was
tMill W i%^ CwtM W*^*^ ^ jS?ip v^tb The ejtceptiofi of th«'
I bavllkiD on lt^<^ louth (P^vjUan dt Florf*]; only tht.
mkvtthtfm tf«mlMl pjtviUun tISvJilon dt Marsut, dow ^cttirkd
|« 1^ QitiMWtt of «icconlh*c artsl wa» rebuih.
MlAii y ImpMtutr* ^ *^ Louvrv u the PaUIt de JuMitfr (kw
Ik liiM Mvmbbic^ «i bi^PdinGft nvcKiif tht greater part
Ik «M1 OM to t w weft of the Baul«varLl ij u PaGis, During
"" 1 etfigd the *ite was Dccu|iied hy a citadel which
jt «( tbe M«tTivii]|iiin kinys and ^.rttrib^rdi oT the
Cuwtten Hbifk In the t JtK and i:)th ciMirunn it woj ai-tcrvd ^md
^■I^Mid br tbo UltL'r, and durtn^ part of that pertc^d w^ aLL»
itwmiR*! 1^ '^ pAr!jL''(TicrLt d'f Pari», to «hich it vss cnr|r«J|f nude
mmtmf €imm* V. in itia^ 1737 and 1776 tbe buEldinj^ wu
MM|Hl#y AMp«M^ Ia *(> pfciitriii state Ik in gurat part the OUttomr
jJlMMilifMTir fWonttrucitDii ii^nn in tB40. In the inierior the
aittf pirfin"*! ptfAAiu Sf« t lie Sain ic-Chapc^lr, tbe Conciefgriie,
•A^U P*^*^ wberc Marie Anitiiimte a^tuf other illuitriou* victims
fl MN Itvvfkliiti^n were confined^ ^nd snine KiKf and kitchens of
fkit tjlth crBiurV'' All tbtrw are an tbe gn>uiul Iknr, a portion of
mtiic h i» « Alined to tbe police. The coart*, which iixludc the Cour
iV i'nii*(ion< the gupnenic tribunal in Franc r* the Court of Appeal
' the t'otirt of It ant Instance, are on th^ fir^it floor, the chii'l
^«ie 13J which t! the fine SaCle dea Pm PirrJm* the euceesifor of
||jif«nd' Salie^ ■ hall originally built by PhJEtp ih? Fair and rebuiU
f irr* in i6i& and i&Ti . The Sainte-Cho£)<>lk^ one of tlie moiA
tj ifircimcni tif Gothic art, W4i er^ted fram 1245 10 1248 by
gW M A thrine for tlie crovn of thorm and other icIica fHnfr at
>.Djiinc, and was restored in ihe i^TKtcmury, It comprisci
_ "rr portkin for the uie of the E^rvant* and rt-tairvcri* *nd the
m*f*i pttnkm or royal chapeK (he Uttrr ficldy citcoraled and li^hicd
^y UMy window* set clote together un4 filled with Lieaytiful 4l:ki^cd
The Pa by* de Just we prr^nti itrwardi t|it wt^t a Groj'k
, ^ ' to- i8?5fl, whtrb i* fncbjfled ,Tcnon^ the brtisi
letnen t* of rpoitcm art. The f ji^de towards t he Sei oc embodJei
f by J, L Oyc (^ 187^1.
r t«wvri which date in part* ffoin the rrcon si ruction nnd*r che
rtim (tjf»arty. That at the csim ntigk Ube Tour de I Hflrtofte}
■ a dock of lAJo. said to be ilie uUi:st public cIccL in Frmnrr,
_ _ iftine lEiin Failing of 1787 wparmtea tbe oourtyard on the carf
tidv fnnn the Bouleviiru ilu P^Ui&f
About J[ quarter of a mile wuih of the Paiaia de fu&tkt adjoining
(he IftrOiii] de CUiiiy lies the HAtcI de Oiiny. acquired in ti\\ by the
intiquariafi A^ du Soinnierani ja a repu^itory for hiio:>El(?ciK)n9 and
Eow beloAi^i'ia I a the uate* Jt ia « gtacdul and v^t^C-pa-jervrd
ujfdii^ Ln late Gotki^ iiyle diatln^iUslied for the bcjkitiful c»rv]iig
ef tKr aoof^i doon^ r wl nduw^ and o[]en- Vftu k fufti pet. The cnAnsion ,
vrhich contftin^ 4 rkb Goihic chapel, wai fmrted at tbe end of tbe
IKtb 5tiitury by Jacque« d'Amtjoise, abbot of Dony. It ktandt on
Ihe site of 4 Bi^injft palace said to have been byilt by the emperor
CotHtintJut Chkprufr ((L 306), aixj ruini of the bitlu are ttiU to be
iem uljolning it.
ITie other dv'A bgildjn^ d Piiris an? inrcrior ui tnter«tt and
■ttra^tioQ. The H6tel dc* Jnvalidea an tht left bank of the Seine
o^po^ire ll» CKirrMH Oysfea dai« from tlir ffetgn ul Louis XIV.;
by whom it w^n fmindcd ae .^ rettftai for waundrtl and infirm wldkrv,
(It intiMte* 4r« few in number^ ind the buiklinf; al^o^ serves ai head-
qutft*:^* of I be mjlitary govrreot of Paris, A pini^-Et and a hkic»u»
e)(fUiriAde fUetcbin^ to the pmi d'Cksay prc<e<Je the north iiitade;
the entrance (o thii owriii I tiro tbe Cour d'Honncun a poum-ard
encloied by i moat aone *l!rifh is a battery of cannon used for
«alkiio Oft intiMJTtjmt Ufc^doAa. On either *kic of the Cuur
d'Hitfitmit lie the muveuini of mGitary ht«io<ry and of artU^nrv
t***tn'ni and ntmi^ur)- The rurinh church of St Lou it, de^otatf^d
»iih llaB^eapEunrd id ihe wan ai the 'Serijml Empjrs:, cli^w^i ihc sdLjth
■"^ of the Ccmr d'Hcjnncurf while fc*liEflii 41U fi'-et a mxenific(*rK
d(?m* iJiirlietin^ aniithc^r chninch ihe £p{i# n3yn%, buitt
MannArt In*™ itivJl to 1706 The central cr>j* iil thu
a noe tarcopbagui «l re^ porphyry in wlikh lie
Voltaire and Mirabrau w-ere the fi/st tofjc entombed J n. th* i Si3j f%
a« it theji came to be ceiled ^ Rccon^eemtL-d and i^^dlAii
more than once during the tqtb ctntury, the buildinft ^nAflf'Slta^
itf present name in 1S85, when Vktot Hu^o *»i buried iScf^Itt
Pantheon it a,n Impodin^ domed building in the lonn of t Onfe
enoM. The rympanum above the portioQ by David d'Ai^W tid;
in the ifttt-Hi^r, pnintingi of the life of Stc Ctneri^'e ^yP^^ii 4t
Chjivanncs are futuns cif in artistic docor^tion^
Various public bodies occupy cnaasJjQQs and palat** built uaj^
the ancient ttclme. The PaUi4 ttoj-al, built by KkhclKu *tiCNif i6ia
and afterwardt inhabited by Anne of Aoitria, the rcttrni PhJip R
of Orlc>3n9 and Philippe Egalit^, ia now occupied by ihe Cotn^
of State and the Th^trt Franpiii, The Paljtfe wf the t.uirad»«K
$t4Cid»ori the Bite of a mansion tpeJongiri^ to Dukc^ rrancii^^ 1 mil)
bourp, wbiclm'as rebuilt by .Vfarie de Medici^ 4ift of Henry |V. T^
arehittct* Salomon DcbfoHe, wa.t ordered to take tbe Pitii Palvs
at Flornvx as bis {nexldt but no[ withfttandiof tbe imer&l ptia ^
the build iuE is Fnf^ch- The tooth facade facing the' LuittatWof
S^atdco was rebu.ilt in the oriKtuil style undef Louis Philippe. iWi
rcHiknce of various royal pei^onaes durii^ the I7fh and lAtk
tenturiesn the Luntcmiiourff became durui^ the rwolitiiofafy pB^ad
" ' '^' ' ', In. Urn
,|jV4^
■ppe, by the •tfutt v^idet NjiaiN-
~ r*i»fcr
the palace of the Directory and later d the CofMilife,
TQifa century it wii occupied by the senate of Napvilrtm I
rfiamber of peen undtr Louis Phibppe, by the «.'natt mti'
leon 111,, and lince 4879 by the republican accwte* 'iW
of deputies meeti Ui the PaUis liouTbon^ built in tbe 1~ '^
for snetiiLicrsof the Bourbon-Cond^ lamiEy. The Ug^6t, _,.
the Pont de h Concondt, is in the nylc of an anrit;-n( temple ifriE .„,^
from the early icart of the t^ih centu^, wht-n the oxm t<^AliiJt
held thtif fitunjjs in tlie building. The Palni* de Ttly^le. tN
residence of the pTCiident of the republic, w^ boilt in i^il [«
Louis d'Auvergnc, ccunt of E^'rcux, and was afteirwardi
by M«dame de Pomfjadour: during the li^th century ft^piAam L*
napoleon 1(L* and other iltu;iHou§ persons rr^irh4 thffte. TW
building hai been often aliened and cntarjied. The hltrli^ illb
Oip"iAfii\ on the rii^ht bank of the Seine oppr^ite the flc ^te
Citlt stands on the litc of a town hall built fmni t5j5 to r&jS« atA
enlarge towardi tt40, and dcitmytd by the ComEiMmi«ti Lb itji.
It Et an iiolated building in the Ffvnch Kenaispance »tyte, the wc^
facade with hi staluary, plListers„ hig:h -pitched Tot4* 4 Ad ^U^^^r
windowi heinf specially ekbor^te, Tbt iaterior has tnm i l i t f ii i Sr l
by tnany prumlnert artists.
Certain i>r the Kboo^ and tnu«iimi of Paiii occopy btiS^i^ ^
architeetut^l lnttn?»t. The Conservatoi^ dea Arti et M^tkr^ a
techniciil schoul and museum of fnadiincry, ^^^ iimttApd b| iW
engineer Vaucanaon in 1775. is eitabtuhed in tlie old Ounta^^uT
of St h1art)n-des-Cham[v, enlarged in the tgth century, Tte re?-
fectory h» imc hall of the ijth century; ttie church with an Inicn-itt
in^ chpir in the Tran^tion style date* from the iith is fhe iii»
centurip. The hi usee Carnavalet *as built in tlie t6(h teftfin M
Fran^ujs de Kcrncvenoyn whence its pruvnt lunfe^, anil ra|Mp4
in 16&0: Mnie de S^vicnf aficrwards redded three, Tl^ nu&ud*
arrhivf^ aru ctorcd in the Hfitel Soubise, a mansion of tbe 4«rty lAiJ,
century with i^tb-century ad<ji titans, lUndinG on the lite o{ a i ^— ^
built by Olivipr dc Cliison in t\7Q. It was of ut ward* a4}«Se4 u
by the family tif Cui^e and rtbuillt by Trangoii de Rohan, ftal^ Ǥ
S>uLlsc. The palace of Cardinal Ma^arinn. augraeiitsd la irn^tn
time?^ Contain* the Uiblkjtb^ue iVationale, Tbt j^lali 4lt
rinstltut, formerly the CotJv^ Mjiarin, date* from the Uat bJf
of the 17th century; it is the «eat of the v^nSr-min i^ntntpt ilm
Academy of Mrtlicinej which occupit^ a mcMlem bui'ljinf rlw io tJ^
Ecole iitA Beaux -Arti) and of the Bureau des Londtu^ks, tht e^
natiQital astrwiomical cooncil. The Military Sr^oot nTTTlpAii
the Champ d«e Mars is a hne building iif the iSth cpninry, Tllc-kBK
Soifionne building date from the Enter years of the M "
with the ejoxption of the ehurch, whiUt belonged to thi.
rfeunrfrucicd by Richelieu. The tttronnmicjT ob»^n alocK il
the centre of irhkh nifts the tofridiar? of Paris, fi a ijiife
equipfjcd bvitdinp; ereetcd under Louist Xt V,i ateondinE' t4 th* i
of Claude Perra«ilt* The liroU? de^ l^auir Arts (fjtcihf thm {
on the left bank of the SeineK with it* inteintioe coUeetiana, a^ri]|
rtrrupie* the site of an Auguitine K^nvcri aniTeompriiii tf? cM
Hftiel Chimay. It wa« erected fwm liao to tijfl mmt i "^
later. The most striking ft^mrtir is tfw fa^de tj ih«
buildinfr dn^nod by F^ L* /, [JuLiaii, The c^urtyanj ftp* n____
uf ihf fa^dr o( I he Norman chitcau of GaiMon (t^h tftn^mrSk
which feral destm^ i»ij iU ihr flevoiuiion, nnd the pi»tat <tf Cfie <"^^^ -
o( Anet (ereried by PhMibm Dclorme in TuBJ hat %««■ 4_
ai one ol the c^trftotrs. The Grand PaUit da flqM^ilfti^ v
hor^-nhowi. fire , as wl\ a^ annual e«ttibrttoni of DtlaTliiMa t>ti
iculpiiim an- held, and the Petit PaUii de* BouArArlD^v^cl
toiitaLni Art cc^llvctions belon|it^ to tbe city, dile ttmn aif?*
tSsi
1856
1861
1.053,26a
1.174.346
1. 606. 14 1
1896
1901
iqo6
2.511.629
2.660.559
2.722.731
Below is shown the population of the arrondisscments separ-
ately (in 1906), together with the comparative density of popula-
tion therein. The most thickly populated region of Paris
comprises a mne stretching northwards frcm the tie de la Cit6
and the lie St Louis to the fortifications, and including the
central quyters of St Gervab with 400 inhabitants to the acre,
Ste Avoie with 391 inhabitants to the acre, and Bonne- Nouvellc
with 406 inhabitants to the acre. The central arrondisscments
on the north bank, which (with the exception of I., the Louvre)
are among the most densely populated, tended in the latter part
of the 19th century to decrease in density, while the outlying
arrondisscments (XIL-XX.), which with the exception of
BatignoUesand Montmartrc are comparatively thinly populated,
increased in density, and this tendency continued in the early
years of the 20th century.
I. Louvre , .
II. Bourse * .
in. Temple • ,
IV. Ildtcl-dc-Vaie
V. Pantheon .
VI. Luxembourg.
VII. PaUb Bour-
bon . .
VIILElyife • .
IX. OMn •
X St Laurent .
XI. Pbpincottrt . .
XH. Reoilly . .
XIII. Gobelins . .
XIV. Obwrvatoire
XV. Vaugiiaid .
XVI. Passy. . .
XVII. Batignoflcs-
Monccau
XVIII. Montmaitre .
XrX. Buttea-Chauo
mont
XX. M^nilniontant
St Germain I'Auxcrrois,
Halles. Palais Royal,
Place Vendftme.
Gaillon, Vivicnoe, Mail,
Bonnc-Nouvcllc.
Arts-ct-M6ticrs. Enfants-
Rouges, Archives, Stc
Avoie.
St Merri, St Ccrvais.
Arsenal, Notrc-Dame.
St Victor, Jardin dcs
Pbntcs, Val de Grace,
Sorbonne.
Monnaic, Od6on, Notro-
Damc dcs Champs, St
Germain dcs PrtSs,
St Thomas d'Aquin. In
validcs. Ecole-Militairc,
Gros-Caillou.
Champs Eiysdcs, Fau-
bourg-du-Roulc, Made-
leine. Europe.
St Gcoives, Chauss^c
d'Antin, Faubourg Mont-
martre, Rochcchouart.
St Vincent de Paul, Porte
St Denis, Porte St^ Mar-
tin, HOpital St Louis.
Folie-Mericourt, St Am
brotse, Roquette, Ste
Mar^erite.
Bcl-Air, Picpus, Bcrcy,
Quinrc-Vinets.
SelpAtri^, Care. Maiaon-
BUnche, Croulcoarbe.
Montparnassc,Sant6.Pctit-
Montrouec, Plaisancc.
St Lambert. Neckcr,
Grcndle, Javel.
Autcuii. Muctte, Porte-
Dauphine, Chaillot.
Tcrncs, Plaine-Monceau,
Batignolles. Epioette.
Grandes-Carridres, Clig-
nancourt, Goutte-d'Or,
Oiapclle.
ViHette. Pont-dc*Flandre,
Amdrigue. Combat.
Belleville.St Fargcau.Pire-
Lachaise. Charonoe.
60,906
61,116
86.152
96490
117.666
97fi5S
97.375
99.769
118,818
151.697
232,050
133.648
133.133
150,136
168,190
130.719
207.127
358.174
148.081
169429
Is
130
353
300
249
191
186
9«
106
226
215
260
99
86
131
94
75
188
201
106
133
The birth-rate^ which diminished steadily in the t9th ccocnry.
b low— 00 an average Mv^'t'O birth* per. annum (1901^1905) or
40 .. 59 .. M
60 years and over .
nknown
. • 663.435
. . . 233.836
unknown age 9.018
In these circumstances there is nothing remarkable in the annual
number of marriages in Paris (26,000), a nigh marriage rate (9-8 prr
1000) for the total number of inhabitants, bur a low one (28-4 per
1000) compared with the number of marriageable persons.
A large number of the inhabitants (on an average 636 out of r\try
1000) are not Parisians by birth. The foreign nationalities chiefly
represented are Belgians, uermans. Swiss, Italians. Luxembourerrs,
English. Russians, Americans, Austrians, Dutch. Spaniaitls. lYie
Belgians. Germans and Italians, mostly artisans, live chiefly ia the
industrial districu in the north and east of the city. The Engli^
and Americans, en the other hand, congregate in the wealthy
districts of the Champs Elys6es and Passy.
Municipal Administration. — Each arrondissement is divided
into four quarters, each of which nominates a member of the
municipal council. These 80 councillors, together with at
additional councillors elected by the cantons of the rest of the
department, form the departmental council. The chief function-
aries of the arrondissement are a mayor {mcirt) and three
deputies {adjoinU) appointed by the president. The mayois
act as registrars, draw up electoral and recruiting lists and
superintend the poor-relief of their arrondissement. There
is a justice of the peace {juge de paix) nominated by the govrm>
ment in each arrondissement. There is no elective mayor of
Paris: the president of the municipal council, who is nominated
by his colleagues, merely acts as chairman of their meetings.
When occasion requires, the function of mayor of Paris is dis-
charged by the prefect of Seine. The municipal council discusses
and votes the budget of the city, scrutinizes the administiativ-e
measures of the two prefects and deliberates on municipal
affairs in general. The prefect of Seine and the prefect of poUce
(both magistrates named by the government, but each with a
quite distinct sphere of action) represent the executive authodty
as opposed to the municipal council, which latter has no power,
by refusing a vote of credit, to slop any public service the
maintenance of which legally devolves on the city: in case of
such refusal the minister of the interior may officially insert the
credit in the budget. In like manner he may appeal to the head
of the sutc Ip cancel any dcdsion in whicJi the cooncil tus
exceeded its legal functions.
The prefecture of Seine comprises the following departments
(directions), subdivided into bureaux: —
1. Municipal alTairs. including bureaux for the supervision of city
property, of provisioning, of cemeteries, of public butkUngs, Ac
2. Departmental affairs (including the bureau concerned with the
care of lunatics and foundlutgs).
3. Primary education.
4. Streets and public works, including the bureau of water. cm»als
and sewers, and the bureau of public thoroughfares, promenades aad
lighting.
5. Finance.
The adminbtrative functions of the prefect necessitate a
large technical staff of engineers, inspectocs, &c., who are
divided among the various semocs attached to the departments.
There are also a number of councils and committees on special
branches of public work attached to the prefecture {commission
des logements insalubres, dt statistique municipaU, &c). The
adminislralion of the three important departoieats of the octroi,
poor-relief {assistance pnUiquc) and pawnbroking (the mota-dt-
piitf) is also tmder the control of the prefect.
The prefecture of police includes the whole department ol
Seine and the neighbouring communes of the department of
Seine-et-Oise — Meudon, St Ck>ud, Sivret and Enghien. lis
sphere embraces the apprehension and punishment of criminals
(police judiciaire)t general police-work (including political ser\-ke)
and municipal policing. The state, in view of the non^nunicipai
(unciiom oC the Pftris police, repays a proportion of the mmaotl
(orces the sewage partly across the bridge, partly through a tunnel
acting as a syphon below the river-level, to the left bank. Thence
part of it is distributed over the estate of GcnncviUiers. from which
It returns purified, after having fertilized the plots, to the Seine.
At Colombes a second elevator drives the surplus unused sewage
to the hills above Argenteuil (right bank), where begins a conduit
cgctending westwards. This conveys a portion of the sewage to a
third elevator at Picrrclayc, whence it is distributed on the nills of
M6ry and the remainder to the Pare d'Achdres Ocft bank), the irriga-
tion fields of Carri6rcs-sous-Poissy (right bank), and finally those of
Mureaux. opposite Mculan. Certain parU of Paris lie too low for
their drams to run into the main sewers, and special elevators are
required to raise the sewage of the districts of Bcrcy. Javel and the
Cil6. The sewers are used as conduits for water-pipes, gas-pipes,
telegraph and telephone wires and pneumatic tubes.
Ltg^ing. — Gas-lighting in Paris is in the hands of a company
Whose operations arc supervised and directed by mumcipal
engineers. The company pays to the municipality an annual
sum of £8000 for the privilege of laying pipes in the, streets and
pr centimes for every cubic metre of gas consumed; in addition,
the profits of the company, after a fixed dividend has been paid
on tne stock, are divided with the municipality. The company is
bound to supply gas at 30 centimes per cubic metre to private
consumers and at half that price for public services. In 1905 the
total sum paid by the company amounted to nearly /i ,000.000.
It was provided that on the expiration of its charter the plant should
be made over to the municipality. Electric light is supplied by a
number of companies, to each of which in return Tor certain payments
a segment {sutcur dleclrique) of the city is assigned, though the con-
cession carries with it no monopoly ; the municipality has an electrical
•tation of its own beneath the central markets.
Law end Justice (see France: Justice, for an account of the
judicial system of the country as a whole). — Paris b the seat of four
courts having jurisdiction' over all France: (1) the Tribunal des
Conflits, for settling disputes between the judicial and administrative
authorities on questions as to their respective jurisdiction; (2) the
Council of State, which includes a section for cases of litigation
between private persons and public departments; (3) the Cour des
Comptes; and (4) the Cour de Cassation. The first three sit in the
Palais Royal, tne fourth in the Palais de Justice, which is also the
•cat of (i ) a cour i'appd for seven departments (seven civil chambers,
one chamber of appeal for the correctional police, one chamber for
preliminary proceedings); (2) a cour d'assises ; (x) a tribunal of first
Instance for the department of Seine, coritprismg seven chambers
(or civil affairs, four chambers of correctional police; (4) a police
court where each jugje de paix presides in his turn assistcdf by a com-^
missaire de police. Litigations between the departmental or muni-
cipal administrations and private persons arc decided by the conseil
de prifccture. Besides these courts there arc comeils de prud'kommes
and a tribunal of commerce. The conseils de prud'kommes settle
differences between workmen and workmen, or between workmen
and masters; the whole initiative, however, rests with the parties.
There arc four of these bodies in Paris (for the metal trades, the
chemical trades, the textile trades and building industries), composed
of an equal number of masters and men. The tribunal of commerce,
ritting in a building opposite the Pabis de Justice, is composed of
business men elcctra by the " notables " of their order, and deals
with cases arising out of commercial transactions; declarations of
bankruptcy are nude before it; it also acts as registrar of trade-
marks and of articles of assodarion of companies; and as court of
appeal to the conseils de prud'kommes.
Prisons. — ^Therc are three places of detention in Paris — the D^pot
of the prefecture of police (in the Pllais de Justice), where persons
arrested and not rclenscd by the commissaries of police are tem-
porarily confined, the Conctergeric or maison de justice, for the recep-
tion of prisoners accused of crimes, who arc tncre submitted to a
preliminary examination before the president of the court of assizes,
and tlic &nt6 (near the Place Dcnfert-Rochercau), for jmsoncrs
awaiting trial and for remanded prisoners. The old prisons of
Mazas, bte P^lagie and La Grande- Roquette. the demolition of which
was ordered in 1804. have been replaced by the prison of Fresnes^
les-Rangis for condemned prisoners. The prisoners, kept in solitary
confinement, are divided into three groups: those undergoine short
sentences, those sentenced to hard labour while awaiting transference
to their final place of detention or to sentences over a year, and «ck
prisoners occupying the central infirmary of the prison. The
Petit Roquette (occupied by children) was replaced by the agricul-
tural and horticultural colony of Montesson. inaugurated in 1896.
Education (see alsp FRAMCB).-'In 1905 there were 170 public
itoles materneltes (kindergartens) with S7.000 pupils, and 48 private
schools of the kii^d with 7800 pupils, besides a certain number of
*taUs enfaMimts, cscdusivdy managed, aa are the icoks mMtemeUea.
the ordinary school hours; the classes de vaauues, school camps and
school colonies for children during the holidays; and the iniemats
primaires, which for a small payment board and lodge chiMrea
whose parents or guardians are unable to do so aatiaCactority.
The nigher primary schools {tcotes primairts suptriemres), which
give a course c4 3ar 4 years, number 86 for boys (ColMge Chaptal.'
ecoles, J. B. Say, Turgot, Colbert, LavcNsier, Arago) and two for girS
(Sophie Germairt and Edgar Quinet). Supplementary cnorscs t^ke
the place of these schools for children who can afford two years at
moat for schooling after leaving the primary achooL Side by stde
with the higher primary schooU the teaching in which has a crtrt-
mercLil rather than an industrial bias, are the icoles ProfrssioncHa,
technical schools for the training of craftsmen. The Ecole Didc-ut
trains pupils in wood- and iron-working; the Ecole Germain Ptlon
teaches practical drawing, and the Ecme Barnard Palissy teacht<»
applied art; the Ecok; Boulle trains cabinet-makers, and the t-r-M
bstienne teaches all the processes connected with book-product >c a.
The school of physics and chemistry imparts both thcorrtical jr>d
practkal knowledge of these sciences. The Ecole Dorian is a scho^
of the same type as the Ecole Diderot, bat is intemkd for \xxy pour
chiklren, who are received from the age of seven aod boarded ar<l
lodged. Six icoles miriaghes train girls in the duties aod emnkA-
ments of thdr sex. The municipality also provides graiuit js
popular courses in sckntific and historical subjects at the H6ul ^k
Vilie, and there are numeroua private associations giving courses
of instruction (the Philotochnic Association, the Polytechnic A*^
ciation, the Union fran^aise de lajeunesse, &c). Teachers for :b;
elementary primary schools are recruited from two training colk^n
in the city.
Secondary and Higjker Educaium.-^'ThKn are t$ 1yo6ea for bcvvs
and a municipal college — the Coll^ Rollin. These give clas::< J
and modem courses, and usually have clasaes preparing pupiU i.ir
one or more of the government schools. For gins thex« are fi\e
Iyc6e8.
The five facultiea of roedidne, bar, acience. literature and Pro-
testant theology, and the higher school of phannacy, form the bod\ a
faculties, the association oif whkh is kiu>wn as the Uutpersiti ef
Paris, The faculties of acience and literature, together with cbttr
library, are established at the Sorbonne. wbidi ia also tJfee scat a
the academie, of which Paris is the centre, and of the Ecole des ckurux
The faculty of medicine with iu laboratories Ucede pratigne) occul o
separate buildings near the Sorbonne. The law school is also cV:«<
to the Sorbonne. Of the 13.600 students at the univeraty in i^r;-
1906 some 1260 were foreieners, Russians and Rumanuns bt':^
most numerous among the latter. The faculty of taw a the m<.<
larecly attended, some 6000 students being enrolled therein. Iht
College de Prance, founded by Francis I. and situated opposite the
Sorbonne, gives instruction of a popolar kind to adults o( the gent r«l
public; the various branches of kamins are rcpre«nted by over
40 chairs. The Musium dkistoire ftatmreUe %ivt* inatnictjon ta
the natural sciences; the Ec«U prali^Mi d*t haules Hmdn, who^x
students are instructed at the Sorbonne and other scientilk eK..b-
lishments in the city, has for its object the encouFBgemeat of acsem ^^
rescardi. In addition, there are several great national scIk*'*
attached to various ministriea. Dependent oa the Miaism .^
education are the £coU normale svpirieure, for the training c>f tcac^^m
in lyc6es ; the Ecole des chartes (palaeography aod the use of arr bivtr^ .
the Ecole spkiale des langues orienUiles\ lor the traioing of tr.trr
pretcrs; the BcoU nationale el spkiale des beaux-arts fpalr.ti-j.
sculpture, architecture. Ac), in the various departments of »Ku.h .rr
conferred the prix de Rome, entitling their winners to a (out >^- ->
period of study in Italy; the Conservatoire national dc musifme tt u
didamation (music and acting), which also confers a grand {^s
and possesses a fine library and collection of musical inbtrumi •.
the Ecole nationale des arts decoralifs (art applied to tKe an. .
industries); the Ecole du Louvre, for the instruction of dirrctc>n a
miiseurosL Depending on the ministry of war are the £ca2r p f
techniQue, which trains miliury. governmental and civil eti|.iri ..
the Ecole suphieure de guerre ( s ucc es sor <A the officers* tr.j r^
school, founded in 1751) for advanced military studi«L Att.^ .
to the ministry ci commerce and industry are the Ee^U cr^:-^
des arts tt manujactwes for the tnaining of industrial cn^miv .
works managers. Ac; (he Conservatoira da arts §t mUien^ wh«ch k.e
a rich museum of industrial inventions and provides comt^o -
science as applied to the arts. The institmi nmlitmaJ e^rr^-
mique, a higher school of scientific agriculture^ b deprnclent oc *.v
ministry of agriculture, and the EcoU colonigU Cor the iitstrv't.-a
* The College Chaptal has a wider scope than the higher t>nr ^
schools; it has in view general culture rather than commercial ; "
tude, and also prepares students for the great fit^ tH H- ■d^.^^
* ikole det mines, tetU potyteckmituot Ac).
that of Lucetia, Lucotetia or Lutetia, of which Lutice is the
generally recognized French form.
During the War of Gallic Independence, after being subjugated
by Caesar, who even in 53 B.C. made their territory the meeting*
place of deputies from HI Gaul, the Parisil took part in the great
rising of the year 52, at the same time separating their cause
from that of the Scnones, who were held in check by Caesar's
lieutenant, Labienus. They joined their forces to the army
commanded by an Aulerdan, the old Camulogenus, which in
turn was to unite with the Bellovaci to crush Labienus advancing
from Sens to attack the Parisians. Having marched along the
right bank of the river till opposite Lutetia, Labienus learned
that the BeUovad were in arms, and, fearing to find himself
between two armies at a disunce from hb headquarters, he
sought to get rid of Camulogenus, who, posted on the'left bank,
endeavoured to bar his way. The bridges had been cut and the
town burned by order of the Gallic chief. By means of a strata-
gem Labienus drew his opponent up the river to the district
oow occupied by the Jardin des Plantes, and quietly by night
crossed the Seine lower down in the neighbourhood of GrencUe,
near a place which Caesar calls Metiosedum, identified, but not
conclusively, with Mcudon. The Gauls, retracing their steps a
little, met the Romans and allowed themselves to be routed
and dispersed; their leader fell in the fore-front of the battle.
Still unsubdued, the Parisii were called upon by the general
council assembled in Alesia to furnish eight thousand men to
help in raising the siege of that city. It b doubtful whether
they were able^to contribute the whole of this contingent, when
their powerful neighbours the BcUovad managed to send only
two thousand of the ten thousand demanded of them. Thb was
their last effort, and after the check at Aksia they took no
part in the desperate resistance offered by the BellovacL
Lutetia was somewhat neglected under the Roman emperon
of the first centuries. Its inhabitants contmued quietly carrying
on their river traffic, and devoted part of their wealth to the
maintenance of a great temple to Jupiter built on the site of the
present cathedral of Notre Dame. It b not known at what date
Christianity was introduced into the future capital of France;
but it b probable, judging by the use of the title " city," that
Lutetia was the see of one of the eariiest of the bbhoprics of
Gallia Celtica. The name of the founder of the church is known,
but a keen controversy, not yet settled, has recently been raised
with regard to the date when the first Roman missionary,
St Dionysius or Denb, reached the banks of the Seine, along
with hb two deacons, Rtisticus and Eleutherius. A pious belief,
which, in spite of its antiquity, has its origin in nothing better
than parochial vanity, identifies the first-named with Dionysius
the Areopagite, who was converted by St Paul at Athens, and
thus takes us back to the middle of the ist century of the
Chrblian era. Better founded in the opinion which dates the
evangelization of the dty two centuries later; the regular list of
bbhops, of whom, after Denb, the most famous was St Marcel,
begins about 250.
Lutetia was in some sort the cradle of Christian liberty, having
been the capital, from 29a to 306, of the mild Constantius
Chlorus, who put an end to persecution in Brittany, Gaul and
Spain, over which he ruled. Thb emperor fixed his residence
on the banks of the Seine, doubtless for the purpose of watching
the Germans without losing sight of Brittany, where the Roman
authority was always unstable; perhaps he also felt something
of the same fancy for Lutetia which Julian afterwards expressed
in hb works and hb letters. Be that as it may, the fact that
these two princes chose to live there naturally drew attention to
the city, where several buildings now rose on the left side of the
liver which could not have been reared within the narrow
20,000 to 25,000 souls. Dwelling-houses, villas, and probably
abo an extensive cemetery, occupied the slope of the hiU of
St Genevidve«
It was at Lutetia that, in 360, Julian, already Caesar, was m
spite of himself proclaimed Augustus by the legions be had more
than once led to victory in Germany. The troops invaded ha
palace, which, to judge by various circumstances of the mutiny,
must have been of great extent As for the dty itself, it was
as yet but a little town (roXfxi^) according to the imperial
author in hb Misopogom, The successive sojourns of Valeo*
tinian L and Cratian scarcely increased its importance. The
latest emperors preferred Treves, Aries, and Vienne in Gaul, and,
besides, allowed Paris, about 410, to be absorbed by the powerful
Armcrican league. When the patricians, Aetius, Acgidius and
Syagrius, held almost independent sway over the small portion
of Gaul which still held together, they dwelt at Soissons, and it
was there that Clovb fixed himself during the ten or eleven years
between the defeat of Syagrius (486) and the surrender of Paris
(497), which opened iu gates, at the advice of St Genevieve, only
after the conversion of the Franklsh king. In 508, at the retnrB
of hb viaorious expedition against the south, Oovb made Paris
the official capital of hb Ttsdm—Cathedram ngni constituU, says
Gregory of Tours. He choM as hb residence the palace of the
Thermae, and lost no time in erecring on the summit of the faifl,
as hb future place of Interment, the basilica of St Peter and St
Paul, which became not long afterwards the church and abbey
of St Genevieve. After the death of Oovis, in spite ol the
supremacy granted to the kingdom of Austrasia, or Mets, Paris
remained the true political centre of the various Frankbh ttatest
insomuch that the four sons of Cbthaire, fearing the pcestice
which would attach to whoever of them might posaess it, asttda
it a sort of neutral town, though after all it was seized by Sigcbcrt,
king of Austrasia, Chilperic, king of Neustria (who managed to
keep possession for some time, and repaired the amphitheatre),
and Guntram, king of Burgundy. The last sovereign bad to
defend himself in $8$ against the pretender GondovmU, whose
ambitk>n aspired to uniting the wliole of Gaid under hb dominion,
and marching on Paris to make it the seat of the half-barbaxian
half-Roman adminbtration of the kingdom of which be bad
dreamed.
Numerous calamities befell Paris from 586, when a terrible
conflagration took place, to the dose of the Merovirtgian dynasty.
During a severe famine Bbhop Landry sold the dittich plate
to alleviate the distress of the people, and it was probably he
who, in company with St Eloi (Eligius), founded the H6td Diea.
The kings in the long run almost abandoned the town, cspedaSy
when the Austrasian influence under the mayors of the palace
tended to shift the centre of the Prankish power towards the
Rhine.
Though the Merovingian period was for ait a time of the
deepest decadence, Paris was nevertheless adorned and enriched
by pious foundations. Mention has alrouly been made of the
abbey of St Peter, which became after the dttth of Clovis the
abbey of St Genevieve. On the same side of the river, bat in tbe
valley, Childebert, with the assistance of Bishop St Germain,
founded St Vincent, known a little later as St Germabi-des-Prts,
which was the necropoQs of the Frankish kings before St Denis.
On the right bank the same king built St Vincent le Road
(afterwards St Germain rAuxerrob), and in La Qt6, beside tbe
cathedral of St Edenne, the basilica of Notre Dame, which eschcd
the admiration of hb contemporaries, and In the inh century
obtained the title cf cathedral Various monasteries were
erected on both sides of the river, and served to groop in tldckly-
peopled suburbs the population, which ba^ grown too laise kr
the bland.
throloglcal college which afterwards became tbe celebrated
faculty of tbe Sorbonne, whose decisions were wellaigh as
authoritative as those of Rome.
The capita] of France had but a feeble share in the communal
movement which in the north characterizes the nib, i2lh and
ijib centuries. Placed directly under the central power, it was
never strong enough to force concessions; and in truth it did
not claim them, satisfied with the advantages of all kinds secured
for it by its political position and Its university And, besides,
the privileges which it did enjoy, while they could be revoked
at the king's pleasure, were of considerable extent. Its inhabit-
ants were not subjected to forced labour or arbitrary imposts,
and the liberty of the citizens and their commerce and industry
were protected by wise regulations. The university and all
those closely connected with it possessed the fullest rights and
liberties. There was a municipal or bourgeois militia, which
rendered the greatest service to Philip Augustus and St LoUis,
but afterwards became an instrument of revolt. The communal
aiimlnlstration devolved on ichcvlns orjurjfs, who, in conjunction
with the notables, chose a nominal mayor called provost of
the merchants (prMt des marchands). The powers of this
offtflal had been grievously curtailed in favour of the provost
of Paris and his lieutenants, named by the sovereign. His main
duties were to regulate the price of provisions and to control
the incidence of taxation on merchandise. He was the chief
innpector of bridges and public wells, superintendent of the
fiver police, and commander of the guard of the city walls, which
t was also his duty to keep In repair. And, finally, he had
Jurisdiction fn commercial affairs until the creation of the
consular tribunals by the chancellor Michel L'116piial. The
violent attempts made by fiiienne Marcel in the 14th century,
and those of the communes of 1793 and 1871, showed what
reason royalty had to fear too great an expansion of the
municipal power at Paris.
The town council met in the 13th and 14th centuries fn an
unpretending house on Ste Genevieve, near the city walls on
the left side of the river. The municipal assemblies were
afterwards held near the Place de Grive, on the right side of
the river. In the " Malson aux Pilicrs," which Francis I. allowed
to be replaced by an imposing hfticl de vllle.
The last of the direct descendants of Capet, and the first
two Valols kings did little for their capital. Philip the Fair,
however, increased its political Importance by making it the
sent of the highest court In the kingdom, the pailement, which
he organized iKtwecn i joa and 1304, and to which he surrendered
a part of his cil6 palace. Under the three sons of Philip the Fair,
the Tour de Nesle, which stood opposite, on the site now occupied
by the buildings of the Institute, was the scene of frightful
orgies, equally celebrated In history and romance. One of
the queens, who, if the chronicles arc to be trusted, took part
In ihcK expiated her crimes in ChAteau-Gaillard, where she
was strangled In 131 $ by order of her husband, Louis X. During
the first part of the War of the Hundred Years, Paris escaped
being taken by the English, but felt the effects of the national
misfortunes. Whilst destitution excited in the country the
iVN'olt of the Jacquerie, in the city the miseries of the thne were
attributed to the vices of the feudal system, and the dtizens
■eemcd rt«dy for Insurrection. The provost of the merchants,
Etienne ifairel, equally endowed with coufagc and inlellect,
•ought to turn this double movement to account in the interest
of the municipal liberties of Paris and of constitutional guaran-
tees. The cause which he supported was lost through the
violence of his own acts. Not content with having m.-issacred
two ministers under the very eyes of tbe dauphin Charies. who
VIS itseAl whiht hb father John Uy captive in Lowkm, be
assassinated by order ot Jean MaiUard, one ol the beads of the
milictf on tbe night of tbe 31st of July 1358. Marcel had en-
larged Philip Augustus's line of fonifications 00 tbe right skk
of the river, and had begun a new one.
When he became king in 1364, Charles V. forgot the outiagea
he had suffered at the hands of the Parisians during his regency.
He robbed the Louvre to some extent of its military equipment,
in order to make it a convenient and sumptuous residence;
his open-work staircases and his galleries are mentioned in terns
of the highest praise by writers of the time. This did Dot«
however, remain always hb favourite palace; having built or
rebuilt in the St Antoine quarter the mansion of St Paul or
St Pol, he was particularly fond of living in it during the latter
part of his life, and it was there that he died in Z38a It was
Charles V. who, in conjunction.with the provost of Paris, Hugnes
Aubriot, erected the famous Bastille to protect the St Anioine
gate as part of an enlarged scheme of fortification. A library
which he founded — a rich one for the times — ^became the nucleus
of the national library. With the exception of some of the upper
portions of the Salnte Chapelle, which were altered or rccoo-
slruclcd by this prince or his son Charles VI., there are no remains
of the buildings of Charles V.
The reign of Charles VI. was as disastrous for the city as that
of his father had been prosperous. From the very acccssi<m
of the new king, the citizens, who had for some time been relieved
by a great deduction of the taxes, and bad received a procnlie
of further alleviation, found themselves subjected to tbe ixk>^
odious fiscal exactions on the part of the king's uncle, who w^j
not satisfied with the well-stored treasury of Charles V., which be
had unKrupulously pillaged. In March 1382 occurred what b
called the revolt of the " Maillotins'* (f.tf. men with malic* «),
Preoccupied with hb expedition against the Flemings, Charlts
VI. delayed putting down the revolt, and for the mome.-ii
remitted the new taxes. On hb victorious return on the ic^
of January 1383, the Parisians in alarm drew up thei. for .i
in front of the town gates under the pretext of showing th> j
sovereign what aid he might derive from them, but reaHy :a
order to intimidate him. They were ordered to retire wiiha
the walb and to lay down their arras, and they obeyed. Tbs
king and his uncles, having destroyed the gates, made tfcrL-
way into Paris as into a besieged city; and with thcdecapitai..2
of Desmarets, one of the most faithful servants of the Cro^rr,
began a series of bloody executions. Ostensibly through rb^
intercession of the regents an end was put to that species if
severities, a heavy fine being substituted, much larger iaamoj-.t
than the annual value of tbe abolished taxes. The mtmid; J
administration was suspended for several years, and its fuoctiors
bestowed on the provost of Parb, a magbtrate nominated b>
the Crown.
The calamities which followed were due to the weaknes
and incapacity of the government, given over, becaose of the
madness of Charles VI., to the intrigues of a wicked qucra
and of princes who brought the most bloodthirsty passloia la
the service of their boundless amhition. First came tbe rivals
between the dukes Of Orleans and Butgondy, brought to aa
end in 1407 by assassination of the former. Next followed tbe
relentless struggle for supremacy between two hostile panics
the Armagnacs on one side, commanded by Count Bemar^i rf
Armagnac (who for a brief period had the title of oocstat!c\
and supported by the nobks and burgesses; and on Om oibet
side the Burgandians, depending on the common people, ard
recognizing John the Feariess, duke of Burgundy, as tbexr bcri
The mob was headed by a skinner at the H6tel Dieu cale^
Simon Cabocbc, and hence tbe name Cahtthiau ww givcc .^
tbe Buifundian party in Parts. Tbcy becaina miitifi ol Tk»
v.^Kcuuiu. Bpone zauier as a Huncamaa ooq a niagistniie,
and did not look doie enough lo see that the university was
beginning to decline. The progress of the sciences somewhat
lessened the importance of its classes, too specially devoted
to theology and literature; the eyes of men were tumml towards
Italy, which was then considered the great centre of intellectual
advance; the colleges of the Jesuits were formidable rivals; the
triumphs of Protestantism deprived it of most of the students,
who used to flock to it from England, Germany and Scandi-
navia; and finally the unfortunate part it played tn political
affairs weakened its influence to much, that, after the reign of
Henry IV. it no longer sent its deputies to the states-geneiaL
If the dty on the left side of the river neither extended its
circuit nor increased its popuUtion, it began in the i6th century
to be filled with large manaionr. (h6tels), and its communi-
cations with the right bank were rendoed easier and more
direct when Henry IV. constructed across the lower end of the
island of La Cit£ the Pont Neuf, which, though retaining its
original name, is now the oldest bridge in. Paris. On the right
side of the river commerce and the progress of centralization
continued to attract new inhabitants, and old villages become
suburbs weie encbsed within the line of a hastioned first
enceinte, the ramparts of £tieane Marcel being, however, still
left untouched. Although Louis XIIL, except during his
minority, rarely stayed much in Paris, he was seldom long
absent from it. His mother, Mary de' Medici, built the palace
of the Luxembourg, which, after being extended tader Louis
Philippe, became the seat of the senate.
Louts XIIL finished, with the exception of the eastern front,
the buildings enclosing the square court of the Louvre, and
carried on the wing which was to job the palace to the Tuileries.
Queen Anne of Austria founded the Val de Grlce, the dome of
which, afterwards painted on the interior by Mignard, remains
one of the finest in Paris. Richelieu built for himself the Palais
Royal, since restored, and rebuilt the Sorbonne, where now
stands his magnificent tomb by Girardoii. The island of St
Louis above La Cit6, till then occupied by gardens and meadows,
became a populous parish, whose streets were laid out in straight
lines, and whose finest houses stiti date from the X7th century.
Building also went on in the Quartxer du Marais (quarter of
the marsh); and the whole of the Place Royale (now Place des
Vosges), with iu curious aixaded galleries, belongs to this period.
The church of St Paul and St Louis was built by the Jesuits
beside the ruins of the old H6tel St Paul; the church of St Gervais
received a faguk which has become in our time too famous.
St (tienne du Mont and St Eustache were completed (in the
latter case with the exception of the front). The beautiful
Salle des Pas-Perdus (Hall of Lost Footsteps) was added to
the Palais de Justice. Besides these buildings and extensions
Paris was indebted to Louis XIII. and his minister Richelieu
for three important institutJona— the royal printing press in
1620, the Jardin des Plantes in 1626, and the French Academy
in 1635. The bishopric of Paris was separated from that of
Sens and erected into an archbishopric in 1623.
As memorials of Mazarin Paris sdll possesses the G>ll^des
Quatre-NatioDS, ereaed with one of his legacies immediately
after his death, and since appropriated to the Institute, and
the palace which, enlarged in the 19th century, now accom-
modates the national library.
The stormy minority of Louis XIV. was spent at St Germain
and Paris, where the court was held at the Palais Royal. The
intrigues of the prince of Cond6, Cardinal de Reu, and (for
a brief space) Turenne resulted in a siege of Paris, during which
more epigrams than balls were fired off; but the cannon of the
Bastille, discharged by order x>f Mademoiselle de Montpensier,
enabled Cond6 to enter the dty. Bloody riots followed, and
came to an end only with the exhaustioa d the populace sad
conncciing inc quaner 01 lac oasuuc wiia inai 01 me Maoeicioe.
Though he no longer inhabited the Louvre (and it never was
again the seat of royalty), he caused the great colonnade to be
constructed after the plans of Claude Pcrrauit. This innmense
and imposing facade, 548 ft. long, has the dcfea of being quite
out of harmony with the rest of the building, which it hides
instead of introducing. The same desire for effect, altogether
irrespective of congruity, appears again in the observatory
ereaed by the same Perrault, without the smallest consideraiioa
of the wise suggestions made by Cassini. The Place VendAmc,
the Place des Victoires, the triumphal gates of St Denis and
St Martin and several fountains, are also produaions of the
rdgn of Louis XIV. The hospital of La Salpltridre, with its
majestically simple dome, was finished by Ub^cal Braant. The
Hdtel des Invalides, one of the finest institutions of the grand
monarque, was also erected, with its chapel, between 1671 and
167 Si by Bruant; but it was reserved for the architect Hardouin
Mansart to give to this imposing edifice a complement worthy
of itseU: it was he who raised the dome, admirable alike for its
proportions, for the excellent distribution of its omaroentv
and for its gilded lantern, which rises 344 ft. above the ground.
" Private persons," says Voltaire, " in imitation of their king,
raised a thousand splendid edifices. The number increased
so greatly that from the neighbourhood of the Psdais Ro>-al
and of St Sulpice there were formed in Paris two new towns
much finer than the old one." All the aristocracy had not
thought fit to take up their residence at Versailles, and the
great geniuses of the century, Comeille, Radnc, La Foataine,
Moli^re, Madame de S6vign6, had thdr houses in Paris; there
also was the H6tel de RambouUlet, so fsmous in the literary
history of the xyth century.
The halls of the Palais Royal during the minority of Louis XV.
were the scene of the excesses of the regency; later on the king
from time to time resided at the Tuileries, which henceforward
came to be customarily regarded as the oflkial seat of the
monarchy. To the reign of Louis XV. are due the rebuilding of
the Palab Royal, the " Place " now called De la Concorde, the
military school, the greater part of the chnrch of Ste Genevieve,
or Panth6on (a masterpiece of the architect Soufl^), the church
of St Roch, the palace of the £lys6e (now the residence of the
president of the republic), the Palab Bourbon (with the esocptioa
of the facade), now occupied by the chamber of deputies, and
the mint, a majestic and sdwlariy wcn-k by the architect Anunne,
as well as the rebuilding of the College de France.
Louis XVI. finished or vigorously carried on the works begun
by his grandfather. He did not come to live in Paris tHI cont-
pelled by the Revolution. That historical movement began
indeed at Versailles on the xyth of June 1789, when the states-
general were transformed into a constituent assembly; bot the
first act of violence which proved the starting-point of all iu
excesses was performed in Paris on the X4th of July 17A9
when Psris inaugurated, with the capture of the Bastille, iu
** national guard," organised and then commanded by tlie
celebrated La Fasrette. At the same time the assassination
of the last provost of the merchants, Jacques de Fksseilcs, gave
the opportunity of esUhlishing, with man extended powers^
the matrU (mayoralty) of Psris, which was first occupied by
Battty, and soon became, under the title of conunnne, a political
power capable of effectivefy ooonterfaalandng the central
authority.*
Paris had at thu time once more ontgroim iU limits. T1«
quarter en the Idt side of the river had more than doubled
its extent by the accession of the great monasteries, the faubourgs
of St Germain and St Marceau, the Jardin des Plantes, and
'Owing to the armed and organixed revolutionary elemcnti bi
the awemblies of the Sections, which eaaUed the sevuhitiananr
commune to direct and control popular imtulu.
and of Uking full account of practical wants, was iccognised;
and more suggestive and plastic models were sought in the past.
These were to be found, it was believed, in Greece; and in conse-
quence the government under Louis Philippe saw itsdf obliged
to found the French school at Athens, in order to allow young
artists to study their favourite types on the spot. In the
case of churches it was deemed judicious to revive the Christian
basilicas of the first centuries, as at Notre Dame de Lorette and
St Vincent de Paul; and a little later to bring in again the
«tyles of the middle ages, as in the og$val church of St Clotflde.
CNd buildings were ateo the object of bbours more or less
important. The PUce de la Concorde was altered in various
ways, and adorned with eight statoes of towns and with two
fountains; on the 95th of October 1856 the Egyptian obelisk,
brought at great expense from Luxor, was erected in the centre.
The general restoration of the cathedral of Notre Dame was
voted by the Chamber in 1845, and entrusted to VidUet-le-Duc;
and the psLice of the Luxembourg and the H6td de Vifle were
considerably -enlarged at the same time, in the style of the
existing e<dficcs.
But the great transformer of Paris in modem times was
Napoleon III. To him or to his rdgn we owe the Grand Op6ra,
the masterpiece of the architect Gamier; the new H6tel-Dieu;
the finishing of the galleries which complete the Louvre and
connect it with the Tuileries; the extension of the Palais de
Justice and its new front on the old Place Dauphine; the tribunal
of commerce; the central markets; several of the finest railway
stations; the viaduct at Auteuil; the churches of La Trinity,
St Augustin, St Ambroise, St Francois Xavier, Belleville,
H£nilmontant, &c For the first international Paris exhibition
(that of 1855) was constructed the "palace of industry"; the
enlargement of the national library was commenced; the
museum of French antiquities was created by the savant I>u
Sommerard, and installed in the old ** hfttd ** built at the end
of the 1 5th century for the abbots of Cluny.
AH this is but the smallest part of the memorials which
Napoleon Til. left of his presence. Not only was the dty
traversed in aH directions by new thoroughfares, and sumptuous
houses raised or restored in every quarter, but the line of the
fortifications was made in 1859 the limit of the city. The area
was thus doubled, extending to 7450 hectares or 18,410 acres,
bstead of 3402 hectares or 8407 acres. It- was otherwise with
the population; to the 1,200,000 inhabitants which Paris pos-
sessed in 1858 the incorporation of the suburban sone only
added 6oo,ooa
Paris had to pay dear for its growth and prosperity under
the second empire. This government, which, by straightening
and widening the streets, thought it had effectually guarded
against the attempts of its internal enemies, had not sufficiently,
defended itself from external attack, and at the fint reverses
of 1870 Paris found itself prepared to overthrow the empire,
but by no means able to hold out against the approaching
Prussians.
The two aeges of Paris in 1870-7 x are among the most
dramatic episodes of its history. The first siege began on the
19th of September 1870, with the occupation by the Germans
of the heights on the left side of the river and the capture of
the unfinished redoubt of Ch&titton. Two days later the invest*
mcnt was complete. General Trochu, head of the French
Government and governor of the city, had under his command
400,000 men — a force which ought to have been able to hdd
out against the 240,000 Germans by whom it was besieged,
had it not been composed for the most part of hurried levies of
raw soldiers with inexperienced officers, and of national guards
who, never having been subjected to strict military discipline,
were a source of weakness rather than of strength. The guards,
it is tiue, displayed a certain warlike spirit, but it was for the
aolo purpose of exciting disorder. Open revolt broke out on
the 3 ut of October; it was suppressed, but Increased the
recapturing all the best positlofis; the severity of winter tdd
heavily on the garrison, and the amies In the provinces which
were to have eo-operated with it were held in check by the
Germans in the west and south. In obedience to pubKc opinioB
a great sottie was underUken; this, in fact, wis the only alter-
native to a surrender; for, the empire having ocgamsed evoy-
thing in expectation of victofy and not d <fistster, Par^
insufficiently provisioned for the increase of populadon cacecd
by the infiux of refugees, was already suffering the horroia of
famine. Acddentsl drcumstanccs combined with the indedsiott
of the leaders to render the enterprise a faflure. Despatches
sent by balloon to the army of the Loire instructing it to make
a diversion reached their destinaflkm too late; the bridge of
Champigny over the Mame could not be oonstmcted in time;
the most advantageous positions remained in the hands of the
Germans; and on the and and 3rd of December the Fienck
abandoned the posiOona they had seised on the 99th and 3oih
of November. Another sortie made towards the north on the
stst of December was repulsed, and the besieged lost the Avron
plateau, the key to the positions which they stJB held on that
side. The bombardment began on the 17th of December ,
and great damage was done to the forts on the left of the Scisc^
espedally those of Vaaves and Issy, directly commanded by
the Chitnion battery. A thml and but aortie (which pcovcd
fatal to Regnault the painter) was attempted hi January 1871.
but resulted in hopdess retreat An armistice was sagoed
on the 97th of January, the capitvlatioa on the 98th. The
revictualUng of the dty was not accomplished iritlioat orach
difficulty, in spite of the generous rivafary of foreign natioaa
(London alone sending provi&ons to the value of £80,000).
On the xst of March the Germans entered Paris. This event,
which marked the dose of the siege, was at the ssom time the
first preparation for the ** oomnrane; " for the national guard,
taking advantage of the gcnersl oonf uston and the powqi tam t ss
of the regular army, carried a number of cannon to the heights
of Montmartre and Belleville under pretext of saving them.
President Thiers, appredating the danger, attempted on the
1 8th of March to remove the ordnance; his action was the sagaai
of an insurrection which, sacoessful from the first, initiated
a series of tetriUe outrages by the murder of the two genersK
Lecomte and Thomas. The government, afraid of tlie dcCectioa
of the troops, who were demoralized by failvre and suffcria&
had evacuated the forts on the left side of the river and oan>
centrated the army at Versailles (the forts on the right side
were still to be held for sohie time by the (jermans).
Valfrien happQy remained in the IuokIs of the _
and became the pivot of the atUck during the second 1
An the sorties made by the insurgents in the direction of Ver-
sailles (where the National Assembly was in session from the
20th of March) proved unsuccessful, and cost them two of their
improvised leaders — Generals Flourens and DuvaL Tbe in-
capadty and mutual hatred of thdr chiefs reudci e d s£
organization and durable resistance imposnble. On Sondiy
the 9ist of May the government forces, commanded by Maxshll
MacMahon, having already captured tbe forts on the light ade
of the river, made thdr way within the widls; but Ikey ba^j
still to fight hard from barricade to barricade before they wvre
masters of the dty; Belleville, the spedal Red RepnUkaa
quarter, was not assaulted and taken tiU Friday. Meanwhile
the communists were committing the most horrible eaccsscs:
the archbishop of Paris (Georges Darboy, 9.9.) • Picsidaa
Bon|ean, priests, magistiates, joumalisu and private individoals.
whom they had sdsed as hostages, were shot in batches in the
prisons; and a scheme of destruction was rothlessly carried
into effect by men and women with cases of petroleum (pHrdevi
and pHroUuKs). The H6tel de Ville, the Pahds de Jnsilce.
the Tuileries, the Ministry of Finance, the palace of the LtgioB
of Honour, that of tbe Council of State, part of the Roe de
RivoK, ftc., were ravaged by .the. flsmes; btfrsb of [
October an enthusiastic welcome was extended to Admiral
Avelian and the Russian sailors upon their arrival in Paris.
It was about this time that dynamite began to be used by the
Anarchists. After Ravachol, who commenced the sinister
exploits of the " propaganda by acts," it was Vaillant who threw
a bomb into the " Temple of the Laws " on the Qth of December
i893» and wounded forty-six deputies. Then there was a
succession of these attadcs during the two following months,
for Ravachol and Vaillant had found emulators. Ilenry
scattered fri^t and death among the peaceable costomert
of a brasserie, while bombs were thrown into the doorways and
staircases of houses inhabited by wealthy people. Upon the
steps of the Madeleine Church, Parvels, who was already the
author of two dynamite plots, was struck down by the dcstruc*
tive machine that he was about to throw into the body of the
church. Laurent Tailhade himself, who had celebrated with
his pen the beauty of Vaillant's gesture, was subsequently
wounded by dynamite thrown into the Cai€ Foy, where he
was lunching.
The visit of the emperor and empress of Russia, on the
5tb, 6th and 7th of October 1896, was celebrated by incom-
parable faes. The Rue dc la Paix was decorated with ropes
and sails, stretched across the street like the rigging of a vast
vessel, in honour of the Russian sailors. Nothing could be seen
anywhere except flags, cockades and badges formed of the
colours of the two friendly nations. In the evening there were
open-air balls, with farandoles and orchestras at all the street
comers. Popular enthusiasm was again manifested on the
31st of August, when President Faure returned from his visit
to the Russian court. On the 4th of May 1897 the terrible
conflagration at the Charity Bazaar in the Rue Jean Coujon
threw into mourning one hundred and forty families of the
nobility or the aristocracy of Paris, and spread sorrow among
the class always considerate in its benevolence. Then all minds
were again troubled and disturtMnces occurred in the streets for
more than two years over the Dreyfus case, dividing the French
people into two camps.
President Faure died suddenly on the i8th of February X899.
The very day of his funeral, Paul D^roulede and Marcel Habert
tried to make a coup d*iUU by urging General Roget to lead
his troops, whkh bad formed part of the guard of honour at
the obsequies, against the £lys£e. Immediately arrested and
put on trial, Diroul2de and Habert were acquitted by a
timorous jury.
M. £mile Loubet, President of the Senate, was chosen
successor to M. FHix Faure. Upon his return to Paris from
the Versailles Congress, where he had been elected President
of the French Republic, he was greeted by hisses and cries of
** Panama I " cries in no wise justifiable. Some time afterwards,
Jules Gu^rin, by a desperate resistance against a summons of
the police to give himself up, made the public believe for two
months in the existence of an impregnable fortress in the Rue
Chabrol, in the very /-entre of Paris. On the 4th of June there
was a great scandal at the Auteuil Races, which President Loubet
had been, according to custom, invited to attend. He was
insulted and struck by Baron de Christian!, who was encouraged
by the young royalisu of the " (Billets Blancs " Association.
A week later, the extraordinary and excessive poUce measures
Uken to prevent a disturbance at the Grand Frix occasioned
the downfall of the Dupuy ministry. M. Waldeck-Rousseau
then formed a cabinet, himself becoming president of the
counciL The new premier immediately took energetic measures
against the enemies of the Republic Compromising documents
found in various domiciliary searches made among the Monarch-
ists and Nationalists formed the basis of prosecutions before the
High Court of Justice. The trial rcsxtltcd in the condemnation
'^'^ Gu^rin to a urm of imprisonment, and the banishment
slope of the Trocadte>, the Champ de Mars, the EsplaBade ol
the Invalides and both sides of the Seine bordered by the
Rue de Paris and the Rue des Nations. Seen from the new
Alexandre HI. bridge, the spectacle was as fairy-like as a stage
setting. Close beside, at the left, were the palaces of the different
XMtions, each one showing its characterisiic architecture, and
all being of an astonishing diversity. To the right were the
pavilion of the dty of Pans and the enormous greenhouses, and
in the distance Old Paris, so picturesquely ooostiucted by
Robida. In short, exotic edi6ces and sdntillatiag ctipoUs
arose with unparalleled )>rofusion, creating in the heart of
Paris a veriuble city of dreams and illusion. The most distact
countries sent their art treasures or the marvek of their industry.
The number of visitors was 51,000,000, and the pcrsoiMges
of mark included the Shah of Persb, the Kfaig of Sweden, the
King of the Belgians and the King of Greece, aU of whom were
successively the guests of France. On the 2snd of September
22,000 mayors accepted the invitation to the banquet offered
in their honour by President Loubet, and thus ticAcmrAj
aflumed their Republican faith. This admirably organized
banquet was spread in the Tuileries Gardens. The ezhibatioa
of 1900, a brilUant epilogue of the closing century, was a grand
manifestation of universal concord, of the union of peoples by
art, science, industry, all branches of human genius. (I>b B.)
The bibliography of the history of Paris is immense, and it tro^t
suffice here, so far as authontieson the medieval period are coooenKd.
to refer to the long list of works. &c.. given by Ulysae Chevajifr
in his RiPertotr* (Us sowces hxstanques du wuytm dge, tfpo'hthU^'
grapki (Montbeliard. 1903), pp. 2267-2290 See abo Lacocrbe.
tableaux ' . ^- _
iblfograpkie partsimne.
de maurs, 1600-1880 (Pau^s
1886). and Pessard, Noupeam diet. ktst. de Parts (190A). Of smml
works may be mentioned specially J. C Dalaiue, Hi$L pJtjn^me,
ctoite el morale do Pans (1821; new ed. oootinued by LcyWdicf
and Roquctte. 1874. Paul Robiquet, HisL municipvo do Pirn,
up to Henry IV. (1880-1904) ; J Lebcuf, Hist, de lu vHU el de to^ U
dtoche de Paru (Paris. 17S4-1758. new ed. revised and crdarT^i
by H. Cocheris. 1865-1867); and the Hut. timtruU de Paru, pi,b-
lishod under the authority of the municipality, of which voL xuix.
was issued in 1906. Imporunt special works on later pcrriods icx
W. A. Schmidt. Panser Zustdnde wdkrend der RnciutioKrsm,
178^1800 (Jena. r874-i876. French trans.. Parts pendant ia rfrc--
ftcii, by P. VioUet, 1880-1894), and TokUawe do la rimoi^i^
fran^se (Leipzig. 1 867-1870): F Aulard. CoUeOum do dacmmrtui
rtiatijs d Fhtit. de Paru pendant la r&Hduiion (1899-1903): La-.r-j:
dc Labone. Paris sous Napolion (1905): Simond. Pans de i& , z
1^00 (1902). Ciileub, Hut do radmintstration parisienne an nsr*
sihde (1900)
PARIS, TRBATTES OP (1814-1815). Among the very mar?
treaties and conventions signed at Paris those which bear tbe
title of " treaties of Paris " per oxcdlence are the two sets of
treaties, both of the highest importance in the hbtory of ib?
international politics of Europe and the formation of its puM z
law, signed in Paris on the 30th of May 1814 and the 20th cf
November 181 5. The first embodied the abortive alterrpt
made by the Allies and Loub XVIII. of France to rr-«stabi.i^
lasting peace in Europe after the first abdication of Kap<^ear.
at Fontainebleau on the itth of April 181 4. The sccori
contained the penal and cautionary measures whkh the AUc^
found it necessary to impose when the practically unopposed
return of Napoleon from Elba, and his resumption of powrr.
had proved the weakness of the Bourbon monarcfajr. (See
Eukope: History.)
The treaty of the 30th of May 1814 and the secret treaty
which accompanied it, were signed by Talleytaod for Frxncr;
by Lords Castlereagh. Aberdeen and Cathcart for Great Britair,
by Counts Rasumovski and Nesselrode for Rutsia; by Prince
Mettemlch and Count Sudion for Austria; and by Barco
Hardenberg and W- von HumboMt for Prussia. Sweden a=d
Portugal adhered later, and Spain adhered on the soth of JcV
to the public treaty, to which there were in all eight signatories
It is this public treaty which is known as the first treaty of Pas^
824
PARISH
churditt within tlie parockia were served by itinerant presbytees.
Towards the cbec of the 4th century it had become usual for
the bishop to appoint resident presbyters to defined districts
or territories, to which the term " parish " came gradually to
be applied (see also Diocese). Parish, in English ecclesiastical
law, nay be defined as the township or cluster of townships
which was assigned to the ministrataon of a single priest, to
whom its tithes and other ecclesiastical dues were paid; but
the word has now acquired several distinct meanings.
The Old Ecclesiastical PorisK—lti the absence of evidence
to the contrary, the ecclesiastical parish is presumed to be com-
posed of a single township or viU,and to be conterminous with
the manor within the ambit of which it is comprised. Before
the process of subinfeudation became prevalent, the most
ftncicnt raanofs were the districts which we call by that name
when speaking of the tenants, or " townships " when we regard
the mhabiunts, or "parishes" as to matters ecclesiastical.
The parish as an institution is in reality later in date than the
township The latter has been in fact the unit of local adminis*
tration ever since England wa& settled in its several sUtes and
kingdoms, the beginnings of the parochial system in England are
attributed to Theojdore ol Tarsus, who was archbishop of Canter-
bury towards the dose of the 7th century. The system was
extended in the reign of Edgar, and it appears not to have been
complete until the reign of Edward IIL It has been considered
that the intimate connexion of church and state miliutes
against the view that the parochial system was founded as a
national institution, since any legislation on the subject of the
township and parochial systems would probably have resulted
in the merging of the one into the other. " The fact- that the
two systems, the pariah and the township, have existed for more
than a thousand yean side by side, identical in area and ad-
ministered by the same persons, and yet separate in character
and machinery, is a sufficient pioof that no legislative act
could have been needed in the first place; nor was there any
lay council of the whole nation which could have sanctioned
such a measure " (Stubba, ConsL Hist, L 327). The boundaries
of the old ecclesiastical parishes are usually identical with those
of the township or townships comprised within its prednct;
they are determined by usage, in the absence of charters or
records, and are evidenced by perambulations, which formerly
took place on the " gang-days " in Rogation week, but are now,
where they still survive, for the mq»t part hdd triennially, the
Poor-Law Act of 1844 permitting the parish officers to diarge
the expense on the poor-rate, "provided the perambulations
do not occur more than once in three years." The expense
of preserving the boundary by land-marks or bound-stones is
chargeable to the same rate. Many parishes contain more
than one township, and this is espedally the case in the
northern counties, where the separate townships are organized
for administrative purposes under an act passed in 1662. In
the southern and midland districts the parishes ore for the
most part subdivided into hamlets or other k)cal divisions
known as "tythings," "boroughs," and the like; the distinction
between a parish and a subordinate district lies chiefly in the
iact that the latter will be found to have never had a. church
or a constable to itself. The sdect committee of 1873, ap«
pointed to inquire into parochial boundaries, reported to the
effect that the parish bean no definite relation to any other
administrative area, except indeed to the poor-law union. It
any be situated in different counties or hundreds, and in many
instances it contains, an addition to its principal district, several
flutlying portions intermixed with the knds in other parishes.
After the abolition of compulsory church rates in 1868 the
old ecclesiastical parish ceased to be of imporUnce as an instru-
ment of local government. Its ofiicets, however, have still
importaLt duties to perform. The rector, vicar or incumbent is
4 corpontioo-sole, in whom is vested the freehold of the church
and churchyard, subject to the parishMnere' rights of user; their
rights of burial have been enlarged by various acts. The
diurchwardens are the prindpal lay officery^ Their duties consist
Ia keeping the church and chitrchyaid in repair and in raising
a voluntary rate for the purpose to the best of their power;
they have also the duty of keeping order in church durixkg di>iae
service. The other officials are the parish derk and sexton.
They have freeholds in their offices and are paid by custonuLry fce&.
The office of the clerk is regulated by an act of 1844, coaLljis
a curate to undertake its duties, and providing CacjliUcs f.v
vacating the office in case of misconduct. Tbc only C]s3
function of the parish derk remaining in 1894 was the cus^ic^iy
of maps and documents, required to he deposited with him
under standing orders of parliament before certain puUic works
were begun. By the Local Government Act 1894 they arc now
deposited with the chainnan or clerk of a parish coundU
T/ie New Ecclcsiastkai Fansk.—\}n6et the powers gives by
the Church Building Acta, and acts for making new psmbes,
many populous parishes have been subdivided into amalUf
ecclesiastical parishes. This division has not affected the paruh
in its dvil aspect
TJie Civil f^cnsk.—For purposet of dvil government the
term '' parish " means a district for which a separate pooc-rate
is or can be made, or for which a separate overseer is or can be
appointed; and by the Interpretation Act 1889 this defioitios
is to be used in interpreting all statues subsequent to 1S66,
except where the context is inconsistent therewith. This
disuict may of itself constitute a poor law union; but in the
great majority of cases the unions, or areas under the jurisdiaic4
of boards of guardians according to the Poor-Law Amcndmesi
Act of i8j4, are made up of aggregated poor-law parishes.
Each of these poor-law parishes may represent the extent of
an old ecdesiaslical parish, or a township separately rated by
custom before the practice was stayed in 1819 or separated
from a large parish under the act of 1662, or it may repcescu
a chapelry, tything, borough, ward, quarter or hamlet, or ocbn
subdivision of the andent parish, or, under various acts, an arci
formed by the merger of an extra-parochial place with u
adjoining district by the union of deuched portions vStb
adjoining parishes, or by the subdivision of a large parish f -r
the better administration of the relief of the poof. The dvJ
importance of the poor-law parishes may be dated from the
mtroduction of the poor law by the sUtute of 43 RUsabctK
which directed overseers of the poor to be appointed in every
parish, and made the churchwardens into es^JJUio overseers.
The SUtute was preceded by tenutive provisions of the same
kind enacted in the reigns of Edward VI. and Mary and in the
fifth year of Elizabeth, and after several renewals was made
perpetual in the reign of Cha ries I. The chief part of the parochul
organization was the vestry-meeting. It derived its name
from the old place of assembly, the vestry loom attached to
the church or chapel. The vestry represented the old ascmbly
of the township, and retained so much of iu business as had not
been insensibly transferred to the court-baron and coart-leet.
The freemen, now appearing as the ratepayers, dectcd the
"parish officers," as the churchwardens and way-wardens,
the assessors, the overseers, and (if required) paid assistant-
overseers, a sccreUry or vestry-dcrk, and a collector of rates
if the guardians applied for his appointment. Common vcstria
were meetings of all the ratepayers assembled on a three days*
notice; select vestries were regulated by local custom, or
derived their power from the Vestries Aa 1831 (Hobbotjses
Act). The vestries could adopt various acts, and appoint
persons to carry those acts into execution. The Locsl Govern-
ment Act 1894 restored the parish to its position as the tmit
of local government by establishipg parish coundk. (See
Enclakd: Local Government.)
The Parish in Sa>Uand.—Then can be tittle doubt that alxvt
the bcffinning of the 13th century the whole, or almoct the mhclr.
of the kingdom of Scotland was parocTilally divided, ft aecms pro
bable (though the point is obscure) that the bishops prewdcd at the
first formatnn of the parishes — die parish bdng a cabdivisaoa
of the diocese— and at any rate down to the date of the
Reformation they excrrised the power of creoting new* parishes witbia
their respective dioceses (Duncan. Parochial La», p. 4). After
the Reformation the power of alirrfne parishes was asaamed by
the kcislature. The existinf; parochial dismctt fadof fooad
ttosuicod to cht fcd— iaa cical lequirenwau ol the time, a fcoeial
PARISITE— PARK, EDWARDS AMASA
825
act ma pned In 1581, ^ich made |»rovisiofi for the* pArochiat
do^, and, inter nliat dincted that " a auffident and compttant "
district ahould be appropriated to each church as a parisfi (1581,
cap. too). Thereafter, by a scries of special acts in the first puce,
and, subsequent to the year 1617, by the decrees of parliamentary
commissionsr the creation of suitable parochial districts was pro-
ceeded with. lo the year 1707 the powers exercised by the com-
^nisaioners were permanently transferred to the court of session,
whose judges were appointed! to act in future as ** commissioners
for the Plantation of Rirks and Valuation of Teinds " (Act. 1707.
cap. 9). Under this statute the areas of parishes continued to be
altered and defined down to 184a, when the act commonly kaown as
Graham's Act was passed (7 & 8 Vict, c 44)* This act, which applied
to the disjunction and erection of parishes, introduced a simplcr
form of procedure, and to some extent dispensed with the consent
of the heritors, which had been reauired under the earlier sutute.
The naia division of parishes m Scotland was into dvii and
ecrlesiastacal. or, to speak more accurately, into parishes ynon
(i.«. for all purposes, civil and ecclesiastical) and ecclesiastical
parishes. This division is expressed in legal language by the terms,
parishes fitoad omnia (i^ fuoad cmUa et sacra) and parishes ^toad
sacra-^miia being such nattefa aa church rwteii education, poor
law and sanitary purposes, and sacra bcins sucn as concern the
administration cl church ordinances, and fall under the cognizance
of the church courts. There are other minor divisions which will
be noticed below. (i> Tfu Parish Proper.-^ln a number of insUnces
it is difficult tb determine the exact areia of such parishes at the
present day. The boundaries of the old ecclesiastical parish
were nowhere recorded, and the descriptions in the titles of private
properties which appear to lie in the parish have Sometimes to be
taken as evidence, and aometimes the fact that the inhabitants
attended a particular chorch or anade paymenta in favour of a par-
ticular minister. Where there has been a union or disjunctioo
and erection of parishes the evidence of the boundaries is the relative
statute, order in council, or decree of commission or df court of
teinds. The parishes proper vary to a great degree both In site
and population. For eoclcaaastical purposca, the minister and Uric-
session constitute the parochial authority. The minister is vested
with the manse and glebe, to be held by him for himself and his
successors in office, and along with the Idrk-tession he administers
church ordinances and exerciaee church discipline. The oldest
toveming aiitboricy was the meeting of the henbors or landownefa
of the parish. Though gradualiv shorn of much of its old importance
the heritors' meeting retained the power of imposing an assessment
for the purpose of providing and maintaining a church and church-
yard and a manse and glebe far the minister. It also possessed
power to asaeas under theTarochial Buildings Acts of 1863 and 1866k
Kirk-eeasion and bcritora wen the eduoauonai authority until the
establishment of school boards in 1872. <a) Quoad Sacra ParifAas.—
The eoclcsiastlcal or faaad soasa parish is a modem creation. Under
Graham's Act, above mentioneB* a parish oftav be disjoined and
erected gmad sacra taattmom the application of pcnona who have
built and endowed a church, and who offer securities for its psopier
maintenance. By the Education Act of 1873 the pioad sacra
parish was adopted as a separate school district. (3} Extra^Burghal
Tariskes.-^For sanitary purposes, highways and some others, certain
classaa ti burgiia were made aeparate areaa from tlie parishes in
which they lay. This iact created a aet of incomplete parishea.
called cxtra-burghal. (4) Burthal. Landward and jSnrgkal-lMnd-
toard {or Mixed) Parishes.— TUi (Uvision of parishes depends, as
the names imply, upon local character and situation of the parochial
districts. The tmpartaace of the distiactioR arose in eonneiuon
with the rule of assessment adopted for various parochial burdenai
and the nature <A the rights of the minister and corresponding
obligations of the parishioners. (5) Combined Parishes.— Vn^tr
the Poor-Law, Education and Registration Acts power was given
to tiie ceatrsl authority to combine poriahea for purpeaea of kcai
adminiatrMloo. The Local Govmpeat (Scotland) Act 1894
reformed parish government* although not to the same extent as
the corresponding English act. It established a local government
board for Scotland, with a parish council in every parish, and
aboliakcd all parochial boania. The number of coondllors for a
parish council was fixed at not lesa than Ave dot mere than thirty-
one, the number being determined, in the case of landward parishes,
by the county council; in the case of burghal parishes by the town
council and, in the case of mixed parishes, by county and town
eouacils jointly.
. The Parish in the United States.— Tht term *• parish •• b not
In use ta a territorial designation except in Louisiana, the
sixty parishes of which correspond to the counties of the
other states of the Union. In the American Episcopal Church
the word is frequently used to denote an ecclesiastical district.
AuTHoaiTiBs.— The priadpal records from which information
may be gained as to the oldest parochial system in England are the
records called Nomina vittarum, the Taxatio papae Ntchotai made
in 1391. the Nonarum inqnisMones relating to assessments madb
«pon the clergy, the Yalof aodanaaHaa of Heary VllL, «ba ky
subsidies from the reign of Edward III. to that of Cfaaries II., the
hearth-tax asscssmenu and the land-tax accounts. On the subject
of the parish generally see Stubbs's Constitutional Uistorv; Glen's
Parish Law; Steer's Parish Law; Toulmin Smith's work on the
Parish; S. and B. Webb. Entlish Local Co^mment, vol. t.; Rcdiirh
and Hirst, Local Cooerwmeni in England; O. J. Rachel, Rise of the
Parochial System in England (1905). For fuller information regard-
ing the Scottish parish see Conndl on Teinds; Duncan's Parochial
Eutesiastical Law; the Cobden Qub essays on Local Government
and Taxation in the United Kingdom (1882); Goudy and Smith's
Local Cooemment im Scotland; Atkinson, Local Government in
PARISITB* a rare mineral, consisting of cerium, lanthanum,
didvmhim and calcium fluo-carbonate, (CeF)«Ca(COs)s.
It Is found only as crystals, which belong to the hexagonal
system and usually have the form of acute double pyramids
terminated by the basal planes; the faces of the hexagonal
pyramids are striated horisontally, and parallel to the basal
plane there is a perfect cleavage. The crystals are hair-brown
in colour and are translucent. The hardness Is 4I and the
specific gravity 4^36. Light which has traversed a crystal
of parisite exhibits a characteristic absorption spectrum.
Until recently the only known occurrence of this mineral was
In the fkmous emerald mine at Muao In Colombia, South America,
where it was found by J. J. Paris, who re-discovered and worked
the mine in the early part of the z^th century ; here it b associated
with emerald in a bituminous limestone of CretaceoXis age (see
BVtXAtD).
Closely allied to parisite, and indeed fitst described as such,
is a mineral from the nepheline-sycnite district of Julianehaab
in south Greenland. To this the name synchysite (from Gr.
tfiryxv^t, confounding) has been given. The crystals are
rhombohedrel (as distinct from hexagonal; they have the
composition CePCa(C03)t, and specific gravity 2*ga At the
same locality there is also foozid ft barium-parisite, which
differs from the Colombian parisite in containing barium in
idace of calchim, the formula being (CeF)tBa(COi)s: this b
named cordyllte on account of the dub-shaped form («op56Xn,
a dub) of its hexagonal crystals^ Bastnislte b a cerium lan-
thanum and didymium ffuo-earbonate (CeF)CO^ from Bastnis,
near Rlddarhyttan, in Vestraanland, Sweden, and the Pike%
Peak re|^ in Colorado, U.S.A. (L. J. S.)
PARK, BDWABM AHAtA (1808-igoo), American .Con-
gregational theologian, was bora In Providence, Rhode Island, on
the 39th of December 1808, the son of Calvin Park (X774-1847),
a Congregational minbter, professor from 1804 to 1825 at Brown
University, and pastor at Stougbton, Massachusetts, in 182^
1S40. The son graduated at Brown University In 1826, was
a teacher at Braintree fer two years, and in 1831 graduated
from Andover theological seminary. He was co-pastor (with
R. S. Storrs) of the orthodox Congregatlona] church of
Braintree in 183x^1833; professor of mental and moral
philosophy at Amherst In 1835; and Bartlett pnrfessor
of sacred rhetoric (183^x847), and Abbot professor of Cbristiaa
tlieology (t847~x88t) at Andover. He died at Andover on
the 4th of June x^oo. An andent adadRr off Jonathan
EdiMuds, whoae great-grmd-danghter he married, Auk was
one of the most notable American theologians and orators.
He was the most promlneot leader of the " new school "
of " New Englaad Theology." He left hb theologfcal impraa
on the BiUiotkeca sacra, which be and Bda B. Edwanb
took oiver In 1844 from Edward Robinson, who had founded
It hi 1843, and of which Park was assistant editor nntil xSsx
and cdkor-tn-chief from X85X to 1884. As a general statement
of iht podtlon of orthodox Congregationalism he drew up and
annotated tha ** Assbdato Cned of Andover Theological Semis-
aty" (1889), and the aaonynoosly published ^'Woteestcr
Creed ** of t«84 was hb popidariaed and simplified sUtemcnt.
Heeditad hk z86o THa i4<«iwMeai,aoDBcctionof esiaysby varioas
hands, prefaced by hb study of the *' Rise of the Edwardean
llwory off the Atonement." Dr Paxh's sexmon, " The Theology
of the Intellect and that of the FeeUngs," delitered In xSjo
before the convention of the Congregational ministeisoC'liait-
ehuRtts, and pnblbhed in the BibUtikma taera of hih-^^^
826
PARK, MUNGO
wu the cause of a long ind bitter eontmrenf , mctapbysical
rstber than doctrinal, with Charks Hodge. Some of Park's
sennons were published in 1885, under the title Discourses an
Some Theotogkal Doctrines as RdoUd to ike Reiigious Ckarocter.
With Austin Phdps and LoweU Mason be prepared The Sabbath
Hymn Book (1858),
See Prcfessor Park and His Pnbils (Bortoo. 1899), a
of his 90th birthday, with articles by R. & Stona, G. IL W. Sooct.
Jottph Cook. G. Fftderick Wright and ochoi.
PARK, MUNGO (1771-1806?), Scottish esEplorer of the Niger,
ipas bora in Selkirkshire, Scotland, on the 20th of September
1771, at Fouishiels on the Yarrow— the farm which his father
rented from the duke of Bucdeuch. He was the seventh in
a family of thirteen. Having received a good education, he
was apprenticed to a surgeon named Thomas Anderson in
Selkirk, and then attended the university of Edinburgh for
three sessioos (x 789-1 791)1 obtaining the surgical dipk>ma. By
his brother-in-law, James Dickson, a botanist of repute, he
was introduced to Sir Joseph Banks, theq president of the
Royal Society, and through his good offices obtained the post
of assistant-fiurgeon on board the " Worcester" East Ti^iUm^ti
In this capacity he made the voyage in 1793 to Benkuloi, in
Sumatra, and on his return in 1793 he contributed a descripUon
of eight new Sumatran fishes to the Transaaicns of the Linnean
Society.
Park in 1794 offered his services to the African Association,
then looking out for a successor to Major Daniel Houghton,
who had been sent out in 1790 to discover the course of the
Niger and had perished in the Sahara. Supported by the
influence of Sir Joseph Banks, Park was successful in his
applicatwn. On the stst of June 1795 he reached the Gambia
and ascended that river soo miles to a British trading station
named Pisania. Oa the tnd of December, accompanied by
two negro servants, he started for the unknown interior. He
chose the route crossing the upper Senegal basin and through
the semi-desert region of Kaarta. The journey was full of
difficulties, and at Ludamar he was imprisoned by a Moorish
chief for four months. He escaped, akme and with nothing
save his horse and a pocket compass, on the ist of July 1796,
and on the axst of the same month reached the long-sought
Niger at Segu, being the first European to gaae oa ita waters.
He followed the river down stream 80 m. to SiUa, where be
was obliged to turn back, being without means and utterly
eihausted. On his return journey, begun on the 30th of July,
he took a route more to the south than that originally folbwed,
keeping close to the Niger as far as Bamako, thus tracing the
course of that stream in all for some 300 miles. At Kamalia
he fell ill, and owed his life to the kindness of a negro in whose
house he lived for seven montha. Eventually he reached Pisania
again on the xoth of June 1797, returning to England t^ way
of America on the ssad of December. He had been thought
to be dead, and his return home with the news of the discovery
of the Niger evoked great public enthusiasm. An account
of his journey was at once drawn up for the African Assodation
by Bryan Edwards, and a detailed narrative from his own pen
appeared in 1799 ( Tratds in the Interior of Africa). Abundance
of inddent and an unaffected style rendered the work extremely
popular, and it stUl holds iu place as an acknowledged classic
in this department of literature.
- Sealing at Foulshieb, Park in August 1 799 married a dauber
of his old master, Thomas Anderson. Two offers made to him
to go to New South Wales in some official capadty came to
Boching, and in October x8ox Park removed to Peebles, where
he practised as a doctor. In the autumn of 1803 he was invited
by the government to kad another espediiion to the Niger.
Park, 9^ chafed at the hardness and monotony of life at
Pfeebla, accepted the offer, but the starting of the eipedition
was delayed. Part of the waiting time was occupied in the
perfecUng of hb Arabic— his teacher being Sidi Ambak Bubi,
a native of Mogador; whose vagaries both amused and alarmed
the people of Peebles. In May 1804 Park went back to Foul-
fhiels, iriiere he made the acquaintance of Sir Walter Scott,
then living near by at Adiesteil, with whom he 1
on terms of warm friendship. In September be was sttmmDr.«d
to London to leave on the new expedition: he parted from b.r
Walter with the hopeful proverb on hb 1^ *' Ficiu (00x115}
foUow those that look to them." Park had at that time adopted
the theory that the Niger and the Congo were one, and ta a
memorandum drawn up before he left England be wrote: * My
hopes of returning by the Congo are not altogether faxtcafui "
He sailed from Portsmouth for the Gambia on the 31st of
January 1805, having been given a captain's cosnmtsswn as
head of the government expedition. Alexander Anderson,
hb brother-in-law, was second in command, and on him «as
bestowed a lieutenancy. George Scott, a idlow Borderer,
wss draughtsman, and the party inckidcd four or fiv« artificm.
At Goree (then in British occupation) Park was joined bj
Lieutenant Martyn, R.A., thirty-five privates and two «^"»^
The expedition did not reach the Niger until the middle of
August, when only eleven Europeans were left alive; the mt
had succumbed to fever or dysentery. Prom Baxnako the
journey to Segu was made by canoe. Having recdved per*
mission from the ruler of that town to proceed, at SansaMJ^
a little bdow Segu, Part made ready for his journey down the
stiU unknown part of the river. Park, helped by one sokiicr,
the only one left capable of work, converted two canoes icio
one tolerably good boat, 40 ft. long and 6 ft. broad. Thu be
christened H.M. schooner "Joliba" (the native nnxne foe tlie
Niger), and in it, with the surviving members of hb party, he
set aah down stream on the X9th of November. At Sassaiid:;;.
on the s8th of October, Anderson had died, and ia him Park
lost the only member of the party -eicept Scott, already dead^
who had been of real use. Those who embarked in the ** J<dxba "
were Park, Martyn, three European soldiers (oike mad), a gu.de
and three slaves. Before his departure Paxk gave to Isaaco^
a Mandingo guide who had been with him thus far, letters is
take back to the Gambia for transmission to EngUad. The
spirit with which park began the final stage of his cnterpme
is well illustrated by hb letter to the head of the Coloool
Office ^—
*' I shall." he wrote, *' sec sail for the eait with the fijsed tcaohitjc*
to discover the tennination of the N^er or perish in the attco-ft
though all the Europeans who are with 1
though I were mvself half dead, I would atiO peraevere. and if I
could not succeed in the object of my jourocy, I would at Jcad
die OB the Niger."
To hb wife he wrote stating hb intention not to stop xior Uni
anjrwhere till he reached the coast, whero he expected to arrivt
about the end of January x8o6. These were thehst coenrovnka-
tions received from Park, and nothing more was baud of tV
party until reports of disaster reached the settlexnenu on tte
Gambia. At length the British government engaged Iaaa£«
to go to the Niger to asryrtain the fate of the oq^lofcr. At
Sansandig Isaaco found the guide who had gone down stm*?
with Park, and the substantial accuxacy of the story be to!i
was later confirmed by the investigations of Hugh (Jappcrtos
and Richard Lander. Thb guide ( Amadi) stated that Park %
canoe ^kscended the river to Yaori, where he (the guide) landed
In thb long journey of about xooo miles Park, who hnd pies:;
of provisions, stuck to his resolution of keeping aloof from ihr
iMtives. Bdow Jennf, came Timbuktu, and at various other
places the natives came out in canoes and atucked his beat
These attacks were all repubed, Park and hb party ha\-:rg
plenty of firearms and ammunition and the natives ha\..r;
none. The boat also escaped the ooany perib attendant 00 the
navigation of an unknown stream strewn with many rapids—
Park had built the " Joh*ba " so that it drew only a foct <ri
water. But at the Bussa rapids, not far below Yauri, the bc«t
struck on a rock and remained fast. On the bank were gathcrrj
hostile natives, who attacked the party with bow and am:«
and throwing spears. Their position being untenable, T^^t.
Martyn, and \ht two soldiers who still survived, sprang ir' '
the river and were drowned. The sole survivor was or^ ci
the slaves, from whom was obtained the story of the final s r-*
IsaacD, and later Lander, obtained some of Park's effects. I ^
PARK— PARKER, J. H.
827
Us journal «8ft sever fecorend.' In 1817 hit second son, Tliomas,
landed on the Guinea coast, intending to maie hk way to Bussa,
where he thought his father might be detained a priboner, but
after penetrating some little distance inland he died of fever.
Puk's widow died in x&^a
J. Thomson's Munio Park and Ou Niter (London. x8oo) contains
the best critical estimate of the explorer and his work. See also the
Ufe (by Wishaw) prefixed to Jownal cf a Mission inlo Iks Inkricr
of Africa m 1805 (London, 1815); H. B., Lift efMumn Park (Edin-
buish. i83«),* and an interesting passage in Lockhart'a lift t§
Sir JValter^caU, vol. ii. ^^
PARK (Fr. parc] Ital. parco; Sp. parque; O.Eng. pecftoe;
connected with Ger. pferck, fold, and pforrei, district, translating
med. Lat. parochia, parish), a word ordinarily used in two senses:
(a) an enclosed traa of ground, consisting of grass-land, planted
with trees and shrubs, and surrounding a large coxmtry house;
(&) a similar space in or near a town, laid out omamentaBy, and
used by the public as an " open space " for health or recreation.
f The term ** park " first occurs In English as a term of the
forest law of En^and for a tract of ground enclosed and
privileged for beasts of the chase, the distinguishing charac-
teristics of which were "vert/' i.t. the green leaves of trees,
"venison," ijt. deer, and "endosure." A "perk" was a
franchise obtained by prescription or by grant from .the crown
(see FousT Law; also Deer Pakx).
) The word has had a technical nilitary significance since the
early part of the X7th century. Originally meaning the space
occupied by the artillery, l>aggage and supply veMdes of an
army when at rest, it came to be used of the mass of vebides
itkli. From this mass first of all the artillery, becoming more
mobile, separated itself; then as the mobility of armies in general
became greater they outpaced their heavy vebides, with the
result that faster moving transport units had to be created to
keep up communication. A "park "is thus at the present
day a large unit consisting of several hundred vehicles carrying
stores; it moves several days' marches in rear of the army,
and forms a reservoir from " whence the mobile ammunition and
supply columns " draw the supplies and stores required for the
army's needs. "Parking" vebides is massing them for a
Mt. The word "park "is still used to mean that portion
of an artillery or adminstrative troops' camp or bivouac in
which the vehicles are placed.
PARKERt SIR GILBERT (x86i* ), British noveUst and
politician, was bom at Camden East, Addlngton, Ontario, on
the 33rd of November i86>, the son of Captain J. Parker, R.A.
He was educated at Ottawa and at Trinity University, Toitmto.
In x886 he went to Australia, and became for a while assodate-
editor of the Sydney Morning Herald. He also travelled ezten-
Stvdy in the Pacific, and subsequently in northern Canada;
and in the early 'nineties he began to make a growing reputation
in London as a writer of romantic fiction. The best of his
noveb are those in which he first took for his subject the history
and life of the French Canadians; and his permanent literary
reputation rests on the fine quality, descriptive and dramatic, of
his CaiuKlian stories. Pierre and Ms People (1892) was followed
by Mrs Pakhion (1893), Tks TraU of tkt Sword (1894). Wken
Valmond cesnt to Poniiae (1895), An Adfenlwrer of the North
(r895), and The Seats oftke Mighty (1896, dramatised in 1897)-
Tkt Lant that had no Tnrning (X900) contains some of his best
work. In The BatUa of the Strong (1898) be broke new ground,
laying his scene in the Channel Islands. His chief later books
were The RighlofWay (1901), Donovan Pasha (1901). The Ladder
of Swords (x904)» The Weaters (1907) and Northern LightsUgog).
In 1895 he married Miss Van Tine of New York, a wealiby hdress.
His C a n s ri i sn connexion and his ' esperience in Australia and
elsewhere had made him a strong Imperialist in politics, and from
that time he began to devote himself in large measure to a
political career. He still kept up his literary work, but some
of the books hst mentioned cannot compare n^th those by which
be made- his name. He was ^ected to pariiameni in 1900
(re-elected 1906 and 1910) as Qmservative member for Gravesend
and soon made his mark in the House of Commons. He was
knighted in r903, and in ' succeeding ^ years "^continuaOy
strengthened his position in theparty, particularly by his energetic
work on behalf of Tariff Reform and Imperial Preference. If
he had given up to public life what at one time seemed to be due
to literature, he gave it for enthusiasm in the Imperialist move-
ment; and with the progress of that cause he came to rank by
X910 as one of the foremost men in the Unionist party outside
those who had hdd office.
PARKER, SIR HYDE, BASt. (k7i4-x782), British vice-
admiral, was bom at Tredington, Worcestershire, on the astb
of February, x 7 14, his father, a dergyman, being a son of Sir
Henry Parker, Bart. His paternal grandfather had married
a daughter of Bishop Alexander Hyde, of Salisbury. He began
his career at sea in the merchant service. Entering the royal
navy at the age of twenty-four, he was made lieutenant in 1744,
and In 1748 he was made post-captain. Dnring the latter
part of the Seven Yean' War he served in the East Indies,
taking part in the capture of Pondicherry (X761) and of Manila
(1763). In the latter year Parker with two ships captured one
of the valuable Spanish plate ships in her voyage between
Acapulco and Manila. In 1778 he became rear-admiral, and
went to North American waters as second-in-command. For
some time before Rodney's arrival he was in command on the
Leeward Islands sutk>n, and conducted a akiliu! campaign
against the French at Martinique. In X78X, having returned
home and become vice-admiral, he fell in with a Dutch fleet of
about his own force, though far better equipped, near the Dogger
Bank (Aug. 5). After a fiercdy contested battle, in which
neither combatant gained any advantage, both sides drew
off. Pariter considered that he had not been proper^ equipped
for his task, and insisted on resigning his command. In r78t
he accepted the East Indies command, though he had just
succeeded to the family baronetcy. On the outward voyage
his flagship, the " Cato " (60), was lost with all on board.
His second son, Admiral Sit Hvdb Paikka (1739-1807),
entered the navy at an eariy age, and became lieutenant in r7s8,
having pasMd most of his early service in his father's ships. Five
yean later he became a post-captain, and from 1766 onwards
for many yean he served in the West Indies and in North
American waten, particularly distinguishing himself in break-
ing the defences of the North river (New York) in 1776. His
services on this occasion earned hhn a knighthood in 1779.
In X778 he was engaged in the Savannah expedition, and in
the following year his ship was wrecked on the hostile Cuban
coast. His men, however, entrenched themselves, and were
in the end brou^t off safely. Parker was with his father at
the Dogger Bank, aiid with Howe in the two actions in the
Straits of Gibraltar. In 1793, having Just become rear-admiral,
he served under Lord Hood at Toulon and in Corsica, and two
yean later, now a vice-admiral, he took part, under Hotham,
In the indecisive fleet actions of the X3th of March and the X3th
of July X795. From 1796 to 1800 he was in command at
Jamaica and ably conducted the operations in the West Indies.
In 180X he was appointed to command the fleet destined to
break up the northern armed neutrality, with Nelson as his
8econd-in-<ommand. Copenhagen, the fint objective of the ezpe*
dition, fell on the snd of April to the fierce atuck of Nelson's
squadron, Parker with the heavier ships taking^ little part.
Subsequently Parker hesitated to advance up the Baltic after
his viaoiy, a decision which was severely critidaed. Soon after-
wards he was recalled and Nelson succeeded him. He died
in 1807.
The family name was continned In the navy in his eldest
son. who became vice-admiral and was Flnt Sea Lord of the
Admiralty in 1853 (dying in 1854); and abo in that son^ son,
who as a captain in the Black Sea was killed in 1854 when
stonning a Russian fort.
PARK8R. JOHN HENRY (x8o6-i884)t English writer on
architecture, the son of a London merchant. Was bom on the
ist of Mareh 1806. He was educated at Manor House Sdiool,
Chiswfck, and in 1831 entered business as a bookseller. Sut tjyl*
ing his onde, Joseph Parker, as a bookseller at Ozloird iki H**^
izi
PARKER, pSEPH— PARKER, MATTHEW
be conducted the business with great success, the most importaat
of the fixings publications being perhaps the series of the " Oxford
Pocket Classics." In 1836 he brought out his Glossary of
ArckUedwe, which, published in the earlier years of the Gothic
revival in England, had considerable influence in extending the
movement, and supplied a valuable help to young architects.
In 1848 he edited the fifth edition of Rickman's Gothic ArchUec-
iurtt and in 1849 ^ published a handbook based on his earlier
vohune and entitled IniroductwH to tke Study qf Gothic Ankilec-
turt. The completion of Hudson Turner's Domestic Architecture
of the Middle Ages next engaged his attention, three volumes
being published (1853-1860). In 1858 he published Uedkeel
Architecture oj Chester. Parker was one of the chief advocates
of the " restoration " of ecclesiastical buildings, and published
in 1866 Architectural A ntiquUies of the City oJ Wells, Latterly he
devoted much attention to expbrations of the history of Roope
by means of excavaUonSi and succeeded in Batisf3ring himself
of the historical truth o( much usually regarded as legendary.
Two volumes of his ArchaeeiUgy cj Rome were published at
Oxford in 1874 and 1876. In recognition of his labours he was
decorated by the king of Italy, and received a medal from Pope
Pius IX In 1869 he endowed the keepeiship of the Ashmolean
Museum with a sum yielding £350 a year, and under the new
arrangement he was appointed the first keeper. In 1871 he was
nominated C.B. He died at Oxford on the 3 xst of January 1884.
PARKER. JOSEPH (1830-1902), English Nonconformist
divine, was bom at Hexham-on-Tyne on the 9th of April 1830,
his fathkr being a stonemason. He managed to pick up a fair
education, which in after-life he constantly supplemented.
In the revolutionary years from 1845 to 1850 young Fiarker
as a local preacher and temperance orator gained a reputation
for vigorous utterance. He was influenced by Thomas Cooper,
the Chartist, and Edward Miall, the Liberationist, and was much
associated with Joseph Cowen, afterwards M. P. for Ncwc«atle.
In the spring of 1852 he wrote to Dr Jolm Campbell, minister
of VVbitcficld Tabernacle, Moorficlds, London, for advice
as to entering the Congregational ministry, and after a short
probation he became Campbell's assistant. He also attended
lectures in logic and philosophy at University College, London.
From 1853 to 1S58 be was pastor at Banbury. His next charge
was at Cavendish Street, Manchester, where he rapidly made
himself felt as a power in English Nonconformity. While here
he published a volume of lectures entitled Church Questions,
and, anonymously, Ecce Deus (1868), a work provoked by Seeky's
Eae Hotuo. The university of Chicago coafcrred on him the
degree of OJD. In 1869 he returned to London as minister of
the Poultry church, founded by Thomas Goodwin. Almost at
once he began the sdieme which resulted in the erection of the
great Qty Temple in Holbora Viaduct. It cost £70.000, and was
opened on the X9th of May 1874. From this ccnUe his influence
aipread far and wide. His stimulating and original sermons,
with their notable leaning towards the use of a racy vernacular,
made him one of the best known perMualities of his time.
Dr Parker was twice chairman of the London Congregational
Board and twice of the Congregational Union of Englsnd and
Wales. The death of his second wife in 1899 was a blow from
which be never fully recovered, and he died on the 38th of
November 1902.
Parker was pre««miiiently a pfcacher, and Ms (aiblidied works
are chiefly scnnons and expositJoiis, chief among them being City
Temple Sermons (1869-1870) and The People's Bible, in 2$ vols.
(1885-1895). Other volumes include the autobiographical Sprint-
iate Abbey (1869). The Inner Life of Christ (188O. Aposlolie Life
(1884). tyne Chylde: My L^e amd Teachiui (1883; new ed., 1889).
A Preacher's Life (1899).
Sec E. C. Pike, Dr Parher-and his Friends (1905); ConpetaHoaal
Year-Booh (1904).
PARKER, MARTIN (c. 1600-c. 1656), English ballad writer^
was probably a London tavern-keeper. About 1625 be seems
to have begun publishing ballads, a large number of which
bearing his sigaatu«e or hia initials,"M.P.," are preserved in
the British Museum. Dryden considered him the best ballad
writer fif ha time. His lympathi cs were with the Royalist
cause during the Civil War, and it was in nppoct of tiM declinifl«
fortunes of Charles I. that he wrote the best known of his baUads,
" When the King enjoys his own again," which he first pub-
lished in i643> «nd which, after enjoying great popvbfity at
the Restoration, became a favourite Jacobite song in the 18th
century. Parker also wrote a nautical ballad, " Sailors (or
my Money," which in a revised version survives as " When
the stormy winds do blow." It is not known when be died*
but the appearance in 1656 of a " funeral elegy,** in which the
baUad writer wal satirically celebrated is perhaps a oorrea
indication of the date of bis death.
See The Roxburghe Ballads,vei. ui. (Ballad S0C..9 vols.. 1871-1899) :
Joseph Ritson, Bibtiographia Poetica (London. 1803) ; Anctent Songs
and Ballads from Henry II, 1e the ReoohUion, ed. by W. C. Hazlitt
(London, 1877): Sir S. E. Brydges kndj. Hadewoed. The British
Bibltographer, vol. it, (London, 1810); Thomas Cocser, CoUoOanem
Angfo-poetica (London, x86o^i883)»
PARKER, MAITHBW (x504-i575)> acdibishop of CaBtcrt>vr7,
was the eldest son of William Parker, a dtiaen of Norwich,
where he was born, in St Saviour's pariah, on the 6th of August
I S04. His mother*s maiden name was Alios Monins, and a John
Monins married Oaomer's sister Jane, but no definite relatloo-
ship between the two archbisbopa has been tracad. Wflliaoi
Parker died about 1516, and his widow nuroed a certain John
Baker. Matthew was sent in 1522 to Corpus Cfaiisti CoUcge,
Cambridge, where he is said by moat of his biographers, indnding
the latest, to have been ooaiemponiy with Cedl; but CecJ
was only two years old when Parker went to Cambridfe. He
graduated B.A. in 1525, was ordained deacon in April and priest
in June 1527, and was elected fellow of Corpus in the foBowing
September. He commenced M.A. in 153&, and was <me of
the Cambridge scholars whom Wobey wished to transiilawr
to his newly founded Cardinal College at Oxford. Parker,
like Cranmer, declined the invitation. He had come under
the influence of the Cambridge refoimos, and after Anne
Boleyn's recognition as queen he was made her chaplain
Through her he was appointed dean of the college of secular
canons at Stoke-by*Clare in 1535. Latimer wrote to him in
that year urging him not to fall short of the cspectatiom
which had been formed of his ability. In 1537 be waa appointed
chaplain to Henry VUI., and in 1538 he was threatened with
prosecution by the reactionary party. The bishop of Dover,
however, reported to Cromwell that Parker "hath ever been
of a good judgment and set forth the Wocd oC God alter a
good manner. For this he iuifen tome grudge.*' He gndoated
D.D. in that year, and in 1 541 he waa appointed to tbe acoond
prebend in the reconstituted cathedral church of Ely. In 1544
on Heniy VUL 's rccomiDeadalion he waa elected master of Corpus
Christi College, and in 1545 vicr<haaoel]or of the mantxaiy.
He got into some trouble with the chanoeUor, Gardiner,
over a ribald phiy, " Panunachius," performed by the Undcota,
deriding the old ecclesiastical system, though Banner wrote
to Parker of the assured aflicction he boie him. On the pasaiag
of the act of parlianstnt in iS45 enabling the king to dissolve
chantries and colleges, Parker was appointed one of tbe oon-
mlssioncrs for Cambridge, and their report saved its colleges,
if there had ever been any ioteation to destroy them. Stoke,
however, was dissolved in the following reign, and Faiker
received a pcnsioa equivalent to £400 a year in modem OKrcncy.
He took advantage of the sew leign to many In Jvne, 1547,
before clerical aiarriages h$d bcoi legaliaed by pariianaent
and convocation* Margaitt, daughter of Robert HarlcatoAc, a
Norfolk squire, Duiiag XeU*a rebdlion be w» aBowcd to
preach in the rebela' cuap on Meusehold Hill, but withimi anuch
effect; and later on he encouraged Ma chapicttt, Alesaskltf
Neville, to write hia faialoiy of the riswg. Jfis Prolcrtantisn
advanced with the timet, and he rec ei ved hsgher pramotioa
under Northumberlaad than under the modeiate Sotntnet.
Bucer was his friend at Cambridge, and he p tiachwi Bocer's
funeral sermon in isss. In 1552 be waa peomoted to tbe r>.b
deanery of Lincohi, and in July 1553 he aupped with Noctbor>
berland at Cambridge, when the dake marched north an bis bop*^
I less camtpaign against Maiy.
FARKER; S:~PAKKBR. T^
829
As a tttpi»rler of Northumbeiliad and & nunicd man,
Packer was naturally deprived of his deaaery, his olastezsiup
of Corpus, and his other preferments. But he found means
to live Uk England throughout Mary's leign without further
molcstalioiu He was not cast in a heroic mould, and ho had
no desire to figure at the stake; like CedU and Elizabeth hersetf,
be had a great respect for authority, and when his lime came
he could consistently impose authority on others. He was not
eager to assume this task, and he made great efforts to avoid
promotion to the archbishopric of Canterbury, which Elizabeth
designed for him as soon as she had succeeded to the throne.
He was elected on the ist of August 1550; but it was difilcult
to find the requisite four bishops wiUing and qualified to conse-
crate him, and not until the 17th of December did Barlow,
iScory, Covcrdale and Hodgkins perform that ceremony
at Lambeth. The legend of an indecent consecration at the
Kag's Head tavern in Fleet Street seems first to have been
printed by the Jesuit, Christopher Holywood, in 1604; and it has
long been abandoned by reputable controversialists. Parker's
consecration was, however, only made legally valid by the plcnti-
tude of the royal supremacy; for the Edwardine Ordinal, which
was used, had been repealed by Mary and not re-enacted by
the parliament of 1559.
Parker owes his fame to circumstances rather than to personal
qualificationa. This wise moderation of the EUttibethaa settle-
ment, which had been efTocted before his appointment, was
obviously not due to him; and Elizabeth could have (daced Knox
or Bonner in the chair of St Augustine had she been so minded.
But she wanted a moderate man, and so she chose Parker.
He possessed all the qualifications she expected itota an arch-
bishop except celibacy. He distrusted popular enthusiasm,
and he wrote in horror of the idea that " the peopto "should
be the reformers of the Church. He was not laspiring as a
leader of religion; and no dogma, no origiiuil theory of church
government, no prayer>book, not even a tract or a hymn is
associated with his name. The 56 volumes published by the
Parker Society include only one by its eponymotis hero, and
that is a volume of correspondence. He was a disdplinarian, a
scholar, a modest and moderate man of genuine piety and
irreproachable morals. His historical research was exemplified
in his Dc autiqtutatt ecelesiae^ and his editions of Assor, Matthew
Paris, Walsingham, and the compiler known as Matthew of
Westminster; his liturgical skill was shown in his version of
the psalter and in the occasional prayers and thanksgivings
which he was called upon to composo; and he left a priceless
collection of manuscripts to his college at Cambridge.
He was happier in these pursuits than in the cxercke of his
Jurisdiction. With secubr politics he had little to do, and
he was never admitted to Elizabeth's privy council. But
ecclesiastical politics gave him an infinity of trouble. Many
of the reformers wanted no bishops at ail, while the CathoUcs
wanted those of the old dispensation, and the queen herself
grudged episcopal privilege until she discovered in it one of
the chief bulwarks of the royal supremacy. Parker was there-
fore left to stem the rising tide of Puritan feeling with little
support from parliament, convocatjoa or the Crown. The
bishops' InUrf^elalions and Puriker Censideraiimi^ issued in
1 560, tolerated a lower vcsliarian standard than was prescribed by
the rubric of 1559; the Advertisenunts, which Parker published in
1566, to check the Puritan descent, had to appear without specific
royal sanction; and the Reformatio legutn ecdesiasiicarum,
which -Foze published with Parker's approval, received neither
royal, parliamentary nor synodical authorization. Pai^iamcnt
even contested the claim of the bishops to determine nuiltcrs
of faith. " Surely," said Parker to Peter Wcntworth, " you
will refer yourselves wholly to us therein. " " No, by the
faith I bear to God," retorted Wentwortb,*' we wiH pass nothing
before we tindeiscand what it is; for that were but to make
you popes. Make you popes who Ust, for we will make you
Bone." Disputes about vestments had expanded into a con-
troversy over the whole field of Chnrch government and authority,
•nd Parker died 00 the 17th of May. 1 57 St himcn ting that Puritan
ideas of " govemaace " would " in conclusion undo the qoeeiiajid
all others that depended upon her." By his penonal conduct
he had set an ideal example for Anglican priests, and it was not
his fault that national authority faUed to crush the individualize
tendencies of the Protestant Reformation.
John Strype's life of Parker, originally publbhed In 1711. and
rc-cdiicd for the Clarendon Bros in r82i.(3 vols.), it the principal
scarce for Parker's life. A biographkial sketch written from a
different point of view was publi^ed by W. M. Kennedy in 1908.
See also J. Bass Mullinger's acholariy life in Diet. Nat. Bto^.;
W. H. Frcn'% volume in Stephens and Hunt's Church History*
Strype's Works (General Index); Goujrh*s Index to Parker Soc
Puhl. FuUcr. Burnet. Collier and R. W. Dixon's Histories of the
Church: Birt*s FJizabHhan SeUUmetU; H. Gee's Elizabethan Clera
(1898); Frou<fe*8 HiiL of England: and vol. vi. in Longmaivs
Polilical History. (A. F. P.)
PARKER. SAMUEL C1640-16S8), English bishop, was born
at Northampton, and educated at Wadham College, Oxford.
His Presbyterian views caused him to move to Trinity College,
where, however, the influence of the senior follow induced him
to join the Church of England, and he was ordained In 1664,
In 1665 he published an essay cnliilcd TaUamina physico-
theologica dc Dco^ dedicated to Archbishop Sheldon, who in
1667 appointed him one of his chaplains. He became rector
of Chartham, Kent, in the same year. In 1670 he became
archdeacon of Canterbury, and two years after he was appointed
rector of Ickham, Kent. In 1673 he was elected master of Eden-
bridge Hospital. His Discourse of Ecclesiaslical Pol Hie (London,
1670), advocating state regulation of religious affairs, led him
into controversy with Andrew Marvell (1621-1675). Jfamcs II.
appointed him to the bishopric of Oxford in 1686, and he
in turn forwarded the king's policy, especially by defending
the royal right to appoint Roman Catholics to office. In 16S7
the ecclesiastical commission forcibly installed htm as president
of Magdalen College, Oxford, the fellows having refused to elect
any of the king's nominees. He was commonly regarded as
a Roman Catholic, but he would appear to have been no more
than an extreme exponent of the High Church doctrine of
passive obedience. After he became president the action of
the king in replacing the expelled fellows with Roman Catholics
agitated him to such a degree as to hasten his end; to the priests
sent to persuade him on his death-bed to be received into the
Roman Church he declared that he " never had been and never
would be of that religion," and he died in the communion of
the Church of Engbnd.
Parker's second son, Samuel Parkeb (1681-1730), was the
author of BiUioikeca biUiea, or Patristic Commentary on Ike
Scriptures (1720-1735), an abridged translation of Eusebius, and
other works. Be was also responsible during 1708 and 1709
ior a monthly periodical entitled Censura lemporum, or Good
and tU Tendcncia of Books. He passed most of his life in retire-
ment at Oxford. His younger son Richard founded the well*
known publishing firm in Oxford.
See Maaiaten Cottete and James 11, i6S6-i689t by the Rew.
J. R. Bloxam (Oxford Historical Society, 1886).
PARKBR, THEODORB (1810-1M0), American preacher
and sods] reformer, was bom at Lexington, Massachusetts,
on the a4th of August x8xo, the youngest of eleven children.
His father, John Parker, a small farmer and skilful mechanic,
was a typical New England yeoman. His mother took great
pains with the religious education of her children, ** caring,
however, but little for doctrines," and making region to
consist of love, and good works. His paternal gnrnd-father.
Captain John Parker (1 7i^i775)t was the leader of the Lexhigton
minute-men in the skirmish at Lexington. Theodore obtained
the dements of knowledge in the schools of the district, which
were open during the winter months only. During the rest
of the year he worked on his father's farm.. At the age of
seventeen he became himself a winter schoolmaster, and
in his twentieth year ho enterad himself at Harvard, working
on the farm as usual (until 183 1) while he followed his
studies and going over to Cambridge for the examinations
only. For the theological course he took up in 1834 bis
830
PARKERSBURG— PARKES, SIR H. S.
Rsdencc ill (he coOcgCt meeting his expenses by a small
sum amassed by school-keeping and by help from a poor
stadents' fund, and gradoating in 1836. At the dose of
his college career he began his translation (published in
1843) of WUhelm M. L. De Weltc's BatrSgt tur Eitdrilmng
in dot AUc Testament. His journal and letters show that he
had made acquaintance with a large number of languages,
including Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, Coptic, Ethiopic,
as well as the classical and the principal modem European
languages. When he entered the divinity school he was an
orlhodox Unitarian; when he left it, he entertained strong
doubts about the infallibility o< the Bible, the possibility of
miracles, and the exclusive claims of Christianity and the Church.
Emerson's transcendentalism greatly inllucnccd him, and
Strauss's Ubcn Jesu left its mark upon his thought. His first
ministerial charge was over a small village parish, West Roxbuiy,
a few miles from Boston; here he was ordained as a Unitarian
clergyman in June 1837 and here he preached until January
1S46. His views were slowly assuming the form which sub-
sequently found such strong expression in his writing; but the
progress was slow, and the cautious reserve of his first rational-
istic utterances was in striking contrast with his subsequent
rashness. But on the 19th of May 1841 he preached at Boston
a sermon on " the transient and permanent in Christianity,*'
which presented in embr>x> the main principles and ideas of
his final theological position, and the preaching of which deter-
mined his sutnequent relations to the churches with which he
was connected and to the whole ecclesiastical worid. The
Boston Unitarian clergy denounced the preacher, and declared
that the " young man must be silenced." No Unitarian
publisher could 1^ found for hts sermon, and nearly all the
pulpits of the city were dosed against him. A number of
gentlemen in Boston, however, invited him to give a series of
lectures there. The result was that he delivered in the ftfosonic
Hall, in the winter of 1841-1843, as lectures, subsuntially the
volume aftenvards published as the Discourse oj Matters stain-
ing to Religion. The lectures in their published form made
his name famous throughout America and Europe, and con-
firmed the stricter Unitarians in America in their attitude
towards him and his supporters. His friends, however, resolved
that he should be heard in Boston, and there, beginning with
184s, he preached rcgulariy for fourteen years. Previous to
his removal from West Roxbury to Boston Parker spent a
year in Europe, calling in Germany upon Paulus, Gervinus,
De Wctte and Ewald, and preaching m Liverpool in the pulpits
of James Martineau and J. H. Thorn. After January 1846
he devoted himself exclusively to his work in Boston. In
addition to his Sunday hbours he lectured throughout the
States, and prosecuted his wide studies, collecting particulariy the
materials for an opns magnum on the development of religion
in nunkind. Above all he took up the question of the emandpa-
tion of the slaves, and fearlessly adN^ocated in Boston and else-
where, from the platform and through the press, the cause of
the negroes, fie made hb influence felt also by correspondence
with piolttical leaders aad by able political speeches, one of
which, delivered in 1858, contained the sentence, " Democracy
is direct self-govemment, over all the people, by all the people,
for aU the people,** which probably suggested Abraham Lincoln's
oft-quoted variant. Parker assisted aaivdy in the escape of
fugitive sbvcs, and for trying to prevent the rendition of perhaps
the most famous of them, Anthony Bums, was iadiaed, hnal
the indictncat was quashed. He also gave his aid to John
Brown (f .».). By hb voice, hb pen, and fab utterly fearless
actioo in social and political natben he becancagreat power
in Boston and America geacially. But hb days were numbered.
Hb oMthcr had sofFcred from phthisb; and he himself bow fell
a victim to the same dbense. In January x6s9 he suffcted a
violent haen w c iha gc of the lungs, and sou^t rdief by retreating
first to the West Indies and afterwards to Europe. He died
at FloreAce on the ic(th cf May i860.
The fundamental articles of Parker's religious faith were
Jk iKrrr ** instinctive imuitioas ** of God. of a mond law. and
olimmactallty. Hb own mind, hetit and life «tM«Bdoabtodly
pervaded, sustained and ruled by the feelings eonvictioos
and hopes whidi he formolatad in these three aitsdes; mad
he rationaliaed hb own lellgioas conoeptioaa in a munbcr «(
expositions which do credit to Ins sincerity and coevage. But
he w» a preacher rather than a thinker, a Rfotaer cathet
than a philoiephcr.
Parleer'a prindpal works are: A Dtseowne of UaUen terttmiMi l»
RHitiom (1842); r<fii Sernums of Religion (itu); and Sernurn of
Theism, AHmsm and iko Poptiar Tkooiagy (1853). A coUccttd
edition of hts works was published in England by Fraiicc» Po-»«r
Cobbc (14 vole., 1863-1870). and another— the Centenary edition
•>m Boston, Mass., by the American Unitarian Assocbrion (14 \x>1s..
1907-1911)1 a volume of Tluodon Parhtr's Ptaifers,tdktd by Rufus
Lcighton and Maiikla Goddard, was published in America m 1861.
and a volume of Parker's West Roxbtu^Sermons,^th abmraphical
sketch by Frank B. Sanborn, was published in BoMoo. Mass.. in
189a. A German transbtioa of part of hb worics was made by
Ziechea (Leipeig t8s4«i857).
aphies are John Weiss's Life and CorrtsPomdemee of
The best biographii
arker (Net
. jk, aouui^. vr. B. Trothifigluni^ Tkecdcrt
iograpky (Boston, 18J4): and John Whit
Theodore Parker, Preaeher and Rrformer (Boston, 1900).
rtWoM Pa
Parker: a Bit
:ew York. 1864):
(Boston, ^
and John White Chadwtck't
. , aur (Boston, 1900). the last
ling a good biblioeraphy. Valuable reviews of I*ar1cer's
'ical position and oT his character and work have appeared
— by James Martineau. in the Nattonal Review (April i860), and
J. H. Thorn, in the Theological Renew (March 1864).
PABKBBSBCR6, a city and the county-scat of Wood county,
West Virginia, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, at the mouth of the
Little Kanawha, about 95 m. below Wheeling. Fop. (i8qo-,
8406; (1900), 12,703, of whom S15 were foreign-bom and 753
were negroes ; (1910 census), i7Al>* Paikcnburg b ser\-cd
by the Bahimoro 8c Ohio, the Baltimore It Ohio South.
western, and the Little Kanawha railways, by electric railway
to Marietta, Ohio, and by passenger and freight boats to Piits-
buig, Qndnnoti, iatermicdbte ports, and ports on the little
Kanawha. Pftrkersburg b the see of a Protestant Episcopal
bishop. Oil, coal, natural gas and fire-clay abound in the
neighbouring region, and the dty b engaged in the refining cf
oil aiMi the manufacture of pottery, brick and tile, glass, lamber,
furm'lure, flour, steel, and foundry and nachine^hop products.
In 1905 the value of the factory prodncta was $3,778,130
(31 '9% more than in 1900). Parkersburg was settled in 17^^
was incorporated in 2820, and received a new charter in 1003,
when its boundaries were enlarged. About * m. below the
dty b the island which was the home of Hannan Blcnacr-
hassett (f.r.) and bears hb name.
PARKES. SIR HARRY SMITH (tS2$-i885), Englbh diploma-
tist, son of Harry Parkes, founder of the firm of ParLcs,
Otway & COl, ironmasters, was bom at Birchilb Hall, nas
Walsall in Staffordshire, in i8a8. When but four years old his
mother died and in the following yxar his father was killed i& a
carriage accident. Being thus kft an orphan, he found a boiac
with hb unde, a retired naval officer, at Birmin^banu He re>
cdvcd hb education at King Edward's Grammar SchooL In x 83 7
hb uncle died, and in 1841 he sailed for Macao in China, to t^ke
up hii residence at the house of hb cousin, Mrs Gutabff. At
thb time what was known as the *' Opiura War " had hrokra
out, and Parkes eageriy prepared himself to take part in the
events which were passing around him by diligently a|)f>l>iDg
himself to the study of Chinese. In i84> he re cei ved hb firai
appointment in the consular service. Fortunately for birr.
he was privileged to accompany Sir Henry Foltinger in >is
expedition up the Yangtsse-kiang to Nanking, and after havii-js:
taken part in the capture of Chiukiang and tbe surrender ck
Nanking, he witnessed the signing of the treaty on board t>«
** Cbrawallb " in August 1842. By thb treaty the five pons tA
Canton, Amoy, Fuchow, Kingpo and Shanghai were opered
to trade. After short residences at Canton and the nrwii
opened Amoy, Parkes was appointed to the consulate ai Fucfeo*
Here he served under Mr (afterwards Sir) Rutherford Alcock.
who was one of the few Englishmer who knew how to matkErr
the Chinese. In 1849 he returned to EngUnd on leave, «" :
after visiting the Continent and doing some hard work for O^t
foreign office he returned to Chiaa in 1851. After a slwct si.a>
PARKBS, SIR R— PARKIN
S31
at Amoy as {nterpreter be ms transferred In the same capacity
to Canton, In May i354 he was promoud to be consul at Amoy,
and in 2855 was chosen aa secietary to themiBsionto Bangkok,
being laigely instrumental in negotiating the first European
treaty -with Siam. In June 1856 he returned to Canton as
acting consul, a position which brought him Into renewed
contact with Commissioner Yeh, whose insolence and obstinacy
led to the second China War. Yeh had now met a man of
even greater power and determination than hhnsetf , and when,
in October i8s6, as a dimax to many outrages, Yeh sekcd
the British kircha " Arrow " and made prisoners of her crew,
Parkcs at once closed with his enemy. In response to a strongly
worded despatch from Parkes, Sir John fiowring, governor of
Hong-Kong, placed matters in the hands of Admiral Sir M.
Seymour, who took Canton at the ckne of the same month but
had not a sufficient force to hold it. la December 1857 Canton
was again bombarded by Admiral Seymour. Farkes, who wns
attached to the admiral's staff, waa the first man to enter the
city, ami himself tracked down and arrested CommisBlotter Yeh.
As the dty was to be held, an allied oommfssion was appointed
to govern it, consisting of two Englishmen, of whom one was
Parkcs, and a FVench naval officer. Parkes >^ually governed
this dty of a mUlion inhabitants for three years. Meanwhile
the treacherous attack at Taku upon Sir Frederick Bruce led to
a renewal of hostilities in the north, and Parkes waa ordered up
to serve as interpreter and adviser to Lord Elgin (Jttly»k86o).
In pursuance of these duties he went in advance of the army
to the dty of Tungchow, near Peking, to arrange a meeting
between Lord Elgin and the Chinese commissiotterB who had
been appointed to draw up the preliminaries of peace. While
thus engaged he, Mr (afterwatds Lord) Loch, Mr dc Norman,
Lord Elgin's secretary of legation, Mr Bowlby, the Times
correspondent, and others, were trouiierously taken prisoners
(Sept. 18, x86o). Parkes and Loch were carried off to the
prison of the bbard of punishments at Peking, where they were
separately herded with the lowest class of criminals. After
ten days' confinement in this den of iniquity they were removed
to a temple in the dty, where they were comfortably housed and
fed, and from whicb, after a further detention, they were granted
their liberty. For this signal instance of treachery Lord Elgin
burned down the Summer Palace of the emperor. Towards
the end of i860 Parkes returned to his post at Canton. On the
restoration (Oct. i86x) of the dty to the Chinese he returned
to England on leave, when he was made K.C.B. for his services;
be had received the companionship of the order in x86o. On
his return to China he served for a short time as consul at
Shanghai, and was then appointed minister in Japan (1865).
For eighteen years he held this post, and throughout that
time he strenuously used his influence in support of the Liberal
party of Japan. So earnestly did he throw in his k)t with
these reformers that he became a marked man, and incurred
the bitter hostility of the reactionaries, who on three separate
occasions attempted to assassinate him. In 1882 he was trans*
ferred to Peking. While in Pekmg his health failed, and he
died of malarial fever on the 3xst of March 1885. In 1856 Sir H.
(then Mr) Parkes married hiiss Fanny Plumer, who died in 1879.
The •tandanl Life a by Stanley Lane-Poole (1894). (R. K. D.)
PARKES* SIR HENRY (181 5*1896), Australian statesman,
was bom at Stoneldgh, in Warwickshhe, on the 37th of May
1815. The son of parents in very humble circumstances, he
received only a rudimentary education, and at an eariy age
was obliged to earn his living as a common labourer. Failing to
make his way In England, he emigrated to Australia in 1839, and
after a time settled in Sydney as an Ivory-tunier. Conscious
of his great powers, he worked unremittingly to repair the
defidcndes of his educatkm, and developed a genuine taste for
literature, and a gift for versification which won the approval
of so severe a judge as Tennyson. His first volume of poems
was published in 184}, under the thlc of Stcien MomtPts. He
now began to take an active part in politics, and soon showed
himself the wielder of an incisive style as a leader* writer, and a
popular orator of unrivalled influence. He took a prominent
part fai the movement against the transportation of convicts,
and in 1849 startod the Empire newspaper to inculcate his policy
of atucfcing abuses while remaining loyal to the Crown. The
paper at once made Hs mark, hut owing to financial difficulties
ceased to appear in 1858. One of the reforms for which Parkcs
fought most strenuously was the full Introduction of responsible
government. He was rotnmed to the legislative council under
the old constitution as member for Sydney, and on the estab-
lishment of a legisbtivc assembly in 1856 was elected for
East Sydney. His pariiamentaiy career was twice interrupted
by pecuniary embarrassmenu; indeed, he never acquired the
art of making money, and in spite of a public subscription raised
in 1887 died In absolute penury. He was elected for East
Sydney fat 1859 at the first general election under the new
dectoral act, and sat till x86t, when he was sent to England
as a commissioner for promoting emigration. He made a
prolonged stay in England, and described his impressions in a
scries of letters to the Sydney Mcntinfg Herald, some of which
were reprinted in 1869 under the title of Australian Y leu's cf
EHtfand. He Rtumed to Australia in 1863, and, re-entering
the Assembly, became coUmlal aecretaiy in the Martin ministry
from x866 tA x868. He sodnedcd in paising the Public Schools
Act of x866, which for the first time instituted an efficient
system of primary education in the colony. His great chance
came in X873, when the Martin ministry resigned on the<|oe5tron
of the sum payable by Victoria in lieu of border duties. Parkes
had for several yean persistently advocated free imports as
a remedy for the finandal distress of the colony. He now
became prime minister and colonial secretary; and rising to
the height of hb opportunity, he removed the cause of dispute
by throwing the colony open to trade. He hekl office till 187$,
and on the fall of the Robertson ministry again became premier
and colonial secretary from March till August 1877. At the
end of this year he was made K.C.M.G. Finding that the state
of parties did not allow of the existence of a suble ministry,
he formed a coalition with Sir John Robertson, and became
premier and colonial secretary for the third time from December
1878 to January 1883. In x88a and in 1883-1884 he paid
prolonged visits to England. Already distinguished among
Australian statesmen for breadth of outlook and passionate devo-
tion to the Empire, he returned with those qualities enhanced.
For a time he found himself almost in a position of isolation, but
in X887 the policy of protection adopted by his successors
brought him again Into office. His free trade policy was once
more successful. Other important measures of his adminlstre*
tion were the reform of the dvil service, the prohibition of Chinese
immigration, and the railways and public works acts. He
fell from office in January 1889, but In the following March
became for the fifth time premier and colonial secretary. The
remainder of his life was chiefly dex'oted to the question of
Australian federation. The Federal Convention at Meltwvme
in XS90 was mainly his work ; and he presided over the convention
at Sydney in X89X, and was chiefly responsible for the draft
constitution there carried. Defeated in October 1 891 on his
refusal to accept an eight hours' day for coal-miners, he remained
in opposition for the rest of his career, sacrificing even free trade
in the hope of smoothing the path of federation. He died at
Sydney on the 27th of April 1896; but though he did not live
to see the realization of his efforts, he may justly be called the
Father of the Australian Commonwealth.
He published, in addition to the works already lumed tnd
numerous vuliimet of verte, a collection of speeches on the Ftderal
Cooenmenf ^f Amslrolta (iSoo). and an autoowgiaphy, Fifty Years
til iJu maktMg 0/ AustraluH History (1892).
PARKIN, 0I0R6B ROBERT (X846- ), British Canadian
educationist, was bom at Salisbury, New Brunswick, on the
8th of February 1846. His father had gone to Canada from
Yorkshire. PaAUi was the youngest of a family of thirteen, and
after attending the local schools he started at an early age as a
teacher. Bent on improving his own education, he then entered
the uniiTrsity of New Brunswick, where he carried off high
honours in 1866-1868. From 1868 to 1872 he waa head mastef
83*
PARKINSON— PARKMAN
o^ Balhunt grammar school; but he was not content ^vith the
opportunities for study open to him in Canada, and he went to
England and entered Obcford. Here the enthusiastic young
Canadian was not only profoundly affected himself by entering
strenuously into the life of the ancient university (he was secre-
tary of the Union when H. H. Asquith was preskicnt), but in
his turn was instrumental in bringing the possibilities of British
Imperialism to the minds of some of the ablest among his con-
temporaries — ^his juniors by six or eight years. It is hardly too
much to say that in his intercourse at Oxford in the early 'seveiv
tics with men of influence who were then undergraduates the
imperialist movement in England substantially began. On
returning to Canada he became principal of the chief New Bruns-
wick school at Fredericton (where in 1878 he married), and for
fifteen years he did excellent work in this capacity. But in
J 889 he waa again drawn more directly into the imperialist
cause. The federation movement had gone ahead in the
meanwhile, and Parkin had always been associated with it;
and now he became a missionary speaker for the Imperial
Federation League, travelling for several years about the en4)ire
for that purpose. He abo became Canadian correspondent of
The Times, and in that capacity helped to make Canada better
known in the mother country. In 1894 he was given the
honorary degree of LL.D. by Oxford. In 169$ he returned to
scholastic work as principal of Upper Canada College, Toronto,
and retained this post till 1903; but he continued in the mean-
while to support the imperialist movement by voice and pen.
When in 1902 an oiganiter was required for the Rhodes Scholar-
ship Trust (see Rhodes, Cecil), in order to create the machinery
for working it in the countries to which- it applied, he accepted
the appointment; and his devotion to this task was largely
responsible for the success with which Rhodes's idea was carried
out at Oxford. His publications include Rcorganhalion of ike
Briliih Empire (18S:), Imperial Federation (1892), Rnund the
Empire (1892), Life oj Edward Tkring (1897), Lije of Sir John
Macdonaid (1907)*
PARKINSON, JAMES (d. 1824)* English pabcontotogist, was
educated for the medical profession, and practised in Hoxton,
from about the year 1785. He was a Fellow of the Royal
College of Surgeons, and one of tlie original members of the
Geological Society of London (1807). He ^as author of
numerous chemical and medical books, the most important of
which were Organic Remains of a Former World (3 vols., 1604,
1808, x8ii), and Outlines of Oryctology (1822). Parkinson died
in London, on the 21st of December 1824.
See Hisi. of Collections in BriL Mus, Nat. HisU Dep. (1904),
pp. 3ib-5i^
FARKMAN, FRANCIS (1823-1893), American historian, was
bom in Boston on the i6th of September 1823. His great-
grandfather, Ebcnczcr Parkman. a graduate of Harvard in 1721,
was for nearly sixty years minister of the Congregational Church
in Westborottgh, and was noted for his devotion to the study
of hisloiy. One of this good dcrgyman^s sons, Samuel Parkman,
became an eminent merchant in Boston, and exhibited much
skill in horticulture, Samuel's son, Francis Parkman, a graduate
of Harvard in 1807, was one of the most eminent of the Boston
clergymen, a pupU and friend of Channing, and noted among
Unitarians for a broadly tolerant disposition. This Dr Park-
man, a man of rare sagacity and exquisite humour, was the
fa'.hcr of Francis Parkman, the historian. His mother was a
descendant of the celebrated John Cotton. She was the daughter
of Natham'el Hall of Medford, member of a family which was
represented in the convention that framed the constituticm of
Massachusetts in 1780.
Francis Parkman was the eldest of her six children. As a
boy his health was delicate, so that it was thought best for him
to spend much of his time at his grandfather Hall's home in
Medford rather than in the city. That home was situated on
the border of the Middlesex Fells, a rough and rocky woodland,
4000 acres in extent, a& wild and savage in many places as the
primeval forest. The place is within 8 m. of Boston, and it
nay be doubtwl if anywhere else can be found another
soch magm'iicent piece of wi1dfcni«ss so near to a great dty.
There young Parkman spent his leisure hours in collecting eggs,
insecu and reptiles, trapping squirrels and woodchucks, and
shooting birds with arrows. This breeay life saved him from
the artiiidal stupidity which is too often superinduced in boys
by their school training. At the age of fourteen Packman
began to show a strong taste for literary composition. In 1841,
while a student at Harvard, he made a rough journey of explora-
tion in the woods of northern New Hampshire, where he had
a taste of adventure slightly spiced with hardship. About
this time he made up his mind to write a histovy of the last
French war in America, which ended in the conquest of Canada,
and some time afterwards he enlarged the plan so as to include
the whole oouiae of the American conflict between France and
Great Britain; or, to use his own woids, " The history of ihc
American forest; for this was the light in which I regarded it.
My theme fascinated me, and I was haunted with wikicrncss
images day and night." The way in which true genius works
could not be more happily described. In the course of 1S42
an attack of illness led to his making a journey in Italy, whrre
he spent some time in a monasteiy belonging to one of the
stricter of all the monastic orders, the Passionists, brethren
addicted to wearing hair shirts and scourging themselves withont
mercy. In the young historian's eyes these good brethren were
of much value as living and breathing hiAoric materiaL la
1844 he graduated at Harvard with high rank.
He now made up his mind to study the real wfldemess In ita
gloom and vastness, and to meet face to face the dusky warrion of
the Stone Age. To-day such a thing can hardly be done within
the United States, for nowhere does the primitive wildenuss
exist save here and there in shreds and patches. So recently as
the raiddlo of the 19th century, however, it covered the western
half of the continent, and could be reached by a journey of 1600
or X700 milos from Boston to the plains of Nebraska. Parkman
had become an adept in woodcraft and a dead shot wiili the
rifle, and oould do such things with horses, tame or wild, as
civilised people never see done except in a circus. In company
with his friend and cbssmale, Mr (^ncy Shaw, he passed
several months with the Ogillalah band of Sioux. Knowledge,
intrepidity and tact carried Parkman through these experiences
unscathed, and good luck kept him dear of encounters with
hostile Indians, in which these qualities might not have sufficed
to avert dcstniction. It was a vtty important experience in
rebtion to his life-woik. This outdoor hfe, however, did not
suffice to recruit Parkman's health, and by 1848, when he
began writing The Conspiracy of Pontiac, he had reached a
truly pitiable condition. The trouble seems to have been some
form of nervous exhaustion, accompanied with such b>'pcr-
sensitiveness of the eyes that it was impossible to keep them
open except in a dark room. Againat these difficulties he
struggled with characteristic obstinacy. He invented a machine
which so supported his hand that he could write legibly with
closed eyes. Books and documents were read aloud to him,
while notes were made by him with eyes shut, and were after-
wards deciphered and read aloud to him till he had mastered
them. After half an hour his strength would give out, and in
these circumstances his rate of composition for a long tiirc
averaged scarcely six lines a day. The superb htstoricml mono-
graph composed under such difficulties was published in 1851.
It had but a small sale, as the Americas public was then too
ignorant to feel much interest in American history.
Undeterred by this inhospitable reception, Parkman took up
at the begmning his great work on France and En/fMnd m the
Ne» World, to which the book just mentioned was in rcalay
the sequel. This work obliged him to trace out, collect, arrange,
and digest a great mass of incongraooa material scattered on
both aides of the Atlantic, a large portion of which was in nunn>
script, and required much tedious exploration and the employ-
ment of trained copyists. This work involved several joaror\s
to Europe, and was performed with a thoroughness approachuig
6nality. In 1865 the first volume of the great woik appeared.
under the title of Filters id Franct in the New WmUi nad Ihea
PARLA KIMEDI— PARLEMENT
833
MveiMiid^fPenty yetn man dapied bef on tk« final vohunei
oune out in 189J. Nowhere can we find a better illustiation
of tlie French critic's definition ol a great life—« thought con*
ceived in youth, and realised in later yean* After the PHit€er$
the sequence is Tk€ JttmU in Ntrtk Awurica, La SalU and th€
Disecnry 0J ike Crtei WtU, The Old Rigime tn Canada, Fr^nUnac
and Nt» France and Lams XIV., Monkatm and Watft, A HaiJ
Century of CanifLicL As one obstacle after another was sur*
mountodiasonegranddivisioa of the work after another became
an accomplished fact,. the effect upon Parkman's condition
seems to have been bracing, and he acquired fresh impetus
as he approacfaod the goaL There can be Uttle doubt that his
physical condition was much impravsd by his habit of cultivating
pbnts in garden and conservatory. He wis a horticulturist
of profound attainments, and himself originated several new
varieties of flowers. His work in this department made him
an enUiusiastic adherent of the views., of Darwin. He was
professor of horticulture in the agiicultucal school of Harvard
in 1871-X87S, and published a few books on the subject of
gardem'ng. He died at Jamaica Platn, near Bostony on the 8th
of November 1893.
The significaace of Psrkman's work oomnsts partly in the
success with which he has depicted the North- American Indians,
those belated chikbcn of the Stone Age, who have been so
persistently misunderstood alike by romancers, such as Cooper,
and by detractors like Dr Palfrey. Parkman waa the first great
literary author who really understood the Indian's character
and motives. Against this savage background of the forest
Parkman shows the rise, progress and dramatic termination
of the colossal struggle between Fcsnce and Great Britain for
colonial empire. With true philosophic insight he shows that
France fafled in the struggle not because of any inferiority
in the ability and character of the men to whom the work was
entrusted, but chiefly by reason of her despotic and protective
rigime. Thetv is no more eloquent oommentsfy upon the whole-
some results of British self-government than is to be found in
Pftrkman's bo6k. But whUe the author deab with history
philosophically, he docs not, like Buckle, hurl at the reader's
head huge generalisations, or, like CarlylCt preach him into
somnolence. With all iu manifold instructivcness, his book
is a narrative as entertaining as those of Macaulay or Froode.
In judicial impartislity Parkman may be compared with
Gardiner, and for accuracy of learning with Stubba.
There b a good L^e by G. H. Paraham (Boston, 1900). (J- Ft.)
PAULA KIMEDI. a town of British India, in Ganjam dis-
trict of Madras. Pop. (1901), X7>336. It is the residence of a
raja, who claims descent from the andent kin^ of Orissa. His
estate covers an area of 614 iq. m.,^d pays a ruvcnue of £7000
out of an estimated income of £a6,ooa He maintains a collefe,
and has constructed a light railway (»5 m.) to the station of
Naupada on the East Coast raUway. Tliere is a trade in rice,
and mau and other articles are woven of reeds.
PARIIHBIIT (see PAaLiAMENT), in O. Fr. the name given
to any meeting for discussion or debate (gorier, to speak),
a sense In which it was still used by Joinville, but from
the latter half of the 13th century employed in Fkance in a
special sense to designate the sessions of the royal court (carta
reps). Finally, when the Pailement of Plsiis had become a
permanent court of justice, having the supreme authority in
cases brought before.it, and especially in appeab against the
sentences of the h»Uis and seneschals, it retained this name,
which was also ghren to the other supreme courU of the same
nature which were created after iu model in the provinces.
^ The early Capetiaas had a custom, based upon aadent
precedents, of summoning periodically to their cmnt their
principal Vessels and the prelates of their kingdom. These
gatherings took place on the occasion of one of the great festivals
of the year, in the town in which the king was then in residence.
Here they deliberated upon political matters and the vassals
and prelates gave the king their advice. But the monarch also
gave judgment here in those cases whfch were brought before
him. .These were few \n number during the early days.of .the
Capetiaa dynsty; fte though the' king always maintained the
principle that he wsa judge, and even that his competence in
this respect was general and unlimited, this competence was at
the same time undefined and it was not compulsory to submit
cases to the king. At this period, too, appeals, strictly so called,
did not esast. Nevertheless when a suit was brought before
the king he judged it with the assistance of his preUtes and
vassab assembled around him, who formed his counciL This
was the cmia regis. But in law the king waa sole judge, the
vassals and prelates being only advisers. During the isth
and at the begiiming of the 13th centuries the enria regis con-
tinued to discharge these functions, eioept that its importance
and actual competence continued to increase, and that we
frequently find in it, in addition to the vassals and preUtes who
formed the council, eansUiarii, who are evidently men whom
the king had in his entoumge, as his ordinary and professional
councillors. Under the reign of St Louis (which was also the
period at which the name parlement began to be applied to
these judicial sessions) the aspect of affairs changed. The
judicial cumpetence of the Parlement developed and became
more clearly defined; the syitem of appeals came into wrist fncr ,
and appeals against the judgments of the baittisand smrsrhsls
were brought before it; cases concerning the royal towns, the
bonna viiies, were also deckled by it. Again, in the old regbten
of the Parlement at thb period, the first Olim books, we see the
names of the same coundUors recurring from session to session.
Thb suggests that a sufficient number of councillors was assured
beforehand, and a Ibt drawn up for each session; the vassab
and prelates still figuring as a complementary body at the
Neat cane the series of ordfaiaaccs regulating the tenure
of the Parlement, those of IS78, ta9x, ZS96 and 1308, and the
institution was regularised. Not osly were the perMns who
were to constitute each Pariement named in advance, but those
who wen not placed on thb Ibt, even though vassab or prebtes,
were excluded from judging cases. The royal baiUis had to
attend the Parlement, hi order to answer for their judi^ents,
and at an early date waa fixed the order of the different teitfleics,
in which the cases coming from them were beard. The froatftr ,
when not interested in the case, formed part of the council, but
were afterwards excluded from it. Before the middle of the
r4th century the personnel of the Parlement, both presidcnu
and ooundUois, became fixed dc/(sel0 if not dc/Mre. Every year
a list was dnwn up of those who were to hold the session, and
although thb list was annual, it contains the same names year
after year; they are aa yet, however, only annual commissarica
( iHM wm iJi a f nw). In 1344 they became oifidab {aficiers) fixed
but not yet irremovable. At the same time the Pariement had
become permanent; the number of the sessions had diminished,
but their length had increased. In the courre of the 14th century
it became the rule for the Paxiement to sit from Martinmas
(Nov, I r) tin the end of May; later the session was prolonged
till the middle of August, the rest of the year forming the vaca-
tion. The Parlement had also become fi»d at Paris, and,
by a development which goea back to raidy eariy times, the
presidenu and councillors, instead of *>eing merely the king's
advisers, had acquired certain powen, though these were con-
ferred by the monarch; they were, in fact, tsoe magbtratea.
The king held hb court in person kss and less often, and it
pronounced iu decrees in hb absence; we even find him pleading
hb cause before it as plaintiff or defendant. In the 14th century,
however, we «i]] find the Parlement referring delicate affairs to
the king; but In the isth century it had acquired a jurisdiction
independent hi prindple. As to iU composition, it conthiued
to preserve one notable feature which recaUed iu origin. It
had orighudly been an assembly of by vassab and prebtea;
when iu composition became fixed and consisted of coondttor-
magistrates, a certain number of these offices were necessarily
occupied by laymen, and othen by ecclesiastics, the eanseSkn
lais and the eanseiOers dercs.
The Parlement was at the same tune the court of peers Cesar
das pairs). Thb had as iu origin the old priadpb acceidlBi
834
PARLEMENT
to wldch every vassal had the right to be tried by hh peers, t.«.
by the vassals holding fiefs from the same lord, who sat in
judgment with that lord as their prcsidenL This, it is well
known, resulted in the formation of the andent coUege of the
peers oif France, which consisted of six laymen and six ecclesias-
tics. But although in strict logic the feudal causes concerning
them should have beeo judged by them alone, they could not
maintain this right in the curia regis; the other persons sitting
in it could also take part in judging causes which concerned the
peers. Finally the peers of France, the number of whom was
increased in course of time by fresh royal creations of peerages,
became ex officio members of the Fairlement; they were the
hereditary councillors, taking the oath as official magistrates,
and, if they wished, sitting and having a deliberative function
in the Pailement. In suits brought against them personally
or involving the rights of their peerage they had the right ct
being judg«l by the Parlement, the other peers being present,
or having been duly summoned.
While maintaining its unity, the Parlement had been sui>-
divided into several chambres or sections. In the first i^ace
there was the Grand Ckambre, which represented the primitive
Padement. To it was reserved the judgment in. certain impor-
tant cases, and in it a peculiar procedure was followed, known
as aralt though it admitted certain written documents. Even
alter the ofiices of the Padement had become legally saleable
the councillors coiUd only pass from the other chambers into
the Grand Ckambre by order of seniority. The Chambres des
enquiUs and des requites originated at the time when it became
customary to draw up lists for each session of the Parlement.
The enquHeurs or audileurs of the Parlement had at first been
an auxiliary staff of clerks to whom were entrusted the inquests
ordered by the Parlement. But later, when the institution of
the appeal was fully developed, and the procedure before the
various jurisdictions became a highly technical matter, above
all when it admitted written evidence, the documents connected
with other inqtKsts also came before the Parlement. A new
form of appeal grew up side by side with the older fonft, which
had been mainly an oral procedure, namely the appeal by
writing (appd par terit). In order to judge these new appeals
the Parlement had above all to study written documents,
the inquests «^ch had been made and written down under the
jurisdiction of the court of first instance. The duty of the
enquiteurs was to make an abstract of the written documents
and report on them. Later the reporters {rapporteurs) were
admitted to judge these questions together with a certain number
of members of the Paxiement, and from 13 16 onwards these
two kinds of member formed together a chambre des euquUa.
As yet, no doubt, the rapporteur only gave his opinion on the
case which he had prepared, but after 1336 all those who formed
part of the chamber were put on the same footing, taking it in
turn to report and giving judgment as a whok. For a kog
time, however, the Grand Chambre received all cases, then sent
them to the Chambre des enquHes with directions; before it too
were argued questions arising out of the inquiry made by the
Chambre des euquHes, to the docisions of which it gave effect and
which it had the power to revise. But one by one it lost all
these rights, and in the 16th century they are no longer heard of.
Several Chambras des euquttes were created after the first one,
and It was they who had the greater part of the work.
The Chambre des requites was of an entirely different nature*
At the beginning of the 14th century a certain number of those
who were to hold the session of the Parlement were set apart to
receive and judge the petitions (requites) on judicial questions
which had been presented to the king and not yet dealt with.
This eventually led to the formation of a chamber, in tiie stria
sense ai the word, the Requites du palais. But this became
puidy a jurisdiction for privileged persons; before it (or before
the Rtquites da PhdUl, as the case might be) were brought
the dvfl suits of those who enjoyed the right of Committimus.
The Chambre des requites had not supreme jurisdiction, but
appeab from iu dedsioos could be made to the Parlement
The Parlement had also a criminal chamber, flat ef La
ToumeUet which was not legally created until the 16th ceaiury,
but was active long before then. It bad no definite member-
ship, but the eonseiliers tais served in it in torn.
Originally there was only one Pariement, that of Psiis, as
was indeed logical, considering that the Parfement was simply
a continuation of the curia regist which, like the king, coukl only
be one. But the exigendes of the administration of justice kd
to the suooeasive creation of a certain number of provincial
parlements. Their creation, moreover, was generally dictated
by political drcumstaoces, after the incorpoiation of a province
in the domain of the Crown. Sometimes it was a queatua ol
a province which, before iU annexation, poasrncd a superiof
and soverdgn jurisdiction of its own, and to which it was desired
to preserve this advantage. O else it might be a province
forming part of feudal France, which before the annexation had
had a superior jurisdiction from which the Crown had endca«
voored to institute an appeal to the Parlement of Paris, oui
for which after the annexation it was no loB^er necessary tq
maintain this iq>pea], so that the province might now be given
a supreme court, a parlement. Sometimes an intermediate
regime was set up between the annexation of the province aad
the creation of its provindal parlement, under which ddcgatea
from the Parlement of Paris went and held assises these. Thus
were created successivdy the paricmenta of Toubuse, GrcnoUe,
Bordeaux, Dijon, Rouen, Aix, Rennes, Pau, Meta, Douai,
Besan^n and Nancy. From 176s to 1771 thero «aa even a
parlement for the prindpality of Dombcs. The ptovindal
pariements reproduced in a smaller scale the oigaaixatioo oC
that of Paris; but they did not combine the functions of a court
ofpeerk They each daimed to possess equal powea within their
own province. There were also great judicial bodies exercisi&c
the same functions as the parlements, though witiiout bearing
the ruune, such as the Conseil soueeraiu of Alsace at Colxnar,
the Conseil supirieur of Roussillon at Perpignan; the provindal
council of Artois had not the supreme jurisdiction in aU feapccts.
The parlements, beddes their judicial functions, also possessed
political rights; they claimed a share in the higher policy of the
realm, and the position of guardians of its fuadamcaul laws«
In general the laws did not come into effect within their provinco
until they had been registered by the parlements. TUs was ibe
method of promulgation admitted by the ancient law of France,
but the parlements verified the laws before registering tfaea,
i.e, they examiacd them to see whether they were in conforsBty
with the prindples of law and Justice, and with the jntcresu c<
the king and his subjects; if they considered that this was irot
the case they refused their registration and addressed iuDoa«
strances iremantranoes) to the king. In acting thus they were
merdy conforming to the duty of counselUng Xdeeoir de camscit)
which all the superior authorities had towards the king, azul the
text of the ordtnanoes {ordonnonces) had often invited them to
do so. It was natural, however, that in the end the royal will
should seek to impose itself. In order to enforce the xcgBtra-
Lion of edicts the king would send lettres de cachet, known as
lettres dejussion, which were not, however, always obeyed. Or
he could come in person to hold the parlement, and have ibe
law registered in his presence in $, lit de justica. This «as
explaisMBd in theoiy by the prindple that if the king himself held
his court, it lost, by the fact of his presence, all the antborlty
which he had delqpued to it; for the moment the only aotliority
existing in it was that of the king, just as in the aadcnt cmria
regis there was the prindple that apparente rtge eessat iwafLS*
tratus. But, prindpally in the x8th century, the pnxleinci;:a
m ai n tai n ed that only a voluntaiy registration, fay the coiaert
of the parlement, was valid.
The parlements had also a wide power of admiadstzatioa.
They could make regulations (poutoir rtgUmentaire^ haviisg
the foKe of law within thdr province, upon ail points not
settled by law, when the matter with which they dealt feu
within their judidal competence, and for this it was only aecev-
sary that their interference in the matter was not forbidden
by.Uwt These were what were called arrite de rc^i^rw&L
PARLIANfENT
835
By ttak fluaas the iMdettents took part in the adiiilikiitiatioo,
except in niAtten the oogDisaace of which wu attiibuted to
another supreme court as that of taxation was to the tours
d§$ aides. They could also^ frithin the same Ifanits, address
injunctions (htJoiuHms) to oifidals and individuals.
See La Roche-Flavin, TVmw litres des parlemsnts is Francs
(1617); Felix Auhert, Histoire du pariemsiU ds Paris, des orieiius
^ Fromfois I. (a vob., 1894); Ch. V. Langloia. Tsxiss rstaHfs d
kislsira dm parkmmt dspmu Us srigims jnsfu'sn i3i4 (l896):
rtialkicmKB, Enqpaus at pntjts (iS^a); Glasaon, la PoHsmaU ds
fkistsirs __
Gualkicmiaa, _ „ _ „ _
Paris, son r6ls politiqus dspms Is rkpts ds ChaHss YIL
rholunon (a vols., 1901).
PARUAHBMT (An^lAt. posUameatam, Fr. parlomtfa, from
Parler, to speak), the name given to the supreme legidature of
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. (For the
old French paskmeui, see Faukmimt; and for analogous
foreign assemblies see tlie articles on tlieir respective countries.)
The word is found in English from the 13th eentuiyp first for a
debate* then for a formal conference^ and for the great councils
of the Plantagenet kings; and the modem sense his come to be
applied fctrospectivdy. WiUiam the Con<iueior is said in the
Chionick to have had " very deep speech with his Wiua ";
this ** deep speech " (in Latin coOoiptiusn, in French porlomoia)
was the distinguishing feature of a meeting between king and
people, and thus gave its name to the national assembly, ttsell.
The SUtute of Westminster (1275) first uses *' parlemoot " of
the great council hi England.
The British Parliament consists of the King (or (^een regnant),
the Lords spiritual and temporal, and the Commons'; and it
meets in two houses, the House of Lords (the Upper or Second
chamber) and the House of Commons.
The (>own, pre-eminent In rank and dignity, is the legal
source of parliamentary authority. The sovereign virtuaUy
appoints the lords spiritual, and al} the peerages of the lords
temporal have been created by the (^lown. The king summons
parliament to meet, and prescribes the time and place of its
meeting, prorogues and dissolves it, and commands the issue
of writs for the election of members of the House of Commons.
By several statutes, beginning with tlie 4 Edward III. c. 14,
the annual meeting of parliament bad been ordained; but these
statutes, continually durcgarded, were virtually repoled in the
reigns of Charles II. and William and Mary (z6 (Hi. II. 31; 6 & 7
WilL k, Mary, 33). The present sUtute law merely exacts the
meeting of pariiament once m three years; but the annual voting
of supplies has long since superseded obsolete statutes. When
parliament is assembled it cannot proceed to business until the
king has declared the causes of summons, in person or by com-
mission; and though the veto of the Crown on legislation has
long been obsolete, bills passed by the two houses only become
law on receiving the royal assent,
» The House of Lords is distinguisoed by peculiar dignities,
privOegcs and jurisdictions. Peers individually enjoy the rank
and precedence of their several digm'ties, and are hereditary
councillors of the Crown. Collectively with the lords spiritual
they form a permanent council of the Crown; and, . when
assembled in parliament, they form the highest court of judicature
in the realm, and are (in constitutional theory at all events) a
co-equal branch of the legislature, without whose consent no
Uws can be made (see below, Bouss oj Lords Question). Thdr
judicature is of various kinds, via. for the trial of peers; for
determining claims of peerage and offices of honour, under
references from the Crown; for the trial of controverted elections
of Scotch and Irish peers; for the final determination of appeals
from oourtrin England, Scotland and Ireland; and lastly, for
the trial of impeachments.
The House of Commons also has its own peculiar privileges
and juQsdiaions. Above all, it has the paramount right of
originating the impoaitioa of aU taxes, and the granting of
supplies for the service of the sUte. It has also enjoyed, from
early times, the right of determining all matters concerning the
' Or rather, the repreicntatives of the Commons (see RapaasBM-
tiTiON): but the tenn has long been used for the deputies then-
jefves GoUectivdy. -
fUctkn of its own membeis, and thchr ri^ to sit and vote in
parliament. This right, however, has been greatly abridged,
as, in 1868, the trial of controverted elections wss transferred to
the couru of hiw; but iu jurisdiction hi matten of election, not
otherwise provided for by statute, is still retained bitact. As
part of this jurisdiction the house direcu the Speaker to issue
warrants to the clerk of the Crown to make out new writs for
the election of members to fill up such vacancies as occur during
the sitting of parliament.
Prmilstss t^f Pofliswsiil.— Both houses are fai the enjoyment of
OHtain privileges, designed to maintain their authority, indepen-
dence and dignity. These privileges are founded mamiy upon the
law and custom of pariiament, while some have been confirmed,
and others abridged or abrogated by statute. The Lords rely
entirely upon theu> mherent right, as having " a pUce and voice
m parliament " : but, by a custom dating from the 6th Heniy VUU
the Commons lay chum, by humble petition to the Crown at the
commencement of every parliament, ** to their ancient and un-
doubted rights and privUeges.*' Each house has its separate
rights and jurisdictions; but privileges properly so-called, twing
founded upon the law and custom 01 parliameat, are common to
both houses. Each house adjudges whether any breach of privi-
lege has been committed, and punishes offenders by censure or
commitmenL This right of commitment is incontcstably estak>-
lished. and it extends to the protection of ofiicers of the house,
lawfully and properiy executing iu orders, who are also cmpoweied
to call in the assistance of the dvU power. Hie causes of such
commitments cannot be inquired into by courts of taw. nor can
prisonere be admitted to nail. Breeches of privilege may be
summarised as disobedience to any orders or rules of the house,
iodignities offered to its character or proceedings, assaults, iasultsi
or libels upon members, or interference with omcers of the house
in discharge of their duty, or tampering with witnesses. Such
offences are dealt with as contempts, accorcKng to the circum-
stances of the respective cases, of which numerous preocdente am
to be found in the journals of both houses. The Lords may imprison
for a fixed period, and impose fines; the Commons can only imprison
generally, the commitment being concluded by the prorogation,
and have long discontinued the imposition of fines.
Freedom of speech has been one of the most cherished privileges
of pariiament from early times. Constantly asserted, and often
violated, it was finally declared by the Bill of Rights " that the free-
dom of speech, and debates and proceedings In parliament, ought
not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of
pariiament." Sudi a privilege is essential to the independence of
parliasMnt, and to the protection of roeraticrs in discharge of their
duties. But, while it protects members from molestation else-
where, it leaves them open to censure or other punishment by the
house itself, whenever they abuse their privilege and transgress
the rules of orderiy debate.
Freedom from anest is a privilege of the highest antiquity. It
was formerly of extended scope, but has been reduced, by later
legislation, within very narrow limits. Formerly not only the
persons of members but their goods were protected, and their
privilege extended to thdr servants. At present raembeni are
themselves free from arrest* but otherwise they are liable to aU
the proctssea of the courts. If arrested, they will be immediately
discharged, upon motion in the court whence the process issued.
Peers and peeresses arc, by the privilege of peerage, free from arrest
at all times. Members 01 the House of Commons are free only for
forty days after prorogatloii and forty days before the next appomted
meeting: but prrirpi^tioas are so armnged as to ensure a con-
tinuance of the privilege. Formerly, even suits against members
were stayed, but this offensive pnvilegc has been abolished by
statute. Exemption from attending as witnesses upon subpoena,
once an acknowledg^od privilege, is no kingcr insisted upoo; but
immunity from service upon juries is at once an ancient privilc|;e
and a statutory right. The privilege of freedom from arrest is
limited to civil causes, and has not been suffered to exempt members
from the operation of the criminal law. nor even from commitments
for contempt by other courts. But. whenever the freedom of a
member is so mterfered with, the courts are reciuired immediately
to inform the house of the causes of his commitment. Witnesses,
suitors, counsd and agents in attendance upon parliament are
protected from arrest and molestation, and from the consequences
of sutements made by them, or other prooeedmgs in the conduct
of their caaeSk
As both houses, in enfordng their privileges, are obliged to commit
offenders or otherwise interfere with the liberty of the subject, the
exereise of these privileges has nannally been called in question
before the courts. Each house is the sole fudge of its own prfvilcgesi
but the courts are bound to administer the law, and, where law
and privilege have seemed to be at variance, a conflict of Juris-
diction has arisen t>etween parliament and the courts. Many
interesting controversies have arisen upon such occasions; but of
late years privilege has been carefuHy restmined within the
proper limits of the law. and the oouru have amply noogniasd
the authority of pa r lia m ent.
836
PARLIAMENT
PoHiamentary Proceditn.-^lx will be eonvcnient hoc to
sketch the geoecal lines of procediue. On the day a|>poinled
by royal proclamation for the meeting of a new parliament both
houses assemble in their respective chambers, when the Lords
Commissioners for opening the parliament summon the Commons
to the bar of the House of Lords, by the mouth of Black Rod. to
hear the commission read. The lord chancellor slates that, when
the members of both houses shall be sworn, the king will declare
the causes of his calling this parliament; and, it being necessary
that a Speaker of the House of Commons shall be first chosen,
the Commons are directed to proceed to the appointment of
a Speaker, and to present him, on the followmg day, for His
Majesty's royal approbation. The Commons at once withdraw
to their own house and proceed to the election of their Speaker
The nest day the Speaker-elect proceeds, with the house, to the
House of Lords, and, on receiving the royal approbation, lays
claim, in the accustomed form, on behalf of the Commons, '* to
their andent and undoubted rights and privileges." The
Speaker, now fully confirmed, returns to the House of Commons,-
and, after repeating his acknowledgments, reminds the house
that the first thing to be done is to take and subscribe the oath
required by law. Having first taken the oath himself, he is
followed by other members, who come to the uble to be sworn.
The swearing of members in both houses proceeds from day to
day, until the greater number have taken the oath, or affirmation,
when the causes of summons are declared by His Majesty in
person, or by commission, in " the King's speech." This speech
being considered in both houses, an Address {g.t.) in answer is
agreed to, which is presented to His Majesty by the whole house,
or by " the lords with white staves " in one house and privy
councillors in the other.
The debate on the Address being over, the real business of the
session now commences: the committees of supply and ways and
means are set up; bills are introduced; motions are made;
committees are appointed; and both houses are, at once, in full
activity. The Lord Chancellor presides over the deliberations
of the Lords, and the Speaker over those of the Commons. A
quorum of the House of Lords, including the chancellor, is three
(thirty for divisions); that of the House of Commons, including
the Speaker, is forty.
Every matter is determined, in both houses, upon questions
put from the chair, and resolved in the affirmative or negative, or
otherwise disposed of by the withdrawal of the motion, by
amendments, by the adjournment of the house, by reading the
orders of the day, or by the previous question. Notices are
required to be given of original motions; and the different stages
of bills, and other matters appointed for consideration by the
house, stand as orders of the day. Questions of privilege are
allowed precedence of all the business on any day; but this rule,
being liable to grave abuses, is guarded by strict limitations.
Debates arise when a quesuon has been proposed from the chair;
and at the ck>se of the debate (for the " closure " in the House of
Commons, see below, House «/ Commons^ Internal Reforms) the
question is put, with or mthout amendment, as the case may
be. and is determined, when necessary, by a division. No
question or bill, substantially the same as one upon which the
judgment of the house has already been given, may be again
proposed during the same session.
Members cUim to be heard in debate by rising in their places.
When more than one member rises at the same time, in the
Lords the member who is to speak Is called by the house, in the
Commons by the Speaker. Every member, when called. Is
bound to speak to the question before the bouse; and calls to
order are very frequent. A member may speak once only to
any question, except to explain, or upon a point of order, or to
reply when a member has himself submitted a motion to the
house, or when an amendment has been moved which constitutes
a new question. He may not refer to past debates, nor to
debates in the other house; nor may he refer to any other member
by name, or use offensive and disorderly language against the
king, either House of Pariiament, or other members. Members
ofmdiiigaiaiBst any of the rules of debate are called to order by
the Speaker, or the attention of the chaitii directed to the hwfh
of order by another member. Order is fCDeial^ enibned bjr
the authority of the chair; but in. txtMtam casca, and espcriaijy
when obstructioB is being ptactiaed, the offending noidier ia
named by the Speaker, and suapeoded by an order of the boiae,
or otherwise punished at the discretion of the house.
At the conclusion of a debate, unless the motion be withdimwB,
or the question (on being put from the chair) be agreed to or
negatived, the house proowds to a division, which cfleoa the two-
fold purpose of ascertaining the nmnbers supporting and opposiof
the question, and of recording the names ol members voting on
either side. On each side of the house is a division lobby; and
in the Lords the " contents " and in the Commons the ** ay«a "
are directed to go to the right, and the " not cnntenu " or
" noes " to the left. The former pass into the right kbby, at
the back of the Speaker's chair, and return to the hooae throng^
the bar; the latter pass into the left tobby, at the bar, and fetom
at the back of the chair. The oppoang parties are than kept
entirely dear of one another. In each lobby there are two
members acting as tellers, who count the membecs aa they pass,
and two division dedca who take down their names. After the
division the four tellers advance to the uble, and thennmbcn
axe reported by one of the tellers for the majority. Incaaeofnn
equality of numbers, in the Lords the question is u e gati ft iJ in
virtue of the ancient nile "semper pracsumitur pn nrgsnfr **;
b the Commons the Speaker gives the casting vote.
CommiUees of Ike Whole House.^For the Mke of oonvenicnee in
the traosaaion of buunen there are Kvenil kind* of caauBittec&.
Of these the most important is a committee of the whole houK,
which, as it consists of the entire body of members, can scarcdy
be accounted a oommittoe. It it presided over by a chainnaa, who
sits in the derk's chair at the table, the maoe, whidi tfpri'i im
the withoritv of the house itself, being for the tioie placed under
the table. In this committee are discussed the several provisaoas
of bills, resolutions and other matten requiring the consideratiQa
of details. To fadlitate discussion, memoers are allowed to speak
any number of times to the same question; othcrwias the proceed*
infs are tLadlu to those of the house itself. In the Locd^ the
chair is taken by the chairman of committees; and in the Commona
by the chairman of the committee of ways and means, or in his
absence by any other member. The quorum of soch a coamattee
is the same as that of the house itself. It repoita from tiaae to
time to the house, but has no power of adjournment.
Grand and Standing Committees. — In the House of C o m n i oe a
there were formeriy four gnnd committees, vie for religkm. for
grievances, for courts of justice, and for trade. They were founded
upon the valuable prindpte of a dastribatioo .of laboors mnoog
several bodies of members; but, having fallen into disuse, they we
discontinued in 183a. The andent committee of privilqBea. io
which " all who come are to have voices,*' b still appointed at the
commencement of every session, but is rarely called into actioa.
as it has been found more convenient to appoint a adect oommittee
to inomie into any question of privilege as it arisea. In itga a
partial revival of grand committees was dffected by the appointnest
of two standing committees for the coniideration of btUs rdatiag to
Kw and courts of justice and to trade; and grand committees have
since been oonskicrably extended.
SeUet Committees. — ^In select oommitteea both kooeea fiod the
means of delegating inquiries, and the con^eratioa of other matter*,
which could not be undertaken by the whole bouse. The reports
of such committees have formed the groundwork of many iraportaot
measures; and b9ls are often rererred to them which receive a fuller
exammatlon than conk! be expected in a committee of the whole
house. Power is given to such committees, when required, to send
for persons, papers and records. In the Lords the power of examio^
ing witnesses upon oath has always been exerctsea, but it was not
until 1871 that the same power was extended to the Commwis . by
statute.
CommmncaH»ns t cH i K e Ike Two Bouses.'^Xn the oDorae of the
proceectings of parliament, frequent communications b et we ai the
two houses become necessary. Of these the most nsoal and con-
venient form is that of a message. Formeriy the Lords sent n
message by two jodgea or two masters in chancery, and the
Commons by a depuution of thdr own members; bat sinoe |9SS
messages have been taken from one house to the other by one 01
the clerks at the table. A more formal communication b e ff e tt o d
by a conference, in reference to amendments to bills or other
matten: bat this proceeding has been ia peat measore mperwded
by the more simple form of a menage. The two houses are alio
occasionally brouitht into communication by means of joint cocn*
mirtees and of select committees commdnicating with each other.
CommtinicaHons between the Crown and Parliament. — Cooimttai-
catioos. in varioua forms, are also conducted between the Oowo
PARLIAMENT
837
ud both Houtn of Pivlianent. Of theta the nott important ai«
Aottt in which the king, in person or by commiasion, is present
in the House of Lords to open or proct«:ue parliament, or to give
the royal assent to bUls. His Majesty a then in direct oonmuni-
cation with the three estates of tne realm, aasemUed in the same
chamber. The king also sends messages to both houses under the
royal sign manual, when all the members are uncovered. Verbal
messages are also sent, and the king's pleasure, or royal recommenda-
tion or consent to bills or other matters, signified through a minister
of the Crown or a privy councillor. Messages under the sign manual
are acknowledged by addresses, except where grants of raaney
arc proposed, in which case no address is presented By the Commons,
who acknowledge them by making provisbn acoordindy.
Both houses approach the Crown, sometimes by jwtt addresses,
but usually by separate addresses from each houses Such addresses
are presented to His Majesty, either by the whole bouse, or by the
lords with white staves in one house and by privy couociltors in
the odier. His Majesty answers, in person, addresses presented
by the whole house; but, when presented otherwise, an answer
is brought by one of the lords with white staves, or by one of
the privy cooncaUors, by whom the address has been presented.
Resolutions of either house are also sometimes directed to be
laid before His. Majesty; and messages of congratulation or coodo*
lence are sent to other members of the royal family.
The Passtng of Public Bills.— The passing of UHs forms the
most coaskfeiable port of the bumncss of paniament; but a brief
notice will suffice to explain the methods of procednrt. Tliese are
substantially the same in both houses; but the i^rivUeges of the
Commons, m regard to supply and taxation, rcqutfe that all bills
imponng a diarge upon the people should orinnate in that bouse.
On the other hand, the Lords claim that bifis for restoration of
honours or in blood, or relating to their own privileges and juri»
diction, should commence in their house. An act of grace, or
eencral pardon, oriKinatcs with the Crown, and is read once only
in both houses Bills are divided into public and private; but
here the former only are referred to. In the 'Lords any peer is
entitled to present a bill, but in the Commons a member is required
to obtain the previous leave of the house to briiv in the biU; and,
in the case of bills relating to religion, trade, grants of publk;
money, or charges upon the subject, a preliminary committee Is
necessary before such leave will be given. A bill, when presented.
is read a first time, and ordered to be printed; and a day is ap-
pointed for the.seoood readinz. At this latter stage the principle
of the bUl is discussed; and, if disapproved of by an adverse vote,
the bill is lost and cannot be renewed during the same session.
If approved of, it ia usually committed to a committee of the
whole bouse where every provisk>n b open to debate and amend*
ment. When the bill has been fully considered it is reported to
the house, with or without amendments, and Is ready to pass
through itt remaining stages. Sometimes, however, the bill is first
refenvd to a select committee; or to a grand committee and not to
committee of the whole houses
When a bUI has been reiMrted from a committee of the whole
house, or from a standing committee, with amendments, the bill,
as amended, is ordered to be conndcred on a future day, when
further amendments may be made, or the bill may be recommitted.
The next and last stage is the third reading, when the principle
of the measure, and its amended provisions, are open to review.
£ven at this stage the bill may be lost; but if the third reading
be agreed to, it is at once passed and sent to the other house.
There it is open to the like diivussions and amendments, and
may be rejected. If returned without amendment, the bill merely
awaits the royal assent; but if returned with amendments^ such
ansendments must be araeed to, or otherwise adjusted by the two
bouses, before it can Be submitted for the royal assent. The
royal assent consummates the work of Icgishition, and converts
the bill into an act of pariiament.
POUioHS. — Both houses are approached by the people by means
of petitions, of which prodigkMJs numbers sre presented to the
House of Commons every session. They are referred to the com>
mittee on public petitions, und6r whose directions they are classified,
analysed, and the number of signatures counted; and, when
necessary, the petitions are printed %n txtnuo^
Pvliamtntary Paptn, — ^Another source of information is found
in pariiamentary papers. These are of various kinds. The greater
part are obtained cither by a direct order of the house itself, or by
an address to the Crown for documents nelatinr to matters in which
the prerogatives of the Crown are concerned. Other papers, relating
to foreign and cokmial affairs and other public matters, are pre>
aented to both houses by eommand of His Majesty. Again^ many
papers are annually presented in pursuance 01 acts of parliament
The CratUint of Su^plies.—Tht exclusive right of the Commons
to grant supplies, and to originate all measures of taxation, imposes
a very onerous service upon that house. This Is mainly petformed
by two committees of tne whole boua^— the committee of supply,
and the committee of ways and means. The former dcab with
all the estimates for the public service presented to the house by
command of His Majesty; and the latter votes out of the Consoli-
dated Fund meh turns as are necessary to meet the aupplioB aUeady
grnnted, and originates all taxes for the service of the year. It is
here that the annual financial statement of the chanctUor of the
exchequer, commonly known as ** the Budget," is delivered. The
resolutions of these committees are reported to the house, and,
when agreed to, form the foundation of bills, to be passed by both
houses, and submitted for the royal assent; and towards the close
of the session an Appropriation Act is passed, applying all the
grants for the service of the year.
£leetioHs.'-The extensive lurisdiction of the Commons in matters
of election, already referred to, formerly occupied a considerable
share of their time, but its exerdae has now been oontrsctcd witlun
narrow limits. Whenever a vacancy occurs during the continu-
ance of a parliament, a warrant for a new writ is issued by the
Speaker, by order of the house during the session, and in pursuance
of sUtutes during the recess. The causes of vacancies are thif
death of a member, his being called to the House of Peers, his
accepunce of an office from the Crown, or his bankruptcy. When
any doubt arises as to the issue of a writ, it is usual to appoint a
committee to inquire into the circumstances of the case; and during
the recess the Speaker may reserve doubtful cases for the determina-
tion of the house.
Controverted dectiona had been originally tried by select com*
mittees, afterwards by the committee of privileges and elections,
and ultimately by the whole house, with scandalous partiality,
but under the Grenville Act of 1770, and other later acta, by select
committees, so constituted as to form a more judkdal tribunaL
The influence of party bias, however, too obviously prevailed
until 1839. wben Sir Robert Pcd introduced an improved system
of nomination, which distinctly raised the character of election
committees; but a tribunal constituted of political partisans, how-
ever chosen, was still open to jealousy and suspkmn, and at length,
in 1868, the trial of election petituma was transferred to judges of
the superior courts, to whose determination the house gives effect,
by the issue of new wriu or otherwise. The house, however, still
retains and exercises its jurisdiction in all cases not relegated, by
statute, to the jodgca.
Jmpeaekmtnts and Trial of Pasri.— Other forms of pariiamentary
judicature still remain to be mentioned. Upon impeachments by
the Commons, the Lords exercise the highest criminal judicature
known to the law; but the occasions upon which it has been tnoucht
into action have been very rare in modem times. Another judica-
ture is that of the trial of peers by the House of Lords. And.
lastly, by a bm of attainder, the entire parliament may be odlea
to sit in judgment upon offenders.
PrioaU Bill Lepdatum.—Ont other important function of
parliament remains to be noticed— that of private bill legislation.
Here the duties of parliament are partly legislative and partly
jjudicial. Public interests are promoted, and pnvate rights secured.
This whole juiisdiction has been regulated by special standing
orders, and by daborate arrangements for the iiominatk>n of
capable and impartial committees. A prodigious legisbtive worit
hn been accompIished--but under conditions most costly to tht
promoters and opponents of private bills, and in\'olving a aerioua
addition to the onerous labours of members of parliamenL
HsiOKY Off IHE Bsxnffi Pauxaiient
* Tka Amgla^4MH PoUty.-^The origiii of parliament is to b«
tiaced to Anglo-Sajton timca. The Aoglea, Saxons and other
Teutonic races who conquered Britain brought to thdr new
homes their own laws and customs, their settled fiameworfc of
society, thdr kinship, their Tillage communities, and a certain
nide representation In local affairs. And we find in the Anglo*
Saxon polity, as developed during their rule in England, all the
constituent ports of parliament. In tbeir own lands they had
chiefs and lenders, but no kings. But conquest and territorial
settlement were followed by the asstunption of royal dignities;
and the victorious chiefs were accepted by tbeir followers as
kings. They were qnick to assume the traditional attribatcs
of royalty. A direct descent from their god Woden, and heredi-
tary right, at OBce clothed them witb a halo of glory and with
supreme power; and, when the pagan ddty was depoeed, the
king recdved consecration from a Christian archbishop, and
was invested with sacred attributes as " the Lord's anointed."
But the Saion monarch was a patriarchal king of limited autho-
rity, who acted In concert with his people; and, though his
successioo was hereditary, in his own family, Us direct descend-
ant was liable to be passed over in favour of a worthier hdr.
Such a ruler was a fitting precmsor of a line of constitutional
kings, who in later times were to govern with the advice and
consent of a free parliament.
Meanwhile any cooncQ opproachfaig the constltntian of a
HoQse of Lords was of slow growth. An^o-Saxon society,
indeed, was not without aa aiiiiocmcy. The highest la saak
838
PARLIA.MENT
were adhelings— ^neraHy; if not exclusively, sons and brotbecB
of the king. The ealdorman, originally a high officer, having the
executive government of a shire, and a seat in the king's witaii,
became herediUry in certain families, and eventually attained
the dignity of an earl. But centuries were to pass before the
English nobility was to assume its modern character and denomi-
nations. At the bead of each village was an eorl, the chief of
the freemen, or ceorls— their leader in war and patron in peace.
The king's gesiths and thegns formed another privileged class.
Admitted to offices in the king's household and councils, and
enriched by grants of land, they, gradually formed a feudal
nobility.
The revival of the Christian Church, under the Anglo-Saxon
rule, created another order of rulers and councillors, destined
to take a leading part in the government of the state. The
archbishops and bishops, having spiritual authority in their
own dioceses, and exercising much local influence in temporal
affairs, were also members of the national coundl, or witenage-
m6t, and by their greater learning and capacity were not long
in acquiring a leading part in the councils of the realm. Ecclesi-
astical councils were also held, comprising bishops, abbots, and
clergy, in which ve observe the origin of convocation. The
abbots, thus associated with the bishops, also found a place
with them in the witenagem6L By these several orders, sum-
moned to advise the king in affairs of state, was formed a
council of magnates — to be developed, in course of time, into an
upper chamber, or House of Lords.
The rise of the Coounons (see Representation) as a political
power in the national councils, was of yet slower development:
but in the Anglo-Saxon moots may be discerned the first germs
of popular government In England. In the town-moot the
assembled freemen and cultivators of the " folk-lands " regulated
the civil affairs of their own township, tithing, village or parish.
In the burgh-moot the inhabitants administered their municipal
business, under the presidency of a reeve. The hundred-moot
assumed a more representative character, comprising the reeve
and a selected number of freemen from the several townships
and burghs within the hundred. The shire-^noot, or shire-gem6c,
was an assembly yet more important. An ealdorman was its
president, and exercised a lurisdiction over a shire, or district
comprising several hundreds. Attended by a reeve and four
freemen from every hundred, it assumed a distinctly fepresenta-
tive character. Its members, if not elected (in the modem sense)
by the popular voice, were, in some fashion, deputed to act on
behalf of those whose interests they had come to guard. The
thire>moot was also the general folk-moot Of the tribe, assembled^
in armsk to whom their louien referred the deciaioii cHf questions
of peace and war.
Superior to these local institutions was the witenagemdt, or
assembly of wise men, with whom the king took counsel in
legislation and the government of the state. This national
council was the true beginning of the parliament ot England.
Such a council was originally held in each of the kingidoma
commonly known as the Heptarchy; and after their union in
a single realm, under King Edgar, the witenagem6t became the
deliberative and legislative assembly, or parliament, of the
extended estate. The witenagem6t made laws, imposed taxes,
concluded treaties, advised the king as to the disposal of public
lands and the appointment and removal of officers of state,
and even assumed to elea and depose the king himself. The
king had now attained to greater power, and more royal dignities
and prerogatives. He was unquestionably the chief power in
the witenagen)6t; but the hiws were already promulgated, as
in later times, as having been agreed to with the advice and
consent of the witan. The witan also exerdsed jurisdiction as
a supreme courL These ancient customs present further
examples of the continuity of English constitutional forms.
The constitution of the witenagem6t, however, was necessarily
kss popular than that of the local moots in the hundred or the
shire. The king himself was generally present; and at his
summons came prelates, abbots, ealdormen, the king's gesiths
Md thegns, officii of state and of the royal household* and
leading tenants in cMef «f lands held from the crown. Crowds
sometimes attended the meetings of the witan, and shouted
their acclamations of approval or dissent; and, so far, the popular
voice was associated with its deliberations; but it was at a
distance from all but the inhabiUnts of the pkcein which it was
assembled, and tmtil a system.of representation {q.v.) had slowly
grown up there could be no further admission of the people to its
deliberations. In the town-moot the whole body of fxtcmcn
and cultivatoia of. the folk-lands met freely under a spreading
oak, or on the village green; in the hundred-moot, or shire-
gem6t, deputies from neighbouring communities could readily
find a place; but aU waa changed in the wider council of a king-
dom. When there were many kingdoms, distance obatracted
any general gathering of the Commons; and in the wider area of
Enjgland such a gathering became impossible. CeaUiries were
yet to pass before this obstacle was to be overcome by representa-
tion; but, in the meantime, the local institutions of the Anglo-
Saxons were not without their influence upon the central council.
The self-government of a free people informed the bishops,
ealdormen, ceorls and thegns who dwelt among them of their
interests and needs, their suffecingi and their wrongs; and,
while the popvAar forces were- increasing with an advancing
society, they grew more powerful in the councils of their rulers.
Another circumstance must not be overlooked in estimating
the political influence of the people in Anglo-Saxon times.
For five centuries the country was convulsed with incessant wait
—wars with the Britons, whom the invaders were driving from
their homes, wars between the several kingdoms, wars with the
Welsh, wars with the Picts, wars with the Danes. H<»w couid
the people continue to assert their civil rights amid the dash of
arms and a frequent change of masters? The warrior-kings
and their armed followers were rulers in the land which they
had conquered. At the same time the unsettled conditio^ of
the country repressed the social advancement of its people.
Agriculture could not prosper when the farm of the husbandman
too often became a battlefield. IVade could not be extended
without security to property and industry. Under such con-
ditions the great body of the people continued as peasants,
handicraftsmen and slaves. The time had not yet <xyme when
they could make their voice heard in the councils of the state.
The Norman Conquest.— ^Tht Anglo-Saxon polity was suddenly
overthrown by the Norman Conquest. A stern foreign king
had seised the crown, and was prepared to rale his conquered
realm by the sword. He brought with him the absolutist
prindpUs of continental rulers, and the advanced feudal system
of France and Normandy. Feudalism had been slowly gaining
ground under the Saxon Icings^ and now it was firmly established
as a military organization. William the Cbnqueror at once
rewarded his warOkc barons and followers with enormous grants
of land. The Saxon landowners and peasants were despoiled,
and the invaders settled in their homesteads^ The king claimed
the broad lands of England as his own, by ri|^t of conquest;
and when he allowed his warriors to share the spoQ he attached
the strict condition of military service in return for every grant
of land. An effective army of occupation of all ranks wms thus
quartered upon every province throughout the realm. En^sd
was held by the sword; a foreign king, foreign nobles, and a
foreign s6I(fiery were in possession of the soil, and swore fc&li>
to their master, from whom they held it. Saxon bbhops «cre
deposed, and fbrdgn prelates appointed to rule over the English
Church. Instead of calling a national witenageni^, the kir^g
took counsel with the oflScers of his state aAd honsehold, the
bishops, abbots, earls, barons and knights by whom he mu
pleased to surround himself. Some of the forms of a national
council were indeed -maintained, and Its counsel and consent
were proclaimed in the making of laws; but, in truth, the kirg
was absolute.
Such a revolution seemed fatal to the liberties and aacict,t
customs of Saxon England. What power could withstand i>s
harsh conqueror? But the Indestructible elements of Eagitx'h
society prevailed over the sword. The king graq>ed, in his c^t.
haodst th^ higher administration and Ji^dicAtiue of the realm.
PARLIAMENT
«39
'fist lie ocmdmied tbe oU kcd cooiti of the handled and the
ihuc> which had been the beiis of Saxon freedom. The Norman
polity «a» otherwise deitined to favour the tibefties of the people,
through agencies which had been designed to crash them. The
powerful nobles, whom William and his successors exalted,
became fonnidaUe rivals of the Crown Itself; while ambitious
barons were in their turn held in checic by a jeaious and exacting
church. The ruling powers^ if €ombin«l, would have reduced
the people to slaveiy; but their cfivisioos proved a continual
source of weakness. In the meantime the strong rule of the
Normans, bitter as it was to Englishmen, repre^ed intestine
wars and the disordeia of a divided realm. Civil justice was
fairly administered. When the spoils of the conquerors had
been secured, the rights of property were protected, industry
and tr^de were left free, and the occupation of the soil by
foreigners drove numbers of landowners and freemen Into the
towns, where they prospered as merchants, traders and artificers,
and collected thriving populations of townsmen. Meanwhile,
foreign rulers having brought England into closer relations with
the Continent, its commerce was extended to distant lands, ports
and shipping were encouraged, and English traders were at once
enriched and enlightened. Hence new classes of society were
growings who were eventually to become the Commons of
England.
> Th€ CrowHt the Barons, ike Church and the People.— "While
these social changes were steadily advancing, the barons were
already preparing the way for the assertion of popular rights.
Ambitious, turbulent and grasping, they were constantly at
issue with the Crown. Enjoying vast* estates and great com-
mands, and sharing with the prelates the government of the
state, as members of the king's council, they were ever ready
to raise the standard of revolt. The king could always count
upon barons faithful to his cause, but he also appealed for aid
to the Church and the people. The baronage was thus broken
by insurrections, and decimated by civil wars, while the value
of popular alliances was revealed. The power of the people
was ever increasing, while their oppressors were being struck
down. The population of the country was still Saxon; they had
been subdued, but had not been driven forth from the land, like
the Britons in former invasions. The English language was
Still the cbmmon speech of the people; and Norman blood was
being mingled with the broader stream of Saxon life. A con-
tinuous nationality was thus preserved, and was outgrowing the
foreign element.
I The Crown was weakened by disputed socoessions and foreign
wars, and the baronage by the blood-stained fields of civil war-
fare; while both in turn kx>ked to tbe people in their troubles.
Meanwhile the Church was struggling, alike against the Crown
and the barons, in defence of its ecclesiastical privileges and
temporal possessions. Its clergy were brought by their spiritual
minbtrations Into close relations with the people, and their
culture contributed to the intellectual growth of English society.
When William Rufus was threatened by his armed barons he
took counsel with Archbishop Lanfranc, and promised good laws
and justice to the people. His promises were broken; but, like
later charters, as Ughlly set aside, they were a recognition of
the political rights of the people. By the charter of Henry I.
restoring to the people the laws of Edward the Confessor, the
continuity of English institutions was acknowledged; and this
concession was also proclaimed through Archbishop Ansdm,
the church and the people being again associated with the Crown
Against the barons. And throughout his reign the clergy and
the English people were cordially united in support of the Crown.
In the anarchic reign of Stephen— also distinguished by its
futile charters—the clergy were driven into opposition to the
king, whDe his oppressions alienated the people. Hcnty 11.
commenced his reign with another charter, which may be taken
as a profession of good Intentions on the part of the new king.
So strong-willed a king, who could cripple his too powerful
nobles, and forge shackles for the Church, was not predisposed
to extend the liberties of his people; but they supported him
loyally in his critical struggles; and his vigorous reforms in the
■dmfaibteative, judicial and fiaanda] oiiganlsathm.of Ms leahn
promoted the prosperity and political influence of the Commons.
At the same time the barons created in this and the two
previous reigni, bdng no longer exclusively Norman in btood
"nd connexion, associated thonseives more readily with the
inteiesU and qimpathica of the people. Under Richard L the
principle of representation was somewhat advanced, but it
was confined to tbe assessment and collection of taxes in the
different shires.
Magna Carta (^.v.).— It was under King John that the greatest
progress was made In national liberties, llie loss of Normandy
served to draw the baronage closer to the English people; and
the king soon united all the forces of the realm against him. He
outraged the Church, the barons and the people. He could
no koger pUy one class against another; and they combined to
extort the Great Charter of their liberties at Runnymede (xai5)<
It was there ordained that no scutage or aid, except the three
regular feudal aids, should be imposed, save by the common
council of the realm. To this council the archbbhops, bishopa»
abbots, earls and greater barons were to be summoned per^
aonolly by the king's letters, and tenants in chief by a general
writ through the sheriff. The summons was required to
appoint a certain place, to give 40 days' notice at least, and
to state the cause of meeting. At length we seem to reach
some approach to modem usage.
Growth of the Commons. — ^The Improved administratioQ of
successive kings had tended to enlarge the powers of the
Crown. But one hundred and fifty years had now psssed since
the Conquest, and great advances had been made in the con-
dition of the people, and more particularly in the population,
wealth and self-government of towns. Many had obtained
royal charters, elected their own magistrates, and enjoyed
variotis commercial privileges. They were already a power
in the state, which was soon to be more distinctly recognised.
The charter of King John was again promulgated under
Heniy III., for the sake of a subsidy; and henceforth the Com-
mons learned to insist upon the redress of grievances in return
for a grant of money. This reign was memorable in the history
of parliament.* Again the king was in conflict with his barons,
who rebelled against his gross misgovemment of the realm.
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, was a patriot in advance
of his age and fought for the English people as well as for his
own order. The barons, indeed, were doubtful allies of the
popular cause, and leaned to the king rather than to Simon,
But the towns, the deigy, the universities and large bodies of
the commonalty rallied round him, and he overthrew the king
and his followers at Lewes. He was now master of the realm,
and proclaimed a new constitution. Kings had made promises,
and granted illusory charters; but the rebel carl called an English
parliament (1265) into being. Churchmen were on his side,
and a few barons; but his main reliance was upon the Commons.
He summoned to a national council, or parliament, bishops,
abbots, earls and barons, together with two knights from every
shire and two burgesses from every borough. Knights had
indeed been summoned to former councils; but never until now
had delegates from the towns been invited to sit with bishops,
barons and knights of the shire.
In the reign of Edward L parliament assumed substantially
Its present form of king, lords and commons. The irregidar and
unauthorized scheme of Simon de Montfort was fully adopted;
and In 1295 the king summoned to a parliament two knights from
*■ In IS54 we have a distinct case of two knights summoned from
each vhire by royal writ. A war was going on in Gaacony, and
the king wanted money. He called the barons and asked if they
would provide the necessary fundsk Tbe barons said that un-
fortunately the minor gentry w«re exceediniHy unwilling to con-
tribute, and the king sent to ask that two kmghts from each rfiiie
might be tent up to consult with him. In the result, the Commons
refused to grsnt a sobsMy. and the king had to fall back or the
Church : but though the summoning of tbe knightt of the shiie wu
in fonn a Mnall change from the prcviotts practice of sending some
one down to tbe counties to put pressure on them, the innovntian
is important as the first occasion on which thdr representatives
met in a central assembly. — [H. Cb.I
840
PARLIAMENT
every thin cboien by the fteeboMcn «t theshrre coort, and two
hiugesscs from every city, borough add leading town.^ The
lebel earl had'enlaised the basis of the national eotiodl; and,
to secure popular support, the politk king accepted it as a
convenient instrument of taxation. The knights and freeholders
had increased in numbers and wealth ; and the towns, continually
advancing in population/ trade and commerce, had become
valuable contributors to the revenue of the state. The grant
of subsidies to the Crown, by the assembled baroiuge and
representatives of the shires and towns» was a legal and
comprehensive impost upon the entire realm.
Stcession of the Ckrgy.-^lt formed part of Edward's poh'cy
to embrace the clergy in his scheme for the representation of
all orders and classes of his subjects. They were summoned
to attend the parliament of 1295 and succeeding parliaments
of his reign, and their form of summons has been continued until
the present time; but the clergy resolutely held aloof from the
national council, and insisted upon voting their subsidies in
their own convocations of CanUrbury and York. The bishops
retained their high place among the earls and barons, but
the clergy sacrificed to eodesiastica] jealousies the privilege of
sharing in the political conndls of the state. As yet, indeed,
this privilege seemed little more than the voting of subsidies,
but it was 'soon to embrace the redress of grievances and the
framing of laws for the general welfare of the reafan. This
great power they forfeited; and who shall say how it might have
been wielded, in the inuresu of the Church, and in the legislation
of their country? They could not have withstood the Reforma-
tion; they would have been forced to yield to the power of the
Crown and the heated resolution of the laity; but they might
have saved a large share of the endowments of the Church, and
perhaps have modified the doctrines and formabries of the
reformed establishment.
Rductanct of ike Commons to i4/k»i^.— Meanwhile the Com-
mons, unconscious of their future power, took their humble
place in the great council of the realm. The knights of the
shire, as lesser barons, or landowners of good social standing,
could sit beside the magnates of the land without constraint;
but modest traders from the towns were overawed by the power
and dignity of their new associates. They knew that they were
summoned for no other purpose than the taxing of themselves
and their fellow townsmen; their attendance was irksome; it
interrupted their own business; and their journeys exposed them
to many hardships and dangers. It is not surprising that they
should have shrunk from the exercise of so doubtful a privilege.
Considerable numbers absented themselves from a thankless
service; and their constituents, far from exacting the attendance
of their members, as in modern times, begrudged the sorry
Stipend of 2s. a day, paid to their representatives while on duty,
and strove to evade the burden imposed upon them by the
Crown. Some even purchased charters, withdrawing franchises
which they had not yet learned to value. Nor, in truth, did the
representation of towns at this period afford much protection
to the rights and interests of the people. Towns were enfran-
chised at the will or caprice of the Crown and the sheriffs; they
could be excluded at pleasure; and the least show of indepen-
dence would be followed by the omission of another writ of
* It now appears that substantially this was effected as early as
1275. The transition period between Simon de Montfort's narlia*
meat <A 126^ and the ** model pariiamcnt " of 139$ was long a
puzrie to historical students, stnce, except for two provincial
councils in 1283, no tracs was found in the records, between 1265
and 1295, of the representation— of cities or boroughs, or o( repre-
•entation of the counties between 1275 and 1290. But in 1910
Mr C. Hilary Icnkinson (see English lustorkal Kevitw, for April)
found in the Record Office some old documents which proved to
be fragments of three writs and of returns of members for the
Easter parliament of 127$. They make it certain that knights of
the shire were then present, and that borgesMs and cttiaens were
summoned (not as in 126s through the mayors, but as since 1395
through the sheriffs). The iniportanoe of the 1295 psriiamcnt
thus appears to be smaller in English constitutional history, the
fun reforms appearing to have been adopted 20 years earlier.
It is noteworthy, however, that in the writs of 1275 the instruction
Co the sheriff is '^veoire facias,'* not " digi facias. —IH. Ch.)
■uniiions. Bat tha pifadpte of tipw ■i nt s tte n (qsH, opce ttUb*
lished, was to be developed with the expansion of lodety; and
the despised burgesaes of Edward L, not having aeoeded, like
the clergy, were destined to beoonK a potential dasa in the
parliaments of England.
SiUiMg of PttrliamoHt d ITetfmMito'.— Another oooatitatiQiial
change during this reign was the summoning of pariiament to
Westminster instead of to various towns In different paru of
the country. This custom invested parlianieiit with the char-
acter of a settled institution, and ooostituted it a high court for
the hearing of petitions and the ivdreas of grievances. The
growth of its judicature, a| a court of appeal, was also favoured
by the fixity of its place of meeting.
Authority of Parliament recogntMoi 5y law.— Oreat was the
power of the Crown, and the king himself was bold and statesman-
like; but the imlon of classes against him proved too strong for
prerogative. In 1297, having outraged the Church, the barocs.
and the Commons, by illegal exactions, he was forced to confirm
the Great Charter and the Charter of Forests, with further
securities against the taxation of the people without their consent
and. In return, obtained timely subsidies from the parliament.
Henceforth the financial necessities of a succession of kings
ensured the frequent assembling of parliaments. Nor were they
long contented with the humble functi<m of voting subsidies,
but boldly insisted on the redress of grievances and further
securities for national liberties. In 1322 it was declared by
statute 15 Edw. II. that " the matters to be established for
the estate of the king and of his heirs, and for the estate cf
the realm and of the people, should be treated, accorded, and
established in pariiament, by the king, and by the assent of the
prelates, carls and barons, and the commonalty of the realm,
according as had been before accustomed." The coostitutioival
powers of parliament as a legislature were here amply recogniaed
— ^not by royal charter, or by the occasional exercise of preroga-
tive, but by an authoritative statute. And these powers were
soon to be exercised in a striking form. Already parliameni
had established the principle that the redress of grievances
should have precedence of the grant of subsidies; it bad main-
tained the right of approving councillors of the Crown, and
punishing them for the abuse of their powers; and in 1327 the
king himself was finally deposed, and tiw succession of his too,
Edward III., declared by parliament.
Union of Knights cf the Shire and Bnrgases.-^At tUs period
the constitution of parliament was also settling down to its later
and permanent shape. Hitherto the different orders or ettates
had deliberated separately, and agreed upon their sevml
grants to the Crown. The knights of the shire were aaturaiU
drawn, by social ties and class Interests, into alliaBoe with ihc
barons; but at length they joined the citizens and biugesars.
and in the first pariiament of Edward IIL ,ihey axe founJ
sitting together as **the Cbnunons."
This may be taken as the turning point in the poBtkal history
of England. If alt the landowners of the country had becoce
united as an order of nobles, they might have proved too stror.c
for the development of national Uberties, while the union of th;
country gentlemen with the burgesses formed an estate of ike
realm which was destined to prevail over all other powtss.
The withdrawal of the clergy, who would probably have bees
led by the bishops to take part with themselves and tbe baroiDB.
further strengthened the united Commons.
Increasing Influence of Pariiament. — ^The reign of Edward Ml
witnessed further advances in the authority of parliament , aa<5
changes in its constitution. The king, being in continual neei
of subsidies, was forced to summon parliament eveiy year, ^^viS
in order to encourage its liberality he Irequently sou^t its
advice upon the most important issues of peace or war, a:>i
readily entertained the petitions of the Commons jM-aying Lr
the redress of grievances. During this reign also, the adv:^
and consent of the Commons, as wdil as of the Lords sfnritoal asi
temporal, was rcigularly recorded in the cnartlng part of c^ey
SiParatun of the Tw9 H«usa.^Bm a more ivpocutf «.,
is to be assigned to this reicn,^the formal sepsraiioo <Au»r^
meat into the two bouses of Lords and Commoas. Tbtt^
no evidence— nor is it probable— that the different estates «v!^ '
voted together as a single assembly. It appears fcoiq the k^i^
of parliament that in the early part of this reign» the causes U
summoas having been declared to the assembled estates, the 1
three estates deliberated separately, but afterwards delivered
a collective answer to the kin^ While their deliberations were
short they could be conduaed apart, in the same chamber;
but| in course of time, it was found convenient for the G>inmoiis
to have a chamber of their own, and they adjourned their
sittiogs to the chapter-house of the abbot of Westminster,
where they continued to be held after the more formal and
permanent separation bad taken place. The dat« of this ev^nt
is generally assigned to the 17 th Edward III.
Tk4 Commons os PttUioners. — Parliament had now assumed
its present outward form. But it was far from enjoying the
authority which it acquired in later times. The Crown was still
paramount; the small body of earls and baron»*-not exceeding
40 — were connected with the royal family, or in the service of
the king, or under his influence; the prelates, once distinguished
by their indei>endencep were now seekers of royal favovr; and
the Commons, though often able to extort co n ces si ons in return
for their contributions to the royal exchequer, as yet held an
inferior position among the estates of the realm. Instead of
enjoying an equal share in the framing of laws, they appeared
before the king in the humble guise of petitioners. Their
petitions, together with the king's answers, were recorded in the
rolls of parliament; but it was not until the parliament had
been discharged from attendance that statutes were framed by
the judges and entered on the sutute roUs. Under soch con-
ditions legislation was, in truth, the prerogative of tbe Crown
rather than of parliament. Enactments were often found in
the statutes at variance with the petitions and royal answers,
and neither prayed for by the Commons nor assented to by the
Lords. In vain the Commons protested against so grave an abuse
of royal authority; but the same practice was continued during
this and succeeding reigns. Henry V., in tbe second year of his
reign, promised " that nothing should be enacted to the petitions
of the Commons, contrary to their asking, whereby they should be
bound without their assent;" but, so long aa the old method
o( framing laws was adhered to, there oould be no security against
abuse; and it was not until the reign of Henry VI. that the intro*
duction of the more regular system of legislating by bill and
statute ensured the thorough agreement of all the esutes in the
several provisions of every statute.
Inaeasing Boldness of the Commensi—tht Commons, however,
notwithstanding these and other discouragements, were con-
stantly growing bolder in the assertion of their rights. They
now ventured to brave the displeasure of the king, without
seeking to sheltec themselves behind powerful barons, upon
whose forwardness in the national cause they oould not reckon.
Notably in 1376 their stout Speaker, Peter de la Mare, inveighed,
in th^ name, against the gross mismanagement of the war,
impeached ministcn of the realm, complained of the heavy
burdens under which the people suffered, and even demanded
that a true account should be rendered of the public expenditure.
The brave Speaker was cast into prison, and a new parliament
was summoned which speedily reversed the resolutions of the
last. But the death of the khig changed the aspect of affairs.
Another parliament was called, when it was found that the
spirit of the Commons was not subdued. Peter de la Mare was
tdeaaed from prison, and again elected to the chair. The
demands of the former parliament were reiterated with greater
boldness and persistence, the evil councillors of the late reign
were driven out, and it was conceded that the principal officers
of state should be appointed and removed, during the minority
of Richard II., upon the advice of the lords» The Commons also
insisted upon the annual assembling of parliament under the
stringent provisions of a binding law. They claimed the right,
not on\y of voting subsidies, but of appropriating them, and of
MENT
843
by the extendi w^V "
overborne. With .j^\7 '
parliament «ceTn»t/,U,r •
To thb constitttiiottal 1^ '
the same period. TheCfvT.'^ "
macy. The powerful \wu*l^ '
battlefield and the scaflo5ir,T ' '
to the Crown. Kings had'wThll;! * '
as defenders of their mm m^uZ ^' '' •
people. The royal treasurv \^ i^^*' ' - .
'.'d to the privilege of peerage. In two partfculais
'V(?e was treated in a different ninnner from the
nd. The Crown was empowered to create a
• brnever three Irish peerages in existence
r •' ■ 1 have become exUnct, or when the
' 'ivc of those holding peerages of
,r 7 - ' r. duccd to one hundred. And,
cej.**;-' • - ' ^ to sit in the House of
iiJIV , ' «5'itain, forfeiting, however,
ww^J!^ *' "-^ '^<^ Jo^^cr house.
the fttJ^WT'" ' :c>onutivc5 of Ireland
effective fc/»„ . ' '^^'^^ addition raised
.. ^'' '^ . . t fty^jigM. Parliap
' Kingdom.
Hv tbe union of
' hoae oountriea
hstanding n
eraily bus*
rntimenu
'>uld not
narrow
•inlry
people. The royal treasiV^' badf-lT ' ' • ""^^
while the close of a long succ<»i«i7/'^^ •' '**
Scotland relieved it of that conllmial dJlT ' ' • ^
the Crown to an unwelcome dcpeodenoMiL**""
only were the fortancs of the baronage uSlr*^ "
was also dying out in England as on the oa.^, ''* ' ■ -
longer a force which could control the Crows- illi
further weakened by changes in the art ol'ww V* ' ^
horseman, the battle-axe and cross-bow of the ^J*^ ***'-'^
yeoman, could not cope with the cannon and arqufcw'j **"*
royal army. '* **^
In earlier times the Church had often stood forth aMia^
the domination of kings, but now it was in passive submUt!^
to the Throne. The prelates were attracted to the court sS
sought the highest offices of state; the inferior dergy had' km«
been losing their influence over the huty by their ignorance and
want of moral elevation at a period of increasing enlightenment;
while the Church at large was weakened by schisms and a wider
freedom of thought. Hence the Church, lU^ the baronage, had
ceased to be a check upon the Crown.
Meanwhile what had become of the ever-growing p^wer of
the Commons? It is true they had lost their stalwart leaders,
the armed barons and outspoken prelates, but they had them-
selves advanced in numbers, riches and enlightenment; they had
overspread the land as kni^ts and freeholders, or dwdt in
populous towns enriched by merchandise. Why could they
not find leaders of their own? Because they had lost the libcrid
franchises of an early age. All freeholders, or suitors present
at the county court, were formerly entitled to vote for a knight
of the shire; but in the eighth year of Henry VI. (1430) an act
was passed (c. 37) by which this right was confined to 40s.
freeholders, resident in the county. Large numbers of doctors
were thus disfranchised. In the view of parliament they were
" of no value," and complaints had been made that they were
under the influence of the nobles and greater landowners; but
a popular element bad been withdrawn from the county iepre>
sentation, and the restricted franchiie cannot have impaired
the influence of the notdes»
As for the dtic» and boroughs, th^ had virtually renounced
thdr electoral privileges. As we have seen, thqr had never
valued them very highly; and now by royal charters, or by the
usurpation of small self'^lected bodies of burgesses, the cboico
of members had fallen into the hands of town councils and
neighbouring landowners. The anomalous sjrstem of dose and
nomination boroughs, which had arisen thus early m English
history, was suffered to continue without a check for four
centuries, as a notorious blot upon a free constitution.
All these changes exalted the prerogatives of the Crown. Amid
the clash of arms and the strife of hostile parties the voice of
parliament had been stifled; and, when peace was icsUnd^ft
842
PARLIAMENT
powerful king could dispense with an a^mbly which might
prove troublesome, and from whom he rarely needed help.
Hence for a period of two hundred years, from the reign of
Henry VI. to that of Elizabeth, the free parliaments of England
were in abeyance. The institution retained iu form and con-
stituent parts; its rights and privileges were theoretically
recognized, but its freedom and national character were little
more than shadows.
The TThree Estates of IM^ ^M/m.— This check in the fortunes of
pariiaroent affords a fitting ocrasion for examinix^ the composition
of each of the three estates of the realm.
Lords Spiritual and Temporal.— Tht archbishops and bishops
had held an eminent postion in the councils of Saxon and Norman
kings, and many priors and abbots were from time to time ano-
ctatcd with them as bids spiritual, until the suppression of
the monasteries by Henry Vfll. They generally outnumbered
their brethren, the temporal peers, who sat with them in the same
assembly.
The fords temporal comprised several digniikB. Of these the
baron, though now the k>west in rank, was the most ancient. The
title was familiar in Saxon times, but it was not until after the
Norman Conquest that it was invested with a distinct feudal
dignity. Next in antiquity was the eari, whose official title was
known to Danes and Saxons, and who after the Conquest obtained
a dii^nity equivalent to that of count in foreign states. The hnhest
dii^nity, that of duke, was not created until bdwaid HI. conferred
it upon his son, Edward the Black Prince. The rank of maroueas
was first created by Richard II., with precedence after a duke.
It was in the reign of Henry VI. that the rank of viscount was
created, to be placed between the eari and the baron. Thus the
peerage consisted of the five dignities of duke, marquess, earl.
viscount and baron. During the 15th century the number of
temporal peers summoned to pariiament rarely exceeded fifty, and
no more than twenty-nine received writs of summons to the first
plirliameitt of Henry VII. There were oiUy fifty-nine at the death
of Queen Elizabeth. At the accession of William III. this number
had been Increased to about one hundred and fifty.
Life Peerages.— The several orders of the peerage are alike dis>
tinguishcd b)r the hereditary character of their dignities. Some
life peerages, indeed, were created between the reigns of Richard II.
and Henry VL, and several ladies had received life peerages between
the reigns of Charles II. and Georse II. The highest authorities
had also held that the creation of life peerages was within the
prerogative of the Crown. But four hundred yean had elapsed
since the creation of a life peer, entitled to sit in parliament, when
Queen Victoria was advisecf to create ^r James Parke, an eminent
judge, a baron for life, under the title of Lord Wensle^dale. The
object of this deviation from the accustomed practice was to
strengthen the judicature of the House of Lords, without undulv
enlarging the numben of the peerage. But the Lords at once took
exception to this act of the Crown, and, holding that a prerogative
■o long disused could not be revived, in derogation of the herediury
character of the peerage, resolved that Lord Wensleydale was not
entitled by his Icttera patent and writ of summons to Mt and vote
in parliament. His lordship aocotdingly received a new patent,
ana took his seat as an hereditary peer. But the neoesMty of
some such expedient for improving the appellate jurisdiction of
the House of Lords could not be contested; and in 1876 three lords
of appeal in ordinary were constituted by statute, eni[oying the
rank of baron for life, and the right of sitting and voting in the
House of Lords so long as they continue in ofltee.
Tie Commons. — The Commons formed a more numerous body.
In the reign of Edward I. there were about 275 members, in that
of Edwara III. 250. and in that of Henry VI. 300. In the reign
of Henry VI II. parliament added 37 members for Wales and four
for the county and city of Chester, and in the reign of Charles 11.
a for the county and dty of Durham. Between the reigns of
Henry VIII. and Charles II. 130 members were also adcfcd by
royal charter.
t Pgrtiameni under Henry VIII.— To resume the history of
parliament at a later period, let us glance at the reign of
Henry VIIL Never had the power of the Crown been greater
than «rheik this king succeeded to the throne, and never had a
more imperious wilt been displayed by any king of England.
Parliament was at his feet to do his bidding, and the Reforma-
tion enormously increased his power. He had become a pope
to the bishops; the old nobles who had resnted his will had
perished in the field or on the scaffold; the new nobles were his
creatures; and he had the vast wealth of the Church In his hands
as largesses to his adherents. Such was the dependence of
parliament upon the Crown and Its advisers during the Refonna-
tioo period that in less than thirty years four vital changes
in the national faith. Bach of the successive
-«ted a new religion.
Queen Eliubtik and her PaHiainentf.--^ih the reign ti
Elizabeth commenced a new era in the life of pariiament. She
had received the royal prerogatives unimpaired, and her band was
strong enough to wield them. But in the long interrai since
Edward IV. the entire framework of EngUsb society bad been
changed; It was a new England that the queen was called npoa
to govern. The coarse barons of feudal times had been succeeded
by English country gentlemen, beyond the influence of the
court, and identified with all the inteiestt and sympathies of
their country neighbours. From this class were chosen nearly
all the knights of the shire, and a consideraUe prepottioii of the
members for dties and boroughs. They were generally di»-
tinguished by a manly independence, and wen prepared to
uphold the rights and privileges of parliament and theintcrcsti
of their constituents. A change no less remarkable had o ccnn ed
in other classes of society. The country was peopled with
yeomen and fanners, far superior to the cultivators of the sod
in feudal times; and the towns and seaports had grown into
important centres of commerce and manvfactuics. Advances
not less striking had been made in the enlightenment and cult ate
of society. But, above all, recent religious revolutions had
awakened a spkit of thought and inquiry by no means confined
to questions of faith. The Puritans, hostile to the Church,
and jealous of every semblance of Catholic revival, wcte
embittered against the state, which was identified, in their eyca«
with many ecclesiastical enormities; and stubborn temper was
destined to become a strong motive forot In m/todng the
authority of parliament.
The parliaments of Elizabeth, though rarely
displayed an unaccustomed spirit. They discussed the 1
to the Crown, the marriage of the queen, and ecdesiaatkal
abuses; they upheld the privileges of the Commons and their
right to advise the Crown upon all matters of state; and they
condemned the grant of monopolies. The bold words of the
Wentworths and Velvertons were such as had not been heard
before in parliament. The oonflicu between Elisabetb and
the Commons marked the revival of the independence of pailln-
ment, and foreshadowed graver troubles at no distant pttiod.
Confiiett of James /. vfilk the Commons. — ^Jamcs I., with
short-sighted pedantry, provoked a succession of conflicts with
the Commons, in which abuses of prerogative were stovtiy
resisted and the righu and privileges of parliamcat renolotely
asserted. The ** remonstrance " of 1610 and the " protestAtios **
of i6ai would have taught a politic ruler that the Conunoes
could no longer be trifled with; but those lessons were lost npoa
James and upon his ill-fated son.
Charles I. and the Commonwealth. — The momentous stmg^cs
between Charles I. and his parliaments cannot be folloved la
this place. The earlier pariiaments of this reign fairly repre-
senteid the earnest and temperate judgment of the country.
They were determined to obtain the redress of grievances and
to restrain undue prerogatives; but there was no taint of dis>
loyalty to the Crown; there were no dreams of revolution. But
the contest at length became embittered, until there was no issue
but the arbitrament of the sword. The period of the Great
Rebellion and the Commonwealth proved the supreme power
of the Commons, when supported by popular forces. Every-
thing gave way before them. They raised victorious artnies
in the field, they overthrew the Church and the House of Lords,
and they brought the king himself to the scaffold. It alsft
displayed the impotence of a parliamcat which has lost the
confidence of the country, or is oveibome by nobs, by an nxmy^
or by the strong will of a dictator.
PolUkal Agitation of this Period.— U is to tfak tSne of fierce
political passions that we trace the origin of political ac^tatieo
as an organized method of influencing the delifarratioBs of
pariiament. The whole country was then aroused by passionate
ezhorutions from the pulpit and in the press. No leas thaa
thirty thousand political tracts and newspapers during this
period have been preserved. Petitions to parliament we're
multiplied in order to strengthen the hands of the popular
leaders. Clamorous meetings were hdd to stimulate or avcraw«
PARLIAMENT
843
parUanent. Swh nwthixb^ fcstraintd after the Restoration,
have been revived in later times, and now form part of the
acknowledged aystem of parliamentary government.
PariiameiU after tke RutoraiionAOa the restoration of
Charles II. parliament was at once restored to Its old constitu-
tion, and its sittings were revived as if they had suffered ao
inteiTUption. No Outward change had been effected by the
late revolution; but that a stronger spirit of resistance to abuses
of prerogative had been aroused was soon to be dis c losed in
the deposition of James II. and "the glorious revolution"
of 1688. At this time the full rights of porUsment were ez-
pUcUly declared, and securities taken for the maintenance of
public liberties. The theory of a constitutional monarchy and a
free parliament was established; but after two revolutions it is
curious to observe the indirect metlKxls by which the Commons
were henceforth kept in subjection to the Crown and the terri-
torial aristocracy. The representation had long become an
Ulttsion. The knights of the shim were the nominees of nobles
and great landowners; the borough members were returned
by the Crown, by noble patrons or dose corporations; even
the representation of cities, with greater pretensions to inde-
pendence, was controlled by bribery. Nor were rulers content
with their control of the rrpresentation, but, after the Restora-
tion, the infamous system of bribing the members themselves
became a recognized instrument of administration. The country
gentlemen were not less attached to the principles of rational
liberty than their fathers, and would have resisted further
encroachments of prerogatives; but they were satisfied with the
Revolution settlement and the remedial laws of William III.,
and no new issue had yet arisen to awaken opposition. Accord-
ingly, they ranged thfcraaelves with one or other of the political
parties into which parliament was now beginning to be divided,
and bore their part in the more measured strifes of the i8th
century. From the Revolution till the reign of George lU. the
effective power of the state was wielded by the Crown, the
Church and the territorial aristocracy; but the influence of
pubfa'e opinion since the stirring evenu of the X7th century had
greatly increused. Both parries were oonstrained to defer to it;
and, notwithstanding the flagrant defccU in the repreaenution,
parliament generally kept itself in accord with the general
sentiments of the country..
Ummt of SeoHand.-On the union of Scotland in 1707
important changes were made in the constitotion of. parlia-
menu The House of Lords was reinforced by the addition
of sixteen pcere, representing the peerage of Scotland, and
elected every parliament; and the Scottish peers, as a body,
were admitted to all the privileges of peerage, except the right
of sitting in parliament or upon the trial of peers. No pre-
rogative, however, was given to the Crown to create new
peeragea after the union; and, while they are distinguished
by their antiquity, their number is consequently decreasing.
To the House of Commons were assigned forty-five members,
representing the shires and burghs of Scotland.
Parliament under George ///.—With the reign of George HI.
there opened a new period in the history of pariianeaL Agita-
tion in its various forms, an active and aggressive press, public
meetings and polirical assodalions, the free use of the right of
petition, and a turbulent spirit among the people seriously
changed the relationa of parliament to the country. And the
publication of debatesl which was fully established in I77>t
at once increased the direct responsibility of pariiament to the
people, and ultimalely brought about other results, to which
tve shall presently advert.
Union of Irdand^^ln this reign another impoctant change
was effected in the constitution of parliament. Upon the
union with Ireland, rft 1801, four Irish bishops were added to
the lords spiritual, who sat by rotation of sessions, and repre-
sented the episcopal body of the Church of Ireland. But those
bishops were deprived of their seats in pariiament in 1869, on
the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland. Twenty'dght
representative peers, elected for Kfe by the peerage ol Ireland,
were admitted to the House of Lords. All the Irish peen were
also entitled to the privilege of peerage. In two particulars
the Irish peerage was treated in a different manner from the
peerage of Scotland. The Crown was empowered to create a
new Irish peerage whenever three Irish peerages in existence
at the time of the Union have become extinct, or when the
number of Irish peeni, exclusive of those holding peerages of
the United King(k>m, has been reduced to one hundred. And,
further, Irish peers were permitted to sit in the House of
Commons lor any phKe in Great Britain, forfeiting, howeveri
the privilege of peerage while sitting in the lower house.
At the same time one hundred representatives of Ireland
were added to the House of Commons. This addition raised
the number of memben to six hundred and fifty-eight. Parlia-
ment now became the parliament of the United Kingdom.
Schemes for Improotng tke Re^esentation.-^By the union of
Scotland and IreUnd the electoral abuses of those countries
were combined with those of England. Notwithstanding a
defective rqpresentation, however, parliament generally sus-
tained its position as fairly embodying the poh'tical sentiments
of its time. Public opinion had been awakened, and could not
safely be Ignored by any party in the state. Under a narrow
and corrupt electoral system the ablest men in the country
found an entrance into the House of Commons; and their rivalry
and ambition ensured the acceptance of popular principla
and the passing of many remedial measures. As society
expanded, and new classes were called into existence, the
pressure of public opinion upon the legislature was assuming
a more decisive character. The grave ddects of the representa-
tion were notorious, and some minor electoral abuses had been
from Ume to time corrected. But the fundamental evilsr^
nomination boroughs, limited rights of election, the sale of seats
in parliament, the prevaknoe of bribery, and the enormous
expense of elections— though constantly exposed, long held
their ground against all assailants. So far back as 1770 Lord
Chatham had denounced these flagrant abuses. " Before the end
of this century," he said, " either the parliament will reform itself
from withiUy or be reformed with a vengeance from without.'*
In 178a, and again In 1783 and 1785, his distinguished son,
William Pitt, condemned the abuses of the represenutlon,
and proposed schemes of parliamentary reform. In 1793
Mr Grey (afterwards Earl Grey) submitted a motion on the
same subject; but the excesses of the French Revolution,
polfUcal troubles at home, and exhaustmg wan abroad dis-
couraged the supporters of reform for many years. Under
sDore lavoutable condirioos the question assumed greater
proportions. Lord John Russell especially distinguished him-
self in 1820, and in several succeeding yean, by the able
exposure of abuses and by temperate schemes of reform. His
efforts were assisted by the scandalous disclosures of bribtiy
at CrampQund, Penryn and East Retford. All moderate
proposals were rejected; but the. concurrence of a dlaadutiont
on the death of George IV., with the French Revolution in 1830,
and an ill-timed dedantion of the duke of Wellington that the
re p r ese n tation was perfect and could not be improved, suddenly
precipitated the memorable crisis of parliamentary reform. U
now fell to the tot of JEarl Grey, as premier, to be the kadct
in a cause which he had espoused in his eariy youth.
Tke R^orm Ads of / Jjv.-^The result of the memorable
struggle which ensued may be briefly told. By the Reform
Acts of 1833 the representation of the United Kingdom was
reconstructed. In Eni^land, fifty-six nomination boroughs
returning one hundred and eleven members were disfranchised;
thirty boroughs were each deprived of one member, and W'^
mouth and Melcombe Regis, which had returned four memben,
were now reduced to two. Means were thus found for the
enfranchisement of populous plaoea. Twenty^two large towna,
laducfing metropoliUn districts, became cnUtled to return
two members, and twenty less considerable towns acquired
the right of returning one member each. Thenumber of county
membe n was increued from ninety-four to one hundred and
fifty-nine, the brger counties being divided for tbe puP"
of repvesentatioa.
«44
PASUAHEXr
«M«Uic V>iri.a»c v» anwni fan iar-yimt^wk
* /•ear imi <«^ j»ii K^ttm^ ii tamtrndUia^ a fcnup^i ^P** i*®
IMyin^vwwvm a& a g ii<ii— f
tiui osnaitf uintsj veoiua.
Ik'^v^MRMf^M^ 'xiisie v«rjM« dMi^s, \a»m,wKx^ tihe
Tmt ^4ft^'vn wm u^w h n wu^H art* demg
k*'^^ 7'fte mmtf^a^t. «*Bris W cM»
A^jiM m iht ■ucr<aM4 k;p.ui.'iTe aasr:ty U tke - — — ■ .
0rf<»aa <i^r:}i»r«J rr^t ir Jl McAei tamrti o n Slii — wai c£ut9
«K9« aaMc, wvk t^.JS^:uM mcam, Co f igc at Imv-jegj amd
t/xf*.ywf%, ami p(i>if#>«ali war •fua ■ wfcnujl y aHde to
r«%<rMi iJk w{je M&acace «l taa<ftwil» aad earpfayvn «f
biwMr \ff the hoiod; neafvc^vanEMii mzc ande ia tJae ictHUa-
aMeaUkvt «a» tSUAaJb0^ Ctm^xsA^
Uw av«4^ dMMi Im4 bcm a4mi(U4 to power, «bik tbe work-
iaf fSm^% waz carfavVsrl from the late ttthtmt cf
pKwt, h wai Mi tiH tMfj hawcvcr tJnt aajr
a4v«Kc wu tfoAt,
lnrft4»U S^0Wtr 0f At C»<—i wo— Prior to iJk bbsb af
ChofW 1. the coadiiJ/M of fodctr had bcoi tach at maXaaSkf
lOMhardakautheComemMtotheCffoimaiidiheLardk After
the lUvokitMi af iMA aocietx had lo far advaaeed that, oadcr
* ffce reprctcaiatlao, the Coaraioaa viisht have ittiveo «kh
hoth wpim tqati tennt^ Bat, a» by far the pcatcr part of
the rcprc«entation vm bi the haadt of the kmgaad the territorial
aoljlc», the brfe cooMttutioMl powers d the
held Mfdf in Chech. After t$59, when the
hiKame a rcalitf , a eonenptmSnn aaihority was i f ttrri by
the (>>mmons. For several years, fauieed, by reason of the
weakness «f the U^jeral party, the Lords were able sDCxxasfnily
to retbt the ConoMMS «pon many ioiportaat occasioBa; bat
it wsa vnm acknowledged that thiey mast yield whenever a
derWve tnMyMty of the Coaimons, sopported by public
opinion, in*isted apoa the passing of any measure, however
ftpagnaot to the sentiments of the appcr boose. And it
became a political axiom that the ComiBoas alone determined
the fau of ministrfca.
AeCif kieatuHi e/ iK^<^».<— In ttss, and a^dn hi 1854* Lord
John RiftMrtl introduced meaittra of parVameatary reform;
hot eonsiiiuiional rhanffm were dtsconraged by the Crimean
War. lo iSfo L<ord Derby's Conservative 9»vcmmcaC pro-
pased snothrr srhcme of refann, which was defeated; and in
iMo l^ord John Russell brought in another bill, which was
not pmreeded with; and the question of reform oontinued in
ab#ysnre until after the desth of Lord Palmcrston. Earl
•■•■—" who succeeded him as premier, was prompt to redeem
*«es, and hastened to submit to a new parliament,
Hhar scheme of reform. This measuxa* and the
i 10 wta ia iis af iha oaed
» to all ooca|nett «f da
I to tenants «f lodgmp of £ioa
laah
Bia
Uh^
By the Imh Reform Ad of 1868 an <
the bofoogte of S^ and Ckshd, akasdy 4
fta left wUm ~
left imfhssgrd; bat the
of booses nted at £4, aad of 1
That these chaafles in the
homrhoid suflra^ in boraagho-^woe a aotafafe 1
the reforms of iSjr, in the dii et tio a af dta m uoLy, caganat be
questioned. IIk cidarged oonrtttaencKS speedBy owmhiw the
ministry to whom these measncsweee dae; and tbe new
pariiament further, ertendfd the iccznt scheme of icfocm
by gnnting to electors the protectkm of the ballot <f a), for
which advanced leformcn had con te nded since 1832. Nor
was the existing i cp i ffs r n r a fi oii long anffoed to cnntiaiae
without question. Fast, it was prapeoed, in 187s, to extend
the household franchise to counties, and this pcnpoaal foond
favour in the country and in the House of rotnmom ; bat, the
Conservative party having been restored to power in 1874, no
messore of that character could be promoted with any pr ui«a
of success. At the diawhitinn of x88o a more gencal muiu a
of the represenution was advocated by leading nwi n bcis of
the Libersl paity, who wne noon lestonri to power.
Ach^ M884'tS8S'—tWt Rcfoon Ad of 1884 was ultim*tdy
carded with the goodwill of both of the great political paitks^
The ConcrvaUves resisted Mr Gladstone's mticmpi to carry
a great extensioa of the franchise before he had dj a ri os ed o.s
scheme of redistribution, and the bill was thrown owt by the
House of Lords in August 1884. But after a confeacnce of
Mr Gkdstooe with JUwd SoUsbuQr,. to whom the whole achcma
FAIILIAM£NT
«45
was confided, an agnement mi rtadued^ and the IhB wka
pasted in the autumn session. In the foUowhig- session (1885)
the Redistribution Act was passed.
A uniform household and lodger franchise was established
in counties and boroughs. If a dwelling was held as part
payment for service, the occupier was not deprived of his vote
because his home was the property of his master. The obligar-
tion was thrown on the overseers of ascertaining whether any
other man besides the owner was entitled to be registered as
an inhabitant occupier, and the owner was bound to supply
the overseers with information. The Registration Acts were
otherwise widely amended. Polling-places were moltipUedr
so that little time- need be lost in recording a vote. These
and other benefidal changes went a long way towards giving
a vote to every one who had a decent home. By the Redistribu-
tion of Seats Act 1885 all boroughs with less than 15,000
inhabitants ceased to return a member. These small towxs
were merged into their counties, and the ommdes were sub-
divided into i great number of single>member constituencies,
so that the inhabitants of the disfranchised boroughs voted
for the member for the division of the county in which they
were situated. Boroughs- with less than 50,000 inhabitants
returning two members were in future to return only one, and
towns of over xoo,ooo were divided into separate constituencies,
and received additional members in proportion to their popuhi^
tion. The members for the Qty of London were reduced to
two, but Greater London, including Croydon, returned sixty.
Divided Liverpool returned nine, Glasgow seven, Edinburgh,
Dublin and Belfast each four, and so oa« Six additional seats
were given to £nglaad and twdvc to Scotland, so tltst, allowing
for » diminution by disfranchisement for corruption, the numbers
of the House of Commons were raised to 670 membeis.
Results of Reform since i8j2.-^From a constitutional stand-
point it is important to recognise the results of the successive
Refonn Acts 00 the woiking of parliament as regards the position
of the executive on the one hand and the electorate on the other.
B^ore 183a the functions of ministers were mainly adminis-
trative, and parltaaent was able to deal much as it pleased
with their rare legisUtlve propossds without thereby depiivhig
them of office. Moreover, since before that date ministers
were, generally speaking* in fact as wcU as in the(»y appointed
by the king, while the general confidence of the majority in
the House of Commons followed the coniideBce not so much
of the electorate as of the Crown, that house was able on
occasions to exercise an effective control over foreign policy.
Pitt, after 1784, was defeated several tims on foreign and
domestic issues, yet his resignation was neither expected nor
desired. In 1788, when the regency of the prince of Wales
appeared probable, and again in z8z2, it was generally assumed
that it would be in his power to dismiss his iather'a ministers
and to maintain the Whigs in office without dissolving pariia*
ment. This system, while it gave to minaters security of tenure,
left much effective freedom of action to the House of Commons.
But the Reform Act of 1832 intioduced a new order of thingik
In 1835 the result of a general election was for the first time
the direct cause of a change of ministry, and in 1841 a House
of Commons was elected for the express purpose of bringing a
particular statesman into power. The electorate voted for
Sir Robert Peel, and it would have been as Impossible for the
house then elected to deny him their support as it would be
for the college of electors hi the United States to exercise their
private judgment in the selection of a president. As time went
on, and the party system became more closely organised in
the enlaiged dectonte, the voting power throughout the
oountty came to exercise an increasing influence. The premier
was now a party leader who derived his power in reality neither
from the Crown nor from parliament, but from the electorate,
and to the electorate he could appeal if deserted by his parlia-
mentaiy majority. Unless it was prepared to drive him from
the office in which It was elected to support him, that majority
would not venture to defeat, or even seriously to modHy, his
legislative proposals, or to pass any censure on his foreign policy,
for all such action wouhi noiw be held to be equivalent to a vote
of no confidence. From the passing of the Reform. Act of 1867
down to 1900 (with a sfaigle exception due to the lowering of
the franchise and the redistribution of seats) the electorate
voted altenatcly for the rival party leaders, and it was the
function ol the houses elected for that purpose to pass thtf
measures and to endone the general policy with which those
leaders woe respectively identified. The cabinet (g.v.), com*'
posed of eolleagues selected by the prime minister, had
pnetkatly, though indirectly, become an executive committee
acting on behalf of the dectorate, that is to say, the majority
which returned their partyv to office; and the House of Commons
praeticaliy ceased to exeroBe * control over ministers except
in so far as a revoh in the party fotmtng the majority could
influence the prime minister, or force him to resign or dissolve.
Me&nwUle, the virtual identification of the electorate with
the nation by the successive extensions of the franchise added
immensely to iu power, the chief limiutlon bdng supplied
by the Septennial Act. The House of Lords, whatever its
nominal rights, came henceforth in practice to exercise restric*
tion rather on the House of Commons than on the will of the
electorate, for the acquiescence of the upper house m the decision
of the electors, when appealed to on a specific point of issue
between the two houses, was graduaDy accepted by its leaders
as a. constitutional convention.
The history of parliament, as an institution, centres m this
later period round two points, (A) the friction between Lords
and Conmions, resulting in proposals for the remodellxng of
the upper house, and (B) the changes in procedure within
the House of Comonons, necessitated by new conditions of
work and the desire to make it a more business-like assembly.
These two movements will be discussed separately.
As House of Lords ^MesKoM.— 'In the altered position of the
House of Lords, the occasional checks given by it to the House
of Commons were bound to cause friction with the representa-
tives of the people. In the nature of things this was a matter
of importance <mly when the Liberal party was m power and
measures were proposed by the Liberal leaders which involved
such extreme changes that the preponderantly Conservative
upper house could amend or reject them with some confidence
in its action being supported by the electorate. The frequent
diffetenosB between the two houses during the pariiaraent
of Z880-1885, cnlnuhatfng in the postponement by the uppo^
bouse of the Refortn Bill, caused the status of that house
to be much dtScnssed during the general election of 1885, and
proposals for its " mending or endmg " to be freely canvassed
on Radical platfoims. On the 5th of March 1886 Mr Labouchere
moved a xtsolutian In the House of Cbmmons condemning the
hetedifary principle. Thi^ was resisted by Mr Ghdstone, then
prime min&tter, en the ground that he had never supported
an abstract resolution unless he was prepared to foUow it up
by actk>n, and that the time for this had not arrived. On
a division the motion was -negatived by soa votes against r66.
The question of the constitution of the House of Lords was
much agiuted fan t888. The Oonservatives were sgain hi
power, but many of them thought that it would be prudent
to forestall by a moderate reform the more drastic remedies
no^ openly advocated by their opponents. On the other
hand, Radidds were disposed to resist all changes inTolvmg
the maintenance of the hereditaiy principle, lest they should
thereby strengthen the House of Lords. On the 9th of March Mr
Laboudiere again moved his resolution in the House of Cbmmons.
Mr W. H. Smith, the leader of the house, in resisting the motion,
admitted that some changes were desirable, and agreed with
a prevfoos speaker that it was by the Conservatives that such
changes ought to be effected. On the xpth of Mardi \a. the same
year Lord Rosebeiy, in the House of Lords, moved for a sdect
committee to inquire hrto the subject He took the oppor-
tunity to explain his own plan of reform. While he <fid not
wish to abolish the hereditary principle, he desired that noMib
outside the Royal family, should be a member of the r
by light of Urth alone; To the reprcsenttthrci of tb
846
PARLIAMENT
be proposed to add other men who bad achieved distinction
in a public career. He attached a high importance to the
existence of a second chamber. His motion was negatived
by 97 votes against 50. On the 96th of April Lord Dunraven with*
drew a bill for the reform of the House of Lords on the promise
of the government to deal with the matter, and on the x8th of
June Lord Salisbury fulfilled this pledge. He introduced a bill
on that day to provide for the creation of a limited number
of life peers and for the exclusion of unworthy members from the
house. Under this measure a maximum of five life-peerages
in any one year might be created, but the total number was
never to exceed fifty. In respect of three out of these five
life-peers the choice of the Crown was restricted to judges,
generals, admirals, ambassadors, privy councillors and ex-
governors of colonies. The two additional life-peers were to
be appointed in regard to some special qualification to be stated
in the message to the house announcing the intention of the
Crown to make the appointment. Power was also to be given
to the house to expel members for the period of the current
parliament by an address to the Crown praying that their writs
of summons might be cancelled. The bill was read a second
time on the loth of July, but it met with a cold reception and was
dropped. The only outcome of all that was written and said
in this year was that in 1889, ^^^ the report of a select committee
set up in x888, the Lords made a few changes in their standing
orders, among which the order establishing a quorum of thirty
in divisions and those for the constitution of standing committees
were the most important.
I The parliament which met at Westminster in August 189a
was more democratic in its tendencies than any of its prede-
cessors. At the beginning of the session of 1893, in the course
of which the Home Rule Bill was passed by the House of
Commons, government bills were introduced for quinquennial
parliaments, for the amendment of registration, and for the
limitation of each elector to a single vote. The introduction
of these bills served merely as a declaration of government
policy, and they were not further pressed. On the 24tli of March
a resolution in favour of payment of members was earned by
376 votes against 339, and again in 1895 by 176 to 158. But
the rejection of the Home Rule Bill by the House of Lords,
with the apparent acquiescence of the country, combined
with the- retirement of Mr Claxlstone to weaken the influence
of this House of Commons, and smaU importance was attached
to its abstract resolutions. In the ensuing sessk)n of 1894 an
amendment to the Address condemning the hereditary principle
was moved by Mr Labouchere, and carried by 147 to .X45.
The government, however, holding that this was not the way
in which a great question should be raised, withdrew the Address,
and carried another without the insertion. In his last public
utterance Mr Gladstone directed the attcnU'on of his party to
the reform of the House of Lords, and Lord Rosebeiy endeavoured
to concentrate on such a policy the energies of his supporters
at the general election. But the result of the dissolution of
1895, showing, as it did, that on the chief pob'tical issue of the
day the electorate had agreed with the House of Lords and
had disagreed with the House of Commons, greatly strengthened
the upper house, and after that date the subject was but little
disclosed until the Liberal party again came into power ten
years later. The .House of Lords claimed the right to resist
changes made by the House of Commons until the will of the
people had been definitely dedared, and its defenders contended
that its ultimate dependence on the electorate, now generally
acknowledged, rendered the freedom from ministerial control
secured to it l»y its constitution a national safeguard.
In X907, under the Radical government of Sir H. Campbell-
Bannerman Cff.v.), the conflict between the Commons and the
Lords again became more acute. And the prime minister in
May obtained a huge majority in the lower house for a resolu-
tion, on which a biU was to be founded, involving a complicated
method of ovezxiding the will of the Lords when the Commons
had three times passed a bill. But no further. immediate step
was taken. In 1908 n strong committee of the House of Lords
with Lord Rosebery as cfaaiman, which bad been appointed
in consequence of the introduction by Lord Newton of a bill
for reforming the constitution of the upper house, presented
an interesting report in favour of burgdy restricting the hereditary
element and adopting a method of selection.
So the question stood when in 1909 matters cane to a head
through the introduction of Mr Lioyd George's budget. It had
always been accepted as the constitutional right of the House of
Lords to reject a fiminrial measure sent up l^ the Commons but
not to amend it, but the rejection of the budf^et (which was, in
point of form, referred to the judgment of the electorate) now
precipitated a struggle with the Liberal party, who had
persistently denied any right on the part of the upper house to
force a dissolution. The Liberal leaders contended that, even U
constitutional, the claim of the House of Lords to reject a budget
was practically obsolete, and having been revived must now be
formally abolished; and they went to the country for a mandate
to carry their view into law. The elections of January 1910 gave
an unsatisfactory answer, snice the two principal parties, the
Liberals and the Unionists, returned practically equal; but the
Liberal government had also on their side the Irish Nationalot
and the Labour parties, which gave them a majority in the House
of Commons if they could concentrate the combined forces on the
House of Lords question. This Mr Asquith contrived to do; and
having introduced and carried through the House of Commons a
series of resolutions definhig his proposals, he had also tabled a
bill which was to be sent up to the House of Lords, wlien the
death of the king suddenly interrvpted the eoune of the tonsti-
tutk>nal conflict, and gave a breathing-space for both sides to
consider the possibility of coming to terms. In June Mr Asqmth
took the initiative in inviting the leaders of the Oppositloin to a
conference with closed doors, and a series of meetings between
four representatives of each side were begun. The govervmcnt
were represented by Ux Asquith, Mr Lloyd Getxgt, Mr Birrcll
and Lord Crewe. The Unionists were represented by Mr Balfour,
Lord Lanadowne, Mr Austin Chamberlain and Lord Cawdor.
The tituatioiion the Radical aide at this juncture may be best
understood by setting out the resolutions passed in the House
of Commons, and the test of the parliament bill of which
Mr Asquith lutd given llotice^— >
Tke Resotutions.^" x. That It b expedient that the House of
Lords be disabled by law from rejecting or amending a money bill,
but that any such bmitatioa bv bw ahall not be taken to dimizriah
or oualify the existing rights and privileges of the Housaof ComaMMaa.
For Che purpoae of this resolution, a bill ahall be considered
a money bill if in the opinion of the Speaker it contains only
provisions dealing with all or any of the following siibtect»— natncly,
the impoiition, repeal, remassioii. altcntion or regukdan of taxa-
tion; cnarget on the Conaolidatod Fund or the proviaioa of notiry
by parliament; supply { the appropriation, control or rcgulauoa
of public money; tnc raising or guarantee 01 any to^n or the repay-
ment thereof; or matters mcioental to those subjects or any of
" 2. That it is expedient that the powers of the House of Lofdas
as respects bills other ^tban money bills, be restricted by law, so
that any such bill which has passed the House of Comnoons in
three sucoesttve aesaons and, having been sent up to the House <4
Lords at leaac one month befocw the end of the ifiun, has been
rejected by that house in each of those seflsions, shall bcoocBc
law without the consent of the House of Lords, on the royal a^<mt
being declared: provided that at least two years shall have claps^
between the date of the first introduction of the bill in the Hooss
of Commons and the date on which it pasaes the House of Casmwma
for the third ttotc.
" For the purpose of this resolution a bQH shall be treated as
rejectod bv the House of Lords if it has not been passed b>' the
House of Lords either without aaaeodment or with such amend-
nents only as may beafreed upoa by both houses.
" 3. That it is expedtea t to limit the duration of parliamrnt to
fiveyears."
The Parfiament 'Bttt, tOto.—** Whereas It is expedient that pro-
vMon should be made for regulating the relations between tlie r«o
Houses of Parliament: And whereas it is intended to mbatitwtfi
for the Hooae of Lords as it at present exists a secood dianhrr
constituted on a popular instead of hereditary basis, bat sucb
substitution cannot be immediately brought into operatioo: And
whereas provision will require hereafter to be made by parS**
ment in a measure eflcctuig such substitution for liflntinc »iid
de&oiog tho powers of the new seoood-cbandier, but it is <
PARLIAMENT
847
to make much pnnman m tn tlib set appoan for rettrictlng the
e&isting powers of th« Houte of Lords: Be it therefore enacted
by the king's most excellent majesty, by and with the advice and
consent of the Lords spiritual and temporal, and Commons, in
this present pariiament assembled, and by the antfaority of the
same, as foUows>—
" 1. (i) If a money bill, having been passed bv the House of
Commons, and sent up to the House of Lords at feast one month
before the end of the session. Is n6t passed by the House of Lords
without amendment within one month after it Is so sent up to that
house, the bill shall, unless the House of Commons dlrsct to the
coBtmy, be presented to His Majesty and become an act of
parliament on the royal assent bemg signified, notwithstanding
that the House of Lords have not consented to ttn bill.
" (a) A money bill means a bill which in the opinion of the Speaker
of the House of Commons contains only provisions dealing with
all or any of the folk>wlng subiectt-mamdy, the imposition, repeal,
remissioa, alteration or regvlation of taxation; charges on the
consolidated fund or the provision of money by parliament : supply ;
the appropriation, contnd or regulation of publie money: the
raising or ^luarantee of any k>an or the repayment thereof; or
malten inadental to thoae subjects or any 01 them.
" (3) When a bill to which the House of Lords has not consented
is presented to His Majesty for assent as a money bill, the blU
shall be accompanied by a certificate of the Speaker of the House
of Commons that it is a money bill.
" (4) No amendment shall oe allowed to a money biD which. In
the opinion of the Speaker of the House of Commons, ia such as to
prevent the bill retaining the character of a money bill.
** 3. (1) li any bill other than a money t»n is passed by the House
of Commons in three successive aesemis (whether <m the same
parliament or not), and, having been sent up to the House tji Lords
at least one month before the end of the session, is rejected by the
House of Lords in each of those sessions, that bill shall, on its
rejectwn for the third time by the House of Lords, unless the
House of Commons direct to the contrary, be presented to His
Majesty and become an act of parliament on the royal assent
bong signified thereto* notwithstandii^ that the House of Lords
has not consented to the bill: provided that this pnmsion shall
not take effect unless two years have elapsed between the date of
the first itttroductioa of the bill in the House of Commcms and
the date oa which it passes the House <^ Conunona for the third
time.
" fa) A bill shall be deemed to be rejected by the House of Lords
if It IS not passed by the House of Lords either without amendment
or with sucn amendments only as may be agreed to by both houses.
" (3) A bill shall be deemed to be the same bill as a former biU
sent up to the House of Lords in the pnxseding sesdon if, when it
is 9cnt up to the House of Lords, it is identical with the former
bill or contains only such alterations as are certified by the Speaker
of the House of Commons to be necessary owing to the time which
baa elapsed since the date of the former bill, or to reprcMnt amend-
ments which have been made by the House of Lords in the former
bill in the preceding session.
" Provided that the House of Commons may, if they think fit.
on the passage of such a bill through the house in the second
or third sesMon, suggest any further amendments without insert-
ing the aniendments in the bill, and any such suggested amend-
ments shall be considered by the House of Lords, and if agreed to
by that house, shall be treated as amendments made by the House
of Lords and agreed to by the House of Commons; but the exercise
of this power by the House of Commons shall not affect the
ration of this section in the event of the bill being tejeaed by
House of Lords.
" 3. Any certificate of the Speaker of the House of Commons
given under thb act shall be conclusive for all purposes, and shall
not be ouesiioned in any court of law.
" 4. Nothinii in this act shall diminish or qualify the ealrting
righu and privileges of the House of Commons.
" 5. Five yean shall be substituted for seven years as the time
fixed for the maximum duration of parfiament under the Septennial
Act I7<S"
Meanwhile, in the House of Lords, Lord Rosebery had carried
three resolutions declaring certain principles for the reform of
the second chamber, which were assented to by. the Unionist
leaders; the policy opposed to that of the government thus
became that of willingness for reform of the constitution of
the Upper Chamber, but not for aboUtion of its powers.
Lord RaseUry's Rtsclittious.^i) " That a strong and efficient
Second Chamber is not merely an integral part of the British Con-
stitution, but b necessary to the weU-being of the State and to
the balance of Parlbment." (a) " Such a Chamber can best be
obtained by the reform and reconstitution of the House of Lonk."
C3) " That a necessary preliminary to such reform and reconstitution
is the acceptance of the principle that the poAscssion of a peerage
should no longer of Itself give the right to sit and vote In the House
of Lords."
Dttiing the summer and autumn the private moetlngt
between the eight leaders were continued, imtil twenty had
been held. But on the loth of November Mr Asqutth imied a
brief statement that the oonference on the cooatitutionAl
que^ion had come to an end, without arriving at an agree-
ment. Wtlhin a few days he announood that another appeal
would at once be made to the electorate. The Pariiament
Bill was hurriedly introduced into the House of Loids, with «
statement by Lord Crewe that no amendments wouM be
accepted. The dissolution was fixed for the 38th of November.
Time' waa short for any dcdantion of policy by the Unk>niat
peeis, but it was given shape at once, first by the adoption of
a further resohitkm moved hy Lord Roaebery for the remodel-
ling of the Upper House, and secondly by Lord Lanadowne's
shelving the Parliament BQl by coupling the adjournment of
the debate on it with the adoption of resolutions providing
for the settlement of differences between a reconstituted
Upper House and the House of Commons.
Lord 'Rosd)ery*s additional resolution provided that '* in ftiture
the House of Lords shall consist of Lords of Parliament: fa) chosen
by the whole body of hereditary peers from among tnemaelvea
and by nomination by the Crown; \b) sitring by virtue of ofiicea
and of qualifications held by them; u) chosen from outside." The
Lansdowne resolutions provided in meet that, when the House of
Lords had been " reconstituted and reduced in aumben ** in accor-
dance with Lord Rosebery's plan, (1 ) any differences arising between
the two houses with regard to a Bill other than a Money BiU, in
two successive sessions, and within an interval of not less than one
year, should be settled. If not adjustable otherwise, in a joint
sitting composed of members of both houses, except in the case of
** a matter which is of great navity ami has not been a^dteqaatcly)
submitted to the judgment of the people," wfakh should then bs
'* submitted for decision to the electors by Referendum "; (a) and
as to Money Bills, the Lords were p repared to forgo their constitu-
tional right of rejection or amendment, if effectual provision were
made a^inst ** taddng," the decision whether other than financial
natters were dealt with in the Bill resting with a joint committee
of both Houses, with the Speaker of the House of Copiffions as
chairman, having a casting vote only.
Tlie general election took place in December, and lesulted
practically in no change from the previous situation. Both
sides won and lost seats, and the eventual numben irtxti
Liberals lyst Labour 4a, Irish Nationalists 84 (8 befaig " inde-
pendents" following Mr William O'Brien), UniousU t7a.
Tlius, incfaiding the doubtful votes of the 8 Indepcndoit
Nationalists, Mr Asqulth retained an apparent majority of xa6
for the ministerial policy, resting as it did on the determination
of the Irish Nationalists to pave the way for Home Rule 1^
destroying the veto of the House of Lords.
B. House of Commons Internal Reforms. — ^We have already
sketched the main lines of English parliameotaty piooedure^
UntH the forms of the House of Commons were openly utilised
to delay the progre^ of government business by what became
known as ''obstruction" the changes made in the years
following 183 3 were comparatively insignificant. They con-
sisted in (i) the discontinuance of superfluous forms, questions
and smendments; (2) restrictions of debates upon questions of
form; (3) improved arrangements for the dbtribution of busi-
nen; (4) the delegation of some of the minor functions of the
house to committees and officers of the house; and (5) increased
publicity in the proceedings of the housew But with the entry
of Mr Pamell and his Irish Nationalist followers into parlia-
ment (1875*1880) a new era began in the history of the House
of Commons. Their tactics were to oppose all business of
whatever kind, and at all houis.
It was not imtil Februaiy x 880 that the house so far overcame
its reluctance to restrict liberty of discussion as to pass, in its
earliest form, the rule dealing with " order in debate." U
provided that whenever a member was named by the Speaker
or rhairman as '* disiegarding the authority of the chiir, or
abusing the rules of the house by persistently and wOfully
obstructing the rules of the bouse," a morion might be made,
to be decided without amendment or debate, for his suspoisioa
from the service of the house during the remainder of the sitting}
and that if the asne member shonU be suspended three times
84S
PARLIAMENT
in one sessioD, his suspension on the third oocssion should
continue lor a week, and until a motion had been made upon
which it should be decided, at one sitting, by the house, whether
the suspension should then oeasc or not. The general election,
which took place two months later, restored Mr Gladstone to
power and to the leadership of the house. Mr PamcU returned
to parliament with a more numerous fdlowing, and resumed his
former tactics. In January 1881 the Protection of Persons and
Property (Ireland) Bill was introduced. For twenty-two hours
Pamell fought the motion giving precedence to the bill, and for
four sittings its introduction. The fourth sitting lasted forty*
one hours. Then Mr Speaker Brand intervened, and declined
to call on any other member who might rise to address the
house, because repeated dilatory motions had been supported
by small minorities in opposition to the general sense of the
house. He added: " A crisis has thus arisen which demands
the prompt interposition of the chair and of the house. The
usual rules have proved powerless to ensure orderly and effective
debate. An important measure, reoonunended by Her Majesty
nearly a month since, and declared to be urgent in the interests
of tlMs state by a decisive majority, is being arrested by the
action of an inconsiderable minority, the members of which
have resorted to those modes of obstruction which have been
recognized by the house as a parliamentary offence. The dignity,
the credit, and the authority of this house are seriously threat-
ened, and it is necessary they should be vindicated. . . . Future
measures for ensuring orderly debate I must leave to the judg-
ment of the house. But the house must either assume more
effectual control over its debates, or entrust greater powers to
the chair." The Speaker then put the question, which was
carried by an overwhelming majority. Then followed the
decisive struggle. Mr Gladstone gave notice for the nest day
(Feb. 3) of an urgency rule, which ordered, "That if the
house shall resolve by a majority of three to one that the state
of public business is urgent, the whole power of the house to
make rules shall be and remain with the Speaker until he shall
declare that the state of public business is no longer urgent."
On the next day a scene of great disorder ended in the suspension
of the Nationalist members, at £rst singly, and afterwards in
groups. The urgency rule was then -passed without further
difficulty, and the house proceeded to resolve, " That the sUte
of pubHc business is urgent." The Speaker hiid upon the table
rales of sufBdent stringency, and while they remained in force
progress in public business was possible. During this session the
Speaker had to intervene on points of order 935 times, and the
chairman of committees 939. times; so that, allowing only five
minutes on each occasion, the wxangliiig between the chair and
members occupied 150 hours.
The evenuof the sessioD of i88x and the direct appeal of the
Speaker to the house proved the necessity of changes in the rules
Tk0Chaan^^ procedure more drastic than had hitherto been
proposed. Aooordingiy, in the first week of the
Mssion of 188a Mr Gladstone laid his proposals on the table,
and in moving the first resolution on aoth February, he reviewed,
in an ekxiaent speech, the history of the standing orders. It
was his opinion, on general grounds, that the house should
settle its own procedure, but he showed that the numerous
conmtttaes which, since 1832, had sat on the subject, had failed
for the most part to carry their recommendations into effect
from the lack of the requisite "propelling power," and he
expressed his regret that the concentration of this power in the
hands of the government had rendered it necessary that they
should undertake a task ix)t properly theirs. He noted two main
features in the history of the case: (r) the constantly increasing
labours of the house, and (3) its cxmsUntly decreasmg power to
despatch its duties; and while he declared that " the fundamental
change which has occurred is owing to the passing of the first
great Reform BtU/' he pointed out that the strain had not
become tntolenbie till the development in recent years of ob-
structive tactics. He defined obstruction as ** the deposition
cither of the minority of the house, or of individuals, to resist
the prevailing will of the house otherwise than by aifuaent," and
reached the oondusioD that the only remedy for a state of thingi
by which the dignity and efficiency of the house were alike
compromised, was the adoption in a carefully guarded form of the
process known on the Continent as the " cl6ture." He explained
that in his early years the house was virtually posactted of a
dosing power, because it was possessed of a means of sufBdeotly
making known its inclinations; and to those Inclinations uniform
deference was paid by members, but that since this moral
sanction had ceased to be operative, it was necessary 10 sufastiiuu
for it a written law. The power to dose debate had been of
necessity assumed by almost all the European and American
assemblies, the conduct of whose members was shaped by no
traditional considerations; and the entry into parliainent of a
body of men to whom the traditions of the house were as nothing
made it necessary for the House of Commons to follow this
example. He proposed, therefore, that when it appeared to the
Speaker, or to the chairman of committees, during any debate to
be the evident sense of the house, or of the comminee, that the
question be now put, he mi^t so inform the house, and that
thereupon on a motion being made, " That the question be now
put," the question under discussion should be forthwith put from
the chair, and dedded in the affirmative if supported by more
than 200 members, or, when less than 40 members had voted
against it, by more than 100 members. This resolution was
vehemently contested by the opposition, who denounced it as an
unprecedented interference with the liberty of debate, but was
eventually carried in the autumn session of the same ycKr, after
a discussion extending over nineteen sittings.
On the aoth of November the sunding order of the aSth of
February 1880, providing for the suspeiuion of members who
persbtently and wilfully obstructed the business of the bouse or
disregarded the authority of the chair, was amended by the in-
crease of the penalty to suspension on the first fffrssim for one
week, on the second occasion for a fortnight, and on the third,
or any subsequent occasion, for a month. The other rules,
framed with a view to freeing the wheels of the parliamentary
machine, and for the most part identical with the regulations
adopted by Mr Speaker Brand under the urgency reaolutioa of
r88r, were carried in the coune of the autumn aeaaioii, and
became standing orders on the 27th of November.
Mr Gladstone's closure rule verified neither the hopea of Its
supporters rx»r the fears of iu opponents. It was not put into
operation until the soth of February t88s, when the Speaker^
declaration of the evident sense of the house was ratified by a
majority of 207— a margin of but seven votes over the necessary
quorum. It was clear that no Speaker was likely to run ih* risk
of a rebuff by again assuming the initiative unless in the face
of extreme urgency, and, in fact, the rule was enforced twice only
during the five years of its existence.
In r887 the Conservative government, before the intnductioD
of a new Crimes Act for Irdand, gave effidency to the raJe by
an imporUnt amendment. They proposed that any member
during a debate might daim to move, ** That the qneslioo be
now put," and that with the oensent of the chair tUs quotioa
shouki be put forthwith, and dedded without amendment or
debate. Thus the initiative was transferred from the Speaker
to the house. Mr Gladstone objected strongly to this alteration*
chiefly on the ground that it would throw an unfair buiden ot
responsibility upon the Speaker, who would now have to decide
on a question of opinion, whereas under the old rule he wa& orly
called upon to determine a question of evident fact. The
alternative most generally advocated by the opposition was the
automatic dosure by a bare majority at the end of each sitrirr.
an arrangement by which the chair would be relieved from cjs
invidious responsibility; but it was pointed out that under such a
system the length of debates would not vary with the import ai«ce
of the questions debated. After fourteen sittings the ckisure rule
was passed on the rSth of March and made a standing order.
In the next session, on the 38th of Febniaiy 1888, the rwle
was yet further strengthened by the reduction of the majoritr
necessary for its enforcement from 200 to top, the cksure nk
remaining as follows: —
PARLIAMENT
849
That, after « OMHlon htt iNtll ^rapoied, a oianbeff riling in
bis place may claim to move, "That the question be now put,"
and, unless it shall appear to the chair that such motion is an abuse
of the rules of the house or an infringement of the rights of the
minority, the question, " That the question be now put.'* shall be
put forthwith* and decided without amendment or debate.
When the motion " That the question be now put " has been
carried, and the question consequent thereon has been decided,
any further motion may be made (the assent of the chair as afore-
said not having been withheld), which may be requisite to bring
to a decision any question already proposed from the chair; and
also if a clause be then under consideration, a motion may be
m.ide (the assent of the chair as aforesaid not havinc been with-
held). " That the question * That certain words of the clause defined
In the motion stand part of the clause.' or * That the clause stand
Crt of, or be added to, the bill,' be now put." Such motions shall
put forthwith, and decided without amendment c* debate.
That questions for the closure of debate shall be decided in the
affirmative, if. when a division be taken, it appears by the numbers
declared from the chair that not less Uian one hundred members
voted in the majority in support of the motion.
The closure, originally brought into being to defeat the tactics
of obstraction in special emergencies, thus became a part of
parliamentary routine. And, the principle being
^Stx^ttrn t ^ once accepteid, its operation was soon extended.
The practice of retarding the progress of govern-
ment measures by amendments moved to every line, adopted
by both the great political parties when in opposition, led
to the use of what became known as the " guillotine," for
forcing through pariiament important bills, most of the
clauses in which were thus tmdiscussed. The ** guillotine,*'
ihemnt that the house deddes how much time shall be devoted
to certaia stages of a measure, definite dates being laid down
at which the closure shall be enforced and division taken. On
the 17th of June 1887, after prolonged debates on the Crimes
BUI in committee, clause 6 only having been reached, the
remaining 14 dauses were put without discussion, and the bill
was reported in accordance with previous notice. This was the
first use of the " guiUetine," but the precedent was followed by
Mr Gladstone in 1893, when many of the clauses of the Home
Role Bill were carried through committee and on report by the
same machinery. To the Conservatives must be imputed the in-
ventk>n of this method of Ic^aUtion, to their opponents the use
of it for attempting to carry a great constitutional innovation
to which the majority of English and Scottish representatives
were opposed, and subisequently iu extension and development
(i9o6*i909> as a regular part of the legislative machinery.
The principle of dosure has been extended even to the debates
on supply. The old rule, that the redress of grievances should
precede the grantitig of money, dating from a lime
"^^^^'^'when the minister of the Crown was so far from
commanding the confidence of the majority in the House of
Commons that he was the chief object of thdr attacks, neverthe-
leu continued to govern the proceedings of the house in relation
to supply without much resultant inconvenience, until the period
when the new methods adopted by the Irish Nationalist party
created a new situation. Until 1871 it continued to be possible
to discuss any subject by an amendment to the motion for going
into supply. In that year a resolution was passed Umithig the
amendments to matters relevant to the class of estimates about
to be considered, and these relevant amendments were further
restricted to the first day on which it was proposed to go into
committee. This resolution was continued in 1873, but was
allowed to drop in 1874. It was revived in a modified form in
1876, but was again allowed to drop in 1877. In 1879, on the
recommendation of the Northcotc committee, it was provided
in a sessional order that whenever the committees of supply or
of ways and means stood as the first order on a Monday, the
Speaker should leave the chair without question put, except on
first going into committee on the army, navy and civil service
estimates respectively. In 1882 Thursday was added to Monday
for the purposes of the order, and, some further exceptions
having been made to the operation of the rule, it became a
standing order. The conditions, however, under which the
estimates were voted remained unsatisfactory. The most
useful f ODCtioB of the opposition is the exposure of abuses in the
various departments of admhiistration, and this can best be
performed upon the estimates. But ministers, occupied whh
their legislative proposals, were irresistibly tempted to postpone
the consideration of the estimates until the last weeks of the
session, when they were hurried through thin houses, the members
of which were impatient to be gone. To meet this abuse, and
to distribute the time with some regard to the comparative
importanceof the subjects discussed, Mr Balfour in 1896 proposed
and carried a sessional order for the closure of supply, a maxi-
mum of twenty-three days bdng given to its consideration, of
which the last three alone might be taken after the 5th of
August. On the last but one of the allotted days at xo o'clock
the chairman was to put the outstanding votes, and on the last
day the Speaker was to put the remaining questions necessary
to complete the reports of supply. In 1901 Mr Balfour so
altered the resolution that the question was put, not with
respect to each vote, but to each dass of votes in the Civil
Service estimates, and to the total amounts of the outstanding
votes in the army, navy and revenue estimates.
It is only possible here to refer briefly to some other changes
in the proceldure of the house which altered in various respects
its character as a business-like assembly. The chief ootte
of these is as regards the hours. On Mondays, Chmmgnlm
Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Thursdays the house ^••<*»^
meets at 3.45 p.m., " questions " beginning at 3 and ending
(apart from urgency) at 3.45; and opposed business ends at xx.
On Fridays the house meets at la noon, and opposed business
is suspended at 5 p.m.; this is the only day when government
business has not precedence, and private members' bills have the
first call, though at 8.15 p.m. on Tuesdays and Wednesdays up
to Easter and on Wednesdays up to Whitsuntide the business
is interrupted in order that private members' motions may be
taken. These arrangements, which only date from 1906,
represent a considerable change from the old days before 1879
when the standing order was formed that no opposed business,
with certain exceptions, should be taken after 12.30 a.m.,
or 1888^ when the dosing hour was fixed at midnight. In fact
the hours of the bouse have become generally earlier. Another
important change has been made as regards motions for the
adjournment of the house, which used to afford an opportunity
to the private members at any time to discuss matters of urgent
importance. Since 1902 no motion for the adjournment of the
house can be made until all " questions " have been disposed of,
and then, if forty members support it, the debate takes place at
8.15 p.m. This alteration has much modified the character of
the debates on such motions, which tised to be taken when feel-
ings were hot, whereas now there is time for reflection. In other
respects the most noticeable thing in the recent evolution of the
House of Commons has been its steady loss of power, as an
assembly, In face of the control of the government and party
leaders. In former times the private members had far larger
opportunities for introducing and carrying bills, which now have
no chance, unless the government affords " facilities "; and the
great function of debating " supply " has largely been restricted
by the closure, under n^ich millions of money are voted without
debate. The house is still ruled by technical rules of procedure
which are, m the main, dilatory and obstructive, and hamper the
expression of views which are distasteful to the Whips or to the
government, who can by them arrange the business so as to suit
thdr convenience. It is true indeed that this dilatory character
of the proceedings assists to encourage debate, within limiu;
but with the influx of a new dass of representatives, espedally
the Labour members, there has been in recent yean a rather
pronounced feding that the procedure of the house might well
be drastically revised with the object of making it a more
bttsinecs-like assembly. Rdorm of the House of Commons has
been postponed to some extent because reform of the House of
Lords has, to professed reformers, been a better *' cry "; but
when reform is once " in the air " In parliament it is not likely
to stop, with so large a field of antiquated procedure before It as
is represented by many of the traditional methods of the Hour
I of Commons. (H. Ch^
8so
PARMA
PARMA, a town and episoopal see of Emilia, Italy, capiul
of the province of Parma, situated on the Parma, a tributa^ of
the Po, 55 m. N.W. of Bologna by rail. Pop. (1906}, 48,523.
Parma, one of the finest cities of northern Italy, lies in a fertile
tract of the Lombard plain, within view of the Alps and sheltered
by the Apennines, 170 ft. above sea-level. From south to north
it is traversed by the channel of the Parma, crossed here by three
bridges; and from cast to west runs the line of the Via Aemilia,
-foy which ancient Parma was connected on the one hand with
Ariminum (Rimini), and on the other with Placcntia (Piacenza).
The old ramparts and bastions (excluding the circuit of the dladel
of 1 591, now in great part demolished, in the south-east) make
an enceinte of about 4I m., but the eodoecd area is not all
occupied by streets and houses.
In the centre of the city the Via Aemilia widens out into the
Piazza Garibaldi, a large square which contains the Palazzo del
Ooverno and the Palazzo Municipalc, both datmg from 1627.
The cathedral of the Assumption (originally S. Hcrculanus),
erected between 1064 and 1074, and consecrated in 1106 by
Pope Paschal II., is a Lombardo-Romancsquc building in the
form of a Latin cross. The severe west front is relieved by three
rows of semicircular arches, and has a central porch (ih^re were
at one lime three) supported by huge red marble lions, sculptured
no doubt with the rest of the facade by Giovanni Bono da Bissonc
in 1 281. On the south side of the facade is a Urgo brick campa-
nile, and the foundations of another may be seen on the north.
The walls and ceiling of the fine Romanesque interior arc covered
with frescoes of 1570, subdued in colour and well suited to the
character of the building; those of the octagonal cupola repre-
senting the Assumption of the Virgin are by Correggio, but much
restored. The cr>'pt contains the shrine of the bishop S. Bernar-
dino dcgli Ubcrli and the tomb of Baxtolommeo Prato — the
former by Prospcro Clementi of Reggio. In the sacristy are fine
intarsias. To the south-west of the cathedral stands the baptis-
tery, designed by Benedetto Antcbmi; it was begun in 1x96 and
not completed .till 1281. The whole structure is composed of red
and grey Verona marble. Externally it is an irregular octagon,
each face consbting of a lower storey with a semicircular arch
(in three cases occupied by a portal), with sculptures by Antcbmi,
four tiers of small columns supporting as niany continuous
architraves, and forming open galleries, and abova these (an
addition of the Gothic period) a row of five engaged columns
supporting a series of pointed arches and a cornice. Internally
it is a polygon of sixteen unequal sides, and the cupola is supported
by suteca ribs, springing from the same number of columns.
The frescoes arc interesting works of the early 13th century. In
the centre is an octagonal font bearing date 1294. The episcopal
palace shows traces of the building of 1232. To the east of
the cathedral, and at no great distance, stands the church of
S. Giovanni Evangclista, which was founded along with the
Benedictine monastery in 981, but as a building dales from 15x0,
and has a fagide erected by Simone Moschino early in the 17th
century. The interior is an extremely fine early Renaissance
work. The frescoes on the cupola representing the vision of
S. John are by Correggio, and the arabesques on the vault of
the nave by AnselmL The Madonna della Steccata (Our Lady of
the Palisade), a fine church in the form of a Greek cross, erected
between 152X and 1539 after Zaccagni's designs, contains the
tombs and monuments of many of the Bourbon and Farnese
dukes of Parma, and preserves its pictures, Parmigiano's
" Moses Breaking the Tables of the Law " and Anselmi's " Coro-
nation of the Virgin." S. Francesco, probably the earliest
Franciscan church in northern Italy (1230-X298; now a prison),
is a Gothic building in brick with a fine rose-window. The
Palazzo della PilotU is a vast and irreguUr group of buildings
dating mainly from the x6th and X7th centuries; it now com-
prises the academy of fine arts (1752) and its valuable picture
gallery. Among the most celebrated pictures here are Cor-
ieggk>'s " Madonna di San Girolamo " and " Madonna della
Scodella.'' The Teatro Farnese, a remarkable wooden structure
erected in 1618*16x9 from Aleotti d'Argenta*s designs, and
tapaUe of containing 4500 persons, is also in this palace^ There
are other beautifiil odiinf froetfes by Cotntigffib hi tftefbrso
Benediaine nunnery of S. Paolo, executed in X518-X519; in an
adjoining chamber are fine arabesques by Araldi (<L is^.H);
thence come also some fine majolica tiles (1471-X4S2), ih»w ia
the museum. The royal university of Parma, founded in xfioi
by Ranuccio I., and reconstituted by Philip of Bourbon in X76S,
has faculties in law, medicine and natural science, and po^v*^fn
an observatory, and xutural science collection^ among which is
the Eritrean Zook>gical Museum. A very considerable trade is
carried on at Parma in grain, cattle and the daiiy produce of the
district. The irana cheese known as Parmesan is not now so
well made at Parma as in some other parts of Italy — Lodi, for
example.
From arcfaaeolos^ discovertes it would appear that the
ancient town was preceded by a prehistoric settlement of the
Bronze Age, the dwellings of which rested upon piles— one,
indeed, of the so-called Urremare^ which are especially frequent ia
the neighbourhood of Parma. Parma became a Roman c»Iony
of 2000 colonists in 183 B.c.,four years after the construction of
the Via Aemilia, on which it lay. The bridge by which the \ ;a
Aemilia crossed the river Parma, from which it probably ukcs
its luime, is still preserved, but has been much aUcred. A b>>hi<p
of Parnui is mentioned in the acts of the council of Rome of kjk
378. It fell into the power of Alboin in 569 and becune the scat
of a Lombard duchy; it was still one of the wealthiest cities of
Aemilia in the Lombard period. During the x xth, x xlh and 1 3th
centuries Parma had its full share of the Guelpb and Ghibelliac
struggles, in which it mainly took the part of the former. axMl aln
carried on repeated hostilities with Borgo Saa Doantoo aad
Piacenza. Its bishop Cadalus (X046-X07X) was elected to the
papacy by the Lombard and Gennan bishops in xo6x, «ad
marched on Rome, but was driven back by the paztisaas
of Alexander UL To him is due the bosldinf ol the
cathedral As a republic its government was mntnly ia
the hands of the Rossi, PaUavidno, Correggka and Sanvi-
talc families. The fruitless siege of Parma in I84B wns the
bst effort of Frederick II. In the cathedrd fla^s CBptmod
in this siege ate preserved. In 1307 the city b cr anie a
lordship for Giberto da Correggio, who laid the basis of its
territorial power by conquering Reggio, BrcsccUo and GaastaOa.
and was made oommander-in-chief of Uic Gudphs by Robert ol
Apulia. The Correggio family never maikaged to keep posscwon
of it for k>ng, and in 1346 they sold it to the Viaoooti (who
constructed a dudel. La Rocchetta, in 1356, of whidi tome
remains exist on the east bank of the river, while the later UU dm
pctU may be seen on the west bank), and from them it passed to
the Sforza. Becoming subjea to Pope Julius II. in .151 2, Parma
remained (in spite of the French occupation from x 5x5 to 1521) a
papal possession till 1545, when Paul UL (Alexander Farmese)
invested his son Pierloigi with the duchies of Parma and Piacenza.
There were dght dukes of Parma of the Fameae line — Pierisip
(d. X547), Ottavio (xs86), Alessandro (1592), Ranuccio L (1622).
Odoardo (1646), Raaucdo II. (1694), Francesco (x7t7), Antoaio
(i73>)* Antonio and Francesco both having died rfca^u^
the duchy passed to Charles of Bourbon (Don Carlea), infaatc
of Spain, who, becoming king of Naples ia Z734» auncndcrcd
Parma and Piacenza to Austria, but retained tba artistic
treasures of the Farnese dynasty which he had removed fran
Parma to Naples. Spain reconquered the dudries in the mar of
succession (1745); they were reoovered by Austria in 1746; and
Maria Theresa again surrendered them to Don FhiUp, Infamtc of
Spain, in 1748. Ferdinand, Philip's son, who sa c ceedcd uadcr
Dutillot's regency in 1765, saw his states oocupied by the ie\^la-
tionary forces of France in 1796, and had to purchaae his Lfc^
interest with 6,000,000 lire and 25 of the best painiln^i in Parma
On his death in x8o2 the duchies were iooocporaicd with tbv
French, republic and his son Louis became ** king of Btrurii.'
Parma was thus governed for several yean by Moreaii dc Se .- 1-
M^ and by JunoL At the congress of Vienna, Faima, V «-
cenza and Guastalla were assigned to Marie Louise (da^^itcr »
Francis I. of Austria and Napoleon's second consort)* and on bcr
death they passed in 1847 (0 Charks IL (son of louia of Etrum
PARMBNIDES OP £L£A
851
sAd Mane Louise, daughter of ChadcsIV^kiiig of SImIii). The
new duke, imvilUiig to yield to the wishes of his peopk for
greater political liberty, waa soon compelled to take flight, and
the duchy was for a time ruled by a provisional government and
by Charlea Albert of Sardinia; but in April 1849 Baron d'Aapre
with 15,000 Austrians took possession of Parma, and the ducal
government was restored under Austrian protection. Charles II.
(who had in 1820 married Theresa, daughter of Victor Emmanuel
of Sardinia) abdicated in favour of his son Charlea III., on the
14th of March, i849' On the assassination of Charlea IIL in
1854, his widow, Marie Louise (daughter of Ferdinand, prince of
Artois and duke of Berry), became regent for her son Robert. In
i860 his possessions were formally incorporated with the new
kingdom of Italy.
The duchy of Parma in 1849 ^mA an area of 2576 sq. m.
divided into five provinces^Borgo San Donnino, Valditaro,
Parma, Lunigiana Parmense and Piacenaa. Its population in
i8si waa 497.343*' Under Marie Louise (1815-1847) the
territory of Guaatalla (50 sq. m.) formed part of the duchy,
but it was tranafencd in 1847 to Modena in eachange for the
communes of Bagnone, FiUttiera, 8k., which went to constitute
the Lunigiana Parmense.
See Aff6. Staria di Parma (l79^i795>: ScarsbeUi, Slmia det
dtuati di Parma, Piaunwa, « GuaOalta (1858); Buttafuoco, Dmon.
cprotr. dei ducati, 8tc. (1853): Hon, hist, ad ptavincias parmeuum
€t pdacauinam pertinentia (1855, Baz.)\ L. Testi, Parma (Bergamo,
1905).
PARMERIDES OP ELBA (Velia) in ItalyrCreek phUoaopher.
According to Diogenes Laertius he was " in his prime " 504-500
n.c, and would thus seem to have been born about 539. Plato
indeed (ParmenidtSt 1 27 B) makes Socrates see and hear Parmen-
ides when the latter was about sixty -five years of age, in which
case he cannot have been bom before 519: but in the absence of
evidence that any such meeting took place this may be regarded
as one of Plato's anachronisms. However this may be, Parmen-
ides was a contemporary, probably a younger contemporary, of
Heraclitus, with whom the first succession of physicists ended,
while Empedoclcs and Anaxagoras, with whom the second
succession of physicists began, were very much his juniors.
Belonging, it u said, to a rich and distinguished family, Parmen-
ides attached himself, at any rate for a time, to the aristocratic
society or brotherhood which Pythagoras had established at
Croton; and accordingly one part of his system, the physical
part, is apparently Pythagorean. To Xenophanes, the founder
of Elcattcism— whom he must have known, even if he was never
in any strict sense of the word his disciple — Parmenides was,
perhaps, more deeply indebted, as the thedogicalspeculationa of
that thinker unquestionably suggested to him the theory of
Being and Not-Being, of the One and the Many, by which he
sought to reconcile Ionian " monism," or rather " henism," with
Italiote dualism. Tradition relates that Parmenides famed lawa
for the Eleates, who each year took an oath to observe them.
Parmenides embodied his tenets in a short poem, called
Nature^ of which fragments, amounting in all to about 160
lines, have been preserved in the writings of Sextua £mpi*
ricus, Simpllctus and others. It is traditionally divided into
three parts— the " Proem," " Truth " (rd irp6f dX^Anay), and
"Opinion" (rd rpdt'M^ar).' In "Truth," starting from the
formula " the Ent (or existent) is, the Nonent(or non-existent)
is not," Parmenides attempted to distinguish between the unity
or univenal dement of nature and its variety or particularity,
insisting upon the reality of its unity, which n therefore the
object of knowledge, and upon the unreality of its variety, which
is therefore the object, not of knowledge, but of opinion. In
" Opinion " he propounded a theory of the world of seeming
and iu development, pointing out however that, in accord-
ance with the principles already laid down, these cosmological
speculations do not pretend to anything more than probability.
In spite of the contemptuous remarks of Cicero and Plutarch
■bout Parmenidca's vefsification, i^alwrv is not without Uterary
merit. The Introduction, though rugged, is forcible and
picturesque; and the rest of the poem ia written in a simple and
effective style suitable^ to the subiect.
ProMs.— la the "Proem *' the peat describes his joomey from
<^rknes« to hght. Borne in a whiriing chariot, and attended by
tlie daughters of the sun. he reaches a temple lacred to an unnaracd
coddess (variously klentified by the comroenutors with Nature.
Wisdom or Themis), by whom the rest of the poem is spoken. He
must learn all things, she uUs him, both truth, wbkh is certain,
and human opinions; for, though in human c^anioos there can be
no "true faith." they nuist be studied ootwithstanding for what they
are worth.
TViUfc.— ** Thith ** beglna with the deciatation of Parmenides^b
prmcipfe in opporitkm to the prindples of his pradeoessota. Them
are three ways of research, and three ways only. Of these, one
asserts the non-existence of the existent and the existence of the
non-existent («>. Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes suppose
the single element whkh they respectively postnlate to be trans-
formed into the various sorts of matter which they discover in the
world around them, thus assuming the non-existenoe of that whidi
b elemenul and the existence oif that which is non-elemenull;
another, pursued by " restless " persons, whose " fbad returns upon
itself." assumes that 'a thing "n and is not." "is the same and
Ml the same " (an obvious reference, as Bernays points out in the
Rkeiniukes Mummt, vii. 114 seq., to Heraclitus. the phikMopher of
fluxl. These are ways of error, because they confound existence
and non-existence. In contrast to them the way of truth starts
from the proposition that " the Ent is, the Nonent Is not."
On the strength of the fundamenul distinction between the Ent
and the Nonent. the goddess next announces certain characteristics
of the former. The Ent is uncreated, for it cannot be derived
either from the Ent or from the Nonent: it is imperishable, for it
cannot pass into the Nonent; it is whole, indivisible, continuous,
for nothing exists to break its continuity in space ; it is unchangeable
llor nothing exists to break iu continuity in tlmel; it is perfect,
tor there b nothing which it can want; it never was. nor will be,
but only is; it is evenly extended *" every direction, and therefore
a sphere, exactly balanced; it Is identical with thought (*\«. it is
the obiect. and the sole object, of thought as opposed to sensation,
sensatioo being cen c e r ned with variety and change!.
As then the Ent is one. invariable and immuuble. all pluraUty*
variety and mutation belong to the Nonent. Whence it fdlows
that all things to which men attribute reality, generation and
destnictkm. bieing and not-being, change of place, alteratbn of
colour are no more than empty words.
OpcniM.— The investigation of the Ent [U. the existent unity,
extended throughout space and enduring throughout time, whidi
reason discovers beneath the variety ana the mutability d thines]
being now complete, it remains in "Opinion" to describe tne
plurality of things, not as they are, for they are not. but as they
seem to be. In the phenomenal world then, there arc. it has been
thought (and Parmenides accepts the theory, which appeare to
be 01 Pythagorean origin], two primary ekinent»— namely, fire,
which is gentle, thin, homogeneous, and night, whkh a dark,
thick, heavy. Of these detnents (which, aoeonfing to Aristotle,
Ent and the Nonent
or rather were analogous to. the
respectively! all things oonsist, and from them they derive thdr
several characteristics. The foundation for a cosmology having
thus been laid in dualism, the poem went on to describe tne genera-
tt<m of " earth and sun, and moon and air that is common to all,
and the milky way, and furthest Olympas, and the glowing stars ";
but the scanty fragments which have survived suAoe only to show
that Parraemdes regarded the universe as a series of concentric
rings or H>heres composed of the two primary dements and of
combinatkms of them, the whole system being directed by an
unnamed g oddess csuMished at its centre. Next came a thcety of
animal devetopment. This again was followed by a psychohigy,
which made thought (as well as sensation, which was cooed ved to
differ from tbougnt only in respect of its object] depend upon the
excess of the one or the other of the two constituent elements, fire
and night.. " Such, opinion taOs us. was the generation, such is the
present existence, such will be the end. of those things to which
men have given distinguishing names."
In the truism "the Ent is, the Nonent is not," &r fori, ni 99
obn loTi, Parmenides breaks with his predecessors, the physicists of
the Ionian succession. Asking themselves— What is the material
universe, they had replied respectively— It is water, It is intra&f
re. It is air. It is fire. Thus, while their question meant, or
ought to have meant. What is the single element which
underlies the apparent plurality of the material worid? their
answers, Parmenides concdved, by attributing to the selected
element various and varying qualities, reintroduced the plurality
which the question sought to eliminate. If we would discover
that which is common to all things at all times, we must, he
submitted, exdude the differences of things, whether simul-
taneous or successive. Hence, whereas hb predecessors had
confounded that which is universally existent with that wUchb
not universally exUtent, he proposed to dbttnguish c
between that which b univeruJIy exbtent and that
852
PARMENIDES OF £L£A
Botunivemlly existent, betireen&r and M^fr- The f vndamrntal
tiursm is the epigrammatic assertion of this distinction.
*1d shorty the single corporeal element of the Ionian physicists
was, to borrow a phrase from Aristotle, a permanent cM& having
w&B^ which change; but they cither neglected the w60ii or con-
founded them with the oMa. Parmcnides sought to reduce the
variety of nature to a single material element; but he strictly
discriminated the inconstant wdA| from the constant oiwLa, and,
understanding by " existence " universal, invariable, immutable
being, refused to attribute to the v^ anything more than the
semblance of existence.
Having thus discriminated between the permanent unity of
nature ami its superficial i^urality, Parmentdcs proceeded to the
separate investigation of the Ent and the Nonent. The univer-
sality of the Ent, he conceived, necessarily carries with it certain
charaacristics. It is one; it is eternal; it is whole and continu-
ous, both in time and in space; it is immovable and immutable;
H is limited, but limited only by itself; it b evenly extended in
every direction, and therefore spherical. These propositions
having been reached, apart from particular experience, by
reflection upon the fundamental principle, we have in them,
Parmenides conceived, a body of information resting upon a
firm basis and entitled to be called "truth." Further, the
information thus obtained is the sum total of " truth ";
for, as " existence " in the strict sense of the word cannot be
attributed to anything besides the universal element, so nothing
besides the universal element can properly be said to be" known."
If Parmem'des's poem had had " Being " for iu subjea it
would doubtless have ended at this point Its subject is,
however, " Nature "; and nature, besides its unity, has also the
semblance, if no more than the sembhnce, of plurality. Hence
the theory of the unity of nature is nco^sarily followed by a
theory of its seeming plurality, that is to say, of the variety
and mutation of things. The theory of plurality cannot indeed
pretend to the certainty of the theory of unity, being of necessity
untrustworthy, because it is the partial and inconstant represen-
tation of that which is partial and inconstant in nature. But, as
the material world includes, together with a real unity, the
semblance ol plurality, so the theory of the material worid
includes, together with the certain theory of the former, a
probable theory of the latter. " Opinion " is then no mere
excrescence; it is the necessary sequel to " Truth." .
Thus, whereas the lonians, confounding the unity and the
plurality of the universe, had neglected plurality, and the
Pythagoreans, contenting themselves with the reduction of the
variety of nature to a duality or a series of dualities, had neglected
unity, Parmenides, taking a hint from Xenophancs, made the
antagonistic doctrines supply one another's deficiencies; for, as
Xenophancs in his theological system had recognized at once the
unity of God and the plurality of things, so Parmcnides in his
system of nature recognized at once the rational unity of the Ent
and the phenomenal plurality of the Nonent.
The foregoing statement of Parmcnidcs's position differs from
Zeller'a account of it in two important particulars. First,
whereas it has been assumed above that Xenophancs was
theologian rather than philosopher, whence it would seem to
follow that the philosophical doctrine of unity originated, not
with him, but with Parmcnides, Zcller, supposing Xenophancs
to have taught, not merely the unity of God, but also the unity
of Being, assigns to Parmenides no more than an exacter con-
ception of the doctrine of the unhy of Being, the justification
of that doctrine, and the denial of the plurality and the mut-
ability of things. This view of the relations of Xenophancs and
Parmcnides is not borne out by their writings; and, though
ancient authorities may be quoted in its favour, it would seem
that in this case as in others, they have fallen into the easy
mistake of confounding successive phases of doctrine, " constru-
ing the utterances of the master in accordance with the principles
of his scholar^— the vague by the more definite, the simpler by
the more finished and elaborate theory " (W. H. Thompson).
Secondly, whereas it has been argued above that " Opinion " is
necessarily included in the system, Zellcr, supposing Parmcnides
to deny the Nonent even as a matter of opinioB, fcgaitds tint part
of the poem which has opinion for its subject as no more than a
revised and improved statement of the views of opponents,
introduced in onier that the reader, having before him the false
doaiine as well as the true one, may be kd the more certainly
to embrace the latter. In the judgment of the present writer,
Parmenides, whUe be denied the real existence of plurality,
recognized its apparent existence, and consequently, howrver
little value he might attach to opinion, was bound to take
account of it : " pour celui mteie qui nie I'ezistence rlcOe de k
nature," says Roouvier, " 11 reste encore i faire uoe faistoizc
natureUe de Tapparcnoe et de lllhisiott."
The teaching of Parmenides variously ^ntk^mt>t^ both his
immediate successors and subsequent thinkers. By his recog-
nition of an apparent plurality supplementaiy to the real unity,
be effected the transition from the ' monism "or*' hcnism " of the
frrst physical succession to the " pluFalism ** of the second. While
Empcdodes and Democritus are careful to emphaaijEe their
dissent from " Truth," it is obvious that " Opinion *' is the basb
of their cosmologies. The doctrine of the deceitfulneas of " the
undisceming eye and the echoing ear " soon cttablbhed itself,
though the grounds upon which Empedodes, Anaxagoras and
Dcnfocritus maintained it were not those which wcfte alleged by
Parmenides. Indirectly, through the dialectic of his pupil and
friend Zcno and otherwise, the doctrine of the inadequacy of
sensation led to the humanist movement, which for a time
threatened to put an end to philosophical and scientific specula-
tion. But the positive influence of Psrmenidcs*s teaching was
not yet exhausted. To say that the Platonism of Plato's
later years, the Platonism of the Parmenides, the FkiUbus and
the Timaetu, is the philosophy of Parmenides enlarged and
reconstituted, may perhaps seem paradoxical in the face of the
severe criticism to which Eleatidsm is subjected, not only in the
Parmeuidest but also in the Sophist. The critidam was, bowrv-er,
preparatory to a reconstruction. Thus may be explaiiied the
selection of an Eleatic stranger to be the diief speaker in the
latter, and of Parmenides hiinself to take the lead in tbe former.
In the Sophist criticism predominates over reconstruction, the
Zenonlan logic being turned against the Parmenides metaph>-sk
in such a way as to show that both the one and the other a«ed
revision: see 241 D, 344 B seq., 257 B aeq., 258 D. In particular,
Plato taxes Parmenides with his inconsistency in attributing
(as he certafaily did) to the fundamental unity extcnsioii and
sphericity, so that" the worshipped S0 is after all a pitifal m4 2^ "
(W. H. Thompson). In the Parmemdes leoonstruction pre-
dominates over criticism — the letter of Eleatidsm being bese
represented by Zeno, its qurit, as PUto concaved it, by PonsKn-
ides. Not the least important of the results obtained in this
dialogue is the discovery that, whereas the doctrine of the
"one" and the "many " is suiddal and barren to long as the
"solitary one" and the "indefinitdy many" ore absohztdy
separated (137 C seq. and 163 B aeq.), it becomes consistent and
fruitful as soon as a " definite plurality " is interpolated between
them (142 B seq., 157 B seq., 160 B seq.). In short, Parmenides
was no idealist, but PUto recognized in hiffl» and rightly, the
precursor of idealism.
BiBLtocRArnv.— The frasmeots have been skilfully edited tv
H. DielSf la Parmemdes Lekriedicki, grietkbek «. ^mCsc* (Bcrl^r..
i^7)* w>th commentary; in Poelamm pkilosepkerum ha^um^A.
with brief Latin notes, critical and iaterpreutive (Berfia, 1901 .
and tn Die Fragmenle d, Varsokratiker (BcrUn. 2nd ed.. 1906). « . 1
German translation); and Dieb* text is repcod u ced with a hclu J
Latin commentary in Rittcr and Prdlera BiskHm pkHasett ^
graecae (8th cd., revised by E. WcUmaan. Cotha, IM). lr«
philosophkal system is expounded and diicusacd by £. Zc'.?'.
D. Pkttosopkit d, Criefhen (Sth ed., LeSpsig. iteft; Et«. trac- .
London. 1881); by T. Gomperz. Crieckische Demlkr (Leapr c
1896; Eiw. trans., London. 1001): and by J. Burnet, £.x* r
Greek Pktlosotky (London. 1908). For the cosmology, sec A. B.
Krischc. D. Ikeob^ken Lekren d. trieckisekem Denker (G^ttir.; <
1840). On the relations of Elcaticura and Platoniani« see W H
Thompson, **On Plato's SopkisS," in the Jemnmi of PkitoL^y
viii. 303 acq. For other texts, tranaiatioos, comaeatorirfc acd
monoKTaphs see the excellent bibliography contained i« tbe
Grundriss d. CeukickU d. Philoufpkie at Uberweg and Hdo*
Cioth ed.. Berlin, 1909; Eng. Trans., London, 1880). CH Ja.)
FASLMENIO— PARMIGIANO ^
*53
PMUQMIO {e, 409<^o B.a), liacedoniaa geanal fa tfaa
service of Philip II. and Aknnder the GcetL During tbe raiga
of Pfajlip Parmeiuo oblaified « great victory over the Uljrriaiis
(356); he was one of the Macrdoriiafi ddegatn appointed to
condude peace with Athens (346), and was sent with an anny to
upbdd Macedonian iaHuence in Euboea (34a). * In 336 he waa
sent with Amyntas and Attalua to make prcfiaiationa for the
reduction of Asia. He led the left wing in the faettles o£ the
Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela. After the conquest ol Dia»4
giana* Alexander was informed that Philotaa, nn oi J^menio,
was involved in a coBttpiraQr against his life. -Phibtas was
condemned by the army and put to death. Akxander» thinking
it dangerous to allow the Uthcr to live, sent ordeA to Media
for the aaasaination of Panneaio. These waa no proof that
Parmenio was in any way implicated in the conspiracy, but he
was not even afforded the opporfilnity of defending himself.
See Arrian. Anabasis^ Plutarch, Akxandtn Diod. Sic. zviL;
Curtiut viL 3. 11; Justin xii. 5; for modern awthorities see under
Alexander III., tub Grbat.
PARMIGIANO (1504-1540). The name of this odeheated
painter of the Lombard school was, in full, Girolamo Francttco
Maria MassuoU, or Mazsola; he dropped the name Girolamo, and
waa only known aft F^ancnco. He haa been mora commonly
named II Parmigiano (ontta diminutive, U Parmigianino), from
his native dty, Parma. Francesco, bora on the nth of January
1504, was tbe son of a painter. Losing his father inearly child-
hood, he was brought up by two undes, also painters, Michele
and Piei^Ilario Maazola. His faculty for the art developed at
a very boyish agft, and he addicted himself to the style of
Coireggio, who visited Parma in 1519. He did not, however,
become an indtator of Correggw; hk style in its maturity may
he regarded as a fusioa of Corxeggb with Raphael and Ginlio
Romano, and thus fairly originaL Even at the age of fourteen
(Vaaari says sixteen) he had pidntcd a "Baptism of Christ,"
suxprisittgly mattoe. Befofe the age of kuneteen, wh«n he
migrated to Rome, he had covered with frescoes seven chapeb
in the church of S. Giovanni Evangelists, Parma. Prior to
stactiBg ion t^e d^ of the popes in 1523 he deemed it expedient
to oecute some spedmen pictures. One of these was a portrait
of hfm^elf as seen in a convex mimr, with aQ the details of
divergent perspective, &c., wonderfully exBct--a woric which
both from this curiosity of treatment and from the beauty of the
sitter— for Parmigiano waa then*' morelikeanangel than a man "
—coold not fail to attracL Arrived in Rome, he'tncsented his
spe d m e n picturca to the pope, Clrmfnt Vtl., who gladly and
admiringly accepted them, and assigned to the youthiful genius
the painting of the Sala de' Pontefid, the ceilings of which had
been already decorated by Giovanni da Udine. But while for-
tune waa winning him with her most insinuating smiles, tbe utter
ruin of the sack by the Constable de Bourbon and his German
and other soldiers overtook both Rome and Parmigiano. At the
date of this hideous catastrophe be was cngsged in painting that
large picture which now figures in the National Gallery, tbe
*' Vision of St Jerome " (with the Baptist pointing upward and
backward to the Madonna and infant Jesus in tbe sky). It is said
that through all the crash and peril of this barbarian irruption
Parmigiano sat quietly before his vast panel, painting as if
nothing had happened. A band of German soldiery burst into
his apartment, breathing fire and slaughter; but, struck with
amazement at the sight, and with some reverence for art and her
votary (the other events of tbe siege forbid us to suppose that
reverence for religion had any part in it), they calmed down, and
afforded the painter all the protection that he needed at the
moment. Their captain, being something of a connoisseur,
exacted his tribute, however--^ large number of designs. Rome
was now no place for Parmigiano. He left with his unde,
intending apparently to return to Parma; but, staying hi
Bologna he settled down there for a white, and was induced
to remain three or four years. Here he painted for the nuns of
St Margaret his most celebrated altarpiece (now in the Academy
ol Bologna), the " Madonna and Child, with Margaret and other
X.X 15
Sptta of the great disasts of KDue, the Ufe of Bfoadlc had
hrtherto been fairly pr«Bpefoas-<-the sdniration which he exdted
being propoKtionaCe to his charm of person and manner, and to
the jxeeodty and brilliancy (rather than depth) of his genius;
but from this time forward he .became an imfortunate, and it
would appear a poured and sdf-neglected, mm. In 1531 he
relumed to PBnna,and waa conmhaiohed to execute an csten^
sive series of frescoes in the choir of the cfamrch of S. Maria della
Steccata. These were to be completed in November is3a( and
half-pajrment, aoo gdlden- scudi, was made to Urn in advanoe.
A oeilingwas allotted to him; and an aich in front of the ceiling;
on the asch he painted six figures— two of them in fall colour, and
foor in monochrome^Adam, Eve, some Virtoes, and the
famous figure (monochrome) of Moses about to shatter the tables
of the law. But, after five or six years from the date of -the
contract, Parmi^^ano had barely made a good beginning with his
stipulated work. According to Vasari; he neglected painting in
favour of alchemy — ^he kboured over futile attempts to " congoU
mercury," bdng in a hurry to get rich anyhow. It is rather
difficult to believe that the various graphic and caustic phrases
which Vasari bestows upon this theory of the facts of Mazzola's
life are altogether i^tuitous and wide of the mark; nevertheless
the painter's prindpal biographer, the Padre Affd, imdcrtook
to refute Vasari's statements, and most sul»equent writers
have accepted Affd's conduaions. Whatever the cause, Parmi*
giano failed to fulfil his contract, and was imprisoned in
default. Promising to amend, he was rdeascd; but instead of
redeeming his pledge he decamped to Casal Maggioro; ia the
territory of Cremona. Here, according even to Vasari, he
rdinquished alchemy and resumed painting; yet he stiH
hankered (or is ssid by Vasari to have hankered) after his
retorts snd fomaoes, lost all his brightness, and presented a
dim, poverty-stricken, hirsute and vndviUaed aspect. Ha
died of a fever on the 94th of August 1540, before he had
completed his thtrty^eventh year. By his own desire he was
buried naked in the church of the Servites called La Fontana,
near Casal MaggSMC
Grace has always and rightly been regardedas the chief artistic
endowment of Parmigiana—grywe which is gentane as an
expression of the poiater'a nature, but partakea partly <rf the
artificial and affected in its developments. " Un po'di graxia dd
Pamngianino " (a little, or, as we might say, just a spice, of
PamugiaaiBo's grace) was among the ingredients which Agoatino
Caraod's famed sonnet desiderates for a perfect picture. Maaaohi
constantly made many studies of the same figure, ii^ order to get
the most graceful attamable form, movement and drapery — the
last being a point in which he was very socoessfuL The prQ»
portions of hb figures are over-long for the truth of nature-^the
statise, fingers and neck; ope of h& Madonnas, now in the Pitd
Gallery, is currently named *' La Madonna dd coDo luaga*
Ndth^ expression nor colour is a strong point in his works; the
figures in his oompoations are generally few- the chief exceptioa
bdng the picture of '* Christ Preaching to tbe Multitude." He
etched a few platea, being am)arently the earliest Italian paints
who was also an etcher; bnt the statement that he produced
several woodcuts is not correct— he ovetkMked the productioa
of them by other hands.
The most admired 6asel-ptcture of Parmigiano is the " Cupid
Making a Bow," with two children at his leet, one crying, and
the other boghing. TUs was painted in 1536 for Francesco
Boiardiof Parma, and El now in the gallery of Vienna. Thereaiv
various veplicss of it, and some of these may perhaps bo frosa
Maaaola's own hand. Of hb portrait'painting, two interesting
examples are the likeness of Amerigo Vespucd (after whom
America is nsmed) in the Studj Gallery of Naples, and the
painter's own portrait in the Uffid of Florence. One of
Parmi®uio's principal pnpib was his cousin, Girolamo di
Michde Maxsola; probably some of the works attributed to
Ffcaaoesoo are really by Qirolamow
See B. Bosd, Dhetni onrinaH H F^tntcesea Uaaudi (1780) ;
A._S. Moftara. Delta Viu di Fraacceoo ManuoK (1846): Toadd,
Afrtuki, &B. (ia4fi)*
(W. M.
2a
R.)
«54
PARNAHYBA— PARNELL, C. S.
PUMMnK « FuMXiSOA, a port of tiw lUte of Fkohy,
||<«ta, OB tiM ri^t bukof the Psmahybft river, ay> m. bdow
ike c piul, Tbereima. Pop. of the municipality (xSgo), 44i$-
PwnAhybft it situated at the point where t|ie most easterly of the
delta outlets, or rK* »»"*'•, called the Rio Iguaxassft, branches off
ffom the main stream. AU the outlet rharmeh of the river arc
obstructed by bars built up by the strong current along the
Atlantic coast, and only vessels of light draiqiht can enter. The
town has some well-constructed buildings of the old Portuguese
type, including two churches and a fine hospital. Pamahyba
is the commercial entrepAt of the state. It eaqmrta hides,
goat-skins, cotton and tobacco, chiefly through the small
port bf Amacracio, at the mouth of Che Rio Iguarsssi^ xi m.
PAR1IA88U8 (mod. IftfibaraarlflmOt-amoantidnof Greece,
8070 ft., in the south of Phods, rising over the town of Delphi.
It had several prominent peaks, the chief known as Tithorea
and Lycoreia (whence the modem name). Parnassus was one
of the most holy mountains in Greece, hallowed by the worship
of Apollo, of the Muses, and of the Corydan nymphs, and by the
ofgies of the Bacchantes. Two projecting diffs^ named the
Phaedriadae, frame the gorge in which the Castalian spring
flows out, and just to the west of this, on a shelf above the ravine
of the Pleistus, is the site of the Pythian shrine of Apollo and the
Ddphic orade. The CoiydJm cave is on the plateau between
Be^hi and the summit.
PARHA38U8 PUTS,' a series of thxee'sdiolastk entertain-
ments performed at St John's CoD^, Cambridge, between
IS97 and 1605. . They are satirical in character and aim at
settfaig forth the wretched sUte of scholars and the small respect
paid to i^f»»»F«g by the world at large, as egemplified in the
adventures of two university men, Philomusus and Stndioso.
The first part, Tike Pilpimage id P^maanUt describes allegori-
cally their four year's journey to Parnassus, s.e. their p i ogxe ss
through the university oovrse of logic, rhetoric, &c., and the
tempUtions set before them by their meeting with Madido» a
drunkard, Stupido, a puritan who hates kaming, Amoretto, a
kyver, and Ingeniose, a disappomted student. The ptay was
doubtless oti^nally intended to stand alone, but the favour
with which it was recdved led to the writing of a sequd. The
ROum from FamoMsut, which deals with the adventures of
the two students after- the completion of their studies at the
university, and shows them discovering by bitter experience of
how little pecuniary value their learning is. They again meet
Ingenioso, who is making a scanty living by the press, but is
on the search lor a patron, as wellas a new character, Luxurioso.
All four now leave the university for London, while a draper, a
taflor aad a tapster lament their unpaid bills. Philomusus and
Studioso find work xespectivdy as a sexton and a tutor in a
merchant's family, while Luxurioso becomes a writer and singer
of ballads. In the meanwhile Ingenioso has met with a patron,
a coxcombical feUow named Gullio, for whom he composes
amorous verses in the style of Chaucer, Spenser and Shake-
speare, the last abne bdng to the patron's satisfaction. Gullio
is indeed a great admirer of Shakespeare, and in his conversations
with Ingenioso we have some of the most interesting of the early
allusions to him t
A further sequd, The Second Part of the Return from Pamasaus,
or the Scourge of Simony, h a more ambitious, and from every
point of view more interesting, production than the two earlier
pieces, in it we again meet with Ingenioso, now become a
satirist, who on pretence of discussing a recently-published
collection of extracts from contemporary poetry, John Boden-
ham's Behedere, briefly criticises, or rather dwracterises, a
number of writers of the day, among them benig Spenser,
Constable, Drayton, John Davics, Marston, Marlowe; Jonson,
Shakespeare and Nashe— the last of whom is rderred to as dead.
It is impossible here to detail the plot of the play, and it can only
be said that Philomusus and Studioso, having tried all means
of earning a living, abandon any further attempt to turn their
u«nt;n«*A«ccoi|Qt and determine to become shepherds. Several
new characters arc introduced in this part, real persons svdi as
Danter, the printer, Richard Burbage and William Kemp, the
acton, as well as such abstractions as Furor Foeticus and Pban-
tasma. The second title of the pieoe, " The Scourge of Simony,'*
is justified by a sub-plot dealing with the attcmpu of ooe,
Academico, to obtain a Itviag from an ignotant oountiy patron.
Sir Roderick, who, however, presents it, on the recommeodatioa
of his son Amoretto^ who has been bribed, to a Don-%mivcisity
man Immerito.
The three pieces have but small literary and dramatic value,
their importance consisting almost wholly in the allusioas to,
and criticisms of contemporary literature. Their author is
unknown, but it is fairiy certain, from the evidence of general
style, as well as some peculiarities of language, that they are
the work of the same writer. The only name which has been
put forward with any reasonable probability is that of John Day,
whose daim has been supported with much ingenuity by
Professor L GoUanca (see full discussion in Dr A. W. Ward*s
Eng. Dram. Lit. iL 640, note a), but the question still awalu
definitive solution.
As to the date there is more evidence. The three pieces were
evidently performed at Christmas of different years, the last
being not later than Christmas 160s, as is shown by the refer-
ences to Queen Elizabeth, while tht Pilgrimage mentions books
not printed until rsgS, and hence can hardly have been earlier
than that year. The prologue of a ROum states that that play
had been written for the preceding year, and also, in a passage
of which, the reading is somew&at doubtful, nnpUes tbat the
whole series had extended over four years. Thus wearxive at
dther rS99, r6oo and r6os, or 1598, X599 and r6or, as, on the
whole, the most likdy dates of performance. Mr Fleay, on
grounds iridich do not seem condusive, dates them 1598, 1601
andx6os.
' The question of haw far the characters ate meant to icpieseat
actual persons has been much discussed. Mr Fleay maintaiaa
that the whole is a personal satiro, his identificationa of the chief
characters in 2 Return being (x) Ingenioso, Thomas Nash^
(s> Furor Poeticus, J. Marston, (3) Phantasma, Sir John Davie^
(4) Philomusus, T. Lodge, (5) Studioso, Dikyton. Ih o f ea sw
GoUancx identifies Judido with Henry Chettle {Proc. of BriL
Acad., X903>i904,p. 902). Dr Ward, while rejecthig Mr Fleay's
identifications as a whole, considers that by the time tbe find
part was written the author may have more oc^leas identifiad
Ingenioso with Nashe, though the character was not onginaBy
conceived with this intention. This is of coutm pnarible, and
the fact that Ingenioso himself speaks in pialse of Nashe, who is
regarded as dead, is not an insuperable objecrion. We most
not, however, ovolook the -fact that the author was evidently
very familiar with Nashe's works, and that all three pnts, not
only in the speeches of Ingenioso, but throu^iout, aie fdl of
reminiscences of his writings.
BiBLiOGRAPHY.'-The only part of the txitogy which was in prist
at an cariy date was a ROum, called aimply The Return from Panma-
sua, or the Scotirgi of Simony (1606), two editioas bcaxuig the aaaw
date. This has been aevaal timea reorinted, the beat amuute
edition bring that of Professor Arber m the "English ScUan*
Library " (1879). Manuscript copies of all three pbys were fouad
among T. Hcarne'a papers m the Bodldan by the Rev. W. D.
Macray eod were printed bv him in 1886 (the last from ooe of the
editions of 1606, collated with the MS.). A recent edition in modeam
spdling by Mr O. Smeaton in the ''Temple Dramatists** » ctf
httle value. All questions connected with the play hvre beta
elaboratdy discaaaed by Dr W._Lahr in a diasertatioaeathled
PARNBLU CBAELn STEWART (i84^i89i)» Irish Katkm-
alist leader, was bom at Avondak^ Co. WicUow, on the aTth
of June X846. His father was John Heniy PatneD, m, txmauj
gentleman of strong Nationalist and liheral ^ympathirs. who
married in 1834 Delia Tudor, daughter of ConsBodore Chaxies
Stewart of the United States navy. The Pamdl famSy was of
Engtish origin, and mom than one of its members attained di^
note at Congleton in Cheshire under the Stuarts and during the
PARNELL, C. a
«S5
Aiii6iig tbcm «H TImbu Rtfudl,
mignted to Ireland after tbt Kotontion. He had two aonai
IlkMiiaa Famdl the poet and Joha Faraell, triio bectm aa
Idsh jiidse. Fran the ktter Charles Steiimtt Famell was
lineally dewended in the fifth gnidntion. Shr John Famdl,
chancellor of the enfa^er In Grrttan'a padiaacnt, and one of
(yConneU's lieiiteDanU in the parfamrnt of the United KingHom,
was the grandaon ^ Fameli the jndge. The estate of Avondale
was settled on him by a friend and bequeathed by him to his
youngest son WiUiam (grandfather of Chaiics Stewart PameU).
Hia eldert nm was imbecile. His second son was Sir Henxy
FkmeU, a noted politician and finanrirr in the eariy part of the
igth century, who held office under Grey and Melboune, and
after being raised to the peers^e as Baron Congleton, died by \d»
own hand hi 1841. WilUani FismeU was a keoi student of Itish
politics, with a strong leaning towards the popular side^ and in
180$ he published a pamphlet entitled " Iboy^ta on the Causes
el Fopdar Disoontents," which was iavouisbly noticed by
Sydney Smith in the EdMum^ Reriem, Thus by birth and
ancestry, and capedaUy by the influence of his mother, who
inherited a hatred of England torn her latber, Charles Stewart
Faniell was, as it were, dedicated to the Irish national cause.
He was of Eoglbh extraction, a famdowner, and a Frotcstant.
Educated at private schoob in Etaglaod and at Magrtalm
College, Cambridge, his temperament and demeanour were
singukriy un-Irish on the suiface-r-reserved, ooU, repellent and
unemoUonaL He appears to have been rather turbulent as a
scteol-boy, contentious, insobordiiute, and not ovcr-scnipoloos.
He was fond of cricket and devoted to mathematics, but had
little taate far other studies or other games. He waa subject
to somnambulism, and liable to severe fits of depccssien— facts
which, taken in ooaneaion with the codstence of mental affliction
among his ancestors, with Us love of solitude and myatecy, and
bis ibvlndble superttitloas about omens, numbcn and tlie like,
may perhaps suggest that his own mental equilibrium was not
always stable. He was as little at home in an EngUsh school or
an English univenity as be was afterwards ht the House of
Commons. " These English," he said to his brother at school,
"despise us because we are Irish; but i»e must stand up to them.
That's the way to treat an EngUshman-*-stand up to him." '
PameB waa not an active politidau in his early years. He
found. salvation as a Nationahst and even as a potential rebel
over the cxecutioo of the *' Manchester Martyis " In 1867, but
It was not until some years afterwards that-he nsolved to enter
parliament. In the meanwhile he psid a lengthened visit to
the United Sutes. At the general eleotkm of 1874 he desired
to stand for the county of Wicklow, of which he was high sheriff
at the time. The k)rd-lieutenaat decliaed to rdleve him of his
disqualifjring office, and his brother John stood in his pUce, but
was unsuccessful at the poll. ■ Shortly afterwards a bye-election
occurred hi Dublin, owing to Colonel Taylor faavfaig accepted
office in the DisrseU government, and Psmdl resolved to oppose
him as a supporter of Isaac Butt, but was heavily beaten. He
was, however, elected for Meath in the spring of 187$;
Butt had scrupulously respected the dignity of parliament
and the traditions and courtesy of debatew • He looked very
coldly on the method of "obstruction''-^ method faivented
by certain membeis of the Conservative party in opposition to
the first Gladstone Administration. FamcD, however, entered
psTliamcnt as a virtual rebel wiio knew that physical force was
of no avail, but believed that political esasperation might attain
the desired results. He resolved to make obstruction in parlia-
ment do the worit of outrage in the country, to set the church-
bell ringiag-4o borrow Mr Gladstone's metaphor— and to keep
it ringing in sesson and out of sessoB la the eats of the House of
Commons. He did not choose to condemn outrages to gratify
the Fbarisaism of English members of parliament. He courted
the alliance of the pl^raical force party, and he had to pay the
price for it. He Invented and encouraged " boycotting," and
did not discourage outrage. When a supporter in America
offered him twenty-five doUars, " five for bread and twenty for
"'he accepted the gift, and he subsequently told ^ stoiy
OBat least one Iiliihplrtfonn. In the ooufss of Renegotiations
in i88a^ which resulted in what was known as the Kllmainhsm
Treaty, he wrote to Captain CShea: <* If the arrears question
be settled upon the liasa indicated by us, I have every confidence
that the esertioos we shonkl be able to make strenuously and
uarcmittingly would be effective fai stopping outrages and
intimfaiadon of all Uada." This is at least an admission that
he had, or oooU pbes, his hand on the stop-v^ve, even if It bo
not open tothegkMspboed on it by Captahi CShea in a conver-
sation repeated in the House of Commons by Mr Fonter, *' that
the conspiracy which has been used to get up bayoottiqg and
ootags will now be used to put them down."
In X877 Fismdl entered on an organised oooise of obstruction.
He and Mr Joseph GUlis Biggar, one of his henchmen, were
gndnsUy Joined by a small band of the more advaaosd Home
Rukn, and oocasioaBlly assisted up to a certain point by one or
two EngUsh members. Butt was prsctically deposed and
worried into his grave. William Shaw, a "transient and em«
banassed phantom," waa elected in his pkce, but Famdl became
the- real leader of a Nationalist party. Tbe original Home Rulo
party waa split in twtafai, and after the general election of r88o
the more moderate secthm of it ceased to enst. Obstructiou
in FnnieD% hands was no mere weapon of deUy and esaspera-
tion; it was a calcubrted policy, the initial stage of a campaign
designed to show the makontents in Irdand and their kinsmen
in other lands that Butt's strictly constitutional methods were
quite hdpless, but that the parUameatary armoury stffl contained
weapons which he could so handle as to convince the Irish people
and even the Fenian and other physical force aodeties that the
way to Irish lef^tlve Independence \ky ibroogh the House of
ConuBOOS. TiM Ymaam were hard to convince^ but in the
autumn of 1677 FuneU persuaded the Home Rule Confederation
of Great Britahi <an assodatkm founded by Butt, but largely
supported by Fenians) to depose Butt from iu presidency and
to elect hiaoself in his place. He defined his attitude quite
clearly hi a speech ddiversd In New York eariy in 1880: " A
true revolutionary movement hi Irdand should, in my opinion,
partake both of a coostitutianal and illc^ character. ItshouM
be both an open and a secret organisation, usfaig the oonstitutkm
for itt own purposes, but also taking advantage of iu secret
combination." Faraell's opportunity came with the generd
dection of 1880, which displaced the Conservative government
of Lord Beaconsfidd and nstored Mr Gladstone to power with a
majority strong enoufl^ at theoutset to overpower the Opposition,
even should the ktter be reinforced by the whole of Fundl's
amtingeat. • Distress was acute hi Ireland, and fandne was
imminent^ Ministers had taken measures to rdieve the situation
before the dlssofotlon was announced* but Lord BeacoosfieM
had warned the country that there was a danger ahead in
Ireland V in ite ultimate resulu scaredy less disastrous than
pestilence andfamiae. . . . A portion of lU population is attempt-
ing to sever the constitutional tie which unites it to Great
Britain hi that bond which hat favoured the power and prosperity
•ofboth.- ItistobehepedthataUmenoflightandlcadhigwiU
resist this destructive doctrine." The Liberal patty and iu
leaders retorted that they were as strongly opposed to Home
Rule as their opponents, but Lord Bescoasfield's numifesto
undoubtedly had the effect of alienating the Irish vote hi the
English oonstltueodes fkom the Tory party and throwing it on
the side of the Liberal candidates. Thb was Pamdl's ddiberate
policy. He would have no alliance with other EngVair party.
He would support each in turn with a sole regard to the bahince
of polidcal power in patttament and a fixed determination to
hold ft m his own hands If he could. From the time that he
became Ms leader the Hone Rule party sat together hi the Boose
of Commons and always pn the Opposition sklci
In the government formed by Mr Gkdstone in 1880 Lord
Cowper became viceroy and Mr W. E. Forstcr chief sccreury
for Irehmd. The out k)ok was ^oomy enough, but the Gladstone
government do not seem to have anticipated, as Fed anticipated
in 1841, that Irdand would be thdr difficulty. Yet the * -^^
League had been fomwd by Machad 0avitt aad othef
856
PARNELL, C. a
Autttmn of XS79 for the poipose of afnrka agiutioii, mmI
Pamell afUr some besiution had siven it his lanctioii. He
visited the United States at the dose of 1879. It was then and
there that the " new departure "-^the alliance of the open and
the secret oiganixatioasr— was confirmed and consolidated.
Pamell obtained the countenance and support of the Clan-na'
Gael, a xevolutionaxy ofganixation of the Ainerican-Irish, and the
Land League began to absorb all the mors violent spirits in
Ireland, though the Fenian brotherhood still held oflidally aloof
from it. As soon as the general election was announced Pamell
retumed to Ireland in order to direa the campaign in person.
Though he had supported the liberals at the dcction, he soon
found himself in conflict with a govemment whkh could neither
tolerate disturbance nor countenance a Nationalist agitation,
and he entered on the struggle with forces organised, witl^ money
in his chest, and with a definite but still undeveloped plan of
action. The prevailiog distress incieased and outrages began
to multiply. A fresh Relief Bill Was introduced by the govem-
ment, and in order to stave off a measuxc-to prevent evictions
introduced by the Irish party, Mr Footer consented to add
a clause to the Relief Bill for giving compensatioB in certain
circumstances to tenants evictedtor non>payment of vent This
clause was afterwards embodied in a separate measure known ss
the Compensation for Disturbance Bill, which after a stormy
career in the House of Commons was summarily rejected by the
House of Lords.
The whole Irish question was once more opened Up in its
more dangerous and more csaspeiating form. It became
clear that the land question— supposed to have been settled by
Mr Gladstone's Act of 187&— would have to be reconsidered in all
iu bearings, and a commission Was appointed for the purpose;
In Ireland thinei went from bad to worse. Evictions increased
and outrages were multiplied. IntimidatiooB and boycotting
were rampant. As the winter wore on, Mr Footer persuaded his
colleagues that exceptional measures were needed. An aiwrtive
prosecution of ParacU and some of his leading colleagues had by
this time intensified the situation. Parliament was summoned
early, and a Coercion Bill for one year, practically suspending
the Habeas Corpus Act and allowing the arrest of suqsects
at the discretion of the govemment, was introduced, to be
followed shortly by an Arms Bill. Pamell regarded the measure
as a declaration of war, and met it in that sf^t. Its discusswn
was doggedly obstructed at every stage, and on one occasion the
debate was only brought to a dose, after lasting for forty-one
hours, by the Speaker's claiming to interpret the general sense
of the bouse and resolving to put the question without further
discussion. The rules of procedure were then amended afresh
in a very drastic sense, and as soon as the bill was passed Mr
Gladstone introduced a new Laixl Bill, which occupied the greater
part of the session. PamcU accepted it with many reserves.
He could not ignore its concessions, and was not disposed to
undervalue them, but be had to make it dear to the revolutionary
party, whose support was indispensable, that he regarded it
only as a payment on account, even from the agrarian point of
view, and no payment at ail from the national point of view.
Accordingly the Land League at his instigation determined to
" test " the act by advising tenants in general to refrain from
taking their cases into court until certain cases selected by the
Land League had been deddcd. The govemment treated this
policy, which was certainly not designed to make the aa work
freely and benefidally, as a deliberate attempt to intercept its
benefits and to keep the Irish people in subjection to the Land
League i and on this and other grounds— noubly the attitude of
the Lcsague and its leaders towards crime and outrsge— Pamell
was arrested under the Coerdoo Act and lodged ia Kilirtainham
gaol (October 17, 1881).
Pamell in prison at onpe became more powerful for evil than
he had ever been, dther for good or for evil, ouulde. He may
have known that the policy of Mr Forater was Uttle favoured
by several of his colleagues, and he probably calculated that the
detention of large numbers of suspecu without cause assigned
and without ttial wouU sooner or later citate opiwsiti o p in
Mr Foisber had aasured his colleagues and tbe Hduac
of Commons that the power of arbitrary aneat would eaable ihc
police to lay their hands on the chief agents of disturttaace, and
it was Pamell's policy to show that so fong as the grievances of
the Irish tenanU remained unredressed no number of ancsts
could dther check the tide of outrage or restore the country to
tranquillity. Seveialof his leading colleagues Iblfowod him into
captivity at Kilmainham, and the Land League waa disMlved*
its treasurer, Patrick E^sn, escaping to Paris and canying with
him its books and accounts. Before it was formaQy auppmaed
the League had issued a manifesio, signed by PamcU and several
of his feUow-ptisoners, calling upon the tenants to pay no renu
until the government had resUwed the oonstitutioaal righu d
the peoi^ Discouraged by the priests^ the No-Rent manifesto
had little effect, but it embittered the struggle and etas| » riaied
the temper of the people on both sides of the Irish rhmwJw*M .
Lord Cowper and Mr Fotster were compelled to ask for «
renewal of the Coeioon Act with enlarged powea. But there
were memben of the cabinet wiio had only accepted it with
rductance, and were now convinced not only that it had failed,
but that it could never succeed. A uuidus n»adi was desired
onbothsides. Negotiatfons were set on foot through the acency
of Captain O'Shea— «t that time.and for fang afterwards a firm
political and personal friend of nimcU,bttt nltimatdy hia ascnscr
in the divorce court— and after a somewhai intxiGate ooune
they resulted kt what waa known as the Kilmaihham Treaty.
As a consequence of this informal agreement, Bamell and two el
his friends were to be refeaaed at once, the undentanding being,
asMrGbulstone stated in aletter to LordGo^)er, ''that Pandl
and his friends are ready to abandon ' No Rsot ' formally, and
to declare against outrage energetically, inttm i risr i nn indnded.
if and when the govemment announce a s a tisfart nsy plan for
dealing witb arrears." Pamell's own veimon of thn nnder*
standing has been quoted above. It also indnded a hope that
the govemment would aUow the Coercion Act to Upse and govern
the country by the same Uwa as in England. Pamdl and his
friends were rdeased, and Lord Cowper and Mr Focsier at once
resigned.
The Phoenix Pkrk murdea (May 6, 188s) followed (see In-
lamd: Hiiiery), Punell was prostrated by this catastrophe.
In a public manifesto to the Irish people he dedared tbat ** no
act has ever been perpetnted in our country, during the cadting
straggle for sodal and political rights of the past fifty y«saii» tha
has so stained the name of hospitable Irdand as tbis cow ardl y
and unprovoked aseassioation of a friendly stnngeL" Privmtdy
to his own friends and to Mr Gladstone he expressed his desire
to withdraw from public life. There were those whn bdievcd
that neverthdcas he was privy to the lavindble oonapicacy.
There is some prima fade foundation for this bdicf in the
indifference he had always displayed towards crime and outrage
when crime and outiige could be made to serve his purpone; ia
his equivoosl relation to the more violent and unsovpulous forms
of Irish sedition, and in the foa that Byrne, an offeaal of the
Land League, was in collusion with the Invindbka* that the
knives with which the murder was done had been coooealed a:
the offices of the Land League in London, and had been coovcyeu
to Dublin by Byrne's wife. But the maxim itjedi cm fr^dat
disallows these suspidons. Pamell gained nothing by tbr
murders, and seemed for a time to have fast everything A new
Crimes Bill was introduced and««iade operative for a period iA
three years. A r^me of renewed ooerdon wa9 maintainrd ly
Lord Spencer and Mr (afterwards Sir George) Trevelyan, who
had succeeded Lord Fredvick Cavendish in the olbcc oC ch^
secretary; Irdand was tortured for three yesrs by thn neceaaary
severity of its adminisf ration, and England was ex asp ciatod by
a succession of dynamite outrages organised diie^ in Anerka.
which Pamell was powerless to prevent. The Phoenix Pari
murden did more than any other incident of his time and carotf
to frustrate Pamdl's policy and render Home Rule tmpoa&iblc
For more than two years after the Phoenix Park mur 'tn
Pamdl's influence in parliament, and even in Irdand. m^^
on^ intertnittentiy and not very energetictUy exerted, ii*
PARNELL, C. S.
857
health wu uxUflferent, his ahicnccs from the House of Commom
were frequent and mysterious, and he had already formed those
relations with Mrs 0*Shea which were ultimately to bring aim
to the divorce court. The Phoenix Park mu rdercrs were arrested
and brought to justice early in i88j. Mr Forster seized the
opportunity to deliver a scathing indictment of Pamell in the
House of Commons. In an almost contemptuous reply Pamcll
repudiated the charges in general terms, disavowed all sympathy
with dynamite outrages, their authors and abettors — the only
occasion on which he ever did so-^ecllned to plead in detail
before an English tribunal, and declared that he sought only the
approbation of the Irish people. This last was shortly after-
wards manifested in the form of a subscription known as the
"Pamell Tribute," which tjuickly reached the amount of
£37,000, and ¥ras presented to Pamdl, partly for the liquidation
of debts he was known to have contracted, but mainly in recog-
nition of his public services. The Irish National League, a
successor to the suppressed Land League, was founded in the
autumn of 1883 at a meeting over which Parnell presided, but
he looked on it at first with little favour, and its action was
largely paralysed by the operation of the Crimes Act and the
vigorous administration of Lord Spencer.
The Crimes Act, passed in 1882, was to expire in 1885, but the
government of Mr Gladstone was in no position to renew it as it
stood. In May notice was given for its partial renewal, subject
to changes more of form than of substance. The second reading
was fixed for the loth of June. On the 8th of June Pamell,
with thirty-nine of his followers, voted with the Opposition
against the budget, and defeated the government by a majority
of 264 votes to 353. Mr Gladstone forthwith resigned. Lord
Salisbury undertook to form a government, and Lord Carnarvon
became viceroy. The session was rapidly brought to an cxul
with a view to the dissolution rendered necessary by the Fran-
chise Act passed in 1884— -a measure which was ceruin to increase
the number of PameD's adherents in parliament. It seems
probable that Parnell had convinced himself before he resolved to
join forces with the Opposition that a Conservative government
would not renew the Crimes Act. At any rate, no attempt to
renew it was made by the new government. Moreover, Lord
Carnarvon, the new viceroy, was known to PamcU and to some
others among the Irish leaders to be not unfavourable to some
form of Home Rule if due regard were paid to imperial unity and
security. He sought and obtained a personal interview with
Pamell, explicitly declared that he was speaking for himself
alone, heaid ParaeU's views, expounded his own, and forth-
with reported what had taken place to the Prime Minister. In
the result the new cabinet refused to move in the direction
apparently desired by Lord Carnarvon.
Pamell opened the electoral campaign with a speech in
Dublin, in which he pronounced unequivocally in favour of self-
government for Ireland, and expressed his confident hope " that
H may not be necessary for us in the new parliament to devote
our attention to subsidiary measures, and that it may be possible
for us to have a programme and a platform with only one plank,
and that one plank National Independence.'* This was startling
to En^h ears. The press denounced Pamell; Lord Hartington
(afterwards the duke of Devonshire) protested against so fatal
and mischievous a prpgramme; Mr Chamberlain repudiated it
with even greater emphasis. Meanwhile Mr Gladstone was
slowly convincing himself that the passing of the Franchise Act
had made it the duty ol English statesmen and English party
leaders to give a respectful heating to the Irish National demand,
and to consider how far it could be satisfied subject to the gover-
ning principle of ** mainUiaing the supremacy of the crown, the
unity of the Empire, and all the authority of parliament necessary
for the conservation of the unity." This was the position he
took up in the Hawaidea manifesto issued in September before
the general dectioa of 1885. Speaking Uter at Newport in
October, Lord Salisbury treated the Irish leader with unwonted
deference and respect. Pamell, however, took no notice of the
Newport speech, and waited for Mr Gladstone to declare himself
flwre fully ia Midlothian. But in this he was disappointed.
Mr GUdstone went no farther than he had done at Hawaiden,
and he impk>red the electorate to give him a majority indepen-
dent of the Irish vote. Subsequently Parnell mvitcd him in a
public speech to declare his policy and to sketch the constitutioa
he would give to Ireland subject to the limitations he had
lAsisted on. To this Mr Gladstone repGed, " through the same
confidential channel," that he could not consider the Irish
demand before it had been constitutionally formubited, and thai,
not being in an official position, he could not usurp the functions
of a government. The reply to this was the issue of a manifesto
to the Irish electors of Great Britain violently denouncing the
Liberal party and directing all Irish Nationalists to give their
votes to the Tories. In these drcumstancea the general election
was fought, and resulted in the rctum of 535 Liberals, four of
whom were classed as " indepeodeot," 249 Conscrvativea and
86 followers of Pamell.
Mr Gladstone had now ascertained the strength of the Irish
demand, but was left absolutely dependent on the votes of those
who represented it. Through Mr Arthur Balfour he made infor-
mal overtures to Lord Salbbury proffering his own support in
case the Prime Minister should be disposed to consider the Irish
demand in a " just and liberal spirit "; but he received no
encouragement. Towards the close of the year it became known
through various channcb that he himself was considering the
matter and had advanced as far as accepting the principle of
an Irish parliament in DubUa for the transaction of Irkh iSnln.
Before the end of January Lord Salisbury's government was
defeated on the Address, the Opposition Induding the full
strength of the Irish party. Mr Gladstone once more became
prime minister, with Mr John Morley (an old Home Ruler) as
chief secretaiy, and Mr Chamberiain provisionally included ia
the cabinet. Lord Hartington, Mr Bright and some other
Liberal chiefs, however, declined to join him.
Mr Gladstone's rctum to power at the head of an administra-
tion conditionally committed to Home Rale marks the culmina-
ting point of ParneU's influence on English politics and English
parties. And after the defeat of the Home Rule ministry in
1886, Pamell was naturally associated closely with the Liberal
Opposition. At the same time he withdrew himself largely from
active interposition in current parliamentary affairs, and relaxed
his control over the action and policy of his followers in IreUmd.
He entered occasionally into Londcio society— where in certain
quarters he was now a welcome guest-^but in general he lived
apart, often concealing his whereabouts and giving no address
but the House of Commons, answering no letters, and seMom
fulfilling engagements. He seems to have thought that Home
Rule being now in the keeping of an English party, it was time to
show that he had in him the qualities of a statesman as well as
those of a revolutionary and a rebel His influence on the
remedial legislation proposed by the Unionist govemvent for
Ireland was considerable, and he seldom missed an opportunity
of making it fdt. It more than once happened to him to find
measures, which had been contemptuously rejected when be
had proposed thera, ultimately adopted by the government;
and it may be that the comparative tranquillity which Ireland
enjoyed at the close of the igth century was due quite as
much to legislation inspired and recommended by himself as
to the disintegratioQ of his following which ensued upon his
appearance in the divorce cooit and long survived his death.
No sooner was Lord Salisbury's new government installed
in ofike in 1886, than Panell introduced a oomprehensivs
Tenants' ReUef BiU. The government would have none of it,
though in the following session they adopted and cartied many
of iU leading provisions. Its rejection was followed by renewed
agiution in Ireland, in which Pamcll took no part. He was
ill — " dangerously ill," he said himself at the time — and some
of his more hot-headed followers devised the famous " Plan o(
(^mpaign," on which he was never consulted and which never
had his approval. Ireland was once more thrown into a turmoil
of agitation, turbulence and crime, and the Unionist govemn
which had hoped to be able to govern the country by 1 '
the ordinary law, was compelled to leson to severe tt'
858
PARNELL, C. S.
meafliRa and fresh eoerdve legblatioiL Mr Balfour became
chief lecrelMy, and early in the session of xSS? the new measure
was introduced and carried. ParocU took no very prominent
part in resistiog it. In the cotuae of the spring The Times had
begun pubBshtng a series of artidcs entitled ^ PameUism and
Crime/' on lines following Mr Forster's indictment of Pamell in
1883, though with much greater detail of circumstance and
accusation. Some of the diaries were undoubtedly well founded,
some were exaggerated, some were merely the colourable fictions
of political prepossession, pronounced to be not proven by the
special oominission which ultimately inquired into them. One
of the articles, which appeared on the x8th of April, was aoooa»-
panied by the facsimile of a letter purporting to be signed but
not written by Parnell, in which he apologized for his attitude
on the Pboeniji Park murdecs, and specially exaued the murder
of Mr Burke. On the same evening, in the House of Commons,
Parnell declared the letter to be a forgery, and denied that he
bad ever written any letter to that effect. He was not believed,
and the second reading of the Crimes Act fbUovod. Later in the
session the attention of the house was again called to the subject,
and it was invited by Sir Chaxies Lewis, an Ulster member and
A bitter antagonist of the Nationalists, to declare the charges
of The Times a breadi of privil^e. The government met this
proposal by an offer to pay the expenses of a libd action against
The Times to be brought on behalf of the VnAi members incrimi-
nated. This offer was refused. Mr Gladstone then proposed
that a select committee should inquire into the charges, including
the letter attributed to Pamell, and to this Pamell assented.
But the government rejected the proposaL For the rest,
Pamell continued to maintain for the most part an attitude of
moderation, reserve and retreat, though he more than once came
forward to protest against the harshness of the Irish administra-
tion and to plead for further remecUal legislation. In July x888
he announred that Mr Cecil Rhodes had sent him a sum of
£[0,ooo in support of the Home Rule movement, subject to the
condition that the Irish represcnution should be retained in
the House of Commons in any future measure dealing with the
question. About the same time the question of " PameUism
and Crime" again became acute. Mr F. H. O'Donnell, an
ex-M.P. and former member of the Irish party, brought an
action igainst The Times for libd. His case was a weak one, and
a verdict was obtained by the defendants. But in the course of
the proceedings the attomey^general, ooansd for The TimeSt
affirmed the readiness of his dienu to csublish all the charges
advanced, including the genuineness of the letter which Pamell
had declared to be a forgery. Pamell once more invited the
House of Common^ to refer this particular issue— that of the
letter—io a select committee. This was again refused ; but after
some hesiution the government resolved to appoint by act of
parliament a spedal commission, composed of three judges of
the High Court, to inquire into all the charges advanced by The
Times. This led to what was in substance, though not perhaps
in judidal form, the most remarkable state trial of the 19th
century. The commissioft began to sit in September x888, and
Issued ita report in February 1890. It heard evidence of
immense volume and variety, and the speech of Sir Charles
Russdl in defence was afterwards published in a bulky volume.
Pamdl gave evidence at great length, with much composure
and some cynicism. On the whole he produced a not unfavour-
able impressian, though some of his sUtemenls might seem to
justify Mr Gladstone^ ojpinion that he was not a man of exact
veradty. The report of the commission was a very voluminous
document, and was very variously interpreted by different
parties to the oontroversy. Thdr condusions may be left to
qicak lor theBBdves>~~
" I. We find that the respondent roembcn of parliament collec-
tivcty were not members of a conspiracy having for its object to
establish the absolute independence of Ireland, but we find that
some of them, together with Mr Davitt, esubltshed and joined an
the Land League organization with the intention, by its means, to
bring about the absolute independence of Ireland as a separate
nation.
" li. We find that the nspondenu did enter into a conspiracy.
by a system of coeidoa aad intimldatian, to ptomete an agrarisa
agitation against the payment of agrkuUnral rrots. for the pwfpo*
of iropovenshing and expelling fiom the coootry the Irish Iaadl«rd4»
who were styled ' the English garrison.'
** III. We find that the charge that *when 00 certain occasion
they thought it politic to denottnoe. and did denonaee. ecftun
crimes in public, they aCterwsrds fed their suppoiens to bd«v«
such denuodationa were not sincere.' is not estahlkhcd. Wc
entirely ac(}uit Mr Pamell and the other respondents of the charge
of insincerity in their denunciation of the Phoenix Park murden.
and find that the 'facstmile' letter, on which this charge was
chiefly based as against Mr PanadU is a fvgery.
" IV. We find that the respondents did diascminate the Jnsh
World and other newspapers tending to indte to seditioo and the
commission of other cnme.
*' V. We fiod that the respondents did not dheetly indte peraoos
to the Gonunission of crime other than iattmidacioo. but that tb«y
did indte to intimidation, and that the coosequeooe of that iadte>
ment was that crime and outrage were committed by the (xrsans
iodted. We find that it has not been pro-/ed that the respondents
nude payments for the purpoae of mating persons to caaauc
crime.
" yi. We find, as to the allegation that the respoodenu did
nothing to prevent crime, and expressed no bona fide disapproval,
that some of the respondents, and in particular Mr Davitt. did
express bona fide disapproval of crime and ontmge, bat tlat the
respondents did not denounce the system of intiimdation chat fed
to crime and outage, but perusted in it with knowledge of its
effect.
*' VI I. We find that the respondents did defend persons charred
with agrarian crime, aad supported their families: but that it has
not been proved that they subscribed to testimooiafe for. or wne
intimately associated with, notorious crimiaals, or that they made
payments to procure the escape of criminals from justice.
'* VI fl. We find, as to the allegation that the responde
: respondents maJe
payments to compensate persons who had been uiiuied in eke
commission of crime, that tney did make such paymenta.
IX. As to the allegation that the respondents invited the
assistance and co-operation of, and accepted subscriptions of money
from, known advocates of crime and the use of dynamite, we fio^
that the respondents did invite the assistaaoe am] co-opcnuioa of.
and accepted subscriptions of money from* Patrick Fora. « kwwn
advocate of crime and the use of dynamite; bat that it has tut
been proved that the respondents, or any of them, knew that the
.Clan-na-Gad controlled the Learue, or was collecting nuMiey for
the Parliamentary Fund. It has twcn proved that the respon d e n ts
invited and obuined the asslsunce and oo-opesation of the Pbyvxal
Force Party in Annerica, indudins the Clao-na-Gad. and tn order
to obtain that assistance abstaioed from repudiating or condemning
the action of that party."
The specific charges brought against PamcU pcrsonafly were
thus dealt with by the commissioners: —
" (a) That at the time of the Kilmainham negotiations Mr l^rtxQ
knew that Sheridan and Bovton lud been otganiaiiif
outrage^ and therefore wished to use them t» pot dovs
outrage.
"We find that this charge has not been proved.
•• (6) That Mr Pamell was intimate with the leacJUng Irtvindble«;
that he probably learned fiom them what they were
about when he was released on parole in April iMa; a^^l
that he rocognlacd the Phoenix Park miudcrs as thar
handiworlc.
'* We find that there is no foundation for this charge. We ha\e
already stated that the Invindblea were not a brsnch of the Lai^
League.
" (c) That Mr Pamell on 2Ard January 1SS3. bv an opportiuif
remittance, enabled F. Byrne to escape from justice t^
France.
" We find that Mr Pamell did not make any remittance to e»abfe
F. Byrne to escape from justice."
The case of the facsimile letter alleged to have been written by
Pamell broke down altogether. It was proved to be a forgery.
It had been purchased with otherdocumento from one Rlcbard
Pigott, a needy and disreputable Irish joonalist, wfaa aluxwaids
tried to blackmail Archbishop Walsh by offering, hi n letter
which was produced in court, to ooafesi ita forgery. Mcrcieashr
cross^xamiaed by Sir Charfes RuMdi on this letter to the aich-
bishop, Pigott broke down vtterty. Before the «— '*»iyi^
sat again he fled to Madrid, and there blew fab brains oat. He
had confessed the forgery to Mr Laboochere in the picsence ci
Mr G. A. Sala, but did not stay to be croBS-examined on ka
confession. The attorney-general withdrew the letter on bebxff
of The Times, and the commission prooounced it to be n iorgerv.
Shortly after the fetter had been withdrawn, Paradi fiSevI aa
action against The Times for libd, daiming danugca to tbe
PAJINELL, T.
8S9
■mount of lioofioo. The action was compromised without
going into court by a payment of £5000.
Practically, the damaging effect of some of the findings of
the commissiotx was neutralized by Pamell's triumphant vindica*
tion in the matter of the facsimile letter and of the darker charges
levelled at him. Parties remained of the same opinion as before:
the Unionists still holding that Parnell was steeped to the lips
in treason, if not in crime; wlule the Home Rulers made abun-
dance of capital out of his personal vindication, and sought to
excuse the incriminating findings of the commission by the
historic antecedents of the Nationalist cause and party. The
failure to produce the books and papers of the Land League was
overlooked, and Uttle importance was attached by partisans to
the fact that in spite of this default (leaving unexplained the
manner in which over £100,000 had been expended), the com*
missioncrs " found that the respondents did make payments to
compensate persons who had been injured in the commission of
crime." Parnell and bis colleagues were accepted as allies
worthy of the confidence of an EngUsh party; they were made
much of in Gladstonian Liberal society; and towards the close
of 1889, before the commission bad reported, but some months
after the forged letter had been withdrawn, Parnell visited
Hawardcn to confer with Mr Gladstone on the measure of
Home Rule to be introduced by the latter should he again be
restored to power. What occurred at this conference was aftcr*-
wards disclosed by Parnell, but Mr Gladstone vehemoatly denied
the accuracy of his statements on the subject.
But ParocU's fall was at hand. In December 1889 Captain
O'Shea filed a petition for divorce on the ground of his wife's
adultery with PamcU. Pamcll's intimacy with Mrs 0*Shca
had begun in 1881, though at what date it became a guilty one
is not in evidence. Captain O'Sbea had in that year challenged
him to a duel, but was pacified by the explanations of Mrs O'Shea.
It is known that Captain O'Shea had been Parnell 's confidential
agent in the negotiation of the KJIraaioham Treaty, and in 1885
Parnell had strained his personal authority to the utmost to
secure Captain O'Shea's return for Galway, and had quelled a
formidable revolt among some of his most influential followers in
doing so. It is not known why Captain O'Shea, who, if not
blind to a matter of notoriety, must have been complaisant in
1885, became vindictive in 1889. No defence being offered, a
decree of divorce was prooounc»l, and in June 1891 Parnell and
Mrs O'Shea were married.
At first the Irish party determined to stand by PameU. The
decree was pronounced on the i7lh of November 1890. On the
aoth a great meeting of his political friends and supporters was
held in Dublin, and a resolution that in all political natters
Parnell possessed the confidence of the Irish nation was carried
by acclamation. But the Irish party reckoned without its
English allies. The " Nonconformist conscience," which had
swallowed the report of the commission, was shocked by the
decree of the divorce court. At a meeting of the National
Liberal Federation held at Sheffield on the axst of November,
Mr John Morley was privately but firmly giVen to understand
that the Nonconformists would insist on ParncU's resignation.
Parliament was to meet on the 85th. Mr Gladstone tried to
convey to Parnell privately his conviction that uiUess Parnell
retired the cause of Home Rule was lost. But the meaaage never
reached PamelL Mr Gladstone then requested Mr John Morley
to see Parnell; but he could not be found. Finally, on the 24lh,
Mr Gladstone wrote to Mr Morley the famous and fatal letter,
in which he declared his conviction " that, notwithstanding
the splendid services rendered by Mr PameU to his country, his
continuance at the present moment in the leadership would be
disastrous in the highest degree to the cause of Ireland," and that
" the continuance I speak of would not only plaoe many hearty
and effective friends of the Irish cause in a position of great
cmbanassment, but would render my retention of the leadership
of the Libera] party, based as it has been mainly upon the present
tation of the Irish cause, almost a nullity." This letter was not
published until after the Irish parliamentary party had met in
the House of Commons and re-elected ParncU as its chairman
without a dissentient voice. But ita pablication was a thunder-
clap. A few days later Parnell was requested by a majority of
the party to convene a fresh meeting. It took place in Com-
mittee Room No. 15, which became historic by the occasion,
and after several days of angry recrimination and passionate
discussion, during which Parnell^ who occupied the chair, scorn-
ful^ refused to put to the vote a resolution for his own deposition,
45 members retired to another room and there declared his
leadership at an end. The remainder, a6 in number, stood by
hinL The party was thus divided into Parnellites and anti*
Pamellites, and the schism was not healed until seveml yean
after Pamell's death.
This was practically the end of Pamell's political career in
England. The scene of operations was transferred to Ireland,
and there PameU fought incessantly a bitter and a losing fight,
which ended only with his death. He declared that Ireland
could never achieve her emancipation by force, and that if she
was to achieve it by constitutional methods, it could only be
through the a^ncy of a united Nationalist party rigidly eschew*
ing alUance with any English party. This was the poUcy he
proclaimed in a manifesto issued before the opening of the
sittings in Conunittee Room No. 15, and with this policy, when
deserted by the bulk of his former followers, be appealed to the
Fenians in Irclaiui — ** the hillside men," as Mr Davitt, who had
abandoned him early in the crisis, contemptuously called them.
The Fenians rallied to his side, giving him their votes and their
support, but they were no snatch for the Church, which had
declared against him. An attempt at rcconciUation was made
in the spring, at what was known as " the Boulogne negotia-
tions," where Mr WiUiam O'Brien endeavoured to arrange an
understanding; but it came to nothing in the end. Probably
ParncU was never very anxious for its success. He seems to
have regarded the situation as fataUy compromised by the extent
to which his former followers were committed to an English
aUiance, and he probably saw that the only way to recover his
lost position was to build up a new independent party. He
knew well enough that this would take time — five years was the
shortest period he allowed himself — but before many months
were passed he was dead. The life he led, the agonies he endured,
the Ubours he undertook from the beginning of 1891, traveUing
weekly to Ireland and intoxicating himself with the atmosphere
of passionate nationalism in which he moved, would have
broken down a, much stronger man. He who had been the most
impassive of men became restless, nervous, almost distracted
at times, unwilling to be alone, strange in his ways and demean-
our. He visited Irebnd for the last time in September, aiKi the
last public meeting he attended was on the 371J1 of that month.
The next day he sent for his friend Dr Kenny, who found him
suffering from acute rheumatism and general debility. He left
Ireland on the 30th, promising to return on the foUowing
Saturday week. He did return on that day, but it was in his
coffin. He took to his bed shortly after his retum to his home
at Brighton, and on the 6th of October he died. His remains
were conveyed to Dublin, and on Sunday, the x xth of October,
they were laid to rest in the presence of a vast assemblage of the
Irish people in Glasnevin Cemetery, not far from the grave of
0*ConncU.
The principal materials for a biographv of Pamcl! and the history
of the Pamcllite movement are to t>ie found in HansartTt Portia^
mentary Debates (i875-i89r); in the Annual JUgister for the same
period; in the Report ef Ou Special Commissi*^ issued in 1890;
in The Life ^ Charles Stewart Parnell, by R. Barry O'Brien: in
The PamelliU Maoement, by T. P. O'Connor. M.P. ; and in a copious
biography of Parnell contributed by an anonymous but wdl^
informed writer to the Diet, of NaL Biog., vol. x^.
a. R. T.)
PARMBLL, THOVAS (1679-1718), English poet, was born in
DubUn in 1679. His father, Thomas Parnell, belonged to a
family (see above) which had been long settled at Congleton,
Cheshire, but being a partisan of the Commonwealth, he removed
with his children to Ireland after the Restoration, and purdiascd
an estate in Tipperary which descended to his son. In i6c>*-
the son entered Trinity CoUege, Cambridge, and ini 700 took
86o
PARNON— PAROS
M.A. defftt, bdag onbmed detoon in the lame yeu in spite of
bis yootlu .la 1704 be became misor cuka of St Pairick^s
Catbcdnl and in 1706 arcbdeacon of Clogher. Shortly after
receivii^ this prefermeat be married Anne Mincfain, to whom be
was oncerdy attached. Swift says that nearly a year alter her
deatb(f7ii) he was stjn ill with grief. His visits to Loodoo are
taid to have begun as early as 1706. He was intimate with
Richard Slede and Joseph Adifison, and altboogfa in 17 11 he
abandoned his Whig politics, there was no change m the friend-
ship. Paroell was introduced to Lord Bofingbroke in 1712 by
Swift, and subsequently to the carl of Osford. In 1713 be con-
tributed to the Poetical MisceUania edited for Tonson by Steele,
and published his Essay on the Dtferent Styles sf Poetry. He
was a member of the Soiberlus Club, and Pope says that be had
a band in " An Essay of the learned Martinus Scriblenis con-
cerning the Origin of Sdences.** He wrote the '* Essay on the
Life and writings and learning of Homer"* prefixed to Pope*s
translations, and in the autumn of 1714 both were at Bath
together. In 1716 Pamell was presented to the vicarage of
Finglass, when he resigned his archdeaconry. In the same year
he published Homer's BaUU oj Ike Prots and Mice. With Ike
remarks of ZoSus. To which is prefixed, the Life of the said
Zoilns. Pamell was in London again in I7r8, and, on the way
back to Ireland, was taken ill and died at Chester, where he was
buried on the a4th of October.
Pamell's best known poem » ** The Hermit," an admirably
eiecuted moral amte written in the heroic couplet. It is based
•n an old stoiy to be found in the Cesta Romanorum and other
sources. He cannot In any sense be said to have been a disciple
of Pope, though ha verse may owe something to bis friend's
revbion. But this and other of his pieces, " The Hymn to
Contentment." " The Night Piece on Death," " The Fairy Tale."
were original in treatment, and exercised some influence on the
work of Goldsmith, Gray and Collins. Pope's selection of his
poems was justified by the publication in 1758 of Posthumous
Works of br Thomas ParneU, containing Poems Moral and
Divine, and on various other subjects, which in no way added to
his fame. They were contemptuously dismissed as unauthentic
by Thomas Gray and Samuel Johnson, but there seems no
reason to doubt the authorship.
In 1770 Poems on Several Occasions was printed with a Fife of
the author by Ofiver Goldfmith. His Poetical Works were printed
in AnderMMi't and other collections of the British Poets. See The
Pocticji Works (1801) edited by Gcorga A. Attkcn for the Aldtne
EdUian of the Briiisk Poets. An edition by the Rev. John Mitford
for the saroe series (1833) was reprinted in 1866. Hia corre-
spondence with Pope is published in Pope's Works (ed. Etwin and
Courthorpe, vii. 451-467).
PARHON (mod. Malcvo), the mountain ridge on the east of
the Laconlan plain. Height 6365 ft. It is visible from Athens
above the top of the Argive mountains.
PARNT, ^ARISTB titSlKt DB FORGES, Vicomte de
(1753-1814), was born in the Isle of Bourbon on the 6lh of
February 1753. He was sent to France at nine years old, was
educated at Renncs, and in 1771 entered the army. He was,
however, shortly recalled to the Isle of Bourbon, where he fcU
in love with a young lady whom he addresses as £I£onore. Her
father refused to consent to her marriage with Pamy, and she
married some one else. Pamy returned to France, and published
his PUsies irotiques in 1778. He also published about the same
time his Voyage de Bourgopie (i777)> written in collaboration
with his friend Antoine de Bertio (1 759-1 790); £p{tre cux
insurgents de Boston (1777). *nd Opuscules poitiques (1779)
In 1796 appeared the Guerre des dieux, a poem in the style of
Voltaire's Pucdle, directed against Christianity. Pamy devoted
himself in his later years almost entirely to the religious and
political- burlesque. He was elected to the Academy in 1803,
and in 1813 received a pension from Napoleon. In 1805 he
produced an extraordinary allegoric poem attacking George III.,
* Pope acknowledged the essay with affcciionate praise, but in
1790 he said it was written " upon such memoirs as I had collected."
-1 later he romplained of its defects, layin]^ it had co&i him more
- to fwisc than it would have done to wnte it.
Ms famfly and his subjects, under the eccentric title cf
** Goddam! Goddam! par un Freoch-dqg.** Famy's car 7
love poems and elegies, however, show a rcmarka^Ue grace zz.t
ease, a good deal of tenderness, and considerable faiKy and « t
One famous piece, the EUty on a Young Girt, b scarcely to be
excelled in its kind. Paray died in X814.
His (Emres ckoisies were published in 1677. Then is a sketch
of Pamy ia Satnte^Bcuve's Portraits eontemporains,
PABWT (Gr. raptfSia, literally a song sung beside, a corsk
parallel), an imiution of the form or style of a serioos wri* rg
in matter of a meaner kind so as to produce a hidiooiis effca.
Parody is almost as old in European literature as scrions writirr
The Batrackomyomackia, or " Battle of the Frogs and Mice." a
travesty of the heroic epos, was ascribed at one time to Homer
himself, and it b probably at least as old as the sth century a c.
The great tragic poetry of Greece very soon provoked tJie parod-st.
Aristophanes parodied the style of Euripides in the Ackantii^i
with a comic power that has never been surpassed. Tbe debei^ed
grand style of medieval romance was parodied in Don Qui x At.
Shakespeare parodied the extravagant heroics of an earl:r
stage, and was himself parodied by Marston, incidentally in his
plays and elaborateiy in a roughly humorous burlesque of Vewn:
and Adonis, The most celebrated parody of the Restorat . 1
was Buckingham's Rekearsal (1672), in which the tragedies ci
Dryden were inimitably ridiculed. At the beginning of the xSib
century Tke Splendid Shilling of John Philips (1676-1 70c
which Addison said was *'the finest burlesque poem in :hf
Englbh language,** brilliantly introduced a fashion for u^-4
the solemn movement of Milton's bbnk verse to criebmr
ridicuk)us incidents. In 1736, Isaac Hawkins Browne (1705-
1760) published a volume, A Pipe of Tobacco, in whkfa <te
poetical styles of CoUey Cibber, Ambrose Philips, James TV^t-
son, Edward Young and Jonathan Swift were ddightfuLf
reproduced. In the following century, SheOey aod Jobs
Hamilton Rejmolds almost simultaneously produced crvid
imitations of the naivet€ and baldness of Wordsworth's Pd"
Bell (1819). But in that generation the most cdebra'.cd
parodists were the brothers Smith, whose Rejected Addrc^:rs
may be regarded as classic in thb kind of artificial product *''
The Victorian age has produced a plentiftil crop oif parud:^*J
in prose and in vene, in dramatic poetry and in lyric portr>
By common consent, the most subtle and dextemus of these
was C. S. Calverley, who succeeded in reproducing not merc>
tricks of phrase and metre, but even manneristic turns of though l
In a later day, Mr Owen Seaman has repeated, and somciinKS
surpassed, the agile feats of Calveriey.
PAROUS (shortened from the Fr. parole d^hamnem, word «f
honour), a military term signifying the engagement pvcn by t
prisoner of war that if released he will not again take up arr^s
against hb captors during the term of the engagement or the
war, unless previously relieved of the obUgation by ezcharge.
" Parole " b also used in the same sense as " word " to imply 1
watchword or password. The French word, formed from the
Late Lat. paraula, parabola, Gr. ropo^oX^, story, parable, was
also adopted into English as '* parol," t.e. verbal, oral, by word
of mouth, now only used in the legal term " parol evidence/
i.e. oral as opposed to documentary evidence.
PAROPAHISUS. the name given by the Greeks to the pars
of the Hindu Rush bordering Kohbun to the north-west ct
Kabul. It b now applied in a restricted sense to the water-
parting between Herat and the Russian frontier on the Rusha
river, which possesses no local name of its own. FVom Hcrai
city to the crest of the Paropambus, which b crossed by swen)
easy passes, b a dbtance of about 36 m., involving a rise of
1000 ft.
PAROS. or Pako, an bland in the Aegean Sea, one of the
largest of the group of the Cycladcs, with a population of Sooc
It lies to the west of Naxos. from which it b separated hj a
channel about 6 m. broad, and with which it b now gromg-'
together, in popular language, under the comm<ni name of
Paronaxia. It b in 37* N. lat. and if 10' E. long. Its gr«atc!i
length from N.E. to S.W. b 13 m., and its greatest bcvdsh
PAROXYSM— PARR, CATHERINE
«6i
to m. It 18 formed of a siiifl^ moimliiin about »soo ft. high,
sloping evenly down on all sides to a msritune plain, which is
teoadcst on the north-east and sonth-west sides. The mland is
composed of marble, though gneiss and micsr«chist sxe to be
found in a few ftlaces. The capHali Paroekia or Paiikia (Italian,
Partchui), situated on a bay on the north-west side of the island,
occupies the site of the andent ca(utal Faros. lu harbour
admits small vessels; the entrance is dangerous on account of
rocks. Houses built in the Italian style with terraced roofs,
shadowed by luxuriant vines, and sunounded by gacdens of
oranges and pomegranates, give to the town a picturesque and
l^easing aspect. Here on a rock beside the sea are the remains
of a medieval castle built almost entirely of ancient marble
remains. Similar traces of antiquity in the shape of bssfrelicfs,
insoiptions, rolumns, &c., are numerous in the town, and on a
terrace to the south ol it is a pceciaa of Asclcpius. Outside
the town is the church of KatapoUani ('H 'BmroyrairuXiaF^),
said to have been founded by the empress Helena; there are two
adjoining churches, one of very eady form, and also a baptistery
with a midform font.
On the north side of the island is the bay of Kaoossa (Naussa)
or Agouasa, forming a safe and roomy harbour. In ancient
times it was dosed by a chain or boom* Another good harbour
is that of Drios on the south-east side, where the Turkish fleet
used to anchor on its annual voyage through the Aegean. The
three villages of Tragoulas, Mannora and SLcpidi (EiitUi,
pronounced Tschipidi), situated on an open.phiin on the eastern
aide of the ishmd, and rich in remains of antiquity, probably
occupy the site of an ancient towia. They are known together
as the " villages of Kepfaalos," from the steep and lofty headland
of Kephslos. On this headland staitds an ii)andoaed monastery
of St Anthony, amidst the ruins of a medieval castle, which
belonged to the Venetian family of the Vcnieri, and was gallantly
thou^ fruitlessly defended against the Turkish general Bar-
baroaaa in iS37*
Parian marble, which is white and semi-transparent, with a
coarse grain and a very beautiful texture, was the chid source
of wealth to the island. The celebrated marble quarries he on
the northern side of the mountain anciently known as Marpessa
Uifterwards Capresso), a little below a former convent of St
Mina. The marble, which was exported from the 6th century
B.C., and used by Praxiteles and other great Greek sculptors,
was obtained by means of subtenanean quarries driven horlcon-
taily or at a descending angle into the rode, and the marble thus
quarried by lamplight got the name of Lychnites, Lychneus
(from lyckMMt a lamp), or Lygdos (PUo. H. JV. xxxvi. 5, 14;
Fbto, Eryxias, 400 D; Athen. v. 3050; Diod. Sic. a, 5a).
Several of these tunnels are still to be seen. At the entrance
to one of them is a bas-relief dedicated to Pan and the Nymphs.
Several attempts to work the marble have been made in modem
times, but' it has not been exported in any great quantities.
i/tttory.-~The story that Faroe was oobnized by one Faros
of Fanhasia, who brought with him a colony of Arcadians to
the island (Herachdes, De tubus publieis, 8; Steph. Byx. r.v.
HApor), is one of those etymologising fictions in which Greek
legend abounds. Ancient luunes of the island are said to have
been Plateia (or Pactia), Demetrias. Zacynthus, Hyria, Hyleessa.
M inoa and Cabamis (Steph. Byz.). Ftom Athens the islana
afterwards received a colony of lonians (SchoL Dionys. Per.
595; cf. Herod, i. 171), under whom it attained a high
degree of prosperity. It sent out colonies to Thasos (Thuc
iv. 104; Strabo, 487) and Farium on the Hellespont. In
the former cdony, wfaidi was planted in the X5th or x8th
Olympiad, the poet Archilochns, native of Faros, is said to have
taken part. As Ute as 385 b.c. the Parians, in conjunction
with Diooyaius of Syracuse, founded » ookmy on the iByrian
island of Pharos (Diod. Sic. xv. 1$). So high was the reputation
of the Faiians that they were daoeen by the people of Miletus
to arbitmte in a party dispute (Herod, v. 28 seq.). Shortly
before the Persian War PanM seems to have been a dependency
Of Naxos (Herod, v. 31). In the Persian War Faros sided with
the Fenians and sent a trireme to Marathon to support them.
In retaliation, the capital Paroa was besieged by 1
fleet under Miltiades, who demanded a fine of too talents. Bat
the town offered » vigorous resistance, and the Atheaiaoi were
obliged, to sail away after a siege of twenty<4ix <iays, doiinf
which they had hdd the isbnd waste. It was at a temple of
Demeter Thesmopborus in Fuos that Miltiades received the
wound of which he afterwards died (Herod. .vL 133-136). By
means of an inscdption Ross was enabled to identify the slta
of the temple; it lies, in agreement with the descHptioB of
Herodotus, on a low hill beyond the boundaries cl tin town.
Faros also sided with Xerxes against Greece, but after the battle
of Artemiaium the Parian contingent remained in Cythnos
watching the progress of events (Herod, viii. 67). For this
unpatriotic conduct the islanders were punished by Themistoclcs,
who exacted a heavy fine (Herod. vilL ixa). Under the Athen-
ian naval confederacy, Faros paid the highest tribute of all the
islands subject to Athens — ^30 talents annually, according to
the assessment of Olymp. 88, 4 (439 B.C.). Little is known of
the constitution of Faros, but inscriptions seem to show that it
was democratic, with a senate {BouU) at the head of affairs
{Corpus Uucript, 2376-3383; Ross, luscr, ined, n, 147, 148). In
410 B.C. the Athenian general Theramenes found an oligarchy
at Faros; he deposed it and restored the democracy (Died.
Si& xilL 47). Faros was induded in the new Athenian confed*
eracy of 378 b.c, but afterwards, along with Chios, it renounced
its connexion with Athens, probably about 357 B.a Thence-
forward the island lost its political importance. From the
inscription of Adule we learn that the Cydades, and consequently
Faros, were subject to the Ptolemies of Egypt. Afterwards
they passed under the rule of Rome. When the Latins made
themsielves masters of Constantinople, Faros, like the rest,
became subject to Venice. In X537 it was conquered by the
Turks. The island now belongs to the kingdom of Greece.
Among the most interesting discoveries made in the island
is the Parian Chronide (g.9.).
See Toumcfort. Voyat€ du LevatU, t 333 seq. (Lyons. 1717);
Clarke, Travels, i^, (London, 1814); Leake, TVosm in Nortiuru
Gretet, ill. 84 seq. (London. 1835); Prokesch, DeukmUrdigkeiUn,
Bursian, Geograpkie sim GrieckeHhnd, ii. 483 tea. (Lefprig, 1872).
For the Parian Chronicle, InseripUonfs groKMt xii. 100 sqq.
PAROZTSK (Med. Lat paroxysmus, from the Gr. wofiollvar.
to make sharp, 5{ut), a violent outbreak or displa,y of
emotion or feeling. The term is used of a fit of laughter, pain,
anger or fear, and particularly an acute stage in a disease is
the earliest sense of the word.
PARQUBTRT (Fr. parquettrkt from parqudf flooring, originally
a small compartment), a term applied to a kind of mosaic of
wood used for ornamental flooring. Materials contrasting in
colour and grain, such as oak, walnut, cherry, lime, pine, &c
are employed; and in the more expenuve kinds the richly
coloured tropical woods are also used. The patterns of parquet
flooring are entirely geometrical and angular (squares, trianglesi
losenges, &c.), curved and irregular forms bdog avoided om
account of the expense and difficulty of fitting. Thers are
two daascs of parquetry in use— veneers and soHd parquet.
The veneers are usually about a quarter of an inch in thickness,
and are laid over already existing floors. Solid parquet of an
inch or more in thickness consists of shagle pieces of wood grooved
and tongued together, having consequently the paUem alike
on both side s.
PARR» CATBERIIIB (x5x>-x548), the sixth qoeen of Henry
Vm., was a daughter of Sir Thomas Parr (d. XS17), of Kendal,
an offidal of the royal household. When only a giri she was
married to Edward Borough, and after his death fai or before
1539 to John Neville, Lord Latimer, who died in x 541 or X543.
Latimer had only been dead a few months when, on the xath
of July 1543, Catherine was married to Henry Vm. at Hampton
Court. The new queen, who was regent of England during the
king's absence in ts44, acted in a very kindly fashion towards
her stepchildren; but her patience with the king did not pravesl
862
PARR, SAMUEL— PARRHASIUS
a cfaazfe of hertty fxwn being brought against her. Henry,
howevcTi irouM not pennit her arrest, and she became a widow
for the tlmd time on his death in January 1547. In the same
year she sianied a former lover. Sir Thomas Seymour, now
Lord Seymonr of Sudeley. Soon after this event, on the ytU
of September 1548, the died at Suddey castle^ Catherine was
a pious and charitable womab and a friimd of leaxning; she
wrote The Lamentalion w CamplaUii qf a Smncr, which was
published after her death.
See A. StrkUaiid, Lues tf fkt Qatms of Em^anA, voL iiL (t877)-
PARR, SAMUEL (1747-1825), English schoolmaster, son of
Samud Parr, surgeon at Uarrow-on-the-Hill, was bom there on
the 26th of January 1747. At Easter 175a he was sent to
Harrow School as a free scholar, and when he left in Z761 he
began to help hb father in his practice, but the old surgeon
realized that his son's talents lay elsewhere, and Samuel was
sent (1765) to Emmanuel College, Cambridge. From February
1767 to the dose of 1771 he served under Robert Sumner as
head assistant at Harrow, where he had Sheridan among his
pupils. When the head master died in September 1771 Parr,
after vainly applying for the position, started>a school at Stan-
more, which he conducted for five years. Then he became
head master of Colchester Grammar School (177^x778) and
subsequently of Norwich School (i 778-1 786). He had taken
priest's orders at Colchester, and in 1780 was presented td
the small rectory of Asterby in Lincolnshire, and three years
later to the vicarage of Hatton near Warwick. He exchanged
this latter benefice for Wadenboe, Northamptonshire, in 1789,
stipulating to be allowed to reside, as assistant curate, \n. the
parsonage of Hatton, where he took a limited number of pupils.
Here he spent the rest of his days, enjoying his excellent library,
described by H. G. Bohn in BiUioUuca Poniana (1827), and
here his friends, Porson and £. H. Barker, passed many months
In his company. The degree of LL.D. was conferred on him
1^ the university of Cambridge in r78r. Parr died at Hatton
vicarage on the 6th of March 1825.
Dr Parr's writings fill several volumes, but they are all
beneath the repaUtmn which he acquired through the variety
of his knowledge and dogmatism of hb conversation. The
diief of them are his Characters of Charles James Fox (1809);
ahd his unjustifiable reprint of the Tractt af Warhnrton and
a WarhurUmian^ net odmitUd into their vorhs, a scathing
exposure of Warburton and Hurd. Even amid the terrors of
the French Revolution he adhered to Whiggism, and his
correspondence included every man of eminence, cither Utcrary
or political, who adopted the same creed. In private life his
modd was Johnson. He succeeded in copying his imcouth-
ness and pompous maimer, but had ndther his humour nor
his real authority. He was famous as a writer of epitaphs
and wrote inscriptions for the tombs of Burke, Charles BuTney»
Johnson, Fox and Gibbon.
There are two memoirs of his life, one by the Rev. William
Field (1828), the other, with his works and his letters, by John
Johnstone (1828); and B. H. Barker published in 1828-1829 two
volumes of Parriana, a confused mass of information on Parr and
his friends. An essay on hb life is included in De Quinoey's works,
vol. v., and a little volume of the Aphorisms, Opinions and
Reflections oj the late Dr Parr appeared in i8a6.
PARR, THOMAS (c. 1481-1635), English centenaxiaD, known
as '* Old Parr," is reputed to have been bom in 1485, at Winning-
ton, Shropshire, the son of a farmer. In 1500 he is said to have
left his home and entered domestic service, and in 25x8 to have
letumed to Winniogton to occupy the nuH holding he then
inherited on the death of his tether. In 1563, at the age of
dghty, he married his fim wife, by whom he had a ton and a
daughter, both of whom died in infancy. At the age of lat,
bis first wife having died, he married again. His vigour seems
to have been unimpaind, and when 130 years oU he fs said to
have thicahed 00m. In 163$ his fame readied the eats of
Thomas Howard, and earl of Arundel, who resolved to exhibit
him at oouit, and had him conveyed to London in a specially
ooBstxucicd litter. Here he waa prcacnted to King Chaiks I.,
but the change of air and diet soon affected hlra, and the old
man died at X^oid Anmdd'a house In London, on the 14th ol
November 1635. He was buried in the south transept o(
Wfsfmintfer Abbey where the inscription over his grave
reads: " Tho: Parr of ye county of Salopp Ben hi Ao 1483.
He lived m ye veignes of Ten Prinoes via. K. Edw. 4, K. Ed. V.
K. Rich. 3. K. Hen. 7. K. Hen. 8. K. Edw. 6. Q. Ma. Q. Elic
K. Ja. and K. Charles, aged 152 yeares and was buried here
Nov. 15. 1635." A pMt-mortem examination made by the
king's otders by Dr William Harvey, icvealed the fact that
his internal oiflans were in an unusually perfect tute, and his
cartilages UMwdfied.
PARR, a name wigbally applied to the small .Sabnonoids
abundant in Britidi riven, whidi were for a long time considered
to conatitnte a dtttinct species of fioh (Salmo tolmulms). They
possess the broad head, short snout and large eye characteristic
of young Salmonoida, and are ornamented on the sides of the
body and tail with about eleven or more broad dark cross-bars,
the so-called parr^narka. However, John Shaw proved, by
experiment, that these fishes represent merdy the first stage
of growth of the salmon, before it assumes, at an age of one or
two yeus, and when about six inches fang, the silvcfy smok-drcas
preparatory to its first migration to the lea. The panvmarks
are produced by a deposit of black pigment in the skin, and
appear very soon after the exdnsfon oC the fish from the egg;
they are stiU visible lor some time below the new coat of scales
of the smolt*«tage, but have entirely disappeared on the fint
aetmm of the young salmon bom the sea. Although the juvmOe
condition of the parr is now universally admitted, it is a remark-
able fact that many male pair, from 7 to 8 inches long, have
their sexual organs fully devetoped, and that their milt haa all
the fertilizing properties of the seminal fluid of a fuU-^irown and
sexually matured salmon. On the other hand, no female parr
haa ever been obtained with mature ova. Not only the salmon,
but also the other qiedes of Salmo, the grayling, and probably
also the Coregomi, pass through a pafr<«tage of growth. Tbe
young of all these fiahes are haired, the salmon having genccaJly
deven or bmr ban, and the parr of the migratory Croat from
nine to ten, or two or three more than the riverfront, la
some of the amail laoea or species of river>tnmt the pair-viarfca
are retained throughout life, but subject to changes ia {ntewity
of cobur.
PARRAMATTA, a town of Cumberhmd comity, New Sowth
Wales, Australia, 14 »• by rail N.W. of Sydney. Pop. (iqoi)
12,568. It is sitnated on the Panamatta River, an am of Poit
Jackson, and was one of the eariiest inland settlemcnta (i7M>,
the seat of many of the public establishments connected with
the workmg of the convict system. Many of these stfll venaia
in another form (the district ho^ital, the hmatic isylum, the
gaol, two asylums for the infinn and destitute, the Protaataat
and Catholic orphan schoob), involving a govcmmcnt expendi-
ture irbkh partly sustaina the business ^ Hat town. Pamnattn
was one of the earliest seats of the tweed manufacture, bat its
principal industrial dependence has been on the frak trade.
With the exception of Prospect and Pennant Hills, where there
is an outbunt of trap rock, the surface soil is the diainCcgiatJoo
of the Wainamatta shale, which is well suited for ofangexien
and orchards. The fint grain grown in the colony was barwcated
at Parramatta, then called RosehilL The earlier gu f einwa
had their countiy residence near the town, but the donmio
is now a public park in the hands of the mvnidpaBty. Am
early observatoiy, where in iBsa were made the ohaovrntioDn
for the ParramaUa Catalapie, nmnbering 7385 stars, haa hwc
been abandoned. Pkxramatta was iacoqionted in xS6x. It
has one of the finest tao^couneB in Australia, and hi the Kmg^
School, foimded m 183:, the oklest grammar a^ool m tkr
colony.
PARRHAIIU8» of Epbesni, one of the greatest paintoa of
Greece. He settled m Athens, and may be ranked aoMBg tbn
Attk artists. The period of his activity is fised by the asccdolc
which Xeaophon records of the conversation bet we au ban and
Soaatea on the subject of act; he was tberafoK diitingirfihed
PARRICIDES-PARROT
863
as ft painter beforo 399 b.c. Seneca lelates a tale that Parrbasins
bought one of the Olynthians whom Philip sold into slavery,
346 B.C., and tortured him in order to have a model for bis
picture of Prometheus; but the stoiy, wliich is aimilar to one
told of Michela n gelo, is chronologically impossible. Another
tale recorded of him describes bis contest with Zeuzis* The
latter painted some grapes so perfectly that birds came to peck
at thenu He then called on Parrhasius to draw aside the curtain
and show his picture, but, finding that his rival's picture was
the curtain itself, he acknowledged himself to be surpassed,
for Zeuxis had deceived birds, but Parrhasius had deceived
Zeuzis. He was tmiveisally placed in the veiy first rank among
painters. His skilful drawing <S outlines is ttcpcctally praised,
and maxty of his drawings on wood and parchment were preserved
and highly valued by later painters for purposes of atady. He
first attained skill in making bis figures appear to stand out
frotn the background. His picture of Thoeus adorned the
Capitol in Rome. Hx» other works, besides the obscoie subjects
with which he is said to have amused his leisure, are chiefly
mythological groups. A picture of the Demos, the personified
People of Athens, is famous; according to the story, which is
probably based upon epigrams, the twelve prominent chamcter*
istics of the people, though apparently quite inoQnBisteQt''with
each other, were distinctly expressed in this figure.
PARRICIDE (probably for Lat. potriddio, from p<Uer, father,
and caed^e, to slay), strictly the murder of a parent; the term
however has been extended to include the murder of any relative
or of an ascendant by a descendant. The first Roman 'law
against palrridde was that of the Lex Cemdid dt siconis et
venefids (c. 81 B.C.), which enacted that the murderer ci a
parent should be sewed up in a sack and thrown into the sea,
and provided other punisbmcnU for the killing of near reUtives,
The Ltx Pompeia de parricidiis (sa'B.c.) re-enacted the principal
provisions of the Lex Cornelia and defined parricide as the
deliberate and wrongful slaying of ascendants, husbands, wives,
cousins, brothers and sisters, uncles and aunts, stq>fathen and
mothers, fathers and mothers-in4aw, patrons and descendants.
For the murder of a father, mother, grandfather or grandmother,
the Lex Pompeia ordained that the guilty person should be
whipped till he bled, sewn up m a sack with a dog, a cock,
a viper and an ape, and thrown into the sea. Failing water,
hf was either to be torn in pieces by wild beasts or burned.
English law has never made any legal distinction between
killing a parent or other relative and simple murder, and the
Netherlands and Germany follow in the same direction. French
law has been exceptionally severe in its treatment of parricide.
Before the Revolution, the pankide if a male, had to make a
recantation of his crime, and then suffered the loss of bis right
hand; his body was afterwards burned and the ashes scattered to
the winda. If the parridde was a female she was burned or
banged. After the Revolution the penalty became simply one
of death, but the compilers of the penal code adjudgied this
insufficient and reintroduced some of the previous provisions:
the parridde was brought to the place of execution clad in
a shirt, bare-footed, and the bead enveloped in a black veiL
While be was exposed on the scaffold, an officer read aloud
the decree of condemnation; the culprit then had his right
hand cut off, and was immediately afterwards executed. On
the revision of the penal code in 1832 the cutting off of the
right hand was omitted, but the other details remained. Other
continental European countries, following the example of
France, treat the crime of parridde with exceptional severity.
PARROT (according to Skeat, from Fr. Perrot or P*at0|,
the diminutive of the proper name PUrr^), the name mven
> "Parakeet" On Shakespeare, 1 Ben. IV, u. 3, 88, "Para-
quito ") is aaid by the nine authority to be from the Spanish Peru
quUo or Perro^pteto, a small Parrot, diminutive of Perico, a Parrot,
which again may be a diminutive from Pedro, the proper name.
Parakeet (ndt in various ways in EogUah) is usually applied to the
•mailer Idnda of Parrots, especially those which have kms tails, not
aa Pafoqaa In French, whkli h need asa metal term for all Parrots,
Pertuchit or aoawtiraea Perruke. being the ordinary name for what
we call Parakeet. The old Ei^lwh " Popinjay " and the old French
Popegiut have abnoM passed out of use, but the German Papagdvad
goncraUy to a large and very natunl gmup of birds, which for
more than a score of centuries have attracted attentioB, not
only from their gaudy plumage, but, at first and cU^y, it
would seem, from the readineas with which many of them lean
to imitate thh sounds they hear, repeating the words and even
phrases of human speech with afidelity that is often astonishing.
It is said that na icpicseotation of any panot appears in Egyptian
art, nor does aiiy reference to a bird of the kind oocui in the
Bible, whence it has been oonduded that ndther painters nor
writers had any Knowledge of it Aristotle is conuaonly supposed
to bt the fiist author who mentions a parrot; but this is sa
error, for nearly a century earlier Ctesias in Ids Indiea (cap. 3),*
under the name of /Mrroaot (Bittoem), ao neatly described
a bird which could sptak an " Indian " hmguage-maturally,
as he iieems to have thought— or Greek— if it had been tanght
so to do— about as big as a ^panow-hawk (Hterox), with a pu^
face and a black beard, otherwise Uue^green (cyomus) and
vermilk>n in colour, ao that tlierecanqot be nmdi risk in declaring
that he must have had before him a male catample of what is
now commonly known as the BkMom-hcaded parakeet, and
to omithohjgista aa Palaeomis cyonocepkahu^ an inhabitant
of many parU of India. After Ctesias oomes Aristotle's ^frriny
{PriUace), whidi Sundevall supposes him to have described
only from hearsay. There can be no doubt that the Indian
conquests of Alejcander were the means of making the pamt
better known in Europe, and it is in reference to this fact that
another Eastern ^pedes of Pchecrmt now bears the name of
P, aianmiri, though ^rom tiie localitiea it inhabits it could
hardly have had anything to do with the Macedonian hero. That
Africa had parrots does not seem to have been d is co v ere d by
the andents till long after, as Pliny tells ns (vL 99) that they
were first met with bQTDiid the limits of Upper E^ypt byexpkirens
employed by Nero. These bbds, highly prised from the first,
reprobated by the moralist, and cdebmted by more than one
classical poet, in the course of time were broaght in great numbere
to Rome, and ministered in vaiious ways to the luxury oC the
aga. Not on\y were they kxlged in cages of tortoise^ell and
ivory, with silver wires, but they were professedly esteemed
as delicacies for the tabie, and one cm s w aw is ssid to have fed
his Uons upon thcmt With the decUne of the Roman Empire
the demand for parrots in Europe lessened, and so th^ supply
dwindled, yet aO knowledge of them was not wholly lost, and
they are occasionally mentioned by one writer or another until
in the 15th century began that career of geographical discovery
which has since proceeded oaintciruptedly. This immediatdy
brought with it the knowledlge of many more forma of these
birds than had ever before been seen. Yet so numerous is the
group that even now.new spedes of partota are not anconmonly
icoQgnized.
The home of the vast majority of panot-foms is unquestion«
ably within the tropics, but the popular belief tfast parrots are
tropical birds only is a great mistake. In North America the
Carolina parakeet, Ceaaritf csroliemrilr, at the beginning of
the 19th century used to range fin summer as high as the shores
of lakes Erie and Ontario— a ladtude equal- to the sooth of
France; and even much later it reached, according to trust-
worthy infotmarion, the junction of the Ohk> and the Mississfppi,
though now its liinits have been so much curtailed that its
occurrence in any but the Gulf States is doubtful. In South
America, at least four spedes sre found in Chile or the La Plata
region, and one, Commu paiagonus, is pretty common on
the bleak cosst of the Strait of MageUan. In Africa H is true
that no spedes is known to extend to within some ten degrees of
the tropic of Cancer; but Picnics r^uHus hihabits territories
Italian Papapiio still continue in vogue. These aaasBS can be traced
to the Arabic Babath^x but the source of that word is unknown.
The Anglo-Saxon name of the Parret. a river in Somerset, is Pedrtda
or Pednda, which at first sight kwiCB as if it had to do with the
proper name, Petrus; but Skeat believea there is no eoaaenoa
between them— the latter portion of the word bciog rAi. a alfcam.
' The pasaage seems to nave escaped the notice of aU f
except W. J. Broderip, who mentioned it ia his article "" "" '
in the Penmy Cythpiedia Omu 83).
864
PARROT-nSHES
lying quite as f ar to t)ie MQtliwud of the tropic of Capricorn,
in India Che northern range of the group is only bounded by
the slopes of the Himalaya, and farther to the eastward parrots
are not only abundant over the whole of the Malay Archipelago,
as well as Australia and Tasmania, but two Very well-defined
families are peculiar to New Zealand and iu adjacent islands
(see Kaxapo and Nsstor). No parrot has recently inhabited
the Palaearctic Viegtoa,^ and but one (the Corumu caroHnensiSt
fast mentioned) probably belongs to the Nearctic; nor are
parrots represented by many different forms in either the
Ethiopian or the LuUan R^ions. In continental Asia the
distribution of parrots is rather remarkable. None extend
farther to the westward than the valley of the Indus,* which,
considering the nature of the country in Baluchistan and Afghan*
istan, is perhaps intelligible enough; but it is not so easy to
ondentand why none are found either in Cochin China or China
proper; and they are also wanting in the Philippine Islands,
which is the more remarkable and instructive when we find how
abundant they are in the groups a little farther to the southward.
Indeed, A. R. Wallace has well remarked that the portion of
the earth's surface which contains the largest number of parrots,
in proportion to iU area, is undoubtedly that covered by the
islands extending from Celebes to the Solomon group. " The
area of these islands is probably not one^f teenth of that of the
four tropical regions, yet they contain from one-fifth to one-
fourth of all the kikown parrots" {Ctogr* Disk, Animals, ii.
530). He goes on to observe also that in this area are found
many of the ifTost remarkable forms— all the red Lories, the
great cockatoos, the pigmy Nasitemae and other singularities.
In South America the spedes of parrots, though numerically
neariy as abundant, are far less diversified in form, and tSi of
them seem capable of being referred to two, or, at most, three
sections. The spedes that has the widest range, and that by
far, is the common Ring-necked Parakeet, Palaeomis iorqnalus,
a well-known cagc^bird which is found from the mouth of the
(Gambia across Africa to the coast of the Red Sea, as well as
throughout the whole of India, Ceylon and Burmah to Tenas-
serim.* On the other hand, there are plenty of cases of panoU
which are restricted to an extremely small area— often an island
of insignificant size, as Conurus xantholaemus^ confined to the
island of St Thomas in the Antilles, and Palaeernis txsvl to
that of Rodriguez in the Indian Ocean— to say nothing of the
remarkable instance of Nestor produaus (see Nbstok).
The systematic treatment of this very natural group of Inrds
has long been a subject of mudi difficulty. A few systematists,
among whom C. L. Bonaparte was chief, placed them at th^
top of the class, conceiving that they were the analogues of the
Frimaks among mammslt. T. H. Huxley reco^iised the
PsiUacomorpkae as forming one of the prindpal groups of
Carinate birds, and they are now generally regarded as forming
a suborder FsiUaci of the Cuculiform birds (see Bno). Owing
to the erroneous number of forms and the dose samikritiea of
structure, the subdivision of the group has presented great
difficulties. Buffon was unaware of the existence of some
of the most remarkable forms of the group, in particular of
' A few remains of a Parrot have been recognized from the Miocene
of the AUlcr in France, by A. Miloe<Edwards (Ou. Fcss, Ftame*,
vol. ii. p. 525, pi. cc), and are said by him to show the ijreatest
rescmblaoce to the common Grey Parrot of Africa. Psittacus enlhttcust
through having also some affinity to the Ring-necked Parakeet of the
same country, Pahiornis tarquahu. He refen them, however, to
the same genus as the former, under the name of PsiUacus vemauxi.
■The autements that have been made, awl even lepeated by
wnten of authority, as to the occurrence of " a green parrot " in
Syria (Chcsney. Exped, Sttrvey EuphraUs and Tims, fi. 443, 537)
and of a parrot in Turicestan {Jom. As. Soc. Bengal, \vL 1007)
originated with gentlemen who had no ornithological knowledge,
and are evidently erroneous.
* It is right to state, however, that the African examples of this
bird are mid to be distingirishable from the Asiatic by their somewhat
shorter win^p and weater bill, and hence they are oonsideied by
some authonties to form a distinct species or subspecies. P. doctHs;
but in chtts regarding them the difference of locality seems to have
influeneed opinion, and without that difference they would scarcely
Iiave been sepaimted, for in many other groups of birds distinctioas
CO slight are regarded as barely evidence of local races.
Strigops and Sestor; but he began by making two great divisoBi
of those that he did know, separating the parrots of the Old
World from the parrots of the New, and subdividing each of
these divisions into various sections somewhat in accordance
with the names they had received in popular language— «
practice he followed on many other occasions, for it seems to
have been with him a bdief that there is more truth in the
discrimination of the unlearned than the scientific are apt to
allow. In Z867-1868 Dr O. Finsch published at Ldden an
elaborate monograph of the parrots,^ regardmg them as a £smily,
in which he admitted s6 genera, forming 5 subfamilies: (z) that
composed of Strigops (Kakajpq), only; (2) that oontaiidng the
crested forms or cockatoos; (3) one which he named Sittacinae,
comprising all the long-tailed spedes— « somewhat heterogeneous
assemblage, made up of Macaws {q.v.) and what are commonly
known as parakeets; (4) the parrots proper with short tails;
and (s) the so-called " bruah-tongued " parrots, consisting of
the Lories (q.v.) and Nestobs (9.V.). In 1874 A. H. Ganrod
communicated to the Zoological Sodety the results of his dissec-
tion of examples of 8a qtedes of parrots, ^ch had lived in
its gardens, and these results were published in its ProceeHngs
for that year (pp. $86-598, pb. 70, 71). SummaxHy expressed,
Garrod's sdieme was to divide the parroU htto two families^
Palaeornitkidae and Psiitaddae, assigning to the former tliree
subfamilies, PalaeomUkinae, CaaUmnae and Stringapinae, and
to the latter four, Arinae, Fyrrkurinas, PUOycercimae and
CkrysoHnao. That each of these sections, except the Cacatsdmae^
is artificial any regard to osteology would show. In the Journal
fUr Omitkologie for i88z A. Rdchenow published a ConspeOms
PsiOaconm, founded, as several others * have been, on external
characters only. He makes 9 families of the group, and recog*
nizes 45 genera, and 44a spedes, besides subspedca. Hb grouping
is generally very different from (^arrod's, but displays as much
artificiality: for insunce, Nestor Is referred to the fainily idtich
is otherwise composed of the cockatoos.
The system now generally accepted Is based on a oomUnntioB
of external and anatomical characters, and b due to Count
T. Salvadori {Cat, Birds, BriL Mus. XX., 1891), and H. F.
Gadow (Bronn's TMer-RHck, Aves, 1893). About 80 genen
with more than 500 spedes are recognized, divided into the
family Psiitaddao with the subfamilies Stringopinae, Fsittaeinao
and Caeatuinae, and the family Trickogfossidoe with the sub>
families CydopsiUacinne, LorOnao and Nestorinoe,
The headquarters of parrots are in the Australian RegioB and
the Malay countries; they are abundant in South Americm; in
Africa and India the number of forms is relatively small; in Europe
and North Asia there are none now alive, in North Ameticn
only one. Parrots are gregarious and usually feed and roo«
in companies, but are at least temporarily monogamous. Most
dimb SAd walk weQ; the ffight is powerful but low and HnduUtlng
in most. The food is varied but chiefly vegetable, whilst parrxAs
are alone amongst birds in holding the food in the daws. The
usual cry is harsh and discordant, bat many softer notes are
employed. A large number of forms learA in captivity to talk
and whistle, the wdl-known red-tailed grey parrot {Psiitaens
erilMacus) of tropical Africa being pre-eminent. The cg^s are
laid usually in holes in trees, rocks, or the ground, no lining
bang formed. The larger species produce one to three, the
smaller as many as twdve, the colour being dull white. The
young when hatched are naked and helpless. (A. N.)
PARROT-FISHES, more correaly called Paikot-Wsasses,
marine fishes of the family Scaridao dosdy allied to the wnasei
or Lahridae. The family contains eight genera of which the
prindpal are Scorns, Pseudoseams, Odon and Sparisama. They
are easily recognized by thdr large scales, of which there are
from twenty-one to twenty-five in the lateral line, by having
invariably nine spines and ten rays in the dorsal fin and two
spines with right reys in the anal, and especially by thetr singnler
* Die Poffoi^ien, monograpkisck hewheiki.
* Such, for mstance. as Kuhl's treatise with the aaae ti
appeared in i8so. and Waaler's MonogMpkia FsiUitewmm,
in i83>— 4MCh good of their kind and time.
PARRY, SIR C. H; H.— parry, SIR W. E.
«65
dentitloH, of jaws as wdl as pharyiut. The teetb of the jtrv^
are soldered together, and form a sharp-edged beak similar
to that of a parrot, hot without a middle projecting point, and
the upper and lower beak are divided into two hteral halves
by a median sutiire. In a few spedes the dngfe teeth ean be
still distingmahed, but in the majority {Psemdoscarus) they are
united into a homogeneous substance with polished surface.
By this sharp and hard beak parrot-fishes are enabled to bite
or scrape off those parts of coral-stocks which contain the
polypes or to cut off branches of tough fucus, which in some
of the spedes forms the prindpal portion of their diet. The
process of triturating the food is performed by the pharyngeal
teeth, which likewise ait united, and form plates with broad
masticatory sttifiaces, not unlike thegrindingsurfaceof the molan
of the elephant Off these plates there Is one pair above, opposed
to and fitting into the ^gle one which is coalesced to the lower
pharyngeal bone The contents of the alimentary canal, which
are alwa3rs found to be finely divided and reduced to a pulp, prove
the efficiency of this triturating apparatus; in fact, ever since the
time of Aristotle it has been maintained that the Searus ruml>
nates. Neariy one hundred spedes of parrot-fishes are known
from the tropical and sub-tropical parts of the Indo-Padfic and
Atlantic Oceans; Hke other corel-feedfng fishes, they are absent
on the Padfic coasts of tropical America and on the coast of
tropical West Africa. The most celebrated is the Searus of
the Mediterranean. Beautiful colours prevail In this group of
wrasses, but are subject to great changes and variations in the
same spedes, almost all are evanescent and cannot be pre-
served after death. The majority of parrot-fishes are eatable,
some even esteemed; but they (espedally the carnivorous
kinds) not unfrequently acqxiire poisonous properties after
they have fed on corals or medusae containing an acrid poison.
Many attain to a considerable mze, upwards of 3 ft. in length.
PARRT^ SIR CHARLES HUBBRT HASTIMCHI, Bakt.,
English musical composer (1848- ), second son of Thomas
Gambler Parry, of Highnam Court, Gloucester, was bom at
Bournemouth on the 37th of February 1848. He was educated
at Malvern, Twyford, near Winchester, Eton (from 1861),
and Exeter College, Oxford. While still at Eton he wrote
music, two anthems bdng published in 1865; a service in D
was dedicated to Sir John Stainer. He took the degree of Mus.B.
at Oxford at the age of eighteen, and that of ■B.A. In 1870;
be then left Oxford for London^ where in the following year he
entered Lloyd's, abandoning business for art soon afterwards.
He studied successively with H. H. Pierson (at Stuttgart),
Stemdale Bennett and Madarren; but the most important
part of his artistic development was due to Edward Dannreuther.
Among the larger works of this early period must be mentioned
an overture, CuUlem de Cabestonh (Crystal Palace, 1879), a
pianoforte concerto in F sharp minor, played by Dannreuther
at the Crystal Palace and Richter concerts In 1880, and his
first choral work, the Scenes from Prowutheus Unbound ^ produced
at the Gloucester Festival, 1880. These, like a symphony in
G given at the Birmingham Festival of i88a, seemed strange
even to educated hearers, who were confused by the intricacy
of treatment. It was not until his setting of Sfairiey's ode,
The Ghties of our Blood <md State, was brought out at Gloucester,
t885, and Che Poftita for violin and pianoforte was published
about the same time, that Parry's importance came to be realized.
With his sublime dght-part setting of Milton's Kesi Pair of
Sirens (Bach Choir, 1887) began a fine series of compositions
to sacred or semi'^acred words. In Judith (Birmingham, 1688),
the Ode onStCec&ia's Day (Leeds, 1889), L'Attigro ed U penseroso
(Norwich, 1890), De Profundis (Hereford, 1891), The Lotus
Eaters (Cambridge, 1894), Job (Gfoucester, 1893), /Cmj Saul
(Birmingham, T894), Inpocation to Music (Leeds, 1895), Mag-
wt/Scol (Hereford, 1897), A Songof Darkness and Light {Clouccster,
1898), and Te Deum (Hereford, 1900), are revealed the highest
qualities of music. Skill in pifing up dimax after climax,
and command of every choral resource, are the technical qualities
most prominent in these works; but in his orchestral composi-
tions, such as the three later symphonies, in F, C and £ minor.
fn two suites, one for strings alone, and above all in his Symphome
Variations (1897), he shows himself a master of the orchestra,
and his experiments In modification of- the conventional classical
forms, such as appear In the work last hamed, or in the Nineteen
Variations for Pianoforte Solo, are always successful. His
music to The Birds of Aristophanes (Ounbridge, 1883) and
The Frogs (Oxford, 1891) are striking examples of humour
in music; and that to Agamemnon (Cambridge, 1900) Is among the
most Impressive compositions of the kind. His chamber music,
exquisite part-songs and solo songs maintafai the high standard
of his greater works. At the openhig of the Royal College of
Music in 1883 he was appointed professor of composition and of
musical history, and in 1894, on the retirement of Sir George
Grove, Parry succeeded him as prindpal. He was appointed
Choragus of Oxford University hi 1883, succeeding Stainer in
the professorship of the university in 1900. He received the
honorary degree of Mus.D. at Cambric^ 1883, Oxfon) 1884,
Dublin 1891; and was knighted in 1898. Outside the domain
of creative music, Parry's work for music was of the greatest
Importance: as a contributor of many of the most important
artides on museal forms, &c., in-Gitove's dictionary, his literary
work first attracted attention; in his Studies of Great Composers
musical biography was treated, almost for the first time, in a
really enlightened and enlightening way; and hia Art of Musk
is a splendid monument of musical literature, in which the
theory of evolution is applied to musical history with wonderful
skin and success.
PARRY, SIR mVLUm EDWARD (1790-1855), English
rear-admiral and Arctic explorer, was bom in Bath on the 19th
of December 1790, the son of a doctor. At the age of' thirteen
he joined the flag-ship of Admiral ComwalUs in the Channd
fleet as a first^rlass volunteer, in 1806 became a midshipman,
and fai 18 10 was promoted to the rank of lieutenant in the
" Alexander " frigate, which was employed for the next three
years in the protection of the SpiUbergen whale fishery. Ht
took advantage of this opportunity for the study and practice
of astronomical observations iu northern huitudes, and after-
wards published the results of his studies in a small volume on
Nautical Astronomy by Night (1816). From 1813-1817 he served
on the North American station. In 1818 he was given the
command of the " Alexander " brig in the Arctic expeditiofi
under Captain (afterwards SSr) John Robs. This expedition
returned to England without having made any new discoveries
but Parry, confident, as he expressed it, "that attempts at
Polar discovery had been hitherto relinquished just at a time
when there was the greatest chance of succeeding," in the
following year obtained the chief command of a new Arctic
expedition, consisting of the two ships " Griper " and " Heda."
This expedition returned to England in November 1820 after
a voyage of almost unprecedented Arctic success (see Polax
Regions), having accomplished more than half the journey
from Greenland to Bering Strait, the completion of which solved
the andent problem of a North-west Passage. A narrative
of the expedition, entitled Journal of a Voyage to diseoter
a North-west Passage, appeared in i8si. Upon his return
Lieutenant Party was promoted to the rank of commander. In
May I Sax he set sail with the " Fury " and " Heda " on a second
expedition to discover a North-west Passage, but was compelled
to return to England in October 1833 without adileving his
purpose. During his absence he had in November 1821 been
promoted to post rank, and shortly after his return he was
appointed acting hydrographer to the navy. His Jornnd of
a Second Voyage, &c., appeared In 1834. With the same ships
he undertook a third expedition on the same quest In 18*4,
but was again unsuccessful, and the " Fury " being wrecked, he
returned home In October 1835 t^th a double ship's company.
Of this voyage he published an account in 1836. In the foUowing
year he obtained the sanction of the Admiralty for an attempt
on the North Pole from the northern shores of Spitxbeigcn, and
his extreme point of 83* 45* N. lat. remained for 49 ye*» the
highest latitude attained. He published an account of this
jouracy under the Utk ol Narratite ef Ike Attempt to reaek tie
866
PARRY— PARSEES
North Pole, ftc (iSa 7). In April 1829 he was knighted. He wu
subsequently selected for the post of comptroller of the newly
created department of steam machinery of the Navy, and held
this office until his retirement from active service in 1846, when
he was appointed captain-superintendent of Haslar Hospital.
He attained the rank of rcar-admlial in 1852, and in the following
year became a governor of Greenwich Hospital, and retained
this post till his death on the 8th of July 1855. The religious
side of Sir Edward Pazry'a character was strongly marked,
and besides the journals of his different voyages he was also
the author oC a LulLwo to Seamen, and Tkougbts on the FarenUU
Character of Co<L
See Memoirs 0/ Rtar-Admirol Sir W, E, Parry, by his son. Rev.
Edward Parry (3rd ed., 1857). ^
PARRY (from Fr. parer, to ward ofl)» to turn aside a blow from
a weapon. The term is used especially of a defensive movement
of the swt)rd or foil in fencing, hence, by transference, to ward
off any attack, to turn aside an objectionable question. . (See
FENaNO, &C.}
PARSERS, or Passis, the followers in India of Zoroaster
(Zarathustra), being the descendants of the ancient Persians who
emigrated to India on the conquest of their country by the Arabs
in the 8th century. They first landed at Sanjan on the coast of
Gujarat, where the Hindu rulers received them hospiubly. To
this day their vernacular language is Gujarati, which they have
cultivated in literature and journalisni. Their settlement in
Bombay dates only from the British occupation of that isUnd.
In X901 the total number of Parsccs in all India was 94,000, of
whom all but 7000 were found in the Bombay presidency and the
adjoining state of Baroda, the rest being widely scattered as
traders in the large towns.
Among Paisees the men are well formed, active, handsome
and intelligent. They have light olive complexions, a fine
aquiline nose, bright black eyes, a well-turned chin, heavy arched
^ebrows, thick sensual lips, and usually wear a light curling
moustache. The women are delicate in frame, with small hands
and feet, fair complexions, beautiful black eyes, finely arched
eyebrows, and a profusion c^ long black hair, which they dress to
perfection, and ornament with pearls and gems. The Parsees
are much more liberal in their treatment of women than any
other Asiatic race; they allow them to appear freely in public,
and leave them the entire management of household affairs.
The characteristic costume of. the Parsees (now frequently
abandoned) is loose and fiowing, very picturesque In appearance,
and admirably adapted to the cUinate in which he lives. The
head is covered with a turban, or a cap of a fashion peculiar
to the Parsees; it is made of stiff material, something like the
European hat, without any rim, and has an angle from the
top of the forehead backwards. It would not be respectful to
uncover in presence of an equal, much less of a superior.
The colour is chocoUte or nuioon, except with the priests,
who wear a white turban.
A Parsee must be bom upon the ground floor of the house, as
the t^rbing* of their religion require life (o be commenced in
humility, and by " good thoughts, words and actions " alone can
an elevated position be attained either in this world or the next.
The mother is not seen by any member of the family for forty
days. Upon the seventh day after the birth an astrologer is
invited to cast the nativity of the child. He has first to enumer-
ate the names which the child may bear, so that the parents may
make choice of one of them. Then he draws on a wooden board
a sat of hieroglyphs in chalk, and his dexterity in counting or
recounting the stan under whose region or influence the child is
declared to be bom is marvelled at by the superstitious creatures
throngiog around him. This document, is preserved in the
family archives as a guidance and encouragement to -the child
throt^ life. At the age of seven or thereabouts, according
to the judgment of the priest, the first religious ceremony
IS pctfonned upon the young Parsee. He is first subjected
to. the process of purification, which consists of an ablution
with uframg (cow-urine). The ceremony consists in investing
him with the hmli, or girdk of his faith. This is a oord^
woven by women of the priestly class, composed of levoity-two
threads, representing the seventy-two chapters of the Yasua, a
portion of the Zend-Avestt, in the sacredncss of which the ycMi«
neophyte is figuratively bound. The priest ties the cord around
the waist as he pronounces the benediction upon the child, throw-
ing upon his head at each sentence slices of fruit, seeds, perfumes
and spices. He is thus received into the religion of Zoroaster,
and is henceforth considered morally accountable for his acts.
If a child die before the performance of this ceremony he is
considered to have gone back to Ahurt-Maadi, who gave him«
as pure as he entered into this world, having not reached the age
of accounubility.
The marriages of children engage the earliest attention of the
parents. The wedding day having been fixed by an astrologer,
who consults the stars for a happy season, a Parsee priest goes
from house to house with a hst of the guests to be invited, and
delivers the invitations with much ceremony. The father of the
bride waits upon near relatives and distinguished penonagcs,
soliciting the honour of their attendance.. A little before sunset
a procession is formed at the house of the bridegroom, and
proceeds with a band of music, amid great pomp and ceremony,
to the house of the bride's father. Here a number of relatives
and friends are collected at the door to receive the bridegroom
with due honour. Presents are sent before, according to the
time-honoured custom of the East. Upon the arrival of the pro-
cession at the house of the bride the gentlemen gallantly rema-In
outside, leaving room for the ladies to enter the house as the
escort of the bridegroom. As he passes the threshold his future
mother-in-law meets him with a tray filled with fruits and rice,
which she stiews at his feet. The fathers of iht young couple are
seated side by side, and between them stands the priest ready to
perform the ceremony. The young couple are. seated in two
chairs opposite each other, their right hands tied together by a
silken cord, which is gradually wound around thetai as the
ceremony progresses, the bride in the meantime being concealed
with a veil of silk or muslin. The priest lights a lamp of incen&e,
and repeats the nuptial benediction first in Zend and then in
Sanskrit. At the conclusion of the ceremony.they each throw
upon the other .some grains of rice, and the most expeditious in
performing this feat is considered to have got the start of the
other in the future control of the household, and receives the
applause of the male or female part of the congrqgatioo as the
case may be. The priest now throws some grains of rice upon the
heads of the married pair in token of wishing them abundance i
bouquets of flowers are handed to the assembled guests, and rose-
water is showered upon them. The bride and bridegroom now
break some sweetmeats, and, after they have served each other,
the company are invited to partake of refreshments. At the
termination of this feast the procession re-forms, and with lanterns
and music escorts the bridegroom back to his own house, where
they feast until midnight. As midnight approaches they return
to the house of the bride, and escort her, with her dowry, to the
house of the bridegroom, and, having delivered her aaf^ to her
future lord and master, disperse to their reapectivt homes
Eight days afterwards a wedding f east i^ given. by the newly-
married couple, to which only near relatives and particular
friends are invited. This feast is composed entirely of vegetables,
but at each course the wine is served, and toasts are proposed, as
" happiness to the young couple," &c.
. The funeral ceremonies of the Parsees are solemn and imposing.
When the medical attendant declares the case hopeless n priest
advances to the bed of the dying man, repeats sundry texts of the
Zend-Avesti, the substance of which tends to afford him con-.
solation, and breathes a prayer for the forgiveness of faj^ sins.
After life is extinct a funeral sermon is delivered by the priest, in
which the deceased is made the subject of an exhortation to his
relatives and friends to live pure, holy and ri^teous lives, so
that they may hope to meet again in paradise. The body is then
taken to the ground flpor where it was bom, and, after bdnc
Crashed and perfumed, is dressed in clean white clothes, and laid
upon an iron biec A dog is brought in to take a last look at his
inanimate master in order to drivife away, the evil lyuita. This
PARSIFAL BELI>INSTRUMENr
867
ceremony b eilkd t&gitd, A number off prieiu attend and
repeetpeayenfortbereposeof thesoniof thedepirtcd. All the
male friends off the deceased 90 to the door» bow down, and laise
their, two hands from the floor to their beads to Indicate their
isspeot for the departed. The body, when put vpon the bier, is
covered over from head to loot. Two attendants bring it out off
the house, holding it low in their haaads, and deliver it to four
paU-bearen, called fnsas^Ur, clad in weU-vashed, white clothes.
A procession b formed by the male friends of the deceased,
headed by a number of priesu in full dress, to follow the body to
the dakkma, or " tower of silence." In Bombay these towers ai«
erected in a beautiful garden on the highest point of Malabar Hill,
amid trees swarming with vultures; they are constructed of stone,
and rise some as ft. high, with a small door at the side for the
cntiance of the body. Upon arriving at the '' tower of sUenoe "
the bier is laid down, and prayers are said in the safri^ or hoose off
prayer, containing a fire^sanctuaiy, which is erected near the
entrance to the garden. The attendants then raise the body to
iu final restiog-plaoe, lay it upon fts stony bed, and retire. A
round pit about 6 ft. deep is surrounded by an annular stone
pavement about 7 ft. wide, on which the body is exposed to the
vultures, where it is loon denuded off flcih, and the bones fall
throu^ an iron gntlng into a pit beneath, from which they are
affterwards 'removed into a subterranean entrance prepared for
their reception. On the third day after death an assemblage
of the relatives and friends of the deceased takes place at his
late residence, and thence proceed to the Atisk-bahrdm, or " fire-
temple.'^ The priests stand before the urns in which the celestial
fire is kept burning, and recite prayers for the soul of the departed.
The son or adopted son of the deceased kneels before the high-
priest, and promises due performance of all the religious duties
and obsequies to the dead. The relatives and friends then hand
the priest a list of the contributions and charities which have been
subscribed in memory of the deceased, which concludes the cere-
mony of " rising from mourning," or " the resurrection of the
dead." On each successive anniversary of the dedth of a Parscc
funeral ceremonies are performed in his memory. An iron frame-
work is erected in the house, in which shrul» are planted and
flowers cultivated to bloom in memory of the departed. Before
the frame, on iron stands, are placed copper or silver vases, filled
with water and covered with flowers. Prayers are said before
these iron frames two or three times a day. These ceremonies
are called muklad, or " ceremonies of departed souls.'*
t The Parsecs of India are divided into two sects, the Shenshahis
and the Kadmls. They do not differ 00 any point of faith; the
dispute is confined to a quarrel as to the correct chronological
date for the computation of the era of Yasdegcrd, the last king
of the Sassanian dynasty, who was dethroned by the caliph
Omar about a.d. 640. The difference has been productive of no
other inconvenience than arises from the variation of a month in
the celebration of the festivals. ., The Parsces compute time from
the fall of Yazdcgerd. Their calendar is divided into twelve
months of thirty days each; the other five days, being added for
holy days, are not counted. Each day is named after some
particular angel of bliss, under whose special protection it a
passed. On feast days a division of five watches is made under
the protection of five different divinities. In midwinter a feast
of ill days is held in commemoration of the six periods of creation.
About the 21st of March, the vernal equinox, a festival is held in
honour of agriculture, when planting begins. In the middle of
April a feast is held to celebrate the creation of trees, shrubs and
flowers. On the fourth day of the sixth month a feast is held in
honour of SahrSvar, the deity presiding over mountains and mines.
On the sixteenth day of the seventh month a feast is held in
honour of Mithra, the deity presiding over and directing the
course of the sun, and also a festival to celebrate truth and friend-
ship. On the tenth day off the eighth month a festival is held in
honour of Farvnidin, the deity who presides over the departed
souls off men. This day is especially set opart for the perform-
ance of ceremonies for the dead. The people attend on the hills
where the '* towers of silence " are situated, and perform in the
tajCflr prayers for the departed aoula. The Panea scriptures
rnqdre the lost ten days of the yiar to be spent In doing deeds of
charity, and in prayers of thanksgiving to Ahurft-Blazdl. On
the day of Yazdegerd, or New Year's Day, the Parseea emulate
th^ western world in rejoidng and sodal intercourre. They rise
eoily, and after having performed their prayers and aUutioni
dre» themselves in a new suit of clothes, and sally forth to tho.
"fire-temples," to worship the emblem of their divinity, the
sacred fire, which Is perpetually burning on the altar. Unksa
they duly perform this ceremony they believe their souls viQ
not be aUowed to pass the bridge ** Chinvad," leading to heaven.
After they have performed their Tehgious services they visit
their relations and friends, when the ceremony of kamijmr, or
joining hands, is performed. The ceremony is a kind of greeting
by which they wish each other " a happy new year." Their
reUtives and friends are uivited to dinner, and they spend the
rest of the day in feasting and rejoicmg; afans are given to the
poor, and new suits of clothes are presented to sovonts and
dependants.
There are only two distbct dosses among the Paiseea~*the
priesu (dojttrr, or high priests; mobedt, or the middle order; and
kertads, or the lowest order) and the people {bekadin, Mrfl%
or ** followers of the best religion")* The priestly office is
hereditary, and no one can becmne a priest who was not bom
such; but the son off a priest may become a layman.
The secular aflaira off the Rirsees are managed by an elective
committee, or pandUfyat, composed of six daMrs and twdve
wtdbeds, making a council of eighteen. lu functions MMmble
the Venetian council of ten, and iu objects are to preserve unity«
peace and justice amongst the fdlowcis of Zoroaster. One law
of the panchdyal b singular in its difference from the custom of
any other native community in Asia; nobody who has a wife
living shall many another, except under peculiar circnmstanoe%
such as the barrmness of the living wife, or her immoral conduct.
Recently a sorioos difference arose among the Parsees of Bombay
on the question of proselytism. A Paitee had married a French
lady> who took the necessary steps to adopt the religion off her
husband. But it was dedded by the High Court, after protonged
argument, that, though the creed of Zoroaster theoretically
admitted proselytes, their admission Was net consbtent with the
practice of the Parsees in Indb.
Thsir religion teaches them benevolence as the first principle,'
and no peopb pmctise it with more liberality. A beggar among
the Parsees b unknown, and would be a scandal to the society.
The sagacity, activity and commercial enterprise of the Paneca
are proverbisd in the East, and their credit as merehants b almost
unlimited. In this connexion may he mentioned the well-known
names of Sir Jamsetjce Jeejceblu^ and Sir Binshaw Petit, both
baronets, and also of J. N. Tata, founder off the Institute of
Scientific Researeh at Bangatore. ^
The Parsees have shown themselves most desirous of receiving
the benefits off an English education; and their eagerness to
embrace the science and literature of the VTest has been con*
spicuous in the wide spread of female education, and in the
activity shown in studying their sacred writings in critical texts.
In recent years many have taken to the professions of bw and
medicine, and a Parsce barrister was appointed a judge of the
High Court at Bombay in 1906. • Two Parsecs have also been
the only natives of India elected to the House of Commons.
See Menant, Les Pdrsis (Pbris. 1898): Dosabfiai Framji fCaraka,
Histwy •/ the Parstei (London, 1884): Scervai and Pstel, Gujani
PcrMtsJrcm ikt Earliest Times (Bombay, 1896),
PARSIPAL BBLL-mSTRUnilT (Oer. Pcmfal KtatUf
Instrument), a stringed instrument ingeniously constructed by
Schweisgnt, of Carlsruhe, from Dr Mottl's design, as a substitute
for the church beUs in Wagner's Parsifal, Thb instrument has
been constructed somewhat on the principle of the grand piano;
the massive frame b shaped like a billiard table. There are
five notes, each with six strings, three in unison giving the
fundamental note and three an octave higher. The strings are
struck by large hammers, covered with cot ton- wool, whidtthe
performer sets in motion by a strong elastic blow from**' ■'"
The hammeit an attached to arms it in. long, scr
868
PARSIMONY, LAW QFr-.PARSONS, T.
IB bridge pbccd horixontaHy above the sliiaci
at about two-fiftbs of the kagtb fiom the front. On the poiat
of the arm is the name of the note, and behind this the felt kdge
struck by the fist. Two belly bridges and two wicst-plank
brid^m, one set for each ocUve, detcmiine tbe vibrating length
of the itringSk and the belly bridge, as in other stringed instm-
monts, is tbe mediom thnogh which tbe vibrations of the strings
arc ttwimnnimtfil to the soundboard. Tbe artangement ol
pegs and wicst-pins is much tbe same as on the piano.
The realiua demanded by modem dramatic music taxes the
resources of the orchestra CD the otmoet when the oompoaer
aims at reproducing on the stage the effect of church bdls, as,
for instance, in. the CoUem Leftttd, CaoaiUria nutieana, Pa^iacci,
Rimd and Parnjd. The most serious difficulty of all araae in
the last-mentioned drama, where the solemnity of the scene and
its deep religious significance demand a conespoading atmo-
sphere on the sUge. Real church bells for the notes Wagner has
scored in the familiar chime would overpower the orchestra.
An substitutes for hells were tried in vain; no other Instrument,
leaving aside the question of pitch, gave a tone in the least
similar to that of the belL Indcpemiently of the rich harmonics
composing the dang, the bell has two distinct simultaneous
notes, first the lap toott which gives the pitch, and the hum tone
or lower accompanying note. On the interval separating the
hum from the tap tone depend the dignity and beauty of the
beQ tone and the emotional atmosphere produced. A stringed
instrument, similar to the one here described but with four notes
only, was uiwd at Bajoenth for the fint performance of Parti/at,
and with it tam*tams or gongs, but alter many trials the
following combination was adopted as tbe best makeshift:
(i) the stringed instrument with four keys; (2) four tam-^ams or
gongs tuned to the pitch of the four notes composing the chime;
{$} a bass-tuba, which plays the notes staccato in quavers to help
make them more distinct; (4) a fifth tam-tam, on which a roll is
cacecuted with a drumsticki
The special peal of hemispherical bells oenstnicted Cor Sir A.
Sulltvia's Golden Ugnd is the only other successful substitute
known to the writer; the lowest of these belb is a minor tenth
hi|^ than the lowest note required for Patsifai, and the
aggregate weight of the four beUs Is 11 cwt. The bcUs are
struck with mallets and have both Up and bum tone. (K. S.)
PABSiaOllY, LAW OP (Lat. parsinumia, from poKtn, to
save), the name given to WiUiam of Occam's principle " Entia
non sunt multiplicanda praeter neccasitatem," i.e. that it is
scientifically unsound to set up more than one hypothesis at once
to explain a phenomenon. This principle is known as " Occam's
razor " (see Occam, Wiluam of).
PABSUT, a hardy biconal herb known botanically as
PelrosdinuM saiivum (natural order Umbclliferae), the leaves of
which are much used for garnishing and flavouring. It occurs
as a garden escape in waste places in Britain and it is doubtful
if it is known anywhere as a truly wild plant; A. de Candolle,
however iOripn 0/ Cultitated Pianls) considers it to be wild in
the Mediterranean regioa. It grows best in a partially shaded
position, in good soil of considerable depth and not loo light; a
thick dressing of manure should be given before sowing. For a
continuous supply three sowings should be made, as early in
February as the weather permits, in April or eariy in May and
in July^-the last for the winter supply in a sheltered position
with southern exposure. Sow thinly in drills from 12 to 15 in.
apart and about r In. deep; thin out to 3 in. and finally to
6 in. each. In winter the plants shoixld be protected by frames
or hand'glasses. Tbe curled and mossy-leaved varieties are
preferable. Tbe Hamburg or turnip-rooted variety is grown for
the root, which is cut up and used for flavouring.
PABSVIP, botanically known as PasUnaea sotiea (or Pruu*
ittum MfrvMNi), a member of the natural order Umbelliferae,
found wild in roadsides and waste places in England and through-
out Europe and temperate Asia, and as an introduced plant in
North America. It has been cultivated since the time of the
Romans for the sake of iu long fleshy whitish root, which has a
peculiar but agseeable flavour. It succeeds beat on a free sandy
loam, which ibouM be tmdied and ambum ia the pevTioas
autumn, the manure bring well buried. The seed shouki be
sown thinly in March, in rows 1$ to 18 in. apait, and fioally
thiimed out to 2 fu apart. The leaves will dec^y in Oaober
or November, wfaitn a poetiod of the roots may be tBkca op and
stored in dryidi saodior immediate use, the rest beiac left in the
ground, to be taken up as tequked, but the wimie shook! be
removed by February to a dry cool place, or they wfll begin u>
grow. The best socU are tbe Holbw-crowned, the Maltese and
the Student. Dusting the ground with soot when sowing the
seed and again when the leaves appear jritl kcqp the plaou free
from pests.
PABSCni, a Iwhnical term in English law for the clergyman of
the parish. It is a corruptioo of pernma, the parson being, as it
were, the pertonB ecciesiae, or representative of the Cfanrch in the
parish. Parson imparsonee (persona impersomata) is be that as
rector is in poascasbn of a church parochial, and of whom tbe
church IS full, whether it be preseoiative or impropriate (CoJie
upon Littleton, 100 &). The word parson is properly used only
of a redor. A parson must be in holy orders; henoe a lay
rector could not be called a parson. Ibere aro fou requisites
to the appointment of a paisoa, vis. holy ordcra, preseatatioii,
institution and induction. The parson is tenant for life of the
parsonage bouse, the glebe, the tithes and other dttca» so far
as they arenot appropriated.
See also Rectok; Vicak; Bbncpicb; and Ttnss.
PARSONS (or Persons), ROBERT (i 546-1610), Eogfish Jesu't
and political agiutor, son of a blacksmith, was bom at Nciher
Stowcy, Somerset, on the 24lh of June 1546. The vicar of the
parish gave him instruction and procured his entrance in 1565
as an exhibitioner to Balliol College, Oxford. He graduated
B.A. in 1568, and M.A. in 1572. He was fellow, bursar and d« ^
of his college, but in 1574 he resigned or was dismissed his fc!k-«-
ship and offices, for reasons which have been disputed, sor^e
alleging improprieties of conduct, and others suspected disIo>*ait>-.
Soon after his resignation he went to London, and thcnre la
June to Louvain, where he entered the Roman Catholic Chur^b
and spent some time in the company of Father Wniiam Gooti a
Jesuit. In July 1 S7S he entered the Jesuit Society at Rome. In
1580 he was selected, along with Edmund Campion, a fcrr-.^r
associate at Oxford, and others, to undertake a secret rcltj'*.^
and political mission to England. The two emissaries eng.i^ i
in political intrigue in England and on the Continent. In 15^1
Campion was arrested, but Parsons made his escape to Rc: ~,
whence he returned to Rome, where he continued to direct tl -
English mission. In is8S he went to Spain, where he rem.-<'r I
for nine years, founding seminaries for the training of Er.t;\.':
priests at Valladolid, Lucar, Seville, Lisbon and St Oht
On the death of Cardinal Allen in x 594 he made strenuous efl r s
to be appointed his successor. He failed in this, but was rr . e
rector of the English college at Rome in 1597, and died there ^c
the z8th of April x6io
Parsons was the author of over y> polemical writings, mo^*' ^
tracts. Among ihc more important arc Ccriayne Rfasoni v
CatMiques rtfuse to goe to Church (Douat. 1580). A Christian Di-t"
lorie iuiding Men to their Saluatian (London. 1 583-1 99*. 2 parts 1. A
Comferenee obeml the Neat Suecession to the Crmume «/ Jmn^m^
(1594). Ttratise of the Three ConversioHS of Engiamd (1603-1(^4.
3 parts), an answer to Foxc'« Acts and Monuments. For portr^.u
see Gentleman's Magazine, kiv.
PARSONS, THBOPHILUS (1750-1813), American jurist. w.ss
bom in Byficld, Massachusetts, on the a4th of February 17.0.
tbe son of a deigyman. He graduated from Harvard Collc^ ^
1769, was a schoolmaster at Fahnouth (now PortUad), Maine.
in X77^t773i Studied hiw, and was admitted to tbe bar ia a 7; »
In 1800 he removed to Boston. He was chief justice of ue
supreme court of Massachusetts from 1806 until his death .a
Boston on the 30th of October 1S13. In politics be took as
active part as one of the Federalist leaders In the state He «;i>
a member of the Esiex County convention of 1778. called \.»
protest against the prOpoeed state constitutioo* and a& a mcmtvv
of the " Eases Jimfce " was probably the author of Th€ £iMx
PARSONS— PARTHENON
869
JUnUi, wblch helped to secure the rc{eet!on of the constHutUm at
the polls. He was a member of the state oonstitutional conven«
tion of 1779-1780, and one of the committee of twenty-six which
drafted the constitution; he was also a delegate to the state
convention of 1788 which ratified the Federal Constitution; and
according to tradition was the author of the famous " Condliatory
Resolutions," or proposed amendments to the constitution,
which did much to win over Samuel Adams and John Hancock
to the side of ratification. His CommetUaries on the Laws of tht
United States (1836) contains some of his more important legal
opinions.
His son THEOPmitre Passons (1797-1882), who was Dane
professor of law at Harvard from X848 to 1870, is remcm|>ered
chiefly as the author of a series of useful legal treatises, and some
books in support of Swedenborgian doctrines; he wrote a life of
his father (Boston, 1859).
PARSONS, a dty of Labette county, in south-eastern Kansas,
U.S.A., situated at the junction of the Big bnd Little Labette
creeks, about 138 m. S. by W. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890),
6736; (1900), 7683, of whom 807 were negroes; (1905), 11,720;
(1910), 13463. It is served by the Kansas City, Fort Scott &
Memphis (St Louis & San Francisco system) and the Missouri
Kansas & Texas railways. The city 'has large machine shops of
the Missouri Kansas & Texas railway and various manufactures.
Natural gas is utilized for light and heat. The first settlement
on the site of the city was made in 1869 and was called Mendota
(** place of meelmg " — ix. of the creeks). In 187 1 the dty was
chartered, and in 19 10 government by commission went into
effect. It was named in honour of Levi Parsons (1822-1887),
the first president of the Missouri Kansas and Texas railway.
PARTABOARH» or Pestabcarh, a native state of India, in
the Rajputana agency. Area, 886 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 52,025,
showinjg a dcaease of 40% in the decade, owing to the effects of
famine. The inhabitants arc mostly BhUs and other aboriginal
tribes. Estimated revenue, £12,000. The town of Partabgarh
(pop., 9819) is connected by a metalled road (20 m.) with the
station of Mimdasor on the Rajputana railway. It has a
reputation for a special kind of enamelled jewelry.
PARTABGARH, Pertabca&h, or Pratapcarh, a district of
British India in the Fyzabad division of the United Provinces.
The administrative headquarters are at Bela. Area, 1442 sq. m.;
pop. (1901), 913,848. The Ganges forms the soulh-westem
boundary line, while the Gumti marks the eastern boundary for a
few miles. The only mineral products are salt, saltpetre and
kankar or nodular limestone. The prindpal crops are rice,
barley, pulse, millets, sugar<ane and poppy. The district is
traversed by the branch' of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway
from Rae Boreilly to Benares, opened in 1898. There are
manufactures of sugar and a little silk; and graia, opium, oil«
seeds, hemp and hides are exported.
See Partabgarh District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1904).
PARTERRE, a term, taken from the French phrase par tem^
%.e. on the surface of the ground, and used of an aixangemeat in
a garden of beds of flowers with gravel or other paths and plots
of grass; also of that part of the auditorium of a theatre which
is occupied by the orchestra stalls.
PARTHENAY, a town of western France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Deux-^vres, 17 m. N.N.E. of
Niort, on the railway between that town and Saumur. Pop^
(1906), 561 5. The town reuins considerable portions of its fine
13th-century ramparts, induding the Porte St Jacques, a fortified
gateway guarding an old bridge over theThoocL Amoogst
ancient buildings of interest are the church of Ste Croix, of the 1 2th
century, restored in 1885, with a X5th-€etttury belfry; the church
of St Laurent, also restored ia modem times, portions of whose
walls date from the nth century; the ruined Romanesque portal
of Notre-Dame de la Couldre; and i m. south-west of the town
the andent church (12th century) of Partbenay-le'Vieux. The
manufacture of woollen goods and wool-spinning are the prindpal
local industries.
PARTHENIUS, of Nicaea in Bithynia, Greek grammarian
and poet. He was taken prisoner in the Mithradatic War attd
canied to Rome (72 b.cl); sobsequenlly he visited Neapolis,
where he taught Virgil Greek. Partbenius was a writer of elegies,
eapedafly dirges, and of short epic poems. The pseudo- Virgilian
Moretum and Oris were finitated from his Mtrmarit and
Mcrtt^iop^&aeit. His 'Epuruci vdHiteara is stiH extant, containing
a coDectioii of 36 h>ve-stories which ended unhappily, taken from
different historians and poets. As Parthenius generally quotes
his authorities, these stories are valuable as affording information
on the Alexandrian poets and grammarians.
See E. Martini in Mylhoffaphi graeci, vol. iL (1902, in Teubner
Series); poetical fragments in A. Mdneke. Analecta atexandrina
(1853).
PARTHENON ([lapBtp^), the name generally given, since the
4th century B.C., to the chief temple of Athena on the Acropolis
at Athens {e.g. Demosthenes, e, Androt. 13, 76). The name is
applied in the offidal inventories of the 5th and early 4th
centuries to one compartment of the temple, and this was
probably its original meaning. It is certainly to be associated
with the cult of Athena Parthcnos, " the Virgin," though it is
not dear why the name was given to this particular chamber.
The most convenient position for a temple upon the natural
rock-platform Of the Acropolis was occupied by the early temple
of Athena. When It was decided to supersede this. by a larger
and more magnificent temple, it was necessary to provide a site
for this new temple by means of a great substructure, which is
on its south side about 40 ft. high. This substructure was not
built for the present temple, but for an earlier one, which wa^
longer and narrower in shape; there has been much discussion
as to the date of this earlier temple; F. C« Penrose maintained
that it was the work of Pdsistratus. Some have thought that
it dated from the time immediately after the Persian wars; but
the fact that portions of its columns and entablature, damaged by
fire, were built Into the north wall of the Acropolis by Theml«
stodes seems to prove that it dates from the 6th century, whether
it be the work of the tyrants or of the renewed democracy under
Cleisthenes.
The extant temple was the chief among the buildings with
which Perides adorned the Acropolis. The supervision of the
whole work was in the hands of Pheidias, and the architects of the
temple were Ictinus and Callicrates. The actual building was
not Ixqgun until 447 B.C., though the decision to build was made
ten years earlier (Keil, Anonyuus argentorensis). The temple
must have been structurally complete by the year 438 B.C., in
which the gold and ivory statue of Athena Parthcnos was dedi-
cated; but the work of decoration and finish wasatill going on in
433 B.C The temple as designed by Ictinus was about 15 ft.
shorter and about 6 ft wider than the building for which the
foundations were intended; it thus obtained a proportk>n of
length to breadth of exactly 9:4. It is the most perfect example
of the Doric order (see AacHrrKcruus: Greek). The plan of the
temple was peculiar. The cdla, which was exactly 100 ft. kng,
kept the name and tradiUonal measurement of the old Hecatom-
pcdon. It was surrounded on three sides by a Doric colonnade,
and in the middle ol it was the great basis on which the sUtue
was erected. This ceUa was probably lighted only by the great
doorway and by the light that filtered through the marble tiles.
The common notk>n that there was a hypaethral opening is
870
PARTHIA
At the iMck of the oella was a aquaie chamber, not
oommunkating with it, but entered Irom the west end of the
temple; this was the Parthenon in the narrower aense. U accas
to have been used only as a ifcore-houie, though it may have been
ocjginaUy intended for a more important purpose. The Piodo-
mus and the Opisthodomus were enclosed by bronae gratiogs
fixed between the columns^ and were thus adapted to contain
valuable offerings and other treasures. We have inventories on
marble of the contents of these four compartments of the temple^
The opisthodomus, in particular, probably Krved as a treasury
for sacred and other money, though it has been disputed whether
the opisthodomus mentioned in the inscriptions is part of the
Parthenon or another building.
For the sculptures decorating the Parthenon and the statue
by Pbeidias in the pells, see article Greek Ast. The metopes
over the outer colonnade were all sculptured, and represented on
the east the battle of gods and giants, on the west, probably, the
battle of Greeks and Amazons, on the south Creeks and Centaurs;
those on the north are almost lost. The east pediment repre-
sented the birth of Athena,, the west pcdimenl her contest vnih
Poseidon for the land of Attica. The frieze, which was placed
above the cella wall at the sides, represented the Panathenaic
procession, approaching on three sides the group of gods seated in
the middle of the east side. These sculptures are all of them
admirably adapted to their position on the building, and are, in
themselves, the most perfect works that sculpture has ever
produced.
The Parthenon probably remained intact until the 5th centiiry
of our era, when the colossal statue was removed, and the temple
is said to have been transformed into a church dedicated to St
Sophia. In the 6th century it was dedicated to the Virgin
Mother of God (BtorbKot). The adaptation of the byilding as a
church involved ,the removal of the inner columns and roof, the
construction of an apse at the east end, and the opening of a door
between the cella and the chamber behind it. These alterations
involved some damage to the sculptures. In 1456 Athens was
captured by the Turks, and the Parthenon was consequently
changed into a mosque, apparently without any serious strtictural
alterations except the addition of a minaret. In this sute it was
described by Spon and Wheler in 1676 and the sculpture was
drawn by the French artist Carrey in 1674. In 1687 the Turks
used the building as a powder magazine during the bombard-
ment of the Acropolis by a Venetian army under Morosini, and
a shell caused the explosion which blew out the middle of the
temple and threw down the columns at the sides. Still further
damage to the sculptures was done by Morosini's unsuccessful
attempt to lower from thtf west pediment the chariot of Athena.
Later a small mosque was constracted in the midst of the ruins;
but nothing except gradual damage js to be recorded during the
succeeding century except the visits of various travellers, notably
of James Stuart (17x3-1788) and Nicholas Revett (1720-1804),
whose splendid drawings are the best record of thtf sculpture as it
existed in Athens. In x8ox Lord Elgin obtained a finnan
authorizing him to make casts and drawings, and to pull down
extant buildings where necessary, and to remove sculpture from,
ihem. He caused all the remains of the sculpture to be found on
the ground or iA Turkish houses, and a certain amount— notably
the metopes— that was stiU on the temple, to be transported to
England. Some fault has been found with his methods or those
of his workmen; but there is no doubt that the result was the
preservation of*much that would otherwise have been lost. The
Elgin marbles were bought by the British government in 181 6,
and arc now in the British Museum. Certain other sculptures
from the Parthenon art in the Louvre, Copenhagen or elsewhere,
and much is still ih Athens, either still on the temple or in the
Acropolis museum.
The most accurate measurements of the temple, showing the
exactness of iu construction and the subtlety of the curvature
of all iu Unes, was made by F. C. Penrose.
AvTBORiTlES.— A. Mtchaelis, der Perthnum (Leipzig. 1671): L
Stuart and N. Revett. Antumities of Athens (London. 1762-1815);
F. C. PenroBc, PrincipUs oj Athenian ArchUeciwe (ix>adon, 1851 and
1S88): A..S.^Miin«yi rW Scuiptmm^fk PtfOmm, (Lamiem.
1903): Bntiah Museum. Catakigue of Sculpture, voL 1. Sec aiao
Greek Aar. (E. Ca.)
' PABTHIA, the mountainous country S.E. of the f"««pi«»» Sea,
which extends from the Elburz chain eastwards towazds Herat,
and is bouiKled on the N. by the fertile pl^ of Hyrcanta
(about Astrabad) at the foot of the mountains in the comer of
the Caspian and by the Turanian desert; on the S. by the grut
salt desert of central Iran. It corresponds to the modem
Khorasan. It was inhabited by an Iranian tribe, the Partkatc of
the inscriptions of Darius; the correct Greek form is Ila^^valot.
Parthia became a province of the Achaemaiian and then of
thV: Macedonian Empire. Seleucus I. and Antiochus I. founded
Creek towns: Soteira, Charis, Achaea, Calliope (Appian. Syr.
57; Plin. vi 15; cf. Strabo xi. 5x6); the capital of Parthia is
knoWh only by iU Greek name Hecatompylos (" The Hundrc^l-
gated ") from the many roads which met there (Polyb. x. j.^.,
and was, according to Appian, founded by Seleucus I. (cf. Curtius
vii. 2). In 3o8 many Greek inhabitants are found in tlie towns uf
Parthia and Hyrcania (Polyb. x. 3 r, ix).
When about 255 B.C. Diodotus had made himself king cf
Bactria {q.v.) and tried to .expand his dominions, the chief tain
of a tribe of Iranian nomads (Oahan Scyths) east of the Caspian,
the Pami or Apami, who bore the Persian name Arsacrs. fed
before him into Parthia.* Hex«'the satrap Andragoras apfjcjrs
to have shaken off the Selcucid supremacy, as he struck gold and
silver coins in his own name, on which he wears the diadem,
although not the royal title (Gardner, Numism. Chronide, 187 ,r-
x88i). In Justin xit 4, 12, Andragoras is wrongly made satrap
of Alexander, of Persian ori^, and ancestor of Arsaces. He v ^u
slain by Atsaces (Justin xli. 4). who occupied f^uthia and became
the founder of the Parthian kingdom. The date 348 b.c. gtvt^n
by the list of thfe Olympionicac in Euseb. Chron. i. 907, and ta
his Canon, fi. xjo (cf. Appian, Syr. 65; Justin, xli. 4, gi\cs
wrongly 356 B.C.), is confirmed by numerous Babylonian Ublcs
dated simultaneously from the Seleudd and Arsacid eras fif.
Mahler, in Wiener ZciUckriJt JUr die Kunde des Morgenlcr.Js,
X901, XV. 57 sqq.; Lehmann Haupt in Beitr&$e satr cl.\»
.GescJtickte, X905, v. xaS sqq.). The origin and early histor>- ^ f
the Parthian kingdom, of which we possess only very scan 1%
information, is surrounded by fabulous legends, narrated Ly
Arrian in his Parthica (preserved in Photius, cod. 58, and S\ n-
crfJ«». p. 539 scq)- Here Arsaccs and his brother Tlrida'.cs
are derived from the royal house of the Achaemenids, p.io-
bably from Artaxerxes II.; the young Tiridates is insult^d
by the prefect Agathodes or Pherecles; in revenge the brothers
with five companions (corresponding to the seven Pcrs... a
of Darius) slay him, and Arsaces becomes king. He is kilki
after two years and succeeded by his brother Tiridoic*,
who reigns 37 ytu%. There is scarcely anything historix.aJ
in this account, perhaps not even the name Tiridates. for.
according to the older tradition, Arsaces himself ruled fcr
many years. The troubles of the Sdcucid empire, and the war
of Seleucus II. against Ptolemy III. and his own brother Az;t:o
chus Hierax, enabled him not only to maintain himself in Part b>z.
but also to conquer Hyrcania; but he was constantly thrtatert J
by Diodotus of Bactria Qustin xli. 4). When, about 338 b c.
Sdeucus II. was able to march into the east, Arsaces fled to tbc
nomadic tribe of the Aspasiacae (Strabo xi. 513; cf. Polyb. x
48). But Seleucus was soon recalled by a rebellion in Syria, ar. i
Arsaces returned, victorious to Parthia; " the day of this victor>
is celebrated by the Parthians as the b^sinnbg of their iad^
pendence " (Justin xh*. 4). Arsaces was proclaimed king .rt
Asaak in the district of Astauene, now Ruchan b the upper Atr«a
(Attnick) valley (Isidor. Charac), and built his residence Dare c r
a rock m a fertile valley in Apavarktikene (Justin xK. 5; Pllr
vi.-46), now Kelat still farther eastward; the centre of hts po^rr
evidently lay on the borders of eastern Khorasan and the Turan-
ian desert. The principal institutions of the Parthiaii kiof^d. -n
* Strabo xl. 915: cf. Justin xli. 4: the Parat are saki hy Str .^o
(ibid.) to haw immigrated from southern Russia, a tiadiciaawT^Hi;: •
transferred to the Parthians themaelvca by Juaiia xdi. l» ««S Arvi»s
ap. Phot. cod. 58.
PARTICK—PARTITION
S7]
wot creaud by lutn (ef. Jittttn sS. t). The SeytUftn noAads
becaxoc the ruling race; they were invested with large landed
property, and formed the couAcil of the king, who appointed the
snccessor. They were archers fighting on horseback, and in their
cavalry consisted the strength of the Parthian army; (he infantry
were mostly slaves, bought and trained for miliuiy service, like
the janissaries and mamelukes. But these Scythians booh
amalganuited with the Parthian peasants. They adopted the
Iranian religion of Zoroaster (in the royal town Asaak an eternal
fire was maintained), and ''their language was a mixture of
Scythian and Median " (/.«., Iranian). Therefore their language
and writing are called by the later Persians " Pehlevi," Le.
Parthian (Pehlevi la the modem form of Partkana) and the
magnates themselves Pehlevans, f.e. "Parthians," a term
transferred by Firdousi to the heroes of the old Iranian legend.
But the Arsacid kingdom never was a truly national state; with
the Scythian and Parthian elements were united some elements
of Greek civilization. The successors of Arsaces I. even founded
some Greek towns, and when they had conquered Babylonia
and Mesopotamia they all adopted the epithet " Philhellen."
To Anaces I. probably belong the earliest Parthian coins; the
oldest simply bear the name Arsaces; 6thera, evidently struck
after the tx>ronation in Asaak, have the royal title (fiafftKkus
'A/Nf&icotf). The reverse shows the seated archer, or occasionally
an elephant; the head of the king is beardless and wears a helmet
and a diadem; only from the third or fourth king they begin to
wear a beard after the Iranian fashion. In honour of the founder
of the dynasty all his successors, when they came to the throne,
adopted his name and officially {e.g. on the coins) are almost
always called Arsaces, whereas the historians generally use their
individual names.
Of the- successors of Arsaces I. we know very Uttle. His son,
Arsaces II., was atUckedby Antiochus III., the Great, in S09,
who conquered the Parthian and Hyrcanian towns but at last
granted a peace. The next king, whom Justin calls Priapatius,
rule^ rs years (about 190-175); his successor, Phraates I.,
subjected the mountainous tribe of the Mardi (in the Elburz).
He died earty, and was succeeded not by one of his sons but
by his brother, Mithradatea I., who became the founder of the
Parthian empire. Mithradates I. {e. i70-r38) had to fight hard
with the Grteks of Bactria, especially with Eudatides (9.v.);at
last he was able to conquer a great part of eastern Iran. Soon
after the death of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (163) he conquered
Media, where he refounded the town of Rhagae (Rai near Teherin)
under the name of Arsada; and about 141 he invaded Babylonia.
He and his son Phraates II. defeated the attempts of Demetrius
H. (139) and Antiochus VII. (129) to regain the eastern provinces,
and extended the Arsacid dominion to the Euphrates.
For the later history of the Parthian empire reference should
be made to Persia: Ancient Huiory, and biographical articles on
the kings. The following is a list of the kings, as far as it is
possible to establish their succession.
The names of pretenders not generally acknowledged are put
in brackets.
Arsaces I. . . . a4&-€. 3ii Vonones I ft^ti
(perhaps Tiridates I.) Arubanus 11. . . £.10*40
Arucesil. . . .c. 311-190 (Tiridatcs HI 36)
Priapatiu* . . . .c. 190-175 (Cinnamus 38)
Phraates I. . .c. 175-170 (Vardanes 1 40-45)
Mithradatn I. . .(. 170-138 Gotanes . > . . . 40-51
Phraates II. . . .€. 138-137 Vonones II sr
Artabanus I. . . .t, 137-134 Vologaesea I. . . . 51-77
Mithradates II. the (Vardancs II 55)
Great . . . .r. 134-88 « Vologai^es II. 77-79; 111-147
Sanatruces 1 76-70 Paconis . . f8-e. 105
Phraates HI 70-57 (Artabanus III. . . 80^1)
OrodesI 57-37 Osroe* . . . 106-139
(^lithradateslll. . . .57-54) (Mithradates IV. and hb son
Phraates IV 37-3 Sanatruces 11., 115: Partha-
airidates II. . 33-31 and 36) maspates. 116-1:7; and other
raates V. (Phima- pretenders.)
Uces) . . .3 B.C.-A.D. 5 Mithradates V. . . c.129-147
Orodcs II A.D. 5-7 Vologacscs III. . . 147-191
* The names of the foTtowlne kin|fs arr nM known ; that one of
them was called Anabaaus U. is qutt^ conjectural.
Volo^cscsIV.
(Vokigaeses V.
AUTHORITIBS.-
191^900
309-«. 323)
ArtafanrasIV.
Persian tradition knows very Uttle about the
Arsacids. who by it are called Ashkanians (from Ashak. the modern
form of Arsaces.) Of modem works on the history of the Parthians
(besides the oumismatk: literature) the most important are: G.
RawUnson. The Sixth Oritmiid Monanhy (1873), and A. von
Gutschmid, CesckUhU Iran* und seine Nackbttrtdnder von Alexander
d. Gr. bisMttm Untertang der Arsaciden (1888).
The principal works on the Araacld coinage are (after the earlier
publicationa of Longp^r, Prokesch-Qstan, 9tc.): Perey Gardner,
Tie Parthian Ceinaae (Loadon. 1877), and espedally W. Wroth, Cata-
lotueffftke Coins ef Parlhia in the British Museum (Lwidon. 1903).
who carefully reyiaed the statements of his predecessors. Cf. abo
Pctrowicz. AractdenmUnaen (Vienna, 1901). and AUotte de la Fuye,
** Classement des monnaies arsacides,'^ m Reene numismaHouet 4
sine, vol. viii., 1904. (£d. M.)
PARTItK (formerly Perdyc or Perthich\ a municipal and police
burgh of the parish of Govan, Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop.
(1891)1 36,53s; (190X), 54,398. It lies on the north bank of the
Clyde, And is continuous with Glasgow, from which it is separated
by the Kelvin, and of which it is a laige and wealthy residential
suburb. Shipbuilding yards are situated in the burgh, which
has also industries of paper-staining, fiour-toiiUing, hydraulic-
machine making, weighing-machine making, brass-founding and
galvanising. The tradition is that the fiour-miUs and granaries
— ihe Bunhouse Mills— as they are called locally, were given by
the Regent Moray to the bakers of Glasgow for their public
spirit in supplying his amy with bread at the battle of Langside
in 1568. Victoria Park contains a grove of fossil trees which
were discovered in a quarry. The town forms the greater part
of the Partick division of Lanarkshire, which returns one member
to Parliament. Though it remained a village till the middle of
the 19th century, it ia an ancient place. Morken, the Pictisb
king who persecuted St Kentigem, is believed to have dwelt here
and, in 1136, David I. gave the lands of Partick to the see of
Glasgow. The bishop's palace stood by the side of the Kelvin^
and was occupied— or a mansion erected for him on its site— by
George Hutcheson (x58(^i659), founder of the Hutchesoa
Hospital in the dty.
PARTISAK, or PaxtI£AN. (1) A thoroughgoing ** party '* man
or adherent, usually in a depreciatory sense of one who puts his
party before principles; (3) an irregular combaUnt or guerrilla
soldier; (3) a weapon with a k>ng shaft and a broad bUded head,
of a type intermediate between the spear and the halberd (f .v.).
In senses (i) and (s) the word is derived through the Fr. from
Ital. pwtigisno, from parteggiartt to share, take part in, Lat.
parSf part. The name for the weapon has also been attributed to
the same origin, as being that used by " partisans," but there is
no historical evidence for this. The form which the word now
takes in French, pertuisant^ has ghrcn rise to a conneaion with
pertuis, hole; Lat. pertusuSt pertundere, to strike tlirough. But
the most probable derivation is from the Teutonic pariCf harla,
axe, which forms tbe Ust part of " halberd."
PARTinONt in law, the 4livisk>n between several persons of
land or goods belonging to them as co-pioprietort. It was a
maxim of Roma^i law, foUowod in modem aiystems, that im
cpmmuniwe nl soeietiiU ffern^ potest imilms detimri, I^ftition
was either voluntary or was obtained by the actio tommum
dindind0. In English law the term partition applies only to the
division of lands, tenemeou and hereditaments, or. of chattels
real between coparceners, Joint tenanta or tenants in common.
It is to be noticed that not all heteditanknu are capable of
partition. There can be no partition of homage, folty, or
comoBOn of turbary, or of an inheritance of dignity, such as a
peerage. Partition is either voluntary or compubocy. Volun>
tary partition is effected by mutual conveyances, and can only
be made where all parties are eui juris. Since the Real Property
Act X845, § 3, it must be made by deed, except in the case of
copyholds. Compulsory partitk>n is effected by private act of
parliament, by judicial process, or through the indosure com*
missioners. At common law none but coparceners were entitled
to partition against the will of the rest of the proprielors, but
the Acts of 31 Henry VIII. c. x and 33 Henry VIII. c. 3aj|0«m
compulsory process to joint tenants and tenants in ^' ^
872
PARTNERSHIP
fceeholds, whether in potoeasion or in reversion, by means ol the
writ of partition. In the reign of Elizabeth the court of chancery
began to assume jurisdiction in partition, and the writ of partition,
after gradually becoming obsolete, was finally abolished by the
Real Property LimiUtion Aa 1833. The court of chancery
could not decree partition of copyholds until the passing of the
Copyholds Act 1841. This act was repealed by the Copyholds Act
1 804, which empowers the alienation of ancient tenements with
the licence of the lord. By the Judicature Aa 1873, § 34,
partition is one of the matters specially assigned to the chancery
division. An order for partition is a matter of right, subject to
the discretion vested in the court by the Partition Aa 1868
(amended by the Partition Aa 1876). By $ 3 of the act of 1868
the court may, on the request of a party interested, direa a sale
instead of a partition, if a sale would be more beneficial than a
partition. By $ la a county court has jurisdiction in partition
where the property does not exceed £500 in value. Under the
powers of the Indosure Aa x845t and the acts amending it, the
inclosure commissioners have power of enforcing compulsory
partition among tne joint owners of any inclosed lands. An
order of the inclosure commissioners or a private act vests the
legal estate, as did also the old writ of partition. But an order of
the chancery division only declares the rigbu, and requires to be
perfected by mutual conveyances so as to pass the legal estate.
Where, however, all the parties are not suijt$ris, the court may
make a vestixu; order under the powers of the Trustee Aa 1850,
530.
Partition is not a technical term of Sc<>t!i liur« In Scoltand
divi«ion of common property is effected eitKir cxtra-judicutl/H^ or
by action of declarator and division or dUi^ion ^tid &h in the
court of aesnon, or (to a limited extent) in tbe i.htrit\ a^urt^. 1^ i^hts
of common are not divisible in English law va^viui .k . la-
ment or a decree of the inclosure commissi' '11^r>. ! nd
the act of 169s, c. 38, made all commontics, ^^ < i <i ng
to the king or royal burghs, divisible, on ny
having interest, by action in the court of *l-_jju. L'} ih, :^ ._rilif
Courts (Scotland) Act 1877, f 8, the action for division of common
property or commonty is competent in the sheriff court, when the
subject m dispute does not exceed in value j^ by tlie year, or £1000
value. Runng lands, except when belongmg to corporations^ were
made divbible by the act of 1695, c. 23. A decree of division of
commonty. common property, or ninrig lands has the effect of a
conveyance by the joint proprietors to the several participants
(Conveyancing [Scotland] Act 1874, f 35).
In the United States, " it is presumed," says Chancellor Kent*
U Comm., lect. Ixiv.), " that the English statutes of 31 & 3> Henry
VI If. have been generally re<nacted and adopted, and probably
with increased faalities for partttton." In a large majority of the
states, partitbn may be nude bv a summary method of petition to
the courts of common law. In tne other states the courts of equity
have exclusive jurisdiction. As between heirs and devisees the pro-
bate courts may in some states award partition. The various state
bws with regard to partition will be found in Washburn, Real
Property, bk. 1. ch. ziiL, f 7.
PARTNBRSHIP (earlier forms, fwlener, parcener, from Late
Lat. parlionarius for parlUionariuSt from partilh, sharing,
para, part), in general, the voluntary association of two or
more persons for the purpose of gain, or sharing in the work
and profits of any enterprise. This general definition, however,
requires to be further restricted, in law» according to the
account given below.
The partnership of modern legal systems is baaed upon the
socielas of Roman law. Societas was either unherioruM b^norum,
a complete communion of property; nefotialumit alicujus,
for the purpose of • single transaction; 9ectigaiis, for the
collection of taxes; or ret unius, joint ownership of a particular
thing. The prevailing form was socieUu uniwerscrum guae ex
ipnustu vemuni^ or trade partnetship, from which all that did
not come under the head of trade profit iquaestiu) was excluded.
This kind ol sodeUu was presumed to be conteroplsted in the
absence of proof that any other kind was intended. Socielas
was a consens\ial contract, and rested nominally on the consent
of the parties— really, no doubt (though this was not in terms
acknowledged by the Roman jurists), on the faa of valuable
consideration moving from edch partner. No formalities
were necessary for the constitution of a societas. Either
property or labour must be contributed by the sociusi if one
party contributed neither pioperty nor Jabour, «r if om
partner was to share in the Ion but not in the profit (Jemiim
societas), there was no true sodeias, Sodeias waa dissolved
on grounds substantially the same as those oC English law
(see below). The only ground peculiar to Roman law was
change of status {capitis deminutio). Most of the Roman law
on the subjea of socielas is contained in Dig. zvii. tit. 2, Fro
socio.
Though the English law of partnership ia based upon Roman
law, there are several matters in which the two systems differ,
(t) There was no limit to the number of partners in Roman law.
(2) In socielas one partner could generally bind another only
by express mamdalum; one partner was not regarded as the
implied agent of the others. (3) The debts of a socielas were
apparently joint, and not joint and several. (4) The keret
of a deceased partner could not succeed to the rights of the
deceased, even by express stipulation. There is no such dis-
ability in England, (s) In actions between partners in Roman
law, the beneficium ampcknliae applied — that is, the privilege
of being condemned only in such an ambunt as the partner
could pay without being reduced to dcstitutx>n. (6) The
Roman partner was ih some respects more strictly bound
by his fiduciary position than is the English partner. For
instance, a Roman partner could not retire in order to enjoy
alone a gain which he knew was awaiting him. (7) There uaa
no special tribunal to which matters arising out of sccirtAs
were referred.
Previous to the Partnership Act 1890 the English law of
partnership was to be found only in legal decisions and ia
textbooks. It was mostly the result of judge-made law, and
as distinguished from the law of joint stock companies was
affected by comparatively few acts of parliamenL
In 1890 the Partnership Aa of that year was passed to declare
and amecd the law of partnership; the act came into operation
on the ist of January 1891. With one important excepii<^n
(fi 23), it applies to the whole United Kingdom. It is not a
complete code of partnership law; it contains no- provisions
regulating the administration of partnership assets in the event
of death or bankruptcy, and is silent on the subject of goodw SI
The existing rules of equity and common law continue in force,
except so far as they are inconsistent wit|i the express provisions
of the act. Indeed, the act of 1890 has to be read in the
light of the decisions which have built up these rult-s.
On all points specifically dealt with by the aa it is now \be
one binding authority. The aa has made no important changes
in the law, except in respect of the mode of making a
partner's share of the partnership assets available for pay-
ment of his separate debts. This diange docs not atTect
Scotland. The act ia divided into the four main diviMons
mentioned below.
I. Nature of Partnership. — Partnership is defined to be the
" relation which subsists between persons carrying on a businos
in common with a view of profit." From this dtfiiutioa
corporations and companies, such as joint-stock companies
and cost-book mining, companies, which differ from ordinary
partnerships in many important respeas, are expressly exdudetl.
The act also contains several subsidiary rules for determiaing
the existence of a partnership. These rules are of a fragmentary
nature, and for the most part are expressed in a negative form;
they have tu>t introduced any change in the law. Co-ownciship
of property does not of itself create a partnership, nor does
the sharing of gross returns. The sharing of profiu, though
not of itself sufficient to create a partnership, is prima Ixtje
evidence of one. This means that if all that is known is thai
two persons are sharing profits, the inference is that such persons
are partners; but if the participation in profits is only one
amongst other circumstances, all the drcumstancea must tc
considered, and the participation in profits must not be treated
as raising a presumption of partnership, which has to be rebatted
To illustrate the rule that persons may share profits witboot
being partners, the act gives statutory expression to the dccisi'v*
in Cox V. Uickman (1S60, 8 U.L.C., 26S}, via. that the rccc.^
PARTNERSHIP
873
by a penon of a debt or other fixed wm by inttiloient*, or
otbcrwiie, out of the accruing profiu of a buMOMS does not of
iUell make him a partner; and it le-enacu -with tome slight
modificfttion the repealed prpvisioDs of BoviU's Act (aS & 99
Vict. c. 86), which was passed to remove certain dil&oulties
arising irom the decision in C09 v. Hickman* Whenever the
question of partnership or no partnership ariaeSr it must not
be forgotten (though this is not stated in the act) that partner*
ship is a relation arising out of a contract; regard most be paid
to the true contract and intention of the parties as appearing
Irom the whole facts of the case. If a partnership be the
legal consequence of the true agicement, the parties thereto
will be partners, though they may have intended to avoid
this ooosequence {Adam v. Ntwbiggingt 188S, L*R. 13 App.
Cas. 315)- Partners are caUed collectively a "firm";, the
name under which they carry on business is cidled th^ firm
name. Under English law the firm is not a corporation, nor
is it recognised as distinct from the members composing it;
any change amongst them destwys the identity of the firm.
In Scotland a firm is a lef al penon distinct from its members,
but each partner can be compelled to pay its debts.
At coaunon law there is no limit to the number of partners,
but by the Companies Act iS6s (25 & 26 Vict, c 891, S 4)4 not
more than. ten persons can carry on the business of bankeis^
and not mora than twenty any other business, unless (with
so(ne exceptions) they conform, to the pnovisioiis of the act.
(See CowPANy, and also Limited Fttrtntnkips below.)
II. lUiaiions of FariMrs to Ptrsons dealiHg with Uum,-^
Every partner is an agent oi the firm and of his co<partners
for the purpose of the partnership business; if a partner does
$n act for cariying on the partnership business in the usual
way in which businesses of a like kind are carried on-^ other
words, if he acU within his apparent authoritjp— he thereby
prima fade binds his firm. The partners nMy by agreement
between thcmielvea restrict the power of any of their number
to bind the. firm. If there be. such an agreement, no act done
in cotttraventioa of it is binding on the firm with respept to
perscAs who have notice of the agreement. Such an agreement
does not affect persons who have no notice of it, unless indeed
they do not know or believe the person with whom they are
(ksJing to be a partner; in that case he has neither real, nor,
so far as they are concerned, apparent authority to bind his
firm, and his firm will not be bound. If a partner does an
act, 0^. pledges the credit of the firm, for a purpose apparently
not connected with the firm'a ordinary course of business, be
is not acting in pursuance of his apparent authority, and what*
ever liability he may personally incur, bis partners will not be
bound unless he had in fact authority from thorn.
Apart from any general rule of law relating to the execution
•f deeds or negotiable instrument, a firm and all the partners
will be bound by any act relating to the business of the firm, and
done in the firm name, or in any other manner ahowing an
intention to bind the firm, by any person thereto authoiixed.
An admission or representation by a partner, acting within
his apparent authority, is evidence against his firm. Notice
to an acting partner ol any matter relating to the partnenhip
affairs is, apairt from fraud, notice to his firm.
A firm is liable for loss or injury caused to any person not a
partner, or for any penalty Incurred by any wrongful act or
omission of a partner acting in theordinary course of the partner-
ship business, or with the authority of his oo-partners; the
extent of the firm's Habtlity is the aamcas that of the individual
partner. The firm is also liable to make good the loss (0) where
one partner, acting within his apparent authority* reodves
moi»ey or property of a third person and misapplies it; and
(b) where a firm in the course of iu businens receives money
or property of a third person, and such money or
property while in the custody of tls firm ia misapplied by a
partner. It is riot suificicnt, in order to fix innocent partners
with liability for the misapplication of money belonging to a
third party, merely to show that such money was employed
in the business of the partaeiship« otherwise all the members
of a firm would in all ciaea be CaUe to those beneficially interested
therein for trust money improperly employed in this manner by
one partner. This is not the case# To fix the other partncis
with liability, notice of the breach of trust must be bnogbt
home to them individually.
The liability of partners for the debla and obligations of their
firm arising n amiractu, Is joint, and in Scotland several also;
the estate of a deceased partnec is ako severally liable in a due
course of adrainistxation, bni inbjca, la En^ahd or Ireland,
to the prior payment of his separate debt. Tbe liability of
partners for the obligationa of their fiim arising ex ddicto. Is
joint and several.
The authority of a partner to btnd his co-partnen commences
with the paxtneohip. A person therefore who enters into a
partnership does not thereby become liable to the creditors of
his partners for anything done before he beeame a partner.
But a partner Who reftios from a firm does not thereby cease to
be liaUe for debts or obligations incurred before bis retirement.
He may be discharged from existing liabilities by an agreement
to that effect between himseli and the members of the firm as
nowly constituted and the crediton. This agr eement may be
either, expresa or in/crmd as a fact irom the course of dealing
between the creditors and the new firm. The other ways te
which aparUer may befroedfrom partnership liabilities incurred
before his retirement are not peculiar to partnership babijitlei,
andarenot thereforedealt withby the Partnership Act.
A continuing guaranty given to a firm, or in respect of the
traaaactiona of a firm, is, in the absence of agreement to the
contrary, revoked as to the future by a change ia the firm.
The reason is that such a change destroys iU identity.
Any peiaon> not a partner in the firm, who represents himself
(or, as the phrase is, " holds himself oot ")» or knowi^ly
suffers himself to be represented, as a partner. Is liable as a
partner to any person who has given credit to the firm, on
tihe faith of thn cepresentatleo. The repreaenUtion may be
by words spoken or written, or by conduct. The liability wil
attach, although the person wbo makes the representation does
not know thU the penon who has acted on it knew of iL
The continued use of a deceased partner's name does not impoa^
liability on his estate.
III. Relations of Partners to one a/MrfAcr.— The. mutual rights
and duties of partners depend upon the agreement between
them, Many of these rights and duties are stated in the Part>
nership Act; but, whether stated in the act or ascertained
by agreement, they may be varied by the consent of all the
partners; such consent may be express or inferred from conduce
Subject to any ngreement, partners shore equally ha the capital
and profits of their business, and must contxibute equally to
losses, whether of capital or otherwise; they are entitled to
be indemnified by their firm against liabilities hicurred in the
proper and ordinary conduct of the partnership busuwss, and
for arching necessarily done lor iU preservation; they are
entitled to intereat at 5% on thdr advances to the firm, but not
OB their capitaL Every partner may take part In the manage-
ment of the partnership busfnesa, but no partner is entitled to
remuneration for so doing. The majority can bind the minority
in ordinary matters connected with the partnership busiaeai,
but cannot diange its nature nor expel a partner, unless expremly
authorised so to do. No partner may be introduced into the
firm without the consent of all the paxtneia. The partnerahip
books must be kept at the princ^al place of business* and every
partner may inspect and copy them. Partncn nnist render
to each other true accounts and fuU infiomatiOn of all things
affecting the partnership^ A partner may not make use of
anything belonging to hfa firm for his private purposes, not may
he compete with it in biiainesa. U he does ao he most
account to his firm for any profit he may makew
Partners may agree what ahall and what sh^Il not he part-
nership property, and can by agreement convert partnosUp
property into the separate property of the individnal partneift,
and vice versa. Subject to any such agreement, all property
originally brought into the partnership stock, or acquired f
874
PARTNERSHIP
account of the firm or for the puipoAes and in the ooune of its
business, is declared by the act to be partnership property.
Property bought with money of the firm is prima faae bought
on account of the firm. Partneiahip propeity must be appfied
exclusively for partnership purposes and in acoordapce with
the partnetship agreement. Co-owners of land may be partners
in the profits of the land without the land being partnership
property; if such co-ownexa purchase other lands out of the
profits, these hinds wiH also befeng to them (in the absence of
any agreement to the contrary) as co^wners and not as partners.
The legal estate in partnetship land devolves according to the
general laW, but in trust for the persons beneficially interested
therein. As between partners, and as between the hdn of a
deceased partner and his executors or administrators, such
hnd is treated as personal or movable estate, unless a contrary
intention appears.
When no fixed term has been agreed upon for the duration
of the partnership, it is at will, and may he determined by
notice at any time by any partner. If a partnership for a fixed
term is continued after the term has expired without any
express new agreement, the rights and duties of the partners
renuin as before, so far as they are consistent with a paitoership
atwilL
A partner may assign his share in the partnership either abao-.
lulely or by way of mortgage. The assignee does not become
a partner; during the continuance of the partnership he has
the light to receive the share of profits to which his assignor
would have been entitled, but he has no right to interfere in
the partnership business, or to require any accounts of the
partnership transactions, or tb inspect the partnership books.
On a dissolution he is entitled to receive the share of the part-
nership assets to which his assignor is entitled as between
himself and his partners, and for this purpose to an account
as from the date of dissolution.
Since the act came into operation iu» writ of execution may
issue in England or Ireland agslnst any partnership property,
except on a Judgment against the firm. If in either of these
countries a judgment creditor of a partner wishes to enforce
his judgment against that partner's share in the partnership,
he must obtain an order of court charging such share with
payment ot his debt and hiterest. The court may appoint a
receiver of the partner's share, and may order a sale of such share.
If a sale be ordered the other partners may buy the share; they
may also at any time redeem the charge. The mode of making
a partner's share liable for bis separate debts in Scotland has
not been altered by the act.
IV. DissahiHcn of Partnership.'— K partnership tcft a fixed
term, or for a single adventure, is dissolved by the expiration
of the term or the termirution of the adventure. A partnership
for an undefined time is dissolved by notice of dissolution,
which may be given at any time by any partner. The death or
bankruptcy of any partner dissolves the partnership ss between
all its meraben. If a partner suffers his share in the partner*
ship to be charged under the act for his separate debts, his
psrtners may dissolve the partnership. The forcing rales are
subject to any agreement there may be between the partners.
A partnership is in every case dissolved by any event which
niakes the partnership or its business unkwful. The court
may order a dissolution in any of the following cases, via.:
When a partner is found lunatic or is of permanently unsound
mind, or otherwise permanently incapable of performing his
duties ss a partner; when a partner has been guilty of conduct
calculated to injure the partnership business, or wilfully or.
penbtently breaks the partneeship agreement, or so ooodacts
himself in partnership matters that it is not reasonably practi-
cable for hb paitnett to carry on business with him; when the
partnership can oafy be carried on at a loss; and Ustly, whcsMrer
a dissolution appears to the court to be just and equitable.
The act ii tiloit as to the effect of the assignment by a partner
of Ms share in the partnership as a cause of dissolution; probably
it is now no more than a circumstance enabling the court, if it
thinks fitt to r ' ^' * 'ioo on the ground that it is jnt
and equiuble to do so. A dissolutita usually k not complete
ss against persons who are not partners, until notice of it hss
been given; until then such persons may treat all apparent
partners as still members of the firm. Consequently, if notice
u not given when it is necessary, a partner may be made
Uable for partnership debts contracted after he ceased to be
a partner. Notice is not necessary to protect the csute of a
dead or bankrupt partner from partnetship debu oontrscted
after his death or bankruptcy: nor is notice necessary when a
person not known to be a partner leaves a finn. If a person
not generally known to be a partner is |uiown to be so to cer-
tarn bidividusls, notice must be given to theoL Notice in the
GaulU b suffitient as regards all persons who were not previously
customers of the firm; notice in fart must be given to old
customeilL On a dissolution, or the retirement of a partner,
any partner may notify the fact and require his co-partners to
concur in doing so.
After a dissolution, the authority of eac^ partner (unless
he be a bankrupt) to bind the firm, and the other rights and
obligations of the partners, continue so far as may be necessary
to wind up the partnership affairs and to complete trnfituahed
transactions. The partners are entitled to have the partnership
property applied in payment of the debts of the firm, and to
have any surplus divided between them. Before a partner can
receive any part of the surplus, he must make good whatever
may be due from him as a psirtner to the firm. To enforce
these rights, any partner or his reptesenutives may apply to
the court to wind up the partnership business. It was wdl
established before the act, and is still law, that in the absence
of spedal agreement the right of each partner is to have the
partnership property-^induding the goodwill of its business, if
it be sdeable— realized by a sale. The value of the eoodwiO
depends largely on the right of the seller to compete with the
purchaser after the sale. The act makes no mention of foodwiH,
but the rights of a seller in this respect were tuDy discussed in
the House of Lords hi Tnfo v. Hunt (L.R. 1896, App. Cas. 7).
In the absence of spedJ agreement, the setter nay set up
business in competition with, and in the immecfiate neigh-
bourhood of, the purchaser, and advertise his business and
deal with his former customers, but may not represent himself
as carrying on his former business, tx»- canvasa his fonacr
customers. The purchaser may advertise himself as carryir^
on the former business, canvsss its customers, and trade under
the old name, unless that name is or contains the name of the
vendor, and the purchaser by tising it without quaKficatkm
would expose the vendor to the liability of being sued as a
partner in the business. If, on a dissolution or change in the
constitution of a firm, the goodwill belongs under the partner-
ship agreement exclusively to one or more of the partners, the
partner who is entitled to the goodwill has the rights of a
seller, and those to whom the goodwill does not bdong have
the lighu of a purchaser.
When a partner has paid' a premlmn on enteiLiff into a
partnership for a fixed term, and the paitnersh^ Is determined
before the expiration of the term, the court may, cxoefit in
certain cases, order a return of the premium or of some part
of it. In the absence of fraad or misrepresentation, the court
cannot make such an order when the partnership was at will,
or, being for a fixed term, has been terminated by death or
by reason of the misconduct of the partner who paid the
premium; nor can it do so if terms of dissohition have been
agreed upon, and the agreement mAkes no proviskm for the
return of premiunk
When a person is hiduced by (he fraud or sdntpccsentntion
of others to become a partner with them, the oont wU nenciod
tfa^ contract at his instance {Adam v. Ntmbiajkig, 18SS. R.
IS App. Cas. 308). Inasmuch as such a person is under the
same liability to third parties for liabilities of the firm fnosrred
before rescission as he would have been under had the cotttract
been vslid, he is entitled on the rescission to be indentnlfird
by the person guilty of the fraud or making the Kpreseniatkm
against these liabOitieK. He Is alto entitled, withont pic|«dicc
PARTNERSHIP
87s
to txtf ocher rigkts, to Rodve out of the fundus aoets of
the partaenhip, after Mtiafying the pennenhip UebUitJet,
any roooey be may have paid as a preauum or contributed as
capital, end to stand in the place of the ciediton el the firm
for any payments made by him in respect of the partnership
liabilities.
If a partner cesses to be a member of a firm; and his former
partneis continue to cany on business with the partnership
assets without any final settlement of accounts, he, or, if he
be dead, his estate, is, in the absence ol agreement, entitled to
such pert of the subsequent profits as can be attributed to
the use of his share of the partnership assets, or, if be or his
representatives prefer it, to interest at 5% on the amount of
his share. If his former partners have by agreement an option
to purchase his share, and eierdse the option and comply with
its terms, he is not entitled to any further or other share in
profits than that given him by the agreement. If, however,
his former partneis, assuming to cxerdK such ai\ option, do not
comply with its terras, they are liable to account for subsequent
profits or interest to the extent mentioned above. Subject to
any s g ree m ent between the partners, the amount due from the
surviving or continuing partners to an outgoing partner, or the
represcnutives of a deceased partner, in respect of his share in
the partnership, is a debt accruing at the date of the dissolution
or death.
In the absence of any special sgreement on a final settlement
of accounts between partners, losses (including losses of capital)
are paid first out of profits, next out of capital, and lastly by
the partners in the proportions in which they shore profitSi
The assets of the firm, including all sums contributed to make
up losses of capita], ace applied in paying the debts and liabilities
of the firm to persons who are' not partners; then in paying to
each partner rateaUy what is due from the firm to him, first
lor advances and next in respect of oofital; and the ultimate
residue (if any) is divisible among the partners in the proportion
In which profits are divisible.
Limited ParHurskips.—la the law of partnership as set out
above, the Limited Partnership Act 1907 introduced a con*
siderable innovation. By that act power was given to form
limited partnerships, like the French sociiU en cammandiU^
that is, a partnership consisting not only of general partners,
but of others whose liability is limited to the amount contributed
to the concern. Such a Ihnited partnership must not consist,
in the case of a portnefship carrying on the business of banking,
of more than ten persons, and in the cose of any other partner-
ship of more than twenty persons. There must be one or more
persons called general partners who are liable for all the
debts and obligations of the finn, and limited partners, who on
entering into partnership contribute a certain sum or property
valued at a stated amount, beyond which they are not liable.
Limited partners cannot withdraw or receive back any of their
oonlributions; any withdrawal brings liability for the debts
and obligations of the firm up to the amount withdrawn. A
body corporate may be a limited partner. No limited partner
can take part in the management of a partncahip business;
if he does so he becomes liable in the same way as a general
partner, but he can at all times inspect the books of the firm
and examine into the state and pcospects of the businesai
Every limited partnership must be registered with the registrar
of joint stock companies, and the foUowing particulars must
be given: if) the firm name; (jt) the genersl nature of the
business; (t) the principal place of business; (il) the full name
of each of the partners; (f) the term, if any, for which the part-
nership is entered into and the date of its commencement;
(/) a statement that the partnership is limited, and the descrip-
tion of every limited pottner as such; (g) the sum oootributed
1^ each limited partner, and whether paid in cssh or how
otherwise. If any change occur* in these parUculan, a statement
signed by the firm and specifying the nature of the change,
asust be sent wHhin seven days to the registrar. An advertise-
ment most also be inserted in the gasette of any arrangement
by which a general partner becomes a limited partner or under
which the share of a limited partner is assigned, nny person
making a false return for the purpose of registration commits
a misdemeanour and is liable to imprisonment with hard labour
for a term not exceeding two years. The law of private part-
nership applies to limited partners except where it is inconsistent
with tlie express provisions of the Limited Partnership Act.
See Sir Nathaniel jLoid] Lindfey, A TreaHse m tke lam ef Pathier^
ship (7th ed., London. 190s); ^ Frederick Pollock, A Dig^ «/
tke Law of Parbiership, incorponUiuE tke PertnerMp Aa 2S00 (8tn
ed.. London, 1905); also article on " Partnecship" in the EHcych-
paedia of tke Laws of BMtiand.
Scots law, — The law of Scotland as to partnership agrees in
the main with the law of England. The principal difference
is that Scots law recognizes the firm as an entity distinct
from the individuals composing it. The firm of the company
is either proper or descriptive. A proper or personal firm is a
firm designated by the name of one or more of the partners.'
A descriptive firm does not introduce the name of any of the
partners. The former may sue and be sued under the company
name; the latter only with the addition of the names of three
at least (if there are so many) of the partners. A consequence
ol this view ol the company as a separate person is that an action
cannot be mamtained against a partner personally without
application to the company in the first instance, the individual
partners being in the position of cautioners for the company
rather than of principal debtors. The provisions ol the Mercantile
Law Amendment Act 1856 (19 & 20 Vict. c. 60, { 8), do not
affea the case of partners. But, though the company must
first be discussed, diligence must necessarily be directed sgaiost
the individual partners. Heritable property cannot be held in
the name of a firm; it can only stand in the name of individual
partners. Notice of the retirement of even a dormant partner
is necessary. The law of Scotland draws a distinction between
joint adventure and partnership. Joint adventure or joint
trode is a partnership confined to a particular adventure or
speculation, in which the partners, whether latent or unknown,
use no firm or social name, and incur no responsibility beyond
the limits of the adventure. In the rules applicable to cases
of insolvency and bankruptcy of a company and partners,
Scots law differs in several respects from English. Thus a
company can be made bankrupt without the partners being
madie so as individuals. And, when both company and partners
are bankrupt, the company creditors are entitled to rank on
the separate estates of the partners for the balance of their
debts equally with the separate creditors. But in sequestration,
by the Bankruptcy Scotland Act 2856, f 66, the creditor of a
company, in claiming upon the sequestrated estate of a partner,
must deduct from the amount of bis claim the value of his
right to draw payment from the company's funds, and he is
ranked as creditor only for the balance. (See £rskine*s Insl.
bk. iu. tit. liL; Bell's Cctim, iL $00-562; Bell's Prindpltt,
if ZSP-AOi.)
United States.'-In the United States the English common law
is the basis of the law. Most states have, however, their own
special legislation on the subject. The law in the United States
permits the existence of limited partnerships, corresponding
to the tociitis en coihmandite established in France by the
ordinance of 1673, and those l^alised in England under the
aa of X907 (see above). The Suu ol New York was the first
to introduce this kind of partnership by legislative enactmoit.
The provisions of the New York Act have been followed by
most of the other sUtcs. In many states there can be no limited
partnerships in banking and insurance. In this form of part-
nership one or more persons responsible in solido are associated
with one or more dormant partneis liable only to the extent
of the funds supplied by them. In Louisiana such partnerships
ore called partnerships in cemmendam (Civil Code, art. 2810).
* In Frsaoe. it is to be noted, the style of a firm mnst eootain 00
names other than thoae of actual partoera. ^ In Gcnnrny it most,
upon the first constitution of the firm, contain the name of *t Wui
one actual partner, and must not contain the name of any '
not a partner: when once cMablishcd the style of the r
continued notwithstanding chaagei*
876
PARTON— PARTRIDGE
In New York the responsible p&rtners are called generai paitne»,
the others special partners. Such partnerships must^ by the
law of most states, be registered. In Louisiana universai
partnershipa (the societaUs universorum b&nmmm of Roman law)
must be created in writing and registered (Civil Code, art. s8oo).
In some stales the English law as it stood before Cox y. Hickman
is followed, and partidpaliod in profits is still regarded as the
test of partnership, e.g. Leggeit v. Hyde (58 New York Rep. 27a).
In some states nominal partners are not allowed. Thus in New
York, where the words " and Company " or " and Co." are used,
they must represent an actual partner or partners. A breach of
this rule subjects offenders to penalties. In most states claims
against the firm after the death of a partner must, in the first
instance, be made to the survivors. The creditors cannot, as in
England, proceed directly against the representatives of the
deceased. An ordinary partnership between miners for working
a mine is not dissolved by the death of one of the partners,
nor by the transfer by one of his interest in the concern. Contract
is not deemed the basis of the relation between the partners,
but rather a common property and cooperation in its exploita-
tion (Parsons, Principies of Partnerskip, § 15). A corporation
cannot become a partner in any mercantOe adventure, unless
specially authorized by charter or general statute. If it could,
the management of its affairs would no longer be exclusively
in the hands of its directors, to whom the law has entrusted it.
Hence, corporations cannot associate for the formation of a
" trust " to be managed by the associated partners.
Sec 3 Kent's Comm., lect. xlli!.: Story, On PartnenMp; Bates,
Law tfParttunhip (1888); Burdick, Law ofPartmrskip (1899)-
PARTON, JAMES (1822-1891), American biographer, was
bom in Canterbury, England, on the 9th of February 182*.
He was taken to the United States when he was five years old,
studied in New York City and White Plains, New York, and
was a schoolmaster in Phihidelphla and then in New York.
He removed (1875) to Ncwburyport, Massachusetts, where he
died on the 17th of October 1891. Parton was the most popular
biographer of his day in America. His most important books
are Life of Horace Grtdey (1855), Life and Times of Aaron Bwr
(1857), Life of Andrew Jackson (1859-1860), Life and Times of
Benjamin Franklin (1864), Life of Thomas Jeferson (1874),
and Life of Voltaire (1881). Among his other publications
are General BnHer in New OrUans (1863), Famous Americans
of Recent Times (1867). The People*s Book of Biography (1868);
Noted Women of Europe and America (1883), and Captdins of
Industry (two series, 1884 and 1891), for young people. His
first wife, Sara (r8r 1-1878), sister of N. P. Willis, and widow of
Cbaries H. Eldredge (d. 1846), attained considerable popularity
as a writer under the pen-name " Fanny Fern." (See James
Parton's Fanny Fern : a Memorial Volume, 1873). They
were married in 1856. Her works include the novels, Ruth
Hall (1854), reminiscent of her own life, and Rose Qark (1857);
and several volumes of sketches and stories. In 1876 Parton
married Ethel Eldredge, his first wife^s daughter by her first
husband^
PARTOKOPEdS DB BLOtS, hero of romance. The French
romance of Partonopeus de Blois dales from the i3lh century,
and has been assigned, on the strength of an ambiguous passage
in the prologue to his Vie seinl Edmund le rei to Dcm's Piramus.
The tale is, in its essence a variation of the legend of Cupid
and Psyche. Partonopeus is represented as having lived in
the days of Clovis, lung of France. He was seized while hunting
In the Ardennes, and carried off to a mysterious castle, the
inhabitants of which were invisible. Melior, empress of Con-
stantinople, came to him at night, stipulating that he must
not*attempt to see her for two years and a half. After successful
fighting against the "Saracens," led by Somegur, king of
Denmark, he returned to the castle, armed with an enchanted
bntem which broke the spell. The consequent misfortunes
have a happy termination. The tale had a continuation giving
the advcnlurcs of Fursin or Ansclet, the nephew of Somegur.
The name of Partonopeus or Partonopez is generally assumed
to be a corruption of PartheaopaeuSk one of the seven againal
Thebct. It fata been suggested that the woid might be derived
from Partenay, a nipposition ookmred by the points of similarity
between this story and the legend of Mflusilie (aee Jban o'Abias)
attached to the house of Lusignan, as the lorda of tlwae two
placet were c o n nected.
BiBUOCKAPHY.— The French romance was edited by G. A. Cnpe-
let, with an introduction by A. C. M. Robert, as Pattodape ut <k
BkMs (a vols.. 1834): an English Parlomofe of Blois, by W. E. Bwkky
for the Roxburghe Club (London, 186a), and another fcagnicat
for the same learned society in 1873; the German Partouopier und
Mdior of Konrad von Wilrxburg ty K. Bartacfa (Vienna, 1871):
the Icelandic ParlalApa sum by O. KlockhoflT hi Upiala UmmtrsiMs
Arsskrifi for 18B7. See also H. L. Ward, Calalome of Rtmmca,
(i. 680, &c) : £. Kfilbing. Die verschiedenen Gestaltuu^der Partom^.
peus-Sagie, in German, ^tud. (vol. ii., Vienna, 1875), in whkh the
Icelandic version is compared with the Danish poem Ptnencber and
the Spanish proae Hittoria del eonde PartimoUos; E. Pfeiffer, ** Obcr
die H^ dcs Part, de Bloia*' in Sce^el'a Ausg, in Akk. worn pkiL
(No. 35, Marbutg, 1885).
PARTRIOOB, JOHV BBBHARD (i86i* ), Britirii artist,
was bom in London, son of Piofestof Rkhtrd Piartridie, F.R.S.,
president of the Royal College of Surgeons, tnd nephew of Joha
Partridge (i79o«i87>), portrait-painter CKtraordintiy to Queen
Victoria. He was educated at Stonyhtntt College, tad after
matriculating at London University entered the oflioe of Dona
& Hansom, architects. He then jofaied for a couple of yean
a firm of stained-glass designen (Laven, Barraud & Wcstlake).
learning drapery and ornament; and then ttudkd and executed
church ornament under Philip WettfaUce, 1880-1884. He
began illustration for the preat and pttctlted «rtter<olonr
painting, but his diief mocest wat derived from book flluttfaiioo.
In 1892 he joined the tttif of PiMK*. He wat elected a member
of the Royal Institute of Palnten in Water-ODlons and of
the Pastel Society. For tone years he wtt well known as aa
actor under the name of " Bernard Gould."
PABTRIOOB. WILUAH OBOVAT (t86t- ), Amcncaa
sculptor, wat bora at Parit, P^rance, on the nth of April s86x.
He received his training as a sculptor In Flortnce (under Galli),
in Rome (under Welonski), and in Puis. He becanae a lecturer
and writer, chiefiy on art subjects, and from 1894 to 1897
wat professor of fine artt in Colombian Univenity (now the
Geoige Washington Unhrenity), WatUngton, D.C Amo^
his publications are: Art for America (1894), Tkt Samg Life tf
a Sculptor (t894), The Teckntque ofSadptme (1895), The Autd
of Clay (1900), a novel, and Natham Hide, Ike Ideal Painai (1902)
His sculptural works conaut largely of portraiture.
PARTRIOOB (Da. Patrys, Fr. ptjdrim, from Let. pewdix,
apparently onomatopoeic from the call of the bird), a game^rd.
whose English name property deootea the only ^MCtet IndigeBoas
to B Aain, often nowadays called the grey parUidfe, tbe Perda
einerea of omithologistt. Tbe ezcellenoe of itt fitth at tabk
has been esteemed from the time of Martiai. For the sfMsn
of partridge-shooting see Siioonifo.
The grey partridge has doobtlett largely increased in Bumben
in Great Britain since the beginning of tbe 19th oeatnry, whea
so much down, heath, and moorhmd was first bronght under
the plough, for its ptniality to an arable country la very evidetf.
It has been observed that the birds which live on gnaa lai«^
or heather only aro apt to be smaller and darker in ooioar than
the average; but in truth the species when adult is siib|ect ld
a much greater variation in plnmage than isrommoalyaupposed
and the well-known chestnut hoiae-thoe mark, gcawrafiy roa-
tidercd distinctive of the cock, it very ofoen abs^t. la Asa
the grey partridge aeen» to be unkneiwn, but in the tc mp c ia n
parts of Eastern Siberia itt place is taken by a vary acvtr
allied form, P. barkata, and hi Tibet there it a bird, P. Jbrffg r aiwa;
which can hardly with juttioe be gencdcally aeparatcd (man it
The common red-legged partridge of Europe, generally cafi.-d
the French partridge, CaccaHs rufa, teemt to be justttaHjr
considered the type of a separate group. This bird was intr^.-
duced into England In the last quarter of the xSth eentury. uri
has established itself in various pans of the cornitiy, notw. v
standing a widely^spread, and in some rmpectt otireasooat -.
prejudice agamtt it. It hat certainly the habll of trusR^
PARTY. WALI^PASADBNA
877
lictfly «s mucfa to iu kflB •• to its ivibB^ and thus momed the
obloquy of old-fuhioiHid cporUmen, whece 4ogs it veutioialy
kept at a nmniog point; but, .when it was also accused oi
(farivii^ away the grey pavtndge, the charge only showed the
ignorance of those who brought it, for as a natter of fact the
French partridge rather prdem ground which the eonunon
species avoids-^uch as the lieaviest clay-soib or the most
infertile heaths. The French partridge has several congeners,
all with Ted legs and pkimage of simiksr diacacter. In Afdca
north of the Atlas there is the Barbary partridget C. p€lraia; ia
southern Europe another, C. siu$aiUis, which extends eastward
till it is replaced by C, chukar, which reaches Jndfat where it
is a wcU-known bird. Two' very interesting desert-fomM,
supposed to be allied to Cauabis, are the Ammoperdix heyi ol
North Africa and Fakstiae and the X. bonUmi of Persia; but
the absence of the metatarsal iuiob, or incipient spur, suggests
(in our ignorance of their other osteoloi^cal diaractexs) an
alliance rather to the genus Ptrdite, On the other hand tho
groups of birds known as Frano(^ins and Snow-Partridges are
generally furnished with strong hut blunt spurs, and therefore
probably belong to the Caccabine group. Of the fonner,
containing many species, there is only, room here to mentiOB
the francoUn, whidi used to be found in many parts of the
south of Europe, FroHCoUntts vulgaris, which also extends to
India, where it is known as the black partridge. This seems
to have been the Aitagos or Attagm of classical authors,* a bird
so celebrated for its exquisite flavour, the strange disappearance
of which from all or nearly all its European haunts still remains
inexplicable. It is possible that this bird has been gradually
vanishing for several centuries, and if so to this cause may
be attributed the great unceruinty attending the determination
of the AUagen — it being a common practice among men in all
countries to apply the name of a species that }s growing rare
to seme other that is still abundant. Of the snow-partridges,
TetraogaUus, it is only to be said here that they are tbc giants
of their kin, and that nearly eVei;^ considerable range of
mountains in Asia seems to possess lis Spe<:ific form.
By English colonists the name Partridge has been very loosely
apphed, and especially so In North America. Where a qualifying
word is prefixed no confusioii is caused, but without it there
is sometimes a difficulty at first to know whether the Ruffed
Grouse {Bonasa umbetlus) or the Virginia Quail {Ortyx virgini'
^nus) is bten4cd. In South America the name is given to
various Tlnamous (q-v). . (A. N.)
PARTT WALL, a building term which, in England, apart
from special statutory definitions, may be used In four different
kgal senses {Watson v. Cray, xSSo, 14 Ch. D. 192). It may
mean (t) a wall of which the adjoining owners are tenants In
common; (2) a wall divided longitudinally into two strips, one
belonging to each of the neighbouring owners; (3) a wall which
belongs entirely to one of the adjoining owners, but is subject
to an easement or right in the other to have it maintained as
a dividing wall between, the two tenements; (4) a wall divided
bngitudinally bto two moieties, each moiety being subject to
a cross easement, in favour of the owner of the other moiety.
Outside London the rights and liabilities of adjoining owners
of party walk are subject to the rules of common law. In
London they are governed by the London Building Act 1894.
A tenant in common of a party wall is entitled to have a partition
vertically and longitudinally, so as to hold separately {May/air
Property Co. v. Johnston, 1894, r Ch. 50S); each owner can
then use only his own part of the wall. By the London Building
Act 1894, % 5 (16) the expression " party wall " means— (0) a
waO forming part of a building and. used or constructed to be
used for separation of adjoining buildings belonging to different
owners, or occupied or constructed or adapted to be occupied
by different penons; or {b) a wall forming part of a building,
and standing to a greater extent than the projection of the foot-
ings OB laodi of different owners. Section 87 regulates the righu
' * Many naturalbti have held a different opinion, some making
ft a woodcock, s Bodwft, or even the' hazel-hen or grouse; see the
diacussion by Lofd UUord in Ibis (1863), pp. ys^isi^
of owncfs of adjoming lands to erect party wails en the line dT
junction. Sections 88-^ determine the ri^ts of building owners
to deal srith party walls by undeffMnning, repairing or rebuilding.
The acf also contains provisions for settling disputes (}f gr-pi),
and for bearing and recovering expenses (§9 95-^03). Part VI.
of the act regnlatcs the struaure and thickness, height, ftc.,
of party walls.
See A. R. Rudall, Party ITaZb, (1907).
PARUTA, PAOLO (1540-1598), Venetian historian. ~ After
studying at Padua he served the Venetian republic in various
political capacities, including that of secretary to one of the
Venetian delegates at the Council of Trent. In 15719 he published
a work entitled Delia Perjezione delU vila politico, and the
same year he was appointed official historian to the republici
in succession to Luigi Contarini. He took up the narrative
from where Cardinal Bembo had left it, in 15x3, and brought
it down to 1551. He was made promeditore to the Chamber
of Loans in 1580, savio del gran consiglio in 1590, and governor
of Brescia in the following year. In 2596 he was appointed
profwedilore of St Mark, and in 1597 superintendent oi f<^ifi-
cations. He died a year later. Ills history, which was at
first written in Latin and subsequently in Italian, was not
published until after his death — in 1599. Among his other works
may be mentioned a history of the War of Cyprus (tsyer?^)*
and a number of political orations.
See ApoBtolo Zeno's edition of Paruta's history (ia the serio
Degli Islorici delle cose venetiane, Venice, lyift), and C« Monaoi't
edition of Paruta's political works (Floreoce, 1852).
PARVIS, Pabvis£, or PanvYSBy an open tpAce furrounded
by an cnoebte or stone parapet in front of buildings, partlcuhirly
cathedrals >or large churches; probably first used to keep the
people from pressing on and confusing the marshalling of
poooessibns. The word '* partis " ia Fsench and is a oemiptknk
of Lat. paradisus, an endo^ garden or paradise (f .^<)y which
is aonetimea also used: instead of "■ parvis." The Lat. paradituk
is de&bed by Du Caage {Clossarhm, i.v.) as atnum p*rtieibtf$
ctrcasHdakm amU mdes saens* At St Paul's In London the
'* parvis " was a pUci where lawyws net for ooatultation. •>
PARYIArnS, daai^htcr of Artaxeracs I., married to her
brother Ochua (Ctesks, /'«rx. 44), who hi 494 v.c. became kin^
Of Persia vqderithe name of Darius U. (f.ri). She had great
influence, over facrfausbandt whom she helped by perfidy in the
supprcssfon of his brotfaeia Seoydknns, who leas klag hefeve him»
and.Axaites, who rebelled against hhn'(CteB. Pers. 48<*$t). Her
favourite son was Cyrtis the Younger, whom she assisted aa
far a» poss^de m his attempt to gsla the'thronc' But when
he wast slain at Cuaaxa (401) she nevertheless gained abaolote
dominioa over the victorious Artaxeraes II. She was the evil
genius of his reign. By a aeiics of intrigues she was able to
•inflict the moet atrocious punJUiment on att those who had
taken part in the death of Cyras. (Ba M.) '
FA8A0B1U, a dty in the San Gabriel valley of Loe Angdea
county, in aouthem Callfomia, U.SA^ about 9 m. N£. of
Lea Angdcs and about so m. from the Padfio Ocean. Pop.
(1880) 39«? (i<9o) 4889; (1900) 9"7» of ^lAum 1978 were
foce%n-bom$ (1910 census) 30,191. Area about it aqi m.
It ia served by the Southeni Rsdfic, the Sanu Ft, and the San
Pedro, Los Ai^gdes k Salt Lake railway systems, and t^ filter*
nrfaaa electric lines. The dty lies at an aititnde of 750-1000 ft,
aboot 5 m. fsom the base of the Sierm Madre range. Soae
half ^doaen ««««««^»<" peaks in the innnediate cnviraiis ilse to
heights of 3S00 to more than teoor ft., notably ill WHson
(6666 ft.), winee base is about 5 m. north^eiit of *^
Echo mnwinain (4016 ft.), and Mt Lowe (6too ft).
Rabk> canyon, near Pasadena, to the smait of
iDonntain,fvnsn steep caUemiftway,Toooyds«loa^ On Echo
mountam is the Lowe Observatory (3500 ft;), with n 16-in.
equatorial telescope, and on Mt Wilsun is the Solar Observatory
(5886 ft.) of the Camcsie Institutwn ^ Washington, equipped
with a 6o-in. reflecting tdesoope and other instruments for steHar
photography, a horiaontal telescope for solsr photograpft*^
87«
PASARGADAE— PASCAL, BLAISE
% 6o4i, toner tdcicope (completed ia 1907), and a tecond tower
tdeicope of 150 ft. focal length (under constructkHi in 1910).
At ibb observatory important researdies in aolar and stellar
spectroaciQpy bave been carried on under the direction of Geoige
EUeiy Hale (b. 1868), the inventor of the tpectroheliograpb.
The phyiical laboratory, computers' ofikcs and instrument
construction shops of the Solar Observatory are in Pasadena.
About 5 m. south-east of Pasadena, in the township of San
Gabriel (pop. 2501 in 1900), is the Mission (monastery) de San
Gabriel Arcangel, founded in 1771. Pasadena is one of the roost
beautiful places In southern California. Fruits and flowers
and sub'tropical trees and small plants grow and bloom the
year round in its gardens. On the first of January of every
year a flower carnival, known as the " Tournament of Roses,"
is held. Among the principal public buildings are a handsome
Romanesque public Kbrsry, which in 1909 contained about
78,500 volumes, an opera house of considerable architectural
merit, high school, and several fine churches. The surrounding
country was given over to sheep ranges until 1874. when a
fruit-growing colony, organized in 1873, was established, from
which the city was developed. The sale of town lots began
in 1883. Pasadena was first chartered as a city in 1886; by a
dausc hi the present special free-holders' charter, adopted in
1901, saloons are prohibited in the dty.
PASAROADAB, a dty of andent Persia, situated in the
modem plain of Murghab, some 30 m. N.E. of the later Parse-
potia. The name originally bdonged to one of the tribes of the
Persians, which indudcd the clan of the Achaemc'nidae, from
which q>rang the royal family of Cyrus and Darius (Herod, i.
125; a Pasaigadian Badres b mentioned, Herod, iv. 167).
According to the account of Ctesias (preserved by Anaximenes
of lampsacus In SU^, Byt, 1.9. Ua^aapfUai; Strabo xv. 730,
cf . 739; NiooL Damasc. fr. 66, 68 aqq. ; Polyaen. vii. 6, i . 9. 45, a),
the last battle of Cyrus against Astyages, in which the Persiana
were incited to a desperate struggle by their women, was fought
here. After the victory Cyrus built a town, with his palace
and tomb, which was named Pasargadae after the tribe (cf.
Curt. v. 6, 10; X. 1, 3a). Every Persian king was, at his accession,
invaaled here, in the sanctuary of a warlike goddess (Anaitis?),
with the garb of Cyrus, and received a meal of figs and terebinths
with a cup of sour milk (Pint Artaxs 3); and whenever he entered
his native country he gave a'goU piece to every woman of
Pasargadae in remembraitce of the heroic intervention of their
ancestor* In the battle (Ni& Damasc hc.cU.\ Plut. Alex, 69).
According to a fragment of the same tradition, preserved fay
Strabo (xv. 799), Pasargadae lay " in the hollow Persis {Codt
Petiis) on the bank of the river Cyrus, after which the king
changed his name, which was formeriy Atradates" (in Nic.
Damasc. this is the name of his father). The river Cyrus is
the Kur of the Persians, now generally named Bandamir; the
historians of Alexander all it Araxes, and give to its tributary,
the modem Pulwar, which passes by the ruins of Murghab
and Persepolis, the name Mcdos (Strabo xv. 729; Curt. v. 4. ?)•
The capital of Cyrus was soon suppknted by Persepolis, founded
by Darius; but in Pasargadae remained a great treasury, which
was sunendered to Alexander in 336 after his conquest of
Persia (Airian iii. 18, 10; Curt. v. 6, xo). After his return from
India he visited Pasargadae on the march from Carmania
to Penepolis, found the tomb of Cyrus plundered, punished
the malefactors, and ordered Aristobulus to restore it (Arrian
vi. t9; Strabo xv. 730). < Aristobulus' description agrees
exactly with the mlns of Murghab on the Bandamir, about
SO av ufNraida from Fenepolis; and all the other references
in the MstoriaM of Cyrus and Alexander indicate the same
plact. NevcftbelesB, some modem authors* have doubted the
idbatity of llw euins of Murghab with Pasargadae, as Ptolemy
<vL 4« 7)1 places Paaargada or Pasaxracha south-eastwards of
Pcacpolis, and mentions a tribe Pasargadae In Carmania on
the ita (vi 8, is); and Pliny, NaL kist, vi. 99, nam<s a Persian
* ■ &r. Waisrfadi In Zeit$ekr. d. d. morfpd. Gu., 48, pp. 6» iqq.:
for the ideasiicadon cf. Stolae, PvufoltM, ii. 969 aqq.; Ci
P^m,ii.7isqq.
OB whldi one aavliatci U aavai dsQrs 10
Pasargadae."* But it is evident that thcw aceooMa are
erroneous. The conjecture of Oppcrt, that Pasargadae is
Identical with Pishiyauvftda, where (on a mottatam Arakadri)
the usurper Caumita (Smerdis) proclaimed blaaelf kln^. and
wfaeie his successor, the second false Smerdis Vahyaadiia,
gathered an army (hucrip. of Behistun, L it; IIL 41), k hardly
probable.
The principal ruins of the town of Pasargadae at MorglMb
are a great terrace like that of PerscpoUs, and the ranalndas
of three buildings, on which the buflding inscriptloa of Cyrus,
" I Cyrus the king the Achacmenid " (m. " have bulk this '0.
occurs five times in Persian, STuslan and Babylonhm. They
were built of bricks, with a foundation of stones and atone
door-cases, like the palaces at Persepolis; and on these fragments
of a procession of tribute-beams and the figure of a winged
demon (wrongly considered as a portrait of Cyrus) are pttserved.
Outside the town are two tombs in the form of towers and the
tomb of Cyrus himself, a stone house on a Mgh substructkMi
which rises in seven great steps, surrounded by a court with
columns; at iu side the remains of a guardhouse, in which the
officiating Magians lived, are discernible. The ruins of the
tomb absolatdy correspond to the dcscriptwn of Aristobulus.
See Sir W. Gore-Oa«ky. Tratds in Persia (1811): Morier. Ker
Porter, Rich and others; Teder, Destriptim d* fArmenu et is Pcrjr;
Flandin and Coste, Voyaft en Peru, vol. ii.: SioUe, PtrtepelUi
Dieulafoy, VAri antique dela Peru; and E. Hcrridd* ** PaiarBadae.
in Beitr&fji atr aiten Cesckickte, vol. vlii. (i90B>^ who has ia many
pdnu corrected and enlarged the earlier dcacripCtont and has Dror«d
that the buildings as well as the acolpturea arc earlier than tnoae of
PerwpoU*, and are, therefore, built by Cyrus the Great. New
pbotoeniphs of the monuments arc publifthed by Fr. Sarre. ImtMcka
Febrdiefs (unter Mitwirkung von E. Herzfeld, Berlin. X9Q8).
PASCALT BLAISE (1633-1663), French rdigious phfloaopho
and mathematician, was bom at Ccrmont Ferrand 00 the
X9th of June 1633. His father was ^tieiwe Pascal, preskdcnt
of the Court of Aids at Clermont; his mother's name was
Antoinette B£gon. The Pascal family, were Auvergnats by
extraction as well as residence, had for many genetatkos hdd
posts in the dvil service, and were ennobled by Louk XL
in 1478, but did not assume the de. The earliest anecdote
of Pascal k one of bk being bewitched and freed from tJie speB
by the witch with strange ceremonies. Hk mother died when
he was about four years old, and left him with two sktexa —
Gilberte, who afterwards roarried M. Perier, and JacqueUac.
Both skters are of importance in their brother's history, and
both are said to have been beautiful and accomplished. When
Pascal was about seven years old hk father gave up hk official
post at Germont, and betook himsdf to Paris. It does not
appear that Blaise, who went to bo school, but was taught by
hk father, was at all forced, but rather the contrary. Neverthe-
less he has a dktinguished pUce in the story of precocious
children, and in the much more limited chapter of dbUdrea
whose precodty has been followed by great performance at
maturity^ though he never became what k called a learned man,
perhaps did not know Greek, arul was pretty certainly indebted
for most of hk misceUaneous reading to Montaigne.
The Pascal family, some years after settling in Paris, had to
go through a period of adversity. £tienne Pascal, who bad
bought some of the bAtd-de-ville renUs, protested against
RicheUcu's reduction of the interest, and to escape the Bastille
had to go into hiding. He was, according to the story (tokl
by Jacqueline hersdf), restored to favour owing to the cood
acting and graceful appearance of hk daughter Jacqueline
in a^ represenUtion of Scudir/s Amour fyramtiqut bcfoce
Richelieu. Mme d^Aiguillon's intervention in the matter
was perhaps as powerful as Jacqueline's acting, and Richeliea
gave fitienne Pascal G& 1641) the important and lucrative
•In vi. 1 16, he places " the Castle of Frssaffkla. whese'k the tomb
of Cyrus, and which b occupied by the Magi **— «A the goatd of
Magiana mentioned by Aristobulus. which haa to pmect the fpBib
outwards of Penepolis, and by a curious ccnfusfan loina h t»
Ecbauna.
PASCAL, BLAISE
though lomewhat tiDublcaome intendtn^ of Rouen. The
UauXy accordingly removed to the Norman capital, though
Gilbote Pascal ahortly aftei; on her moniage, returned to
Ckrinont« At Rouen they became acquainted with Cbmeille,
and Blaise pursued his studies with such vehemeaoe that he
already showed signs of an injured constitution. Nothing,
however, of Importance happened till the year 1646. Then
Pascal the elder was confined to the house by the consequences
of an accident on the ice, and was visited by certain gentlemen
of the neighbourhood who had come under the influence of
Saint-Cyraii and the Janscnists. It does not appear that up
to this time the Pascal family had been contemners of religion,
but they now eagerly embraced the creed, or at least the attitude
of Jansenism, and Pascal himself showed his seal by informing
against the supposed unorthodoxy of a Capuchin, the P^
Saint^nge.
• Hu bodily health was at this time very far from satisfactoiy,
and he appears to have suffered, not merely from acute dyspepsia,
but from a kind of paralysis. He was, however, indefatigable
in his mathematical work/ In 1647 he published his NokniUt
expirieHces sur le nde, and in the next year the famous experi-
ment with the barometer on the Puy de Dome was carried
out for him by his brother-in-law Perier, and repeated on a
smaller scale by himself at Paris, to which place by the end
of 1647 he and his sister Jacqueline had removed, to be followed
shortly by their father. In a letter of Jacqueline's, dated the
S7th of September, an account of a visit paid by Descartes to
Pascal is given, which, like the other information on the relations
of the two, give strong suspicion of mutual jealousy. Descartes,
however, gave Pascal the very sensible advice to stay in bed
as long as he could (it may be remembered that the philosopher
himself never got up till eleven) and to take plenty of beef-tea.
As early as May 1648 Jacqueline Pascal was stvoiigly drawn to
Port Royal, and her brother frequently accompanied her to
its churdi. She desired indeed to join the convent, but her
father, who returned to Paris with the dignity of oounseUor
of sute, disapproved of the plan, and took both brother and
sister to Cleimont, whefe Pascal remained for the greater part
of two yean. £. Fliehier, in his account of the Cronds Jcmrs
at Clermont many years after, speaks of a " belle savante "
in whose company Pascal had frequently been— a trivial
mention on which, as on many other trivial poinU of scantily
known lives, the most childish structures of comment and
conjecture have been based. It is sufficient to say that at this
time, despite the Rouen " conversion,", there is no evidence
to show that' Pascal was in any way a recluse, an ascetic, or
in short anything but a young man of lOeat intellectual promise
and performance, not indifferent to society, but of weak health.
He, his sister and their father returned to Paris in the. hue
autumn of 1650, and in September of the next year £tienne
Pascal died. Almost immediately afterwards Jacqueline fulfilled
her purpose of johiing Port Royal— a proceeding which led to
some sofcness, finally healed, between herself and her brother
and sister as to the disposal of her property. It has sometimes
been supposed that Pascal, from 1651 or earlier to the famous
accident of 1654, lived a dissipated, extravagant, worldly,
luxurious (though admittedly not vinous) life with his friend
the due de Roaaaea and others* His Discowrt tw let possums
tfff Vam^m, a striking and characteristic piece, ndt very long
since disooveuHl and printed, has alw been assigned to this
period, and has been supposed to mdicate a hopeless passion
for Charlotte de Roannea, the duke's sisur. But this is sheer
romancing. The extant lelteis of Pascal to the My abow no
trace of any affection (stronger than friendship) between them.
It is, however, certain thai in the autumn of 1654 Pascal's
second " conversion " took place, and that it was btsting.
He betook himself at fint lo Port Royal, and began to live a
reduse and austere life there. Mme Perier simpfy says that
Jacqudine persuaded him to abandon the world. Jacqueline
represents the retirement as the final result of a k>ng course of
dissatisfactkm with^ mundane life. But there are certain
aneodocic embstlisbmcnts of the act which are too famous to
be passed over, though they are hi part apociyphaL It 1
that Pascal in di^iving to Netdlly was run away with by the horses,
and would have been plunged in the river but that the traces
fortunately broke. To this, which seems authentic, is usually
added the tradition (due to the abb£ Boileau) that afterwards
he used at times to see an imaginary precipice by his bedside,
or at the foot of the chair on which he was sitting. * Further,
from the ajrd pf November i<it54 dates the singular document
usually known as " Pascal's amulet," a parchment slip which
he wore constantly about him, and which bean the date
foUowed by some Uoes of incoherent and strongly mystical
devotion.
It must be noted that, though he lived much at Port Rojral,
and partly at least observed its rule» he never actually became
one of its famous solitaries. But for what it, did for him (and
for a.iime his health as well as his peace ot mind seems to have
been, improved) he very soon paid an ample and remarkable
return. At the end of 1655 Amaukl, the chief light of Port
Royal, was condemned by the Sorbonne for heretical doctrine^
and it was thought important by the Janaenist and Port Royal
party that steps should be taken to disabuse the popular mind.
Amauld would have undertaken -the task himself, but his wiser
friends knew that his style was anything but popular, and
overruled hiuL It is said that he penonally auggested to
Pascal to tiy his hand, and that the fint of the famous Protm-
cioUs {Pranmcial LeUtrs, properly LeUres icrUa far Louis 4$
MonlalU d u» pr&tincud dt S9S amis) was written in a few days,
or, less probably, in a day. It was printed without the real
author's name on the 33rd of January 1656, and, being
immensely popular, and successful, was followed by othos to
the number of eighteen. .
Shortly after the appearance of the PranttdaUt, on the
S4th of May 1656, occurred the miracle of the Holy Tliorn, a
fragment of tl^e crown of Christ preserved at Port Royal, which
cured the little Marguerite Perier of a fistula laoyniidis. The
Jesuits were much mortified by this Jansenist miracle, which,
as it was officially recognised, they oonld not openly deny.
PasoU and his friends rejoic«l in proportion. - The details of
his later yean after this uddent are somewhat scanty. For
yean before his death we^hear only of acts of charity and' of,
as it seems to modem ideas, extravagant asceticism. Thus
Mme Perier tells us that he disliked to see her caress her
children, and would not allow the beauty of any woman to be
talked of in his presence. What may be called his last iUnesi
began as early as 1658, and as the disease progressed it was
attended with more and more pain, chiefly in the head. In
June 1663, having given up his own house to a poor family who
were suffering front small-pox, he went to his sister's house to
be nursed, and never afterwards left it. His state was, it seems,
mistaken by his physicians, so' much so that the offices of the
Church wen long put off. He was able, however, to receive
the Eucharist, and soon afterwards died in convulsions on the
19th of August. A post mortem examination was held, which
showed not only gnve denngement in the stomach ansl other
organs, but a serious lesion of the brain.
Eight yean after Pascal's death appeared what purported to
be his Pensies, and a preface by his nephew Perier gave the
worid to understand that these were fracmenU of a great
projected apology for Christianity which the author had, hi
conversation with his friends, planned out yean before. The
editing of the book was peculiar. It was submitted to a com*
miitee of influential Jansenists, with the due de Roannes at
their head, and, in addition, it bore the imprimatur of numerous
unofficial approven who testified to its orthodoxy. It does
not appear that there was much suspkkm of the garbling which
had been practised-^garbling not unusual at the time, and
excused in this case by the fact of a lull in the troublca of Port
Royal and a great desire on the part of its friends to do nothing
to disturb that lull. But as a matter of fact no more entirely
factitious book ever inued from the prcn. The fragments
which it professed to give were in thenaelves confused and
incoherent enough, nor is it ea«y to believe thai they all formed
no
PASCAL, BLAKE
part of any fttcb flingle and coherent design as Chat referred to
above. But the editors omitted, altered, added, separated,
combined and so forth entirely at their pleasure, actuaOy
making some changes which seem to have been thought improve^
nent^ of style. This rifaciroentd remained the standard text
with a few unimportant additkms for nearly two centnries,
except that, by a truly comic revolution of public taste,
Condoreet in 1776 pablished, after study of the original, which
remained accessible in manuscript, another garbling, con-
ducted this time in the interesU of Knorthodoxy. It was
not till 184a that Victor Coosin drew attention to the absolutely
untrustworthy condition of the text, nor till 1844 that
A. P. Faug^re edited that text from the MS. in something like
a condition of purity, though, as subsequent editions have
shown, not with absolute fidelity. But even in its spurious
conditu>n the book had been recognized as remarkable and
almost unique. Its contenu, as was to be expected, are of
a very chaotic charactei"— <rf a character so chaotic indeed that
the reader is almost at the mercy of the arrangement, perforce
an arbitrary arrangement, of the editors. But the subjects
dealt with concern more or leas all the great problems of thought
on what may be called the theological side of metaphyaic»—
the sufficiency of reason, the trustworthiness of experience, the
admissibility of revelation, free will, foreknowledge, and the
rest. The peculiarly disjointed and fragmentary condition
of the sentiments expressed by Pascal aggravates the appear-
ance of universal doubt which is present in the Pensies, just as
the completely unfinished condition of the work, from the literary
point of view, constantly causes slighter or graver doubts as
to the actual meaning which the author wished to express.
Accordingly the PensSes have always been a favourite exploring
ground, not to say a favourite field of battle, to persons who
take an interest in their problems. Speaking generally, their
tendency is towards the combating of scepticism by a deeper
scepticism, or, as Pascal himself calls it, Pyrrhonism, which
occasionally goes the length of denying the poosibih'ty of any
natural theology. Pascal explains all the contradictions and
difficulties of human life and thought by the doctrine of the
Fall, and relies on faith and revelation alone to justify each
other.
} Excluding here his sdentiftc attainments (see below), Pascal
presents himself for comment in two different lights, the second
of which is, if the expression be permitted, a composite one.
The first exhibits him as a man of letters, the second as a
philosopher, a theologian, and simply a man, for in no one
is the colour of the theology and the i^losophy more distinctly
personal. Yet his character as a man is not very distinct.
The accounts of his sister and niece have the defect of aU
hagiology; they are obviously written rather with a view to
the ideas and the wishes of the writers than with a view to the
actual and absolute personality of the subject. Except from
these interesting but somewhat tainted sources, we know little
or nothing about him. Hence conjecture, or at least inference,
must always enter largely into any estimate of Pascal, except
a purely literary one.
On that side, fortunately, there is no possibflity of doubt or
difficulty to any competent inquirer. The PranncuA Letttrs
are the first example of French prose which is at once consider-
able in bulk, varied and important in matter, perfectly finished
hi form. They owe not a little to Descartes, for Pascal's
indebtedness to his predecessor is unquestionable from the
Kterary side, whatever may be the case with the scientific.
Bnt Descartes had had neither the opportunity, nor the desire,
nor probably the power, to write anything of the literary im-
portance of the PrenneiaUs. The first example of polite
controversial irony since Ludan, the PrmndaUi have continued
to be the best example of it during more than two centuries
in which the style has been sedulously practised, and in which
they have furnished a model to generation after generation.
The unfailing freshness and charm of the contrast between
the importance, the gravity, in some cases the dry and abstruse
nator^ of their subjccu, and the lightness, sometimes almost
approaddng levity in its tpedal sense, of the mtmier in tAAA
these subjects are attacked is a triumph of literary art of which
no familiarity dims the splendour, and which no lapse of timt
can ever impair. Nor perhaps is this liteiwy art reaHy lev
evident in the Peusies, though it is less clearty diqilaycd, owing
to the fragmentary or rather chaotic condition of the weik,
and partly also to the nature of the subject. The vividness
and distmction of Pascal's phrase, his singular faculty of inserting
without any loss of dignity in the gravest and most impaasio&cd
meditation what may be almost called quips of thought and
dictioh, the intense earnestness of mcadiing' wdgbting but not
confusing the style, all appear here.
No such positive statements as these are, bewevtr, poesibk
as to the substance of the Pemies and the attitude of their
author. Ifitherto the widest differences have been manifcsud
in the estimate of Pascal's opinions on the main questions of
phOoeophy, theology and human conduct, tie has been
represented as a determined apologist of inteUectnal orthodoty
animated by an almost fanatical ''hatred of reasoa," and
possessed with a pnrpose to overthrow the appeal to. reason;
as a sceptic and pessimist of a far deeper dye than Montaigne,
anxious chiefly to show how any positive dedaioa on maucn
bejrond the rahge of experience is impos^le; at a Dttvoui
believer dSnghig to conclusions which his clearer and better
sense showed to be indefensible; as an almost ferocious ascetic
and paradoxer affecting the credo ^ma impossibiU In intellectuai
matters and the odi quia nmabite in matters moral and sensuous;
as a wanderer in the regions of doubt and belief, alterastely
bringing a vast though vague power of thought and sui un-
equalled power of expression to the expression of ideas incom*
patible and irreconcilable. An unbiased study of the scanty
facts of his history, and of the tolerably abundant but scmttcrcd
and chaotic facts of his literary production, ought to enable
any one to steer clear of these exaggerations, while admitting
at the same time that it is impossible to give a complete and
fiiud account of his attitude towards the riddles of this world
and others. He certainly was no mere advocate of ortho*
doxy; he as certainly was no mere victim of tertxir ai
scepticism; least of all was he « freethhiker in disguise. He
appears, as far as can be judged from the fragments of jiis Pemsits,
to have seixed firmly and fully the central idea of the difference
between reason and religion. Where the difficulty rises respert-
ixig him is that most thinkers snice his day, who have seen this
difference with equal clearness, have advanced from it to the
negative side, while he advanced to the positive. In other
words, most men since his day who have not been contented
with a mere concordat, have let religion go and contented
themselves with reason. Pascal, equally discontented with
the concordat, held fast to religion and continued to fij^t out
the questions of difference with reason. Surveying these
positions, we shaD not be astonished to find much that as sur-
prising and some things that are contradictory in Pascal's
utterances on *'les grands sujeU." The influence eirercised
on him by Montaigne is the one fact regarding him wliicb has
not been and can hardly be exaggerated, and his we]l-kno«a
EtUretion witir Sacy on the subject (the restoration of which
to iu proper form is one of the moat valuable lesulu of noodcre
criticism) leaves no doubt possible as to the source of Ks
*' Pyrrhoniaii " method. But it is Impossible for anyone who
takes Pascal's PensSes simply as he finds, them fa cooncsios
with the facU of Pascal's history to question has tlicologiral
orthodoxy, undersUnding by theological orthodoxy the scc«p>
tance of revelation and dogma; it Is equally impossible for any
one in the same condition to declare him absolutely contest
with dogma and revelation. It is. of the essence of sa active
mind like Pascal's to explore and sUte all the arguments whiA
make for or make against the. conclusion it is investigating.
To sum up, the Pensia are excursions into the great unknown
made with a full acknowledgment of the greatness of that
unknown. From the point of view that belief and knowledge,
based on experience or reasoning, are separate domains with
an unexplored sea between and round them. Pascal b perfectly
PASCAL, J.— PASCHAL (POPES)
8Si
oompreliensiblep and he need not be taken as a deserter from
one rrgioa to ihe other. To those who hold that afl intellectual
etercise outside the sphere of retigion is impious or that all
Intellectual exercise inside that sph^e is futile, be must remain
an enigma.
There are few wriun who are more in need than Pascal of being
fully and competently edited. The chief nominally complete edition
at present in existence is that of Bossut (1779, 5 vols., and since
reprinted), which not only appeared before any attempt had been
made to restore the true text 01 the Pmsfes^ but is in otiier respects
craite inadeouate. The edition of Lahure. 18^, is not moch better,
though the Fensiei appear in their mora genuine form. An edition
promised for the excellent collection of Les Crands krivains de la
France by A. P. Faug^re has been executed as far as the PetaUi
go by Leon Bmnschvigjj vols., 1904), who has also issued a one-
volume edition. The cSifsrer eompliUt appeared in three volumes
(Paris. i88q). Meanwhile, with the ocoeption of the PropuniaUs
(of which tSere are numerous editions, no one much to be preferred
to any other, for the text is undisputed and the book Itself contains
almost all the exegeds of its own contents necessary), Psseal can be
lead only at a disadvantage. There are live chief editions of the
true Pensies earlier than Brunschvig's: that of Faugire (1844).
the editio pnnetps ; that of Havct (i8m, i 867 and 1 88 1 ) , on the whole
the best; that of Victor Rochet (1871). good, but arranged and edited
with the deliberate intention of mabng Pascal first of all an orthodox
apologist; that of Molinier (1877-1879), a carefully edited and in-
teresting text, the important corrections of which nave been intro-
duced into Havet's last edition and that of G. Michelant (Freiburg,
18^). Unfortunately, none of these can be said to be OBclusive^
■atisiacto^. The mmor works must chiefly be sought in Bossut or
reprints 01 him. Works on Pascal are innumerable: Sainte-Beuve's
Port Royal, Cousin's writings on Pascal and his Jacqudint Pascal,
and the essays of the editors of the Pensies just mentioned are the
most noteworthy. Principal Tulloch contributed a useful little
monacn4>h to the series of Foreijtn Classics for Bm^isk Readers
(Edinouigh and London, 1878}. Recent handlings are, in French,
E. Boutroux's Pascal (Paris, 1903) and, in English, an article in the
QaatieHy Reoiem (Na 407).for Aprfl 1906. (G. Sa.)
Paseet aa Natural PkUasopher and MaAematieian,—QttfX
■a is Pascal's reputation as a philosopher and man of letten,
ft may be fairly questioned whether his claim to be remembered
by posterity as a mathematician and physicist is not even
greater. In his two former capacities all will admire the form
of his work, while some will question the value of bis results;
bot in his two kttcr capacities no one will dispute either. He
was a great mathematician in an age which pioiduced Descartes,
Fermat, Huygens, Wallis and RobervaL There are woodetfnl
stories on record of hi^ precocity .in mathematical learning,
which is sufficiently established by the weO-attested fact that
be had completed before he was sixteen yean of age a work on
the conic sections, in which he had laid down a series of pro-
positions, discovered by himself, of such importance that they
nay be said to form the foundations, of the modem treatment
of that 'subject. Owing partly to the youth of the author^
partly to the difficulty in publishing scientific works in those
days, and partly no doubt to the oontinual struggle on his
part to devote his mind to what appeared to his conscience
more important hbour, this work (like many others by the
same master hand) was never published. We know something
of what it contained from a report by Leibnitz, who had seen
it in Paris, and from a risumi of its results published in 1640
by Pascal himself, under the title Essm pwr les cantques. The
method which be followed was that introduced by his contem-
porary GIrard Desargues, viz. the transformation of geometrical
figiures by conical or optical projection. In this way he estab-
lished the famous theorem that the intenections of the three
pairs of opposite sides of a hexagon inscribed in a conic are
colUnear. This proposition, which he called the mystic hexa-
gram, he made the keystone of his theory; from it alone he
deduced more than 400 corollaries, embracing, according
to his own account, the conies of ApoUonius, and other results
innumerable.
Pascal also distinguished himself by his skiD in the infinitesimal
calculus, then in the embryonic form of Cavalieri's method of
indivisibles. The cycloid was a famous curve b those days;
it had been discussed by Galileo, Descartes, Fermat, Roberval
and Torricelli, who had in turn exhausted their skill upon it.
Pascal solved tlie hitherto zcfiactory problem of tbe general
quadrature of the cyctoid, and proposed and solved a variety of
others relating to the centre of gravity of the curve and itn
segments, and to the vohune and centre of gravity of solids of
revolution generated in various ways by means of it. He
published a number of these theorems without demonstratioB as
a challenge to contemporary mathematicians. Solutions were
furnished by Wallis, Huygena, Wren and others; and Pascal
published hfa own in the form of letters from Amos Dettonville
(his assumed name as challenger) to Pierre de Carcavy. Th»e
has been some discussion as to the faimesa of the treatment
accorded by Pascal to hb rivals, bot no question of the fact
that his initiative* led to a great extension of our knowledge of
the properties of the cycloid, and indirectly hastened the piogresa
of the diflFerential calculus.
In yet another branch of pure mathematics Pascal rsnks
as a fouinder. The mathematical theory of probability and
the allied theory of the combinatorial analysis were in effect
created by the correspondence between Pascal and Fermat,
concerning certain questions as to tbe (fivision of stakes in
games of chance, which had been propounded to the former by
the gaming philosopher De 1A.M. A complete account of thfa
interesting correspondence would surpass our present limits;
but the reader may be referred to Todhunter's History of Iks
Theory of Probability (Cambridge and London, 1865), pp. 7-91.
It appears that Pascal contemplated publishing a treatise
Do ateae geometrio\ but all that actuaUy appeared was a fragment
on the arithmetical triangle {TraiU dm triangle aritkmitiqno,
** Properties of the Figurate Numbers"), printed in 1654, but
not published till 1665, after his death.
Pascal's work as a natural philosopher was not less remarkable
than his discoveries in pure mathematica. His experiments
and his treatise (written before 1651, published 1663) on tbe
equilibrium of fluids entitle him to rank with Gd^eo and
Stevinus as one of the founders of the sdence of hydrodynamica.
The idea of the pressure of the air and the invention of the
instrument for measuring it were both new when he made his
famous experiment, showing that the height of the mercury
colunm in a barometer decreases triien it is carried upwards
through the atmosphere, lliis experiment was made by
himself in a tower at Paris, and was carried out en a grand
scale under his instructions by his brother-in-law .Florin P6rier
on the Puy de D6me in Auvergne. Its success greatly helped
to break down the old prejudices, and to bring home to the
minds of ordinary men the truth of the new ideaa propounded
by Galileo and TbrricellL
Whether we look at his pure mathematical or at his physical
researches we zeodve the same impression of Pascal; we see
the strongest marks of a great original genina creating new
Ideas, and seizing upon, mastering, and puisuing farther every-
thing that was fresh and imfamiliar in his time. We can still
point to much in exact sdence that is absolutely his; and we
can indicate infinitely move which is due to his inspiration.
(G. Ch.)
PASCAL JAOQUBJirK (i6ss^i66i), sister of Blaise Psscal.
was bom at Clermont-Ferrand, France, on the 4th of October
1625. She was- a genuine infant prodigy, composing vexses
when only eight years, and a fivo-act comedy at eleven. In
1646 the influence of her brother converted her to Jansenism.
In i6st, she took the vefl, despite the strong opposition of her
brother, and subsequently was largely instrumental in the
lattcr's own final conversion. She vehemently oppoaed the
attempt to compel the assent of the nuns to tlie 1^1 bulls
condemning Jansenism, but was at last compelled to yield her
own. This bk>w, however, hastened her death, which occurred
at Paris on the 4th of October i66r.
PASCHAL (Paschalis), the name of two popes, and one
anti-pope^
Paschal I., pope from 8x7 to 814, a native of Rome, was
raised to the pontificate by the acclamation of the clergy,
shortly after the death of Stephen IV., and before the sanaion
of the emperor (Louis the Pious) had been obtained— a drcum-
stance for-whfch it was one of his fizU cares io apologise. Ha
882
PASgHAL CHRONICLE— PAS-DE^CALAIS
relations with the imperial house, however, never became
cordial; and he was also unsuccessful in winning the sympathy
of the Roman nobks. He died in Room while the imperial
conunissioners were investigating the circumstances under
which two important Roman pecsonages had been seized at
the Lateran, blinded and afterwards beheaded; Paschal had
shielded the murderers but denied all personal c o mplicity in
their crime. The Roman people refused him the honour of
burial within the church of St Fieteri but he now holds a place
in the Roman calendar (May i6). The church of St Cecilia
in Ttastevere was restored and St Maria in Dominica rebuilt
by him ; he also built the church of St Prassede. The successor
of Paschal L was Eugenius H. (JL. D.*)
Paschal IL (Ranieri), pope from the X3th of August X099
to the 2ist of January xii8, was a native of Bieda, near Vitcrbo,
and a monk of the Quniac order. He was created cardinal-
priest of S. Ckmente by Gregory VIL about X076, and was
consecrated pope in succession to Urban IL on the X4th of
August X099. In the long struggle with the emperors over
investiture, he sealoua^ carried on the Hildebrandine policy,
but with only partial success. In 1x04 Paschal succeeded in
instigsting the emperor's second son to rebel against his father,
but soon found Heniy V. even more penistent In maintaimwg
the right of investiture than Hdary IV. had been; The imperial
Diet at Mains invited (Jan. xxo6) Fsschal to visit Germany
and settle the trouble, but the pope in the C6undl of Guastalia
(OcL XX06) simply renewed the prohibition of investiture,
la the same year be brought to an end the investiture struggle
in England, in which Azutdm, archbishop of Canterbury, had
been engaged with King Henry L, by retaining himself exduBve
right to invest with tiw ring and croaer, but reoognising the
loytX nomination to vacate benefices and oath of fealty for
temporal domains. He went to France at the dose of xxo6
to seek the mediation of Kmg Philip and Prince Louis in the
imperial struggle, but* his negotiatioos remaining without
result, he returned to Italy in September x X07. When Hemy V.
advanced with an army into Italy in order to becrowned, the
pope agreed to a compact (Feb. txxx), by the terms of which
the Church should surrender all the possessions and royalties
it had received of the empire and kingdom of Italy since the
days of Charlemagne, while Henry on his side should renounce
lay investiture. Preparations were- made for the oonoatioo
on the xath of February xxxx, but the Romans rase m revolt
against the compact, and Henry retired taking with him pope
and curia. After sixty-one days of harsh imprisonment. Paschal
yielded and guaranteed Investiture to the empoor. Hcnzy
was then crowned in St Peter's on the X3th of April, snd after
exacting a promise that no revenge would be taken for what
had passed withdrew beyond the Alps. The Hildebrandiae
party was aroused to action, bowew; a Lateru council of
Much xxia declared null and void the oonceatioiis extorted by
violence; a oouncfl held at Vienna in October actually eacom-
municated the emperor, and Paschal sanctioned the proceeding.
Towards the end of the pontificate trouble began anew in
England, Paschal complaining (xxis) that coundls were held
and bishops translated without his authorization, and
threatening Henry I. with excommunication. On the death
of the countess Matilda, who had bequeathed aU her territories
to the Church (xxxs), the emperor at once laid claim to them
as impcrisl fiefs and forced the pope to flee from Rome. Paschal
returned after the emperor's withdrawal at the beginning of
xxx8, but died within a few days on the axat of January xxx8.
His sttooessor was Gelaritts n.
The principal aourcet for the Ufe of Paschal 11. are his Lettin in the
lianumsHla GermantM kistoriea. EpistoUu, volt. \, 6, 7, 11, 17, 30-
aj. ss« Aod the Vila by Pecius PiMnua in the LOm piuyUaUs, cd.
Duchctne (Paris, 1 89a). Important bulls are in J . A. G. van Pflna k-
Harttung. Dm BmiUn dtr PdpsU hi* sum Emd» du tvilfUn Jakr-
kmnJerU (Gotha, 1901), and a valuable digest in Jaff^Wattenbacb.
ReteslA ponHf. reman. (18S5-1888).
See J. Lawen. GttckickU itr rMmitcken Kink$ swt Gngor VII. Us
Jmmema III, (Bonn. 1893); K. J. voa Hefde^ ConeiUmtfuhicku,
¥01 v. (^od ed., t873>x89o} ; E. Franz, Papst Paukalis II, (BtmUu.
xSt?): W. Schum, Di» PeUtik Paptt PctekOt IL fan Kmsa
ffet»rUk V. im Jakrt 11 12 (Erfurt. 1877); I. ROsfcens. Heinruk V.
und Pnschalis II. (Easen, X889): C Geraandt, Die enle Romfakrt
Hcinritk V. (Hei^beig. x890>; G. Pdser, Dtf demtMekt /Matter.
Urrnt wUer Koiaer Bttmrieh V. Kf «h dam MMlifktm Primly warn
3 April jjti (Beriin, 1883); and B. Monod, Euaismr its roppcru
de Pascal II. aou Philippe I. (Paris. 1907). There b an exhaosdvt
bibliognphy with an excellent article by CaH Miibt la Hcnog-
Hauck. Memeyktopadie (3rd ed.. 1904). (C H. Ha.)
Pascbai, ni., anti-pope from 1x64 to xx68, was elected the
successor of Victor IV. on the aand of April XX64. He wu an
aged aristooat, Gnkk> of Ckema. Recognised at once by the
emperor Frederick I. be soon lost the support of Burgundy, but
the emperor crushed opposition in (jcnnany, and gained the co>
operation of Hoiry H. of England. Supported by the victorious
imperial army. Paschal was enthnmed at St Peter's on the
aand of July 1x67, and Pope Aldcander HI., became a fugitive:
Sudden imperial reverses, however, made Pascbai gbd in ihc
end to hdd so much as the quarter on the right bank of the
Tiber, where he died on the aoth of September xxfiS. He was
succeeded by the anti-pope Callixtus m.
See A. Hauck. Kirckengesckkkte DetOscUandi, Bd. IV. (Lripric.
I903j 359-276): H. BOhmer u Hersog-Hauck. KeatemcyUepidu,
Bd. XIV.. 724 seq.; and Lobkowtix, StaHstik dtr Pdpsle (Freiburg.
L B. 1905). <W. W. R,1
PASCHAL GHBONICLB (OuDnicum Paschale, also Cfavoakan
Alexandrinnm or Constantinopolitanum, or Fasti Siculi), so
called from being baaed upon the Easter canon, an oullioe
of chronology from Adam down to aj>. 639, accompanied by
numerous historical and theological notes. The work, which
is imperfect at the beginning and end (breaking off in the year
6a7), is preceded by an introduction on the Christian methods
of reckoniug time snd the Easter cyde. It was written during
the reign of Heradius (6x0-641), and is generally attziboted
to an unknown Byxantine cleric and friend of the patriarch
Sergius, who is specially alluded to as responsihle lor the intro>
duction of certain ritual innovatmns. The so-caUcd Bysantioe
or Roman era (which continued In use In the Greek Chnidi
untH its liberation from Torkish rule) was adopted in the
Ckromiam for the first time as the foundation of chrooolqgy,
ia accordance with which the date of the creation is gjivcn as
the axst of March, 5S»7> "Hie author k merely a compiler
from earlier works, except hi the history of the Ua thirty
years, which has the value of a oontcmpotaiy record.
The chief authorities used were: Jubus Sextas Africamis' (jid
oentuiy); the consular FasU; the Ckremde aod Ckmrck History of
Eusebiusijohn Malalas; the Acta martyrum; the treatise of
Epiphanius, bishop of Constantia (the old SaSmts) ia Cypnis
Ot 4th century), 00 Wei^ mid Meamrts. Editions: L. Dwdcsf
(1833) ia CvrpHS s cr ip ier u m kisl. t/^feamUmae, with Dn Gai^c a
pcelace and oonunentary; J. P. Mjgne, Patrtiopa fosca, ao-iL:
see also C. Wachsmuth, Einleituni in das Shidium Ht alien Gesckickle
[1895); H. Gelxer, Sextus JnHns Atricanms nmd die hytasiiimiscke
^ ^' - I (188S): J. van.der Hagen, Oi^m«M»»cs m
Heraelu impehloris mHM mm patr ka lem (X736, but atOl oooakkfvd
indispensable); E. Schwarz ia Pauly-wiss( " '
m.. pt. a (i8w); C
LUleratnr (1897).
, -issowa. RcaUacyci»pAdie^
Knimbacher, Gescksckte dtr byaamlimts^Meu
PA8-INMAIAI8, a maritime department of northern Fraace,
formed in 1790 of nearly the whole of Artois and the nortbem
maritime portion of Picardy including Boukmaais, Calaisis,
Ardrisis, and the districts of Langle and Bredenarde, acd
bounded N. by the Straits of Dover (" Pas de Calais " )» C by
the department of Nord, S. by that of Sommc, and W. fay the
English Channet Pop. (1906), x,oia^66; Area a6o6 aq. m.
Except in the neighbourhood of Boulqgne-sur-Mer witii i;s
c3Us dtferot" Iron coasts," the seaboard of the department
which measures 65 m., consists of dunes. From the xnouih
of the Aa (the limit towards Nord) it trends west-sotttfa-wt:st
to Gris Nes, the point of France nearest to En^and; in this
section lie the port of Calais, Cape Blinc Nes, rising 440 ft.
above the sandy shores, and the port of Wissant (Wtshant)
The seaside resorts include Boulogne, Berck-sur-Mec, Faris-
Plage, Wimereux, &c Beyond Gris Nes the dirccUon is due
south; in this section are the small port of Amblcteusc, Boulogxie
at the mouth of the Liane, and the two bi^ formed by ih*
PASDE1-OXJP--PASKEVICI1
«83
I of iht Casdie sad the Anthle (the limit tewUKli
Somnie). The highest point in the depanmeat (700 ft.) is
in the ^PCBt, between Boidogae and St Omer. From the uphuods
in which it is dtuated the Lys end Scaxpe flow east to the
Scheldt, the Aa north to the Gennan Ocean, and the Shck,
Wimereux and Liane to the Channel. Farther sooth ane the
vallejrs of the Canche and the Atathie, running E.S.E. And
W.N.W., and thus paraQd -with the Somme. Vast plains,
open and monotonous, but exttemel/ fertile and well cultivated,
occupy most of tlie dq>aztmeot. To the north of the hilb
running between St Omer and Boulogne, to the south of
GrsveUnes and the south-east of Calais, lies the district ^ the
Wattcrgands, fens now drained by means of canals and dikes, and
turned into highly productive land. The climate is free from
extremes of heat and cold, bat damp and changeable. At
Arras the mean annual tempecature is 47"; on the coast it is
higher. The rainfall varies from 24 to 32 in., though at Cape
Gris Nes the latter figure is ihuch exceeded. Cereals are largely
grown and give good yields to the acre; the other principal
crops are potatoes, sugar-beet, forage, oil-plants and tobacco.
Market gardening flourishes in the Wattergands. The rearing
of livestock and poultiy is actively carried on, and the hones
of the Boulonnats are specially esteemed.
The department is the chief in France for the production of
coal, Its principal coal4>a8in, which is a continuation of that of
Valenciennes, centring round B^hune* The manufacturo of
beetroot-sugar, oil and alcohol distilling, iron-working, dyeing,
brewing, paper-making, and various branches of tlie textile
manufacture, are foremost among the industries of the depart-
ment. Boulogne, Calais and £uples fit out a considerable
number of vesseb for the cod, herring and mackerel fisheries.
Calais and Boulogne are important ports of passenger-transit
for Enghuid; and Boulogne also carriea on a large export trade
in the products of the department. The canal system com>
priiies part of the Aa, the Lys, the Scarpe, the De^le (a tribuury
of the Lys passing by Lille), the Lawe (a tributary of the
Lys passing by Bfthune), and the Sensfe (an affluent of the
Scheldt), as well as the canals of Aire to Bauvin, Neuffoss£,
Cahus, Calais to Ardres, &c., and in this way a line of commonl-
catk>n is farmed from the Scheldt to the sea by B^thone, St
Omer and Calais, with branches to Gravelines and Dunkirk.
The departmftnt is served by the Northern railway.
Pas-de-Calals forms the diocese of Arras (archbishopric of
Carobrai), belongs to the district of the I. army corps^ the
odycatlonal division (acadtoie) of Lille and the drcumscription
of the appeal court of Dovai. There are six arroodissements
(Arras, B^thune, Boulogne, Montreuil-sur-Her, St Omer and
St Pol-sur-Temoise). The more noteworthy places are Arras,
the capital, Bouk>gne, Calais, St Omer, B6thune, Lens, Mon-
treuil-sur-Mer, Bruay, Berck, Staples and Aire-sur-la-Lys,
which are noticed separately. Besides some of the towns
mentioned, Li^vin (23,070), Hlnin-Li£tard (13,384), in the neigh-
bourhood of Lens, are large centres of population. Other places
of some importance are: Lillers (pop. 5341 ). which carries on boot-
making and has a fine Romanesque church of the 12th century;
Hcsdin, which owes its regular plan to Charles V., by whom it
was built; and St Pol, which has the remains of medieval
fortifications and castles and gave its name to the famous
counts of St Pol.
PASD8L0UP. JULSS taBITlIB (iSi^yiSS?)} French con-
ductor, was bom in Paris, and educated in music al the con-
senataire. He founded in 185 1 a " soci^b6 dcs jeunes artistes
du conservatoire," and, as conductor of its concerts, did much
to popularise the best new compositions of the time. His
" popular concerts " at the Cirque d'hiver, from iS6i till i&^
had also a great effect in promoting French taste in music.
PASBWALIC, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Pomerania, on the Ucker, 26 m. N.W. from Stettin by the
railway to Strassbnrg. Pop. (1Q05), ro,si9- Pasewalk became
a town during the isth century and was soon a member of the
HanseaHc League. In 1359 it passed to the duke of Pomerania.
Frequently ravaged during the waft which davastated the
dfUffctiit was phmdcred ttwnJL times by the i'my^»i4*K>»f
during the Thirty Years' War; in 1657 it was burnt by the
Poles and in 1713 by the Russians. By the peace of Westphalia
in 1648 it was givea to Sweden, but in 1676 it was conquered
by Brandenburg, and in 1720^ by the peace of Stockholm, it
was definitely assigned to Brandenburg-Prussia.
See Httckrtadt, GaekickU dtr Stadt Pastwalk (Paaewalk, 1B83).
PA8BA, also wriuen " pacha " and formerly <'pashaw,» &c,
a Turkish title, superior to that of bey (f.v.), borne by persons
of high rank and placed after the name. It is in the gift of the
sultan of Turkey and, by delegation, of tiie khedive of Egypt.
The title appears, orighudly, to faAve been bestowed czclashrely
upon military commanders, but It is now given to any high
ofiidal, and also to unofficial persom whom it is desired to
honour. It is confened indifi^erently upom Moskms and Chris-
tians, and is frequently given to foreigners in the service of
the Turks or Egyptians. Pashas are of three grades, formerly
distinguished by the number of horsetails (three, two and
one respectively) which they were entitled to display as symbols
of authority when on campaign. A pashallk is a province
governed by or under the jurisdiction of a pasha.
The word is variously derived from tlw Persian podskakt
Turkish podithak, equivalent to king or emperor, and from the
Turkish bask, in some dialects ^A, a head, chief, &c. In old
Turkish there was no fixed distinction between b and p. As
first used in western Europe the title was • written with the
initial 6. The Enghsh forms bashaw, baasaw, bucha, ftc.,
general in the j6th and 17th centuries, were d^ved through
the med. LaL and Ital. &um.
PA8I0* ,a town and the capital of the province of Rixal,
Luzon, Philippine Isbmds, about 6 m. E.&E. of Manila. Pop.
(1903), 11,287. The town, which covers a considerable area, is
tiavexsed by the Pasig river and its tributary, the Msriquino
river, and f«f a short distance borders on Laguna de Bay.
In the south-western part is Fort McKinley. Althou^ buih ob
low ground, Pa&ig is fairly healthy. It was formerly an impoi^
tant commeicial centre, the inhabitants being largely engaged in
a carrying and forwarding trade between Manila and the lake
ports; but this trade was lost after the establishment of direct
rail and steamboat aervice between these ports. The principal
industries are rioe-farming, the manufacture of a cheap red
pottery, and fishing. The language is Tagakig.
FASXTBlAi the most important member of. the Neo-Attlfc
school of aculpture in the time oC Julius Caesar. At that period
there waa at Rome a demand for copies of, ct vsriations on,
noted works of Greek sculpture: the demand was met by the
workshops of Pasiteles and his pupils Stephanus and Menelaus
and others, several of whose statues are extant, la working
from early Dorian models they introduced refinements of their
own, with the result that they produced beautiful, but some-
what vapid and academic types. Pastiteles is said by Pliny
{NaL HiU, xxxvL 39) to have been a native of Magna Graeda,
and to have been granted the Roman citiaenship.
PASKEVICHr IVAN FBDOROVICH (1782-1856), count of
Erivaik, prince of Warsaw, Russian field maisbal, descended
from an old and wealthy family, was bom at Poltava on the
lOth (8Lb) of May 1782. He was educated at the imperial
institution Ua pages, where his progress was rapid, and in
1800 received his commission in the Guards and was named
aide-de-camp to the tsar. His first active service was in 1805,
in the auxiliary army sent to the asistancc of Austria against
France, when he took part in the balUe of Austerlitz. From
1807 to 18 1 2 he was cngsged in the campaigns against Turkey,
and distinguished himself by many brilliant and daring exploits,
being made a general oflicer in his thirtieth year. During the
French War of 1812-14 he was present, in comnuind of the a6th
division of infantry, at all the most important engagements; at
the battle of Leipaig he won promotion to the rank of lieutenant-
general. On the outbreak of war with Persia in 1826 he was
appointed second in command, and, succeeding in the fol-
lowing year to the chief command, gained rapid and brilliant
successes which compelled the shah 10 sue for peace in February .
884
PASLEY— .PASQUIER, DUKE
z888. In reward of hii tenricet lie 1ms named by the emperor
count of Erivan, and received a milUon of roubles and a diamond*
moontcd sword. From Persia be was sent to Turkey in Asia,
and* baving captured in rapid sucoevtion the principal lortreasca,
be was at the end of tbe rampajgn made a field marshal at the
age of forty-seven. In 1830 be subdued tbe mountaineers of
Daghestan. In 1851 be was entrusted with tbe command of
tbe army sent to suppress tbe revolt of Poland, and after tbe
fall of Warsaw, which gave tbe death-blow to Polish indepoi-
dence, he was raised to the dignity of prince of Warsaw, and
created viceroy of tbe kingdom of Poland. On the outbreak
of the insurrection of Hungary in 1848 he was appointed to
the command of tbe Rvssian troops sent to tbe aid of Austria,
and finally compelled the surrender of tbe Hungarians at
Viligos. In April r854 he again took tbe fidd in command
of the army of the Danube^ bat on tbe 9tb of June, at Silistria,
where he suffered defeat, be received a contusion which compelled
him to retire from active service. He died on tbe rath (ist)
of February 1856 at Warsaw, where in 1869 a memorial was
erected tofaim. He held the rank of field manbal in the Prussian
and Austrian annies as well as in bis own service.
See Tolstoy. Essoi bioimpkijut H kisl^nque nr U fetd-nufSekal
Prime* de Varsarie (Paris. 1835); Notke biognphigiu ntr U Marickal
Paskhitch (Lctpriff. 1856); and Prince Stcberbatov's lAJ* (St
Petenbuig, 1888-1894)-
PASLE7, SIR CHABLBS WIUIAM (r78o-x86i), British
soldier and military engineer, was bom at F^dfilf Muir, Dum-
friesshire, on the 8th of September 1780. In 1796 be entered
tbe Royal Military Academy, Woolwich; a year later he gained
his commission in the Royal Artilleiy, and in 1798 he was
transferred to tbe Royal Engineers. He was present In the
defence of Gaata, tbe battle of Maida and the siege of Copen-
hagen. In 1807, being then a captain, be went to the Peninsula,
where his knowledge of Spanish led to his employment on the
staff of Sir David Baird and Sir John Moore. He took part in
the retreat to Comnna and the Walcheren Expedition, and
received a severe wound whOe gallantly leading a storming
party at Flushing. During his tedious recoveiy he employed
himself in learning (krman. He saw no further active service;
the rest of bis life being devoted to the foundation tA a complete
science of military engineering and to the thorough organization
and training of the corps of Royal Engineeis. He was so success*
ful that, though only a captain, he was allowed to act for two
years as commanding royal engineer at Plymouth and given a
special grant. The events of the Peninsolar War having empha-
siscd the need of a fully trained engineer corps, Pasle/s views
were adopted by the war <^ce, and he himsdf pbced at tbe
bead of the new school of military engineering at Woolwich.
This was in 181 a, and Pasley was at the same time gazetted
brevet major. He became brevet lieutenant-colonel in 1813 and
substantive lieutenant-colonel in 1814. The fiist volume of his
UiHtawy InstmcHon appeared in 1814, and contained a course
of practical geometry which he had framed for his company at
Plymouth. Two other volumes completing the work appeared
by t8i7, and dealt with the science and practice of fortification,
the latter comprising rules for construction. He published a
work on Practical Architechire, and prepared an important
treatise on Tke PracUcai Operaiions of a Sieg^ (1829-1832), which
was translated into French (1847). He became brevet colonel
in T830 and substantive colonel in 1831. From i83i>i834 the
subject that engaged bb leisure was that of standardization of
coins, weights and measures, and he published a book on this
fai 1834. In 1838 he was presented with the freedom of the dty
of London for his services in removing sunken vesseb from the
bed of the Thames near Gravesend; and from r839 to 1844 he
was occupied with dearing away the wrecks of H.M.S. " Royal
George ** from Spithead and H.M.S. " Edgar " from St Helens.
AD this work was subsidiary to his great work of creating a
comprehensive art of militaiy engineering. In 1841 on promo-
tion to the rank of major-general be was made inspector-general
^ raflways. In 1846 on vacating this appointment he was made
t IC.C.B., and tbcncsforward up to 1B55 was chiefly oanocmed
with tbe East bdla Company's aHitiiy ttademy at Addis-
oombe. He was promoted lieutenant-gaicnl in 185c, made
colonel commandant of the Royal Engineeis in i8s3, aiid genetd
in x86a He died in London on the 19U1 of April t86i. His
eldest son, Major-Geoeral Charles Pkalcy (x8_s^za9o), was a
distinguisfaed Royal &igineer officer.
Amongst PSaley's works, besides those meatioocd, woe aepaiase
editions of bb Proctieal Geometry Method (i8a2) and of hb Cowm
•/ EUwuntary Fortificatitm (1833). both of which formed pan iA
bb Military Instruetion: Rmksfur Escaladimg ForHfications nut korwc
Po/wddedCMeretf fl^<^« (1833; new eds.i8A5 and 185.^^ ' '
'iiory ZnstructioH; RuUsfor 1
ted covered Ways (1833 ; new eds. i8m and 1854) ; dcscriptiosH
of a semaphore iovented b;; himself in 180^ (iSss and 1833) ; A &mpi€
Proetkal Treatise on Pied PortificaHom (1833); and £m£M <^tke
Hexedecked Pontoons inoented by Jjientenant'CMonel PosUy (1833).
PAWHnER, iruuiJiis (x539>x6i5), French lawyer and man
of letters, was bom at Paris, on the 7tb of June 1539 by bb owa
account, according to others a year earlier. He was called to
tbe Paris bar in 1549- In Z558 he became very ill through eating
poisonous mushrooms, and did not recover fully for two years.
Thb compelled him to occupy himself by literary work, and
in X560 be published the first book of hb Rtdurcbes dt iaFrasum,
In X565, when be was thirty-seven, hb fame was established by
a great speech still extant, in which be pleaded the cause of the
university of Parb against tbe Jesuits, and won it. Meanvdiile
be pursued the RecUercka steadily, and publbhed from time to
time much miscellaneous work. Hb Uteraiy and bb lc«al
occupations coincided in a curious fashion at the Grands Joois id
Poitiers in 2579. These Grands Jouxs (an institution which fdl
into desuetude at the end of the Z7th century, with bad ellccts
on the social and political welfare of tbe French provinces) wcr
a kind of irregubr assize in which a commission of the p^rifrfffm
of Parb, sdected and despatched at short notice by the fcb^
bad full power to hear and determine all causes, especially those
in which seignorial rights bad been abused. At the Graada Jews
of Poiu'ers of the date mentioned, and at those of Troyes in
1583, Pasquier officiated; and each occasion has left a cuiions
litersry memorial of the jests with which be and hb ^-^ti^^ytn
relieved their graver duties. The Poitiers work was tbe cele-
bnted collectioa of poems on a flea (see Southe/s Doctor'^, la
X585 Fssquier was appointed by Henry III. advocate-gokcral
at the Parb coucs des oomptcs, an important body havi^
political as. well as finandal and legal functions^ Hei« be
dbtinguished himself particularly by opposing, aoosetioKS
succenfuUy, the mischievons -system of selling hereditaiy piaea
and offices, which moi« perhaps than any ain^ tltfng was tbe
curse of tbe older French monarchy. Tbe dvil wars compelled
Pasquier to lesve Parb and for some years be lived at Totus,
working steadily at hb great book, but be returned to Paris in
Henry IV. 's train in March X594. He continued until 160)4 ss
his work in tbe duunbre des comptes; then be retired. He
survived thb retirement more than ten years, producing much
literary work, and died after a few hours' illness on tbe sat ^
Septeinber 1615.
In so long and so labortons a life Pasquier's work was natataDv
considerable, and it has never been fully collected or indeed pruttcd
The standard edition is that of Amsterdam (a vob. fol., 1733). Bat
for ordinary readers the selections of Lion Feugere. published at
Parb (3 vols. 8vo, 1849), with an elaborate intrwluction. arr most
accessible. As a poet Pasquier b chiefly interestine as a mnw
member of the Pliiade movement. As a proae writer be b of mnek
more account. The three chief divbions of his pitne work are ha
Reckerckes^ his» letters and his professional spcedies. The letters are
of much biogra|}hical interest and hbtoricad importance, and tbr
Reckerehes contain in a somewhat miscellaneous fashion Invaluable
information on a vast variety of subjects, literary, political, anti-
quarian and other.
PASaUIBR. finBmiB DBNIS. Duu (r 767-1862), Ficxxh
statesman, was bom on the 32nd of April 1767. DcscciMkd
from a family which had long been dbtinguished at tbe bar and
in connexion with the parlcments of France, he was destined ice
the legal profession and was educated at the college of JaiOy.
He then became a cotmseUor of tbe pai4ement of PariSv and
witnessed many of the incidents that marked tbe gi uwm g
hostility between that body and Loub XVI. in tbe yeaia pcrced-
big the outbreak of tbe French Revolution in 1789. His 1
PASQUINADE—PASSAGLIA
»85
were thott of a modecate tefonMr» wlio dedfed to renovate but
not to end the institutions of the old raonarchx; and his memoirs
set forth ia a favoorable light the actions of that parlement,
the ezisunce of which was soon to be tenninated amid the
political Btonns of the dose of the yeai 1789. For some time,
and especially during the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), Pasquier
remained in obscttrity; but this did not save him from arrest
in the year 1794. He was thrown into prison shortly before
the coup d'etat of Thennidor (July 1794) which overthrew
Kobeq>ierre. In the reaction in favour of ordinary govern-
ment which ensued Pasquier regained his liberty and his estates.
He did not re-enter the public service until the period of 'the
Empire, when^be arch<hancellor C^mbacCris used his influence
with Napoleon to procure for him the oflke of " maltre des
roquetls " to the councU of state. In 1809 he became baron
of the Fiench Empire, and ux Februaiy x8io counsellor of state.
Napoleon in 1810 made him prefect of police. The chief event
which mlBed the course of his life at that time was the strange
conspiracy of the republican general Malet (Oct. 18x3), who,
giving out that Napoleon had perished in Rnasia, managed to
surprise and capture some of the ministen and other authorities
at Paris, among them Pasquier. The collapse of this bold
attempt enabled him, however, speedily to regain Us liberty.
When Napoleon abdicated in Apifl 1814 Phaquier continued
to eierdse his functions for a few days in order to preserve
order, and then resigned the prefecture of police, whereupon
Louis XVUI. allotted to him the control of roads and bridges.
He took no share in the imperial restoration at the time of thtf
Hundred Days (181 s), and after the second entry of Louis XVIIL
Into Paris he became minister of the interior, but finding It
impossible to work with the hot headed royalisuof the Chamber
of Deputies {La Ckam^$ introuvabk), he.reslgned oflioe. Under
the more moderate miolsteTS of succeeding years he agahi held
various appointments, but refused to join the reactionary
cabinets of the close of the reign of Chadca X. Alter the July
Revolution (1830) he became president of the Chamber of Peers
— a poA which he held through the whole of the rdgn of Lbuts
Philippe (1830-1848). In 1842 he was elected a member of the
French Academy, and In the same year was created a duke.
After the overthrow of Louis Philippe in February 1848, Pasquier
retired from active life and set to work to compile the notes and
reminiscences of his long and active career.. He died in 1862.
See Mim^tHS du Ckaturlitr Pasquier (6 vob., Pari«, 1893-1 805;
ertly translated into English. 4 voU., London, 1893-18947. Also
de Vieilcastel, Hisioire at la iUstawatm, vols, i.-fv.
a*Ht.R.)
PASQVIRAOB, a variety of libel or lampoon, of which it is not
easy to give an exact definition, separating it from other kinds.
It should, perhaps, more especially deal with public men and.
public things. The distinction, however, has been rarely
observed in practice, and the chief interest in the word is its
curious and rather legendary origin. According to the earliest
version, given by Mazoccbi ui 1509, Pasquino was a Khoolmaster
(others say a cobbler), who had a biting tongue, and lived in the
15th century at Rome. His name, at the end of that century
or the beginning of the next, was transferred to a statue which
had been dug up in 1501 in a mutilated condition (some say near
his shop) and was set up at the comer of the Piazza Navona,
opposite the palace of Cardinal Caraffa. To this statue it
became the custom to afiix squibs on the papal government and
on prominent persons* At the beginning of the 16th oentury
Pasquin had a partner provided for him in the shape off another
sutue fouiyl in the Campus Marthis, said to represent a river
fod, and dubbed Marforio, a faro Martit. The regulation form
of the pasquinade then became one of dlak>gue, or rather qtfesiion
and answer, in which Marforio usually addresaed leading inquiricft
to his friend. The proceeding soon attained a certain fiorapean
notoriety, and a printed collection of the squlba doe to it (they
were long written In Latin verse, with an occaaioiial excunioa
into (;rcek) appeared In 1509. In the ilnt book ci Pamiafmd
(1532 or thcreabottU) Rabelais intioduees booka by PaaqulUus
«nd Marphofffut in the catalogue of the libniy of St Victor,
and later he quotes some vtteraooee of Pisqnin^ In his letters to
the bishop of Maillezais. These, by the way, show that Pasquin
was by no meana always satirical, but dealt in grave advice and
ooounent. The original Latin pasquinades were collected in
1544, as PasqtriUorum Idmi duot edited by (^aelius Sccundos
Curio. The vogue of thete lampoons now became general, and
rose to its height during the pontificate of Sixtus V. (1585-1590).
These utterances were not only called paaquinades (pasquinat^
but simply pasquils {pasqttUlutt fa$quiUo^ patqmtU), and thik
form was sometimes used for the mythical personage himself. It
was used in English for purposes of satire by Sir Thomas Elyot,
in his Pasquin the Plain (1540) and by the anonymous author of
Pasquin in a Trance (1566); but it was first made popular in
England by Thomas Nash, who bi 1589 began to sign his violent
controversial pamphlets with the pseudonym of Pasquil of
England. It continues to occur through the course of the
Marprelate controversy as the title of the enemy of the Puritans.
These English lampoons were in prose. The Frendh pasquib
(examples of which may be found b Foumler's VoritUs kistor-
iqms et litUraira) were more usually In vene. In Italy itself
Pasquin Is said not to have condescended to the vernactdar tlH
the i8th century. Contemporary comic periodicals, especially
in Italy, still occasfonally use the Marforio-Pasquhio dialogue
form. But this survival Is purely artificial and literary, and
pasquinade has, at noted above, ceased to have any precise
meaning
PASQUim, BBRITAHOO (1637-1710), Italian musical coo-
poser, was bom at Massa in Val dl Nievole (Ttecany) on the
8th of December 1637 Be was a pupil of Marcantonio Cesti
and Loreto Vittori. He came to Rome while still young and
entered the service of Prince Bofghese; later he became organist
of St Maria Maggiore. He enjoyed the protectioii of Qoeok
Christina of Sweden, in whose honour an opera of his, Doi^ I
am&re i piOo, was produced In 1679. During Afessandro
Scarlatti's second sojourn in Rome (1703*1708), Pasquint and
Corelli Were frequently associated with him in mui^al perform-
ances, espeddly in connexion with the Arcadian Academy, of
which all thre« were members. Pasquini died at Rome oif the
9}nd of November 1710, and was buried In the church of St
Lorenzo In Lucina. He deserves remembrance as a vigorous
composer for the haipsichord; and an Interesting account of
hts music for this instrument will be found in J. S. Shedleck's
The Pianoforte Sonata,
PA88ACAGUA, the name of an old Spanish dance, supposed
to be derived from fasar, to walk, and catto, street, the tune
bebig played by wandering muaidans in the streets. It was a
slow and rather solemn dance of one or two dancers. The dance
tune reKmbled the ** chaoonoe," and was, like it, constructed
on a ground-bass. Brahms*s Symphony m E Minor, No. 4, ends
with an elaborate passaca^iaa
PAaSAGUA* CARLO (1811*1887). Italian divine, was botn
at Lucca on the and of May 1819. Passagha was soon destined
for the priesthood, and w«a placed under the cere of the Jesuits
at the age of fifteen. He became successively doctor in mathe-
matics, phflooophy and theology in the university of Rome. In
tS44 he was made proCeaaor in the Collegio Roouno, the well>
known Jeauit college la Rone. In 1845 he took the vows as a
member of the Jcaoit order. In 1848, during the expulsioB of
the Jesulu from Rone which folkrwcd on the revolutionary
troubles in the Italian peninsula, he paid a brief visit to England.
On his return to Italy he foundied, with the assistance of Father
Curd and Lvigi TapareDi d'Aai^Uo, the celebrated oegan of
the Jesuit order entitled the ChUtd CatUdiea. In iS$4 csow
the dedsloDof the Roman Chorcb on the long-debated qacstioa
of the ImmacnlsteCbnceptioB of the Virgin. Into the agitatlett
for the peomnlgatjoa of this dogma Paasaglia threw Unsetf
with great eageraeH, and by so dofaig recommended hhasclf
strongly to Pope Pius IX. Bat his favour with the pape was
of short duration. In 1859, when the war between Aostiia and
Fiance (the first step towards the unification of Italy) beskttM^
Passagha espoused the popular aide. He took refuge at ^'^
and under the Influenoe of Cavour he wrote an J^
886
PASSAIC— PASSION
ltpitttP99 C«lkdUt pr0 e€Mta Italka, in which, like Laveram
l)a(ur« him, h« boldly ttttcked the temporal power of the pope.
For thi» he wm cxpetlccl from the order of Jesuita, his book was
put oo the itU49t and his figure struck out, by the pope's order,
tnm a piclun painUd to commemorate the prodamatloD of the
4acma of the Immaculate ConccptkMk. A refuge from the anger
«l the pope was afforded him in the Casa Cavour at Turin, the
house in which Cavour was bom. There he laboured for Italian
BDity with indomitable energy In the north of Italy, in ooi^ubc-
lion with Cardinal d'Andrea in the south, and he collected the
«gnatuics of 9000 priests to an addrem to the pope in opposition
to the temporal power, and in favour of abandoning all resistanoe
to the ttnk)a of Italy under a king of the House of Savoy. He
•wl the 9000 priesta were excommunicated on the 6th of October
186a. Pmigilta disregarded his escommum*cation» and con-
l his work as professor of moral philosophy at Turin, to
\ he had been appointed in 1861, and be|^ a series of
dvnses in the church of San Carlo at Milan. But on
a a ri t if in order to preach his second sermon he found himself
»ct by an inhibition on the part of Mgr Caoda,- the administrator
of thn archdiocese of Milan. .Elected deputy in the Italian
pniiamait, he still advocated strongly the cause of. Italian
in<hp<ifcii<.urr, and at a later period wrote a defence of the rights
•f the episcopate under the title of La Cctua di na emnenta U
€ wHmalt €Andna, He afao (1864) wrote against Kenan's Vie
df Jisms, Eight days before his death he endeavoured to be
sacoodfed to the pope, and made a full WBti»cteti<wi. He died
at T\irin on the lathof March 1887.
fMSAIC; a dty of Passaic county, Mew Jfoty, U.S.A., at
the head of navigation on the Passaic river. 5 m. S.S.E. of
P^ttfaott. (Fop. (1890), 15^38; (rgoo), 17,7771 of whom 12,900
weee foreign-bom; Ci9to census), 54.773. P^usaic is served
by the Erie and the Delaware. Lackawana & Westem railways.
Tho cast part of the dty is a plain occupied chiefly by factories,
iar which water-power is fuinishod by the river and a canal; the
wtst part, which is almost wholly residential, extends over hills
whkh coRunand excellent views. Among the principal buildingB
art Ike dty hall, and the Janr Watson Reid Memorial Library.
The city^ factory products increased fai value from $12,804,805
in 1900 to $ai,78a,79S in 1905, or 77*9%- About one-half of
the vahM in 1905 was in worsteds, cottons and woollens; other
jMpoitaal manufactures are rubber goods and electrical supplies.
TWee are large vineyards near the diy. A settlement was
wHablwhed here hy the Dutch in 1679, and was called Acqu^cka-
•onk or PaterMm Landing until the middle of the 19th century.
rasMic was incorporated as a village in 1869, and in 1873 was
cWtcrcd as a dty.
5^ W. I ?tpt and W. W. Scott. Tke New History af- Passaic
(titmak, il99)*
HMAO. a town and episcopal see of Germany, in the kingdom
«f Bavaria, ^uresqudy situated at the confluence of the
klawiVt. the Inn and the Hz, dose to the Austrian frontier,
1^ m N.E. from Munich and 74 S.E. of Regensburg by raiL
tfV^^ (1900). 18,003, neariy all bdng Roman Catholics. Pasaau
41IJW10H of the town proper, lying on the rocky tongue of land
l^^>^^n the Danube and the Inn, and of four suburbs, Innatadt
^ %Wt^t bankof the Inn, Ifastadt on the left bank of the Hs,
^«4^ In the angie between Ha and the Danube, and St Nikola.
^ 4t4M» %n| the moat iMautiful places on the Danube, a fine effect
V.^<^ |ii«diiced by the way in which the houses are piled up
y^,^ a^v* anoth^ on the heights rising from the river. The
K«4 41MHI view is ohtained from the Oberfaaus, an old fortress,
iM« wh4 aaa prison, which crowns a hill 300 ft. -high on the left
h«ak fi the Danube. Of the eleven dniidiea, the moat inter*
e^Di^ h the cnthedral of St Stephen, a florid, rococo edifice,
k ««a Mil after * fire in the 17th century on the site of a church
imU W' haw been founded in the 5th centuiy;it has two towers,
«uf4 jirwriiM soiae valuable tettcs. Other churches are the
OM^ «huivh of the Holy Ghost; the churches of St Sevcrin,
^4 M ViMl and of St Gertnide; the double church of St Salvator.
ih»KM«fe*Meque church of* "* ^ 'he pilgrimage church
<4 OuA l^ of Succour iKh of the hospital
of St Jdm; and the Romanesque Votiv KIrehe. Tbe poit
office occupies the site of a building in which in 1552 thm Tkcaty
of Passau was signed between the emperor Chailes V. and
Maurice, elector of Saxony. The fine Dom PlaU cootaics a
statue of the Bavarian king, Maiimilian L The old forts and
bastions of the dty have been demolished, but ihe two finked
fortresaea, the Oberhans and the Niedcrhans, are still cxtaat
The former was built eariy in the 13th century by tJie fabhop
in consequence of a rewdt 00 the part of the citixens; the
latter, mentioned as eariy as 737, is now private property.
The chief industries are the manufacture of tobacco, beer, leather,
porcelain, machinery and paper. Large quantitiea of timber are
floated down the Hx. The well-known Passau crwdUes are
made at the iieighbouriog village of Obernzell.
PUsau is of ancient origin. Hie first settiemcDt was probiahly
a Cdtic one, Boindttntm; this was on the dte of tke preseat
Innstadt. Afterwards the Romans established a oohmy of
Bfttavian • veterans, the eastra bataoa here. Jt received <ivk.
rights in 1225, and soon became a prosperous plaoe, but much
of iu history oonsisu of broils between the bisliqpa*aDd the
dtixens. The strong fortress of the Oberhaus was taken by the
Austrians in r74a, and again in r8o5. The bishopric of Paasaa
was founded by St Boniface in 738. The diocese was n large
one, induding until 1468 not only much of Bavaria, but pncb-
cally the whole of the archduchy of Austria. About ta6o the
bishop became a prince of the empire. Amongst the cniber
bishops was Pilgrio or PQigrim (d. 991). and among the later
ones were the Austrian archdukes, Leopold «nd Leopold Willaam.
the former a brother and the latter a son of the eaipuu f
Ferdinand U. In 1803 the bishopric was secularised, nnd iu
1805 its lands came into the possession of Bavaria. Themm,
which was dimhiished in the 15th, and again in the r8th oetttory,
was then about 350 sq. m., and the populatioA ahoot so^ooo.
A new bishopric of PasMu, with ecderiaslical jurisdictios only,
was esta b liihed in 1817.
See Eriiart. CesekUliie dtr Sadt Passau (Pama; r86a-i864l : aad
Morin, Passau (1878). For the history of the biahopric aee SohoUer.
Dig Bischdfe von Passau <Pa»aau, 1844) ; aod Schrfidl, PasMoia sacrc
CssrkUkU.des Bistums Passau (Passau, 1879).
PASSBRAT, JBAH (x534--x6oi), French poet, was bonx a:
Troyes, on the i8th of October 1534. He studied at the uni-
versity of Paris, and is said to have had some curious adventures
— at one time working In a mine. He was, however, a schcdar by
natural taste, and became eventually a teacher at the ColUlge
de Plessis, and on the death of Ramus was nude profesoor cf
Latin in 1573 in the CoU^ de France. In the meanmh.'.e
Passerat had studied law, and had composed much agreciLlt
poetry in the PUiade style, the best pieces being his short ode
Du Premier jour de mat, and the charmfng villancUe, J*ai perdu
ma UntrlereUe. His exact share in the Salyre minippU (Tours
1594), the great manifesto of the pditique or Moderate RoyaL>i
party when it hod declared itself for Henry of Navarre, is
differently stated; but it is agreed that he wrote most of the
verse, and the harangue of the guerrilla chief Rjcux Is sometimes
attributed to him. The famous lines Stir la jouruie de Stui^s,
in which he commends the due d'Aumale's ability in rtmning
away, is one of the most celebrated political songs in French.
Towards the end of his life he became bUnd. He died in Paris
on the X4th of September x6o3.
Sec a notice by P. Blanchemain prefixed to bif edition of PaMrrs^'t
Poisies franfoises (1880). Among his Ladn works should be not kt4
Kaieudae »nuariae et mria quaidam poemaia (» vols.. 1606). ad*
dreaaed chiefly to bit friend and ration Hemi de Mfainta F«r the
Satyre mhsippit aee the edition of Charles Read (1876).
PAmOH (poat-dassicallAt. passio, fonned from psii, ^xmi,
to suffer, endure), a term which la used In two main aennc*: (il
the suffering of pain, mud (t) feeling or cnotion. The first s
chiefly used of the suffoingi of Jesus Christ, extendi^ from tte
time of tbe agony in the garden untfl his death oa the croan. la
this sense pasaia was used by the eariy Christian writers, *ad the
terra is also applied to the sufferings and deeds of aaiists and
martyrs, synooynaously with aeu or gcrte, a book cootniniog
such' bdng knowa aa a " patsional " ifiker p antamU it} at
PASSIONFLOWER— PASSION WEEK
887
"passionary " (passlonarfais). TheoiiiWof PaasioBHt Fatheis, the
full title of which is the " Congregation of the Discalced Clerks
of the Most Holy Cross and Passion of our Lord Jesus Christ/'
was founded by St Paul of the Cross (Paolo dcUa Croce, 1694-
1775; canoaiaed 1867) in 1720, but full saiictkm was not obtained
for the order till 1737, when the first monastety was established
at Monte Argentaria, Orbetdlo. The secondary sense of
" passion " ii due to the late use of pasnc to translate the Greek
philosophical tenn wiSof, the dassical Latin equivalent being
ajfeetus. The modem use generally restricU the term to strong
and uncontrolled emotion.
PASSIONFLaWBR iPastiJhra), the typical genus of the order
to which it gives its name. The name passioadower— jIm
Fig. i.-'Pasiifiora CoeruUa, showins Leaf with Stipules, Tendril,
and dcuched Flower.
passionis — ^arote from the supposed resemblance of the corona
to the crown of thorns, and of the other parts of the flower to
the nails, or wounds, while ^he five sepals and five petab were
taken to symbolize the ten apostles — Peter, who denied, and
Judas, who betrayed, being left out of the reckoning. The
species are mostly natives of western tropical South America;
others are found in various tropical and sub-tropical districts of
both hemispheres. The tacionias, by aome considered to form
part of this genus, inhabit the Andes at considerable elevations.
They are mostly climbing plants (fig. i) having a woody stock
and herbaceous or woody branches, from the sides of which
tendrils are produced which enable the branches to support
themselves at little expenditure of tissue. Some few form trees
of considerable stature destitute of tendrils, and with broad
magnolia-like leaves in place of the more or less palmatdy-lobed
leaves which are most generally met with in the order. The leaf
It usually provided at the base of the leaf -sulk with stipules,
which are inconspicuous, or large and leafy; and the stalk is
Also furnished with one or more glandular excrescences, as in
some cases are the leaf itself and the bracts. The inflorescence
is of a cymoN character, the tenninal branch being represented
by the tencbil, the side branches by flower-attUcs, or the
iaflorcflcenoe may be reduced to a single stalk. The bracu
on the floweratalk are either amall and scattered or laige
and leaty» and then placed near the flower, forming a tort of outer
calyx or epicalyz. The flower ttadf (seen in irctioa in fig.«8)
oonaiau of a veoeptade varying in fonn fconi that of a shallow
aaucer to that of a long cylindrical or tnimpet-ahapcd tube, thin
or fleshy in consistence, and giving off from iu upper border the
five sepals, the five petals (rardy these latter are abaent), and the
threads or membranou processes constituting the "corona."
Thia coronet forms the most conapicuous and beautiful part of
the flower of many spedes, and consbu of outgrowths from the
tube formed subsequently to Che other paru, and having little
morphological significance, bat being physiologically useful in
favouring the crQss4enilixatioa of the flower by means of insects^
Other otttgrowtha of simiUc character, but less coospicuoua,
occur lower down the tnbe, and their variations afiord usefnl
means of discriminating between the spedes. From the base
of the inner part of the tube of the flower, but quite free fromit,
uprises a cylindrical stalk surrounded below by a amall cup-IiLe
outgrowth, arul bearing above the middle a ring of five flat
filamema each attached by a thread-like point to an anther.
.\bove the ring of stamens b the ovary itsdf , upraised on a pro-
longation of the same stalk which bears the filsSmcnts, or sessile.
Fro. 2.— Flower of Passionflower cut through the centre to diow
the artangement of iu conststueot parts.
The stalk supporting the stamens and ovary is called the " gyno-
phore " or the " gynandrophore," and is a characteristic of the
order. The ovary of paaionflowers is one-celled with three
parietal placentas, and bears at the top three styles, each
capped by a large button-like stigma. Tlie ovary ripens into
a berry-like, very rardy capsukr, firait with the three groups
of seeds arranged in lines along the walls, bot imbedded
in a pulpy arillus derived from the stalk of the seed. This
succulent berry is in some cases highly perfumed, and affords a
delicate fruit for the dess^-table, as in the case of the ** grana-
dilla " {P. quadraniuhrisit P. edtUis, P. macrocorpa, and various
spedes of Tacsonia known as "curubas** ii\ Spanish South
America; P. laurifatia is. the water-lemon, and K maiifvnmis
the sweet calabash of the West Indies. The fruits do not usually
exceed in size the dimensions of a hen's or of a swan's egg, but
that of P. macroccrpa is a gourd-like oblong fruit attainmg a
weight of 7 to 8 lb.
The tacsonias, which in cultivation are generally regarded
as distinct, differ from Passijhra in having a long cylindrical
calyx-tube, bearing two crowns, one at the throat, the other near
the base; they arc stove or greenhouse plants; T, pinnatistipuia,
with pale rose-coloured flowers, a native of Chfle and Peru, has
long been in cultivation; T. Vim-VtlxemHt «>th handsome
scarlet flowe rs, is o ne of the finest spedes.
PASSION WEEK, the fifth week in Lent, beginning with
Piassion Sunday (dominka passionis or dt pasiiotu domimiit so
called from very eariy times because with it begins the more
spedal commemoration of Christ's passion. Passion week b of ten
incorrectly identified with Holy week (9.?.). In the north of
England Passion Sunday was formeriy known as Carle or Carting
Sunday, a name corrupted from "care," in alhiaion to the
sorrowful season which the day heralds. It was the tmivcrsal
custom in medieval England to eat on thb Sunday ^ '^-i^— -^
steeped and fried in butter, which came to be cr'
association " Carling Nut."
888
PASSOVER
PASSOVER, a Hebrew spring festival, celebrated by the Jews
in commemoratioti of the exodus from Egypt by a family feast
in the home on the first evening, and by abstaining from leaven
during the seven days of the feast. According to tradition, the
first Passover {** The Passover of Egypt " ), was preordained by
Moses at the command of God. The Israelites were commanded
to select on the tenth of Abib (Nisan) a he-lamb of the first year,
without blemish, to kill it on the eve of the fourteenth and to
sprinkle with its blood the lintel and sidepost of the doon of their
dwellings so that the Lord should *' pass over " them when he
went forth to slay the first-bom of the Egyptians. The lamb
thus drained of blood was to be roasted and entirely consumed by
the Israelites, who slKMild be ready with loins girded, shoes on
feet and staff in hand so as to be prepared for the exodus. In
memory of this the Israelites were for all time to eat unleavened
bread (ms^foth) for seven days, as well as keep the sacrifice of
the Passover on the eve between the fourteenth and the fifteenth
of Nisan. This evening meal was not to be attended by any
stranger or undrcurndsed person. " On the morrow of the
Sabbath "* a wave offering of a sheaf of barley was to be made.
Those who were tmable to perform the sacrifice of the Passover
owing to impurity at the appointed time, were permitted to do so
a month later.
Varioiu theories have been from time to time proposed to
account for this complex of enactments. J. Spencer in his De
Ugibus Hebraeorum saw in the Passover a practical protest
against the Egyptian worship of Apis. Vatke considered it a
celebration of the spring solstice, Baur a means of removing the
impurity of the old year. Lengerke recognized a double motive:
the lamb for atonement, the unleavened bread as a trace of the
haste of the early harvest. Ewald regarded the Passover as an
original pre-Mosaic spring festival made to serve the interest of
purity and atonement.
All these views have, however, been cast in the shade by more
recent investigations based on minute literary analysis of the
Pentateuchi begun by Graf, continued by Ruencn, and culminat-
ing in the work of Wellhausen and Robertson Smith. This view
claims to determine the respective ages and relative chrono-
logical position of the various passages in which the Passover is
veferred to in the Pentateuch, and assumes that each successive
stratum represents the practice in ancient Israel at the time
of compoaiti<Hi» laying great stress upon omissions as implying
non-existence. The main passages and their copUnu are
airanged chronologically in the following way: —
A. In the EloJiist Book of the Covenant (Exod. xxiii.). The feast
of unleavened bread to be kept seven days at the time appointed
in the month Abib.
B. In the Yakwist Source (Exod. xxxiv. 18-21, 35). The feast of
anleaveoed bread to be kept seven days, &c. All firstlings to be the
Lord's. First-born sons to be redeemed; none to appear before
the Lord empty; six days' work, seventh day rest, in the harvest;
the sacrifice of the Passover shall not remain until the morning.
' Clntke Yakwistie History (Exod. xii. 2 1-37. 29-36. 38-39. nii- 3-*
16). Moses summons the elders of Israel and orders them to kill the
Passover and besprinkle the lintel and sidcposts with a bunch of
hyssop dipped in blood so that the Lord will pass over the door.
In later days when the children shall ask what this means it
ahall be said that this is the sacrifice of the Lord's Passover. At
midnight all the first-bom of the Egyptians arc slain and Pharaoh
sends the Israelites out of Egv-pt in iiaste. and the people took the
dough before.it was leavened upon kneading troughs upon their
shoulders.
D. Tkr DmkrpMomist (Deut. xvt. 1-8. 16-17). Observe the
month of Abib and keep the Passover because in that month God
brought out the Israelites from Egypt. The sacrifice of the Passover
of the flock and the herd shall be done in the place where God shall
cause His name to dwell. No leaven shall be eaten with it for aeven
days, and bread of affliction shall be eaten because tbey came forth
from Egypt in haste. Flesh shall not remain until the rooming:
the sacrifice must not be 11-ithin their gates but in the place where
the Lord shall cause His name to dwell. It shall be sodden and
eaten, and in the rooming they should go to their tents. Six days
cat unleavened bread, on the seventh a aoiema assembly. Reckon
seven weeks from the time of putting the cickk to the standing
com.
E. In the Uolituss Code (Lev. xxiii. 4-8, 9->4)- The T4th of
the first momh at even is the Passover of the Lord; on the 15th
of the same niootb is the feast of unleavened bctad for seven dava.
First and seventh days shall bs holy assembly, bat a re-offeriac
for seven dsys. On the morrow after the sabbath a wave ollenng
and also a burnt offering of the h^Iamb (with the correspondir^
meal and drink offering). Neither bread nor parched com oor
fresh ears shall be eaten until the oblation is made.
F. In the PriesUy History (Exod. xii. I>f0, »8-3i. xiii. 1-9). Oa
the loth day of the month every household shall take a ficstliog
taak without bEemish, of sheep or goat, and ahoukl kill it 00 the
i4Eh at eveon. and sprinkle the two sideposts and lintel with the
Uood, aruj ei^t the roasted flesh, not sodden, including head, legs
* > be I '
an«1 inward* t aII remaining over until the
i burst bv
fiiv% It thoEilJ be eaten with loina girded, shoes 00 feet, and sua
in hand becan^ue {» haste. It is toe Lord's Passover; when He
see^ the blood He will pass over you and there will be "no plague
tipoo you. Ai a memorial of this you shall eat unleavened bmd
seven days, on the 14th day at eve until the 3ist day at eve: when
children shall ask what this servke means, you shall say that it is Iks
Passover of the Lord.
G. In the Secondary Sonnet ^ ike PritaUy Code (Exod. xiL 40-41.
43-50, be 1-14, xiv. 16-35). No alien, sojourner or hired servant
sfiall eat thereof, but a bought servant, if circumcised. It shall
be eaten in haste; none of the flesh shall be carried forth, neither
shall a bone be broken. If a sojourner should wish to keep the
Passover, all his male shall be circumcised and he will be as one
bom in the land. The Passover was kept in the first month on the
14th day of the month at even in the wiMemess of Snai; but
certain men, unclean by touching a dead body, asked what tbey
should do; they were to keep it on the serond month on the
14th day, eating it with unleavened bread and bitter berba.
leaving none ot it until the morning, nor breaking a bone.
The first month on the 14th day of the month b the Paaaovrr;
the 15th day of this month shall be a feast; seven dsys unleaveiMd
bread to be eaten ; first day a holy assembly with fire offering,
two young bullocks and one lamb and seven firstling be-lambs
without blemish, with appropriate meal offering and one he-goss
for sin-offering: oa the seventh day another holy assembly.
Many discrepancies have been observed among critics in the
different portions of this series of enactments. Thus in the
Elohist and in Deuteronomy the date of the festival is only
vaguely stated to be in the month of Abib, while in the Holinea
Code and in the Priestly History the exact date is given. In tbe
Yahwist and Deuteronomist a solemn assembly is to be b«ld oa
the seventh day, but in the Holiness Code and in the secondary
sources of the Priestly Code both the first and the seventh day ef
the Feast of Unleavened Bread are to be solemn assemblies, la
the Deuteronomist the Passover sacrifice can be from dtbcr flock
or herd, whereas in the Holiness Code only lamb is mentioned,
and in the Priestly Code either kid or lamb. In the Deuterono-
mist the lamb is to be sodden or boiled, whereas In the Priestly
Code this is expressly forbidden. A still mote vital contrast
occurs concerning the place of sacrificing the Passover ; as enjoined
in Deuteronomy this is to be by the males of the famfly at
Jerusalem, wheress both in the presumably earlier Yahwist and
in the later Priestly Code the whole household joins in the f esttvsl
which can be celebrated wherever the Israelites are settled.
These discrepancies however are chiefly of interest in tbdr
bearing upon the problem of the Pentateuch, and really throv
little light upon the origin of the two feasts connected together
under the name of the Passover, to which the pcesem remarks
must be mainly confined. It iiuiy be observed however that the
absence of a definite date, in Deuteronomy must be accsdcmaL
since a common pilgrimage feast must be on a fixed day, and the
reference to the seven weeks elapsing between Passover and
Pentecost also implies the fixing of the date. So too even in thr
Elohist the time is appointed.
Reverting to the origin and the meaning of the feast, modcra
criticism draws attention to the different nature ol the t^o
observances combined with the name Passover, the pastoral
sacrifice of the paschal lamb and the agricultural observance o^ a
seven days* abstention from unleavened bread. It is nasumcd
that the former arose during the pastoral period oC Israelite
history before or during the stay in Egypt, while the hater wss
adopted from the Canaanites after the settlement in Palestine.
Against this may be urged that, according to the latest inquiries
into the pastoral hfe, there b always connected with it some foro
of agricidture and a use of ccreak, while, historically speaking
the Isrselites while in Eg]rpt were dependent on its corn. Ihrct
is, further, the objection that no distinctive crisis in ibe agnca^
tuial cca can be associated with the dMc.of the Pttwvcr. Thi
PASSOVER
889
beginaiog of barley bwcst k howtver generaUy associated with
it» while the trheat honrcst is connected with Pentecost. The
*' sheaf of the fitat^fniits of your harvest," mentioned in Lev.
xxiii. xo^ is associated in Jewish tnulition with the barley harvest
(Mtthna, Menacboth z.)< Tba, however, is not immediately
connected with the Passover, and is of moite significance as
determining the exact date of Pentecost.
Considering however the two sections of the Passover aepar*
ately, it is remarkable how matiy of the ceremonies associated
either histoxically or cetemoni^ly with the Passover have
connexion witb the idea of a covenant. The foUc-etymology of
the word Passover given in £xz>d. zii. 23 seems to connect the
original of the feast with a threshold covenant (see Trumbull,
TMreskM Cavenata, Philadelphia, 1903) ; the daubing of the side*
posts and lintel with blood at the original Rissover, which finds
its ceunterpart in Babylonian custom (Zimmem, Bai. s. Bab.
Rd. U. 1S6-7) and in Arabic usage OV&kidS, ed. Kremer» p.
j8), implies a blood covenant The communion meal would,
according to the views of Robertson Smith, also involve the idea
of a covenant; while the fact that no peison fining in the meal
should be undrcumdsed connects the feast with the covenant of
Abraham. Finally, the association of the first-bom with the
festival specially referred to in the texts, and carried out both in
Samaritan tradition, which marks the forehead of the first-bom
with the blood of ttei lamb, and in Jewish custom, which obliged
the first-bom to fast on the day preceding Passover, also connects
the idea of the feast with the sacro-sanctity of the first-bom.
The Hebrew tradition further connects the revelation of the
sacred name of the God of the Hebrews with this festival, which
thus combines, in itself, all the asaodalions connecting the
Hebrews with their God. It is not surprising therefore that
Hebrew tradition connects it with the Exodus, the beginning of
the theocntic life of the nation. It seems easiest to assume
that the festival, so far as the Passover itself is concerned, was
actually cotmected historically with the Exodus.
With regard to the abstention from leavened bread, the
inquiry is somewhat more complicated. As before remarked,
there seems no direct connexion between the paschal sacrifice
and what appears to be essentially an agricultural festival; the
Hebrew tradition, to some extent, dissociatca them by maiking
the sacrifice on the 14th of Nisan and beginning the Feast of
Unleavened Bread on the zsth. This seeming camal connexion,
to some extent, confirms the historic connexion suggested by
the text, that the Jews at the Exodus had to use bread prepared
in haste; but not even Hebrew tradition attempts to exphun
why the abstention should last for seven dajrs. The attempt of
modem critics to account for the period as that in which the
barley harvest waa gathered in, during which the workers in
the field could not prepare leavened bread, is not satisfactory.
The first-fmita of the barley harvest are to be gathered on
the " morrow of the sabbath" (Lev. xxiii. xx). This expression
has formed the subject of dispute between Samaritans and other
sectaries and the Jews, the former of whom regard it as referring
to the first Sunday during the festival, the latter as a special
expression for the second day of the festival itself (see Hoffmann,
Lev. ti. 159^3x5). But whichever interpretation b taken, the
oonnexioo of the festival with the harvest is only secondary.
The suggestion has been made by WeUhausen and Robertson
Smith that the Passover was, in ita original form, connected
with the sacrifice of the firstl^gs, and the latter points to the
Arabic annual sacrifices called *Atair, which some of the lexico-
graphers interpret as firstlings. These were presented in the
month Rajab, oorrespondmg to Nisan (Smith, Rtligion ofSemiUs,
p. 210I. But the real Arabic sacrifice of firstlings was called
Fcra*; it migKt be sacrificed at any time, as was also the case with
the Hebrews (Exod. xxii. 30). The paschal hmib was not
necessarily a firstling, but only in the first year of its life
(Exod. xii. s)* The suggestion of Wellhausen and Robertson
Smith confuses the offering of firstlings (Arabic Para") and that of
the first yeanlings of the year in the spring (Arabic Atair). It is
possible that the Passover was originally connected with the latter
(cf , Wellhausen, Rt$le arak BttdentmrnSj pp. 94.8eq.). As regards
the Feast of Unleavened Bread, now mdlssolubly connected with
the paschal sacrifice, no satisfactory explamition has been given
either of its original intention or of its connexion with the
Passover. It has been suggested that it was originally Ahagot
pilgiimage feast to Jerusalem, of which there were three i& the
year connected with the agricultuml festivals (Exod. xxjqv. 17,
xS). But the real agricultural occasion was not the eating of
unleavened bread but the offering of the first sheaf of the batli^
harvest on the ** morrow of the sabbath" in the Passover week
(Lev. xxiii. xo, xx), and this occasion determined the second
agricultural festival, the Feast of Weeks, fifty days later (Deut.
xvi. 9; Lev. xxiii. x6; see PEKrECX>ST). The suggestion that
the eating of cakes of unleavened brtad, similar to the AustraHan
" damper," was due to the exigencies of the harvest does not
meet the case, sbice it does not explain the seven days and is
incongruous with the fact that the fint sheaf of the harvest was
put to the sickle not earlier than the third day of the feast. It
still remains possible therefore that the seven days' eating of
unleavened bread (and bitter herbs) is an historical reminisx
cencc of the inddenta of the Exodus, where the normal commis-
sariat dkl not begin until a week after the first eat. On the
other hand, the absence of leaven may recall primitive practice
before its introduction as a domestic luxury; saaal rites generally
keep alive primitive custom. There was also associated in tht
Hebrew mind a connexion of impurity and cormptioo with the
notton of leaven which was tabu in all sacrifice (Exod. xxM^
18; Lev. ii. xi).
According to Robertson Smith, the devek>pment of the various
institutions connected with the I^issovcr was as follows. In
Egypt the Israelites, as a pastoral people, sacrificed the firstfings
of their flocks in the spring, and, according to tradition, it waa
a refusal to permit a general gathering for this purpose that
caused the Exodus. Wh^ the Israelites settled in Canaan they
found there an agricultural festival connected with the begin-
nings of the barley harvest, which coincided in point of date with
the Passover and was accordingly aseodated with it. At the time
of the reformation under Josiab, represented by Deuteronomy,
the attempt was made to turn the family thank offering 01
firstlings into a sacrificial rite performed by the prieats in the
Temple with the aid of the males of each household, who had to
come up to Jerusalem but left the next morning to celebrate the
Feast of Unleavened Bread in their homes. During the exile
this was found impossible, and the old home ceremonial was
revived and was kept up even after the retum of the exile. Thia
is a highly ingenious hypothesis to explain the discrepandcs of
the text, but Is, after all, nothing but hypothesis.
There appears to have been origknaOy considerable variety In
the mode of keeping the Passover, but the earliest mention in
the historical narratives (Jiuh. v. zx) connects the paschal
aacrifice with the eating of unleavened bread. But it » unsafe
to assume, from a Rings xxiii. ar, that the festival was iK>t
kept in the time of the early kings, since Solomon appears to have
kept up the three great pilgrimage festivals, 2 Kings ix. as,
and it is possibly referred to in Isa. i. 9. The complex of
observances connected with the Passover and the very want of
syslemization observed in the literary sources would seem to
vindicate the primitive character of the feast, which indeed is
recognised by all inquirers.
At any rate the Samaritans have, throughout their history,
observed the Passover with all its PenUteuchal ceremonial and
still observe it down to the present day. They sacrifice the
paschal lamb, which is probably the oldest religious rite that has
been continuously kept up. In two important points they differ
from later Jewish interpretation. The term "between the
evening" (Lev. xxiii. 5) they take as the time between sunset
and dark, and the *' morrow of the sabbath" (v. xx) they Uke
literally as the first Sunday in the Passover week; wherein they
agree with the Sadducees, Boetbusians, Karaites and other
Jewish sectaries. This would seem to point to a time when the
fixing of the sabbath was determined by the age of the moon,
so that the first day of the Passover, which is on the i$th of
Kisan, would always occur on a sabbath.
890
PASSOW— PASTEL
Dwiif cfcc f i itfffr «f the ttm^ that
irifintmrn ti tkt fjaiiuii, a Mrio €4
«§eTtd4mtigtkt»ewtm<Uj%mtke7tmf4e^6eUm€iw^kkmm
pifca » Xi». Mxwi^ hm the f —flj nrriirni watuiSkkepl ap
a«d pad«aJ7 4rvcioped c ^pecisl nc«aJ, vfcick ka» beoiicuiMd
( •rtbodM Jcwi «p 10 ife pBBKBt d»y. Tbe paachsl hab
BByr «M<» Ut iipiiwlnl >y ifceafcaA Ixacoi > JmA
I a tke Mfett; nkarMac4 band aad bititf hofe* CteTMKli)
i«<«^jicdnBk bcteeaad after tke
r fl< FulaM ne fedud. Tbefnuljr
•enrioe, toned Hnpti^ thd Feaatk, iDdadcs a dooipcioa ti tke
E»ada» wttfc > wing f"— ■ < ! "/» »di> beg— by ifce ytwM g m
Mi «f ibe kMte aifcaic tke Jatbcr cftc tcaaoa for tbe dOcRBce in
b ii iUlcd in ibe fHpcli Cba tbe ta« SiVpcr was Cbe F^Hi>
Mwr meal, tbomb ccitaai diKicpnndcs bctnccn Cbe acoonms
th»« in tbe Synopdo and in Jtohn fender tbk donbl fa L Itii,
•t any late, ccitain Ibat Jcanacaneopto Jeratakm in «nier to
idin in tbe cdcfatatjon fl< tbc Paaio¥cr. When tbc PiMower fell
npon tbe ubbatb, aa oocvncd during bii vi»i» a difficnity araae
about tbe paicbal Mcrifioa, vbidi migbt involve woffc on tbe
•abbatb. There appean to bavc been a difference of pmctice
between tbe Saddnfrra and tbe Pbariieea on audi oocaaions, tbe
lormcr ke^cnf to tbe stria rales of tbe Law and sarrifiring on
tbe Friday, wbercaa tbe Pbaiiiccs did so on tbe Tborsday. It
baa been wiggfilfd that Jesus followed tbe Pharisaic practice,
and aXe tbe Passover meal (tbe Last Sapper) on Tlmsday
evening, wUcb would account for tbe disacpandea in tbe gospd
narrativea (see CbwoJion, Das tetzU P attak m ai Jeau^ nd cd.,
St Petersburg, 1904). li seems probable In any caae that tbe
ritual of tbe Mass has grown out of that of tbe Passover service
(see Bickell, Mase und Paseka, tr. W. F. Skene, Edinburgh, 1891).
Up to the Nicene Councfl tbe Church kept Easter (qs.) coincident
with the Jewish Passover, but after that period took elaborate
pcecautions to dissociate tbe two.
See the co nu aeotarica on Esodus and Leviticus; that of Kaliach
on the latter book (voL ii., London, 1871) antidpates nuch of the
critical position. The article in Winer's BiU. RtahvMerbuck givea
a succinct account of the older views: A not altogether unsuc-
cessful attempt to defend the Jewish orthodox position is made
by Hoffmann in his CemmaUary on Lemtkta (Berlin, 1906. ii.
116-224). WcUhausen's views are given in bis ProUgpnuna, ch. iiL
A critical yrt conservative view of the whole question is given
by R. Schaefcr, Das Passah-Mazsotk-Fest (Guterdoh. 1900) which
has been partly fdiowcd above. For the general attitude towaids
the comparative claims of institutional archaeolocy and literary
criticism adopted above see J. Jacobs, Studies in BiUicalAniaeclogy
(London, 1895}. G-Ja.)
PASSOW, FRAMZ LUDWIO CARL FBIBDRICH (1786-1853),
German classical scholar and lexicographer, was bom at Lud-
wigslust in Mecklenbuig-Scfawerin on the aoth of September
1786. In 1807 he was appointed to the professonfaip of Greek
literature at the Weimar gymnasium by Goethe, whose acquain-
tance he had inade during a holiday tour. In 181 5 be became
professor of ancient literature in the university of Breslau, where
be continued to reside until his death on the nth of March 1833,
His advocacy of gymnastic exercises, in which he himself took
part, met with violent opposiU'on and caused a quarrel known
as the " Breslauer Tumfehde." Passow's great work was his
HandwOrterbuch der griechiscken Sprackt (1819-1824), originally
a revision of J. G. Schneider's lexicon, which appeared in the
fourth edition (1831) as an independent work, without
Schneider's name (new cd. by CrSnert, 1901). It formed the basis
of Liddell and Scott 's lexioon. Other works by him are GrundMUge
dtr irtfdk. nnd r An. Littratur- und KunstguckichU (and. ed., 1829)
and editions of Perstua, Longus, Tacitus Gtrmamc, Dionyaius
Periegetes, and Musaeua. His miscellaneous writmgs have
been collected in his Opmacula ocademica (1835) and VemUsckk
SckrifttH (1843).
See Front Possum's LAm und Brief* (1839). by L. and A. Wachler.
which contains a full b3>Uography.
PASSPORT, or safe<onduct in tine of war, a document
granted by a belUgcrent power to protect persons and property
from the operatKNi of hostilities. In the caae of the ship of •
1670^ betwBCB Geeat Bdtaaa and DiniHsit- The violaiioB
of a paa i pust , or aafe cnndTt, is a pave faRncb «f nrtenatjoeul
law. Ike offenoe rathe United States is podriMhle by fmeasd
in i p iis BniMt wboe the passpoct or aafe 1 lull I a
nder tbe aMthocity of the Uaitod States (Act of
April 30^ 1790): I* its BOR faraiiiar aenac n psaspint is a
i hanuwiit antbariang a penow to para cot of or bita n orantzy,
or a liccBoe or safe-condact to tbe penow spedhed thcram and
to aid and prote cti ao. Akho^gh BMSt
ithont pnraiwita , the
ta:vdlera to fnniiih tbcra>
sdvra with tbcra, as afiocding a randy racans of idcntiScatin
in case of need. They are osnally granted by the IbreigB oftct
of a state, or by its diphraatir agenU abnnd. The Exi^iA
Foreign Office cbaigra two shillinga for a pnssimrt, whatcw
norafacr of persons may be naiced in it. PSsqMcts gramtcd is
Enghmd are anbject lo a stamp doty of "■!*—"* Thej
may be granted to natnralised as weO as natninl-bonk Britah
subjects.
See "Tbe Rusport Sntem.** by N. W. Sftfey. ia Jomr. C«^
Leg. mew series. voL vii. The regulatiaas respectiog p ass f ii j i tj issbt^
bv the English Fofcign OfBce as well as the passport vemartmazs
of foreign countries will be found ia the annual Foreign Qtc* lust.
PAtn (O. Fr. patU, modem pite. Late Lat. forte, wfaesa
abo in Span., Port, and ItaL, fton Gr. wkn^ orm9r4,'baricy
porridge, or salted pottage, wk^vwm, to sprinkhr with salt) a
nixtnre or OMnposition oi a soft plastic consistency. Tbe tcra
is applied to substances used Dor vaiioas purposes, as e.g. ia
cookery, a mixture of flour and water with krd, butter «ir suet.
for making pies and pastry, or of flour and water boScd. to
which starch or other ingredients lo prevent souring arc added.
forming an adhesive for the affixing of wall-paper, btU-postiag
and other puiposca. In technical language, the term is aho
applied to the prepared clay which forms the body in the mar*-
facture of pottay and porcelain (see Cesaiucs) and to the
specially prepared glass, known also as "atnss,** from wh:.i
imitation gems are inanufactured. This latter must be the
purest, most transparent and most highly refractive glass ib4i
can be prepared. These qualitira are comprised in tbe highest
degree in a flint glass of unusual density from the lazgie pcroentafe
of lead it contains. Among various mixturra regarded as
suitable for strsss the following is an example: powdered
quarU 300 parts, red lead 470, potash (purified by alcohol) 163.
borax 22, and white arsenic 1 part by weight. Special pvecas-
tions are taken in the melting. The finished colourless gins is
used for imitation diamonds; and when employed to Imitate
coldured predous stones the strara is melted up with varvcRd
metallic oxides. Imitation gems are easily distinguished fnr:
real stones by their inferior hardnera and by chemical tcs:^.
Ihey may generally be detected by the comparatively warv
sensa tion they communicate to the tongue.
PASTEL, the name of a particular method of painting wi\t
dry pigments, so called from tbe " paste " into which they st
first compounded. The Invention of pastel, which iiaraT to be
generally called "crayon," has frequently been accredited ::
Johann Alexander Thide (1685T752), kndscape-paintcr ts<
etcher of distinction, as well as to Mme Vemciin aiMl >1^
Heid (1688-1753), both of Danzig. But the claim caB»-
be substantiated, as drawing in <»loured chalks had bca
practised long before, :g. by Guido Reni (1575*1642), by wh-K
a head *nd bt>^<;* Ifce first tO-cBrifts in the Dresden Galk^
2S?*taro«nnany. where it was otcMi«i|.io perfectioik. i*
PASTEL
891
tTth ccntuiy; but his coatcnporaiy, RoMlba Canieri of Vance
(1675-1757), is more completely identified with it, and in her
practice of it made a European reputation which to this day ia
in some measure maintained. The Dresden Museum amtains
157 examples of her work in this mediump portraits, subjects
and the like. Thiele was followed by Anton Raphael Mengi
(1738^x779) and his sister Theresia Mengs (afterwards Maron,
t73S-x8o6),and by JohannHelnrich Schmidt (X749-Z839).
When in 1730 Rosslba Cazriera accepted an iniritatian to
visit Paris, where she was received with general enthusiasm,
she found the art of pastel-ftainting well established; that is to
say, it was used to reproduce local colour with truth. She made
it fashionable and combined truth with nature. Nearly ahundred
years before Claude l«rrain had used coloured chalks as Dutch
and Italian pabiters had used them, often with high finish,
emplojring mainly red, blue and black, for the sake of prettiness
of effect and not with the intention of reproducing with accuracy
the actual colours of the head, the figure, or the landscape before
them. This method of making drawings--f<Aaui5#r, as they
were called— has remained in common use almost to the present
day, especially for studies. It is necessary only to dte among
many examples the series of heads by Holbein, the highly
esteemed studies by Watteau, Boucher and Greuae, and of John
Raphael Smith and Sir Thomas Lawrence, to indicate how
genera] has been the employment of the coloured chalk. In
Z747 Nattier (x685>z766) showed a pastel portrait of M. Logerot
hi the Paris Salon, and his son-in-law, Louis Tocqu^ (1696-
X772), soon followed with similar work. Hubert Drouais
(1699-1 767) had preceded his rival Nattier in the Salon by a single
year with five pastel portraits, and Chardin (1699-1779) followed
in 1 771. This great master set himself to work in emulation of
Quentin de la Tour (z704~x788), who in spite of the ability of Ms
rivals may be regarded as the most eminent pastelllst France
has produced. His portraits of Mme Boucher and himself
appeared in the Salou in X737; his full strength as a portrait*
pastellist is to be gauged in the collection of eighty-five of his
principal works now in the museum of St Quentin. Then
followed Simon Mathurin Lantara (1739-1778), who was one of
the first to paint pastel •pictures of landscapes, including sunsets
and moonlights, as well as marines, into which the figures were
drawn by Joseph Vernet, Casanova and others, and Jean
Baptiste Perronneau (x7iX'*x796), the best of whose beads
have been often attributed to de la Tour and whose *' Jeune
fillc au chat" in the Louvre, though not the finest, is perhaps
the best known of his works, was the last pre-eminent French
pasteUist of the x8th century. Since then they have been
legion; of these it is needful to mention only Girodet and the
flower-painters, Jean Saint-Simon and Sprendonck.
Two Swiss painters had Considerable influence in spreading
the Use of pastel— the eapcrimentalist Dietrich Meyer (1573-
1658), one of the first to make designs in coloured chalks (and
reputed inventor of soft-ground etching), and Jean fitiense
Liotard (1701 or x 704*1 788), one of the most brilliant pastellists
who ever lived. Two of his works are worid-famons, "■ La Belle
Chorolatiire de Viehne,*' executed in 1745, nofw in the Dresden
Museum, and " La Belle Liseuse" of the following year at the
museum at Amsterdam. ■ The ^tter is a portxait of his niece.
Mite Lavergne. In 17$^, and again ia 1773, Liotard visited
England, whete his brilliant wm, poftrsiU and landscapes,
produced a great effiect, almost equal to that of de la Tour
twenty years before. To the Royal Academy between 1773
and 1775 Liotard contributed the portraits of Dr Tliomion,
himself. Lord Duncannon and General CliolmQiBdely.
Ciayon-pamting was practised in England at an early date,
and John Riley (X646-X691), many of whose finest woxka are
attribnted to Sir Peter Lely, proceed !numeroiis portraits in
that medium. Frands Knapton (X698-X778), court palnlcr.
was a more prolific master, and he, wHh Wflliam Hoare of Bath
(? 1707^x793) who had studied pastel in Italy and made many
classic designs in that medium, exhiblHng at the Royal Academy
his " Boy as Cupid," ** Prudence instiucthig her Papa."
" DUna," " A Ziagara," and othen, pitpaied the way for the
triumph of Fiands Cotes (7 i7S5->77o). Then for the first time
pastel-palntlng was fully developed by an English hand. Before
he became a painter in oil Cotes ha4 worked under Rosalba
Caxriera, and, although he was rather cold and chalky in his
tones, he produced portraits, such as his *' Mr and Mrs Joab
Bates" and " Lord Bawke," which testify to his high ability.
He was, however, far aurpaned by his pupil, John Russell, R.A.
(x 74S*i8o6), who brought the art to perfection, displaying grace
and good expression in all his pastel work, whether portrait,
fancy picture, historical subject, group, or " conversation-piece.''
He had brought from Rosalba her four fine pictures represent-
ing " The Seasons," and in a gieat measure founded his style
on them. He was strong and brilliant m colour, and when he
was at his best his high, smooth finish in no way robbed his
work of vigour. Romney (X734-X803) in his sim^ pastel
portrait, a likeness of William CDwper the poet, showed that he
might have excelled in this medium, which, indeed, was par**
ticularly suited to his tender manner. Hugh D. Hamilton
(«. i734>x6o6) of the Royal Hibernian Academy, produced note-
worthy portraits, mainly in grey, xed and black, until on the sug-
gestion of Flaxman he abandoned pastel for oil. OriaaHumphxy,
A.R.A. (1741-18x0), painter and miniatuxist, is an important
figure among the pastellisU, commonly believed to be the first
in England who made a point of luting his colour strokes be
seefi (as by Emile Wauters and others hi our own day), contrary
to the pxactice of Russell and his predecessors, whose prime
effort was to blend all into imperceptible gradations. Ric^d
Cosway, R.A. (x74i'x83x) was mainly experimental in his
pastels, but his portraits, such as that of Geoxge prince of Wales,
are forcible and brilliant; those of his wife Maria Cosway (x7s9-
X838) are more delicate. Daniel Gsxdner (? 1750-1805), whose
pictures in oil have often been mitsaken for Reynolds's and
Gainsborough's, gave rein to his exuberant fancy and his lathef
exaggerated taste in compositions which, in his anangement
of children^ remind us of Sir Thomas Lawrence in his more
fantastic xnood. Gardner marked the deterioration of the art^
which thereafter declined, Henxy Bright (X8X4-Z875) being almost
the only pastcllist of real power who followed him. Bxight*a
landscapes have probably in their own line never been surpassed.
Since 1870 there has been a revival of the art of pastel, the
result of a better understanding and apprecbtlon on the part
of the public. Grimm's denunciation of it to Diderot—" every
one is agreed that pastel is unworthy the notice of a great
painter "— ^hich for many years had found general accepUnce,
is now seen to have been baaed on forgetfuhiess or Ignorance
of the virtues inherent in the method. It was thought that
" cx>loured chalks," as it used to be called in Eni^-speaking
oountrica, promised nothing but sketches of an ephemcnl kind,
so fragile that they were at the mercy of every chance blow or
evexy touch of dampness. The fact is, that with care no greater
than is accorded to every work of axt, pastel properly used it
not more perishable than the oil-painting or the water-cokiuf.
Damp will affect it seriously, but so also will it ruin the water-
colour; and rough usage is to be feared for the oU-picture not
less than for the pasteL Moreover, pastel possesses advantages
that can be claimed by neither oil-painting nor water-colour.
That is to say, if pictures in these three mediums be hung
side by side for a hundred years in a fair light and in adry place,
the oil-painting will have darkened and very probably have
cracked; the water-colour will have faded; but the pastel wiU
remain as bright, fresh, and pure as the day it was painted.
If Time and Vamiah, which Hogarth and Millais both declared
the two greatest of the old masters, will do nothing to " improve "
a pastel, neither will they ruin it — time passes it by and varnish
must on no account be allowed to approach it. The pastel-
painteiv therefore, having no adventitious assistance to hope
for, or to fear, must secure at once the utmost ef which Us
method is capable.
The advantages of pastel are threefold: those of working,
those of results, and those of perxnanenoe. The artbt has at
his command, without neceaaity of mixing his colours, 1
hue to be found in nature, so that freshness ax:d 1
Sga
PASTEUR
always be secured witliout fear of that lossof briOianey commonly
attendant on the miling of colour on the palette. Moreover,
the fact of pastel being dry permiu the artist to leave his work
and take it up again as he may choose; and be is free from many
of the technical troubles and anxieties natural to oil and water*
colour painting. Applied with knowlec^e, pastel, which hat
been likened for delicacy of beauty to ** the coloured dust upon
the velvet of butterflies' wings," will not fall off. It can, if
desired—though this is hardly necessary or desirable-^e
"fixed/' most commonly by KfixaHf, If intending so to treat
his work, the artist must paint in a somewhat lighter key, as
the effect of the fixing medium is slightly to lower the general
tone. The jSxo/f/ Lacase is considered the best, but the general
consensus of opinion among artists is against the use of any
such device. This preparation has the advantage of leaving the
colour unchanged, even though it dulls it; sbdlac jSxa/t^ baa
the effect of darkening the work.
The inherent qualities of pastel are those of charm, of subtlety,
softness, exquisite depths of tone, unsurpassable harmonies
and unique freshness of colour, sweetness, delicacy, mystery—
all the virtues sought for by the artist of daintiness and refine-
ment. Pastd-painting is essentially, therefore, the art of the
coknirist. Now, these very qualities suggest its limitations.
Although it is unfair to ielegate it — as fashion has foolishly
done for so long— to the bunch of pretty triflings which Carlyle
called '* Pompadourisms," we must recognize that a medium
which suggests the bloom upon the peach is not proper to be
employed for reiKlering " grand," or even genre subjects, or for
the covering of large surfaces of canvas. It is inappropriate
to the painting of classic compositions, although in point of
fact it has been so used, not without success. It is best adapted
to the rendering of still life, of landscape and of portraiture.
But in these cases it is not advisable to aim at that solidity
which JB the virtue of oil-painting, if only because oil can bring
about a better result. The real reason is that, in securing
solidity, pastel tends to forfeit that lightness and grace which
constitute its special charm and merit. Strength belongs to
oil, tenderness and subtlety to pastd, together with freshness
and elegance.
The pRH*minent technical advantage, in addition to those
already mentioned, is the permanence of the tones. In water-
colours there is an admixture of gum and glycerine which may
attract moisture from the air; and, bcsidcai, the pigment is used
in very thin washes. In oil-painting not only does the oil
darken with age but sometimes draws oxygen from a pigment
and changes iu hue. In pastel the colotir is pat on without any
moist admixture, and can be laid on thick. Moreover, the
permanence may arise from the method of manufacture. In
a very rare work, Tkt Excettency of the Pen and Pencil (1668),
a chapter on " how to make pastils" [sic] ** of several colours,
for drawing figure, landskip, architecture, &c., on blew paper,"
describes the manner of grinding up the pigments with grease.
This used to be the secret of pastel— that every grain of oobor
was separately and securely locked up in grease, and so was
secured from any chemical change that might have come about
through contact of the colours with one another or with the
atmosphere. With pastel nothing of the kind could occur;
and the works of Rosalba Carriera in Italy, of Quentin Latour,
Peronneau, Watteau, St Jean, Paul Hoin and Chardin in
France, and eC Russell and Cotes in England — to name no others
—testify to the permanency of the colours. Some manufac-
turers nowadasrs employ gum as the binding medium; others
beeswax (which at one time was more frequently used than it
is at present); others, again, a very small proportion of tallow,
and sometimes a little soap. But this introduction of binding
media is now adopted only in the case of certain ooburs.
Whether the point or edge of the ttick be used (as hi pastel
drawing), or the side of it, helped with the tips oif the fingers
(as in pastel painting), the result is equally permanent; and if,
when the work is done, it be struck two or three times, and then
touched up by hand-crayons, no dropping of colour from the
paper need ever occur. The drawing is made on a grained
paper that will hold the dbalk, «r on a apedally mwmffiiiml
toothed doth. The French paper known as grat grit bUuU is
empbyed by certain of the leading pasteilisia. The crisp touches
of the pastel can be placed side by side, or the " vibratioos*'
which the artist seeks may be obtained by glaaes and soper*
posed tones. It should here be menlioaed that about tht ytar
Z900 M. Jean-Francois Raffaelli produced in Paris sticks of oil
colours which he claimed would in a great measure replace
painting with the brush. Although the system was widely
tried and many good pictures painted in this method, it was
found that the colours became duU, and such vogue as these
" solid paints " enjoyed for a time hay to a .very great exteot
disappeared.
The art of pastel, as M. Roger Ballu expres ae d It, *' was dumberiw
a little." until in 1870 the Soci6t6 dcs FaatclUstcs was foumted ta
France and met with ready approciation. With many anists it «as
a matter of " coloured chalks,^ as, for example, with MilTet. Lh<rr-
mitte and Deeac in France, and with Whistler In EogUnd. With
the majority the full poeubilities were leixed, and a great number td
artists abroad then practised the art for the sake of co^»ur. anwog
whom may be mentioned Adrien Moreau, A. Besnard, Emile L^v-y.
Machaml, Pointelin, Georges Picard, de Nittis, I will, Ren6 BQlotte.
Tozan, Nozel, RaiffietU, Brochard (mainly uix>n veOam) and
I>vy-Dharmer in France: In Belgium, Emile wautcn (who has
produced a great series of life-sized ponrait* Of both men and wofoai
of amariog streneth, vitality and completeness) and Fcnuod
Khnopff ; in Italy, C.Lauxenti.P.Franacomo and Giovanni Segantin;;
in Holland, Jocseltn de Jong; In Germany, F. von Lenbacfa, Max
Liebtrmann and Franc ScQek; and in Norway, Frits Thaolow.
In England the revival of pastel dates from |880i when the firat
exhibition of the Pastel Society was beJd in the Grosvcnor GaUrry.
The exhibition was a succis tTeslime, but after a while the aociecy
languished until, in 1809, it was reconstituted, and obtained the
adhesion of many of the most distinguished artists pnctiisi« ia
the country, as wdl as of a score of eminent foreian paintersL la
that year, and since, it has held exhibitions of a higa order; aod
intelligent public appreciation has been directed ta the work of
the most noteworthy contributors. Among these are £. A. Abbey,
R.A.: M'LuK Hamilton, J. M. Swan. R.A.; J. Lorimer. R.SJ^:
A. PeppercDm, R, Aaniiq; Bell, J. J. Shannon, R.A.S Sir Janies
Guthne, P.R.S.A.; H. Brabazon, Walter Crane, Melton Fiaher,
Edward Stott, A.R.A.; S. J. Solomon. R.A.: and W. l^othensteio.
See Kari Roben [Georges Meusnieil, £« rastd (Laurens, Paris.
1890): J. L. Sprinck, A Guide to PaOd Painlint (Rowncy, London):
Henry Murray, The Art of Pcinling and Draumt in Cohwed Crmvtnt
(Winsor & Newton, London). Aroong early works are: foha
" R.A., Elements of Painting vnth Crayons (1776); t'
rrjfl^ de la peinture an pastel aoee fes moyens da |
m des undews (Paris, 1788); Rosalba Garricra,
«> Ifgo € i7Zi scriUo di propria mono in Parig\
li Vianelli, Venice, 1793> 4to}: Girolamo Zanetti, £i
Carriera, piltrice (Venice. 1818, 8vo). See also
flussell, R.A., Elements of Painting with Crayons (1776); _
de C.C., rrjfl^ de la peinture an pastel aoee les moyens da prfsmir
Faltiration des undeurs (Paris, 1788); Rosalba Garricra, Ihario
dMt anni ifgo t i7Zi scriUo di propria mauo in Pariria, etc.
(Giovanni Vianelli, Venice, 1793> 4to}: Girolamo Zanetti, £JLogio dk
Rosalba Carriera, piltrice (Venice. 1818, 8vo). See also Henri
Lapau2e. Les Pastas de M. Qneniin de La Tour i Si Quentin, preface
by GusUve Larroumet (Pftro); GeoigeC. WUlkmsob, JMw ^wt««iL
RA. (London. 1894). (M. H. Sw>
PASTEUR. LOUIS (1823-X895)* French chemist, was bon«
on the »7th of December i8at, at D61e« Franche-Comt^, wliere
his father carried on the business of a tanner. Shortly mix/ef"
wards the Pasteur family removed to Arbois, where Louis
attended the £cole primairc, and later the coU^ of that
place. Here he apparently did not especially distinguish him-
self, belonging to the class of bans ordinaires, FcrtuAatcly
at Arbois he came under the inJQuencc of an excellent teacbci
in the person of the director of the college, who most bavt
discerned in the quiet boy the germs of greatness, as he con-
stantly ipoke to him of his future career at the £coU nonxiale
in Paris. In October 1838 Louis was sent with a friend to the
metropolis, to a school ia the Quartier Latin, preparatoiy to the
Bcole normale. But be did not remain long in Paris, for,
being a nervous and exciuble boy, his health broke down. And
he yearned for his home in Franche-Comt£. " If only I could
smell the tannery once more," said he to his companioo, ^ I
should feel weU." So home he went» though not for kmg. as
his ambition was still to become a narmiiem^ and to thos
end he entered the Royal College of Besan^on, " en atteodaai
I'heureux jour oil Je serais admis k I'icole normale." St«p
by step he attained his end; in 1840 he won his " bacheUct cs
litres," and shortly afterwards he received an sppointincat
as assistant mathematical master in the college. Two ycaia
later be passed the examination for the " baccalsv^t ^ s
PASTEUR
893
cD&bliiig him to become candidate for the £oole nonnak. But
here somethipg (probably the examiner) was at fault, for a note
was attached to Pasteur's dipbma stating that he was only
"mediocre" in chemistry. In those eariy days and early
trials the dominant note o< Pasteur's life was sounded. To
his sisters he writes: " Ces trois choscs, la volant6, le travail,
le succdSi se partagent toute I'existence humaine. La voIont6
ouvre la porte aux carriercs brillanbes et heureuses; le travafl
les franchit, et une fois arrive au terme du voyage, le succte
yient couronner I'oeuvte." Throughout his life, and to the very
endf " work " was his constant inspiration. On his deathbed
he turned to (iie devoted pupils who watched over their master^
last hours. "Od en ^es-vous?" he exdahned. *' Que faite»-
vous?" and ended by repeating his favourite words, " 11 faut
travailler."
Thfi first incentive to his serious study of chemistry watf
given by bearing J. B. A. Dumas lecture at the Sorbonne;
and ere long he broke new ground for himself, A. J. Balard
having given him an opportunity for chemical work by appoint-
tng him to the post of laboratory assistant. A few words of
explanation concerning Pasteur's first research are necessary to
give the key to all his future work. What was the secret power
which enabled him to bring under the domain of scientific
laws phenomena of disease which had so far bafOed human
endeavour? It simply consisted in the application, to the
elucidation of these complex problems, of the exact methods of
chemical and physical research. Perhaps the most remarkable
discovery of modern chemistxy is the existence of compounds,
which, whilst possessing an identical composition, are absolutely
different bodies, judged of by their properties. The fiist of the
numerous cases of isomerism now known wis noted, but un-
explained, by J. J. Beraelius. It was that of two urtaric adds,
deposited from wine4eea. The different behaviour of these two
acids to a ray of polarized light was subsequently observed
by J. B. Biot. One possessed the power of taming the plane of
the polarized, ray to the right; the other possessed no rotary
power. Still' no explanation of this singular fact was forth-
coming, and it was reserved for the young chemist from Franche-'
Comt6 to solve a problem which had baflSed the greatest chemists
and physicists of the time. Pasteur proved that the inactivity
of the one acid depended upon the fact that it was composed of
two isomeric constituents: one the ordinaiy or dextrorotary
add, and the other a new acid, which possessed an equaUy
powerful left-handed action. The veteran Biot whose acquaint-
ance Pasteur had made, was iikcredulous. He insisted on the
repetition of the experiment in his presence; and when convinced
of the truth of the explanation he exclaimed to the discoverer:
" Mon cher enfant, j'ai Unt aim£ les sciences dans ma vie que
cela me fait battre le cceur." Thus at one step Pasteur gained
a place of honour among the chemists of the day, and was
immediately appointed professor of chemistry at the Faculty of
Science at Strasburg, where he soon afterwards married Mile
I^urent, who proved herself to be a true and noble helpmeet.
Next he sought to prepare the inactive form of the add by
artificial means; and after great and long-continued labour he
succeeded, and was led to the commencement of his classical
researches on fermentation, by the observation that when the
inactive add was placed in contact with a special form of mould
{PtniciUium glaucum) the right-handed add alone was destroyed,
the left-handed variety remained unchanged. So well was his
position as a leading man of sdence now established that in 1854
he was appointed professor of chemistry and dean of the Faculty
des Sciences at Lille. In his Inaugural address he used significant
words, the truth of which was soon manifested In his case:
'* In the field of obseivation chance only favours those who are
prepared." The diseases or sicknesses of beer and wine bad
from time Immemorial baffled all attempts at cure. Pasteur one
day visited a brewery containing both sound and unsound beer.
He examined the yeasts under the microscope, and at once saw
that the globules fh>m the sound beer were nearly spherical, whilst
those from the tour beer were elongated; and this led him to a dts-
co<very, the oonseqiMiioes of which have itvolutioniied diemical
as well as biological sdence, inasmudi as it was the beginning
of that wonderful series of experimental researches in which he
proved condusively that the notion oif spontaneous generation
is a chimera. Up to this time the phenomenon of fermentation
was considered strange and obscure. Explanations had indeed
been put forward by men as eminent as Berzelius and Liebig,
but they lacked experimental foundation. This was given in
the most complete degree by Pasteur. For he proved that the
various changes occurring in the several processes of fermentation
—as, for example, in the vinous, where alcohol is the chief pro-
duct; in the acetous, where vinegar appears; and in the lactic,
where milk turns sour— are invariably due to the presence and
growth of minute organisms called ferments. Exdude every
trace of these organisms, and no change occurs. Brewers' wort
remains unchanged for yean, mUk keeps permanently sweet,
and these and other complex liquids remain unaltered when
fredy exposed to air from which all these minute organisms
are removed. "The chemical act of fermentation," writes
Pasteur, "is essentially a correlative phenomenon of a vital
act beginning and ending with it."
But we may ask, as Pasteur did, Why does beer or milk become
sour on exposure to ordinary air? Are these invisible germs
which cause fermentation always present in the atmosphere?
or are they not generated from the organic, but the non-organized
constituents of the fermentable liquid? In other words, are
these organisms not spontaneously generated? The controversy
on this question was waged with spirit on both sides; but in the
end Pasteur came off victorious, and in a series of the most
delicate and most intricate experimental researches he proved
that when the atmospheric germs aro absolutely exduded no
changes take place. In the interior of the grape, in the healthy
blood, no audi germs exist; crush the grape, wound the flesh,
and expose them to the ordinary air, then changes, either fermen-
tative or putrefactive, nm thdr course. But pbce the crushed
fruit or the wounded animal under conditions which predude
the presence or destroy the life of the germ, and again no change
takes place; the grape juice remains sweet and the wound dean.
The application of these facts to surgical operations, in the able
hands of Lord Lbter, was productive of the most beneficent
results, and has indeed revolutionized surgical practice.
Pasteur was now the acknowledged head of the greatest
chemical movement of the time, the recipient of honours both
from his own country and abroad, and installed at the £cole
normale in Paris in a dignified and important post Not, how-
ever, was it without grave opposition from powerful friends in
the Academy that Pasteur carried on his work. Biot— who
loved and admired him as a son — ^poblidy announced that his
enterprise was chimerical and the problem insoluble; Dumas
evidently thought so too, for he advbed Pasteur not to spend
more of his time on such a subject. Yet he persevered: " Tra-
vailler, travailler toujours" was his motto, and hb patience
was rewarded by results which have not merely rendered his
name immortal, but have benefited humanity in a way and to a
degree for which no one could have ventured to hope. To begin
with a comparatively small, though not unimportant, matter,
Pasteur's discoveries on fermentation inaugurated a new era
in the brewing and wiue-making industries. Empiridsm,
hitherto the only guide, if hideed a guide at all, was replaced by
exact scientific knowledge; the connexion of each phenomenon
with a controllable cause was established, and rule-of-thumb and
quackery banished for ever by the free gift to the world of the
results of his researches.
But his powers of patient research and of quick and exact
observation were about to be put to a severe test. An epidemic
of a fatal character had ruined the French sUk producers.
Dumas, a native of the Alais district, where the disease wa5
rampant> urged Pasteur to undertake its investigation. Up to
that time he had never seen a silkworm, and hesitated to attempt
so difBcult a task; but at the reiterated request of his friend he
consented, and in June 1865 went to the south of France for the
purpose of studying the disease on the spot. In September of
the same year he was able to announce resula whidi pointed to
894
PASTICCIO— PASTON LETTERS
the means of aecuring immuiuty bom the dretded plague. The
lustory of this research, of the gradual elimination of the miim-
pottant conditions, of the recognitioo of those which controlled
the disease, is one of the most fascinating chapters of scientific
discovery. Suffice it here to say that careful etperiment and
accxirate observation succeeded in Ascertaining the cause of the
disease and in preventing its recurrence, thus bringing back to
prosperity the silk trade of France, with all that this entaib.
*' There is no greater charm," says Pasteur, " for the investigator
than to make new discoveries; but his pleasure is heightened
when he sees that they have a direct application to practioil
Ufe." Pasteur had the good fortune, and just reward, of seeing
the resulu of his work applied to the benefit both of the human
race and of the animal world* It is to him that the world is
indebted for the introduction of methods which have already
worked wonders, and bid fair to render possible the preven>
tive treatment of aU infectious diseases. Just as each kind of
fermentation possesses a definite organized ferment, so many
disesses are dependent on the presence of a distinct microbe;
and just as the gardener can pick out and grow a given plant or
vegetable, so the bacteriologist can (in most cases) eliminate
the adventitious and grow the special organism-=~in other words,
can obtain a pure cultivation which has the power of bringing
about the special disease. But by a (»ocess of recessive and
continued artificial cultures under different conditions, the virus
of the organism b found to become attenuated; and when this'
weakened virus is administered, the animal is rendered immune
against further attacks. The first disease investigated by
Pasteur was that of chicken cholera, an epidemic which destroyed
xo% of the French fowk; after the application of the preventive
method the death-rate was reduced to below 1%. Next came
the successful attempt to deal with the fatal cattle scouige known
as anthrax. This is also caused by the presence of a microbe,
of which the virus can also be attenuated, and by inoculation
of this weakened virus the animal rendered immune. Many
millions of sheep and oxen all over the world have thus been
treated, and the rate of mortality reduced from 10 to less than
1%. As to the money value of these discoveries, T. H. Huxley
gave it as his opinion that it was sufficient to cover the
whole cost of the war indemnity paid by France to Gemany
inxSra
The most interesting of Pasteur's investigations in preventive
and curative medicine remains to be told. It is no less than a
cure for the dread disease of hydrophobia in man and of rabies
in animals; and the interest of the achievement is not only that
he successfully combated one of the most mysterious and most
fell diseases to which man is subject, but also that this was
accomplished in spite of the fact that the special microbe causing
the disease had not been isolated. To begin with, Pasteur, ia
studying the malady in dogs, came to the conclusion that the
virus had its scat in the nerve centres, and he proved that the
injection of a portion of the matter of the spinal column of a
rabid dog into the body of a healthy one produces in the latter
with certainty the symptoms of rabies. The next step was to
endeavour so to modify and weaken the virus as to enable it to
be used as a preventive or as an antitoxin. This, after long and
serious labour, he effected; the dog thus inoculated proved to
be immune when bitten by a rabid animaL But this was not
enough. Would the inoculation of the attenuated virus have
a remedial effect on an animal already bitten ? If so, it might
be possible to save the lives of persons bitten by mad dogs.
Here again experiment was successful A number of dogs were
inoculated, the same number were untreated, and both sets
were bitten by rabid animals All the treated dogs lived; all
the untreated died from rabies. It was, however, one thing to
experiment on dogs, and quite another to do so on human beings.
Nevertheless Pasteur was bold enough to tiy. The trial was
successful, and by doing so he earned the gratitude of the
human race. Then, on the 14th of November 1888, the Inslitut
Pasteur wasfbundcd. Thousands of people suffering from bites
from rabid animals, from all lands, have been treated in this
institute, and the death-iate from this most horrible of all
diseases has been reduced to ten than 1%. Not only in Pais,
but in many dties throughout the world, institutes 011 the nodd
of the original one have been set up and are doing bcne fe ceirt
work, all arising from the genius and labour of one man. At the
inauguration of the iostitute Pasteur dosed his oration with the
following wocds>—
" Two opposing Uws aeem to me now in contest. The one.
a law of blood and death, opening out each day new modes of
destruction, forces nations to be always ready for the battle.
The other, a htw of peace, work and health, whose only aim is
to deliver man from the calamities which beset him. The one
seeks violent conquests, the other the relief of mankind. The one
places a sin^e life above all victories, the other sacrifices bun«
dreds of thousands of lives to the ambition of a single ladividnaL
The law of which we are the Instruments strives even through
the carnage to cure the wounds due to the law of war. Treat-
ment by our antiseptic methods may preserve the lives of
thousands of soldiers. Which of these two laws wiU pirvail.
God only knows. But of this we may be sure, that science, in
obeying the Uw of humanity, will always Ubour to enlarge the
frontiers of life."
Rich in years and in honours, but simple-minded and affec-
tionate as a child, this great benefactor to his spedea passed
quietly away near St Cloud on the 38th of September 1895.
Mention need only be made of Pasteur's chief wnrks, as
follows: £tudes swr U tin (x866), Etudes sur k tinai^t (s86S\
£tiides sttr la maladU ies mrs d sok (1870), ^kides sm la bibe
(1876). He began the practice of inoculation for hydrophobia
in X885.
See VudePatitw^ by Rent Vallerey-Radot (Paris, tm).
(n. £• It.).
PASnCdO, an Italian word, sow often En^ished as " pas-
tiche," formed from ^te, paste, for a composition in music,
painting or other arts, made up of selections from frag-
ments or imitations of the work of other artists, a medley or
pot-pourri. The term has also been applied to a form of mu»cal
composition in which adectwns from various operas, &c., ate
pieced together to form a consecutive whole, special librettos
being sometimes written for them.
PASTOb a dty of Colombia and captal of the department of
NariOo, about 36 m. from the boundary line with Ecnndor, 00
one of the inland trade routes with that republic, nnd on a
prindpal line of communication with the great forested reciocs
of the Caqueti (Japuri). Puturoayo and Napo. Pbp. (1906
estimate), 60001 It stands on an elevated plain, 6347 ft. sbo\c
the sea, at the eastern foot of the Pasto volcano, which rises
above the dty to a height of 13,990 ft. Wool is produced to aome
extent And is woven for the load mariLet in the woollen factories
of Pasto.
PA8T0N UETIEBS* an invaluable collection of letters and
papers, consisting of the correspondence of members of the
Paston family, and others connected with them, between the
years 1422 and 1509, and also induding some state papers and
other important documents. The bulk of the letters and
papers were' sold by William Paston, and earl of Yarmouth,
the last representative of the family, to the antiquary Peter
Le Neve early in the tSth century. On Le Neve's death in
r7S9 they came into the possession of Thomas Martin of Palgra\x.
who married his. widow; and upon Martin's death in 177 r thry
were purchased by John Worth, a chemist at Diss, whose
executors sold them three years later to John Fenn of East
Dereham. In 1787 Fenn published a selection of the letters in
two volumes, and general interest was aroused by thb publica-
tion. In 1789 Fenn published two other volumes of letters,
and when he died in 1794 he had prepared for the piess • fifth
volume, which was published in 1823 by his nephew, Serjeant
Frere. In 1787 Fenn had received a km'ghthood, and 00 this
occasion, the 33rd of May, he had presented the originals of
his first two volumes to King George III. These manusciipis
soon disappeared, and the same fate attended the orivUials of
the three other volumes. In these drcumstaaoes it is not
surprising that some doubt should have been CMt upon the
PASTON LETTERS
89s
AttthcBtidty of the letUrt. In 1865 their groiiiiieiiai wn
impugned by Hennao Merivale in the Portnigkay RnU»\ but
It was vindicated on grounds of internal evidence by James
Gairdncr in tlie same periodical; and within a year Gairdner's
contention was mtsMishfd by the discovery of the originab of
Fenn's fifth volume^ together with other letters and papcn, by
Serjeant Fiere's son, Philip Frere, in his house at Dungate,
Cambridgeshire. Ten yean kter the originals of Fenn's third
and fourth volumes, with nhiety-five unpublished letters, were
found at Roydon Hall, Norfblk, the seat of George Fdere, the
head of the Frere family; and finally in i880 the originals of the
two remaining volumes were discovered at Orwell Park, Ipswich,
the rewlence of Captain E. G. Pretyman. This latter batch of
papers are the letters "which were presented to George III., and
which possibly reached Orwell through Sir George Pretyman
Tomline (1750-1817), the tutor and friend of Wlllitm Pitt.
The papers which had been in the hands of Sir John Fenn
did not, however, comprise the whole of the Psston letters
which were extant. When the and earl of Yarmouth died in
1739 other letteia and documenu relating to the Putons were
found at his seat, OOmead Hall, and some of these came into the
hands of the Rev. Fkands Bbmcfield, who failed to carry out
a plan to unite his collection with that of Martin. This section
of the letters was scattered in various directions, part being
acquired by the antiquafy John Ives. The bulk of the Psston
letters and documcnu are now in the British Museum; but othen
are at Orwell Park; in the Bodleian Libmry, Oxford; at Magdalen
College, Oxford; and a fbw at Pembroke College, Cambridge.
Fenn's edition of the Fasten Lmm held the field until 1879,
when James Gairdner published the first volume of a new
edition. Taking Fenn's work as a basis, the aim of the new
editor was to inchide all the letters which had come to light
since this publication, and in his careful and accurate work m
three volusaes (Ix>ndon, i87a-i87s) he printed over four hundred
letters for the first time. Gairdner's edition, with notes and
index, also oontWined a valuable introduction to each volume,
including a survey of the ruign of Henry VI.; and he was just
compkting his task when the discovery of 1875 was made at
Roydon. An appendix gave particubrs of this discovery, and the
unpublished letters were printed as a supplement to subsequent
editions. In 1904 a new and complete edition of the PasUm
VdUrt was edited by Gairdner, and these six volumes, containing
1088 letters aiul papers, possess a very valuable introduction,
which is the chief authority on the subject.
The family of Paston takes its name from a Norfblk village
about twenty miles iM>rth of Norwich, and the first member of
the family about whom anything is known was living in this
village early in the rsth century. This was one Clement Paston
(d. 1419), a peasant, holding and cultivating about one hundred
acres of land, who gave an excellent education to his son William,
and enabled him to study bw. Making good use of his oppor-
tunities, William Paston (1378-1444), who b described as " a
right cunning man in the bw," attained an faifluentlal position
in his pfofcsskm, and In 1499 became a justice of the common
pleas. He bought a good deal of bnd in Norfolk, including
some in Paston, and improved his position by his marriage with
Agnes (d. 1479), daughter and heiress of Sir Edmund Berry of
Harlinf^ury, Hertfordshire. Consequently when he died he
left a large and valuable inheritance to John Paston (r49 1-1466),
the eldest of his five sons, who was already married to Margaret
(d. 1484), daui^ter of John Mauteby of Mauteby. At thb time
England was in a very distracted condition. A weak king
surrounded by turbulent nobles was incapable of diKharging
the duties of government, and only the strong man armed could
hope to keep hu goods in peace. * A bwyer like his father,
Paston spent much time in London, leaving his wife to look after
his business in Norfolk; and many of the Letltn were written by
Margaret to her husband, detailing the progress of affairs in the
county. It b during the lifetimes of John Paston and his eldest
son that the LMas are most numerous and valuable, not only for
family matters, but also for the history of England. In 1448
Pastoo's manor of Grcsham was seised by Robert Hungerford,
Loid Moleyns (1431*1464), and ahhough it was' afterwartis
recovered, the owner could obtain no redress for the loss and
injury he had sustained. More serious troubles, however,
were at hand. Paston had become very intunate with the
wealthy knight. Sir John Fastolf, who was probably rebted
to Us wife, and who had employed him on several matters of
business. In 1459 Sir John died without children, leaving his
affain in rather a Un^ condition. In accordance with the
custom of the time, he had conveyed anany of hn estates in
Norfolk and Suffolk to trustees, among whom were John Paston
and hb brother William, reufning the revenues for himself,
and probably Intending hb trustees after bb death to devote
the property to the foundation of a college. However, it was
found that a few days before hb decease Fastolf had executed a
fresh will in which he had named ten executors, of whom two
only, John Paston and another, were to act; and, moreover,
that he had bequeathed all hb lands in Norfolk and Suffolk
to Paston, subject only to the duty of founding the college at
Caister, and paying 4000 marks to the other executors. At once
taking possession of the bndk, Paston soon found hb rights
challoiged. Various estates were claimed by different noble-
men; the excluded e x ecutors were angry and aggressive; and
Paston soon found himself in a whirlwind of litigation, and
exposed also to more violent methods of attack. Something
like a rcgubr warfare was waged around Drayton and Hdlcsdon
between John de b Pole, doke of Suffolk, and the Pastons under
Margaret and her eldest son, John; Cabter Castle was seised by
John Mowbray, 3rd duke of Norfolk (d. 1461); and similar
occurrences took pbce elsewhere. Some compensation, doubt-
less, was found in the fact that in 1460, and again in 1461, Paston
had be6i returned to parliament as a kni^t of the shire for
Norfolk, and enjoying the favour of Edward IV. had regained
hb castle at Caister. But the ro3rsl favour was only temporary,
and, having been Imprisoned on three occasions, Paston died In
May 1466, leaving the suit conoeming Fastolfs will still proceed-
ing in the church courts. John Paston left at least five sons,
the two eldest of whom were, curiously enough, both named John,
and the eldest of whom had been knighted during hb father's
lifetime. Sir John Paston (i44^r479) was frequently at the
court of Kmg Edward IV., but afterwards he favoured the
Lancastrian party, and, with hb brother John, fought for
Henry VI. at the battle of Bamet. Meanwhile the struggle
over Fastolf's estates continued, although in 1461 the king and
council had decided that Paston's ancestors were not bondmen,
and consequently that hb title to his father's lands was good.
Caister Castle was taken after a regubr siege fay John Mowbray,
4th duke of Norfolk (1444-1476), and then recovered by the
Pastons, and retaken by the duke. But in t474 an arrangement
was made with William Waynflete, bishop of Winchester, the
representative of the excluded executors, by which some of the
estates were surrendered to the bishop for charitable purposes,
while Paston was secured in the possession of others. Two
years later the opportune death of the duke of Norfolk paved
the way for the restoration of Caister Castle; but in 1478 a fresh
quarrel broke out with the duke of Suffolk. Sir John, who was
a cultured man, had shown great anxiety to recover Cabter;
but in general he had left the conduct of the struggle to his
mother and tt> the younger John. Owing to hb carelessness and
extravagance the family landswerealsodiminished by sales; but
nevertheless when he died unmarried in November 1479 he left a
goodly inheriUnce to his brother John. About thb time the
Lttters begin to be scanty and less intefesting, but the family
continued to flourbh. The younger John Paston (d. 1503), after
quarrcHing with hb unde Willbm over the manors of Oxnead
and Mariingford, was knighted at the battle of Stoke in 1487. He
mairicd Margery, daughter of Sir Thomas Brews, and left a son,
Willbm Paston (c. 1479-1554). who was also knighted, and who
was a promment figure at the court of Henry VIH. Sir WiUbm*s
second son, Clement (c. 151 5"* $97). served hb country with
distiiKtion on the sea, and was wounded at the battle of Pinkie.
The family was continued by Sir Wtllbm*s eldest son, Erasmus
(d. 1540), whose son William succeeded to hb grandfather'a
896
PASTORAL
esutes in 1554, tnd to those of his unde Qemene la 1597.
This WiUiam (1528-1610) was knighted in 1578. He wes the
founder of the Paston gntmmar-fichool at North Walsham, and
made Oxnead Hall, near Norwich, his principal residence.
Christopher Paston was Sir William's son and heir* and Christo-
pher's grandson, WiUiam (d. 1663), was created a baronet in
1647; being succeeded in the title by his son Robert (1651-1683),
who was a member of parliament from i66x to 1673, and was
created earl of Yarmouth in 1679. Robert's son William
(i6s»-z73a), who married a natural daughter of Charles II.,
was the second earl, and, like his father, was in high favour with
the Stuarts. When he died in 1732 he left no son, and his titles
l)Necame extinct, his esUtes being sold to discharge his debts.
The perturbed state of affaire revealed by the Pcstcn LeUers
reflects the general condition of England during the period.
It was a time of trouble. The weakness of the government had
disorganized every branch of the administration; the succession
to the crown itself was contested; the great nobles lived in a
state of civil war; and the prevailing discontent found expression
in the rising of Jack Cade and in the Wars of the Roses. The
correspondence reveals the Pastons in a great variety of relations
to their neighbours, friend^ or hostile; and abounds with
illustrations of the course of public events, as well as of the
manners and morals of the time. Nothing is more remarkable
than the habitual acquaintance of educated persons, both men
and women, with the law, which was evidently indispensable
to pexsoDs of substance.
In addition to the editions of the Pashm Istttrt already mentioned,
•ec F. Blomeficld and C. Parkin. History of Nmfolh (London. 1805-
18 to), and the article in Dia. Nat. Biog, (A. W. H.*)
FASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd), the name given to
a certain class of modem literature in which the " idyll " of the
Creeks and the " eclogue " of the Latins are imitated. It was
a growth of humanism at the Renaissance, and its first home was
Italy. Virgil had been imiuted, even in the middle ages, but
it was the example of Theocritus (9.V.) that was originally
followed in pastoral. Pastoral, as it appeared in Tuscany in
the i6th cenlury» was really a developed eclogue, an idyll which
bad been expanded from a single scene into a drama. The first
dramatic pastoral which is known to exist is the Fatoia di Or/to
of PoUtian, which was represented at Mantua in 147 >• This
poem, which has been elegantly transbted by J. A. S/monds,
was a tragedy, with choral passages, on an idyllic theme, and is
perhaps too grave in tone to be considered as a pure piece of
pastoral. It led the way more directly to tragedy than to
pastoral, and it is the // Saf^ifiaio of Agostino Beccari, which
was played at the court of Fcrrara in 1554, that is always quoted
as the first complete and actual dramatic pastoral in European
literature.
In the west of Europe there were various efforts made in the
direction of non-dnunatic pastoral, which it is hard to classify.
Eari^ in the 1 6th century Alexander Barclay, in England, trans-
lated the Latin eclogues of Mantuanus, a scholastic writer of
the preceding age. Barnabe Googe, a generation bter, in 1563,
published his Eglogs, Epylapkts and Sonuettcs, a deliberate
but not very successful attempt to introduce pastoral into
English hterature. In France it is difiicult to deny the title of
pastoral to various productions of the poets of the Pl£iade, but
especially to R£my BcUeau's pretty miscellany of prose and verse
in praise of a country life, called La Bergerie (1565). But the
final impulse was given to non-dramatic pastoral by the publica-
tion, in 1504, of the famous Arcadia of J. Saimazaro, a work
which passed through sixty editions before the dose of the i6ib
century, and which was abundantly copied. Torquato Tasso
followed Beccari after an interval of twenty years, and by the
success of his i4miii4o, which was performed before the court of
Ferrara in 1573, secured the popularity of dramatic pastoral
Most of the existing works in this class may be traced back to
the influence either of the Arcadia or of the AmirUa. Tasso was
immediately succeeded biy Alvisio Pasqualigo, who gave a comic
turn to pastoral drama, and by Cristoforo Castclletii« in whose
bands it grew heroic and romantic, while, finally, Cuarini
produced in iS90 hb famout P^Hor Fide, and Ongaro bb fisher*
men's pastoral of X^cM in 1 59r. During the last qoarter of the
1 6th century pastoral drama was really a power in Italy. Some
of the best poetry of the age was written in this form, to be acted
privately on the stages of the tittle court theatres, that w«re
everywhere springing up. In a short time music was fntrocf need,
and rapidly predominated, until the little forms of tsagody, and
pastoral altogether, were merged in opera.
With the reign of Elizabeth a certain tendency to pastoral
was introduced in England. In Gaaooigne and in Whetstone
traces have been observed of a tendency towards the form aikd
spirit of eclogue. It has been conjectured that this tendency,
combined with the study of the few extant edogucs of Clcmont
Marot, led Spenser to the composition of wlut is the finest
example of pastoral in the English language, the Skepkerd's
Calendar, printed in 1579. This famous wwfc is divid^ into
twelve eclogues, and it is remarkable because of the constancy
with which Spenser turns in it from the artificial Latin style d
pastoral then popular in Italy, and Ukes his inspiration direct
from Theocritus. It is important to note that this is the first
effort made in European literature to bring upon a pastoral stage
the actual rustics of a modern country, using thefa- own peasant
dialect. That Spenser's attempt was very imperfectly rartkd
out does not militate against the genuineness of the effort,
which the very adoption of such names as Willie and Cwddic^
instead of the customary Damon and Daphnis, is eoough to
prove. Having led up to this work, the influence of which was
to be confined to England, we retun to Samanro's Arcadia^
which left its knaric upon every Btctature in Europe. This
remarkable romance^ which was the type and the original of
so many succeeding pastorals, is written in rich but not laboriotis
periods of musical prose, into which are inserted at frequent
intervals passages of verse, contests between shepherds on tlw
*' humile fistula di Coridone," or laments for the death of some
beautiful virgin. The characten move in a world of supernatural
and brilliant beings; they commune without surmise with
" i gloriosi spiriti degli boschi," and reflect with singular com-
pleteness their author's longing for an innocent voluptuous
existence, with no hell or heaven in the background.
It was in Spain that the influence .of the Arcadia made itself
most rapidly felt outside Italy. The earliest Spanish eckcues
had been those of Juan de Encina, acted in 149a. Gil Vicente,
who was also a Portuguese writer, had written Spanish idigknis
pastorals early in the 16th century. But GareiUso de la Vesa
is the founder of Spanish pastoral. His first edogue, Bl J>ul:e
lamenlar d$ lot pastoru. is considered one of the finest poenas of
its kind in aiKient or in modem literature. He wrote little, sik)
died early, in 1536. Two Portuguese poets followed him, and
composed pastorals in Spanish, Francisco de S& de Micanda, who
imiutcd Theocritus, and the famous Jorge de Montemayor.
whose Diatta (1524) was founded on Sannaxaro's Art<.jt€.
Caspar Gil Polo, after the death of Montemayor in X561. com-
pleted his romance, and published in 1564 a Diana enamcr.Tds.
It will be recollected that both these works are mentioned wuh
respect, in their kind, by Cervantes. The author of JXyn
QuixaU himself published an admirable pastoral romsAcc,
Galatea, in 1584.
In France there has always been so strong a tendency towards
a graceful sort of bucolic literature that it is bard to deckle what
should and what should not be mentioned here. The chamiirg
pastoureUes of the 13th century, with their knight on horseback
and shepherdess by the roadside, need not detain us further than
to hint that when the influence of Italian pastoral b^an to be
felt in France these earlier lyrics gave it a national irtcUnaiioa.
We have mentioned the Bergtrie of R^my BeUecu, in which the
art of Sannaxaro seems to join hands with the simple sweetness
of the medieval pastoureUe. But there was nothing in France
that could compare with the school of Spanish pastoral writen
which we have just noticed. Even the typical French pastor^
the Astrie of Hooor^ d'Urf6 (1610), has almost more CDnocsion
with the knightly romances which Cervantes laughed at than
with the pasiocals which he praised. The famous Aur^ wsi
PASTORAL
897
tlM result of the study o£ Tasao's Aminia on the one bud Aod
Montemayor's DioHa on the other, with a strong flavouring of
the romantic spirit o£ the Amadis. To remedy the pagan ten-
dency of the Asirie a priest, Camus de Pontcani, wrote a scnes
ol Christian pastorab. Racon produced in 1635 n pastoral
drama, Les Berfierits, founded on the Asirie ol D*Urf£.
In England the movement in favour of Theocritean simplicity
which had been introduced by Spenser in the Shepherd" t Calender,
was immediately defeated by the success of Sic Philip Sidney's
Arcadia, a romance closely modelled on the masterpiece of
Sannasaio. So far from attempting to sink to colloquial idiom,
and adopt a realism in rustic dialect, the tenor of Sidney's
narrative is even more grave and stately than it is conceivable
that the conversation of the most serious nobles can have ever
been. Henceforward, in England, pastoral took one or other
of these forms. It very shortly appeared, however, that the
Sa nn ara ri a n form was more suited to the temper of the age,
even in England, than the Theocritean. In 1 583 a great impetus
was given to the former by Robert Greene, who waa composing
bis Morando, and still more in 1584 by the publicsiion of two
pastoral dramas, the Gaiiathea of Lyly and the Arroignment of
Paris of Pede, It is doubtful whether cither of these writers
knew anything about the Arcadia of Sidney, which was posthti*
mously published, but Greene, at all events, became more and
more imbued with the Italian spirit of pastoraL His Menaphon
and hb Never too Late are pure buoolic romances. • While in the
general form of his stories, however, he follows Sidney, the vctm
which he introduces is ofun, especially m the HeaaphOH, ex-
tremely nistk and ooUoquiaL In 1589 Lodge appended some
eclogues to his SciUa*s Metamorphosis, but in his Rostdynde
(1590) he made a much more important contribution to English
literature in general, and to Arcadian poetry in particular.
This beautiful and fantastic book is modelled more exactly upon
the masterpiece of Sannasaro than any other in our language.
The Six* JdiUia of xs8S, paraphrases of Theocritus, are anony-
mous, but conjecture has attributed them to Sir Edward Dyer.
In 1598 Barthotomew Young published an English version of the
Diana of Montemayor.
1 In 1585 Watson published his collection of Latin degiacal
eclogues, entitled Amyntas, which was transUtcd into English
by Abraham Fraunce in 1587. Watson is also the author of
two frigid pastorals, Meliboeus (1590) and Amynlae gandia
(x592)- John Dickenson primed at a date nnsuted, but
probably not later than 1592, a *' passionate eclogue " called
The Shepherd*i Complaint, which begins with a harsh burst of
hexameters, but which soon settles down mto a hannonkws
prose story, with lyrical interiudes. In 1594 the same writer
published the romance of Arishat. Drayton is the next pastoral
poet in date of pubh'cation. His Idea: Shepherd's Garland bears
the date 1593, but was probably written much earlier. In 1595
the same poet produced an Endimicn and Phoebe, which was the
least happy of his works He then turned his fluent pen to the
other branches of poetic literature; but after more than thirty
years, at the very ck>8e of his life, he returned to this early love,
and published hi 1627 two pastorals, The Quest of Cynthia
and The Shepherd's Sirena. The general character of- all these
pieces is rich, but vague and unimpasaioncd. The Qiieen*s
Arcadia of Daniel must be allowed to lie open to the same
charge, and to have been written rather m accordance with a
fashion than in following of the author's predominant Impulse.
The singular ecbgue by Barafidd, The AfecOanale Shepherd,
printed in 1594, is an exerdse on the theme ** O cruddis Alexi,
nihil mea carmma curas>" and, in spite of its juvenility and
indiscxetJon, takes rank as the first really poetical following of
Spenser and Virgil, in distinction to Sidney and Sannaiaro.
Marlowe's pastoral lyric Come lite with Me, ahhough not printed
untH 1599, has been attributed to 1589. In 1600 was printed
the anonymous pastoral comedy bk rhyme. The Maid^s Meta-
morphosis, bng attributed to Lyly.
With the dose of the i6tb century pastoral literature was not
extinguished in England as suddenly or as completdy as it was
in Italy and Spain. Throughout the romantic Jacobean age
the English love of country life asserted itself under the guise
of pastoral sentiment, and the influence of Tasso and Guarini
was fdt in England just when it had ceased to be active in luly.
In England it became the fashion to publish lyrical edogucs,
usually in short measure, a class of poetry peculiar to the nation
and to that age. The lighter sUvea of The Shepherd's Calendar
were the model after which all these graceful productions were
drawn. We must confine oursdves to a brid enumeration of
the principal among these Jacobean eclogues. Nicholas Breton
came first with his Passionate Shepherd in 1604. Wither
followed with Tha Shepherd's Hunting in 1615, and Brailhwaite,
an inferior writer, published The Poet's WiUaw in 1613 and
Shepherd^ s Tales in 162 1. The name of Wither must recall to
our minds that of his friend William Browne, who published in
1613-1616 his beautiful collection of Devonshire idylls called
Britannia's Pastorals. These were in heroic verse, and less
distinctly Spenserian in character than those eclogues recently
mentioned. In 1614 Browne, Wither, Christopher Brook and
Davies of Herdord united in the composition of a little volume
of pastorals entitled The Shepherd's Pipe. Meanwhile the com*
position of pastoral dramas was not entirdy discontinued. In
x6o6 Day dramatixed part of Sidney's Arcadia in bis Isle oj
Gulls, and about i6as the Rev. Thomas Goffe composed his
Careless Shepherdess, which Ben Jonaon deigned to imitate in the
opening lines of his Sad Shepherd. In i6to Fletcher produced
hb Faithful Shepherdess in emulation of the Aminta of Tasso.
This is the principal pastoral play in the language, and, in spite
of its faults in moral taste, it preserves a fascination which has
evaporated from most of its feUowa. The Arcades of Milton
is scarcely dramatk; but it is a bucolic ode of great statdinesi
and beauty. In the Sad Shepherd, which was perhaps written
about 1635, and in his pastoral masques, we see Ben Jonson
not disdaining to follow along the track that Fletcher had pointed
out in the Faithful Shepherdess. With the Piscatory Eclog^ia
of Phineaa Fletcher, in 1633, we may take leave of the more
studied forms of pastoral in England early in the 17th century.
When pastoral had declined in all the other nations of Europe,
it enjoyed a curious recrudescence in HoUaod. More than a
centoiy after date, the Arcadia of Sannataro began to exercise
an influence on Dutch literature. Johan van Heemskirk led
the way with his popular Batavische Arcadia in 1637. In this
curious romance the shepherds and shcpherdesMS move to and
fro between Ratwijk and the Hague, in a landscape unaffectedly
Dutch. Heemskirk had a troop of imitators. Hcndrik Zoete*
boom published his Zaanlandsche Arcadia in 1658, and Lambertus
Bos his Dordlsche Arcadia in 1662. These VjcaX imitations of
the suave Italian pastoral were followed by still more crude
romances, the Rotterdanuche Arcadia of Willem den Elger, the
WaUhersche Arcadia of Gargon* and the Noordwijker Arcadia
of Jacobus van der Valk. Germany has nothing to offer us of
this dasst for the Diana of Werder (1644) and Die adriatische
Rosamund of 2>sen (1645) *re scarcely pastorals even in form.
In Engbnd the writing of edogucs of the sub-Spenserian
class of Breton and Wither led in another generation to a rich
growth of lyrics which may be roughly called pastoral, but are
not strictly bucolic. Carew, Lovelace, Suckling, Stanley and
Cartwright are lyrists who all contributed lo this harvest of
country song, but by far the most copious and the most charac>
teristic of the pastoral lyrists is Herrick. He has, perhaps, no
rival in modern literature in this particular direction. Hb
command of his resources, bis deep originality and observation,
his power of ooncentrating his genius on the details of rural
beauty, his interest in recording homdy facts of country life,
combined with his extraordinary gift of song to place him in the
very first rank among pastoral writers; and it is noticeable that
in Herrick's hancb, for the fint time, the pastoral becarne a real
and modem, instead of bdng an ideal and humanistic thing.
From him we date the recognition in poetry of the humble
beauty that lies about our doors. His genius aind influence were
almost instantly obscured by the Restoration. During the final
decline of the Jacobean drama a certain number of pastorals
were still produced. Of these the only ones which deserve
898
PASTORAL EPISTLES^-PASTORAL STAFF
mrntloB are tbree dramatic adaptations, SiMty*%»Art4tdia
(1640), Fanshawe's Pastor Fido (1646), and Leonanl WOlao's
Aslraea (1651). Tbe last pastoral dnuna in the 17th century
was Settle's Paslar Pid9 ( 1677). Tbe RestioratJOD was extremely
onfavounble to this species of fiteratuic Sir Charles Sedlcy,
Aphra Behn and Congreve pabiished edogoes, and the Pastors/
Dialogue bdween Thirsis and Slrepkon of the fint-mentioned was
much admired. All of these, however, are in the highest degree
insipid and unreal, and partook of the extreme artificiality
of the age.
Pastoral came into fashion again early in the i8tb centuiy.
Tbe controversy in tbe Guardian, the famous critique on Ambrose
Pb3ips*s Pashrah, tbe anger and rivalry of Pope, and tbe doubt
which must always exist as to Steele's share in the m>'Stification,
give 1708 a considerable importance in the annals of bucolic
writing. Pope had written his idylls first, and it was a source
of infinite annoyance to bim that Philips contrived to precede
him in publication. He succeeded in throwing ridicule on
Philips, however, and bis own pastorals were greatly admired.
Yet there was some nature in Philips, and, though Pope is more
elegant and faultless, he is not one whit more genuinely bucolic
than bis rival. A far better writer of pastoral than dlber b
Gay, whose Shepherd's Week was a serious attempt to throw
to the winds tbe ridiculous Arcadian tradition of nymphs and
swains, and to copy Theocritus in his simplicity. Gay was far
more successful in executing this pleasing and natural cyde
of poems than in writing his pastoral tragedy of Dime or his
** tragi-comico pastoral farce " of The What d'ye cait Ut {171$)-
He deserves a very high place in the history of English pastoral
on the score of hb Shepherd's Week, Swift proposed to Gay
that be should write a Newgate pastoral in which the swains
and nymphs should talk and warble in slang. This Gay never
did attempt; but a northern admirer of hb and Pope's achieved
a veriuble and lasting success in Lowland Scotch, a dialect
then considered no less beneath the dignity of verse. Allan
Ramsay's Gentte Shepherd, published in 1725. was the last, and
remains the most vertebrate and interesting, bucolic drama pro-
duced in Great Britain. It remained a favourite, a hundred
and fifty years after, among Lowland reapers and milkmaids.
With the GenOe Shepherd the chronicle of pastoral in England
practicaUy doses. Thb is at least tbe last performance which
can be described as a developed edogue of the school of Tasio
and Guarini. It is in Switzerland that we find tbe next impor-
tant revival of pastoral property so<alled. The taste of the
i8tb century was very agreeably tickled by the religious idyUs of
Sabmon Gessner, who died in 1787. Hb Daphnis und PhiUis
and Der Tod Abds were read and imitated throughout Europe.
In German literature they left but little mark, but in France
they were devcrly copied by Amaud Berquin. A much more
important pastoral writer b Jean Pierre Covb de Florian, who
began by imitating tbe Galatea of Cervantes, and continued with
an original bucolic romance entitled EsteUe, It has always been
noticeable that pastoral b a form of literature which disappears
before a breath of ridicule. Neither Gessner nor hb follower
Abbt were able to survive the laughter of Herder. Since
Florian and Gessner there has been no reappearance of bucolic
literature properly so-called. The whole spirit of romanticism
was fatal to pastoral. Voss in hb iMtse and Goethe in Hermann
nnd Dorothea replaced it by poetic scenes from bomdy and simple
life.
Half a century later something like pastoral reappeared in a
totally new form, in the fashion for Dorfgeschichten, About
1830 the Danish poet S. S. Blicher, whose woriL connects the
grim studies of George Crabbe with the milder modem strain
of pastoral, began to publish hb studies of out-door romance
among the poor in Jutland. Imroermann followed in Germany
with hb novd Der Oherkof in 1839. Auerbacb, who has given
to the i9th«<entury idyll its peculiar character, began to publish
bb Sckwanwalder Dorfgeschiehien in 1843. Meanwhile George
Sand was writing Jeanne in 1844, which was followed by La
htare an DiaUe and Pran^ois le Champi, and in England Ciough
produced in 1848 bb remarkable long-vacation pastoral The
Balhie of Toher-m^-Vmoikk. It seems almoal certain that tbne
writers followed a sinuihaiicovs but indepeadcnt impolae is tbs
curious return to bucolic life, in wlacb, bo w i i u, in every case,
the old tiitsocne cooveuioaality and aflectataoft of lady-bke
ain and graces were catirely dropped. Tids Kteol of writcts
was presently enriched io Norway by BjflraMB, wbooe SjmmSm
5afAaA*rjt was the first of an mc|niWlr«riea of pastoral wances.
But perhaps the best of all modem pastoral roaaaiioes is Friu
Renter's Ut mum Siromiid, wrItUn in tbe MccUaborg diakct
of German. In England tbe DoneCaUre poena of WiUiarn
Barnes and the Dorsetshire oofvcb of Thomas Hardy bdo^ to
the same class. It wiU be nocked, of ooone, that all tliac receat
pioductioas have ao mocb ia commoo with the htctatwe whkh
b produced atoaad them that they almost evade separate
dassificataon. It b oonoeivable thai same poet, in following
the antiquarian tendency of the age, may enshrine hb fancy once
more in tbe five acts of a pure pastoral drama of the school of
Tasao and Fletcher, bat any great vitality in pastoral is baMI> to
be ktoked for in the fnture: (E. C)
PASnHUL EPUTLB, the name given to St Paul% letters
to Timothy and Titus. The tem seems to have origitiaicd
with J. A. L. Wc«Khcider (i7ri*i&i9). professor at Halle.
The three epistles men t ioned are written to aaea rather tbaa
duuches, and to men appointed to ocrtain pastoral smHc 1b
thb respect they diflcr from the pcssonal and intimate note
which Paul wrou to PhilemoiL. They are dooely related in
origin, style, diction and thought, and occupy so distinct a
place in these rcspecu that the PaoKne aathonhip «f them k«a
been much qu es tioned. (See Taunmt, Efbiues 10; Tnrs«
Epistle TO.)
PARORAL URTBI* an open letter addressed by a bishop
to the detgy or laity of hb diocese, or to both, ooBtaanins cither
general admonition, instruction or consolation, or directions far
behaviour in particular circumstances. In the Catholic Church
such letters are also sent out rrgubily at particular ecdcsinstjcal
seasons, particularly at the beginning of lasta. In the noa-
episcopal ProtesUnt cfaurcbes the name ** pastoral letter " b
given to any open letter addressed by a pastor to hb cmigicga*
tion, but more especially to that customarily imued at oeitAin
seasons, e.g. by tbe moderator of a Presbyterian — ***My or the
chairman of a Congregational or Baptist union.
FAITORAL STAPP, in the Christum Churdi, an emi^a of oAce
or dignity. It b some five feet long, ending at tha top in a
crook (wdule) bent inwards, and made of metal, ivory or wood.
If of metal, it b hoUow; if of wood, It b usually cofvcrad with
metal. The crook b usually richly ornamented, and b divided
from the shaft by a boss; the shaft b commonly aepanted into
scaioos by rings, so that it can be taken to pieces.
The pastoral stall b tbe ensign proper of ^"f'Trlt (except
cardinal-deacons) and bishops; but tbe former are entitled to
use it only in the churches from which they derive their titles,
the latter only in thdr dioceses. The pope so eaily m the lisat
of Innocent III. did not carry the pastoral staff, and it woold
seem never to have been hb custom. The/ertite that the Ordo
of Cencius SabeUiua (ch. 48) speaks of was not a pastoral stall,
but the symbol of authority over the papal palace, with whkh
by its transference he was invested. Thb feni^ mentioned
by Luitprand of Cremona in hb account of the depositioa of
Benedict V., and the boeulus attreut of the Historia dedieatiomis
ectlesiae eaoemsis {Acta Samtorum, 4 March, 1. 354) are sceptres.
Abbots carry the pastoral staff only when spedally ea ^ w m ei e d
by the pope to do so, and then only in the territoty undo
the jurisdiction of their monastery aind in the choRhcs sab>
ordinated to it. With certain restrictions the pastoral staff b
also sometimes conceded to dignitaries of cathedral a»d
collegiate churches, but never to abbeaaes (Saero CMgreg. JUL
39 Jan. 1656).
The pastoral staff, as iU name unplies, symboUaes the pastotal
ofiice and authority, a symbolism already known to Isidore of
Seville (De eceUsiask og. ii. 5). This symbolism b expressed
in the words used, at least since the xoth century, by the coiisr-
crator io delivering the pastoral staff at the oooscccation «i a
PATAGONIA
899
bbbop' aod the benedictioo of &n abbot. Tfie paston! staff u
canied ui the left haot^ in order that the right may remain free
to give the bleaaing. The bishop is dizeoted so to bold it {Cerem.
episc, ii. 8, 2$) that the crook is turned towards the people.
It is used not only at pontifical High Mass but at all solemn
pontifical functions, <.|. vespers, consecrations, processions.
It it uncertain at what period the use oi the pastoral stafi was
introdttced; but the evidence tends to show that it was about
the 5th century, In Gaul or Spain. The pastoral staff was
certainly in use in Gaul in the 6(h century ( Vita S. Caesar. Ardat,
ii. 18), in Spain at least as early as the 7th, and in IreUnd also
in the 7th; in Italy, so far as the available evidence shows, itt
introdnctlon was comparatively late. It had originally nothing
of its present liturgical character; thSs was given to it in the
post'CareUngian period.
As regards the developmait of the form of tho pastoral staff,
there are four principal types: (i) staves with a simple crook,
^
the oldest form, which survived in Ireland until the r stb century;
(3) staves with a ball or knob at the top, a rare form which did
not long survive as a pastoral staff; (3) slaves with a horizontal
crook, so-called Tau-atavcs, used especially by abbots and
surviving nntil the tjth century; (4) staves with crook bent
inwards. These last abvady appear in miniatures of the Qth
century; from the nth onwards they predominated; and in the
13th oentuiy. they ousted all other forms. Originally plain,
the crook was from the nth century onwards often made in the
form of a snake (5), which in richer staves encircled the Lamb
of God or the representation of a figure. Since the 13th century
the snake, under Gothic influence, developed into a boldly
designed tendril set with leaves, which usually encircled a figure
or group of figures, and the knob dividing shaft and crook into
an elegant chapel (6 and 7). Finally, at the dose of the middle
ages, the lower part of the crook was bent outwards so that the
actual volute came over the middle of the knob, the type that
remained dominant from that time onwards (8) . As a decoration,
rather than for practical reasons, a fine folded doth ipannisellus,
smdariumf vdutHf Eng. veil), wa» from the 14th century onward
often suspended from the knob of the pastoral staff. This waa
done both in the case of bishops' and of abbots' staves, but is
now confined to the latter (Ccrem, episc. i. 11, s; Deer. Alex. VIL
»7 Sept. i6s9',Sa€r. Congr. RiL 27 Sept. 1847)'
From the pastoral staff must be distinguished the staff of tho
ckorepiscopus (director of the choir) and cantors, which b still
in use here and there. This, which is also known as bordonus,
was developed out of the choir>staves, originally no more. than
sticks to lean on during the long services.
The Reformatioh abolished the pastoral staff almost every-
where.' In the Church of Engknd, however, it was retained
among the episcopal ornaments prescribed by the first Prayer*
book of Edward VI., and, though omitted in the second Prayer-
book, its use seemed once more to be enjoined under the Orna-
ments Rubric of £lizabeth*s Prayer-book. Whatever the
theoretical value of this injunction may have been, however,
in practice the use of the pastoral staff was discontinued until
its gradual revival in the last decades of the 19th century.
In the Churches of the East, a pastoral staff (Gr. W^t
Russ. pftfMckt pfikritsa, Syr. and Nest, ^nlra. Arm. gavatan
kayrapelattj CopL ibot) is borne among the Syrians only by the
patriarch, in all the other rites by all bishops, in the Greek
' Ainong curious exceptions is the pastoral staff still carried
by the Lutheran abbot of Lokkum.
Chufcfa abo by arcfaimandiltes and abbots, and In the Armenian
Church abo by the soffa^erfr (teachen). The staff of ArmeAian
bishops is reminiscent of that of the West, from which it is
apparently derived; that of the vartapeds is encircled at the
upper end by one or two snakes. The Coptic patriarch uses
an iron croas-staff. For the rest,, the pastoral staff in the
Oriental rites is T-shaped. It is of wood jnlaid with ivory and
mother-of-pearL A veil » attadied to the staff among this
Grteks, Armenians and Copts.- The bishops of the Coptic,
Syrian and Nestorian Uniate Qnnrhes have adopted the Roman
pastoral staff.^
See Ch. Cahier et A. Martin, MUanps i'arcMohnt (Paris. 1856),
IV. 145 KQ. ; Rohault et Fleury, La Messe (Paris, 1889). viL 75 scq.
For the Anglican usage see the Rraort of the Sub<ommittee
of Convocatioa on the Ornaments 01 the Church, Ac. (London,
1908}. 0- Bra.)
PATAGOMIA, the name given to that portion of South America
which, to the east of the Andea, lies mainly south of the Rio
Negro (41** S.), and, to the west of the Andes, south of the Chilean
province of Uanquihu6 (43* S.). The Chilean portion embraces
the two provinces of Chiloe and Magallanes. East of the Andes
the Argentine portion of Patagonia is divided into four territories:
(t) Neuquen, 42,000 sq. m. approzimalely, indudfng the triangle
between the rivers Limay and Neuquen, and extending south-
ward to the northern shore of Lake Nahuel-Huapi (41" S.)
and northward to the Rio CokMsdo; (>) Rio Negro, 76yooo aq. m.
approximately, extending from the Atlantic to the Cbrdillera
of the Andes, to (he north of 43** S.; (3) Chubut, 95,000 sq. m.
i^>proximately, embracing the region between 4a* and 46* S.;
and (4) that portion of the province of Santa Crus which stretches
from the faist-named paralld as far south as the dividing line
with Chile, and between Point Dungeness and the watershed
of the CordUlera, an area«pproximatdy of 106,000 sq. m.
Fkyriapapky.-^'Tht general character of the Argentine portion '
of Patagonia is for the moct part a region of vast steppe-Uke plains,
rising in a succession of abrupt terraces about joo ft. at a time, and
covered with an enormous bed of shingle almost bare of vcgcution.
In the holkyws of the pbina are poods or lakes of brackish and fresh
water. Towards the Andes the shingle gives plaoe to porphyry,
granite and basalt lavas, animal life bcoooes more abundant and
vegetation mofe luxuriant, ac(]uirinj; the characteristics of the flora of
the western coast, and con«sting pnndpally of the beech aod conifers.
Among the depressions by which the plateau is intersected trans-
versely, the principal are the Guslichu. south of the Rio Negro,
the liaqtinchau and Bakhetl (through which previously flowed the
waten of lake Nahucl-Huapi. which now feed the river Limay):
the Senguerr, the Deseado. Besides these transverse depressions
(some oTthem marking lines of ancient intcr-oceanic communication),
there are others which were occupied by more or less eactensive lakes,
auch as the Yagagtoo. Musten and CeUiuapi, and olhen situated
to the south of Puerto Deseado. in the centre of the country. In
the central rcmon volcanic erupricna, which have taken part m the
formatioo of the plateau from the Tertiary period down to the pre-
sent era. cover a lacge part with basaltic lava-caps; and in the western
third more recent gladal deposiU appear above the lava. These,
in conUct with folded Cretaceous rocks, uplifted by the Tertiary
granite, erosion, caused pnndpally by the sodden melting and re-
treat of the ice. aided by tectonic changes, has scooped out a deep
longitudinal depression, which generally separates the pbtcau from
the first kifty hUls. the ridces generally called the pre-CordiUefm,
while on the west of these there is a similar kmgitudinal dtprtssiou
all akMig the foot of the snowy Andean Cordiltera. This btter dcpces-
sion contains the richest and most fertile bnd of Pstagoaia.
The geological constitution is in accordance with the orographic
physiognomy. The Tertiary pbteau, flat on the cast, gradually
risuig on the west, shows Upper Cretaceous caps at its base. Firat
come Lower Cretaceous hills, raised by granite and dioritic rocks,
undoubtedly of Tertiary origin, as in some cases these rocks have
broken across the Tertiary Beds, so rich in mammal remama; then
foltow, on the west, metamorphic schists of uncertain age; then
quartzites appear, resting directly on the primitive granite and
gneiss which form the axis of the Cordillera. Porphyritic racks
occur between the schists and the quartxttea. The Tertiary deposits
are greatly varied in character, and there b considenbb difference
of opinion concerning the succession and correbtioo of the be<b.
They are divided by Wikkens ■ into the following scries (in ascending
order):—
f. Pyratherium-Notostylops bcda Of terrestrial ocbjn, con-
raining remains of mammalb. Eocene and Oligocene.
« O. Wilckcns. " Die Mceresabbgi
tiar-formation in Patagonien," in Neues Jakrh. f. Min., Deibge-
Band XXL (1906). 9^-195.
lagcnjngcn dcr Kreide- und Ter<
I Neuei -■■'-— - •*
900
PATAGONIA
a. Patagonian Molaaae. ftrdy marine, partly termtriaJ. Lower
Miocene. Wilckens indude* ia this series the cool of Puata Arenas,
and the marine beds below iL
A. Santa Cruz series. Containing remuns of mammals. Middle
and Upper Miocene.
4. FuanA aeries. Sandstones aifd conglomerates with marine
fcsails. Pliocene. Confined to the eastern part of the region.
The Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary depOMts have revealed a
most interesting vertebrate fauna. This, together with the dis-
covery of the perfect cranium of a chdonian 01 the genus Afyolamia,
which may be laid to be almost identical with Myotonia oweni of the
Pleistocene age in Queensland, forms an evident proof of the con-
nexion between the Australian and South American continents.
The Patagonlan Myolania belongs to the Upper Chalk, having been
found associated with remains of DtnoMuria. Other specimens
of the interesting fauna of Patagonia, belonging to the Middle
Tertiary, are the gigantic wingkss birds, exceeding in sire any
hitherto known, and the singular mammal Pyrolktrium, also <h
yery large dimensions. lo Cm Tertiary marine formation a con-
aiderable number of cetaceans has been discovered. In deposits
of much later date, formed when the physiognomy of the country
did not differ materially from that of the present time, there have
been discovered remains of pampean mammals, such as CiyplodoH
and Macrauckenia, and in a cave near l^ast Hope lnk«t, a gigantic
ground sloth (firypothenitm /utot*), an animal which lived contem-
poraneously with man, and whose skin, well preserved, showed that
Its extermination was undoubtedly very recent. With the remains
of Grypothenum have been found those of the horse {Onosktppidtum),
which are known only from the lower pampas mud. and of the
ArcMkerium^ which is found, although not in abundance, in even
the most modern Pleistocene dcpootts in the pampas of Buenos
Aires. It would not be surprising if this latter animal were still m
existence, for footprints, which may be attributed to it, have been
observed on the borders of the rivers Tamango and Pisu, affluents
of the Las Heras, which run through the eastern foot-hiOs of the
Cordillera in 47* S.
Glaciers occupy the valleys of the main chain and some of the
lateral ridges '01 the Cordillera, and descend to lakes San Martin.
. Viedma, Argenrino and others in the same locality, strewing them
with icebergs. In Patagonia an immense icc-shoct extended to the
east of the present Atlantic coast during the first ice age, at the close
of Xht Tertiary epoch, while, during the second glacial age in modern
times, the terminal moraines have generally stopped. 30 miles in the
north and 50 miles in the south, cast of the summit of the Cordtlkra-
These ice-shccts. which scooped out the greater part of the longitu-
dinal depressions, and appear to have rapidly retreated to the point
where the glaciers now exist, did not. however, in their retirement
fill up with their detritus the fjords of the Cordillera, for these are
now occupied by deep lakes on the east, and on the west by the
Pacific channels, some of which are as much as 250 fathoms in depth,
and soundings taken in them show that the fjords are as usual
deeper in the vicinity of the mounuins than to the west of the islands.
Several of the high peaks are still active volcanoes.
In so far as its main characteristics are concerned, Patagonia
seems to be a portion of the Antarctk: continent, the permanence of
which dates from very recent times, as is evidenced by the apparent
recent emergence of the islets around Chiloe, and by the general
character 01 the pampean formation. Some of the promontories
ci Chiloe are still called kuapi, the Araucanian equivalent for
'Mslands"; and this may perhaps be accepted as perpetuating
the recollection of the time when they Jictually were islands. They
are composed of caps of shingle, with great, more or less rounded
boukkr^ sand and volcanic ashes, precisely of the same form as
occurs on the Pata^nian plateau. From an examination <A the
pampean formation it is evident that in rcccm times the bnd of the
province of Buenos Aires extended farther to the cast, and that the
advance of the sea, and the salt-water deposits left by it when it
retired, forming some of the lowlands which occur on the littoral and
in the interior of the pampas, are much more rci.ent phenomena;
and certain caps of shinsle. derived from rocks of a different dass
from those of the neighbourii^ hills, which are observed on the
Atbntic coasts of the same province, and increase in ouantity and
sire towards the south, seem to indicate that the caps of shingle which
now cover such a great part of the Patagonian territory recently
extended farther to the east, over land which has now disappeared
beneath the sea, while other marine deposits along the same coasts
became converted into bays during the subsequent advance of the
sea. There are besides, in the neighbourhood of the present const,
deposits of volcanic ashes, and the ocean throws up on iu shores
blocks of basahic lava, which in all probability Drooeed from erup-
tions of submerged volcanoes now extinct. One fact, however,
whkh apparently demoastFatcs with greater certainty the existence
in recent times of land that is now lost, is the presence of lemaios
of pampean mammais in Pleistocene deposits in the bay of San
Inhan and in Santa Crux. The animals undoubtedly reached these
localities from the east: it is not at all probable that they advanced
from the north southwards across the plateau intersected at that
time by great rivers and covered by the ioe-shcet. With the
exception of the discoveries at the inlet of Ultima Esperanza, irtiich is
in dose conunuoicatkm with the Atlaatk valley of GaUcgoa, nosa d
these remains have been discovered in the Andean regions.
On the upper plains of Neuquen territory thousands of cattfe
can be fed. and tne forests around Lakes Traf ul and NaluttI-Hui|B
yidd large quantities of valuable timber. The Neuquen river i»
not navigable, but as its waters are capable of bang eoeily daauaed
in places, large stretohes of land in iu valley are utiliaed; but the
lands on eadi side of its Iowa- part are of httle co mm er ci al value.
As the Cordillen is approached the soil becomes more fertile, and
suitable districts for the rearing of cattle and other agricuhural
purposes exist between the renons which surround the Troraen
volcano and the first ridges of the Andes. Chos Malal, the capital
of the territory, is situated in one of these valleys. More to the
west is the mining regkm, in great part onexplored, but containing
deposiu of gold, silver, copper and lignite. In the centre of the
territory, also in the oeigfabourhood of the mining districts, are the
valleys oif Norquin and Las Lajas, the general camp of the Aiveotine
army In Paugoida, with exodleat timber in the forest on the Andean
slope. The wide valleys occur near Rio MaUeoo, Lake Huechulal-
quen, the river Chimehuin, and Vega de Chapeko, near Lake Lacar.
where are situated villages of soom importance, such as Junin de
los Andes and San Martin de loa Andes. Clooe to these are the
famous apple orchards supposed to have been planted by the Jesuits
in the inh and 18th centuries. These regions are drained oy the
river Collon-Cura, the prindpal aAuent oTthe river Limay. Lake
Lacar u now a oontributary of the Padfic. its outlet having been
changed to the west, owing to a pusage having been opened through
the CordiUera.
The Rio Negro runs along a wide transvene depression, the middle
part of which is followed by the railway which runs to the settlement
of Neuquen at the confluence of the rivers Ltmay and Neuquen.
In this depression are several settlements, among them Viedma,
the capiul of the Rio Negro territory, Pringles, Coocaa, Choekr-
Choel and Roca. To the south of the Rio Negro the Pkugooua
plateau u intersected by the depressions of the Gualicho ar^i
Maqniiichau, which in former times directed the waters of two grcM
rivers (now disappeared) to the gulf of San Matias. the fim-narned
depression drainine the network of the Collon-Cura and the second
the Nahucl-Huapi lake system. In 42* S. there is a third broad trans*
verse depression, apparently the bed of another ercat
pen&hed. which carried to the Atkimic the waters ol a pc
■ of Che
portioac
eastern sbpe of the Andes, between 41* and 41* 30' S.
Chubut territory presents the same charactenstica as the Rio
Negro territory. Rawson. the capital, is situated at tbe mouth
of the river Chubut on the Atlantic <42* 30* S.). The tofwn was
founded in 1665 by a group of colonisu from Wales* assisted by tbe
Argentine government : and its prosperity has led to the foundaiioa
of other important centres in the valley, such as Treleu and Caiman,
which is connected by railway with Porto Madryn on Bahia Nueva.
Here is the scat of the governor of the territory* and by 1895 the
inhabiunts of this part of the territory, composed princwally d
Argentines, Welsh and Italians, numbered 2585. The valley his
been irrigautl and cultivated, and produces the best^ wheat of the
Argentine Republic.
are vast stretches of fertile land, sprcadti
Between the Chubut and the Sengnerr thrre
ins (
to the foot of the Cordillera and the lateral r
cngnerr \
over the Andean rvipoa
ridges of the Pre-Cord 1-
Icra. and hlhng the basins of some desiccated lakes, which haw b^ea
occupied si ncc 1 885. a nd farms and colonies founded upon them. The
chief of thc&e colonics is that of the i6th of October (16 de Octobrr\.
formed in 1686, mainly by the inhabitants of Chubut colony, in tlie
longitudinal valley which extends to the eastern foot of the Cordil-
fera. Other rivers in this territory flow into the Pad6c throttfh
breaches in the Cordillera, e.{. the upper affluents of the Fetaletiru,
Palena and Rio Cisncs. The principid affluent of the Paleika. the
Carrenleufu. carries off the waters of Lake General Pai. situated oa
the eastern slope of the Cordillera. Rio Pico, an affluent of the same
river, receives nearly the whole of the waters of the extensive undo-
laiing plain which lies between the Rio Teka and the Rio Sc ii^u e ir
to the cast of the Cordillera, while the remainder are carried away by
the affluenu of Rio Jehua, viz.. the Chcrque. Omkd and ApceieK
This region contains auriferous drif tSj but these, like the aaritcmiji
deposits. Veins of eakiia and lignite in the mountains fanhcr west
which flank the Cordillera, have not been properly ioxTSUsate^
At Lake Fontana there are auriferous drifts and lignite dcpoMta
which abound in fossil planu of the Cretaceous age. The str«afrs
tdiich form the rivers Mayo and Chalia join tbe tributaries of tK*
Rio Aiscn, which flows into the Pacific, watering in iu course exten-
sive and valuable districts where colonization has been initiatt J
by Argentine settlers. Colonies have also been formed so the faas>s
of Lakes Musters and Colhu6: and on the ooasu near the Atkamic.
along Bahia Camaroocs and the Gulf of San Jorge, there aie exten-
sive farms.
The territory of Santa Cruz is arid along the Atlantic oosttt and
in the central portion between 46* and 50*^8. With the eaecrpxtjo
of certain X'alle^'s at Puerto Deaeado (Port Desire) and in tlse tsar*-
veree basins which occur as far south as Puerto San I o&n. aisd srlnck
contain several cattle farms, few spots are capable of culvtvati.%
the pastures being poor, water insufficient and aah lagoisaMi fai^S
numerous. Puerto Deseado is the outlet for the prodoee of e^r
Andean regioo situated between Lakes Buenos Aires and Poeynvdcm.
PATAGONIA
901
IiMothii talet there Bowed it the time of tbeoaoquMt a volutniaoot
nver. vhich subsequently disappeared* but returned again to its
ancient bed* owing to the river Fenix, one of its affluents, which had
deviated to the west, regaining its original direction. Lake Buenos
Aires, the hi^Btst like in Patagonia, mcesuriiig 7^ m. in length,
poured iu waten. into the Atlantic even in post<Qadal timea by
means of the river Deseado; and it is so depiacd on the maps of the
t7th and x8th centuries; and so too did Lake Pueyrredon. which,
through the action of erosion, now empties itself westward, through
the river Las Heras, into the Calcn inlet of the Pacific, in 48* & Saa
Julian on Puerto San Julian, where Ferdinaod Magellao wintemL
IS the centre of a cattle farming colony, and colonists have pushed
into the mterior up the valley of a now extinct river which in com-
paratively recent times carried down to Puerto San Julian the waters
of Lakes Volcan, Bdgrano, Azara, Nanscn, and some other lakes
which now drain into the liver Mayer and so into Lake San
Martin. The valleys of the Rio Chico throughout their whole exUnt.
as welt as those ot Lake Shchuen, afford excellent grazing, and around
Laki^ Belgrano, Burmeister and Rio Mayer and San Martin there
are spots suitable for culttvarion. In tne Cretaceous hills which
Hank the Cordillera Important benite beds and deposiu of mineiat
oils have been discovered. The Rio Santa Cmai originally expbred
by Captain Fitzray and Charles Darwin, is an important arterv of
communication between the regions bordering upon the Cordillera
and the Atlantic. In Santa Cruz bay an important trade centre
has beea established. But the present cattle regbn par gjctdtaue
of Patagonia is the department of Rio Gallegoe. the fanns extending
from the Atlantic to the Cordillera.^ Puerto Gallegos itself is aa
important business centre, which bids fair to rival the Chilean
colony of Punta Arenas, on the Straits of Magellan. Owfng to the
prodoce of the cattle farms established there, the working of coal
m the neighbourhood, and the export of timber from the surrounding
forcsu, the town of Punta Arenas is in a flourishing condition.
Its population numbers about 4000. But the colonization of the
western (Chilean) coast has generally failed, prindpally owing to the
adverse dimatio conditions of the Coidillera in those latitudes.
C/fiiMXl«.~-The dimate b less severe than was supposed by eaify
travellers. The east sbpe is warmer than the west, espedally
in summer, as a branch of the southern equatorial current reaches
its shores, whereas the west coast is washed by a cold current. At
Puerto Montt, oil the inlet behind Chikw Island, the mean annual
temperature is 5a * F and the average extieracs 78" and 39*5*, whereas
at Bahia Blanca near the Atlantic coast and just outside tbe northern
confines of Patagonia the annual temperature is 59* and the range
much greater. At Punta Arenas, in the extreme south, the mean
tentperature is 43* and the average extremes 76* and >8^ The
prevailing winds ate westerly, and the westward slope has a much
heavier precipitation than the eastern; thus at Puerto Montt the
mean annual precipitation is 97 in,, but at Bahia Blaaca it is 19 in.
At Punu Arenas it is 33 in.
Fauna. — ^The guanaco. the puma, the aoiro or Brazilian fox (Canit
aaarat), the zernno or Mepkttis pala^niea (a kind of skunk), aad
the tuco-tuco or Clemmnyt fnageUwitfms (a rodcat) are the most
characteristic mammals of the Patagonian i^lains. The guanaco
roam in herds over the country and form with the ostrich (Rhea
nmericana, and more rarely Rhea danrinit) the chief means of sub-
sistence for the natives, who hunt them on horaeback with dogs and
bolas. . Bird-Ule is often wonderfully abundant. The carrancha
or carrion-hawk {Polyborus tharus) is one of the characteristic
objects of a Patagonian landscape; the presence of long-tailed green
parakeets (Coniuus cyanolysius) as far sooth as the shores of the
strait attracted the attention of the earlier navigators ; and humming-
birds Biav be seen flying amidst the fallinffsnow. Of the many kiads
of water4owl it is enough to mention the flamingo, the upland goose,
and in the strait the remarkable steamer duck.
J*opulati<m,-^Tht natives of Patagonia are nearly extinct
Here and there one may find a Tchuelchian or Cennaken encamp-
ment, but natives of pure race are now very scarce, and the two
races an told probably do not number more than 100 male
individuals. The Tehuelches were the dominant race in Pata^
gonia. These people, from whom the name of Tierrade PaLa^
goncs was given by Magellan on observing their large footprints,
arc remarkable for their great stature, having an average height
of 6 ft. to 6 ft. 4 in. They are not known to have applied any
collective name to their various tribes; Tchuelche is the Arao-
canian name for them. They have been described aa kindly
in disposition, though sometimes quarrelsome; skilled in the
chase, addicted to gambling and to drinking, though also capable
of long endurance of privation. Tbdr religion recognized a
Great Spirit, and designated the new moon as an object of
worship. The Gennakens diiTcr in type and language from the
Tehuelches. The remaining population is composed of Arau-
caoians, a mixture of the Tehuelches and Gcnnaken. But these
arc not the only type of people who have dwelt in Patagonia.
Tbe ancient burial-places have yielded the bones of other nccs
quite (Bstiflct from tlie present inhabitants, some of them havinf
greatly resembled the primitive types which are met with more
to the north, in the Argentine Chaco and in Brazil; while others^
again, strongly resembled certain of the Pacific races, in that
they poasesfied ethnic characteristics which have not been
observed elsewhere in South America. Among these remains
every type. of artificial deformity of the skuU hitherto known
iias hotn found, while at the present time the natives only
practise the occipital deformation which is so common amonf
the western tribes of America.
History. — Patagonia was discovered in 1520 by Fexdinand
Magellan, who on his passage along the coast named many of the
more striking ieatun^«-Gulf of San Matias, Cape of xi,o0»
Virgins (now simply Cape Virgenes), &c. By 16 11 the Pata*
gonian god Setebos (Scttaboth in Pigafetta) was familiar to the
hearen of the Tempest, Rodrtgo de Isla, despatched inland in
XS35 from San Matias by Alcazava Sotomayor (on whom western
Patagonia had been conferred fay the kinc of Spain), was the first
to traverse the great Patagonian plain, and, but for the mutiny
of his men, he would have struck across the Andes to the Chilean
side. Pedro de Mendosa, on whom the oountxy was next
bestowed, Uved to found Buenos Aires, but not to carry his
czploratioiis to ,tbe south. Alonso de Camargo (iS30)» J«»tt
LadctUeros (i5S7) and Hurtad^ de Mendoa (tss^) helped to
make known the wcsUrn coasts, and Sir Frands Drake's voyage
in 1S77 <iown the eastern coast through the strait and oocthward
by Chile and Peru was memorable for several leafiona; but the
geography of Fistagania owes moEe to Pedro Sacmiento de
Gamboft (iS7<his8o), who, devoting himself especially to the
aouthhwest region, made caicCul and accurate .surveys The
settlement which Jbe founded at Nombro de DJoe and San Fdipe
were neglected by the Spanish government, and the latter was
in such a miserable state when Thomas Cavendish visited it In
1587 that he caUed it FMt Famine. The district in the neigh-
bourhood of Puerto Peseado, explored by John Davis about tht
sAme period, was taken possession of by Sir John- Narborough ift
the name of King Charles IE* in 1669. Id the second half of the
iBtfa oenttuy knowledge of Patagom'a was augmented by Byron
(x764-t765), & WaUis (1766) and L. A. de BougainviUe (1766);
Thomas Falkner, a Jesuit who *i resided near forty years in
those parts," published his Dtscripliom of Fatoi/uda (Hentford,
1774); Francesco Viedma founded £1 Carmen, and Antonio
advanced inland to the Andes (17BS); and Basilio Villarino
ascended the Rio Negro {tj&i)* The "AdveAtme*' and
" Beagle " expeditions nnder Philip King (i&sfr-xSjfo) and Robert
Fitzroy (iSja^i^) were o{ firat-rate imporUnoe, the latter
especially from tbe participation of Charles Darwin; but of the
interior of the country notiiing tras observed except too miles
of the course of the Santa Crux. Captain G. C. Musters in 1869
wandered in company with a band of Tebudcbes through the
whole length of the country from the strait to the Manxaneros
in the noitb-west, and collected a great deal. of information
about the people and their mode of life. Since that date ex-
plorations have been carried on by F. P. Moreno, Ramon Lista*
Carlos M. Moyano, A. Bcrtnad. H. Steffcn, P. Kriiger, R.
Hauthal, C. Burckbardt, O. Nordcnski51d, J. B. Hatcher, the
surveyora of the Aigentine and Chilean Boondaty Comnissions
and others.
Bibliographical lists for Patagonia arc given in J. WappSus.
ffandbuck ier CtOfr. u. Stat, des ekemal. span. MittH- una Sud-
Amerika (Leipzig, 1863-1870): in V. G. Qiiesada, La Patagonia y las
titrras austraies dtL tontnumt* americama (Buenos Aires, 1075): and
in T. Cbao. Adventures in Patapmia (New York. 1880). See sbo
C. Darwin. Journal of Reseankes (London, 1845). and CeUogical
Observations on South America (London, 1846); VV. Parker Snow,
A Two Years' Cruise off . . . Patagonia (London, 1857) ;G. C. Musters,
At Home trith the Patagonians (London. 1871); R. O. Conningham,
Nat, Hist, of the Strait of JfdttOaa (Edinburgh, 1871) : F. P. MorenOk
Viaje d la Patatpnia austral (Busnos Aires, 1879) ; Rapport priltmin-
aire Neuquen, Ckubut, et Rio Negro (L9. Plata. i897); Apuntes Ore-
timinares (Buenos Aires. 1897): "Explorations in Pntsgonla' tn
Geographical Journal, xiv. (London. t8oo); and '* Patagonia " in
the National Geographical Motasine (Washineton. ifn* I^dv
Florence Dixie, Across Patanonia (London, iCso): R
esploraeiomes ...em la Patagonia (Buenos Aims* l*^
902
PATAN— PATEL
..ig la at, ai Rw Nar0 (aader General Roca, 18791
Buenos Aires, 1882); Gtacomo Bove, Pciofpnia, Terra dd Twoco
^Doa, 1883): La fUtion central de las iierras maptOanicas
\n Globus (1807-1898): and Roch. Whcrti and Burckhardt in Revisla
musa de la Plata, ix. (1898) ; O. NoniensldOld. " A Journey in South-
Western Piatagonia*' in Ceo%. Journal, x. (London. 1897): H.
1905): Reports (1903 MqJ oC Princeton University expedition to
PATAV (-" city "), the name of two lustotk cities in India.
One of these, known as Anhflwada Patan, was the capital of the
last Hindu dynasty of Gujant, sacked by Kfahmnd of Ghazni
and finally destroyed by the Mahonunedans in 1298. Near
iu ruins, which are not considerable, has sprang up a modem
town, in the sute of Baroda (pop. 31^402), whkh contains many
Jain temples (with paim-lcaf MSS.) and has manulactuics of
fine cotton and silk textiles. The other Patan, known as Laliu
Patan, was the capital of one of the three Ncwar kingdoms in the
valley of Nepal, conquered by the Gurkhas at the end of the 18th
oentuxy. It is situated dose to Katmandu, on the opposite
bank of the river BaghmatL The population is estimated at
about 30,000, mostly Ncwais, who are Buddhists; and the build-
ings consist mainly of old Buddhist shrines and monasteries.
PATABA* an ancient town of Asia Minor, on the Lydan coast,
3 m. E. of the mouth of the Xanthus river (mod. Eshen Chai).
It was noted from early times for its temple and oracle of Apollo,
and, as the port of Xanthus and other towns of the same valley,
had a large trade, and was regarded as the metropolis of Lycia.
Enlarged by Ptolemy PhUaddphus I. and renamed for a time
Aninoe, it was adorned by Vespasian with baths. St Paul
changed there into a " ship of Phoenicia " on his. way to Jerusalem
in AJ>. 60. Patara was the reputed birth-place of St Nicholas.
The principal extant monunwnts are a triple triumphal arch, with
inscription, through which ran the road to Xanthus, and the
walls, discernible on either hand of it; the theatre, 265 ft. in
diameter, built in A.a 145 (as attested by nn inscription) and
wonderfully well preserved, though largely filled with drift sand;
and the Umiae buih by Vespasian north of the harbour.
. PATAREMIS, or Patakeui, a name apparently first nsed in
Milan about X058 to denote the extreme opponents of clerical
marriages. The party was so called becaxise, under the leader-
ship of Arialdus, a deacon of Milan, its members used to assemble
in the Pataria or ragmen's quarter of that dty {pates being a
provincial word for a rag). In the r3th century the name was
appropriated by the Cathari, who said it came from pad (to
suffer), because they endured hardship for their faith. See
BocoiaLS.
PATA8 MONBBT. a West African species of the gnenon
monkeys (see Guenon), characterized by its large size, the
foxy-red colour of the upper parts, bltie face and white belly.
Scientifically it is known as CercopUkeeus (Erytkroabiu) patas^
and typifies a section of its genus of which the other represent-
ative is the East African nisnas (C. [£.] pyrrhanatms). See
Privates.
PATAVnm (mod. Padam, Eng. Padua, f.s.), an andent dty
of Venetia, Italy, 55 m. E. of Verona by road. Its central
position gave it great importance. One road led from it south-
west to Atcste, Hostilia (where the Pb was crossed) and Bononia;
another cast-north-east to Altloum and Concordia. It was
acccsBibfc by canab from the sea, a distance of about 30 m. The
old town (40 ft. above sea-level) lay and lies on a peninsula
surrounded by the Bacchiglione except on the south, where it
was protected by a canaL Of the bridges which cross the canals
by which Padua is now intersected, four go back to Roman times.
Remains of a public building, possibly belonging to the forum,
wtre found in the centre of the modern dty in making the found-
ations of the CafTi Pcdrocchi at the south-west angle of Piazza
Cavour^-possibly a colonnade of fine Corinthian architecture
(see P. Selvatlco, ReUnione ddio Scavo . . . su la PiaueOa
FedrocckL A large mosaic with geometric designs was also
fcccotly discovered in the centre of the city. In Imperjal tunes
the town spread even farther, as is shown by the position outside
the town of the amphitheatre, built of blocks of local stone with
brick courses, which was excavated in 1881 (G. Chiiaidini ia
NoUxk degli Scati, i88r, aa^). It measures 325 by aos ft., and
is the only Roman building of which visible remains cxisL A «>■'
called " paletu " (a bronze plaU with a handle— possibly a bdl
or a votive axe or a simple pendant) with a figure of a boisc «■
one side and a votine inscriptHW on the other, bdoi^Bg to the
$th or 4th century n.c, was found in 1899 at a great depth dose
to the church of S. Antonio (G. Ghirardini in i^afiite tfrffi Scavi,
1901, 3x4)- The name of the town is probably connected with
Padus (jPo). According to the legend it was founded by the
Trojan Antenor. The memory of the defeat of the Spartan king
Cleonymus by the fleet of Patavium in 302 b.c was perpetuated
by Spartan spoils in the temple of Juno ao^ a yeady sea-fight
which took place on the river. On land Pauviiun was equally
powerful (it had been able, we are told, to put lao^ooo men into
the field), and perpetually made war against its Celtic neighbours.
Patavium acquired Roman citizenship with the rest of GalUa
Transpadana in 49 B.C. Under Augustus, Strabo tcUs us,
Pauvium surpassed all the dti^ cf the north in wealth, and in
the number of Roman knights among its dtizcns in the census el
Augustus was only equalled by Gadies, which bad also 50a'
Its commerdal importance was a^ great, being especially
due to its trade in wool The numerous insoriptioas, however,
as Th. Mommsen remarks {Cor^. hsser. latin, v. 268), show
remarkable dignity and simpHcity and avoidance of pomposity;
to this Pliny the younger and Martial testify. The importAOoc
of Patavium as a literary centre was also considerable. Levy,
Q. Asconius Pedianus -and Thresea Paetus were natives of the
town; and (^uintilian speaks of the directness and simplidty U
their diction as PatatiniUut comparing it with the artiikial
obscurity of the writers of Rome itaelfi.
' After the 2nd century a.d. it b hardly mentioned, and seoBS to
have been outstripped by other cities, such as Milan and AquQeia.
It was destroyed by the Lombards with fire and sword, ^M it
was then that it lost practically all iU monuments of the Ronaa
period. cr. As.)
PATBU FSAIURB VASAHirAiriBB (t8o4>r894). Parsee
merehant and phHanthropist, was bom in 1804, and had a sound
vemacuhtf education, with a smattering of English rec ci^u l
in Bombay. At the age of fifteen he entered upon a b usiu e aa
career, and its pursuit proved so congenial that by 1827 he had
worked his way to a partnership in the firm of Frith, Bornanjec &
Co. Banking facilities bdng then exceedingly scanty, such
Parsees as had any capital at command acted as bnakcis mad
brokers to the rising English firms. Patel's experience cnnlded
him in a few yeais to raise the status of his compatriots to tbe
higher level of independent merchants, and he founded in 1844 a
business house under the name of Wallaoe ft Co., in which he was
himself a partner with the English members of the firm. ll(l>rn
he retired in 1858 he had amassed a large competence, and in tbe
following year he established a firm on the same lines under the
style of Framjee, Sands & Co., of which tbe members were some
of his sons, together with English partners. It was, however,
not so much for his success as a merchant, as for his sphit a2»d
liberality as an educationist, reformer and philanthropist, that
his name is notable in the annals of western India. He entered
on his civic labours in 1837, and in all puUic movements figured
prominently as an accredited representative of his comnauzuty.
As a pioneer of education, both for boys and girb, hb ezamr^e
inspired the younger men of his time, like Dadabhal NaQfx>jl,
at one time M.P. for East Finsbury, and Naoroji Fardoonjee and
Sorabjcc Shapurjce Bengallee. When Mountstuart E^sltiastone*
during his governorship, conceived the idea of oooceistratlrg
the literary and educational activity which had arisen Cfobb
isolated efforts on the part of men who had thesttehres been
brought into contact with Western culture, among his dbaei
collaborators were Framjee Cowasjec Banajee and Frmmjce Fstei
Tct their initiative was due the establishment of the Elpbinstoot
Institution, which comprised a high school and, after some years.
PATEN— PATENTS
903
a colfege, which coniinoe to hold foremost nnk among the similar
academics since established to western India. But Mr Patel's
most remarkable public service was performed in connexion with
the Farsee Law Association, of which he was president. Since
their eaodus from Persia the domestic affain of the Parsees had
been to a very unsettJed state. Matrimonial obligations and
the rif^ts of succession in cases of intestacy had fallen, toto
hopeless confusion, and the adjudication of disputes to relation
thereto was effected by certain elden of the community, who had
neither the knowledge and help of fixed prtociples to guide their
judgments, nor any authority to enforce their decisions^ The
case of Ardcsir Cune^ v. Pttroxebait which came np on appeal
before the privy council to England, brought to light the strange
fact that even the supreme c»urt of Bombay had no jurisdiction
over matrimooiai and ecclesiastical disputes among Parsees.
This state of lawlessness was recognlxed by that community as
totolcrabfe, and the agitation which ensued thereupon led to the
appointment of a commission, of which the distinguished jurist,
Sir Joseph Amould, was the president and Frarojee Patel the chief
Parsee member. The Parsee Law Association, under the
guidance of Patel and Sorabjce Bengallee, rendered invaluable
help to the commission, and their joint efforts resulted to the
passing by the government of India of the Pairsee Marriage and
Divorce Act and the Parsee Intestate Succession Act (15 and 11
of 1 865). Tliese acts form the charter of matrimonial and ecclesi-
astical status for the Parsees. At the time of his death to 18941
at the ripe age of nearly ninety years, Fiamjee Patel was the
most revered and best beloved of the distinguished natives of
India, having during an eventful public life extendmg over sixty
years worked to co-operation with three generations of the most
prominent of his compatriots to bettw the condition of their
country. His family surname refers to the title of fatdf that Is,
'* mayor," of Bombay, conferred on its founder for services
rendered to the English in 1693. (M. M. Bh.)
PATEN (through the Fr. from Lat. patina or paUna, Gr.
irar&i^, a flat dish), the name of the shallow phite or dish used in
the celebration of the Eucharist for the consecrated bread or
wafer. The paten has from the first been almost always of a
circular shape. There is a rare example of a rectangular one,
dating from the 7th century, in the Cabinet des Medailies in
Paris. The central portion of the paten is sometimes decorated,
with the engraved head of the Saviour, or commonly with a group
of lobes.
pAtBNOTRB DBS NOTBIIS, JULES (1845- )» French
diplomatist, was bom at Baye (Marne) on the 30th of April
1845. Educated at the £cole Normale Sup£rieure, he taught for
tome years in the lycte at Algiers before he joined the diplo-
matic service in 187 1. His most important mission was in 1884,
when he was sent as French mtoistcr to China to regularize the
French dominion to Annam. After arranging at Hu^ with the
king of Annam the condition of the French protectorate, he
proceeded to Shanghai to settle with China the difficulties
which had arisen over the evacuation of Tongking by the Chinese
troops. The negotiation failed, and the French admiral resumed
hostilities against China in August. Next year Paten6tre signed
with Li Hung Chang a treaty of peace at Tien-tsin, by which the
French protectorate in Annam and Tongking was recognized, and
both parties agreed to remain within their own borders in the
future. After serving as minister plenipotentiary in Morocco
(iSSg-iSgi), M. Pgten6tre was sent to Washington, where he was
raised to the nnk of ambassador in 1893. He was ambassador
at Madrid from 1897 to 1902.
Pierre Loti in ^m Marec has dcicribcd his diplomacy in Morocca
M. PlteftOtre Unuelf published tome reminiiccaces to the Rtvmt
d€s demx momiiu
PATBRIS, properly documents conferring some privilege,
right, &C„ short for "letters patent" (ff.t.). Patents for
inventions, instruments which formerly bore the great seal of the
United Kingdom, are now issued at the Patent Office in London
uader the seal of that office. By their means inventors obtain
a monopoly in their inventions for fourteen years, a term which,
if ifiifficicm to remunerate the inventor, can be extended.
This monopoly is founded on exactly the same pnndple as the
copyright enjoyed by authors and artists. There are persons
who argue that no such privilege should be permitted; there are
others who thtok that the most trifitog exertions of the toventive
faculties should be protected. The right course clearly lies
between these extremes. To grant a very long term of exclusive
possession mi^t be detrimental tothe public, since it would tend
to stop the progress of improvemenL A limited property must
therefore be allowed— huge enough to give the toventor aa
opportunity of reaping a fair reward, but not baning the way for
an unreasonable period. And, when this compromise has been
decided on, it will be seen how difficult it may be to determine
beforehand what is the real merit of an tovention, and apportion
the time to that merit. Hence it has been found necessary to
allot one fixed period for all ktods of toventtons falling withto
the purview of the patent laws.
United Kinffiom. — Formerly the reigning prtoce considered
himself entitled, as part of his prerogative, to grant privileges
of the nature of monopolies to any one who had gatoed his favour.
These grants became so numerous that they were oppressive and
unjust to various classes of the commonwealth; and hence, to
the reign of James I., a statute was wrung from that king which
declared all monopolies that were grievous and toconvenlent to
the subjects of the realm to be void. (See Iattsks Patskx;
MoMOPOUV.) Then vras, however, a special exception from this
enactment of all letters patent and grants of privilege of the
" sole working or making of any manner of new manufacture
withto the realm to the true and first toventor of such manufacture,
which others at the time of making such letters patent and grants
should not use, so they be not contrary to tow, nor mischievous
to the state by raising of the prices of commodities at home or
hurt of trade or generally toconvenlent" Upon these word*
hangs the whole tow of letters patent for toveotioas. Many
statutes w^ afterwards passed, but these were all repealed by
the Patent Act of 1883 (46 & 47 Vict. c. 57), which, besides'
introducmg a new procedure, modified the Uw to several par-
ticulars. Subsequently acts amending the law were passed in
i88s, x886, 1888, 1901, 1902 and 1907. These acts, with the
exception of certain sections of the act of 1883, were repealed by a
consolidating act, the Patents and Designs Act 1907, which also
introduced new provisions toto English patent law. Where
the tow b not expmsly laid down by act of parliament, it has to
be gathered from the numerous decisions of the courts, for patent
law is to no inconsiderable exterit " judge-made law."
The toventions for which patents are obtatoed are chiefly
either vendible articles formed by chemical or mechanical
operations, such as doth, alloys, vulcanized india-rubber, &c.,
or machinery and apparatus, or processes. It may be remarked
here that a scientific principle cannot form the subject of a valid
patent unless its application to a practical and useful end aiul
object is shown. An abstract notion, a philosophical idea, may
be extremely valuable to the realm of science, but before it is
allowed to form a sound basis for a patent the worid must be
shown how to apply it so as to gain therefrom some immediate
material advantage. With regard to processes, the language of
the statute of James has been strained to bring them within the
words '* any manner of new manufacture," and judges on the
bench have admitted that the exposition of the act has gone much
beyond the letter. However, it is undoubted law that a process
is patentable; and patents are accordingly obtatoed for processes
every day.
The principal classes of patenuble toventions seem to be
these: (i) new contrivances applied to new ends, (a) new con-
trivances applied to old ends, (3) new combinattons of old parts,
whether relating to material objects or processes, (4} new methods
of applying a well-known object.
With regard to a patent for the new application of a well-
known object it may be remarked that there must be some display
of Ingenuity, some amount of tovention, to making the appli-
cation, otherwise the patent will be invalid on the ground that
the subject-matter is destitate of novelty. For example, a
fishpUte, used before the totroduction of railways to coonr**
904
PATENTS
wooden beams eonld not be patented to eonnect the tafls of a
railway {Harwood v. Great Ncftkem Railway Co,, 1860-1865, it
H. L. C. 654);norcanasprin8longascdmtlierearof acarria^
be patented for use in the front {Morgan v. Windanr, 1890,
7 R. P. C. X31). But a small amount of invention wiQ suiSoe, so
long as the improvement is manifest, either as saving time or
labour {Rkkmann v. Thierry, 1896, 14 R.P.C. 105: PatmU
Exploitation, Ltd. r. Siemenset Co., 1904, 21 R.P.C. 549).
Wfaatever be the nature of the invention, it must possess the
incidents of utility and novelty, else any patent obtained in
respect of it will be invalid. The degree of utflity need not,
however, be great. As to novelty, this is the rock upon which
most patents split; for, if it can be shown that other persons have
used or published the invention before the date of the patent, it
win fall to the ground, although the patentee was an independent
inventor deriving his ideas from no one else. The difficulty of
steering dear of this rock will be apparent at once. Suppose A
in London patents an invention the result of his own ingenuity
and intient study, and it afterwards appears that B, in some
distant part of the kingdom, had been previously openly using
the same thing in his workshop, A's patent b good for nothing.
Thus, where the patent sued on was a lock, it was proved that a
similar lock had been in use on a gate adjoining a public road for
sixteen years prior to the patent, which was accordingly invali-
dated {Car pettier v. Smith, 1842, i Web. P.C. 540). It is therefore a
very frequent subject of inquiry, whether an invention has been
previously used to such an extent as to have been publicly used
in the sense attached by the courts to this phrase. But whereas
" user " in public is sufficient prior publiaition to invalidate a
subsequent patent for the invention so used, publication in books,
&c., will not be a bar to novelty unless its effect is to make the
invention actually a part of puUic knowledge; and in dealing
with alleged anticipations by patents that have never come into
general use the courts will not invalidate a subsequent patent
unless a person of ordinary knowledge of the subject, on having
the alleged anticipation brought under his notice, would at once
perceive, understand, and be able practically to apply the in-
vention without making experiments or seeking for further
information. The inventor himself is not allowed to tiae his
invention, either in public or secretly, with a view to profit,
before the date of the patent. Thus, If he manufactures an
article by some new process, keeping the process an entire secret,
but selling the produce, he cannot afterwards obtain a patent
in respect of it. If be were allowed to do this he might in many
casft easily obtain a monopoly in his invention for a much tonger
period than that allowed by law {Morgan v. Seaward, 1837,
T Web. P.C. 193). The rule that an inventor's use of the
invention invaUdates a subsequent patent does not, however,
apply to cases where the use was only by way of experiment with
a view to improve or lest the invention {Bias v. Gropesend
Tinplate Co., 1890, 7 P.O.R. 466). And it has been repeatedly
decided that the previous experiments of other persons, if in-
complete or abandoned before the realization of the discovery,
will not have the effect of vitiating a patent Even the prior
discovery of an invention will not prevent another indq>endent
discoverer from obtaining a valid patent if the earlier inventor
kept the secret to himself, the law holding that he is the " true
and first inventor " who first obtains a patent.
The Patents Act 1883 provided that the exhibition of an in-
vention at an industrial or Internationa] exhibition certified as
such by the Board of Trade, or the publication of any description
of the invention during the period of the holding of the exhibition,
or its use for the purpose of the exhibition in the place where it is
held, or during the period of the exhibition by any person else-
where, whhout the privity or consent of the inventor, should not
prejudice the right of the inventor or of his legal personal
representative to apply for and obtain a patent, or the validity
of any patent granted on the application, provided that two
conditions are complied with, viz. (a) the exhibitor must, before
exhibiting the invention, give the Comptroller-General a pre-
scribed notice of his intention to do so; and (6) the application
for the pfaitent must be made before or within six monlhs from the
date of the openhg of the edition. The Pkteatt Act tSM^
enabled the Sovereign, by order in roundl, to extend the pio-
vision above mentioned to indnstfjal and international cxhibi-
tiotts hekl out of the United Kingdonu The act of 1907 re^iacted
these provisions (H 4Si 59)- When an invntloa is the joiat
production of more persons than one, they must all apply for and
obtain a joiat patent, for a patent is rendered invalid onsfaowiag
that a material part of the invention was due to some one not
named therein. The mere suggestion of a. workinaa caiployBA
by an inventor to cany out his ideas wiU not, however, icquire
that he should be joined, provided that the former adds nothing
substantial to the invention, but merely works out in detail the
principle discovered by his employer.
Proeedtm.'—Tht attributes of novelty and utility being poatssed
in due degree by aa inwntioa, it remains to put to notion the
machinery for its protection. The. Pateou Act 1907, rc-eoacuiig
former provisions, requires an appltcatioo to be made in a prcscribca
form (the forms and stamps are en sale at all postal monc>' order
offices in the United Kingdom), and left at or sent by post to the
patent e&ct in the prescribed manner. The appbcatioii mast
contain a declaration that the applicant is the true and first itk-
ventor, and it must be accorofanicd by either a provisiocMkl or
complete specification. A provisional specification describes the
nature of an invention, and a complete spcdfieatioo particubHy
describes and ascertains the nature of the invcmion auod the maancr
in which it is to be perfonnod. Since the introduction of the
patent specification, it has been necossary that an invention pn».
tected by patent sliould be accurately dcscriticd by the inventor.
Formeriy, when the condition on which letters patent issued »as
that the patentee should file a spedfication completely describing the
future of his invention withm a certain time alter the giani,
the function of giving the necessary preliminary information on the
subject was to some extent discharged by the title; at any rate,
the validity of the grant was Ibble to be objected to on the ground
of the title tidng too gcneraL Under the present law the task oi
disclosuie Calls to the provisiooal spodficatioii, iatro-
preliminary .„. ^ ,
duced by the Patent Law Amendment Act 18'
I and continued
duced Dv tbe fatent Law Amendment Act 1852, and cootii
by the Patents Acts of 1883 and 1907. although a patentee may,
under the latter statutes, dispense with a provisional spccifkaticMi
if he thinks proper to file a complete one in the first instance. Where
however, these two specifications are filed, it bcramcs of vitAl
moment to an inventor that the true relation between them dtould
be maintained as defined above. The object of the pfovisioaal
specification is to secure immediate protccHon, and to enable a
fatentee to work at and improve bin mvcntion m-ithoot the rvk of
is patent bctna invalidated by premature publication. He is
therefore entitled to embody in his complete qxcificatkm any im-
proved method of working his invcntron which he may diaoovcr in
the interval ; and he b indeed bound to do so, anoe, as wc ba\T
said, the price tiiat a man wlio desires a patent has to pay to the
Kubtic for the privilege is that he should oaake a foil dmckiaarv uf
b invcntioa in hb complete specification. But there is a limit
to what the patentee may do in this respect. He must not dcacritie
in hb complete specification an invention different from that
declared in the provisionaL If be falls into thb error there is szjd
to be a " variance " or " diaconformity " bct«'«en the two speci6ca-
tions. The PatenU Act 1883, i 9. made it the duty of the ex-
aminers of the Patent Office to consider the question of discx>»>
formity between qxxifications on applications for patents, but
the only power the comptrolfcr had. on discovery of dtsconformity.
was to refuse to accept the specification until the dba>nlonnii«
parU had been eliminated. By the act of 1907. { 6, he may now
refuse to accept the complete specification until it has been amcrKlcd
to his satisfaction, or (with the consent of the applicant) cmiMrl
the provisional specification and treat the apfirficatioa as having
hccn made on tbe date at which the complete spccificaticm «•«»
left. Moreover, if the complete specification includes an inwntioa
not included in the provisional specification, the application mav
proceed a» a whole, or may be divided, and the claim for the md-
dtt tonal invention included in the complete specification be re-
garded as an appUcation for thai invention nurae on tbe date at
which the complete specification was left. An act oi 1902 <whH.b«
with the exception 01 a portion dealing with compubvv licrncv^
came into operation on the 1st of lanuary 1^5) firovided for aa
examination or search as to novelty, such investigatioa ckraliif
with British complete specifications published and dated mithic
fifty years prior to the date of the application. This search «»
re-cnacted by tbe act of 1907 (i 7) and power given to the cotrp»>
troller to refuse the grant of a patent in cases in which the invent r«
had been wholly and specifically claimed in spedlkatioaa to rnhzh
hh< search had extended.
The term for which a patent is originally granted b fourtfx-^
years, but a patentee may, after advertisement according to tkt
rules of the Supreme Court, petition for a further term. T^e cr«.i*.
In considering its decision, takes regard of the aatore aiscl tnen
of the invention in relation to the public, of the pro6u snadr t y
PATENTS
905
^le patentee as mich, and of atl the cifcumitanees <rf the case. If
H appeara to the court that the patentee haa been inadequately
remunerated by his patent, it may extend the terra of the patent
to a further term not exceeding seven or, in exceptional cases,
fourteen years, or may order the grant of a new patent for a certain
term, with any Kftnctiona or proviabos it may think fit (Act of
1907, f 18).
Patent orivileges, like most other rights, can be made the subject
of sale, rartial interests can also be carved out of them by means
of licences, instruments which empower other penons to exercise
the invention, either univenally and for the full time of the patent
(when they are tantamount to an assignment of the patentee's
entire rights), or for a limited time, or within a limited district.
By an exclusive licence Is meant one that restrains the patentee
from granting other licences to any one else. By means of a licence
a patentee may derive benefit from his patent without entering
into trsde and without running the risks of a partnership.
One of the regulations of the act of 1883 was that a patentee
couM be compelled by the Board of Trade to giant licences to persons
who were able to snow that the patent was not being worked in
the United Kingdom, or that the reasonable requirements of the
public witfi respect to the inventkm could not be supplied, or that
any person was prevented from working or using ro the best ad-
vant^ an inwntion of which he was possessed. This regulation,
however, remained practically a dead letter, for only three applica-
tk>ns were made between tbe yeare 1883 and 1897, and these never
proceeded to a hearing. After 1897 a few petitwns
.... ,. I were heardi
.ut even so late as in 1908 there was only one petition and that
was withdrawn by agreement between the parties. By § 3 of the
act of 1909, the hearing of petitions for a grant of compulsory
licences was transferred to the JudKial committee of the privy
council, but the act of 1907 substituted the Hish Court as the
tribunal in the place of the judicial committee. It also laid down
that the reasonaole requirements of the public should not be deemed
to be satisfied: (a) if by reason of the default of the patentee to
manufacture to an adeouate extent and supply on reasonable
terms, tbe patented article or any parts thereof necessary for its
efficient work i n g or to carry on the patented process to an ade-
quate extent or to grant licences on reasonable terms, any existing
trade or industry or the establishment of any new trade or in>
dustry in the Umtcd Kingdom is unfairly prejudiced, or the demand
for the patented artkle is not reasonamy met; or (b) if any trade
or industry in the United Kingdom is unfairiy prejudiced by the
conditk>n8 attached by the patentee before or after the passing of
the act to the purchase, hire or use of the patented article or to
the uring or working of the patented process. Clause 6 is an en-
deavour to remedy an abuse by which patentees bound down pur-
chasers and licences by all kinds of conditions. Section 38 of the act
of 1907 contains also a further remedy, making it unlawful In any
contract in relatwn to the sale or lease of, or licence to use or work,
any patented article or process to insert conditions prohibiting or
restricting the use of the patent or process from using articles
supplied by a third person or requiring him to use other artkrles
not protected by the patent. Such conditwns are declared " null
and void as being in restraint of trade and contrary to public
policy.'*
Another new and very Important provisbn of the act of 1907
is that dealing with the revocation of patents worked outside the
United Kingdom. It may be stated here that in the year 1908
out of a total number of 16,284 patentees, 2819 were resident in
the United States, 3;Si6 in Germany, 822 in France, 334 in Austria-
Hungary, 200 in Switaerland, 166 in the Australian Commonwealth,
159 in Belgium. 15s in Canada, 139 in Sweden and 13A in Italy.
It had been a common practice to take out Ikences in the United
Kingdom (especially in the dyeing industry) in order to close the
British market to all except the patentees and their licensees,
the patented articles or processes oeing worked entirety abroad.
Section 27 of the act of 1907 enacted that at any time not less
than four yean after the date of a patent and not less than
one year after the passing of the act, any person might apply
to the comptroller for the revocation of a patent on the ground
th9l t|ie natented article or orocesa is manufactured or earned on
exclusively or mainly outside the United Kingdom. The comp-
troller is given power to make an order revoking the patent forth-
with or after a reasonable interval, unless the patentee can show
satisfactory reasons. The insertion of this provision resulted in
the establishment of many factories in the United Kin^om.
Legal Remedies. — A patentee's remedy for an infnogement of
his rights is by civil suit, there beii^ no criminal proceedings in
such a case. In prosecuting such suit he subjects those rights to
a searching examination, for the alleged infringer is at liberty to
show that the inventM>n is not new. that the patentee is not the
true and first inventor, ftc., as well as to prove that the alleged
Infringement Is not really an infringement. But it may here be
remarlced that a patentee is not bound down (unless he chooses so
to be) to the precise mode of carrying the inventwn into effect
described in tne specification. If the principle is new. It is not
to be expected that he can describe every mode of working it; he
will sufltcientty secure the principle by giving some illustratbns of
it : and no person will be permitted to adopt some mode of carrying
the same principle into eiTect on the ground that such mode has
not been described by the patentee. On the other hand, when the
method which he has invented, and other penons may nfely j
other methods of effecting the same object. Instances of this
day; and it is well known that scores of patents have
principle » not new, a patentee can only secure the particuUr
IS invented, am* '
tffecti
occur every day; and it i
beca takeo out for acrew-propellen. ateam-hamroers, waler-8»etcn,
Ac. each of which b limited to the particular construction described.
and cannot be extended further. Again, where the inventkm
patented consists of a combinatk)n of parts, some old and some
new, the whole constituting a new machine or a new process, it ia
not open to the worid to copy the new part and reject the rest.
A man is not permitted to allesc that the patent ia for a combination,
and that, the identkral combination not having been used, there
has been no infringement. If he has borrowed the substance of the
invention, it will be held that he has infringed the patent. At
common bw a person who, alleging that he haa a patent, threatens
his rivals in trade, is liable to an action Cor damasea. but the plaintiff
cannot succeed without showing that the threats were made
maliciously. The Patents Act 1883 provided another remedy —
what is known as " the threats actbn/' This has been incorporated
In the act of 1907, | 36. The statute makes the good faith of the
patentee threatening legal proceedings no answer to an action
brought against him by any person aggrieved by his threats U
the acta complained of are not in fact an infringement of the
patent, and if the patentee fails with doe dUigeocc to comnience
and prosecute an action for infringement.
Extent and Construction, — ^The patent when sealed is to have effect
in the United Kingdom and the Isle of Man. *rhe act of 1907.
unlike the Patent Law Amendment Act of 1852, does not extecld
the monopoly to the Channel Islands.
The patent business of the United Kingdom ia tranaacted at the
Patent Office in London under the superintendence of the comp-
troller, an officer appointed by the Board of Trade, under whoee
direction he performs his dutiea. At thb office b kept a regbter
of all patents issued, of assignments of patents, licences granted
under them, ftc. An illustrated journal of patent inventions b
published at the same office, where printed copies of all specifica-
tbns can also be obtained. The fees payable to government on
patents were connderably reduced by an order of the Board of
Trade which came into operation on flie ist of October 1892, and
may now be paid by convenient annual instalments. The follow-
ing are the present fees: before the expiration of the 4th year from
the date of the patent, fK instead of £10; of the 5th year, 46 instead
of £10; of the 6th year, £7 instead of £10; of the 7th year. £8 instead
of £10; of the 8tn vttr, £9 instead of £15; of the lotb year. £11
instead of £20; of the ilth year, £12 instead of £20: of tbe 12th
year, £it instead of £20; and of the 13th year. £14 instead of £2a
The preliminary fees amounting to £4 ^''cre left untouched by the
order but under the Patent Rates of 190S an additional fee of £l
b payable on the sealing of the patent. Hie entire cost of a patent
b now reduced from £154 to £too.
A new Patent Office was constructed on the «te of the old
buildings, the frontage extending from Southampton Buildings
into Staple Inn. The number 01 applications for patents, which
sprang from 5903 in 188 j to 17,110 in 1884, culminated in a total
of 30.952 for the year 1892, since which date a steady decline set
in down to looo, when the number was 23.924. But the numbera
went up again, reaching 30,030 in 1906^ but only 28,598 in 1908.
The number of patents sealed on application for a given j^ear
shows less variation, tbe minimum being 8775 for 1885 against
16.060 in 1907. The proportkMi of seab to applicatu>ns varies
from about 46 to 50%. The receipts from patent fees in 1908
were £262.890, against a total expenditure of £i79t53t'
The official publkations of the Pistent Office deserve some notkx.
as, in the absence of offidal investigation into novelty, the onus
of search rests with the appUcant or hb agent. The procedure
has been greatly simplified by the publication, on a uniform system
and at a low rate (is. per volume), of illustrated abridgments of
specificatkms. From 1877 Poetically to date the seareher obtaina
a chronological digest of all specifications falling within a given
class. To these cusses there ia a refereace index, known as the
" abridgment class and index key," which at once directs the searcher
to hb proper class and index heading.
Patent ^(mis.—Patenta are frequently obtained through the
Intervention of persona termed patent agents, who devote them-
selves to thb branch of bnaineaa. Their poaitkm b now regulated
by statute. By the Patents Act 1888, it was provkled that no
penon should, after July 1, 1889, be entitled to describe himself
(and whoever does so knowingly Incun IbbOity to a maximum
penalty of £20) as a patent agent whether by advertisement, de-
scription of his place of business or otherwise, without being
registered as auch ia pursuance of the act. But the act preserves
the right to rBgistration of every pereon who, to the satisfactUm
of the Board of Trade, shows that he bad been bona fide practising
as a patent agent before it passed. The Board of Trade b em-
powered by this statute to make from time to time general rules
for the purpose of carryirtf out its provisions, and by rules Isancd
in 1889, and reissued In 1891, the Board of Trade delegated to the
of Patent Ageou (which obtained a royal chaitar in
9c6
PATENTS
1^: tie care afdberepsperfll H«ea«jflptfii«af4 fir *S«-/
BnHth Diwrnmitmi. — Tht irjSom~s^ wr/Ltt 4B tziU-jdal Ixw ^pvt
tlK SiSeat facts. Friocto i%^ BriijaaVttm ;a:^s rrr*.^itd
to aO t^ rvkmin, Imt tJie act «f Ui» trenruti ike ntj^
gfaaUd t« t^ VwiUd Emt/^nm, Chiiri Imaad^ mdbtt^
AeXM mt Xo. n rf 191% ami
Xo.i9ofl9a6w Hwr *«*b ^^"u>^e*^ «■ <^ C*C^^ *ct c/ tWj aad
aa^nadbc act*. Tbery firj^^if: i/M a dc^eruaesE cff pft.tcs:s cca-
troued 1^ a OMBAltnoaer " owier «She w Mirrr " '| u» of »&^
Asy pom, wbedker a B^>jifc Ni&fect or aoc anr appff ''v a
patnt '1 33 of s/>}y. Tae tarn «i a palCBt is 14 >«an ; 64 :
of (7>1;' The C>aiaK««ta2i& «r a fltale aay acr^s^fe patcmu '
cmep-.U^rir ^H 9i, ^ <d W0/\.^ Tke act cneaxc* a sev c2»m U ,
" po-'iTtf au/xam^ '} wi, lY'l'- These » aa mtiufntioa as to
•Oidty 'I 41 <A Vf^,. The r»«eval fen aao&st to a wa «£ £s
before che «ad of t^ 4th yrar, aad is bticrt the end of the Tta
year fooM the dafe <if the cofcaC
jtet— e /i^M/:,— The &v k f
V k ngr.ljni b)r ^ f '.Avwiag ac^ of
\: S) Vkl c ^:,54 Vicx. & »; aad
|iy<irf T Yotf%m with pover m panvraor
the rj^Army: %» VVt. c 2%
6^ Vict, c %, thfnticm kM$ -^ ,
to reaev Um tmrAl^a 7 votk •"^ aataha tor a thini period of
7 yiwi. The («o ai« ^ oa Uia( «peaicatieMi, £10 tor aecsMi
iea««al aad jC>» f^jr thud. A|nia i faHj > then ie ao firiJMiainr
cxMft*isaiioa aa to aoreitX'
B^ftUtety^AcUfJry/ifKo.'itfamidltga/iCSo.toX. Dmatim
of pa'#«t 14 ycarib. Tile fcrvenrx ia cnndl haa power to gyaot
€ffm%M^/rf 1m*»se%, Fees are iC* ><>•- <>• ^QC apedicatloa^ /«>
M'^e the rwd of the 4di year aad (yn Imian the
th year, Ko Drefioranry exaauaatioa
BtrmttU ^Act of J^M (Kot $f ;. oa l
7th year. So pnHiMmy aamamukm as to aovelty.
BtrmttU —Act of I4(» (Kot $i;. oa the fiaes of that of Tiiaidad.
BriU$h Otnamay—lie lav i» resniated by ordiaaaoe Xo. 31 of
ton sflrf M practkany the ttaic m the EagfiA act of i88j.
fnes are |f$ aa 6Bag tprnfifttim Mad $ico hdan the cad
The
of
7 y^r%,
BriHtk BMdmm.
been rt-trntfAM «1
as t/> (Vyv»^l»y.
Bftttth India. — ^Tfce law is imwmn
MfffAtr* to the wVXe of British li»
yrsfft. A yttVirunmry caaouaatioa
fje ordered. Tlia foHcnriaa taaea
Rs. y^ from the 4tli to the 9th year,
the i^fh y«ar of the term.
The lav of the lOth of Septearfwr 1862 has
vfth ilMtbt awcSficatkias (see supfftemeiit to
~ rU^ho, 4, i^coi. These ia 00 framtnatioB
_ by Act S of 1888. vhich
Dvratioa of patent is 14
ought appazcatly
f I ffl fSl SOflM ct
too Inm the 8th to
Brtitik'Nem Cmints.^fht Qnecnslaad Pateats Acts, No tj of
" ' - See British Kev
Ua. UVTMIK
lato Bovelly
aadof Rs»li
r8«4 aad So. 5 of f886» have bcea adopted.
C/uiora ordtoaare No. 6 of 1M9. echedule A.
Bfihtk North B^H€^.—^r*lu Settlements law (No. 19 of 1871),
•inf/tcd by Patent* PrrAbmatirjn 1887 (No. I of 1887).
(^nada. — Patent ItptUtion bcioogs exclusivdy to the Dooiiaioa
Padiament jB.N.A. Act l8<r7, i 91 Cl2)l The ezistiag acts aie
t. 61 of iS94i SS ft S6 Vict, cia; s6 Vkt. cM; and act of 1903.
The duration 01 the patent is 18 years. At the time of application
th** ar/plirant may pay the full fee required for that term (vie.
pXf} or the partial fee required for the term of 6 yeant Ca^o)
or inf the term of 11 years (I40). If a oartlal fee oaiy is paid,
the smount is suied la the pateat, ana the patent ceases at
th' end of the term covered by rach partial payment, unless
before the ceplraticm of such term the patentee pays the fee
required for the further term of 6 or u years, vix. $20 in the
former case and $M in the latter* There is a preliminary examina-
tion into novelty Of examiners, vith an appeal from the decision
of the commiflsioner of patents to the governor in council. The
patent is void unless it u worked in Cajuda within 2 yean, or if
after the expiiation of la months, or any authorized extension of
either of these periods, the patentee imports the invention into
Canada, but conditions may be substituted for condition as to
manufacture in Canada, as, for example, a Itoefloe to another to
manufacture. Ac.
Capt of Coed ffofe.^The law is regulated by act No. 17 of i860.
No. J4 01 1000 and No. 38 of 1904. There is no preliminary ex-
amination Into novelty, and the act contains no provisions for
compulsory working, or as to the importation of patented articles
from abroad.
Oylon.^Tht lav Is nov regulated by act 15 of 1906. The
duration of the patent is I4 yean, with power vested in the governor
In mundl to ^nt extensions of 7 and 14 years. There u a pre-
liminary examination aa to novelty, but tnere are no provinons as
to compulsory working or the importation of patented articles
from abroad. The renewal fees are Rs. 50 annually from before
the expiration of the 4th to befora the expiration of the 8th year
from tiw filing of the ■pecification. Rs. 100 after the expiration of
the 8th and before the expiration of the 9rh year, Rs. 150 after the
txplration of the oth and before the expiration of the 10th year,
and Rs. 300 a»""-"" -'— *^^ expiration of the loth year to before
thaexpirat'
:^ a si KffT gr-ji* ^i.
txy craeacca say he fr^rr£<. zz st? ]
/i » ; 1^— The faw deyesfe « ■ Ji aivi 1 B^ 3 «^ i«— . :
7 flf^ile^z, and ariBr_3< Deoemcxrxa. ft 49a. T^ T
;i»t< 1 is 14 >eas^.
axe ao pvTkanas a
ahcaad. The ;arsx2 ■ sot aL=-?ect Is amj
i^ <i S p— -SI I
The fee Ssr prvnsiaaa: pneactjca is $
pasoK the apf«caac pays i« yiaai
rsMJia— Aa onaiBasee >w. 5 ef i^Ba • |
vTth the Esip.'^ act «f 1^3. Xo. 5 «f agng
afnggfrwsti kc p»ii » BHiy of
CwriJKr.^There
parrg*»rs to the di p iai hmy ier the . .
onr^Al lersBS. See aa emampka Iml 5 «f 189^
aad .Vo. I <tf iteB.
GtU CmtL—Thk hv ■ aov ■! iriiml hy t
1900 to 1906. whkh dbaeiy srwhir the Imp
£b«g-£saf .— The lav m fegdhuad by «b4
The oveaaar or angaee «f aay iaii.i'.ii
any obcaia prormina m the colaar iar 1
the or^giBa] term. If the Eag&h pateat a
of the Jbdkia] CammBttfr. aa iiiiaaem «f 1
may be oh^qaacd. or a aew |
A fee of $2^ is payable oa |
giaat «f 4
provisKMS as to . ^
/emniVe —The law is still ia
1857. Bat aader nsdinaanr Nol
letten pateat is aov £3 iastead ol
any fee payable aa the lefcseaoe to
|MY>f l P5in3f Y
Lofss.— Ordii
sobstaatially the Ei«lish
Leewatd Itlamds.—Act Now
act of 188a. The fees are oa
4thvcar £201 at end of 7th ytar
of IQOO (Nob 17)
1 bw.
of 1906 has adofited the Er; '
spfriiniino U, !«■.; ml cai
-Thelaw is fovenedbir ordnaace Nat II «l 1899 tr.
No. 7« of 1907, the datatioo of the pateat is 14 yean. Tcvr •
ao exiwms provisioa for a ptHiminary eranrinatioa eaao wn» ^
PcovirioR is made for compulsory ■■pt.imiim or ficievce, w>-«
the in v e nti on has not beea put into uk within 3 years aaime^y-r
to the pant or its worldag has been gni pe n ded lor 3 yean
tinuottrfy. The aaeual fees are £s before ^ — p***Tftn of
4th year from the date of the satent; £6 before the «
tiK 5tl>; £7 and £8 respectively before the rspiratiDn of the «^ *
and 7th yean; fy and £10 before the expiratMa of the 8th s- .
9th; aad from £11 to £14 before the rxpirafirm of the loth, ii«
13th aad I3tb yeark
Jfoarttnu.— The law is still regulated by onfiaaaoa No. 16 ..
1875. There b no preliminary examination as to aovdry. a- ^
there are ao provjsiotts for oompuhocy worfciag or impoftation 1 tu=
abroad.
JVaiof.— -The law is stiO regulated by No. 4 of 187QL Bvc oerLE-
detaib of practice are amended by No. i of 1895. There ^ -
preliminary examination as to novdty, aad there are no psw«» j
as to compulsory working or importatioa from abroad.
iVra/Madfaa^— The law is contained in the Cooaolidatcd Scar - -
t. xiL c. 109. There is no preliminary examination into nrvv
In addition to the oflke fees, the patentee ia required to def» -
with the colonial secretary the sam of $2$, to be paid by hiaa to tt^
repeivern^eneral for the ore of the colony.
Nov Zeaiand.—Tht law now depends on No. is of 1880. nacai>*i
in details by No. 8 of 1897. The durataon of a patent a 14 jc^n.
There is no prdiminary rxamination as to novelty, and there a-e
no provisions as to compulsory workiag or importatam frem abrok :
The following fees are payable: £2 on obtaining Icttcra patir-.
£s before the expiration of the 4th year and £10 before the cxpira t . «
of the 7th.
Nif^riA, iVtfflkm.— No. la of i9Qa I n trodooea practkally c>.>
Engltth law of 1883.
Orantit River Colony.— H^ to the OQtfareak of war in 1S99 r%>r
law was regulated by ordinance No. 10 of 1868 and an chaa^^v ^ • •
yet been inade. Tbe term of a patent was 14 yean. No ntrL r
nary examination as to novelty. Compulsory lioenoea anight v
obtained* No prohibition of the importation of patented nn . ^
Tbe fee for signing and sealing the patent was not leas than *
nor more than £5a Taxes of £s &no £10 were payable befcrv' t
at the expiration of the vd ancHFth yean of the term respect i\- •
Rhodesia, ^oaiAsra.— Ordinance Nob 7 of 1904 adopu pcactjca.»
the EagUsh law.
PATENTS
907
Jir HeUna.-^The law k regtriated b^ ordiaanoe No. 3 of 1872.
The grantee of an English patent, or his representatives, can have
the grant extended to the colony. All cases of doubt and difficulty
not provided for by the laws of the cobmy are governed by tlie
law in force in England. A fee of one guinea is payable on fiUog
copy of letters patent and spcd6cat»n with the registiar of the
Supreme Court.
Sierm Laffus^— No spedal regukitkna edsc, but an ordinance
practicatly Identical with that of the Gold Coast is being adopted.
Strain Setdemmts.'^Tht law is prescribed by ordinance No. 12
of 1871. The dwatioD of a patent is 14 years. There is no pre-
liminary exaninatiott as to novelty, and there are no providons
aa to compulsory working or importatioD from abroad. There is
a stamp duty of $50 on the petition. No renewal fees are payable.
Tf9iuvaat CofM^.-^ProcbinatioQs Nos. aa and 39 of 190a intro-
duce subecaatially the English law.
Trinidad and ro^c».— The law is regulated by ordinance Na
10 of 1900 and Na 13 of 1905. The duration of the patent is 14
years. There ia no preliminary examination into novelty, and
there «re no provisioiis aa to compulsory working or importation
from abroad. A fee of /to is payable on application for a patent.
Turk* and CaUot IsJands.—Tht law of Jamak» has been cx^
tended to these islands by No. 7 of 1897. See supplement to
Paltnt Laws (^ik* World, No. 3 of 1900.
Windnard Islands:— In the \Vindward Islands other \haa
Barbadoes, vix. Grenada, St Lucia and St Vincent, patents for
invention were granted until recently only by special ordinances.
See, §.t. St Lucia, ordinance No. 41 of 1875 (Tooth's patent). A
sump duty of £10 was payable in this island on letters patent for
inventions (Na 6 of 1881. schedule). But ordinances based on tlie
Imperial Act have now been passed, St Vincent (Na 3 of 1898).
Grenada (No. 4 of 1898) and St Lucia (Na 14 of 1899).
PortigH Potent Laws.—¥ot the Uxt of tbcte see PatenI Lavs
cf the World, ed. 1899 and supplemental volumes. But the
following are the essential facts.
i4/xrffa.— French law applied by decree of June 5, 1850.
ArgtnUmt RepiMic— The law of October 11, 1864, is still in force.
There is no provisk>n as to importation from abroad.
Austria. — ^A law of January 11, 1897, came into force on
January i, 1899. The prinapal changes introduced by this
measure were these. A strict preliminary examination was made
into novelty. The term of the |>atcnt was fixed at 13 years, and
besides an application fee of 10 florins, annual fees were imposed riang
from 30 flonns for the ist year to 340 florins for the l$th. The period
for compulsory working was raised from I year to 3 years from the
date of the publkatioa of the grant of toe patent in the patent
journal. Provision was made for the converuon of patents under
the old law of August 15, 185a (extended to Hungary by law of
June 27, 1878, ana to Bosnia and Herzegovina by law of December
ao. 1879) into patents under the present law.
Bdgium. — ^Tne Uw is still governed by the law of May 34.
1854. Patenu'are giantcd, as in France, without guaiantee 01
novelty.
BoJma.— The patent law depends on a law of May 8. 1838.
The duration of the grant is in the case of a patent 01 invention
not less than 10 nor more than 15 years: in the case of an im-
ported invention, 3 years if its establishment requires an outlay
of f as.ODO, if it reaches Ssaooa 6 years, and if $100,000 or more.
10 years. The novelty neither of patents for invention nor of
patents for imported inventions is guaranteed. The patent lapses
unk^ss the inventk>n is put into complete practice within a year
and a day from the date of the pnvilcge. unless the omiasion is
excused by justifiable causes according to law.
3fastf.-~Patents are granted under the law of October 14, 188a.
The patent lapses unless the invention is brought into effective
use within 3 years from the date of the grant, or if such use is
suspended for more than a year, except by reason of force majenrt
admitted by government to be a sufBdenc eacuae. Besides expenses
and fees, patents of invention a^e subject to an annual and pragresnve
tax, commencing at fao and increasing at the rate of |io a year.
The patents issued are without guarantee of novelty or utility.
Ck»U.—Th€ law is regulated by the law of September 9. 1840,
decree of August I, 1851, and laws of July as, 187a, January 20,"
1883. and lanuaiy ao, 1888. There is a preliminary cxaminatkm
as to novelty and utility. Though the duratbn of a patent does
not ordinarily exceed 10 years, toe term may be extended to ao
years by the president of the republk. if the report of the experu
on the nature and importance 01 the invention seem to juAiiy it.
There are no provisionsas to importation from abroad.
Co(0inMo.^Patents are granted under law Na 33 of 1869 and
decree Na ai8 of 1900. The term varies from 3 to ao yeare at the
option of the applicant. There is no preliminary examination
as to novelty, and there is no provision as to importation from
abroad. A patent for a new induttry ia vokl when such industry
b idle for a whole year, unless inevitable circumstances have
intervened. An appticant pays a sum of ao pesos, which is forfeited
if the patent is refused, and taken in part payment of the
patent fee if it is gmnted. The patent lax as from 3 to ao pesos
a year for every year of the privikge.
I Cwfo.— Pttents are ittned tmder a law of OcWber 99. r8fl6.
and a decree of October 30, 1886. They are of three kinds,
patents of invention, of importatUMi and of improvement. There
IS no preliminary examination as to novelty, and the patent ex-'
pressly mentions that the grant is made without guamntee. The'
term of a patent of Inventkm is ao years. A patent of importation
or of improvement expires in the former case with the foreign,
m the latter with the principal patent. Pntents of improvement
are not liable to any tax; on other patents a payment of 100 francs
is required. There are no provisions as lo compulsory working
or prohibiting the importation of patented aitklea.
Costa Eica.— Prior to June a6.' 1896, applications for patenta
had to be made to the Consthutlooal Congress. The matter is
now dealt with bv a law of the above-mentioned date. The dura-
tion of the term is ao years. There is apparently no preliminary
examination into novelty. The period for compulsory working
is a years, and a patent which ceases to be worked during any
3 consecutive years becomes public property.
DMmar*.— Pktents are now granted under a 4a w of March aS,
1894. The duration of the patent is 13 years, and no extension
ean be granted. There is a preliminary examination into novelty.
The patent may. on terms, be appropriated by the sute if the
public interest demands it. The period for compulsory worldng
IS 3 years, and the patent will also lapse If the exercise of the hi-
ventton is discontinued for more than a year. The patent com-
miasloo may release the patentee from the obllgatkMi of manu-
facturing the patented artxrle in Denmark, if satisfaed that the cost
of such manufacture wouki be mueasonable, on conditk>n that the
patented artkle is always kept 00 sale in Denmark. The tax is
an annual fee of a5 kroner for the Inst 3 yean, 50 kroner for the
next 3. too for the foltowiag 3; then for 3 years aoo kroner yearly,
and for the bst 3, 300 kroner yeariy.
iBenodor.— Patents are mated under a law of October x8p
1880. The provisions are idcntkal with those given for Bolivia.
Finland.-^The law is regulated by ordinances of January af.
X898. The term of the patent Is 13 years. There is a preliminary
examination into novelty. The period for compulsory working »
3 years, the penalty for non-compliance bring an obligation on
the part of the patentee to gnnt compulsory Ucences. The tax
consists of annual fees, commencing with the second year of the
patent, and of the following amounts: ao marks yearly for the and
and 3rd years; 40 marks from the 4th to and including the 6th
year; 50 marks from the 7th to and including the 9th; 60 marks
from the loth to and including the lath year; and 70 marks from
the 13th to and including the 15th.
France.— Tbte law is still regulated by the law ofjuly 3, 1844.
The following additional points should be noted: The term of a
patent of invention is 3, or 10. or 13 years, at the option of the
patentee. Every such patent is subject to the foUowing taxes,
payable by annual instalments of loo francs: 500 francs for t
patent of 5 years, looo francs for a patent of 10 years, and 1300
francs for a patent of 13 years. A tax of ao francs is payable on
application for a patent of addition. Pstents of addition are not
subject to annual taxes. There is no prdimioary examination
as to novelty. A patentee Is not obliged to mark patented articlet
as such. but. if he docs. the words Sans Garantie dMCowememenl,
or the initial lettere of these words— S. G. D. G.— must be added,
under liability to a penalty for omisrioa of from so francs to 1000
francs. Th<> provisions as to compulsory worbng (expMtaHon)
are in the mam so interpreted as to strike only at voluntary ana
calculated inactivity. The law of July 3, 1844 is applied to
the French colonics by a decree of October ai, 1848. to Madagascar
by decree of 190a, and as to French Indo-China. see decree of
June a4. 1893.
Germany.— -Patents (the law as to which b not affected by the
civil code of 1900) are granted under a law of April 7. 1891. The
duration of the patent is isycars. There is a strict preliminaiy
examination into novelty. The period for compulsory working is
3 years, but it is suflliacnt if tne patentee has done everything
that is necessary to ensure the carrying out of the invention. A
tax of 30 marks has to be paid before the grant. In addition to
this there has to be paid at the commencement of the second and
every following year of the term a tax amounting to y> marks for the
first year and increasing by 30 marks every subsequent year. An act
of 1900 regulates the profession of patent agents.
Greue. — No special patent law apparently exists. A private
act is required, which can be introduced by a deputy and is treated
like any other bilL
(JtiatoRsala— Patents are sranted under the law of May at.
1886 and a decree of December 17. 1807. The term of the patent
ranges from 3 to 13 years. An annual tax of 30 pesos is payable.
The period of compulsory working is I year, and abandonment d
working for a year forfeits the patent; There is apparently a
preliminary examination as to novelty (see Art. 16 of the decree
of Dec 17. 1897), but there is no prohibition of the importatkm of
patented articles.
Hamttiian islands.— ?AttntM were issued till 1900 under the
civil code (M a33. 336) and a law of August 79, 1884, which wr-
not at first aJfecfed by the annexation of the iaiaods by the Ur
States. There was a preliminary examlnatwn as to no
9o8
ThcBMsteMidvaciMflf th«pafteat«wio«CMiL Oa .,
4 fee oC |5 «M psyable, the e a nmiminmr of pattau ramwd $to
for kk caamiitttioM, and a Ik oC Is WM payable wficA tbe pstrnt was
MMMd. No iafther payncflts* Nov die Uaiied Scale* law appbea.
Hpm4mn$.—^o. 177 ol Maicb 10^ 189ft. T«m oot to CKseed
JO ytan. Aomial tu 5 to 10 jAct pcaoa; in tbe caie of fore^aen
1 to so c«M pcaoa.
iTaafarTu— 1m law in foree b tkat ol July 7, 1495. Tbe
uatkn oC the pMent k 15 yvan. The poiod for ooaipnlsoffy
PATENTS
_. _ ^ «.» The period
irorUMr k onUaarily 3 yean. The anoual taaei
kroner Tor the IK year to 500 Iv the tstk.
/ifliv,— The bar k •tin fO T craed by that of Jaaoary 31. 1864.
f«^«ilMH the Saidinkn bar of October 30. 18^ to the arhofe
himdoM. Tbcfe k no pcrlimioary cxaminatioo wio novdty. and
ihete k 00 ptovkion prohibiting the importation of patented
artides. Patenta an tobject (i.) to a proportional tax of as many
timea 10 lire aa the yean lor which the patent k applied Cor, and
(E) to an aannal tax of 40 lire for the fint 3 yean; 65 lire for the
iollofwinc 3; 90 liro for the Ttb, Sth and 9th; 115 lire for the loth
•ad I ith ; and 140 lire for the remaining 3 yean.
JapoM^ — Patenta are imuod onder an act which came into opcca-
tion on July 16, 1899. The bw aa to aubject matter reaemblea
tint of Co^and and the United Statea. The term of a patent k
13 yean from tbe date of registxation. The patent may be annulled
ilthe patentee haa not worked hk invention within 3 ^ean from the
date 01 the certificate of ^pvA^ or if, having diaoontinued anch use
for 3 ycare, he haa rrfuaed a reasonaUe^ request by a^third party
for an aaatgnncnt or a licence. An applicant not ooaudlcd in the
empire must appoint within 6 mootna a duly qualified agent by
power of attorney. These k apparently a preUminary examination
mto novelty. Tne patent owner muat 1^ hk mark to the patent.
The fees are cakubted on a gradually aaoendingacale.
I.t&(rM.~PUenu are iaMied under a bw of ueoember 23. 1864.
The maximum term k ao years. There k a preliminary cxaminar
tion aa to novelty. A aum of $25 or $y> la payabb on appli-
cation, according aa the applicant k a atisen or an alien. Aa
Invention patented by an alien muat be put in practical opnation
within \ ycare. There k no pmtiibition of the importation of
patented articles.
iMiumbwi (bw of June 30, 1880).— The term of the patent
k 1$ years. There k no ptdiminary examination aa to^ novelty,
and toe importation of patented arttclea k not prohibited. An
annual and progreaaive tax, commencing at 10 francs and increasing
by 10 franca annually, k payabb in advance. The period (or
compulsory working k 3 ycare, and after the expiration of that
period compulaory Bceooes may be ordered.
. UtsiM (bw 01 Oct. I. 1903).— The duratson of a patent k
ao yean, with possible extension for another 5 yean. The act
defines what k patentabfe and what k not patentable. There k
on request of the interested party, an examination without guarantee
as to novelty. There are no provisbns as to compulsory working
(but compunory licences may be ordered) or prohibiting tbe im-
portation of patented articles. The tax ranges from $50 to
I150. The patentee must also at the end of each s veare of the
grant, in order to keep the patent in force for another 5 yean,
pay 50 pesos at the end of tbe firet 5 years, 75 pesos at the end of
to years, and at the end of is yean. 100 pesos. The Patent Office
publishes a specbl gasette — La Gauta OJuial de Patenta j Marcos.
■ Nuoragua. — Patents were, as a general rule, until 1899, granted
only by specbl Aa of Congress. But tee now auppbment 720,
No. 15, Patent Laws of the World.
Norvny (bw of June 10. 1885).— The term of the patent b
15 years. There k a preliminary examination into novelty. The
Invention must be woriccd within 3 yean, and the working must
not be discontinued for a year on pain of forfeiture. For each
patent an annual tax k payabb amounting to 10 crowns for the
9nd year and incrrasiog by $ crowns each year.
Panama. —Xj^yM 88 of 1904 adopU the rules prescribed by the
bws of Colombb. The fee is an annual one of $30.
Peru (bw of Jan. 38, 1869 and bw of Jan. 3. 1896).— The
maximum term of the patent k 10 years, and the tax k an
annual sum of too dolbrs. There k no preliminary examination
into novdty. The period for compulsory workine is 3 yean, and
the imporution of patented articles from abroad (except modeb
of machinery whose mtroduction k authorued by the government)
b prohibited.
Porlugial (bw of Dec 15, 1804).— The maximum term k
IS years. The patent tax is 3000 reis. payabb in advance,. for each
year of the term for which the privilege k granted or re n ewed.
There b no pnelimiparv examinatbo into novelty. The period
for compulsory working k 3 years, and discontinuance of working
for any a ycare at a stretch forfeits the patent unless the inaction
can be justified. The importation of patented articbs from abroad
k not prohibited.
Russta (bw of May 90, 1896).— The maximam term b i^ yean:
the tax ranges from 15 roubles lor the fint year to ^00 roubles for
tbe fifteenth. There k apparently (ace Arts. 3 and I3ja prefiminary
examination into novelty, but none into utility. The period for
compulsory worfcinc^ U s years. There k no probibitioo 01 importa-
tion of patented artKles.
There IS no pwrhawnafy c
of f ~
' it k 1
y. and the topi r-^
Bof apo-'cac
to ptaiui for the lat year, ao for the Md. 30 for the \t-i.
mad so on aooocaaivciy to the sth or joch jpcai^ for whkh lae
tax k reapectiwly «> and 300 pesetas.
Smadan (b« of liny i6w 1884).— The ttna b 15 yean. Th«
annual tax k 25 cxdwm for tha Tad, 30!, 4th and sta jaan. v
crowna for each of the fa lhiwi ng 5 yean: and 75 crawaa for es.Jk
of the fcmaimflg ^ yeam Thm k a preliminary nrwinatioo as
to novelty, the penod for compobosy woridng k 3 ynaia, aad d^
oontimianoe donag any entire year eatafls fortcitiiM. Hfeere k no
prohibition of the inpanatiDn of p— — ' — r-t—
fHaaiamd."
the patent k 15 years. There i
fiai
d
- ^ -_ ^. ^ tax.
rising from ao francs for dK 1st year by an anmnl incivase of 10
francs op to 160 francs for the isth. There k no prefimiforv
examination as to novdty. The patent k forfcked if the tnwotx^'i
has not been earned into pmctioe by the end of the 31^ year, or i
patented artkies are imported from abrand, wh9e at the ansae ti^'c
the proprietor haa refnsed a^iplicatioos oa cqnitahb tirasa for S*.-
Tumis (bw of 32iid Rabia-ct-Tuu. 1306: Dec 36, ittS).— TV-
term k either 5 yean (fee 900 piaatrea) or 10 yean (lee 1000 pinstn -
orisyeareffeeimopiaatfeal. There k no pieiasbar7eimmiant.^-i
aa to novelty. The period for oompabory w wh i ng sa a ycarv
and two oonaecntsve yean' diaamtimianee A each w w k kig . vrJrv
justified, forfeits the potent. So abo does the importation c^
patented articles, bat the introductioa may be autboroed (i •> t
modeb of machines, and (iL) of aitbles, made abroad, intrndrd Kv
public exhibitioas or ior triabi
ThrVy.—Puents are atil granted oader the bv of tbe «ad ri
March 188a There b no prdiminary examination aa to novr'^.
and a patentee who mentions Ins titb as audi without adi. ;
the worda " without guarantee of govcrament,** b liable to x
maximum penalty of 43 Torldsh pooads.
Ifmtatf Staler.— The American bw may be co n adered at gicatc
bngth. The Federal Constitution emjpoiwered Coo^reas ** to pro-
mote the prog i ta a of adence and useful arta by eecuna^ for fim:'ni
timea to . . . inventon the exclusive right to their . . . d-i~
Tbe exmting American patent bw k baaed on a srrr*
of Acta of Cbngrem paWed in virtue of thb proviaion m tbe cr«-
atitution, and on the jodblad interpretation of these atnttitrv
Between American and En|4ish patent bw there ia. as win appnr
in the course of thk sketch, a oonaiderabk degree of aunSan'^
The fact k not anrpriaing when it k remembered that the StatvTr
of Monopoliea (n Jac. I. c. 3) was, except in limiting tbe inaxi'n n
duration of bttere patent for inventions at fourteen years, c-'.
declaratory of the common bw, and therefore fonned nart of tSe
original common bw of America. The English and Ameri :s>i
patent systems further agree in this, that they oontaia no provr^. ^
as to compulsory working, and no |)rohibitioa of the naportai •:
of patented articles. But there are important differences bet»?vs
the two systems, not merely in points of detalL bat in mat*<i
affecting the theory and practicat working of thebw. In EngLi'-i
the consideration for the grant of a patent MS all along been tin «>>
the benefit whbh the public derives from the itttrodaction of s
new manufacture. In America greater emphasb k placed on \^f
right of an inventor to have hts merits rewarded. Ania. vntitf
tlw Sratute of Monopolies an inventor's exclusive privilege ari««
only in regard to inventions not known or used at the date of tb
Eint, althongh it shouki be observed that under the modrni
tents Acts the date of a patent, once granted, relates back tr
the date of the application. In the United Sutes, on the otV-
hand, the right b conferred on inventon to an cadosive |>n\i*ir£<
in such inventions as were not known or used before xhtxt da.
covery by the patentees. The practical bearing of thk differra-r
b expbined in an admirable note on ** Tbe Statnce of Mooopotv^
in Ralint Cases, sab lA." Patent " (xx. 5): *' It shKts the f^x.^
of view in the important question of novelty. Many good \mermr^s
inventions have been given away in Engbnd by the pavmaturc
publicatioa in America of the inventor's proceedmgs. He .*
interriewed. and an artkle in the New York Sam, or aoow otb9
paper, in doe time finds its way to Engbnd. Thb docs ito har*
tn America: on the cootrary, It is good evidence of the date of tar
actual invention. But it is fatal to a subseqoent appUcatioe ■
England."
The definition of patentability in Amerban bw b camaiaed t^
sect. 4886 of tbe ReviMd Statutes of the United Stmtea aa aiaewh-J
by an act of the Ard of March 1897. in the foUowiagpaaaage ^'
amendments are Indicated by italics.'—
" Any person who has invented or d iac ov c red aay nrw a:«4
useful art, machine, manufacture or compoaition of aaattcr, .
any new and uaeful improvement thereof, not kaoero or uwd b**
othen in thk country befart hu tnsMlion sr distomr^ Aarraf, »-^
not patented ordcaeribrd in any printed publication in tbia or *r.
forrign country before hk invention or discovery thereof or » f
Itast Msf yaorj priar * Mr applkatian, and not in publk use or tic
PATENTS
909
Mk for more than two
nine b proved to have been abandoned, may, upon aayv
the fees required by kw and other doe proceedings had. obtain
Deen
the
meat of
a patent therefor.
The effect of the two amendments made by the act of 1897
ahouM first be noted: (i.) The old law failed to state at what time
the invention should be known or used by others in America ao as
to t»ar a patent; whether before the application or before the
invention. This ambiguity is removed by the use of the words
" before his invention of discovery thereoi." (it.) Under the old
law a foreign patentee could uke out a patent m America for the
same invenrion at any time daring the life of the foreign patent,
provided it had not been in use in America more than two yean
prior to his application, unless anticipated by a prior invention or
pubKcatbn. The words "or more than two years prior to his
applicafioo." merely give the same force to a forei^ patent or
publicatioo that had previously been riven to prior use. Aa
invention to be patentable must, according to American law. be
both novel and useful. Utility may be evidence of novelty and
vice versa, and commercial success is relevant evidence of utility.
As in England, a bare principle U not patentable. A ** oroccss '*
is included under the words '' useful art " to the above definition
of patentability, and is good subject matter for a patent when the
term is used to represent a practical methodof producing a beneficial
result or effect. The word " machine " in the definition includes
every mochanieal device or combination of devices for producing
oeruin results. Such a devioe or corabinatlon b patentable when
it possesses utility and novelty, and produces either a new result
or an old result in a better fcm.
Under the law of 17Q0. which was exclusively American in spirit,
the duty of granting fetters patent for inventions was discharged
by the secreury of sUte, the secretary of war and the attorney*
general, or any two of them. The law froa 1793 to 1836 was
exclusively English in spirit, and during that period the duty fell to
the secretary of state, subject to the attomey-general's arorovat.
It was in IJ)37 that the marked divergence between the Englbh
and American patent system began. In that year the patent
business of the United States had attained to sach dimensions that
the powers and duties of the secreury of sUte in regard to patents
were transferred to a sulMlepartment of the state department
known aa the Patent Office. The American Patent Office consists
of a oommiasiofier of oatents. one assisunt commissioner, and three
examiners-in'chief, who are appointed by the President of the
United States with the advice and consent of the Senate; and also
of other examiners; and a staff of officers, clerks and em^k>y€s.
appointed by the secretary of the interior on the nomination of
tne commissioner of patents. The commissioner of patents, under
the direction of the secmtaiy of the intetioc, b chaived with the
superintendence or performance of all duties respecting the grant
and issue of patents, and has the control and custody of all books,
records, papers, &c., bekmginff to the Patent Office. He n author-
ised to make, from time to time, regvlaiions not inoonsbteat with
law, for the conduct of proceedings in the Patent OOoe, and pre-
pares an annual report which b laid before Congress, and which
IS framed on the same lines as that of the comptroller-general in
England. " He b the final judge, so far as the Patent Office b
concerned, of all controverted questlona arising in the office, and
in granting or withholding patents he is not bound by the decbions
of nb inlerion" (Robinson on Patents, L 84). The examioers-
in-chief are required to be persons of competent legal knowledge
and ability. Their duties are: On the written petition of inventors
to revise and determine upon the validity of the advene dflcisk>ns
of subordinate examiners, upon applicatuma for patents, and for
reissues of patents, and in interference cases, and when required
by the commissioner of patents to hear and report upon claims
for extenskm, and to do such other similar work as he may assign
to them. The Patent Office publishes an Offitial Cmetle cone-
saooding to the EogUsh PottiU OJics lUustraltd Jotmal, and
dtscharges similar functions to those of the English Patent Office
in regard to the public dissemination of informatton as to patented
inventkms. The number of original applications for patents in the
period covered by the report of tlK oommuak>ner of patenu for
1906-1907 was 50.762; the number of patents granted was 36.620;
the receipa amounted to |i.9io,6i8. the expenditure to$i,63i458h
leaving a surplus of 1279,160.
The fitvt step in the procedure to obtain a patent b the lodging
by the inventor at the Patent Office of a written applicatkHi. to-
gether with a specification of partkolar written description 01 hb
mventkm, and a claim distinctly pointing out and claiming what
he alleges to be hb invention or discovery. The specificatkm and
daim are signed by the inventor and attested by two witnesses.
Drawings, specimens of iiunedients, and modeb may be required
to be furnished. On the Oing of each original appOcatk>n for a
patent, • fee of $13 b payable. The applicant b required to
verify hb claim to the Invention on oath, uken, if he resMMi
within the United SUtes, before any perKm authorised by Aaiericao
law to adminbter oaths: if he resides in a foreign country, before
any diplomatic or commerebl agent of the United States, or any
aotary public of the foreign country ia which the applicant may
be. The eommiesioner of patents then cansea an eNaminatSen
to be made into the novelty of the invention, and if the result Is
itisfactory the jtatent issues. On the issuing of^ each original
itent, a fee < '
patent, 1
(oaten
F f20 b
,I»y*ble.
I issued in the name
A patent
of the United States of America and under the seal of the Patent
Office. It oonsbu of a short title or description of the in-
vention or d i scovery, oorrcctly indicating its luture and design,
and a grant to the patentee, hb hein and assigns. Patents, it
may be observed In passiai;, may be granted and issued or re-
issued to the assignee of the inventor or discoverer, and every
patent or any interest in it is assignable, the assignment being
recorded in the Patent Office, for die term of seventeen year«, of the
exdusive right to make use of and vend the invention or discovery
throughout the United Sutes and the territories thereof. The
rights of property in patents granted in Cuba, Porto Rko, the
Philippines and other ceded territoiy under Spanish law are to
be respected in those territories as if that law were still in force
there. A patent b dated as of a day not later, than thre^
months from the time at which it was passed, and if the fee
w not paid within six months the patent b withheld* In case,
however, the issue of a patent has been prevented by a failure
to pay the fee within Uie pres c r ib e d period, the application may
be renewed within a yeare after the altowance of the original
applicatran. But the applicant has no riB:ht to damages for any
use of the invention in the interval, ami on the hearing of the
tenewed appUcatioa abandonment may be considersd as a questkm
of fact. So far we have followed the procedure to obtain a patent
where its course b uninterrupted. A double form of interruption
b, however, possible. A cblm for a patent may be rejected on the
ground of want of novelty in the alleged Inventioa. In thb cast,
the fact of the rejection, together with the reasons for it, b com-
munkated to the applkant by the commink>ner; and if he pcniais
in hb claim a re-«xamiaation b ordered. Or, again, an applicatkin
may appear to the commissioner to interfere with a pending ap-
plication,^ or with any expired patent. In these drcumstanoes, be
gives notice to the applicant, and direets the primary examiner
to proceed to determine the questM>n of priority of invention. Thb
interruption of the course of the proceedings to obtain a patent is
called an " interference." In either of the cases above mentioned
an appeal lies, on payment of a fee of $10, from the primary
examiner to the boaid of examiner»-in<hief, and, on payment
of a fee of Sao, from the examlnera-in-chief to the commissioner
in person. An applicant for a patent, but not a party to an inter-
ference, may appeal from the Oedskm of the commissioner to the
supreme court of the Dbtrkt of Columbia ritting in banc. In
interference cases the appeal lies to the District of Columbb court
of appeals. There b an ultimate r^t of appeal. In cases involving
?he validity of a patent, to the Supreme Court of the United States.
Patents are obtainable by bill in equity, althou^ the commissioner
of patenU (or, on appeal, the supreme court of the District of
Columbb) may have refused them. The circuit courts of the United
States have original jnrisdKtkNi in all patent suits. Appeflate
jurisdiction b vested w the circuit court of appeals; and on the
certificate of that court, or by ctrtmori, aa appeal may be brought
to the Supreme Court of the United Sutes.
Section 4887 of the revised statures ptovides thatr—
" No person othermis* enHlUd ikerOo shall be debarred from
receiving a patent for hb i n ven ti on or diaooveiy, nor shall any patent
be declared invalid by reason of its having been first patented or
caused to be patented by Ihg inventor or ku UtfU rtprtsentatins or
assigns in a foreign country, unUss the applkation for the said foreign
patent watJUed more than seeen months pnor to the fiKng of the apptica-
Hon in this eomUry, hs whitk aaas m paini ikaU bo g^amied m Ifcu
tomUry"
The words tulicind in the above sectk>n were added by an Amend-
ing Act of the 3rd of March 1897. In its original form the secrion
provided that no person shouki be debarred from receiving a patent
becauae the invaotioQ waa fint patented in a foreign country, whether
he was otherwisa entitled to the patent or not. The words '* other-
wise entitled to *' merely postulate that no other bar to the issue of
the patent shall exbt. Tlie words *' by the inventor or hb legal
representatives or assigns ** safeguanl the inventor to some extent
against fraud by third paitiea: while the peovisiott requiring the
applicatioo in tha United Statea to be filed within seven months
01 the filing of the foreign patent b intended to carry out the |mo-
t of the International Conventk>n.
^ It should be noted that
the duration of an American patent for an invcntkm already patented
abroad b no bnger limited by that of the prior foreign patent, but
is granted for 17 yean from tne date of issue.
Patented articles are required to be marked as such, either
by the word " patented,'* together with the day and the year the
patent was granted, being affixed to them, or, when from the charac-
ter of the article thb cannot be done, by fixing to it, on the pfckaae
conuining one or mora of such artidca, a bbd containing the like
• A citiaen of the United SUtes, or an alien who has within the
preceding twelve months given notioe of hb intention to become
one. may, by filing in the Patent Office a " caveat." the fee for
which b $10, secure for himself notke of possibly oooflictMg
9 to
PATENTS OF PRECEDENCE— PATER
■oiioe: and io any «iit (or utfrmfemeiit by a party failing ao to
maHc. no damacei thall ba reoovered by the plaintiff, eacept on
proof that the defendant was duly mKificd oi the infringement,
aad coatinued after Mich notice to make, uae or vend the article ao
DAtented. A pennkv of not leas thaa loo dollars is attached to
lalsriy marking or labelling articles as patented.
When Umxigh inadvertence, accident or mistake, aad without
fraudulent or deceptive intention, a patentee has claimed more
than he is entitled to, his patent is valid for all that part which is
truly and justly hii own; provided this is a material or substantia
part of the thing patented and the patentee; or his heirs or assigns,
on payment of the pceacribed fee (tio) disclaim the surplusage.
The diacUimer must be in writing, and attested by one or more
witne s s es ; it is pecoided in the Patent Ofiice, and is thereafter coa>
■idersd a part of the original specification. But no disclaimer
affects aay action pending at the time of its being filed, eacept so
far as may relate to the question of unrcaaonaUe neglect or delay ia
filing it.
In the same dioimstanoe, or where a patent b inoperative or
invalid by reason of a defective or inaumdent SfMcification. the
patentee may surrender his patent, and the commissioner of patents
may, on the application of the patentee and on payment of a fee
of tie. issue a new patent in accordance with the amended
specincation.
(/rnfaay (law of I2ib November i88<l.-- The term is 3, 6 or 9
years, at the option of the aM>licant. There is an annual tax of
fas lor every year of the privilege. The invention must be
worked within a time fixed by the executive, and the working
must not be discontinued for a year, on pain of forfeiture. There is
noprelimtnary examination as to novelty.
VetmueUt. — A new law was promulgated by a decree of the 19th
of March 1900. but revoked in January 1901 and the old lav of
188a substituted. The term b 5, 10 or 15 years. The tax is 80
francs (bolivara) a year if the patent b for an invention or discovery,
and 60 francs (bobvars) a year if it relates to an improved procesa
There b no preliminary eiamination as to novelty, nor b tbtre any
compulsory working.
ImUntaUonol PatefUs.^Tht International Convention for the
protection of industrial property was signed at Paris on the 20th
of March 1883; tbe necessary ratifications were exchanged on the
6th of Jtuie 1884, and the Convention came into force a month
bter. Proviaoii was made by acctions 103 and 104 of the
Patents Act 1883 for carrying out the Convention In Great
Britain by orders in council, applying it from time to time to
(a) British possessions whose Iqsisiatares had made saibfactory
arraagementa for the protection of inventions patented in Great
Britain; (6) foreign states with which the sovereign had made
anangemenU for the mutual protection of inventions. The
kikitnag governments have signed the international convention:
Australia, Aiuttia-Hungary, Belgium, Brazil, Ceyloo, Cuba,
Oenmatk. France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands,
New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, San Domingo, Servia, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunb and the
United States. Under the powers of the Foreign Jurisdiction
Act 1890 penalties have been imposed on British subjects
committing offences against the Patents, &c., Acts 1883-1888,
and the orders in council issued thereunder, in Africa, East
Africa, Morocco, Persia, Persian OMSt and Zanxibar.
An International bureau in connexion with the Convention
has been established at Bern, where an official monthly periodical,
La ProprilU indusiridle, b pubUshed. Conferences were held
under the Convention at Rome ia April and May 1886, and at
Madrid in April 1890. At the. latter conference an important
article was adopted, under which it is left to each countiy to
define aad apply " compulsory working " dcxploUation) for the
purposes of the convention in the sense that it chooses.
AirmoKtTtBS. — In addition to tbe works noted incidentally
above, see Edmunds, Patents (London); Wallace and Williamson,
Patents (London); Frost, Patent L99 and Praetice (London, 1898);
Terrell, Letters Patent (London): Cunynghame, Patents (London);
Lawson, The Patents, fife. Acts (London). For the old law, Webster,
Patent Cases (London, 1844): Htndmaish, Patents (London, 1816):
and the Vciv valuable PuCiafflentary Reports of 1829, 1851, 1865.
1872. Gordon, Monopeiies by Patents (London, 1807); Gould and
Tucker, Notes on Rep. SlaL efOu U,S., vol ii. (tMj-lB^y) : Robinson.
Patents (3 vols., Boston, 1890); Whitman, Patent Laws (Washing-
ton, 1871); Law. Copyriikt and Patent Laws of Ike UniHd States,
l790-t966 (New York. 1866): Curtb. Law of Patents (4th ed.,
Boston aad London, 1871); CampbeU, U. S, Patent System: a
gitto ry (Was hington, 1891). (A. W. R.; T. A. I.)
PAinn OP PRBCBDBKCB. A patent of precedence b a
grant to an individual by letters patent {q».) of a higher social
or professional position than the precedence to which hb ordinary
rank entitles him. The principal instance in modern times ol
patents of grants of this description has been the giant of pre>
cedence to membeia of the English bar. In the days wbea
acceptance of the rank of king's counsel not only precluded a
barrister from appearing against the Crown, bat, if be was a
member of parliament, vacated hb seat, a patent of precedence
was resorted to as a means of conferring similar marks of honour
on distinguished counsel without aay such disability attached 10
it. The patenu obtained by Mansfield, Erskine, Scott aad
Brougham were granted on thb ground. After the order of the
coif lost its exclusive right of audience in the court of common
pleas, it became customary to grant patents of precedence to a
number of tbe serjeants-at-law, giving them rank immediately
after counsel of the Crown already created and before those cl
subsequent creation. Mr Justice Phillimore was, on his appoint •
ment as a judge of the queen's bench division (in 1897) the only
holder of a patent of precedence at the bar, except Serjea-x
Simon, who died in that year, and who was the bst of tbe
Serjeants who held such a patent. See also PaECEOENCi.
In Canada patents of precedence are granted both by tbe
govemor-genenl and by the lieutenant-governor of the pro%ince&
under provincial legislation which has been declared intra vim
{Att. Gen. for Canada v. AU. Cen. for Ontario, 1898, A.C p. 247.
Todd, Parliamentary Govt, in Canada, 2nd ed. p, 333).
Sec PuUing's Order of the Coif.
PATBR. WALTER HORATIO (1839-1894), English man of
letters, was bom at Shadwell on the 4th of August 1839. lie n is
the second son of Richard Gbde Pater, a medical man, of Dutch
extraction, bom in New York. Jean-Baptbte Pater, th« painter,
was probably of tbe same family. Richard Pater moved free
Obey to SbadwcU early in the century, and continued to practise
there among the poorer classes. He died while hb ton Waller
was yet an infant, and tbe family then moved to Enfield, wfaerv
the children were brought up. In 1853 Walter Pater was sent to
King's School, Canterbury, wh^re be was early impressed by the
aesthetic beauties of the cathedraL These assodatiooa rcnaaiacd
with him through life. As a schoolboy he read Modarn PmisUo^,
and was attracted to the study of art, but he did not niake ary
conspicuous mark In school studies, and showed no signs of the
literary taste which he was afterwards to develop. His progress
was always gradual. He gained a school exhibitJon, howrvet.
with which be proceeded in (858 to Queen's College, O^ord. Hb
undergraduate life was unusually uneventful; he was a. sbv.
"reading man," making few friends. Jowett, however, was
struck by hb promise, and volunteered to give him |Mnva;e
tuition. But Plater's dass wss a disappointment, and he cmly
took a second in literae humaniores In 186 a. After takixtg bb
degree he settled in Oxford and read with private pupils. As a
boy he had cherished the idea of entering the AngUcan Cbtm-h.
but, under tbe inflnenceof his Oxford reading, hb faith in Chris..-
anity became shaken, and by the time he took hb degree be had
thoughts of graduating as a Unitarian minuter. Thb project,
too. he resigned; and when, in 1864, he was elected ton feUowvhip
at Brssenose, he had settled down easily Into a university cancer.
But It was no part of hb ambition to sink into academic torpor
With the assumption of hb duties as fellow the sphtxc of h^
intecests widened rapidly; he becama acutely interested in hur^
tnre, and even began to write artklca and criddsms himself. The
first of these to be printed was a brief essay tipon Colcnd^.
which he contributed in 1866 to the Westminster lUrieut. A few
months later (January, 1867) appeared in the same review lus now
well-known essay on Winckdmann, the iint eaprcsnon ol bxs
ideaUsm. In the following year hb stndy of " Aesthetic Poetry "
appeared in the Fortnightly Review, to be succeeded by essaj's oc
Leonardo da Ylnd, Sandro Botticelli, Pico della Ulrandola ax.d
MichelangclQ. These, with other studies of the aaam kind, vnar
in 1878 collected m hb Stmdies in the History of Ike Rttmisssmre.
Pater was now the centre of a small but very {ntacsting circle *3
Oxford. Such men as cherished aesthetic tastes were aaturaT)
drawn to him; and, though always retiring and, in a soisc, mnoie
in auumer, he waa oondnually apieadiog lib influeaoe, aot oo^y
PATERA— PATERSON, W.
911
in tlie univenity, but among men of letten in London and
elsewhere. The Utile body of Pre-Raphadites were among his
friends, and by the time that Miorius the Efiomtan appeared
he had quite a following of disdples to hall it as a gospel This
fine and polished work, the thief of all his contributions to litera-
ture, was pubfashed eariy in 1885. In It Pater displays, with
perfected fullness and loving daboration, his ideal of the aesthetic
life, his cult of beauty as opposed to bare ascetidista, and his
theory of the stimulating effect of the pursuit of beauty as an
ideal of iU own. In 1887 he published Imaginary Portraits, a
series of essays in philosophic fiction; in 1889, Appreciations,
wUk an Essay an Siyle; in 1893, Ptata.and Ptalanism; and in 1994,
Tke Child in ike House. His Creek Studies and his MisceUaneous
Studies were collected posthumously in 189s; his posthumous
romance of Gaston de Lalour in 1896; and his Essays from tke
** Guardian" were privately printed in 1897. A collected
edition of Pater'sf works was issued in 1901. Pkter changed his
residence from time Co time, living sometimes at Kensington
and in different parts of Oxford; but the centre of his work and
influence was always his rooms at Brasenose. Here he Uboured,
with a wonderful particularity of care and choice, upon perfecting
the expression of his theory of life and art. He wrote with
difficulty, correcting and recorrectiag with imperturbable
assiduity. His mind, moreover, returned to the religious
fervour of his youth, and those who knew him best bdieved that
had be lived longer he would have resumed his boyish intention
of taking holy orden. He was cut off, however, in the prime of
his powets. Seized with rheumatic fever, he raUied, and sank
again, dying on the suircase of his house, in his sister's arms, on
the morning of Monday the. 30th of July 1894. Pater's nature
was 10 contemplative, and in a way so centred upon reflection,
that he never perhaps gave full utterance to bis individuality. His
peculiar literary style, too, burnished like the surface of hard
metal, was too austerely magnificent to be always persuasive.
At the lime of his death Pater exercised a renuirkable and a
growing influence among that necessarily rcstriacd class of
persons who have themselves something of his own love for
beauty and the beautiful phrsae. But the cumulative rich-
nesa and sonorous depth of his language bannonised intimately
with his deep and earnest philosophy of life; and those who
can sympatfaice with a nervous idealism will always find
inspiration in his sincere and .sustained desire to "burn
with a hard, gem-like flame," and to live in harmony with
the hiahest. (A. Wa).
Mr Ferris Greenslet's Waller Paler Qn the " Cbntcmponuv Men of
Letters ** series, 1904) is an interesting piece of critidsm. Mr Arthur
Benson's study in the " English Men of Letters '* series is admir-
able. See too a sketch in Edmund Gosk's CriHeal KH-Kats; and
an estimate from a Roman Cathdic standpoint in Dr William Barry's
Heralds of JUooU, where Pater is compared with J. Addington
Symonds. T. Wright's 14/9 cf Waller Paler (1907) is an elaborate
but u nsati sfactory piece d work.
PATBRA, the Latin name for a shallow drcukr vessd used for
drinking or for pouring libations. The Greek name for such a
vessel was ^tiXif. It has no foot or stem underneath, but
occasionally a boss rising in the centre inside. The term ,is
sometimes ^ven incorrectly in architecture to a circular disk
carved with a conventional rose, which is found in many eariy
style s, the proper term bdng rosette.
'pATBIUlO, a town of Sidly, in the provmce of Catania, 11 m.
W.N.W. of Catania by rail, at the southern foot of Ml Etna.
Pop. (r88i), 15,330; (1901). 30,098 (town), sa.857 (commune).
The castle, originally erected in 1073, upon the acropolis of the
ancient HybU Minor or Galeatis, has a square tower and a
chapd with frescoes belon|^ to the X4th century. Some
mosaic pavements still exist under the bouses in the Strada
deir Ospedale, and remains of baths and of an andent bridge
over the Simeto on the road to Centuripa are to be seen in the
odghbourhood. The place was unsucccssfuUy bedeged by the
Athe nian forces in the summer of 415 B.C.
PATBBBOV, ROBBRT (x 71^-1801), Scottish stone-mason, who
suggested to Sir Walter Scott the character of '* Old Mortality,"
was bom near Hawick in 171$. Through the patronage
of Sir Thomas Kirkpatrick, whose cook he had married, be
obtained the lease of a quarry kt Gatdawbrig, but in 174^ his
house was' plundered by the retreating Jacobites, and Paterson
himself, a pronounced Cameronian, was carried off a prisoner.
He subsequently devoted his life to cutting and erecting stones
for the graves of the Covenanters, for 40 years wandering from
place to place in the hmlands. He died in poverty in 1801, and
a stone tq his memory waa erected by Scott's pubUshers in 1869 in
Caerlaverock churchyard.
PATBB80H, WILUAM (X658-X7X9), British writer on finance,
founder of the Bank of En^and and projector of the Darien
scheme, was bom in April 1658 at the farmhouse of Sklpmvre,
parish of Tmwald, Dumfriesshire. His parents occupied the
farm there, and with them he resided tin he was about seventeen.
A desire to escape the religious persecution then raging in Scot-
land, and the immemorial ambition of his race, led him south-
ward. He went through England with a pedlar's pack (" whereof
the print may be Sieen, if he be alive," says a pamphleteer in
X700), settled for some time in Bristol, and then proceeded to
America. There be lived chiefly in the Bahamas, and is said by
some to have been a predicant or preacher, and by others a
buccaneer. In truth his intellectual and moral superiority to
his fellow-settlers caused his selection as their spiritual guide,
whilst his thirst for knowledge led to Intercourse with the
buccaneers. . It was here he formed that vast design which is
known in history as the Darien scheme. On hb return to
England he was unable to induce the government of James II.
to engage in his plan. He went to the continent and pressed
It to no purpose in Hamburg, Amsterdam and Berlin, and on his
return to London he engaged in trade and rapidly amassed a
considerable fortune. About 1690 he was occupied in the
formation in the Hampstead Water Company, and in 1694 he
founded the Bank of England. The government required money,
and the country, rapidly increasing in wealth, required a bank.
The subscribers lent their money to the nation, and this debt
became the bank stock. The aedit of havfng formulated the
scheme and persuaded its adoption is due to Paterson. He was
one of the original directors, but in less than a year he fell out'
with his colleagues, and withdrew from the management. He
had already propounded a new plan for an orphan bank (so called
because the debt due to the dty orphans by the corporation of
London was to form the stock). They feared a dangerous rival
to their own undertaking, and they fdt some distrust for this
eager Scotsman whose brain teemed with new plans in endless
successbn.
At that time the people of the northern kingdom were con-
sidering how best to share in that tnde which was so rapid^
enriching their southern ndghboura» Paterson saw his oppor-
tunity. He removed to Edinbuigh, unfolded his Darien (f .t.)
scheme, and soon had the whole nation with bins. He is the
supposed author of the aa of 1695 which formed the " Oompany
of Scotland trading to Africa and the Indies. " This oompany, he
arranged, should esubliah a settlement 00 the Isthmus of Darien,
and " thus bold the key of thecomiaerceof the workL" There
was to be free trade, the ships of all oatsooa were to find shelter
in this harbour not yet erected, diffcrooceaof race or religion were
neglected; but a small tribute was to be paid to the company,
and thia and other advantages would so aa that, at one supreme
stroke, Scotland wu to be changed from the poorest to the richest
of nations.
On the a6th of July i^ the fint ships of the expedition set
sail " amidst the tcan and prayers and praises of relatives and
friends and OMinliymen." Some financial txanaactioBS in which
Patenon was concerned, and in which, though he had acted with
perfea honesty, the oompany had kiat, prtvented his nomina-
tioQ to a post of importance. He accompanied the expedition
as a private individual, and was obliged to kx>k idly on whilst
what his oiemiea called his " golden dieam " faded away indeed
like the '* baseless fabric ofa vision " bdore his eyes. His wife
and child died, aikd he wis sdaed wHh a dangsroua illoeM, '* of
which, «s I aftcrwaids found," he says, " trouble of nrind waa
not the least cause." It was noted that **he hath been so
mightily concerned in this sad disaster, so that he looks now more
912
PATERSON
like a ikdeton than a nan." Still weak and belpleai, and yet
protesting to the bat against the abandonment of Darien, he
was carried on board ship, and, after a stormy and terrible
voyage, he and the remnant of the ill-fated band jeacbed hone
in December 1699.
In his native air Paterson soon recovered hia strength, and
immediately his fertile and eager mind was at work on new
schemes. He prepared an elaborate plan fqr developing Scottish
resources by means of a council of trade, and then tried to induce
King William, with whom he had frequent interviews, to enter on
a new Darien expedition. In 1701 he removed to London, and
here by conferences with statesmen, by writing, and by personal
persuasion helped on the union. He was much employed in
settling the financi^ relations of the two countries, dne of the
last acts of the Scots parliament was to recommend him to the
consideration of Queen Anne for all be had done and suffered.
The United Parliament, to which he was returned as a member for
the Dumfries burghs, though he never took his seat, decided that
his claim should be settled, but it was not till 171 5 that an
indemnity of £18,241 wasordercd to be paid him. Even then he
found considerable difficulty in obtaining his due. Hb last
yean were spent in Queen Square, Westminster, but he removed
from there shortly before his death on the 32nd of January
1719.
As many as twenty-two works, all of them anonymous, are
attributed to Patexson. These are classified by Bannister under
six heads, as dealing with (i) finance, (3) legislative union,
(3) colonial enterprise, (4) trade, (s) administration, (6) various
social and pohtical questions. Of these the following deserve
special notice: (x) Proposalt and Reasons for consiUuUng a
Council of Trade (Edinburgh, 1 701 ).' This was a plan to develop
the resources of his country. A council, consisting of a president
and twelve members, was to be appointed. It was to have a
revenue collected from a duty on sales, lawsuits, successions, &c.
With these funds the coundl was to revive the Darien scheme, to
build workhouses, to employ, relieve and maintain the poor, and
to encourage manufactures and fisheries. It was to give loans
without interest to companies and shippers, to remove monopo-
lies, to construct all soru of vast public works. Encouragement
was to be given to foreign Protestants and Jews to settle in the
kingdom, gold and silver were to be coined free of charge, and
money kept up to its nominal standard. AO export-duties were
to be abolished and import regulated on a new plan. Paterson
bcUeved that thos the late disasters would be more than retrieved.
(3) A Proposal to plant a Colony in Darien to protect the Indians
against Spain, and to open the Trade of South Amerieato all Nations
(1701). This was the Darien scheme on a new and broader basis.
It' points out in deUil the advantages to be gained: free trade
would be advanced over all the worid, and Great Britain woold
largely profit. (3) Wednesday Club Dialogues upon the Union
(London, 1 706). These were imaginary conversations in a dub
in the dty of London about the union with Scotland. Paterson's
real opinions were put into the mouth of a speaker called May.
Till the Darien business aB Scots were for the union, and they
were so still if reasonable terms were offered. Such terms ought
to include an incorporating union with equal taxes, freedom of
trade, and a proportionate representation in pariiament. A anion
with Ireland, " as likewise with other dominions the queen either
hath or shall have," is proposed. (4) Along with this another
discussion of the same imaginary body, An Inquiry into Ike Stale
of the Union of Great Britain and the Trade thereof (1717), may
be taken. This was a consideration of the union, which, now
* that its honeymoon was past," was not giving satisfaction in
iome quarters, and also a discussion as to the best means
of paying off the national debt— a subject which occupied
a great deal of Paterson's attention during the Utcr years of
hb life.
Paterson's plans were vast and magnificent, but be was no
• Thb work was attributed to lohn Law. who bonowcd some ol
his ideas from it. To Law's, '' system " Patenon i«a» strongly
oppoMd, and it was chiefly due to hia inHueiicc that it made no way
in Scotland.
mere dreamer. Eadi design wu worked oot la ninote
detail,' each was possible and practical. The Bank of England was
a stupendous success. The Darien expedition (ailed from hostile
atucks and bad arrangements. But the original design was that
the English and Dutch should be i>aztaken in it, and, if this
had occurred, and the arrangements, against many ol which
Paterson in letter after letter in vain protested, had been
different, Darien might have been to Britain another India.
Paterson was a zealous almost a fanatic free-trader long before
Adam Smith, and his remarks on finance and hia argument
against an inconvertible paper-oirrency, though then novel,
now bold a place of economic orthodoxy. Patenon's worka are
excellent in form and matter; they are quite impersonal, for few
men who have written so much have said so little about them-
selves. There is no reference to the sanrilous attacks made on
him. They are the true products of a noble and diiuiterested
as well aa vigorous mind. There is singular fitness in the motto
" Sic voa non vobis " inscribed under the only portrait of hia
we possess.
Sot I^e of W. Paterson, by S. Bannirter (Edinburgh, 1858):
Paterson's Works, by S. BannlBter (3 vols.. London, 1859): The
Birthplace and Parentage of W. Paterson, by W. Pagan (Edinburgh.
186^); Bng, HisL Renew, zL 26a The brilliant account of tlie
Danen acbeme in the fifth volume of Macaolay'a History is inconect
and misleading: that in Burton's Hist,, of Scotland (vol. viii. ch. 84)
ia much truer. Consult also the memoir in Paul Coq, la Monrcu
de banque (Paris, 1863), and J. S. Barbour, A History of Winicm
Paterson and the Darten Company (1907). For a U^ of fugitive
writings on Patenon ase Poole's Index pf Periadkals, (F. Wa.)
FATERflON, a dty and the county-seat of Passaic coonty.
New Jersey, U.S. A., in the north-eastern part of the state, on the
west bank of the Pafsaicriver, and 16 m. N.W. of New York dty.
Pop. (x88o), 5«^3«; (X890), 78.347; (t90o), 105,171; (igo6,
estimate), xi3,8ox; (igro), 115,6001. Of the total in 1900, 38,791
were foreign-bom. Paterson is served by the main lines of the
Delaware, Lackawanna ft Western, the Erie, and the New York,
Susqnehenna ft Western railways, and by a number of inter-
urban dcctric lines. The Morris Canal was formerly important
for shipping freight between Paterson and Jeraey City, but has
fallen into disuse. The dty lies along a bend of the Pnstaic
river, the southern portion bdng in a phiin and the extreme
northern part lying among the hlUs that rise from the streaa near
the Great Falls. The river has a descent here of aboot 70 ft. (of
which 50 ft. are in a perpendicular fall), and fumishea water*
power for manufactories. The principal public boflduigs are
the dty-ball, the post office, the county court-house and the
Danforth Memorial (public library) building. Paterson b pre-
eminently a manufacturing centre. There were, in 1905, SiJ
factories employing a capital of $53,595,585, and furnishing work
for 38,509 employ^; and the total factory product waa ^nJned
at $54,673,083. The dty is the centre of silk manufacturing
in the United States. In 1905 it contained 190 silk-mills, and
the products were valued at $35,433,345. There were also, in
>905i 37 dyeing and finishing establishments, with products
valued at $5,699,395; 39 foundries and machine shops, with
products valued at $3,3x7,185; 3 wholesale slaughtering and
packing houses, with products valued at $3,306,698; and 5 jute
and jute-goods factories, with an output valued at $9393x9.
Among the machine works are two locomotive shops, with aa
average capadty of three locomotives per day, and a Jaege sicd
railL
Paterson had its origin in an act of the legislature of New
Jeraey on the 33nd of November 1791 , incorporating the Society
for establishing Useful Manufactures, the plan for this sodety
being drawn up by Alexander Hamilton. As the meat suitable
location for its enterprise the society in the following year
selected the Great Falls of the Passaic river, and naxued the i^acc
Paterson, in honour of William Paterson (i 745-1806), a member
of the state Constitutional Convention in X776, attomey-fcnrral
of New Jersey in 1 776-1 783, a ddegate to the Continental
Congress in 1780-1781, and to the Constitutiona] Conventioa of
* The books of the Darien Company were kept after a new and
very much improved plan, believed to be an invention of l^tcnor's
(Burton's Hid, Scot. viii. 36, note).
PATEY— PATHOLOGY
913
1787 (wben be pfopoaed the famous " New Jeney Plan *0> a
United Sutes Senator in 1789-1790, governor of the state itt
s 790-1793, and an associate Justice of the United States Supreme
Coun from x 793 until lus death. Paterson was incorporatedas a
iownship in 1831, chartered aa a city in 1851 and tediartered
ia 1861. Three great indastries-^tbe manufacttue oi cotton,
machinery and siljc — ^wcre established in Paterson almost con-
temporaneously with their introduction into the United States.
In 1793 the first cotton yam was spun at Paterson m a mill run
by ox-power, and in the next year, when the dams and reservoir
were completed, Paterson's first cotton factory began its opera-
tions. After 1840 the manufacture of machinery and of silk
gradually supplanted thax of cottongoods. Although an attempt
was made to manufacturfs machinery in Paterson as early as 1800,
there was little progress until after 182$. The building of the
" Sandusky," Paterson's first locomotive, in 1837, marked the
beginning of a new industry, and before i860 the dty was
supplying locomotives to all parts of the United States and
to Mexico and South America. By 1840 the silk industry had
obtained a footing, and after this date there was a steady
advance in the quantity and quality of the product. From
1873 to 1881 inclusive Patenon consumed two-thirds of the
raw silk imported into the country.
Sec L. R. TrMmbun, BuU>ry 0/ Industrial Paienpn (Patenon,
1882).
PATSY. JANET MONACH (1842-1894), English vocalist, was
bom in London on the xst of May 1842, ber maiden name being
Whytock. She had a fine alto voice, which developed into a
contralto, and she studied singing under J. Wass, Pinsuti and
Mrs Sims Reeves. Miss Whytock's first appearance, aa a child,
was made at Birmingham, and her first regular engagement was
in 1865, in the provinces. From 1866, in which year she sang
at the Worcester festival, and married John Paley, a bass Binger»
she was recognized as one of the leading contraltos; and on the
retirement of Mmc Sainton-Dolby in 1870 Mme Patey was
without a rival whether in oratorio or in ballad music. She
toured in America in 1871, sang in Paris in 1875, and in
Australia in x89a She died at Sheffield on the a8th of
February 1894.
PATRAN, the name appCed throughout India to the Afghans,
especially to those permanently settled in the country and to
those dwelling on the borderland. It is apparently derived from
the Afghan name for their own knguage, Pushtu or Pukhtu,
and may be traced back to the Paktms of Herodotus. In 1901
the tot^ number of Pathaos in all India was nearly 3} millions,
hut the speakers of Pushtu numbered less than 1} millions. The
name is frequently, but incocrectiy, applied to the Mahommedan
dynasties that preceded the Moguls at Delhi, and also to the
Btyle'of architecture employed by them; but of these dynaatica
only the Lodis were Afghans.
The Pathans of the Indian borderland inhabit the tnountamous
country on the Puiuab frontier, stretching northwards from a
Une drawn roughly acrooa the southern border of the Dera IsmaQ
KbandistricL South of this line are the Baluchis. The Pathans
inchide all the strongest and moat warlike tribes of the North-
Wctt frontier of India, such aa the Afridis, Ocakaais, Waaris,
Mohmands, Swatia and many other clans. Those in the settled
districts of the North-West Frontier Province (in 1901) numbered
883,779, or more than two-fifths of the population. Each of the
principal divisions is dealt with separately in this work under iu
tribal name. Hie Pathans axe split up into different tribes, each
tribe into dans, and each clan into sections, so that the nomen*
dature is often very puxsUng. The tribe, dan and section are
•like distinguished by patronymics formed from the name of the
common atuxstor by the addition of the word sa> or kkd\ woi
being a oorruptioB of the Pushtu word toe, meaning son, while
hkd ia an Arabic weed xneaning an asaodatlon or company.
Both terms are used indifferently for both the larger and smaller
divisions. Pathans enlist largely in the native army of India;
and siaoe the frontier risings of 1897 they have been formed
with increasing frequency into class-regimeota and regiments of
native militia. They make excellent ioldieia. The greater put
of the Pathan country was placed undjer British politick continl
by the Durand agreement inade with the Amir of Afghanistan in
1893.
PATHOLOGY (from Gr. ithBrn, suffering), the science dealing
with the theory or causation of disease. The term by itself ia
usually applied to animal or human pathology, rather than to
vegeuble pathology or Phytopathology (see PLAMts: FcUuhgy)^
The ouutandiog feature in the history of pathology during the
19th century, and more particularly of the latter half of it, waa
the completion of its rescue from the thraldom of abstract
philosophy, and its elevation to the dignity of one of the natural
sciences. Our forefathers, if one may venture to criticize them,
were too impatient. Influenced by the prevailing philoaophy
of the day, they interpreted the phenomena of disease through
iu lights, and endeavoured from time to time to xeduce the study
of pathology to phibsophical order when the very elements
of philosophical order were wanting. The pathology of the
present day ia more modest; it is content to lahour and to waiL
Whatever its faults may be~*and it is for our successors to judge
of these— there is this to be said in its favour: that it is in nowise
dogmatic The eloquence of facta appeals to the sctcntific mind
nowadays much more than the assertion of cmde and unproven
prindplea. The complexity and mystery of action inherent
in living matter have probably been accountable for much of the
vague philosophy of disease in the past, and have furnished
one reason at least why pathok>gy has been so long in asserting
its independence as a sdence. This, indeed, holds good of the
study of biology in general. There are other factors, however,
which have kept pathology in the background. Its existence
aa a sdence could never have been recognized so long as the
subjects of physics, chemistry and biology, in the widest accepta-
tion, of the term, remained unevolved. Pathology, in faa, is
the child of this ancestry, it begins where they end.
Progress in the study of pathology has been greatly facilitated
by the introduction of improved methods of technique. The
certainty with which tissues can now be fixed in the
state they were in when living, and the delicacy ^
with which they can be stained differentially, have ^
been the means of opening up a new world of exploration*
Experimental pathology has benefited by the use of antiseptic
surgery in operations upon animals, and by the ad<4>tion of
exact methods of recording; while the employment of solid
culture media in bacteriology — the product of Koch's fertile
geoiua— ia responsible for a great part of the extraordinary
devdopment which haa taken pUce in this department of patho*
logical research. The discoveries made in pathological bacteri-
ology, indeed, must be hdd to be among the moat brilliant of
the age. Inaugurated by Pasteur's eariy work, progreaa in this
subject was first marked by the discovery of the parasite of
anthrax and of those organisms productive of fowl-cholera and
septic disease. Then followed Koch's great revelation in 1882 of
the bacillus of tubercle (fig. 22, PL IL), succeeded by the isolation
of the organisms of typhoid, diolera, diphtheria, actioomyoosiSk
tetanus, &c. The knowledge we now possess of the causes of
immunity from contagious disease has resulted from this study
of pathological bacteriology: momentous practical issues have
also followed upon this study. Amongst these may be mentioned
the neutralizing of the toxins in casea of diphtheria, tetanus
and poisonous snake-bite; ** serum therapeutics "; and treatment
by " vaccines." By means of " vacdnation " we are enabled to
induce an active immunity against infection by certain patho>
genie bacteria. The value of such protective inoculations is
demonstrated in the treatment against small-pox (Jeaner),
cholera, plague (Haffkioe) and typhoid (Wright and Sample).
Pasteur's inoculation against hydrophobia is on the same
prindple. " Vacdnes " are also used as a method of treatment
during the progress of the disease. Sir A. Wright and others, in
recent work on opsonins, have shown that, by injecting dead
cultures of the causal agent into subjects infected with the
organism, there is produced in the body ffolds a substance
(opsonin) which apparently in favourable conditions unites with
the living causal bacteria and so sensitiaeit them that they are
914
PATHOLOGY
nadily taken op am! destroyed by the pfluigocytk cells of tissues.
Before the di yovery of the bscillas of tubercle, scrofula and tuber-
culosis were regarded as two distinct diseases, and it wss supposed
that the scrofulous constitution could be distinguished from the
tubercular. It was always felt, however, that there was a dose
bond of rehitionahip between them. The fact that the tubercle
bacillus is to be found hi the lesions of both has set at rest any
misgivhftg on the subjecti And put beytod dispute the fisct that
•o<alled scrofulous affectlonft are stdi|ily loeal manifestations of
tuberculosb. A knowledge of the bacteriology of soof^ilous
affections of bone and joints, such as caries and gelatinous
degeneration, has shown that they also are tubercular diseases—
that is to say, diseases due to the presence locally of the tuberde
badllua. At a very early period it was hdd by Virdiow that the
laiige dieesy masses found in tuberculosis of the lung are to be
rei^rded as pneumonic infiltrations of the aiT'Tcsicles. Thdr
pneumonic nature has been amply . substantiated in tater
times; they are now regarded simply aa evidence of pneumonic
teactioo to the stimuhis of the tuberde badflus. The caseous
necrosis of the implicated mass of lung tissue, and mdeed of
taberdcs generally, is held to be, in great measure, the result
of the necrotic influence of the secretions from the badllusw
Tubercular pneumonia may thus be looked upon as comparable
to pneumonia exdted by any other spedfic agent.
In the " seventies " of the 19th century feding ran somewhat
high over the rival doctrines concerning the origin of pus-
corpusdes, Cohnhdm and his school maintaining that they were
derived ezdusivdy timn the blood, that they were leucocytes
which had emitted through the wslls of the vessels and escaped -
into the surrounding tissue-spaces, while Strieker and hisioUoweis,
although not denying their origin in part from the blood, traced
them, in considenble proportion, to the fixed elements, sudi as
fibrous tissues and endothelia. Ou present-day knowledge
prompts the adoption of a mkidle course between the two theoriM.
The cells found In an Inflamed part are undoubtedly drawn from
both sources, but while the blood leucocytes have a great
tendency to become fatty and to die, those cells derived from the
fixed tissues incline more to organization; the latter are, in fact,
tbe source of the dcatrix which follows upon the cessation of
suppuration (fig. 93, PI. U. and figs. 31 and 32, PI. III.). O19SA-
iation and healing have been keenly inquired into, with ic^ta
which seem to point the lesson that all methods of healing are
to be regarded as extensions of the natural phenomena of growth.
Normal cytok)gy, of late, has become a sdence of itself, and has
had a direct bearing upon that which is pathologicaL
At no time has so much been done to advance our knowledge
of diseases of the nervous system as during the hst thirty yearn
of the 19th century. The k>calixation of function In the cetebral
and hi the cerebellar cortex has doubtless been the main cause
of this progress, snd has proceeded pari pastu with an extended
fiisight into the structure and connexions of the parts concerned.
The pathology of aphasia, as worthed out by a combination of the
experimei&tal, the pathological and the anatomical lines of inquiry
Is a favourable example of what has been accomplished. The
origin, nature, and propagation of neoplasms of all kinds,
especially of those which are malignant, are engaging much
attention. Much light has been thrown upon the functions and
diseases of the btood-forming tissues. The orighi of the corpus
des, previously a matter of so much difference of opinion, is aofw
pretty fairly set at zest, and has proved the-key to the fatterpic-
tation of the pathology of many diseases of the blood, such aa the
different forms of anaemia, of leucocjrthaemia, &c.
It is Uipily to reeearcfaes on the booe marrow that we owe our
present kiio%iriedcc of the origio and the dasaification of the different
cdluUr elemcats of the Ubod, both erythrocytes or red corauadc^
and the series of granular leococytee or white corpwdcs. whatever
be the ancestral cell from whidi these cells spring, it is in the bone
roanow that we find a differentiation into the various marraw cells
froffl whkh are developed the mature corpusdes that pass from tiie
marrow into the bkxtd diculaticm. The. healthy bone marrow
reacts with remarkable rapidity to the demand for more blood
celb which may be required by the oqanism: its reactions and
variations in disease are very striking. If the demand be for the
ted cdls owing to kiss from Baemorrbage or any of the anaemias,
the fatty mamnt i» rapidly rsphted by csHutar dements; this m
mainly an active praltfeiation of the nudcatcd red cdls, and gives
rise to the erythroblastic type of marrow. If the white odU be
required, as in local suppurating abscess, general septicaemia,
acute pneumonia, &c., there Is an active prolileratioa of the
myckKytes to lotm the polyaorpho-madear leucocytes, so that
we have in this cooditioo a feucoUsstic tmnsfonnation of the fatty
marrow.
- The cytology of bone marrow, with the technkiue of blood
examiaatkm, is of great assistance in the diagnosb of different
pathdogieal conditwos. The deleterfous mfluence of high blood-
pressure has eneaccd the attention of physkianis and pathdogisu in
later years, and the conclusion arrived at is, that althoudi It may
arise from accidental causes, such as malcomposition of the blood,
yet that in many instances it is a hcrcditaiy or family defect, and
ia bound up with the tsndennf to gout and dnrhotic dweoeratioa
of the kidney. The pathology of^ tntni<caidiac and vascular
murmurs has also been inquired into ejqxrrimcntaOy, the general
imprcsaon bdne that these abnormal sounds result, in most cases
at least, from the production of a sonorous liquid vdn. Pneumonia
of the croupous type has been proved to be, as a rule, a germ disease,
the nature of the germ varying according to drcumstanoes. The
structural changes occurring ia the bronchi in catarrhal bronchttta
have also been aaccitained, and, as in the case of pncumoaia, have
been shown to be frequently eiectted by the presence of a microphyte.
The vexed question of the diagnosia of diphtheria Is now a thing
of the past. Quite irrespective of the nature of the anatomical
lesion, the finding of the diphtheria bacillus on the jaiit affected
and the inoculabSuty of this upon a suitable fresh soilare the sole
nseans by whfch the diagnosis can be made certain.
The part played by the thyrokl body in the internal economy
of the organism has also recdvcd much attention. The gland
evidently excretes, or at any rate gets rid of. a certain waste (roduct
of a proteld nature, which otherwise tends to accumulate in the
tissues and to excite certain nervous and tissue phenomena. It
wastes in the disease known as " myxocdema,** and the above
product gathcts in the tissues, in that disease, to such an extent
aa to give rise to what has been termed a " solid oedema.*' It ia
questionable if the substance in question is mucoid. The pituitarv
body probably subserves a like purpose. When the pancreas ^
excised in an animal, or when it Is destroyed in man by disease,
gmpe-sugar appears in the urine. The gland is supposed to secrete
a ferment, which, being absorbed into the portal circulation, breaks
up a certain portk>n at least of the grape-sugar contained in the
portal blood, ami so prevents this overflowing into the drcuIati<Mi
in general The transplantation of a piece of living pancreas into
the tissues of an animal, thus rendered aitifidally diabetic, is said
to restore it to health.
Pathdogieal chemistry has been remarkable chM^fly fw the
knowledge we have obtained of the nature of tucterial poiaoas.
Certain of these are alkaloids, others appear to be albumoses. Tb«
publication of Ehriich's chemical, or rather physical, theory «f
immunity has thrown much light upon this very intricate asid
obscure subject.
Pathology is the sdence of disease in all its manifesutioBs,
whether structural or functfonal, progressive or regressive. Ia
times past it has been the habit to look upon its sphere (
as lying really within that of practical medidne, and wJi*
human medidne owre partlculariy; as something *Msu.
tagged on to the treatment of human disease, but unworthy of
being studied for iu own sake as a branch of knowledge. Sucb a
view can recommend Itself to only the narrowest of minds. A bear-
ing, and of course an essential bearing on the study of medidne. It
must always have. A system of medicine reared upon anything
but a pathok>gical basis would be unworthy of consideratkm.
Yet it may weU be adced whether tUs is the final goal to be aimed
at. Our starting-point in this, as in all departmenU of biofegica]
study, must be the bidogical unit, and it is to the alterstions to
which this b subject, under varying conditions of nuCritioB and
stlranUtion, that the science of pathology must apply itaclf.
Man can never be the only object (rf appeal In this inquiiy The
human oiganism is far too complex to enable us to nnderstand
the true significsBce of diseased procesMS. Our range must
embrace a much wider area— must comprise, in fact, all living
matter-if we are ever to arrive at a sdentific conception of what
disease really means. Hence not only must the study of our sub-
ject indude the dkeases peculiar to man and the hi^er ••rm^w
but those of the towest forms of anhnal Kf e, and of plant Hfe, must
be hek] equally worthy of attention. Modem reseuch seems to
show that living protoplasm, wherever It existt, is ssbject to
certain laws and manifests itself by certain phenomena, and that
there is no hard and fkst line between what prevails in tha two
PATHOLOGY
915
So it is with the diseased condition^ to which it b a
I»rey.' there is a wonderful commumty oC design, if the tenn may
be used in such a sense* between the diseases of animak and
plants, which becomes singularly striking and instxuctive the
snore they are inquixed into. UtilitArian, or perhaps rather
practical, considerations have very little to do with the subject
from a scientific point of view— no .more so than \ht science d.
chemistry has to do with the art of the manufacturing chemist.
The practical bearings of a science, it wall be granted, are simply,
as it were, the summation of its facts, with the legitimate con-
clusions from them, the natural application of the data ascer-
tained, and have not necessarily any direct rehitionship to iu
pursuit. It is when studied on these lines that pathology finds
iu proper place as a department of biology. Disease as an en^ty
—as something to which all living matter is subject'— is what tjie
pathologist has to recognize and to investigate, and the practical
application of the knowledge thus acquired foUows as a natural
consequence.
Since pathology is the scTence of disease, we are met at the
very threshold by the question: What is disease? Hiis may
fltett hest be answered by defining what we understand by
•^ health. What do we mean when we talk of a healthy
'^**""' organism? Our ideas upon the subject are purely
arbitrary, aiid depend upon our everyday experience. Health is
simply that condition 0/ sirudure and function wkicht on examina-
tion if a siifident number of examples , we find to be commonesL
The term, in fact, has the same significance as " the normal"
Disease we may define, accordingly, as any departure from the
normal standard ef structure or function of a tissue or organ. If,
for instance, we find that instead of the natural number of Mal-
pighian bodies in the kidney there are only hiJf that number,
then we are entitled to say that this defect represents disease of
structure; and if we find that the organ is excreting a new
substance, such as albumen, we can affirm lo^cally that its
function is abnormal Once grant the above definition of
disease, and even the most trivial aberrations from the normal
must be regarded as diseased conditions, quite irrespective of
whether, when stnictura!, they interfere with the function of the
part or not. Thus an abortive supernumerary finger may not
eause much, if any, inconvenience to the possessor, but neverthe-
less it must be regarded as a type of disease, which, trivial as it
may appear, has a profound meaning in phylogeny and ontogeny.
Classification, — ^From the foregoing it will be gathered that
the problems in pathology are many-sided and require to be
attacked from all poinu of vantage; and the subject lolls
naturally into certain great divisions, the chief of which axe the
loI]owing>~
I. Morbid anatomy.
(a) Naked-eye or macroscopic
ib) Morbid histology or microscopic
n. Pathological physiology.
m. Pathogenesis.
IV. Aetiology.
V. Pathological chenUstry.
The term *' nathogenesis " has reference to the Keneration and
development ol disease, and that of " aetiology," in its present
bearing, has to do with its causes. The use of the term '^patho-
Mcal physiolosy " may at first appear strange, for if we define
phynology as Uie sum of the normal functions of the bodv or
organism, it may be bard to see how there can be a physiology
which » pathological The difficnlty. however, is more apparent
than real, and in this sense, that if we start with a diseased organ
as oar subject of inquiry, we can quite properly, and without
oommkting a^ solecism, treat of the functions of that or^n in temis
of its
btnuKNCES Working roa Evil upon the Organxsm
(i) JfdftMilrslfim.— When the bkK>d supply is entirely cut off
from a tinae the tiasBe dies, and in the act of dying, or after*
wards, it suffers certain altctattons dependent upon iU sur-
nHindings. Thus, when the ciiculation to an external part is
obstmcted completely, as in the case 6f a limb where the main
artery has beat oodadad and where the aiustomatic communi-
cations have not sufficed to continue the supply of blood, the part
becomes gangrenous (fig. S4, PI II.) ; that is to say, it dies and falls
a prey to the organisms wUch excite putrefaction, JUst as would
happen to any other dead animal tissue were it unconnected
with the body. Fermentative changes are set up in it, cfaaracter*
ized by the evolution of gas and tha formation of products of
suboxidation, some of which, being volatile, account for the
characteristic odourC In the formation of these the tissues
break down, and in course of time lose their chaiacteristio
histological features. The blood suffers first; its pig;ment is
dissolved out and soaks into the surroundings, imparting
to them the pink hue so diagnostfc of commencing gangrene.
Musde and white fibrous tissue follow ntict in order, while
elastic tissue and bone are the hist to show signs of dis-
integration. The oil separates from the fat-cells and is found
Isring free, whUe the sulphuretted hydrogen evolved as one of the
products of putrefaction reacts upon the iron of the blood and
throws down a precipitate of sulphide of iron, which in course
of time imparts to the limb a range of colour commencing in
green and terminating in black.
The temperature at which the limb is kept, no doubt, favours
and hastens the natural process of destruction, so that putre-
faction shows itself sooner than would be the case with a dead
tissue removed from the body and kept at a lower temperature.
Nevertheless, gangrene is nothing more or less than the putre-
factive fermentation of an animal tissue still attacked to the body.
If the amount of liquid contained in the tissue be small in quantity
the part mummifies, giving rise to what Is known as " dry
gangrene." If the dead i>art be protected from the ingress of
putrefactive organisms, however, it separates from that which is
living without the ordinary evidences of gangrene, and is then
known as an " aseptic slough.*' * Should the portion of tittua
deprived of its circulation be contained in an mtexnal organ, as is
so often the case where the obstruction in the artery is due to
embolism, it becomes converted into what is known as an
"infarction." These infarcts are most common in organs
provided with a terminal circulation, such is prevails in the
kidney and spleen. The terminal . branches of the arteries
supplying these organs arc usually described as not anastomosing
but many, if not all, of Cohnheim's end-arteries have minute
collateral channels; which, however, are usually insufficient to
completely compensate for the bloddng that may occur in these
arteries, therefore, when one of them is obstructed, the area
irrigated by it dies from malnutrition. Being protected from
the ravages of the organisms which induce putrefaction, however,
it does not become gangrenous; it is only where the obstructing
agent contains these organisms that a pingrcnous sbugh follows,
or, in the case of the contaminating organisms being of a snppuT'
ative variety, ends in the formation of a so-called " pyaemic
abscess," foUowed by rapid dissolution of the dead tissue (fig.
S4, PI n.). In ordinary circumstances, where the artery is ob-
structed by an agent free from such organismal contamination,
the part becomes first red. This is due to intense engorgement
of the vessels brought about through these minute existing
collateral channels and results in a peripheral congested aone
round the infarct. There may be haemorrhage from these
vessels into the tissues. This collateral supply not being suffi*
cient to keep up the proper fiow of blood Uirough the part the
veins tend. to become thrombosed, thus increasing the engorge-
ment. The central part of the obstructed area very soon under-
goes degenerative changes, and rapidly becomes decoburiaed.
This necrosed area forms the pale infarct. Absorption of this
infarcted xone is carried on by means of leucocytes and other
phagocytic cells, and by new blood-vessels. If absorption be noC
complete the mass undergoes caseation and becomes surrounded
by a capsule of fibrous tissue— being sharply cut off from the
healthy tissue.
Where the malnutrition Is the effect of poorness in the quaKty
of the blood, the results are of coune more widespread. The
muscles suffer at an early period: they fall off in bulk, and later
suffer from fatty degeneration, the heart being probably the first
muscle to give way. Indeed, all tissues when under-nourished,
9i6
PATHOLOGY
dther locally as the tesult of an farijawnla, or generally aa firom
■ome impairment of the blood, such as that prevailing in peral-
doQS anaemia, tend to suffer from fatty degeneration; and at first
sight it seems somewhat remarkable that undexHiourished tissues
should develop fat in their substance (figs. 26 and 37, PL II.).
The fatty matteri however, it must be borne in mind, is the
expression of. dissimilation of the actual substance of the proteids
of the tissues, not of the splitting up of proteids or other carbona-
oeouB nourishment supplied to them.
A part deprived x>f its natural ncrveHRipply sooner or later
suffers from tiie effects of malnutrition, when the triseinmut
nerve is <Uvidcd (Majendie), or when it« root is eompresied inniri-
oudy, say by a tubercular tumour, the cornea begins to show
points of ulceration, which, IncreaunK in area, may brin^ about
total disintegration of the eyeball. The eariicst interpretation put
upon this experiment was that the trophic influence of the nerve
having been withdrawn, the tissue failed to nourish itself, and that
degeneration ensued as a consequense. The subsequent experiments
of Snellen, Senftleben, and, more lately, of Turner, oeem to show
that if the eyeball be protected from the impinsement of foreign
particles, an accident to which it is liable owing to its state of
anaestheaa, the ulceration may be warded off indefinitely.^ If
the eyeball be k^t perfectly ^clean and no organism be admitted
uom the outside then ulceration will not follow. If, on the other
hand, any pathogenic organisms be present the results are disastrous
becauie the tissue, deprived of its nervous trophic supply, bas
greatly lessened resutance. The bed-sores which follow paral^s
of the limbs are often quoted as proof of the direct trophic action
of the nerve-supply upon the tissues, yet even here the evidence is
somewhat contradictory. Still, there are facts which, for want of
a better explanation, we are aJmost bound to conclude are to be
accounted tor on the direct nerve>control theory. The common
variety of bed-sore is the ^result of continuotu pressure on and
irritation of the skin, the vitality and resisting power of which are
lowered by a lesion of the cord cutting off the trophic supply to
the skin affected. The acute bed-sore is, in some caaes, a true
trophic lesbn occurring, as it may, on parts not subjected to ooa-
tinuous pressure or irritatbn. Trophic disturbance in the nutrition
of the skin may be so great that a slight degree of external pressure
or irritation is sufficient to excite even a rangrenous inflammation.
Again, a fractured bone in a paralysed itmb often fails to unite,
while another in the opposite sound limb unites readily, and an
idccratcd surface on a paralysed limb shows little healing reaction.
A salivary dand degenerates when its nerve-supply is cut off; and
the nerves leading up to the symmetrical sloughs in Raynaud's
disease have been found in an advanced state of degcnetatbn
(Affleck and Wiglesworth). It is just a question, however, whether,
even in instances such as these, the nutritional failure may not be
explained upon the assumption of withdrawal of the local vasomotor
control. There seems to be little doubt, notwithstanding, that
one of the chief functions of the nerve cell is that of the propagation
of a tnophic influence along its axon. When a nerve-trunk is
separated from its central conoexwn. the distal portion falls into
a state of fatty degeneration (Wallerian or secondary degeneration).
That special trophic nerves, however, exist throughout the body,
seems to be a myth. It is much more likely, as Verwom alleges,
that die nerves which influence the characteristic function of any
tissue regulate thereby the metabolism of the ceils in question — in
other words, that every nerve serves as a trophic nerve for the
tissues it supplies. It is a significant fact that neoplasms contain
very few nerve-fibres, even although growing luxuriantly, and
there is a doubt whether the few twip contained in them may not
merely have been dragged into their midst as the tumour mass
expanded (Young).
OtenBork,— The effect of overwork upon an organ or tissue
varies in accordance with (a) the paitlcular organ or tissue
concerned, {b) the amount ol nourishment conveyed to it, and
(c) the power of assimilation possessed by- its cells. In the case
of muscle, if the available nomisfament be sufficient, ncd if the
power of aasimilatioo of the muscle ceUs remain unimpaired, its
bulk increases, that is to say, it becomes hypeitrophied.
It may be. advisable to define exactly what is meant by
" hypertrophy," as the term is often used in a loose and insignifi-
cant sense. Mere enlargement of an organ docs, not imply that
it Is in a state of hypertrofkhy, for some of the largest organs met
with in morbid anatomy are in a oonditimi of extreme atrophy.
Some organs are subject to enlargement from deposition within
them of a foreign substance (amyloid, fat, &c.). This, it need
hardly be said, has nothing to do with hypertrophy. The term
hypertrophy is used when the individual tissue elements become
bigger to meet the demands of greater functional activity; hyper*
plasia. If there is an iaacase in the number of thoe dettenu;
and pseudo-hypertrophy, when the specific fftsoe elecaent Is
hugely replaced by another tissue.
There aic conditions in which we have an abnomal increase
in the tissue denienta but which strictly should not be defined
as hypeitrophiesi. such as new-growths, abnonnal cnhisements
of bones and organs due to syphilis, tuberculosisy osteitis
dtf oraans, acromegaly, myxoedema, ^c. The enormoosiy long
teeth sometimes found in rodenu also are not due to hypert r ophy,
as they are normally endowed with rapkl growth to compenute
for the constant and rapid attritfen which takes place from the
oppoied teeth. Should one of these teeth be destroyed the
opposed one loses Its natural means of attrition and becomes
a remarkable, curved tusk-hke ek>ngation. The naOs of the
fingers, or the hair of the scalp may grow to an enonnoos length
if not trimmed.
True hsrpeitnphy is eommonly found in the hoOoW Doscular
organs such u the heart, bladder and alimentary canal. As any
obstruction to the outflow of the contents throws an inatased
amount of work on the walls, in order to overcome the resistance,
the intermittent strain, acting en the muscle cefls, stimulates
them to enlarge and proliferate, fig. a8, PL II., and gives itee to
adaptive hypertrophy. Should there be much loss of tissue of an
organ, the cells of the temalning part wHI enlarge and undergo
an active proliferation (hyperplasia) so that ftmay be node up to
the original amount. Or again, in the case of paired organs, if
one be removed by operation, or destroyed by disease, the other
atonceunderukestocarryonthefunctionaofboth. To do so a
g^ersl enlargement takes pkce ttntil it may reach the aiae and
weight equal to theoriglnal pair. This is known as oompensatoiy
hypertrophy.
Examples of physiological hypertrophy are found !a the ovaries,
uterus and mammary glands, where there is an increased functioitti
activity required at the period of gestation. Local faypertiophy
may also be due to stimulation resulting from friction or intermiuent
pressure, as one may see in the thickenings on the skin of the artisan's
hands. The extreme development of the muscles in the wright-
lifting athlete and in the arm of the bfanksmith is the result of
increased functional activity with a oorrespoadinif increase in the
vascular supply; this exeretae aaay product an over^devdopncnt
so excessive as to be classed as abnormal
In atrophy we have a series of retrograde processes in ocgaas
and tissues, which are usually characterised by a pngreasive
diminution in sice which may even endJn their complete dis*
appearance (fig. 39, PI. U.). This wasting may be genoal or
localr-continuQUsly from the embiyonic period thene Is this
natural process of displacement and decty of tissues goh)g on in
the growing organism. The functions of the thymus gland bcgia
to cease after the second year from birth. The gland iK^^
slowly shrinks and undergoes absorption. From atrophy of
their roots, caused by the pressure of the growing permanent
teeth, the " mUk teeth " in children become loose and are cast off^.
The ovaries show atrophic changes after the menopause. In oki
age there is a natural wearing out of the dements of the various
tissues. Their physiolo^cal activities gradually fail owing to the
constructive processes having become so exhausted froin long
use that the destructive ones are able to overtake them. A$ the
cell fails and shrinks, so does it become more and more unaUe to
make good the waste due to metabolism. This physiological
wasting is termed senile atrophy.
General atrophy or emaciation is brought about by the tissoes
being entirely or partially deprived of nutriment, as in starvBtkm,
or in m^ignant, tubercular, and other diseases of the alimentary
system which interfere with the proper ingestion, digestion or
absorption of food material. The toxic actions prodnced in
continued feven, In certain chronic diseases, and by intcatinal
parasites largely aid in producing degeneration, emaciation and
atrophy.
Atrophy may follow primaiy ancst of fanctioD— tfisase
atrophy. The k»s of an eye will be followed by atrophy of tht
optic nerve; the tissues in a stump of an amputated limb show
atrophic changes; a paralysed limb from long disuse shows wuuA
wasting; and one finds at great depths of the sea fishes axMl
marine animals, which have almost oompletciy lost the onnns
PATHOLOGY
(0^
\ ■ >'••..■•.:•'■"/ '"^ '■
t FlO. *.
PlC. J.
/C^:-
,^vV'-
i^m^:-
Pic. 4-
Pic. «.
.-■\
A^iSS.\
V
-.fe-^. «»
V. .
" -.t^'^' FIG
/ fd
^
/¥\G
^'.
h
I Fig. 13
/ /
' - .; I pio. 14.
/ .4,
t
*^1^. ^
\ ^^:;
Fig. 16.
Pic. 17. 1^ ^.
i^
Fig 2oi (i |V .. I
Pic. 19.
,V»rff«ra /.i/*i> CV Bmff»i» V )
PATHOLOGY
917
^ nght, fciwjilg been cot off fot lon^ ^V^ firani tlie stimuli
(lij^t) caseBtial for these oi^aiis, and so brought into sa atrophic
condiUon from disuse.
Atrophy may ahbo foUow from overwork. Increased work
tluown on to a tissue may produce hypertrophy, but, if this
ezceasive function be kept up, atrophy will follow; even the
blacksmith's arm breaks down owing to the hypertrophic musde
fibres becoming markedly atrophied.
Fnrni tiieat causes a certiin slRinkBge is liaUs Co oecnr, moie
evident in some parts of the body than in othera. Thus the bniia
falls off in bnllc, and the muscles become attenuated, and in do
muscle is thb more notable than in the case of the heart. A
tendency to pigmentatioa also devebps in certain tiiRies of the
body, such as the nerve and muscle cells. As a result of these
vanous degenerations the functions of the body deteiiorste. the
faculties bec om e blunted; and the muscular energy of the body is
below what it was in earlier life, while the secreting glaods in certain
instanrn become f unctbnally o b s olesc e nt^
Continuous Over'^essurc-^Tht tissues of an animal or plant
are all under a certain pressure, caused, in the one case, by the
expulsive action of the heart and the restraint of the skin and
other elastic tissues, and, in the other case, by the force of the
rising sap and the restraint of the periderm or bark. Under this
normal amount of pressure they can live and grow. But when-
ever, from any cause, the degree of pressure which they are
naturally intended to withstand is surpassed, they fail to nourish
themselves, become granular, die, and, falling to pieces, are
absorbed.
Deleterious Surroundingsr^Thert can be little doubt that all
unnatural and artificial modes of life tend to deterioration of the
powers of resistance of the organism to disease. We see it
exemplified in plant life in circumstances which are. unnatural
to the life of the plant, and the pievaknce of certain constitu*
tional tendencies among the inhabitants of crowded cities bears
evidence to the same law.
Man, like other animals, was naturally intended to lead an out>
door life. He was originally a hunter and a tiller of the ground,
breathing a pure atmosphere, living on a, frugal diet, uSa exer-
cising his muscles. Whenever these conditions are infringed hb
powers of resistance to disease are lessened, and certain tendencies
begin to show themselves, which are generally termed constitutional.
Thus the liability to tubercular iniectioa is far commoner in the
midst of a depcaved pooulation than in one fulfilling the primaiy
laws of nature; rickets is a disease of great cities rather than of
rural districts: and sypbUis is more disastrous and protracted In
its course in the depntyed in health than in the robust. Cattle
kept within.dooni are in a laive praportton of cases tubercokr, while
those leading an outdoor life are much kss liable to infection.
The improvement which has taken place in the general health of
the inhabitants of cities during recent years, concurrent with
hygienic legislation, b ample proof of the above assertions. The
diminution in the number of deaths from tubereulosb during the
last forty to fifty years of the 19th century of itself points in thb
direction. Every living organism, animal and vegetable, tends
to maintain a normal state of health; it is when the natural laws
of health are violated that the liability to disease begins to assert
itself. If, in thsse cireumstanoes, the food supply be also insoffi*
cient, the combination of influences b sure, in course of timS; to
bring about a physical deterioration of the race. Certain avocations
have a direct and immediate infloenoe in causiiw diseased states
of body. Thus workers in lead suffer from the effects ct thb sub*
sunoe as a potson, those who work in phosphorus are liable to
necrosb of bone arid fatty degeneratioo of the blood vesseb and
organs, and the onany oocupnttons in which dust b inhaled fooal-
mtning, stooeKircssmg, steel-polishing, Ac.: fig. 30, PI. 111.) are
fraught with the greatest danger, owing to the destructive influence
exerted upon the lungs by the inhaled partides. Among the moefc
dangerous of the last dsuM (the pneumokonioses) b perhaps that
in which the dust particles ttke the form of finely divided freestone,
as in stonenlressinfl; and the dry-polishine on the grindstone of stcd.
The particla in this case set up a form 01 fibrams of the lui^. whkh.
either of itself or by rendering the organ Ibble to f ubereular infection,
is extremely fatak The abuse of alcohol may abo be mentioned
here as a factor in the poduction of disease.
ParasitisM.—Oi all external agents acting for evfl, however,
probably vegeuble and animal micro-oiganisms with a patho>
genie bent are most to be feared. When we consider that
tuberculosis, diphtheria, cholera, tetanus, typhoid fever, anthrax,
malaria and a host of other contagious dbeascs have each been
proved to beof pacasiliad origin, an idea may be conveyed of the
XX S4
range off the wobfcttm Toe hving oigftnfani may be legsided as
constantly engaged in a warfare with these silent and apparently
insignificant messengers of destruction and death, with the
result that too often the battle ends in favour of the attacking
fferedHy.—The tendencies to tlisease are In great part heredi-
tary. They probably express a variation which may have
occurred in a far-back ancestor, or in one more recent, and
render the individual vulnerable to the attacks of parasitic fungi,
or, it may be, become manifest as errors of metabolbm. The
psychopathic, the tubercular, the rickety, and the gouty consti-
tution may all be transmitted through a line of ascendants, and
only reqtiire the necessary, exciting agents to render them
apparent. A distinction must be drawn between the above
and diseases, like syphilb and small-pox, in which the contagioa
of, not the tendency to, the disease is transmitted directly to the
foetus ^ utero, (See HxaaozTY.)
Tb Cezxulak Docnnx in Patbolooy
The cellular pathology b the pathology of to-day; indeed,
protoplasm— its vital characteristics under abnormal influences
and its decay— will be regarded most likdy as the basis of patho-
logy in an time. According to our present knowledge of physio-
logical and pathological processes, we must re^rd the cdl as
the ultimate biological unit-— a unit of struaure and a unit of
function; this was first put forward by Schleidenin 1838, and by
Schwann in 1839, but we owe to Virchow the full recognition
of the fundamental importance of the living cell in all the
processes of life, whether in health or disease. When A^rchow
wrote, in 1850, " every animal presents itself as a sum of vital
unities, every one of which manifests all the characterbtics of
life," he expressed a doctrine whose sway since then has prac-
tically been uninterrupted. The somatic celb represent com-
munities or republics, as it were, which we name oigans and
tissues, but each cell possesses a certain autonomy and inde-
pendence of action, and exhibits phenomena which are indicative
of vitality.
Still, it must be home in mind that thb alleged autonomy of
action is said to be founded upon an erroneous supposition, on
the supposition that each cell b structurally, and it may bo
said functionally, separated from those In its neighbourhood.
It b well known that in the vegeUble kingdom the protoplasm
of one cdl frequent^ overflows into that of cells adjacent — that
there b, as it were, a continuous network of protoplasm (idio-
plasm of NJigeli) prevailing throughout vegetable tissues, rather
than an aggregation of isolated units. The same intcr-communi*
cation pvevnito between adjacent ceUs in some animal tissues,
and more particulariy in those which are pathological, as in the
case of the epithelial cells of cancer. Assuming, with Sedjswick
and otliers, ttib amassed and bound condition of the tissues to be
true, it would be necessary to reject the cell-doctrine in pathology
altogether, and to regard the living basb of the organism ss a
continuous substance whose parU are incapable of living inde-
pendently of the whole. Until, however, further evidence b
forthcoming in support of thb syneytial theory of structure, it
would be unwise to regard it as esUblished sufficiently to consti-
tute a serviceable working hypothesb; hence, for the time being,
we most sccept the assertion that the ce0 represenu the ultimate
tissue-unit. Our present dsy definition of a cell b a minute
portion of living organised substance or protoplasm.
The odb met with in moibkl parts which are in a stats of active
vitality are built up of the same oompooenu as those ^,^^^, ^
found m normal tbsues (PI. !.).» Thus thrv are pro- -^IZHILZ
vkled with a nucleus which b the centre of cell activity ; ^™ '^"*
both of the reproductive and chemical (metabolic) pro- ^^
which occur in the cell protoplasm. The executtve centre
» DESCRIPTION OF PLATE 1.
SaaxBs or Ficuans illustsativb op laasctTLAaDnnaoN op CkLiA
Figs, t to 6 an from Ote epitkeUal cdb of ^ comer ef Ac s
{AfUr GotootH.)
ytoatorofremasareoma. {After Trombusii/i
Flo. i.^Resthig epitheiial eriL
9t8
PATHOLOGY
varies in ahape, liot la nanall/ raond «r ovti. and la aharplj defined
by a nuclear menbiane from the cytoplacm in which it lies. The
nucleus in iu vegetative scase shows a fine network throughout
containing in the meshes the so-catlcd nuclear-sap; attached to the
neivrork are the chromosomes, in the form of small irregular masses,
which have a strong affinity for the "basic dyes." Embedded
in the nucleus are one or moiv nucleoli (dasmoaomcs) having an
affinity for the " acid dyes." The nucleolus shows an unstainabic
point at the centre known as the cndonucleolus or nuclcoluolus
(Auerbach).
The cell body* or cytoplasm* ia apparently oompoaed of a fine
reticulum or network, containing within the meshes a aoft.visckl,
transparent substance, the cell-sap. or hyaloplasm, which is probably
a nutrient material to the living cell. Within the cytoplasm are
found manifestations of functional activity, in the form of diffea>
live vacuoles, granules, (at. glycogen, pigment, and foreign bodiea.
Usually the cytoplasm shows a marked affinity for the ackl suina.
but the different bodies found in the cell may show great variation
in their staining reactions.
The centrosomes which plav 90 important a part Hi cell dlviuon
may be found either lying within or at one side of the audcua in the
vegetative condition of the celL Centroaomes may be single, but
usually two are lying close together in the attraction-sphere. When
mitosis is about to take place, they separate from one another and
pass to the poles of the nucleus, forming the achromatic spindle.
After the division and cleavage nf the chromaaomea of the original
nucleus have taken place they pas from the equator to the poles
of the sptndle, rearranging themselves close to the separated tentro>
somes to form daughter nucleL
The cytoplasm 01 the cell now imdergoes dividon in a line between
the two daughter nuclei. When complete separation has taken place,
we have two daughter cells formed from the original, each being a
perfect cell-unit. Some pathological cells, such as the giant-cells
of tumours, of bone, ana those of tubercle, are polynucbeated : in
eome instances they may contain as many as thirty or more nuclei.
The only evidence we have in patholoey cm living structures in which
apparently a differentiation into cell-body and nucleus docs not
exist, is in the caac of bacteria, but then there comes the question
whether they may not possess chromatin distributed through their
substance, in the form of metachromatic points, as is the case in
Bome infuaoria (Trachckicefca, Gruber).
. Although the methods of oell-division prevailing in normal
structuros are maintained generally in those which are pathological,
yet certain raodifkations of these methods arc more noticeable
in the latter than in the former. Thus in the ncoplasmata direct
cell-division is more the rule than in healthy parts. In activdy
trowing neoplasmata, teitainlv, the indirect method prevails
laigcly. but seems to go on nde by side with the direct.
A curious and interestine modification of the indirect method,
known as " asymmrtrical division." occurs frequently in epithdio-
mata. sarcomata. &c. (Hansemann). It consists in an unequal
number of chromosomes passing ovw to each of the daughter nudd.
•o that one may become hypochromatic. the other hypcrchromatic
When this happens the resulting cleavage of the cvtoptasm and
nucleus is also uneQuxl. Several explanations have been given of
Fig. iv — ^Asymmetrical dtaster.
M 3.~Tnpolar division in which the splitting of the loqpa has
commenced.
A 4. — Tetrapolar karyokinesis.
„ 5.— Another form of tetrapolar division.
„ 6.— Cell in a state of degeneratk>n and chrematdlyaiB; the large
rounded body in the cell is a cancer parasite.
M 7.— Pdynucleated cell with nuclei of normal sixe arising from
multiple karyokinetic division.
„ 8.— Pigmeuted cell with resting nucleus. The attraction-sphe re
and ccntroaome lie in the cytoplaama in the oeigfaboar-
hood of the nucleus.
n 9>.— Hypertrophic nuclcfrfua.
M xo.—Laiige ecu with a single nucleus; nudeoU In a sute of
degeneration.
„ If.— Multinucleated giant*edl, the nudd amall and prodnood
amitotically.
„ 13.— Karyokinetic figure, the one centroaome much larger than
the other.
M 13.— Cell in pfocesB of karyokincdc division with retention of the
nucleolus during tlie division,
w 14.— Diviakm of the nucleolus and formation of audear plate.
The nucleolus is dongated. and its longest meaaorement
lies ia the direction oTthe equatorial plane of the nodeob
n 15.— {XvisSon of the ntideolua by dongatten, constmction. and
eouilateral division of the nud^ts.
n 16. — Division of the nucleolus without any evidence of divinoo of
theniicletta
» 17. — Nucleus with many nudeoC.
„ 18.— Direct dtvtrion of nucleus.
», 19.— Multiple direct division of the nudeuik
„ ao.— NaiMike nudeoloa.
M at.— Fiagmenution of the nudeMk
the aieaninff cf tfctK irregnbtljr (ftfomatie ceBa. bat (hat whkli
most lends tudf to the facts of the case aeanu to be that they
represent a condition of abnormal karyorhexis.
In many pathological cells undergoing indirect acgmentation.
centrosomes appear to be absent, or at any rale do not nnnifr«t
themadvea at the poka of the adirematic spiadk: When they are
cytoplasm is delayed beyond that of the mitotic network. The
daiugnter nudd may have arrived at the anaphase atage. and ha>v
even gone the lei^h of fonning a nuclear niembraoet withcwt aa
equatorial depression having shown itaelf in the cdl-body. Soa»-
ttinea the equatorial depression fails entirely* and the separation, as
in aome vegetable cells, takes pbKc throng the construction of a
oeli-plate. Intranudear plexuses are not usually found m goM-
odls. but have been described in the giant<dla of aarcomata b%
Kleba and Hansemann. and in those of tubercle by BaumpnoL
Some of the nuclei within multinucleated cells may oooasaonalV
be engaged in mitotic division, the othcca being u the resting
state. ^
In the eaifier accepted notion of direct segmentation. osnaPy
known aa the achcina of Remak, diviifoo was descrifaod as oocb-
meodng in the nucleolus, aa theicafter spreading to the nodecv
and as ultimatdy implicating the cell-substance. Trambusn.
curiously, finds confirmatory evidence of this in the divtson of
cells in sarcoma. Contrary, however, to the experience of ochrrv
he has never found that the attraction*spbere« play an importart
part in direct oeU-division. or, indeed, that they exert any influeM*
whatever upon the mechanism of the process. Where pigment »^.
present within the cells (sarcoma), the attraction-aphercs •• ->
rep r esented by quite dear nnpigmented anas, aometunes with 1
centrosome in their midst.
Repair 07 Injuries
In the process -of inflaminatioii we have a Ktiea of rcac t ioiA
on the part of the tissuet, and fluids of the body, to CDunteract
the ill effecb of irritatioik or injury, to get rid of the cause, ^Dd
to repair its results. Injury and loss of tissue ace usoally
followed by repair, and both the destructive and irpoimtive
changes are, as a mle, dassLfied under the tetm inflatnmatiop.
The irritatiu may be bacteria and their toxins, or they may be
mechanical, chemical or thermic.
Wc do not now concur with the old view that inflaffifnat*^^
was essentially an injurious process*, rather do we look upcn t
as beneficial to the organbm. In the various reactions of the
tissues against the ezcHing cause ^ the isjuiy we see a striking
example of a beautifully organized plan of attack and defcsce ce
the part of the organism.
In aooke of the inffcUve cooditioBS the conflia foctifics the
otganism against future attacks of the same nature, as for eacampix
in the Immunity following many of the acute infective diseases
This acquired immunity is brought about by the devdopoics:
of a protective bo4y a» a result of the struggle of the ceUs acd
fluids of the body with the Invading bacteria and their toons,
This resistance may be more or less permanent. If tbe tnx-a-
sion ia due to a pus-producing micro-organism which settles la
some local part of the be4y, tbe result is aa absocss (fig. 23.
n. II.).
it ftscetser.— One caneasQy dcmooatrate all the aoiooaaad icactioea
which take place in tfaia form of acute inflamamtkm. Ia mack a
conflict one can aec; the prese n c e of these minatc but dansenjA
foea ift the tissues. At onoe they proceed to make anod thor heM
on the podtioa they have aocured bv aectetittg and thioeriiig ok:
toains which cause more or leas ioiury to the tiasnes in tfae«
innncdiate neighbouriMod. These micro-ori^nians hnvias foond
ia the tissues everything favourable for their needs, rapidly smdtif^
and very aoon produce aeriooa resultSL At this point one's attcntxa
is focused on the wonderful renctiotta finiiBBBtd by the hsutetiy
tissues to combat these evil influences.
In a very diort period'-^thin three or four boon after inf ectaow—
diere appears to hawe been a 1 ne ss ig e conveyed to the dcfendpr» of the
body both aa tathe ootnt of attack and the nature of die iavaana
There is thus brougiir into pUiy a aeries of p to c eese a on tlie part
of the tissues — the vascular inflammatoiy changes — which is rr«r<
the first move to neutrdhK the malign effects. We find at tkie e V*
stage oedema of the part. This is an increaaed cxadatsDn <d flo^d
from the engorged blood vessels which not only dilutes tbe tosuv
but is supposed to contain substances which in some way act on the«
living micro-ofganisms and render them a more easy prry to '^^
polymorpho-nudcar Icooocytes (fig. S3. PI. II.)--cdb that aiw moou*
mad extfcmdy phagocytic to these bacteda. At tlaa aa^a ite
PATHOLOGY
919
tttfUSity of tht blood cucutttioii his b gco iw gfMtly diininttlmL
The poIymqrphD^nuckar Imiooeytcs are wttea ui great oumben in
the blood vaaada.
lo heakb tbeae edit, belonging to our fim amy of defendcn, am
found continually cuculating in the blood atream tp fairly largo
Bumben; tbey are ever ready to rush to the point of attack, where
they at once leawe the blood stream by paning through tho veaael
«aUa— eimgratioo— into the tinuoa m the danger nne. There
they show marked phagocytosia. attacking and taking up into their
interior and destroying the mtcro-organisms in uirgs numbers.
At the same time Uige numbers of these oelli perish in the struggle,
but even the death 01 these celb b of value to the body, as ia the
f of breaking down there are set free ferments ^which not
only act cletrimentally to the bacteria^ but ajeo may stimulate the
bringing forward of another fermof cril ddf<
leucocyte.
To replace this oellnlar destruction there has been a demand
for retnforoementa on the home centres of the polymorpho'nuckar
leucocytes— the bone marrow» This call is immediately answered
by an active proliferation and steady maturing of the mydocvtea
in the marrow to form the polymorpho-nuclear leucocytesi These
then pass into the blood stream in very lacce numbers, and appear
to be spedally attracted to the point or injury by a posuive
chemiotactic action. Thb phenomenon, called ckemiotaxis, has been
studied by several investigators. Leber experimented with sevenl
chemical compounds to find what reaction they bad on these odis;
by using fii^e gloss tubes sealed at the outer end and containing
a chemical substance, and by introducing the open end into the
Mood vessels he found that the leucocyte s were attrected--positive
chcmiotaxis*— by the varioua compounds of mercury, copper,
turpentin, and other substances. That quinine, chloroform,
glycerin, alcohol, with othen, had no attractive influence on them-—
negative chemiotaaia. It was also found that a weak solution
may have a marked positive attraction whilst a strong solution
of the same substance will have the oppeate effect It has been
proved that the pyo-geasc bacterial toxins, if not too ooocentrated,
wili attract the poiymorpho*nudear kuoocytes, but if concentrated,
may have a repelling influence.
Then we have the property of adaptation, in which the negative
reaction may be changed into a positive; a given toxin may at first
repel the ceU. but by a gradual process the cell becomes accustomed
to such a toodn and wilTmove towards It.
On reaching the vidnity tbey leave the blood stream and join
in the warfare—many performing their function of phagocytosis (g.v.)r
others falling victims to the toxins. The tissues of tlie part become
disorgsniaea or destroyed, and their place is uken by the masa
of warring cellular elements now recognised as pus.
As soon as the fluids and the polyniorpbo*nuclear leooocytea have
succeeded in dimini&hing the vinuence of the micro-organism, the
second line of defenders— 4he bige mononuclear le u co cyt es (fi^ 23,
PL II.) make their appearance at the field of batdeia ever Increasing
munbecs. These are amoeboid cells and are extremely phagocytic*
their power of digestion being greatly devekiped. Thetr principal
function is to bring about the removal of foreqcn, dead or degencr*
nting nmterial. Thb they take up into their protoplasm, where it
■B rapidly digested fay being acted on by some intraoellubr digestive
ferment (fig. 31. PI. III.). Where the material b too large to be
taken up by an individual cell, the dissolution b brooght about by
the celb surrounding the material, to which they closely apply thcuf
•dvest and by tfao secreting of the fer«ient, a gnulual process of
erosion is brought about witlt ultimate absorption.
If the abscess be deeply situated in some tissue and not able toopen
00 to a free surface so albwing the contents Co be drained off, the
phagocytic cells pby a very prominent part in the resolution of
the abscess. They are seen pushing their way right into the fieU of
conlUct and greedily ingesting both friends and foes. The first
defenders, the polymorpho-nudcxr leucocytes, having perfetmed
their functions, are of no more use to the organism and are therefore
removed by the mono^nuclear phagocytes as useless material (fig. 31,
PL HI.).
The tissues having now mobUiaed an army that co u i p le t e l y
surrounds the fighting zone, there b a gradual and general aovanea
made from all sides. The vanguard of thb advandng army b
composed of a more or less cominct teycr of the mono-nuclear
phagocytea (polyblasts) accompaobd by numerous new vessels.
These phagocytic oelb carry out the oomplete removal of all the
injured wnrriog dements and the damaged tissues of the part. The
vesscb are only temporary channeb by whic^ b brought forward
the food supply that is nMided by the advanang army if it b sue*
cessfully to carry on its function; they probably also drain off the
deleterious fluid substances formed by the ceUuIar dbintegration
that has taken place in the part. Closely on the advance of this
army of phagocytes or scavenger oelb tollowa the third Una of
defenders, the connective tissue celb or fibroblasts.
AU these celb are probably of local origin and are now stimulated
to make good the damage. The connective tissue celb or fibroblasts
( fig. 32, PL II I. ) are seen in active prsfiferatson around the phagocytic
tone. First they are reund or oval in shape; later they become
)indteshapcd.aiTanginB themselves in layers^ Then they develop
fitanb whidi dmarantboi jatQ fitoaus Jaaunac iocmi^g •
•nindle I
skfiniM
aooe which ihats off the abscess from the healthy tissue and so
prevenu the further invasion and injurious effects of the micro-
otganisra. By the •!• I of the new fibroblasu thb fibrous tissue
sooe gradually encroaches on the pus area and replaces the
phagocytic layer cf eeUa as they proceed with the absorption of
the pus mass (fig. 33, PI. III.). When compbte removal of the
pus mass has beta acoomplbhed by the process of absorptioa, the
damaged area b replaced by the new fibrous tissue, which later
becomes condensed and forms the cicatricial or scar tissue (fig. 35,
PI. II L)~« healed absoesa.
HVuMds.— The healif« of wounds b brought about by similar
I to that seen in the evolution of an abscess.
If the injury be a small indeed wound through the skin and sub-
cutaneous tissues without any septic oootaraioationj there usually
follows a minimum of reaction 00 the part of the tissues. As the
edges of the wound are brought into accurate apposition there b
little or no blood kxiged between them, so that an extremely narrow
strip of fibrin glues the cut edges together. Thb strip is rapidly
repboed, mainly by the connective tissue celb of the adjoining
tissue growing across the temporary filled breach and firmly uniting
the two cut surfaces. The vascular changes are practically abarnt
ifl healing by firet intention.
Healing by second intention* or granulation, is usually seen
where there has been loss of tissue, or extensive damage. The
reactions of the tissues vary in degfces according to the nature
and severity of the injury.. In resenting such insults, a remarkable
uniformity and regubrity in the processes is brou^t about by the
di£brent celb and limds of the healthy tissues of the body. Although
we have not reached a stage of ceruinty regarding their origin,
function and destiny, recent investigations have brought forward
evidence to elucidate the importance of the part pbyed by the
different cells in the various types of the inflammatory praoesB.
If there be a bss of ttaaoe brought about by severe injury to the
skin and the deeper tissues* there b usually an extravasation of
blood from the severed vessels. Along with the exuded scrum thb
fills up the breach In the tissues and the whole is rapidly formed
mto a fibrinous mass due to the disintegration of the polymorpbo-
nuclear leucocytes setting free their ferment* The lerroeat ihua
set free brings about the coagubtwo of the serum, which acts
as a protective and temporary scaffolding to the injured tissues.
Lying between the fibrin mass and the healthy tissues is a eone
01 injured and degenerated tissue elements, the result of the
trauma.
As eariy as six hours after the injurv the pdlymorpho-nudear
leucocytes are seen passing in brge numoers from the dilated and
congested blood vessels of the tissues at the margin of the woond into
the injured cone, where they carry on an active phagocytosis. It b
believed also that they secrete bactericidal substances and ferments
which 1>ring about tl>e liouefaotion of the fibria and the damaged
tissues— histolysis— and tnus assist the process of absorption.
They appear to prepare the injured aone for the coming of the next
series of cells. Their function being at an end tbey give way to
these celb which earry 00 the process of absorption.
In a period varyiog from t«enty*four to thirty faoun there b
marked evicbnce of the removal of the degenerated cellular
elements in the damaged sone'by the mono-nucbar phagocytes.
Numerous fibroblasts, together with polyblasts, are vbibie in tha
fibrin mass, and the veaseb at the periphery of the damaged aone
are now seen to be sending out offshoou which assist in the procesa
of absorption. Tbese vascubr buds grow out in various directions
as little solid projections of celts; they then become channelled and
form the new but temporary mcshwonc
After two to four days thc«e processes are more deariy emphatiaed*
By these pr oces ses we resch the stage where the filmo mass and
damaged tissues have been complctcTy removed, and replaced by
a temporary vascular and cellular tissue, known as granubtion
tissue (fig. 34, PI. 111.), which in turn has to give way to the mofll
firm ana differentbted fibrous tissue. By thb time the skin
epithdium may have grown over the wound.
After five to seven days we find the connective tissue cells taking
the prindpal part in the building up of the new permanent tissue,
for at this stage there b an acuve proliferation of the fibroblasts.
These celb of various shapes are seen in large numbers, mainly
lyiog in a direction parallel to the new vessels and capiUaries. which
all run at right angles to the wound surface. The branching pro-
otSMS of these celb apparentiy anastomose with one another and
form a delicate aupportiog network. It b from these celb thaf
the fine fibriUar substance is formed, and from this stage onwards-^
eight to fifteen days — there b a steady increase in the new fibrils,
giving more density to the new tissue. At the same time there is
brought about an alteration in the arrangement of the position of
the nbrobbats. These become spindb shaoed with their long axis
more and more assuming a position at right angles to the vesseb
(fig. 34. PI. 111.); the two edges of the wound are thus more firmly
bo«nd together. As their fibnb become more devck>ped they grad-
ually form fibrous laminae which are laid down first in the deeper
part of the wound. When this process has reached a certain stage
and all the absofptioo nrnrsssry nss occurred the new blood vessels,
from the incrcasiag pressure of Urn suooessivc fibrous bycrs. gradually
dwiadb and heromr obliterated, s.c at a period oorrespoodlAg to
920
FATHOIIOGY
tlie condMtttiofi of tlie'fifareai lantfiiM and the dteftpwranoe
of the cdlultr chancter of the granulation tiMW. Thu* is formoit
in the damaged area a pernanent tiamie known aa tear tiMue
7tK%f«r.'^Where a chronic inflammatory praoeaa haa taken
poiMtBion of an organ, or, let va say. ha« been located in perioeteum
or other fibrous part, there is a great tendency to the production
of ckatridal fibrous tissue in mass. Thus it is laid down in kvge
quantity in dnhosis of the liver, kidney or lung, and reacts upon
tnese organs by contxacting and indudng atrophy. The term
" drrhosS*' or '* fibrosb " is usually applied to such a condition of
organs (figs. 36 and 37, PI. IV.). that of *' sclerosis ." is used when such
a deposition of fibrous tissue occun within the central nervous svstem.
Gull and Sutton anerted that in particular sutcs of body, and more
especially in the condition associated with cirrhotic kidney, soch a
fibrons becomes general, ranning, aa they alleged It does, along
the adventitia of arteries and spreading to their capiibnes. They
supposed that it was accompamod by a peculiar hyaline thickening
of the arterial wall, usually of the tunica tatima, and hence they
termed the supposed diseased state *' arterio<apillary fibrosis,'*
and gave the fibrous substance the name '* hyaline-fibnrid." They
held that thcv cirrhotic kidney is simply a local manifcsutioa of a
general fibrous disease. Their theory, however, has fallen into
disfavour of late yean.
Tdvouxs Oft New Gxowibs
The various definitions of the term "new growth** lesve
us with a definite conception of it as a new formation of tissue
which appears to originate and to grow independently. We
have already compart the body to a Eodal community, each
constituent element of whichr-the ceU— lives its own life but
subordinates its individuality to the good of the whole organism.
The essential characteristic Of a new growth is that this sub-
ordination is lost and the tissue elements, freed from the normal
mutual restraint of tfadr interdependence, ^ve way to aa
abnormal growth. AU the hypotheses about the causatton of
new growths seek to explain the secret of this individualily or
" autonomy," as they recognise that the mystery of the origin
of the great majority of tumours would be sdvcd if we could
trace how or why the rissue elements in which they deveh>p first
took on this abnormal growth.
Tumours are divided into two main groups^innocent nnd
malignant These differ only in degree and there is no hard and
fast line between them. Innocent tumours are usually sharply
defined from the surrounding tissues, and show no tendency to
spread into them or to pass by means of lymphatics and blood<
vcsseb to neighbouring parts (fig. 38, PL IV.). Malignant
tumours, on the other hand, invade the adjacent tissues and pass
by lymphatics and blood vessels to distant parts, where they set
up secondary growths (fig. 39, PL IV.)*
Tumours appear to arise spontaneously, Le, without evident
cause; they may develop in association with prolonged irritation
or injury (later referred to in more deuil). To heredity, as an
indirect or predisposing cause, has probably been assifpud too
great Importance, and the many facu brought forward of the
tclative frequency of cancer in members of one fiunOy only
lustily the conclusion that the tissue-reastance of certain families
is lowered.
At the present time we have still before us the question, what is
the essential cause of tumours (q.v.) ? This, one of the most difficult
problems of pathology, is being attacked by many able workers,
who are all striving from different standpoints toduodate the lature
of these new formations, which spring from the normal tissues in
which they devctop and which they destroy. In spite of ail the
valuable research work that has been done within the last few years,
the essential cause of new growths stiU remains unknown.
To the work carried on by the Imperial Cancer Reseanrh Fund in
England, and to investigators in other countries, are due the present
day scientific efforts made to systematije investigatwn and clear
away many of the hypothetical speculatkxis that have gathered
round thu most difficult subject. Their investigations on cancers
found in the lower animals, and the successful tnnsphintation of
such nowths into a new host of the same mcies fmice and
rats), nave greatly advanced our knowledge of the etk>logy of this
disease.
Many of the hypotheses of the past put forward to explafai cancer
must be discarded, in view of the facts brought to Kght by the
comparative and experimental research of recent times. According
to the hypothesis of Waldcyer and Thiersch there b perfect equi-
librium between the normal epitbeKnm and its suoporting structure^
Che ooiiaective tissue, but wfiih advaacisg age this balance is vpast
owing to the c o nnetll w tiflpe gradnally bslag its n^tnuaint
power. The epitheUaloells an then ayatopaBSfrDm their normal
position, in consequence of which they proliferate and at the same
time revert to a mote piiaiitlve type4)f osIL la tfaia waiy thqr give
rise to a oalignant new growth.
Cohnheiro*s hypoth<3s of ''embryonic rcaidaes'' provides
that early In the development of the embryo soma of the cells, or
groups of oeUs, are separated from their orfsaic oootianity during
the various fokiings that take plaoe in the actively gM»wii« enbr>a
The separated cells baoome intenniflfgled with otncr lisaiii dcsncnu
amongst which they lie dormant with their iahevem power of
pnoliferetion in abeyance. At a laterdate in the life of the mdhridoal
by sonse unknown stimuli* they icaume their active power U
proliferation and so give rise to new growths.
The ** tisBuo-tension *' hypothasia of IUbb«t la • coafasaatiaa
of the two foregoing. He holds that new growtha arise, both before
birth or at any subseqwent period of lile, by the sraantkm of ceib
or dnmpa of cdb from their nonnal position, aad that ■■ kealth
there is a balance between the various tissues aad time ^i^iafyTt
recrulated by what hecallatfae '* tissue-pension ** of tfa« part, iA that
ceOs or groups of cells have a restraining^ power oa 1
which prevents any physmlogical over-actinty.
From whatever cause the rsaisttng power of the tisane i
IS thus weakened, the iavasioa of ooier tissue dcneata is thea
allowed to take phase. These being freed from the nonnal inhlfastiag
power of tha neighbouring dements, multiply and go 00 to the
lormatbnofaaewgrowth. According to Ribtert it is 'Mwiao
tooether with the latent capacity of isolatod oeila far nnl
poTifenition, that gives rise to new growths.
Hanseniaim's ** anaptasia " hypothesia aeeks to find aa i-_
tkm of the formation of new growths in the absence of Uicl_^
togical differentiation of the ceH aasodaicd with a rntTfisnonctinr
mcrease in its (toUfemthre power and a auspeaskm* «r kMs^ of its
functfaoal activity.
The grinfer the dcarre of anapbsia the a
formiocharacteraadappoasance totheembcyonset
the ouae malignant as the new growth.. A simple fibroma ia a growth
: type of ceil asd
composed of fully formed fibrous tissue (fig. 40^ PL IV.). The saal
round celled sarcoma is a malignant gvowdi. and is ririiMiiiiwiT ^
the primitive type of cell that goes to form hbraoa tisBBn (%, 41.
Then we have Beard's "gemKeU" hypothesis^ in ^thic^ he
bokis that many of the germ-cdls in the growing enbtyo fad ts
reach their proper position—the gencrathw a r e as an d nettle doaa
and become quiescent in acBw somatic tissue of the embryo. TWy
may at some later date become active in aoma way, asad ao g^e
rise to a cellular prcrfiferation that may imitate the atriKtaie ia
they grow, sb giving riss to new growths.
SoaK warhen re^ud certaia appearaacea la dividiag cdls foond
in cancer as evidence of a tevenioo of the somatic cdl to the gem-
ccU type (h^erotypRad), otherwise found only in the proccas which
results JB the formation of an embryo^ These appearaacs are
arobabW due to a pathokncal mitods. oonunoaly foaad ia cancer.
m wfaicb there ia an irregular diminntkm hi the nnsabcr of cktomo-
somes; acme are cast out and become degenerated or aoae bmb
over to one of the daughter cdls, leavii« a reduced oambv in ine
other, and thus give rise to asymmetrical mitosis.
From the histokigical nmmi nation of turaoor cdls there a
no evideoce'to ahow that they resemble the proloaoal uaiaellulw
erganisina m oocasieaally pammg through a aexual prooera of rc«
production, t^, that nuclear cmyugatkm between cob ever taks
In recent yeara the successful experimental tnasplantatioa d
•w growths, oocurriag sporadically in white, nace aad rata, into
limab of the sane species, has ttrown a fresh light on all t!«
features of mdignant growths^ From these experiments it a
shown that cdls taken from these growths aad intradnoed >s:o
animals of the same species give rise to a cancerous growth* -wh^!*
cdls have acquired unlimited powers of proliferation. They mtt
direct lineal descendants of the cdls introduced, and are hb no
way forme d from the tissue cdls of the host in which they aie placed
and grow.
Not only is this true of epithdial cdls, but the w^i m t ftiy g trntr
cells of the supportbg stnictnre of canoeroua growth, after iwpeatH
transpkintatton, may beoome so aHcred that a gradual evoluti .-:
of apparently nonnal connective tissue into saroomatooa dcasnfb
Ufces place, these gi>nng rise to **mbnd tumtaun^** TV
sarooroatous devdopment may even completdy o u t gru w t*>;
epithdial dements and ao form and ooatinue to grow aa a put
Theitfact that it b poss9>le to propagate theae oe&s of one aniKi!
for )«aiB in other aninuih of the same species, without any lorn c*
their veg«tati«e \itaUty. suggests that thb continued growth a
kept up by a grawth-stimubting sabstance present in the psop«
spedes of animai; this substance, however, has not the power a
transforming the noraud tissue into a canccrooa oosb
Henscr, Bencke, Adami, Marcfaand aad othen have abo fwt
forward hypotheses to account for the origin of new growth
These observers msiatsin that the odb from some cause lose w
maj nevar have had davdopadL their f aoctlonai activity; and tbm
PATHOLOGY
qzx
AdDvfce the actMty' of froiith. Tbe doiondBnts of sUch cells
will become mora and mom undiffemitiated* thensby developing aa
tncmaed vegetative activity.
Oertel finds an cxpbnatioa of this want of complete cell-
diffefentiation, loss of fiuictioo, and acQuired vegetative activity
in the non-homogeneous character of the nuclear duomattn elements
of the cell, and maintains that the different properties of the ccU
are canried and handed down by the different orders of chromatin
loopst We have analogies to this in the two nticlei of some of the
protoaoa, the one being solely for the purpose of propagation,
the other being associated with the functional activities of the oelL
Oertel thinks that in man we have these two different functions
carried on by the one nucleoa oonttiining both chromatin orders.
If, from whatever cause, any of the chromatin loops bdoiwing to
the functional order be lost the descendants of such a cell, being
unable to restore these loops, will be minus the functional attributes
associated with the lost elements. These, having the full equip*
ment of thfe vegetative ocder, will now develop the infaerent power
of proliferation to a grauter or lesser extent.
The foregoing hypotheses have all sought the origin of new growths
in some intrinsic cause which has altered the characters of the
cell or cells which gave rise to them, but none of them explain the
direct exciting cause. The pasaskic hypothesis postulates the
invasion of a parasite from without, thus making a new growth
an infective process. Many cancer-panusites have beead^ribed
in cancerous growths, including bdctcrta, yeasts and protozoa,
but the innumerable attempts made to demonstrate toe causal
infective organism have all oom|Slctely failed.
It is weUknova that cancer may develop ia places where there
has been chronic irritation; an example may be found in cancer of
the tongue following on prok>nged irritation from a jagged tooth.
Ctav'pipss may also give rise to cancer of lips in males in England,
while cancer ot the mouth of both sexes is common in India where
chewing a mixture of bctd leaves, anc»>aut. tobacco and daked
lime is the usual practice. In the case of the squamous epithelial
cancer of the anterior abdominal wall found so frequently in the
natives of Kashmir, the position of the cancer is peculiar to this
people, and is due to the chronic trritttion following on repeated
bums from using the *' kaagri " — a small earthenware iressel
containing a charcoal fire enclosed in basket-work, and suspended
round the waist, to assist in maintaining warmth in Uie extreme
cold of the hill* of. Kashmir.
The irritant may be chemleal, as is seen In the skin cancers that
develop in workers io pacafin, petrolcura, arsenic and asnline.
However close the relationship is between chronic irritatkui and
the starting of cancer, we are not in a position to say that irritation,
physical or chemical, by itself can give rise to new growths. It
may merely act kically in some way, and so render that part
•asoeptfl)le to trnknown tistue stimidi which impart to the cells
that cxtflMscdioaiy po«er of proliferstiMk characteristic of new
growth.
At the present 6me we are quite uncertain what is the uktmate
cause of new growths; in all probability there may be one or more
aetiological factors ht play disturbing that perfect condition of
equilibrium of nonnal tissues. A deiKt in co-onfination allows
the stimulated active vegetative cellular elements, or the more
fully differentiated tissue* to over-develop and so form tumours,
simple or malignant.
OnSRTlSSTJX PXODOCTS
Mucoid. — ^In manj pathologica] conditions we have degenera-
tive products of various kinds formed in the tissues. These
substances may be formed b the cells iind given out as a secre-
tion, or they may be formed by an intercellular transformation.
In the ffiuclnoi4 conditions, usually termed " mucoid " and
" colloid " degeneimtions, m have closely allied substances
which, like the normal mucins of the body, Mong to the gluco-
proteids, and have in common similar pl^ical characters.
There is neither any absolute difference nor a constancy in their
chemical reactions, and there can be brought about a transition
of the " colloid " material into the " mucoid," or conversely. By
mucoid is understood a soft gelatinous substance containing
mudn, or pseudomudn, which is normally secreted by the epi-
thelial cells of both the mucous membranes end glands. In
certain pathological conditions an excessive formation and
discbarge of such material Is usually associated with catarrhal
changes in the epithelium. The desquamated cells containing
this jelly-like substance become disorganized and Uend with the
secxetioB. Should this take pUce into a closed gland space it
will give rise to cysts, which may attain a great size, as is seen
in the ovarian adenomata. In some of the adenoid cancers
of the alimenury tract this mucoid material is formed by the
epithelial cells from which it flows out and infiltrates the
surrounding timesi both the cells and iltsucs appear to be
transformed into this gelatinous substance, lorming the so-called
" coUoid cancer " (fig. 42, PI. IV.).
The connective tissue is supplfed horroaUy with a certain amooaf
of these mucinoid substances, no doubt acting as a lubricant. In
many pathological conditions this tissue is commonly found to
undergo mucoid or myxomatous degeneration, which u regarded
as a revcrekm to a closely similar type—that of foetal connective
tissue (fig. 4^ PL IV). ^ These changes are found in senih: wasting.
in metaplasia of cartilage, in many tumours, e^)ccially mixed
growths of the parotid gund and testicle, and in various inflam-
matory granulation ulcers. In the wasting of the thyroid gland
in myxoedenu, or when the riand is completely removed by opera-
tion, myxomatous areas are found in the sobcutanoous tissue ol the
skin, ncrve-sbcaths. Ac
CoUoid.— Tha term ia usually applied to a semi-solid substance
of homogeneous and gelatinous consistence, which results partly
from excretion and partly from degeneration of cellular struc-
tures, more particularly of the epithelial type. These cells
become swollen by this translucent substance and are thrown
oft into the space where they become fused together, forming
colloid masses. This substance differs from the mucins by being
precipitated by tannic add but not by acetic acid, and beiz^
endowed with a higher proportion of sulphur.
In the normal thyroid there is formed and stored up in the
spaces this colloid material. The enlarged cystic goitres show,
in the distended vesicles, an abnormal formation and retention
of this substance (fig. 44, PI. V.). lu character is readily
changed by the abnormal activities which take place in these
glan^ during some of the acute fevers; the semi-solid consistence
may hecome mucoid or even fluid.
Serous degeneration is met with in epithelial cells in inflammatonf
oonditk>ns and following on bums. The vitality of those cel«
being altered there is imbi^tion and accumulation of watery fluid
in their cytoplasm, causing swelling and vacuolatbn of the cells.
The bursting of several ot these altered cells is the method by
which the skan veakle* are formed in certain conditions.
Glycogen a formed by the action of a ferment on the caxtio-
hydratc»-^the starches being converted into sugars. The
sugars are taken up from the circulation and stored in a less
soluble form—known as " animal starch "—in the liver and
muscle cdls; they play an important part in the normal meta*
holism of the body. The significance of glycogen in Urge
amounts, or of its absence from the tissues in pathological con-
ditions, is not clearly understood. It b said ta be increased in
saccharine diabetes and to be greatly diminished in starvation
and wasting diseases.
Fat.— Tatty accumulations in the tissues of the body are
found in health and in pathological conditions; these are usually
recognized and described as fatty infiltrations and fatty degenera-
tions, but there are intermediate conditions which make it
difficult to separate sharply these processes.
The fatty accumulations known as infiltrations (figs. 45 and
46, PL v.) are undoubtedly the result of excessive ingestion of
food material containing more neutral fats than the normal
tissues can oxidize, or these, as a result of defective removal
owing to enfeebled oxidative capacities on the part of the tissues,
become stored up in the tissues.
In acute and chronic alcoholism, in phthisis, and In other
diseases this fatty condition may be very extreme, and is com-
monly found in association Ti>*ith other tissue changes, so that
probably we should look on these changes as a degeneration.
Adiposity or obesity occurs when we have an excessive amount
of fat stored in the normal connective-tissue areas of a4ipose
tissue. It may be caused by various conditions, e.g. over-
nutrition with lack of muscular energy, beer-drinking, castration,
lactation, disturbed metabolism, some forms of insanity, and
may follow on some fevers.
Fatty degeneration is a retrogressive chan^ associated with
the deposit of fatty granules or globules in the cytoplasm, and
Ss caused by disorganized ceUnlar activity (figs. a6 and a?, PL II.).
It IS frequently found associated with, or as a sequel to, doudy
swelling in intense or prolonged toxic conditions. Over and
above the bacterial intozaoations we have a very extreme degree
of fatty degeneration, widely distributed throughout the tissoct^
$23
PATHOLOGY
«rtiich b produced by ceiUtn orguSc tnd inoigftnic pobons; U
b seen especuUy in pbospborat and chloroform poboning.
The cbanyges are also common ia pcfniciotti anaemia, advanced
tMorosis, cachexias, and in the later stages of starvation. In
diabetes mcUitus, in which there is marked derangement in
metabolism, extreme fatty changes are occasionally found in the
organs, and the blood may be loaded with fat globules. This
lipoemic condition may cause embolism, the pluggiqg especially
occurring in the lung capillaries.
Fatty degeneration is common to all dead or decaying tissues
la the body, and may be followed by calcification.
Autolysis is a disintegration of dead tissues brought about by
the action of their own ferments, while degeneration takes place
In the still living celL The study of-autolytic phenomena which
closely simulates the changes seen in the degencrathig cell has
thrown much light on these degenerative processes.
These conditions may be purely physiological, e.g. ia the
mammary gland during lactation or in sebaceous ^andb, caused
by increas^ functional activity. It may follow a diminished
functional activity, as in the atrophying thymus gland and in
tite muscle cells of the uterus after parturition.
Any of the abnormal conditions that bring abottt general
or local defective nutrition is an onportant factor in producing
fatty degeneration.
The part p1a>icd by fats and closely allied compounds In normal
and abnormal roetaboltam need not hero be di«cuMed, as the
subject is too complex and the views on it are confljcting. It will
be Miflkicot to state briefly what appears to be the result of recent
investigation.
The neutral fats are composed of fatty acids and glycerin. In
Ihe physiological process of intestinal digestion, the precuriorB of
such fats are split up into these two radicles. The free fatty acid
radicle then uoites with an alkali, and becomes tranafonncd into
a soluble soap which is then readily abaort}edinthit fluid condition
by the epithelial cells of the mucous membrane. There It is acted
on by ferments (lipases) and eonverted into neutral fat, which may
remain in the cell as such. By the reverv action on the part of
the same (ermenu in the cell, these neutral fats may be redistolved
and pass into the lactcala.
Many cells throughout the body contain this ferment. The
soluble soaps uiiich are probably conveyed by the blood will be
quickly taken up by such celb. synthctised into neutial fats, and
Stored 10 a non-diffustblc form tiU required. The fat in this con-
dition is readily recognized by the usual microchcmical and stain-
uig reactions. As fat is a food ckment essential to the carrying
out of the vital energies of the cell, a certain amount of fatty matter
must be present, in a form, however, untecogaiiabie by our present
microchcmical and staining methods.
Some investigators bdd that the soaps may become combined
with albumin, and that on becoming incorporated with the cyto-
pbsm they can no longer be distinguished as fat. If from some
cause the cell be damaged in such a way as to produce disintegra*
tion of the cytoplasm, there will be a breaking down of that com-
bination, so that the fat will be set free from the complex protein
molecule in which it was combined as a soap-albomin. and will
become demonstrable by the usual methods as small droplets of
oil. This splitting up of the fats previously combined with albumin
in die ccH by the action of natural ferments—Upases— and the setting
free of the fats under the influence of toxins represent the normal
and tlie oatbokigical process in the production of 60<alled fatty
degeneration.
CalcificQtion.—'CBla&catkm and calcareous deposits are
extremely common in many pathological conditions.
There are few of the connective tissues of the body which
may not become affected with deposits of calcareous salts
(fig. 47, PL v.). This condition Is not so frequently seen in
the more highly differentiated cells, but may follow necrosis of
secreting cells, as is found, in the kidney, in corrosive sublimate
poisoning and in chronic nephritis. These conditions are quite
distinct from the normal process of ossification as is seen in
bone.
Many tiieorica have been advanced to explain these processes,
and recently the subject has received con«derable attention. The
old idea of the circulating blood being supenaturatcd with lime
salts fvhicb in some way had first became Itbcnted from acro^ying
booes, and then deposited^ to form calcified areas in different
tissues will have to be given up, as there is no evidence-that this
"metastatic" calcificauon ever takes place. In all probability
no excess of soluble Kme salts in the blood or lymph caa ever be
deposited in healthy living
At the pfeaeat oay both eaperiaiBBlal aad Ustotarieal tm
gatioos soera to indicate that m the process of cakificauon thei«
IS a combination of the organic substances present ia degenerated
tissues, or in tissues of low vitality, with the line salts of the body.
From whatever cause the tissues beooaw diKagaiiiaed and onbergo
fatty degenetation, the fany acids amy become libcmted and own-
bine with the alkalies to form potash aod soda soapa.
The potash and soda ia then jnadually repboed by calcium to
form an iasolafole cakaum soap, toe intejactioa between the soaps,
the phosphates and the carbonates whk:h are brought by the bloi,d
and lymph to the (xirt results in the wealonr fany aodfcs being re*-
placed by phosphoric and carbonic acid, and thus in the formatioa
of highly lasohiblc cafcinm iduMphate and carbonate deposits ia
the disocganiaed tissuesL
Paihohgical Pigmentatums.— These pigmentaxy changes found
in abnormal conditions are usually classified under {x) Albumi-
noid, (3) Hacmatogenous, (3) Extraneous.
I. The normal animal pigments and closely allied pigments
are usually fotmd in the skin, hair, eye, supra-renal gjiuids, and
in certain nerve cells. These represent the albuminokl series,
and are probably elaborated by the cells irom albuininous
substances through the influence of q>ecific ferments. This
pigment is tisually intracellular, but may be found lying free ia
the intercellular substance, and is generally in the form cf 6ae
granules of a yellowish-bcown or brown-blade colour. In the
conditkm known as albinism there is a congenital delkjency or
entire absence of pigment. Trophic and nervous oendibons
sometimes cause localized deficiency of pigment which produces
white areas m the akin.
Exccasave pigmenUtk>n of tissue cells (fig. 4S, FL V.) is seen
in old age, and usually in an accompaniment of certain atrophic
processes and functional disorders. Certain degenerative changes
m the supra-renal glands may lead to Addison^s diseaaa^ which is
characterized by an excessive pigmentary conditksi oi the skia
and mucous membranes. This melanin pigment h found in
certain tumour growths, pigmented moles of the sUn, and espe-
cially in racUaatic sarramaU (fig. 49, Pi V.) and cancer. Ihe
action of the sun's rays stimulates the cells of theakin to wy^»*«»
the pigment as a protection to the underlyfaig tisiuei, e^g . ^mw*— ^
bronzing, " freckles," and the skin of the negro^
The coloured fata, or lipochromes, are found normally in aooe cf
the cells of the internal organs, and under ocrtain pathological
conditions. This pigment is of a light yellow c^our, mL contaiss
a fatty substance that reacts to the fat-staining reagents. Little
is kaowa reganiiag thia class of plgmeat.
a. Hacmatogenous pigments are derived ficom tbe haemo>
i^bb of the red bk>od corpuscles. These corpuscles may break
down in the bk)od vessels, and their colouifng material (hacmo-
^obin) is set free m the senmn. But thdr disintegration is mere
commonly brotight about by " phagocytosis " on the part of the
phagocytic cells in the different organs concerned with t>c
funaioQ of haemolysis, i^.lhe liver, spleen, hacnk)lymph elands
and other tissues.
^The haemoglobin may be transformed Into haematoidtsi. a
pigment that does not contain iron, or into a pigment which does
contain iron, haemosiderin.
The haenuAoidin pigment may .vary in cok>or from yellovish
or orange-red to a ruby-red, aad forms granular amsses, rbomb^c
prisms or, acicular crystab. It can be lormed indepeodently d
cell activTty. nor does it require oxygen. These cr>>staU xre
extremely resistant to absorption, are found hi old btood cl-:v
and have been known to ptcrsist in old cerebral h aemoi i h ag.n
after many years. Haematoidin in normal metabdisa is large',-
excreted by the liver in the form of hilirtAHn.
Haemosiderin,^ an iron-containing pigment (probably an hydiatei
ferrous oxide), is found in more or less loose combinattoei «t ^
protein substances in an amorphous form as brownish or >>bi-f
granulca. Celluhir activity and oxygen appear to be caaential i;r
its deiMelopment; it is found usually in the cells cf ocrCaai ornR<.
or it may be deposited in the intenxUular tissues. Haeakomdcrrr
in the normal process of haemolysis is stored up in tlw cells ^z
certain organs until required by the organism for the fonnatrrs
of fresh haemoglobin. In diseases irtiere haemolysia is eaxm<«»
particulariy in penikiotts anaemia, thereare telatively large ^nantf
tics occaskmauy as much as ten times the oaraaal aoKMoit a
haemosiderin deposited in the liver.
In hepatogenous pigmentation ' Oeterus or jaun^ce) %i« bx«T
the iron-free pigment modified and traiisformed by the actkv <i
the liver osUs inio bilepigm^nt Cbilisidii«>. If tbetSacftazca td i£«
PATHOLOGY
9*3
fNgraent from the Over fay the normal cha«iieb be prevented, ai
by obstruction of the main bile ducts, the bile win accumulate
until it iTSurs^tates or is absorbed into the lymph and blood
vessels, and ia carried in a soluble state throiwhout the tissues,
thua produdflf a general staining an csMntJal cbaractniscic of
jaundice.
3. In cartnaeous pigmentatioo we have coknued subttanccs
either in m solid or fluid state, gaining entrance into the organism
and accumulating in certain tissues. The channck of entrance
are usually by the respiratory or the alimentary tract, also by the
skin. Pneumonokoniosis is due to the inhalation of mioute
particles of various substances— such as coal, stcme, iron, steel,
&C. These foreign particles settle on the lining membranes,
and. by the activity of certain cells (fig. 50, PI. V. and fig. 30,
PL in.), are carried into the tissues, where they set up c^nic
hrritation of a more or less serious nature acoording to the nature
of the inhaled particles.
Certain metallic poisons ^ve rise to pigmentation of the tissues,
e.g. in the blue line on the gums around the roots of the teeth due
to the formatioa oC lead sulphide, or in chronic lead poisoning,
where absorption may have taken place throush the digc&tive
tract, or, in the case of workers in lead and lead paints, through
the skin. Prolonged iiwestion of anenic may cause pigmentary
changes in the skin. If silver nitnte salts be admioistcared for a
long period as a medication, the skin that is exposed to light becomes
of a bluish-grey cok>ur, which is extremely persistent. These
soluble salts combine with the albumins in the body, and are
deposited as minute ^nules of silver albuminate in the connective
tissue of the skin jpapiUae, serous membranes, the intima of arteries
and the kidney. This condition is known as argyria.
Varu>u8 coloured pigments may be deposited in the ttssoes
throujsh damaged skin surface — note, for example, the vdl-known
practice of " tattooing." Many workers following certain occu-
pations show pigmented scars due to the penetration of carbon and
other pigments (hmi su perfici a l wounds caused by gunpowder,
explosions, &c-
Hyaline.—thk term has been applied to seversl of the trans-
parent homogeneous appearances found in pathological condi-
tions. It is now commonly used to indicate the transparent
homogeneous structureless swellings which are found affecting
the smaller arteries and the capillaries. The delicate connective-
tissue fibrillae of the inner coat of the arterioles are tsually
first and most affected. The fibrils of the outer coat also
show the change to a less extent, while the degeneration
very rarely spreads to the middle coat. This swelling of the ,
walls may partly or completely ocdude the lumen of the
vessels.
Hyaline diigencration is found in certain acute infective condi-
tions: the toxins specially act on these coanective->tissue cell elements.
It also scons to be brought about by chronic toxaemias, «.f. in
subacute and chronic Bnght'a disease, lead poisoning and other
obscure conditions. The hyaline material, unlike the amyloid,
does not give the metachromatic staining reactions with methylene-
violet or iodine. The chemical constitution is not certain. The
substance is very resistant to the actWrn of chemkal reagents, to
digestion, and posibly belongs to the glyco'protcids.
Amyio9d.-^Tht wax-like or amyloid substance has a certain
resemblance to the colloid, mucoid and hyaline. Il has a firm
gelatinous consistence and wax-like lustre, and, microscopkaUy,
la found to be homogeneous and structureless, with a trans-
hicency like that of ground-glass. Watery solution of iodine
imparts to it a deep mahogany-brown colour; iodine and sulphuric
acid occasktnally, but not always, an ozurc-blue, methyl-
violet, a brilliant rose-pink and methyl-green gives a feactk>n
very much like that of methyl- violet, but not so vivid. The
reaction with iodine is seen hcsl by direct' light; the reactions
with the other subsUnces are visible only by transmitted
light. The name " amyfeld " was appUcd to it by Virchow
on account of the blue reaction which it g;ives occasionally
with iodfaie and sulphuric add, resembling that given with
vegetable cellulose. It is now known to have nothing in common
with vegetable cellulose, but is regarded as one of the many
albuminoid substances eststiog In the body under pathological
conditions^ Virchow's conjecture as to the starchy nature of the
substance was disproved by Friedrkh and Kckule, who confirmed
Professor Miller's previous finding as to its albuminous or proteih
nature. Oddi in 1894 isolated from the amyk>id liver a substance
which Schmiedeberg had previously obtained from esrtilage and
named " choudfoitimc-sulphuric acid" {Chonir&ttinsdnoffd"
saure). It also occurs in bones and elastic tissue, but is not
present in the normal human liver. Oddi does not regard it as
the essential constituent of amyloid, chiefly because the colour
reactions are forthcoming in the residuum after the substance
has been removed, while the substance itself does not give
these reactions. Quite likely the amyloid may be a combination
of the substance with a proteid. The soda combination of
the add as obtained from .the nasal cartilage of pigs had the
composition CoHjtNajNSOjT.
Rrawkow in 1897 clearly demonstrated il to be a proteid In
firm combination with chrondroitin-sulphuric add. As probably
the protein constituent varies in the different organs, one
infers that this will account for the varying results got from
the analysis of the substance obtained from different organs in
such cases.
This amyloid substance is slowly and imperfectly digested
by pepsin— <ligestion being more complete with trypsin and by
autolytic enzymes.
There is no evidence that this material is brought by the
circulating blood and infiltrates the tissues. It is believed
rather that the conditkm is due to deleterious toxic substances
which act for prolonged periods on the tissue elements and
so alter their histon proteins that they combine in situ with
other protein substances which are brought by the blood or
lymph.
Amyloid developa in various organs and tissues and is commonly
associated with chronic phthisis, tubercular disease of bone and
joints, and syphilis (congenital and acquired). It is known to occur
m rheumatism, and has been described in connexion with a few
other diseases. A number of interesting experiments, designed
ro test the relationship between the conditk>n of suppuration and
the production of amyloid, have been made of bte years. The
animal most suitable for experimenting upon is the fowl, but other
animals have been tonxA to react. Thus Krawkow and Nowak,
emptying the frequent subcutaneous injection of the usual organ-
isms of suppuration, have induced in the fowl the deposition within
the tissues of a homogeneous substance giving the colour reactions
of true amyk>id. When hardened in spirit, however, the greater
part of this experimental amyloid in tne fowl vanishes, and the
reactions are not forthcoming. They were unable to verify any
direct connexion between its production and the organism of
tubercle. These observations have been verified in the rabbit,
mouse, fowl, guinea-pig and cat by Davidsohn, occasionally in the
dog bv Lubarach; and confirmatory observations have afso bcea
made by Cscrny and Maximoff. Lubarsch succeeded in inducing
it merely by the subcutaneous injection of turpentine, which
produces its result, it is said, by exciting an abscess. Nowak,
however, found later that he could generate it where the turpentine
failed to induce suppuration: he believes that it may arise quite
apart from the influence of the organisms of suppuration, that it
is not a biological product of the micro-organisms of disease, and
also that it has nothing to do with emaciation. It is a retrogressive
prrocess producing characteristic changes in the fine connective-
tissue fibrils. The change appears to begin in the fibrils which lie
between the circular muscle hbrrs of the middle coat of the smaller
arterioles and extends both backwards and forwards along the
vessels. It spreads forwards, affecting the supporting fibres out-
side the epithelium of the capillaries, and then passes to the
connective-tissue fibrils of the veins. The secreting cells never
show this change, although they may become atrophied or
destroyed by the pressure and the disturbance of nutrition
brought about by the swollen condition of the capilbry walls.
The drculation is little interfered with, although the walls of
the vessels are much thickened by the amybki material (fig. st,
PI. v.).
Amyloid Bodies. — ^These are peculiar bodies which are found In
the prostate, in the central nervous system, in the lung, and in
other localities, and which get their name from being very like
starch-corpuscles, and from giving certain colour rractions closely
resembling those of vegetable cellukxe or even starch itself. They
arc minute structures having a round or oval shape, concentrically
striated, and frequently showing a small nucleus-like body^ or cavity
in their centre. Iodine pyts usually a dark brown reaction, some-
times a deep blue: iodine and sulphuric add almost ahsays call
torth an intense deep blue reaction; and methyl-violet usually a
brilliant pink, quite resembling that of true amyloid. They are
probably a dccenerotion-product of cells,
S^uriovs Amyloid.— \i a healthy spinal cord be hung ut> in
•pint for a matter of six months or more, a glassy subsuncr dcvefopa
within it quite like true amyloid. It further rcssmbka true ani> loid
924
PATHOLOGY
in giving all itt critour vMctiomu Tht renclion with iMthyl-
violct, however, diffcn from tlwt with tnw Bmyloi4 in bdng
ItsspomB or Tissues to SmnTiATiOK
,A ftimulus may be defined as every change of the external
agencies acting upon an organism; and if a stimulus come in
contact wiih a body possessing the property of irritabilityp i.e.
the capability of reacting to stimuli, the result is stimulation
(Verwom). Stimuli comprise chemical, mechanical, thermal,
photic and electrical changes in the environment of the organism.
A sUmulns may act on all sides and induce a general effect with-
out direction of movement, but in the production of movement
in a definite direction the stimulus must be applied unilaterally.
Stimuli applied generally, not unilaterally, in most cases induce
increased divisibility of Uie cells of the part.
Thus the poison of various insects induces in plants the cellular
new formation known as a call-nut; a foreisn body implanted in
a limb may become encysted in a capsule of fibrous tissue; septic
matter introduced into the abdomen will cause proliferation of
the lining endo(epi)thclium; and placing an animal (nlamander,
Galcotti) in an amtnent nmUum at a hiener temperature than that
to which it is accustomed naturally, increases the rapidity of cell-
division of iu epithelium with augmentation of the number of
ieaiyoldnetic fignros. Hair and some other like stmctures grow
Imuriaatiy on a part to which there is an excessive flux of blood.
Bone («.£. drill^bones) may develop* in a soft tissue with no natural
bono-forming tendencies, as a result of interrupted pressure, or a
fatty tumour may arise in the midst of the natural subcutaneous
fat m the same circumstances.
Among idmuli acting unilaterally, perhaps noM has proved
more interesting, in late times, than what b known as ChemW"
taxis. By it is meant the property an organism endowed with
the power of movement \f2s to move towards or away from a
chemical stimulus applied unilaterally, or, at any rate, where it is
^iplied in a more concentrated state on the one side than on the
others, and more particularly where the concentration increases
gradually In one direction away from the living organism acted
U|>on. Observed originally by Engelmann in bacteria, by Suhl
in myiomycetes, and by Pfeffer in ferns, mosses, &c., it has
now become recognized as a widespread phenomenon. The
influence of the chemical substance is either that of attraction
or repulsion, the one being known as positive, the other as
BCgattve cbemiotaKiB.
The female ofiK^ns of certain oyptogams. for instance, esoert a
positive chemiouctic action upon the spcrraatoxoids, and probably,
as Pfcffcr suggests, the chemical agent which exerts the influence
is malic acul. No other substance, at least. Vrith which he experi-
mented had a like effect, and it is possible that in the archogonium
which contains the ovum malic acid is present. Massart and
BordeC, Leber, Metchnikoff and others have studied the pheno-
menon in leucocytes, with the result that while there is evidence of
their being positively chemiotactic to the toxins of many paihofienic
microbes. It is also apiurcnt that they arc negatively influenced by
such substances as lactic add.
Fh>m a pathotoglcal point of view the subject of chcmiotazis
must be constdcr«l along with that of phagocytosis. Certain
free mobile cells within the bo^y, such as blood-leucocytes, as
well as others which are fixed, as for instance the endoth^'um of
the hepatic capillaries, have the property of seizing upott some
kinds of particulate matter brought within their reach. Within
a quarter of an hour after a quantity of cinnabar has been injected
Into the blood of the frog nearly every particle will be found
engulfed by the protoplasm of the leucocytes of the circulating
blood. Some bacteria, such as those of anthrax, are seized upon
in tiie same manner, indeed; very much as small algae and other
partidcs are incorporated and devoured by amoeba. Melanine
particles formed in the spleen in malaria, which pass along with
the blood through the liver, are appropriated by the endothelial
cells of the hepatic capillaries, and are found embedded within
their substance. If the particle enveloped by the protoplasm
be of aa organic nature, such as a bacterium, it undergoes
digestion, and ultimately becomes destroyed, and accordingly
the term " phagocyte '* is now in common use to indicate cells
having the above properties. This phagocytal action of certain
cells of the body is held by Metchnikoff and his foUowcis to
have an important bearing on the pathology of fannnmlty.
Phagocytes act as scavengers in ridding the body of opxiois
partido, and more especially of harmful bacteria.
A further application of the facts of chemiotaas and phago-
cytosis has been made by Metchnikoff to the case of It^mmcHon.
It is weO known that many attempts to define tlie process of
inffammaiion have been made from time to time, all of thesn more
or less w nf*f*f^f****y i Among the latest is that of MctdmJkoff :
" Inflammation generally," he says, " must be rcigsrded as a
phagocytic reaction on the part of the offsnism against initants.
This reaction is carried out by the mobile phagocytes sooietimcs
alone, sometimes with the aid of the vascular phagpcytcs, or cf
the nervoos system.** Given a noxionS' agent in a timne, such,
let us say, as n inrslinpd deposit of certain bSfOciJa, the phage-
cytes Bwana towards the locality where the becteiin hkyt takes
up their residence. They surround individual bactcrin, absorb
them into thdr snbstance, and ultimately destroy them by diges-
tion. The phagocytes are attracted from the blood veaseb and
elsewhere towards the noxious focus by the chemiotaxis exerted
upon them by the toxins secreted by the bacteria oonuiced
within it. The chemiotaxis in this instanor is pontive, but the
toxins from certain other bacteria may act negatively; nod such
bacteria are fraught with particular danger from the fact that
they can spread through the body unoppoKd by the phagocytes,
which may be looked upon as their natural enemies.
KaTUBAL PkOTECTION ACAXKST PARASXTIfiK
The living organism is a rich storehouse of the vcty matcfiah
from which parasites, both animal and vegetable^ can best dcn^-e
their nourishment. Some means is necessary, thei e ic isc . to
protect the one from the encraachmenu of the other. A plant
or animal in perfect health is more resistant to pmaaiticnl invaskc
than one which is iUHMuriihed and weakly* Of m f^w**rr of
planU Ironing tide by side, those which become inlixtcd with
moulds are the moat weakly, and an animal in low health is
more subject to contagious disesse than one which is robiat.
Each oigsnism possesses withm itself the means of pratectiao
agafaist its paasitical enemies, and these properties are mcwe a
evidence when the organism is in perfect hesltk tlm wImb it is
debiliuted.
One chief means empbytd by natore hi aoooapBAiag this
object is the investaneot of those parts of the onsaism liable- to be
attacked with an armour-like covering of epMcrmis, peridena.
bark, &c. The grape is proof against the inroads of the yea.<-
pbnt so long as the husk is intact, but on the husk being taiun-d
the yeast-plant finds its way into the interior and sets up vioctis
fermentation of its sugar. The root of the Frendi vine is attacird
by the PhylkMera, but that of the American vine, whoae cpidcmis
is thicker. Is protcacd from it. The larch remains free froa
parasitism so long as its covering is intact, but as soon as this is
Knctured by insects, or its continuity interfered with by cracks or
tures, the Pesizs pcnetmtes, and before bng brims aboat t>c
destruction of the brsach. So long as the epHfemiis of **i«»^»«
remains sound, disease germs may come in contact with it almost
with impunity, but immediately on its bemg fissured, or a targf^
wound made through it, the underlying parts, the blood and xdx
tissues, are attacked by them. A very remarlEable instance of aa
acquired means of protecting a wound aeainst parasitical iavaaioa
is to bo found in graaWo/iofuv Should these remain unfaiokia
they constitute a natural barrier to the peocciarion of most pozb^-
gcmc and other forms of germ-life into the parts beneath. Bactena
of various kinds which aught upon their surfaces b^n to fn^crtfy
in abundance, bat are rapidly destroyed as they burrow dccf^\
This n accomplished by a twofokl agency, for while munbas ut
them are seized upon by the granulation phagocytes, others ure
broken up and dissolved by the fiquid filling the granulation inter*
spaces (Afana«sieff). This latter, or histolytk. property is not crm-
fincd to the liquid of granulations; normal bloodnMeum pomcsac*
it to a certain extent, and under bacterial influence it oaay bocom*
very much exalted. jQrgcIUnas makes out that when aa anir^'
is rendered immune to a particobr micro-orj^nism this histoI>;^
property becomes cxsked.
DaoFSY
Dsring conditions of health a certain quantity ol lymphy Bqoid
is constantly being ciTused into the itssnes and serotts cavTt:-:£
of the body, but in the rase of the tissues it never accuoiuU* ^3
to excess, and In that of the serous cavities K is never more th^r
PATHOLOGY
Plate II.
F\g. 22.— Tubercle bacilli in tissues
from human luog in a ca<)e of
acute phthisis. The bacilli are
seen lying as short rods, singly
and in clumps, in the caseous and
degenerated tissues of the lung.
Fig. a<.— Acute abscess in the kidney. A
small cellular area formed by emigrated
polymorpho-nudear leucocytes surrounding
a central mass of bacteria.
f.
Fig. 23. — Inflammatory cells from
acute exudate. Numerous poly-
morpho-nudear leucocytes and a
few mono-nuclear cells, one of which
has taken up a leucocjrte into its
interior (phagocytosis).
1
V H.'* ^K ^BK
Fig. 28. — Muscle fibre greatly
increased in size, from
hypertrophied heart.
Fig. 24. — Symmetrical gangrene of toes (3 months'
duration), showing the sharp "line of demarcation"
between the mummified toes and the more healthy
tissue.
Fig. 29.— Musde fibres from
atrophied heart. (Con-
trast Fig. 38.)
W^^M
•,»«V-
?i
Fig. 26— Fatty degeneration of heart from case of
pemidous anaemia. Many of the muscle fibres show
numerous droplets of oil seen as dark round granules.
Fig. 27. — Fatty degeneration of kidney from case of
starvation. BUck droplets of oil are seen in the
epithelial cells lining the secreting tubules.
9^6
PATHOLOGY
they foUowed more doad/ In its wake than during the last quarter
of the 19th century.' When, for instance, the cause of septic
infection bad been revealed, the prophylaxis of the disease became
A possibility. Sddom has it happened, since the discovery of the
law of gravity, that so profound an impression has been made
upon the scientific world at large as by the revelation of the part
played by germ-life in nature; sddom has any discovery been
fraught with such momentous Issues in so many spheres of sdence
and industry.
The names of Pasteur and Lister will descend to posterity as
those of two of the greatest figures in the annals of medical
science, and indeed of science in general, during the 19th century.
The whole system of treatment of tubercular disease has been
altered by the discovery of the tubercle microphyte. Previously
consumptive individuals were carefully excluded from contact
with fresh air, and were advised to live in rooms almost her-
metically sealed and kept at a high temperature. The treatment
of the disease has now gone of! in the opposite direction. Sana-
toria have started up all over Europe and elsewhere for its treat-
meat on the open-air prindple. Individuals suiTering irom
pulmonary phthisis are encouraged to live night and day in the
open, and with the best results. The rapid diagnosis of diph-
thcria, by recognizing its bacillus, has enabled the pr^ptitioncr
ol m«licine to commence the treatment early, and it has also
enabled the medical officer of health to step in and Insist on the
isolation of affected persons before the disease has had time to
spread. The discovery of the parasite of malaria by Laveran,
and of the method by which it gains entrance to the human
body, through the bite of a particular variety of mosquito, by
Manson and Ross, promises much in the way of eradication of the
disease In the future. One of the most remarkable practical out-
comes of germ-pathology, however, has been the production of
the immunised sera now employed so extensively in the treatment
of diphtheria and other contagious diseases. By the continuous
injections under the skin, in increasing doses, of the toxins of
certain pathogenic micro-organisms, such as that of diphtheria,
an animal^-usually the horsc—nuy be rendered completely
refractory to the disease. Its serum in a>urse of time is found
to contain something (antitoxin) which has the power of neutra-
lizing the toxin secreted by the organism when parasitical upon
the body. This immunity can be transferred to a fresh host {e.g.
man) by injecting such serum subcutaneously. The modem
system of hygiene is in great part founded upon recent pathology.
The recognition of the dangers accompanying the drinking of
polluted water or milk, or of those attached to the breathing of a
gecm-poUuted atmosphere, has been the natural sequence of an
improved knowledge of pathology in its bactcriotogical relation-
ships. Skin-grafting and regeneration of bone are among not the
least remarkable applications of pathological principles to the
oombat with disease in recent times; and in this connexion may
also be mentioned the daring acts of surgery for the relief of
tumours of the brain, rendered practicable by Improved methods
of locaJization, as well as operations upon the serous cavities for
diseased conditions within them or in thdr vicinity.
For the special pathological details of various diseases, see the
separate ariicks on Parasitic Diseases; Neuro-Patholocy ;
Digestive Organs; Respiratory System; Blood: Circutaiion:
Metabolic Diseases; Fever; Bladder; Kidneys; Skix Dis-
eases; Eve Diseases; Heart Disease; Ear. &c.; and the articles
on different diseases and ailments under tl« headings of their
common names.
Authorities. — ^Adaml, " Infbmmation,** AUbutCs Sysiem of
J/inL (London, 1896), vol. 1.; Afanassicff, " Granulation Tissue and
Infection." CenlraM. /. o/ff. Path, «. polk. Anal, (1896). vii. 456;
Arnold. " Finer Structure of the Cell.*' Arck. f. path. Atiat. (1879).
Ixxvii. 181; Beyerinck. BtobacJUungn Sb, 4, ertUn EntmicUungs-
phoien einiper CynipidenMtten CAmsterdam, 1882); Bordct. " Phago-
cytosis," Amn.ie finsL Pa$teur (1895), x. 104; Buchncr. " Chcmio-
taxis of Leucocytes," BerL Uin. Wodunuhr, (1890). xxvti. 1081;
Cancar: synopets of recent literature. See 77k« PracMioner (1809).
vol. ix.; Chatin, " Direct Cdlubr Division," Compt. rend. acaa. d.
ic. (1898), cxxW. 1163; Coats, Manual of Pathotogy (London, 1895):
Cohnhcim. VarUsuntem 6b. aUg, Path. Btriim (l877>i88o): Comil.
" Osgaaoatioa ol CWt within Vessels." /. de I'anaL «l pkysial.
fr897)/ sniii. 901; DavklsohQ. " Espari«cotal AnqrIoSd." AHk
/. path. AnaL (i897)f d. 16; Ddage, "Studies in Merocooy.'*
Arek, dt tool. expSr. it ten. (1899). vii. 383; Ehrtkh. ** MastzcUcn."
Arek. /. mtft. AnaL (1877). siii. 363; Eflgelmaan. " Cbemiotaxis d
Oxygen for Bacteria." Anh. /. d. foTPkynoL (1881), nv. aB<:
Farmer. " PreMUit Pbsitbn of some Cell Problems." Natur* (1898).
Iviii. 63; Flemming, "Studies in Regeneration of the Tissues,
ArcKfrnik. Anat. (1885), xxiv. 371: Frank, Die Krankkeiten dn
PJIanntn (Breslau, 1895)^; CaleottT, " Experimental^ Production of
Proceisei," " " . .• ^ . _
Imeppular Karyokinetic ]
' Btitt. a. patk. Amok «. c aOe,
Patk, (1893)1 aiv. 288; Grawitx, *' Slumber Cdb," Arek. f. patk.
Anat. (1892), cxxvii. 96; Hahn, " Increase of Natural Resistance by
Production of Hypcrieucocytosis," Berl. Uin. Wochcnxkr. (1896).
xxxiii. 864; Hamilton. " Process of Healing," Jenm. AnaL PkmaL
and Patk. (1879), xiti. 518. also " Oiganlzation of Sponge," Edm.
Med. /otir».(i8&z). xxvii. 385 ; TaO-Book 0/ Pathology (London. 1894} :
Hanscmana. " Pathological Mitosis," Arek. f. path.
AnaL (1891),
cxxiii. 356; Hartig. Text- Book of the Diseases of Trees (Ene. tnn%.\
London. 1694): Heidenhain, ^Action of Poisons 00 Nei
dlla " ■ - • • • ' '" '
* Qt.cstion — - , .
" Central-Body of Giant-cells.'
Submaxillary Gland." Arch. f. d. fe«. Physiol. (18^2) v. 30% aim,
'"" of Lymph Production," ibid. (1891). xlix. aoo, alio.
ody of Giant-cells." Morph. Arh. (iB"-^ "•• ""•
O. Hertwtg, Die Zelle «. d. Cewebe (itog, also Eng.
Hcukelom, "Sarcoma and Plastic Inflammatk>ni^ Arek. J. path.
U JUW.
(1897), vii. ajj;
trans.. 1895);
AnaL (1887), cviL 393; Ji
tk>ns,*' ArUt. /. path. An
Unna's Plasma-Cells in dcanula-
cl. 197; lUrgelanaa, " Pto-
tcctive Action 'of 'Granulations,'* aeilrdge s^'patk. Anal. n'. c. aUg.
Path., ZiegUr (i90t). xxix. 93; Kkkhefd. ** Histology of Mucoid.^
Arch. f. path. Anal. (189a). cxxix. 490; Krawkovr. *' Chemiatfy of
Amyloid/' ArduL exper. Path. u. PkarmakoL (i ' '
"Experimental Amyloid,"
Arek /. path, AnaL (1898). d^j62:
■ " n^tlm m A^fS A mitt mm m i "
Krompacher. " Plasma-Cells." Betlr. s. po/A. Anai. u. %, aUg, Path.
(1898). cdv. 163: Labb6. La Cytolegie expirimental* (Paris. 1898);
Lazanis-Uailow, "Lymph Formation," Jomm. Physiol. Camk.
(189W896). idx. 418. also. Mannal «f General Pathology (Loadoiw
1898): Loeb, " Certain Activities of the Epithelial Tissue of Skin
of Guinea-pig^ &c.." Johns Hopkins Hasp. Bull., BalL (1898), ix. 1,
also " ArtifKial Production of Normal Larvae," Amer. Jonrm.
Physiol. (1890). lit. 135; LOwit, *' Relationship of Leucocytes to
Bacterial Action," BeUr. & ^nzljk. AnaL «. s. allg. Path. (1807). xu.
173; LubarKh. "Experimental Aipyioid," Arch. f. paOL AmaL
(1897). d. 471; Lubarsch and Ostcrug. Ergebnisse der spet. path.
Morpkotogie u. Pkysiologie des Menschen (Wiesbaden. 1896) : Lodww.
Lekrimch der Physiol, vol. ii.; Marshall Ward. Timber aW somelf
its Diseases (London. 1889); Masaart and Bordet. " Irriubihty ol
Leucocytes," Joum. puhL par la soc. des sci. nUd. el nal. de BruxeOes
O890), vol. v.; MetcnnilcoR, Lectures on Comp. Path, of Tnflammatvrm
(Eng. trans.. London, 1893); Notkin. " Nature of Colloid in Thyroid
Gland." Arth.f. path. AnaL (1896). cxliv. 324 (SuppL Hit.): Kommk.
" Experimental Reseaichcs on Amyloidosis." Areh. f. paik. AmaL
(1898). dii. 163; Oddi, " Nature of Amyloid." Areh.f. exp. potk. m.
Pharmakol (1894). xxxiii 376; l^gct. *' Address on HcaCng." Bnt.
Med. Joum. f 1880). ii. 61 1 : Ptlagattl, " Btastomycetes and rlyaUnc
degeneration,^' Arch. f. patk. Anat. (1897). d. sap Penao, "Influ-
ence of Temperature on Ollular Rf^eneratkm, Ankmos per le
uienu medicue (1893): Pfeffcr, " Chemiotaxis," Vnters. ans d. b»L
Jnst.,su Tubingen (1884). i. 363; ibid. (1888); Pkkardt, " CHieroistry
of Paihokeical Exudates." Bert. klin. Wochenschr. (1897). xndv. 844;
Plimnier, " Aetidoey and Hbtokwy of Cancer," Practitioner (1899L
ix. 4)o; Ruffer and Plimmer, " Cancer Bodies." Jomm. Piath. amd
Bacterial. (1893-1803). t. 595; Runeberg, "Filtratwn of Albuninmas
^ 'd. ges. PhysioL (1885), xxxv. 34, also " Diagnoatk
* Dropsical Lit^uids," Dentsch. Artk. J. kiwa.
Lkiuids,"ilrc*./. <^ ^
Value of PlotcW in ^ .
Med. (1883), xxxiv. I : Russell. " Fudmn Bodies," Bril Med: Jot
(1890), ii. 1356; SalvioU. " Production of Oedema." Virtkom amd
Hirsch'i Jahrtsberieht (1885), L 333; Scbottl&nder, " Nuclear mad
Cdl Dhristoa in EpithcUum of Inflamed Skin." ilrc*. /. mik. AmmL
(1888). xxxi. 436: Sczawinska, "Reticular Structure ol Kcrv«^
Cells.'* Compt. rend. acad. d. sc. (1896), cxxiiL 379: Senator. " On
Transudation." vtrrilt./. path. Anal. (1888). cxi.aiozShattock." Heal-
ine of Incisions in Vcgcuble Tissues," Jonm. Path, and BaderioL
(1898), v. 39; V. Sichcrcr. '^Chemiotaxis of Leucocytes of Warm-
blooded Animals outside the Body," Minch. mod. Woekensekr, (ifl96).
"' *" ■ ' ^.(i«
313: Starting, " Mechanical Factors in Lymph Pradoctsi
Jonm. <^ PhysioL (1894), xvi. 334. also a number of other papers
xliii. 976: Si^ert,
cxxix. 51.
„ . • Coiponi Amylacea." Areh.f. path. AuaL (-_ ^,.
:_Scarting, " Mechanicsl Factors in Lymph Prod u c i son."
tS92}.
bearing upon lymph*production, in same; Thome. ** EsMlotheiia
as Phagocytes," Areh.f. mik. Anat. (1898). til 830; Thoma. Lekrk^k
d. allg. Patk. (1894). also vol. L (Eng. tmns.. London, iS96>:
Trambusii, " On Structure and Division of Sarcoma Celk," Bear.
s. patk. AnaL u. a. allg. Patk. (1897). xxil. 88; Vcrwom. Corner^
Physiology (Eng. trans., London. 1899); Wnamann, Essmys mfiom
Heredity (Eng. tmns.. Oxford. l89i):alao. The Germ Plasm (Loodoa.
1893): Welch. " Oedema of Lung." Areh.f. path. AnaL (1878). facu.
375: Wilson, The Cell in Development and Inheritance (LocKloic
1896): Zieder. " Entxflndung." in Eulenbufg's Real Eneydopetfd^^
also Texi-Book of Special Patkohgjkal Anatomy (Eng. traaa.. New
Yoric 1897). (6. J. its R. Ma.*}
PATIALA^PATKUL
^27
PA1I4LA, or Puttial*, a native state of India, wtthin the
Punjab. It is the premier sute of the Punjab, and cUeC.ol the
three Sikh PhuUdan atatea— Patiala, Natha aad Jind. It ooneistt
of thtoa detached blocks of territoiy, mostly in the plains^ though
one portion extends into the hills near Simla^ Area 5412 sq. nu;
pop. (xgox), 1,596,699; estimated levenue, £440,000; military
force (including Imperial Service troops), 3499 men. Thestate was
founded by a Sikh chieftain about 1763, and came under British
protection, with the other ds-Sutlej states, in 1809. Fatt^
remained conspicuously loyal to the British during Uie Mutiny
of 1857, Narindar Singh, its ruler, setting an example to the other
Sikh states which was of the utmost value. The mafaaraja,
Rajendra Singh, who died in 1900, was devoted to riding and
sport. He took part personally in the Tirah campaign of '1897-
98, with a battalion of his own Imperial Senriee infantry and
a fiek) troop of Imperial Service lancers. In reoDgnition of his
services on this occasran he seodved the G.C.S.I* He was
succeeded by his son, Bhupindar Singh, who waa bora in X891.
The town of PatiaUi has a station on the branch of the North-
western railway from Rajpura to Bhatinda. Pop. (1901),
S3>545- It contains several fine modem buildings, including
palaces, hospitals and schools.
See Pkulkian Slakt Caulker (Lahore, 1909)^
PATIBNCB, the name given to certain card-games phyed by a
single person. Although known for centuries, they have
seldom been mentioned by writers on playing-cards, and the
rules have for the most part been handed down orally. There are
two main varieties; in one luck alone pi^vails, since the player
has no choice of play but must follow strict rules; in (he other an
opportunity is given for the display of skill and judgment, as the
player has the choice of several plays at different stages of the
game. Tlic usual object is to bring the cards into regular
ascending or descending sequences. The starting card is called
the " foundation," and the " family " (sequence) is " built "
upon it. In other varieties of Patience the object is to make
pairs, which are tb^n discarded, the game being brought to a
successful conclusion when all the cards have been paired; or
to pair cards wb*ch will together make certain numbers, and then
discard as before. There are hundreds of Patience games,
ranging from the simplest to the most complicated.
See Jarbart*s Cam^i of Patience in Dc la Rue's scries of handbooks
(•905): Palience Games, by " Cavendish " (London, 1890): Cycle-
paedta of Card and Table Gatnes^ by Professor Hoffmann (London.
1891}: Paiiemu Games, by Professor Hoffmann (London, 1893)-
Games of Patience, by A. Howard Cady (Spalding's Home Library,
New York. 1896): Dick's Games of Patience, edited by W. B. and
H. B. Dick (New York. 1898) ; Games 0/ Patience (4 series), by Mary
E. W. Jones (London, 1898); Le Lwre iUustri des patienees, by
** Comtcsse de Blanccocur " (Paris, 1898).
PATIWA (probably from the Latin word for a flat dish, from
paiere, to lie open; cf. " paten "), a thin coating or incrustation
which forms on the surface of bronze after exposure to the air or
burial in the ground. It is looked on as a great addition to the
beauty of the bronze, espedally wTien it Is Of the green colour
found on antique bronzes (see Bronze). By extension, the word
is applied to the discoloured or intrusted surface of marble,
flint. &c.. acquired after long burial In the ground or exposure to
the air, and ailso to the special colour given to wood surfaces by
time.
PATI90, JOSt or JoSEP (1666-X736), Spanbh statesman,
was born at Milan, on the nth of April 1666. His father, Don
Lucas Patifio dc Ibarra, Seftor de Castelar, who was by origin
a Gah'dan, was a member of the privy council and Inspector
of the troops in the duchy of Milan for the king of Spain, to
whom it then belonged. His mother's maiden name was Beatrice
de Rosales y Pacini. The Patifio family were strong supporten
of the Bourbon d3masiy in the War of the Spanish Succession.
The elder brother Baltasar, afterwards marquis of Castelar,
bad a distinguished career as a diplomatist, and his son Lucas
was a general of some note. Jos^ Patifk), who had been intended
for the priesthood but adopted a secular career, was granted
the reversion of a seat in the senate of Milan on the acces- 1
aon of Phillip V. tn 1700, but on the I0s8 of the duchy farwas I
tansfened to Spain, and put •» tlie gdvetmng body of the mUv>
tary orders in 1707. During the War of Succession he tervcd
as intendent of Estremaduia, and then of Catalonia from: 1.711
to 1718. In 1717 he was named Intenfient of the navy, which
had just been reorganised on the French model Mis capacity
and his faculty for hard worlc secured him the appmval A
Alberoni, with whom, however, he was never on very friendly
terms in private life. PatiAo's Italian education, which affected
his Spanish style, and caused him to fall into Italianisms all
through his life, may have lerved to recommend him still further.
Pbtiflo profoundly distnisted the reckless foreign !pdLky undei*
taken by Alberoni under the instigation of the king and his
obstinate queen, Elizabeth Farnese. He foretold that it would
lead to disaster, but as a public servant he could only obey ocdea^
aad he had the chief merit of organizing the various expeditioaa
sentout to Sardinia, Sicily and Ceuta between 1718 and 1 yao, He
became known to the king and queen in the latter year, while
he was acting as a species of oammissary'general during the
disastrous operations against the French troops 00 the frontier
of Navanc. It was not, however, until 1726 that he was fully
trusted by the king. He and his broUier, the marquis of Castekr,
were the dnef opponenta of the advcBtnrer Ripperdft, who
captivated the king and queen for a timOi On the fall of tbia
lemarkaUe person, Patiiko was named secretary for the oayy,
the Indie»^that is to say the colonies— and for foreign aff aiss.
The war office waa added to the other departments at a later
date. From the 13th of Zday 1726 until hia death on the 3td
of November 1736 Patifio was in fact pdbic minister. During
the later part of his administration he waa much engaged in
the laborious negotiations with England in relatwn to the
disputes between the two countries over their commercial and
colonial rivalries hi America, which after his death led to the
outbreak of war in 1739.
In hb PatiHo y CampiOa (Madrid. 188^, Don Antonio Rodiiques
Vilb has collected the dates of the autcsman's life, aitd has pub-
lishcd some valuable papers. But the best account of PatiAo's
administration is to be found in Coxe's Memoirj of the Kiw of
Spain of the Houie of Bourbon (London, 1815). which is fovndad
on the concspondence of the English ministers at Madrid.
PATtO, the Spanish name for an Inner court or endoced
space fn a house, which b open to the sky. The **^patto " is a
common feature in houses in Spain and Spanish Ameriea. The
word is generally referred to the Let. patme^ to lie open; cf.
** patent,*' or to spalium, space.
PATKUU JOHANN RBIMHOLD (166^1707), Livonmn
politician and agitator, was bom fn prison at Stockhotm,
where his father lay under suspicion of treason. He entered
the Swedish army at an early age and was already a captain
when, in 1689, at the head of a deputairon of Livonlan gentry,
he went to Stockholm to protest against the rigour with which
the hind-recovety project of Charles XI. was being carried out
in his native province. His eloquence favourably Impressed
Charles XI., but his representatfons were disregarded, and the
offensive language with which. In another petition addressed to
the king three years later, he renewed his complaints, involved
him in a government prosecution. To save himself from the
penalties of high treason, Patkul fled from Stockholm to Switzer-
land, and was condemned tn tantumaciam to lose his right hand
and bis head. His estates were at the same time confiscated.
For the next four years he led a vagabond life, but in 1698,
after vainly petitioning the new king. Charles XII., for pardon,
he entered the service of Augustus the Strong of Saxony and
Poland, with the deliberate intention of wresting from Sweden
Livonia, to which he had now no hope of returning so long as
that province belonged to the Swedish Crown. The aristocratic
republic of Poland was obviously the most convenient suzerain ^
for a Llvonian nobleman; so, in 1698, Patkul proceeded to the
court of the king-elector at Dresden and bombarded Augustus
with proposals for the partition of Sweden. His first plan was
a combination against her of Saxony, Denmark and Branden*
burg; but, Brandenburg failing him, he was obliged very un*
willingly to admit Russia into the partnership. The tsar was
to'be content with Ingria and Esthonta, whflc Augustus wte
928
PATMORE, COVENTRY— PATMOS
to take Livonia, nomlnany at a fief afPolaad, but really at an
hereditary possession of the Saaon house. Military operations
a^nst Sweden's Baltic provinces were to be begun simultane-
ously by the Saxons ^nd Russians. After thus forging the
first link of the partition treaty, Patkul proceeded to Moscow,
knd, at a secret conference hdd at Preobrszhenskoye, easily
persuaded Peter the Great to accede to the nefarious league (Nov.
II, 1699). Thoughout the earlier, unluckier days of the Great
Northern War, Patkul was the mainstay of the confederates.
At Vienna, in 170a, he picked up the Scottish general George
Benedict Ogilvic, and enlisted him in Peter's service* The
sanne year, recogniaing the unprofitableness of serving such a
master as Augustus, he exchanged the Sax(» for the Russian
service. Peter was gUd enough to get a man so famous for his
talents and energy, but Patkul speedily belied his reputation.
His knowledge was too local and limited. On the 19th of August
1704 be succeeded, at last, in bringing abonA a treaty of alliance
between Russia and the Ftolish republic to strengthen the hands
of Augustus, but he failed to bring Prussia also into the anti-
Swedish league because of Frederick I.'s fear of Chsrles and
jeabusy of Peter. From Berlin Patkul went on to Dresden to
opndude an Agreement with the imperial commissioners for
the transfer of the Russian contingent from the Sakon to the
Austrian service. Hie Saxon ministers, after protesting against
the new arrangement, arrested Patkul and shut him up in the
fortress of Soimcnstein (Dec. xg, 1705), altogether disregarding
the remonstrances of Peter against such a gross viokition of
International kw. After the peace of AHranstadt <Sept. 24,
1707) he was delivered up to Charles, and at Kazimierz in Poland
(OcL 10, 1707) was broken alive on the wheel, Charles rejecting
.an appeal for mercy from his sister, the prihcess Ulrica, on the
ground that Patkul^ as a traitor, could not be pardoned for
example's sake.
See O. Sjflgren. Johan ReimkM Patkul (Siied.) (Stockholm, 1882) :
Anton Buchfiolcz, Beitrda av Lebeustnekkhle J. R, Palkitis (Leip-
aig.i«93). (R.N.U)
PATHORB, COVENTRY KBRSBT DIQHTON (1823-1896),
English poet and critic, the eldest son of Peter George PaUnore,
binifielf an author, was born at Woodford in £ssex, on the xsrd
of July 1823. He was privately educated, being his father's
intimate and constant companion, and derived from him his
early literaiy enthusiasm. It was his first ambition to become
an artist, and he showed much promise, being Awarded the
silver palette of the Society of Arts in 1838. In the following
year he was sent to school in France, where he studied for six
inonihs, and began to write poetry. On his return his father
oontemplated the publication of soine of these youthful poems;
but in the meanwhile Coventry had evinced a passion for science
and the poetry was set aside. He soon, however, returned to
literary interests, moved towards them by the sudden success of
Tennyson; and in 1844 be published a small volume of Potms,
which was not without individuality, but marred by inequalities
of workmansliip. It was widely criticized, both in praise and
blame; and Patmore, distressed at its reception, bought up the
remainder of the edition and caused it to be destroyed What
chiefly wounded him was a cruel review in Blackwuodt written
in the worst style of unreasoning abuse; but the enthusiasm
of private friends, together with their wiser criticism, did much
to help him and to foster his talenL Indeed, the publication
of this little volume bore immediate fruit in introducing its
author to various men of letters, among whom was Dante
Gabriel Rossetti, through whose offices Patmore became known
to Holman Hunt, and was thus drawn into the eddies of the
pre-Raphaclite movement, contributing his poem " The Seasons "
, to the (/Cffii. At this time Patmore's father became involved
in financial embarrassments; and in 1846 MoncktonMilncs secured
for the son an assistant-librarianship in the British Museum,
A post which he occupied industriously for nineteen years,
devoting his spare time to poetry. In 1847 he married Emily,
daughter of Dr Andrews of Cambcrwell. At the Museum he was
Austere and remote among his companions, but was nevertheless
Milruacatd in 1852 in starting the Volunicer movcmcnu. He
wiote aa impettant letter to Tkt Timts iqioii tke m^jpdU and
•tirred up much martial enthusiasm among his colleagues. In the
next year he republished, in Tanurt^H Chunk Ttmtr^ the note
successful pieces from the Poems of 1844, adding aevesai new
poems which showed distiact advance, both in conceptioa and
treatment; and in the following year (1854) appeared the first
part of his best known pbem^ "The Angel in the Hoose," wbidb
was continued in " The Espousals " (1856), " Faithful for Ever **
(i860), and " The Victories of Love " (1862). In 1862 he lost
his wife, after a long and lingering illness, and shortly afterwards
joined the Roman Catholic Church. In i86s be xnanjed again,
his aecood wife being Miss Marianne Byks, seoood daughter
of James Byles of Bowden Hall, Gloucester; sad a srcar
Uter purchased an estate in East Grinstead, the history cf
which may be read in Hew I managfid my EsiaU, published ia
1886. In 1877 appeared Tke Unknown Enst which anqucstioa-
ably contains hia finest work in poetry, and in the foUowiac
year Arndta^ his own favourite among his poems, together with aa
interesting, though by no means undisputable, essay on En^iik
Metrical Law. This departure into criticism Ike continued
further in 1879 with a volume of papers entitled PnmdpU
in Art, and again in 1893 with Rdigjk^ peeltae. Meanwhile his
second wife died in z88o, and in the next year he married
Miss Harriet Robsoiu In later years he lived at Lyauagtoa,
where he died on the 26th of November 1896.
A collected edition of his poems appeared in two volumes in
1886, with a characteristic preface which might serve as the
author's epitaph. " I have written little," it runs; ** but it
is all my fa«st; I have never spoken when I had nothing to say,
nor spared time or labour to make my words true. I ba\T
respected posterity; and should there be a posterity which cares
for letters, I dare to hope that it will respect me." The obvious
sincerity which underlies this statement, combined with a
certain lack of humour which pccr% through its rui!vct6, points
to two of the principal charaaeristics of PaUnore's earlier
poetry; characteristics which came to be almost unconsciously
merged and harmonized as his style and his intention drrv
together bto unity. In the higher flights, to which be arose
as his practice in the art grew perfected, he is always noble
and often sublime. His best work is found in the volume of
odes called The Unknown Eros, which is full not only of passages
but of entire poems in which exalted thought is expressed in
poetry of the richest and most dignified melody. The antroatlE^
spirit of tove, moreover, has here deepened and intensified
into a crystalline harmony of earthly passion with the love that
is divine and transcending; the outward manifestation is
regarded as a symbol of a sentiment at once eternal and quiot*
essentiaL Spirituality informs his inspiration; the poetry is d
the finest elements, glowing and alive. The magnificent piece
in praise of winter, the solemn and beautiful cadences of " De-
parture," and the homely but elevated pathos of ** The Toys.''
are in their various manners unsurpassed in English poetry
for sublimity of thought and perfection of exprcs«on. Pat-
more is one of the few Victorian poets of whom it may confidently
be predicted that the memory of his greater achievements wUI
outlive all consideration of occasional lapses from taste and
dignity. He wrote, at his best, in the grand manner, zndody
and thought according with perfection of expression, and has
finest poems have that indefinable air of the inevitaUe whidh
is after all the touchstone of the poetic quality. His soa«
Henry John Patmore (1860-1883), left a number of poems
posthumously printed at Mr Daniell's Oxford Press, whiLh
show an unmistakable lyrical quality. fA.\V4.)
The standard life of Patmore iz the Memoirs and CorrestcwtA-
ence (1901), edited by Ba^tl Champncys. See also E. W. Go^ar.
Cooentry Patmore (1905. "Literary Lives" teries). and aa essAy
by Mrs McyncU prefixed to the selection (190$) in the "Mass*
Library."
PATHOS, an island in the east of the Aegesn Sea« one of the
group of the Sporades, about 28 ro. S.S.W. of Samos, ia 37* 70'
N. lat. and 26^ 35' E. long. Its greatest length from N. to S.
is about 10 m.. its greatest breadth 6 m«, its drcuffiference, owi:^
to the winding nature of the coast, about 37 au The islaa^
whic^ Um bigbcst riact to aboot teo ft., commaiid magnificfat
views of the Mighbouring «ea aild islands. • The skill of the
natives as aeamen. is pmverbiai la the archipelago. The deeply
indented coast, here falling in huge difis sheer into the sea,
there retiring to form a beacb and a harbour, is favourable
to opmmerce^ as in former tames it wits to ptraoy. Of the
nunieiwis bays and harbouis the chief is that of Scala, which,
running far into the iaad on the eastern side, divides the island
into two nearly equal portioiu-r" a northern and a southern. A
natiow isthmts' separates Scahi from the bay of Merika on the
west cosst. On the belt of land between the two bays, at
the juoetion between the nocthem and sottthem half of the
island, stood the andent town. On the hill above axw still to
be seen the massive remains ol the ciudd, built portly in poly"
gonal style. The modem town stands on a hill top in the
southern half of the islsnd. A steep paved toad leads to it
in about twenty minutes from the port of Scala. The town
dusters at the foot of the monastery of St John, which, czowmng
the hill with its towers and battlements, resembles a fortress
rather than a monasteiy. Of the 600 hlSS. once possessed by
the library of the monastery^ only 840 are left. The houses of
the town are better built than those of the neighbouring islands,
but the streets are narrow and winding. The population is
about 4000k The port of Scak contains about 140 houses,
besides some old wcU-built magaaines and some potteries.
Scattered over the island- are about 300 chapels.
Patmos is mentioned first by Tbucydides (iiL 33) and after-
wards by Stmbo and Pliny. From an inscriptbn it has been
Inferred that the name was originally Patnos. Another andcot
inscriptfott seems to show that the lonians settled there at an
early date. The chief, indeed the only, title of the isUnd to
fame is that it was the place of banishment of St John the
Evangelist, who according to Jerome (De sir. &, c 9) and
otheis, was exiled thither under Domitian in a.d. 95, and released
about eighteen months afterwards under Nerva. Here he is
said to have written the Apocalypse; to the left of the road
from Scala to the town, about half-way up the hill, a grotto is
still shown (rAo«4XaMrn)s'AiroKaXii^^) in which the apostle is
said to have received the heavenly vision. It is reached through
a smaO chapd dedicated to St Anne. The Acts of St John,
attributed to Prochorus, narrates the miracles wrought by the
apostle during his stay on the island, but, strangely enough,
while describing how the Co^l was revealed to him in Patmos,
it docs not so much as mention the Apocalypse. Daring the
dark ages Patmos seems to have been entlrdy deserted, probably
on account of the pirates^ In 1088 the emperor Alexis Com-
nenus, by a golden bull, which is still preserved, granted. the
island to St Christodulus for the purpose of foundinga monastery.
This was the origin of the monastery of St John, which now
owns the greater part of the southern half of Patmos, as well
as farms ux Crete, Samos and other neighbouring islands.
The embalmed body of the saintly founder is to be seen to
this day in a side chapd of the church. The number of the
monks, which amounted to over a hundred at the beginning
of the x8th century, u now much reduced. Theabbot {ijyobiitpos)
has the rank of a bishop, and Is subject only to the patriarch
of ConsUntinople. There is a school in connexion with the
monastery which fonnerly enjoyed a high repuution in the
Levant. The modem town wsa recruited by refugees from
Constantinople in 1453, and from Crete in 1669^ when these
places fell into the hands of the Turks. The island |s subject
to Turkey; the governor is the pasha of Rhodes. The popuht*
tfon is Gieek. The women are chiefly engsged in knitting
cotton stockings, which, slong with some pottery, form the
did exports of the island.
See Ibumdort, Jidaiicn d'um voyw f^L*^ O^^V ^V^^'
Walpde, Memoirs (rdatioa to Turkey) (London. 1820); Row,
Reisen aufdtn griechischm Insdn (Stutteart and Halle. /8ip-l852);
Gu£rin. beseriplum de VUe it Patmos (Paris, 1856); H. F. Toier,
jMlarnds of IheAetnMtpp, 179^193.
PATMA, a city, district, and division of British India, m
Ifea Mu« iBOviaos of BengaL .The dtjr, whidi is tha most
important eonmeKid centtie In Boigal aftor Cslctttta, Bes oa
the right bank of the Ganges, a little distance below the confluence
ef the Sone and the Gogra, and opposite the confluence of the
Gandak, with a statfon on the East Indian mllway 33 j m. N.W.
of Calcutta. Munidpal area, 61S4 acres. Pop. (rgoi), 134,785.
Indudiog the dvii sution of Bankipur to the west, the dty
stretches along the river bank for nearly 9 miles. Still farther
west is the mlHtaxy cantonment of Dinapur. A government
college was fqunded in i86t. Other educatfonal institutions
indude the Befaar school of engineering organiaed in rS^r.
Patna dty has been identified with PaUfa'putra (the Pallbothra
of Megasthenes, who came as ambassador from Seleucus Nicatbr
to CbandragupU about 300 B.C.). Megasthenes describes
Palibotbnt as being the capital of Indii^ He adds that its
kngtb was 80 stadia, and breadth xs; that it was surrounded by
a ditch 30 cubits deep, axid that the walls were adorned with
570 towers and 64 gates. According to this account the dr-
cumfercnoe ol the dty would be 190 sudia or 25} miles. Asoka
built an outer masonry wall and beautified the dty with innumer-
able stone building The greater part of the andent dty still
lies buried in the silt of the rivers under Patna and Bankipuf
at a depth of from xo to ao ft. The two events in the modem
history of the district are the massacre of Patna (1763) and the
Sepoy Mutiny in 1857. The former occurrence, which may be
said to have settled the fate of Mahoromedan rule in Bengal,
was the result of a quarrd between the nawab,Mir Kasim,and
the English authorities regarding transit duties, which ultimately
led to open hostilities. The company's sepoys, who had occupied
Patna dty by the orders of the company's factor, were driven
out by the nawab's troops and nearly all killed. The remainder
afterwards surrendered, and were put into confinement, together
with the European ofiicets and the entire staff of the Cossimbaxar
factory, who had also been arrested on the fiz&t outbreak of
hostili t ies. Mir Kasim was ddeated In two pitched battles at
Gheria and Udhanala (OodeynuUah) in August and September
1763. and in revenge ordered the massacre of all his prisoners,
which was carried out with the hdp of a renegade in his employ-
ment named Waiter Rdnhardt, (afterwards the husbaxid of
the famous Begum Samra). About sixty En^ishmen were
murdered on tfak occasion, the bodies being thrown into a well
bdoogiag to the house in which they were confined. At the
outbreak of the mntmy In May 1857 the thiee sepoy rejimcnts
autioned at Dinapur (the military cantonment of Patna,
adjoining the dty) were allowed to retain thdr arms till July,
when, on an attempt bdng made to disarm them, they brake
into open revolt. Although many who attempted to cross the
6angcs in boats were fired into and run down by a pursuing
steamer, the majority crossed by the Sone river into Shahabad,
where they joined the rebels under Kuar Singh who were theii
besieging a small European community at Atreh.
The Disiaicr oi Paima has an area of 207$ sq. m.; pop.
(1901), 1,624,985. • Throughout the greater pairt of its extent
the district Is a level plain; but towards the south the
ground rises into hills^ The soil Is for the most part allu-
vial, and the country afong the bank of the Ganges is
peculiariy fertile. Hie genexal line of drainage is from west
to east; and hi|^ ground along • the south of the Ganges
forces back the riven flowing from Gaya district. The result
Is that during the rains neariy the whole interior of the
district south of a fine drawn paralld to the Ganges, and 4
or 5 m. from Its bank, is flooded. In the south-east are the
Rajgir Hills, consisting of two parallel tidgea ruxming south-
west, with a narrow valley between, intersected by ravines
and passes. These hOls, which seldom exceed 1000 fL in
height, are rocky and dothed with tlridc low jungle, and cootaiti
some of the earliest memoriab of Indian Buddhism. The
chid riven are the Ganges and the Sone. The only other river
of any consequence b the Punpun, which is ddtOy rcmackable
for the number of petty irrigation canals which it supplies. So
much of the river is thus diverted that only a small portioA of
its wttter ever readies the Ganges at Fatwa. The chid crops
aw xio«, wheat, hailqy, maiia and pube; popfjgr aad p oC sto st
930
PATNA— PATRAS
•re dbo of imporUDoe. Apartfrom the Sdne cual, irrigttiim
it Urgdy pnctiscd (rom private channels and also from wcUa.
The distria is Uavencd by the main line of the Eaat Indian
ixilvay, with two branches south to Gay» and Bihar.
The Division or Patna extended across both sides of the
Ganges. It comprised the seven districts of Patu^ Caya,
Shahabad, Saran, ChaniMurant MozaSaqmr and Darbhanga.
Total aica, 93.74^ ^l* m.; pop. (xgoi), 15,514,987. In 1908
the foor last districts north of tiie Ganges were formed intb
the new division of Tirhut; and the name of Patna division
was ooniioed to the three fint districts south of the Ganges.
See L. A. Waddell. Piscewtry rf At Eaaa Siig of Atoka's Odssio
CafUal 0/ PataliptOm (1892); Vincent Smith, Asoka (" Riifen of
India " series, 1901} ; Patna Distria Gaxetteer (Calcutta, 1907}.
PATMA* one of the Orissa tributary states in Bengal, with
an area of 3399 sq. m. It lies in the basin of the Mahanadi
fiver, and is divided by a forest-clad hiUy tract into a northen
and a southern portion, both of which are undulating and wdl
cultivated. Pop. (1901),' 277*748, showing a decrease of 16%
in the docade^ mainly due to the effecu of famine in 19001
Neariy the wlurfe population consists of Oriyas. The capital
b Bolangir: pop. (190X), 3706. The principal cfop is rice.
The T"«*fw»yi* of Patna were lormeriy heads of a group of
states known as the atkara garlijat or " eighteen forts." They
are Chauhban Rajputs, and claim to have been estabBsHed in
Patna for six centuries. Patna was the scene of a rcbcUion of
the Klwnds, followed by atrocities on the pari of their rulers,
in 1869, and, in consequence, came under British management
in 187 1. The mahanga Ramchandia Singh, installed in 1894,
was insane and put an end to his own life in the foUowiag year,
whereupon his unde, Lai Dalganjan Singh, became chief,
nndertaking to administer with the assistance of a diwan or
minister appointed by the British government. The powers
of thb official were extended in 1900 after a serious outbreak
of dacoity. Till 1905 the state was included in the Central
Provinces.
PATOISt a French term strictly confined to the dialect of
a district or locality in a country which has a common literary
language, often used of the form of a common language as
spoken by Ulitccatc or uneducated persons, marked by vulgar-
isms in pronunciation, granmitr, &c The origia of the word
is not certain. It has been taken to be a corruption of palrois,
from Low Lat. partri€n$is, of or bebnging to one's patna, or
native country, fatherland.
PATOM, JOHM BBOWN (x^o* ), British Nonconformist
divine, was bom on the X7th of December 1830. He was
educated at London, Poole and Spring Hill CoU^, Birming-
ham; he graduated B.A. at London University in 1849, and was
Hebrew and New Testament prizeman in 1850 and gold medallist
in philosophy in 1854. He received the honorary degree of
doctor of divinity from Glasgow Univcoity in x88i. When
the Nottingham Congregational Institute was founded in
1863 he became the first principal, a post which he held
till X896, when he was woceedcd by James Alexander Mitchdl
(1849-1905), who from r9o3 till his death was general secretary
of the Congregational Union. Paton became vioo^jresident of
the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1907. He took an
active part in the fotuidation and direction of a number of
societies for religious and social work, notably the National
Home Reading Union Society and English Land Colonisation
Society, and was a constant oootributor to literary reviews.
HiBpublicatbosixKfaide The Two-fold AUenuUm {srd ed., 1900),
Tko Immf Missim of tha CIntrck (new cd., 1900), and two
volumes of collected essays. His son, John Lewis Paton
(b. 1863), who headed the Cambridge classical tripos in x886,
became head master of Blaachester grammar school in 1903.
PA10V, SEA MtEPH VOBL (X821-X901), British painter,
was bom, on the X3th of December i8ai, in Wooiers AHey,
Dunf cfmline, where his father, a feUow of the Scottish Society
«f ABtlqoaiies, carried on the trade of a damask mannfacturcr.
He show e d strong artistic inclinations in eariy childhood,
ait tniBJng, cac^ a brief period of
study la the Rayal Aaadmr Mbool fki 1843. R^ gained
a prise of isoo in the fint Wcatminater Hall compctitiott,
in 18451 for his cartoon ** The SpMt of RdUgum," and in
the following year he eihibited at the Royal Soottisli Academy
his "Quarrel of Oboon and Titaafa." A oompanion fairy
picture, ** The Reconciliation of Obcron and Tttaaia ** went
to Westminster Hall in 1847, and for it and his picture of
** Christ bearing the Cross" he was awarded a prise of £300
by the Fine Arts Coomiissaoners. The two Obcron pictures
are in the National Gallery of Scotland, wheie they have
tong been a centre of attraction. His fiivt exhibited picture,
** Ruth Gleaning," appeared at the Royal Scotfisb Academy
hi 1844. He began to contribute to the Royal Academy
of London in 1856. Throughout his career his prefcrcnoe was
for allegorical, fairy and religious subjects. AoMng his most
famous pictures are " The Pursuit of Pleasure " (1855), '^ Mors
Janua Vitae" (1866), "Oskold and the ElK-maids" (1874).
and "In Die Malo" (i88r). Sir Noel PMon also ptodoced
a certain amount of sculpture^ more notable for de^gn than
for searching execution. He was elected an associate of the
Royal Scottish Academy m xS47» ud a full member in t8^;
he was appomted Queen's Limner for Sootlaiad in 18(6, and
received knighthood in 1867. In 1878 the University of Edin-
burgh conferred upon him the degree of LLJ!>. He was a poet
of distina merit, as his Pooms by a Painter (i86x) and Spindrift
(1867) pleasantly exemplified. He was also weB known s
an antiquary, bis hobby, indeed, being the collection of arms
and armour. Sir Nod died in Edinburgh on the 36th of Boccm-
ber 1901. His eldest son, Diarmid Noel Paton (bw 1859),
became regius professor of physiology in Glasgow in 1906;
and another too, Frederick Nod Paton (b. t86i>, beamc in
1905 director of commercial uitelUgenoe to the govemmcnt of
PATRAS (Gr.. Pafras), the chief toitjfied seaport town on tbe
west coast of Greece, and chief town of the province of Achaca
and Elis, on a gulf of the same name^ 70 m. W.N.W. of Corinth.
Therear^ two railway stations, one in the i»rth«eastoa tbe fine
to Athens (via Corinth), the other on the line to Pyryos. FiopL
(1S89), 33i5>9; (1907), 37,401. It has been rebuilt since iSxx
(the War of Independence), and is the seat of a Greek arch-
bishop and an appeal court. It is the dud port of Greece,
from which the ^eat bidk of its currants are despatched. The
port, formed by a mole and a breakwater, begun in 1880, offers
a fair harbour for vessels drawing up to as ft. The expects
amsist of currsnts, sahanas, vakmea, tobacco, olive oil, olivta
in' brine, figs, dtrons, wine, brandy, cocoons, and lamb, goat,
and kid skins. The imports consist chiefly of colomal prodnce,
manufactured goods and sulphate of copper. The two most
iatercsting buUdfaigi are tbe castle, a medieval stracture on the
site of the andent acropolis, and the cathedral of St Andicw,
which is highly popufatf as the reputed burial-place of the saint.
The foundation of Patias goes back to prehistoric tiiMs,
the legendary account being that Eumdus, having been taught
by Ttiptolemus how to grow grahi in the rich soil of the Glaucus
inUcy, esubhshed three townsfaipB, Arae (ue. plonghland),
Anthda (the flowery), and Mesatis (the middle settlement),
which were united by the common worship of Artemis Tridaiia
at her shrine on the river Meilicfaus. The Achaeaas having
strengthened and enlarged Aroe, csUed it Patrae, as the cscfanaTe
residence of the ruling fafflilies,and it was rooogniaed as one of
the twdve Achaean cities. In 4x9 B.C the town was, hj tbe
advice of Aldbiades, coemeaed wkh iu harbour by long walls
in naitatioa of those at Athens. The whole aramd f oice vas
destroyed by Metdlns after the defeat of the Achaeaas at
Scarphda, and many of the remaining inhabitants focBook the
city ; but after the battle of Actium Augustus rertored the aaocaft
name Aroe, introduced a mfUtaiy colony of veterans from tbe
toth and isth legloos (not, as is usually said, the 3tnd), and
bestowed the rlghu of ooloni on tbe Inhabitants of Rhypao and
Dyme, and all the Locri Ozolae except those of Amphima
Colonia Augusta Aroe Patrensis became one of tha
populous flC slliha toms of Greepe; iu colonial c
PATRIARCH— PATRICIANS
93 »
Ikoin Augustus to C<irdbiii m. Thtt the town «ms the scene
of the mrtytdoin of St Aadrew is purely apocrjrphaU tut,
Bke Corinth, it was mn early and effective centre of Christianity;
its archbishop is mentioned in the lists of the Omodl of Sordica
in 347. In 5SZ it was laid in ruins by an eartl.quake. In 807
it was able without external assistance to defeat the Slavonians
(Avars), though most of the credit of the victory was assigned
lo St Andrew, whose church was enriched by the imperial
share of the spoils, and whose archbishop was made superior
of the bishops of Methone, Lacedaemon and Cbnone* Captured
in lacs by William of ChampUtte and Villehardooin, the dty
became the capital and its ardibishop the primate of the princi-
pality of Achaea. In 1387 De Herodia, grand master of the
order of the Hospital at Rhodes, endeavoured to make himself
master of Achaea and took Patras by storm. At the close of
the 15th century the dty was governed by the archbishop in the
name of the pope; but in 1438 Coostantine, son of John VI.,
managed to get possession of it for a time. Patras wasat lengthy
in 1687, surrendered by the Turks to the Venetians, who made
it the seat of one of the seven fiscal boards into which they
divided the Morea. In 17x4 it again fell, with the rest of the
Morea, into Turkish hands. It was at Patras that the Greek
revohitwn began in 182 1; but the Turks, confined to the dtadd,
held out lUl iSaS.
PATRIARCH (M.E. and 0. Fr. patnarckt, Lat patriafcha^GT,
vnrpikfixntt ^n>m varpid, dan, and ifixk* tule), originally the
father or chief of a tribe, in this sense now used more especially
of the " patriarchs " of the Old Testament, i,e. Abraham, Isaac
and Jacob, with their forefathers, and the twdve sons of Jacob.
In late Jewish history the title " patriarch " (Heb. ndst, prince,
chieO wsis given to the head of the sanhedrim in Palestine, and
Is sometimes, though wrongly, applied to the "enlarch," a
head of the Tewish college at Babyton.
In the eany centuries of the Christian Church the designation
'' patriarch " was applied, like *' archbishop," to bishops of
the more important sees as a merely honorary style; It
devdbped Into a title implying jurisdiction over metropohtans,
partly as a result of the organizatwo of the empire into
'* dioceses," partly owing to the ambition of the greater metro-
politan bbhops, which had eariy led them to daim and exerdse
authority in neighbouring metropolitanates. At the Council
of Chalcedon (451) the patriarchs still bore the title of " exarch ";
it was not till the 7th century that that of ** patriarch " was
filed as proper to the bishops of ConsUntinople, Alexandria,
Antioch and Jerusalem, " exarch " bdng reserved for those of
Epbesus and Caesarea, who had fallen to a lower tank. In
the West the only patriarch in the fully developed sense of the
Eastern Church has been the bishop of Rome, who is patriarch
as well as pope.
PATRICIANS (Lat. fairicius, an adjectival form from pater,
father; not, as some say, from pct0t and cicr«, to eall), a term
originally applied to the members of the -old dtizen families of
andent Rome (see I. bek> w). Under the later Roman Empire the
name was revived by the Bysantine emperors as the title of a new
order of nobility. Subsequently it was used as a personal title
of honour for distinguished servants of Constantine I. and his
successors, and was conferred on barbarian chiefs (II. bdow).
It was afterwards conferred by the pc^)es on the Prankish
king*. ' In the medieval Italian republics, e.g. Genoa and
Venice, the term was applied to the hereditary aristocracy
{pairtMh), and in the free dtics of the German Empire it was
borne by distingubhed citizens (patriuer). In Italy it is still
used for the hereditary nobility. From these spccilSc uses the
word has come into general use as a synonym of ** aristocrat "
or " noble," and implies the possession of such qualities as are
generally assodxled with long descent, hereditary good breeding
and the like. In Church history a sect founded by Patridus
{c. 587), teacher of Symmachus the Mardonite, are known as
the Patridans; they believed that all flesh was made by the
devil. The name is also, though rarely, applied to the Roman
Catholic body in Ireland regarded as the followers of St Patrick.
I. From the earliest period known to us the free popidation
of Rome contains ttro demems, ftatiidans and plebeians, the
former dass enjoying all politioJ privileges, the latter u»>
privileged. The derivation and significance of the two names
have been established with certainty. The patridans ipatncit)
are those who can point to fathers, is. those who are members
of the dans igniks) whose members originally comprised the
whole dtizen body. The plebeians {pUbs, pUbts) are the comr-
plement (from root ple9, fill, see Plsds) of the noble families
possessing a genealogy, and indude all the free popubition
other than the patridans. It has been hdd by T. Mommsea
that the plebeian order had iu sole origin in the clients who
attached themadves in a positioa of semi^freedom to the heads
of patrician booses, and gradually evolved a freedom aitd
dtixenship of their own (see Patbon and Clicnt). The logical
consequence of this view is that the plebs as an order in the state
is of considerably later growth than the beginning of the dty,
the patridans bdng originally the only freemen and the only
dtizens. But this view is untenable on two grounds. First,
in the struggle between the two orders for political privilege
we find the clients struggHag on the side of the patridans against
the main body of the plebeians (livy ti. 56). Again, a method
of taking up Roman dtizenship wluch is well attested for a very
early period reveals the possibility of a plebeian who does not
stand hi any relation to a patron. When an immigrant moved
to Rome from one of the dties of the Latin league, or any dty
whidi enjoyed theytir eommercU with Rome, and by the exerdse
of the r^ht of voluntary exile from his own state (yicsexitfam/i),
dauned Roman dtizenship, it is Impossible to suppose that it
was necessary for him to make application to a Roman patron
to represent him in his legaJ transactions; for the/ar eommercii
gave iu holder the right of suing and bdng sued in his own
person bdore Roman courts. Such an immigrant, thereforts,
must have become at once a free plebdan dtizen of Rome. It
may therefore be assumed that long before the clients obtained
the right to hold land m their own names and appear in the
courts in thdr own persons there was a free plebs existing
alongside of the patridans enjoying limited rights of dtizenship.
But it is equally certain that before the time of Scrvius Tullius
the rights and duties of dtizenship were practically exerdsed
only by the members of the patrician dans. This Is perhaps
the explanation of the strange fact that the clients, who through
thdr patrons were attached to these dans, obtained political
recognition as early as the plebeians who had no such sem>'
servile taint. At the time of the Servian reforms both branches
of the pUbs had a pkusible claim to recognition as members
of the state, the clients as already partial members of the etirta
and the gens, the unatuched plebeians as equally free with the
patricians and possessing clans of their own as solid and imited
as the recognized gentes.
But not only can it be shown that patridans and plebeians
coexisted as distinct orders in the Roman state at an eadier
date than the evolution of dtizenship by the dicntsw It has
further been established on strong archaeological and linguistic
evidence that the long struggle between patricians and plebeians
in early Rome was the result of a racial difference between
them. There is reason to believe that the patridans were a.
Sabine race which conquered a Ligurian people of whom the
plebdans were the survivors (see Rome: History). Apart from
the definite evidence, the theory of a racial distinction gains
probability from the fact that it explains the survival of tbe
distinction between the palricii, men with a family and genealogy,
and the rest of the dtizens, for some time after the latter had
acquired the legal status of patrex and were organized in gmi*s
of their own; for on this theory privilege would bdong not to all
who could trace free descent but only to those who coukl trace
descent to an ancestor of the conquering race. The family
organization of the conquering race was probably higher than
that of the conquered, and was only gradually attained by the
latter. Thus descent from a father would be distinctive enough
of the dqminant race to form the title of that race (paltstit),
and when that term had been definitdy adopted as the title
of a doss its persistence in the same sense after the organization
93*
PATRICaANS
of the f amfly and the dan by the unprivileged dan would be
perfectly natural
The absurdity of exduding the plebeians from ali but m
merely theoretical dtizenabip, based on the negative fact of
freedom, seems to have become apparent before the dose of the
monarchical period. The aim of the reforms assodatcd with the
name of Servius Tullius appears to have been the imposition of
the duties of dtiaenship upon the plebeians. Inddentally this
involved an extension of plebeian privilege in two directions,
first, it was necessary to unify the plebcisn order by putting
the legal status of the dienU on a levd with that of the un-
attached plebeians; and again enrolment in the army involved
registration in the tribes and centuries; and as the army soon
developed into a legislative assembly meeting in centuries
(€omitia utUMriaUi)^ the whole dtizen body, induding plebeians,
now acquired a share of political power, which had hitherto
bdonged solely to the patricians. At the dose of the monarchy,
the plebeian possessed the private rights of citizenship in entirety,
except for his inability to contract a legal marriage with a
patridan, and one of the public rights, that of giving his vote
in the assembly.' But in the matter of UabiHty to the duties
of dtixenship, military service and taxation, he was entirely
on a levd with the patrician. This position was probably
tolerable during the monarchy, when the king served to hold
the power of the patridan families in check. But when these
families had expelled the Tarquins, and formed themselves
into an exdusive aristocracy of privilege, the inconsistency
between partial privilege and full burdens came to be strongly
felt 1^ the plebeians.
The result was the long struggle for entire political equality
of the two orders which occupies the first few centuries of
the republic (see Rome: History, § II. " The Republic "). The
struggle was inaugurated by the plebeians, who in 404 BX. formed
themsdves into an exdusive order with annually dected officers
{Iribuni piebis) and an assembly of their own, and by means
of this machinery forced themsdves by degrees into all the
magistrates, and obtained the coveted right of intermarriage
with the patricians. Admission to the higher magistracies
terried with it admissioti to the senate, and by the dose of the
struggle (about 300 B.C.) the political privilege of the two orders
was equalized, with the exception of certain disabilities which,
originally devised to break the political nsonopoly of the order,
continued to be attached to the patricians after the victory
of the ptebt. They were exduded from the tribunate arid the
council of the pUbs, which had become important instruments
of government, and were only eligible for one place in the
consulship and censorship, while both were open to plebeians.
It is possible, though far from certain (see Sekate), that the
powers of the interregnum and the senatorial confirmation
(patrum auctoriias) necessary to give validity to decisions of
the people, remained the exdusive privileges of the patrician
members of the senate. But while the patridan disabilities
were of a kind that had gained in importance with the lapse
of centuries, these privileges, even if still retained, had become
merely formal in the second half of the republican period. Since
the plebeian dement in the state had an immense numerical
preponderance over the patridan these disabilities were not
widely spread, and seem generally to have been cheerfully borne
as the price of bdonging to the families still recognized as the
oldest and noblest in Rome. But the adoption of P. Clodius
Pulcher into a plebeian family in 59 b.c with a view to election
to the tribunate shows that a rejection of patridan rights
{transUio ad piebem) was not difficult to effect by any patridan
who preferred actual power to the dignity of andent descent.
It was not so easy to recruit the ranks of the patricians. The
traditions of eariy Rome indeed represent the patricians as
receiving the Claudii by a collective act into their body; but the
first authenticated instance of the admission of new members
to the patriciate is that of the lex Casria, which authorized
Caesar as dictator to create fresh patricians. The same procedure
* Cf. the privileges of the Athemaas under the Solonian system
see SouMf ; Ecclss&a: AacHON).
was foDowed \gf Augoatas. LtUt oOt the ifglit of creatiBS
patridana came to be regarded as inherent in the p ri ncipa t e, and
was exercised by Claudius and Vespasian without any legal
enactment, apparently in their capadty as censor (Tac Amu.
xi. as; yi*^ ^' Antmini, L). Patriciaa rank aeens to have
been regarded as a necessary attribute of the princept; and in
two cases we are told that it was conferred upon m pirhrian
princepsbythesenate(Kilayii/Mirf,3;Jf scrim, 7). Arnmparisna
of this procedure with the original conception of the patriciate
as revealed by the derivation of the word, b significant of
the history of the conception of nobility at Rome, and iDustr»-
tive of the tenadty with which the Romans dung to the name
and form of an institution which had long lost its aignificance.
After the political equalization of the two order*, noble birth
was no longer recognized aa constituting a claim to political
privilege. Instead of the old hereditary nobility, consistytg of
the members of the patrician dans, there aiose a nobility of
office, consisting of all those families, whether patrician oc
plebdan, which iiad held curule office. It was now the tenure
of office that conferred distinction. In the early days of Rome,
office was only open to the member of a patridan f cm. In the
prindpate, patrician tank, a sort of abstract conception baaed
upon the earlier state of affairs, was held to be a dignity snitabk
to be conferred on an individual holder of office. But the confer*
ment of the rank upon an individual as distinct fmn n whole
family (gens) is enough to show how widdy the modem con-
ception of patrician rank differed from the andent. The
explanation of this is that the plebeians had long been or-
ganized, like the patridana, in itrUet, and nothing tcnained
distinctive of the old nobility except m vague aenae of d«nity
and worth. (A.1LCL)
II. Under Constantine an entirely new meaning wan given
to the word Patrician. It was used as c personal title of honour
conferred for distinguished services. It was a title nerdjr of
rank, not of office; iu holder ranked next after the tmpm and
the consul. It naturally happened, however, that the title
was generally bestowed upon offidals» especially on the chid
proviodal governors, and even aatong barbarian chieftains
whose friendship was valuable enough to call forth the imperial
benediction. Among the former it appears to have becooie a
sort of ex officio title of the Byssntine viocg*.i«nu of Iin^, the
exarehs of Ravenna; among the barbarian chids who were
thus dignified were Odoacer, Theodoric, Siguunond of Burgundy,
Clovis, and even in later days princo of Bulgaria, the Sara-
cens, and the West Saxons. The word thus acquired an oflkial
connoution. The dignity was not hereditary and bdoosed
only to individuals; thus a patrician family was merdy one
whose head enjoyed the rank of patridut* Gradually the root
sense of *' father " came to the front again, and the paUicimt
was regarded as the '* lather of the emperor " (Ammian Marc
xxix. 3). With the word were assodated such further titles as
eminentia, magnitndo, magnifieenlttd. Those patridana who were
purely honorary were called konorarii or eodieilloriii those «ho
were still in harness were praesentaies. They were all distin-
guished by a spedal dress or uniform and in public always drove
in a carriage. The emperor Zeno enacted that no one could
become patrieius who had not been praejectut mUilum, emtnd
or magister militmm, but less careful emperors gave thcl title to
thdr favourites, however 3roung and undistii^uished. The writ
in which the title was conferred was called tniiploma»
A further change in the meaning of the name is marked by
its conferment on Pippin the Frank' by Popt Stephen. The
idea of this extension originated no doubt in the fact that the
Italian patricims of the 6th and 7th centuries had come to be
regarded as the defensor, protector, potromus of the Church. At
all events, the conferring of the title by a pope was entirely
unprecedented; previously its validity had depended on the
emperor soldy. As a matter of fact it is dear that the pat ridate
Of Pippin was a new office, especially ta the title is henceforward
generally ^olrictMr Ronianoruwt, not patridut alone. It was
■The name is used of Charles Martel, but It was noc ap
formally cpafcrred aponhiub
PATRICK, ST
^33
•nbseqnoitljr c o nfat fi J 60 Chulcmagne at liif coratiatlon, and
borne, as we gather from medieval documents, indiscfimSnately,
not only by subsequent emperocs, but also by a long line
of Burgundian rulers and minor princes of the middle ages
generally.* On the fall of the Carotingian tense the title passed
to Alberic II. Subsequently it was held by John Crescentius,
and many leading men wbo received it from Otto IIL {e.g,
Boleslaw Chabri of Poland). In 1046 it returned to the German
Henry IIL The emperor Frederick Barbarossa was the bat
Co wear the insignia (in 1167).
BiBUOCaAFHV.~(i) 7^ Ancient Patricians i Th. Mommsen.
StaatsrtdU IIL pasnm {xvA ed.. LcipKig, 1887); Hdmtsdu ForKk-
mngf i. (Berlin. 1864): P. WiUems. L$ Droit public romofn, pt. i
Oouvafai, 1888). (2) The Medi€val Patricians i J. B. Bury'« later
Roman Empire (1889): Bryce. Holy Roman Empire (1004), pp. 40
•eq. : Du Cangc, Clossarinm mod. el sn/Sm. latinitatUf sjr» Patncius ' ,
and histories of ChaHemarnc (q.v.) and his successors. For the (Ger-
man Patritiertum sec Roth von Schrcckenstein, Das Patritiat in den
dentschen Slddlen, besonders RekhsUidUn (2nd ed. Freiburg. 1886);
Foltx, Beitrage sur Gtsck. des Patriaats in den detUscken Stddten
(Marburg. 1899). O-MU.)
PATRICK. ST. the patron saint of Ireland,* was probably bom
about the year 389. He was the son of a deacon, Calpurnius, and
the grandson of a presbyter named Potitus. His father was a
middle-daas landed proprietor and a decurion, who is represented
as living at a place caUed Bannauenta. The only place of this
name we know is Daventry, but it seems more probable that
Patrick's home is to be sought near the Severn, and Rhys con-
jectures that one of the three places called Banwen in Glamorgan-
shire may be intended. The British name of the future apostle
was Sucat, to which Mod. Welsh kygad, " warlike," corresponds.
His Roman name has also survived in a hfbernicizcd form,
Cothrige, with the common substitution of Irish c for Brythonic
p (cf. Irish cojc, Lat. pascha). Patrick was doubtless educated
as a Christian and was imbued with reverence for the Roman
Empire. When about sixteen years of age he was carried off by a
band of Irish marauders. The litter were possibly taking part
in the raid of the Irish king Nlall NoigiaUach, who met with his
end in Britain in 405. Irish tradition represents the future
apostle as tending the herds of a chieftain of the name of Miliucc
(Milchu), near the mountain called Slemish in county Antrim,
but Bury tries to show that the scene of hb captivity was
Connaught, perhaps in the neighbourhood of Croagh Patrick.
His bondage lasted for six years. During this time he became
subject to religk)us emotion and beheld vbions which encouraged
him to effect his escape. He fled, in all probability to the coast
of Wicklow, and encountered a vessel which was engaged in the
export of Irish wolf-dogs. After three days at sea the traders
bnded, possibly on the west coast of Gaul, and journeyed for
twenty-eight days through a desert. At the end of two months
Patrick parted from his companions and betook himself to the
monastery of LCrins, whero he probably spent a few yean. On
leaving the Mediterranean he seems to have returned home. It
was doubtless during this stay in Britain that the idea of mission-
lity enterprise in Ireland came to him. In a dream he saw a
man named Victorious bearing Innumerable epistles, one of
which he received and read; the beginning of It contained the
words " The Voice of the Irish "; whilst repeating these words
be says, '* I imagined that I heard m my mind the voice of thote
who were near the wood of Foclut (Fochlad), which is near the
western set. and thus they cried: ' We pray thee, holy youth,
to come and walk again amongst us as before.' " The forest
of FocMad was in the neighbourhood of Killala Bay, but it is
possiUe that it extended considerably to the south. Despite
* We even find a feminine form, pairictssa, for ihtmttd Apairicims,
The folden circlet worn on the bead by the palrieint as a ^mbot of
bis dwnity was called a patricialis circmims,
* His career is involved in considerable obscurity. Widely
views have been held by modem scholars with racard to hia activity,
some going so far as to treat alt the accounts 01 his bboura as the
ficiitbus creation of a later age. In the present article Bury's
iccooatnietioii of the saint's life has been chiefly foUowtd. Apart
from its imporunce in other respects. Bury's ireetnient of the sub-
tect has at any rate the jncrit of defending the traditional view of
St Patrick's carter.
Ui aaiiiteidiSdence, and c^ppdiitiOB on thd pnt of Ms fetaiivei,
Patrick vBSolved to return to Gaul in order to prepare himself
for hb missian. He proceeded lo Aoxetre»^« place which seems
to have had a close oonncaion wilk Britataaad Ireland— end
wasxvdained doacoa by Bishop Asnatoc, along with two others
who were afterwards associated with him in spreading the faith
in IreUnd. The^oe was an Irishman called Fith, better known
as Isemtnus, the other AubUos. Patrick nmt have spent at
least f ourteea yean at Aoaerre.
it seems not unlikely that fttlaglsnism had taken not among
the Christian commmiities of Ireland, and it waa found Mcessary
to send a biahop to combat the beiesy. Pope CelcMine's choice
fell on the deacon Palladtus, wbo had taken a prominent part In
stamping out the doctrine in Britain. The nteion of Palladius
(431-432), whom Ziflsmcr has eodeavouted to identify with
Patrick, ia obscure. Tnditfen assocbtes his name with the
moantains of Wicklow, and we an told that he retired to the
land of the PicU hi Nocth Britain, where he died. Patrick
probably felt great disappointment when Palladiua waa eent aa
the chosen envoy of Rome, but now Gemanus eeemi to have
deckled that Patrick waa the man for the task, and be waa
consecrated in 439* For the peculiar aodal conditibna with
which the Christiaa mlssionafy would be confronted hi Ireland
see BaxHON Laws and lasLAMD: Early Uistary. Snffioe it to
say here that the land bekmged to the tribes, and that the success
of Patrick's undertaking depended entirely on his ability to gain
the soodwiU of the tribal kings and chiefs of clans. We ara
totally ignorant as to the extent and number of the pre-Patrkiaa
Christian ooramunitica in Ireland. It seems probable that they
were, Urgely, if not wholly confined to the south-east of the isfamd.
Patrick landed at Inverdea, the mouth of the river Vartty In
Wicklow, but we aro not tnfonncd as to any of hb doings in
Ldnster at thh period. Acoording to the story, be immediately
proceeded northward to the kngdoo of UUdia- (east Ulster),
though a certain tradition represents him as going to Meath.
Landhig on the shores of Stiangford Lough, he commenced hb
laboois hi the pUin on the south-west side of that bilet. A
convert chief named Dicha granted him a site for an establish*
meat, and a wooden bam b stated to have been utiUaed for the
puipose of worship, whence the modem Saul (Ir. astett. " bam '%
Patrick's activity waa bound to bring him sooner or later into
oonflia with the High*king Loigaire (reigned 4a8^67)« son of
Niall NoigiaUach. Fedamid, a brother of the monacch, b
represented as having nuule over hb estsfte at Trim lo the aaint
to found a church, and thua the faith waa established withm
Loigaire's territory. The stoiy in pscUircaque fashion makes
Patrick challenge the royal aothority by li|^ting the Paschal
fire on the hill of Slane on the night of Eaater Eve. It chanced
to be the occasion of a pagan festival at Tare, during which no
fire might be kindled until the royal fire had been lit. A anmbes
of triab of skill between the Christian missionary and Loigaire'a
Druids ensue, and the final result seems to have been that the
monarchy though nawiUing to embrace the foreign creed, uadet*
took to protect the Christian Ushop. At a later date the saint
was probably invited by Loigaire to take part in the oodificatioa
of the Sctukut U&r in Order to represent the interests of the
Christian oommonities. On another occasfon Patrick b reported
to have overthrown a famous idol known as Com Crmaiek or
Croaim Crmiek hi tbe plain of Mag Slecfat (county Cavan).
Several churches seem to have been founded in the kingdom
of Mcalh by the saint, but they cannot now be identified.
Patrick b sUted to have visited Connaught on three different
occasions and to have founded churches, one of the most impor-
Unt being that at Elphin. Aa Rganb Ulster our infofmatkm
b very scanty, though we find him establishing churches in the
three kmgdoms of the province (Ailech, Oriel and IHidia).
Patrick's work b more closely identified with the north of Ireland
than with the south. Traces of hb mission, however, are to be
found in Oseory and Muskerry. But hb task in the south was
doubtless rather that of an organicer, and a kind of circular letter
has come down to us which was addressed by Patrick, AuxiliuS
and ^wn"*"\ to all the deigy of the Island. These b some
934
PATRICK, S.— PATRIZZI
evidcBoe thtt he made a journey to Rome (441-443) and brooght
back with him valuable relics. On his return he founded the
church and monastery of Armagh, the site of which wu granted
bim by Daire» king of Orid, and it is probable that the ace was
intended by him to be spedally oonncctod with the supreme
ecclesiastical authority. Some years before his death, which
took place in 461, Patrick resigned his position as bkhop of
Armagh to his disciple Benignus. and possibly retired to Saul
In Dalaradia, where he spent the remainder of his life. The
place of his burial was a matter of dispute in early Ireland,
but it seems most likely that he was interred at Saul.
Two highly important documents purporting to have been
written by Patrick have come down to us. Although the
genuioenesa of these writings has been impugned on various
occasions by different scholan, tbere seems to be no reason for
■OTiiming that they did not emanate from the saint's pen. The
one is the Confession, which is contained in an imperfect state
in the Book of Armagh {e. 807), but complete copies arc found in
later MSS. The Confession, written towards the end of his life,
gives a general account of his career. Various charges bad been
l»ought against him by his enemies, among them that of iOiter-
•cy, the truth of which b borne out by the crudcncas of his style,
and is fully admitted by the writer himself. Before being
admitted to deacon's orders he had communicated to a friend
some fault which he had committed when about fifteen years
of age. This friend had not considered it an obstacle to ordina-
tion. Later the secret was betrayed and came to the ears of
persons who, as he says, " urged my sins against my laborious
episcopate." It is impossible to ascertain who these detractors
were— possibly British fcllow-workers in Ireland. The other
document is the so-called Letter to Coroticus. The soldien of
Cbroticus (Ccretic), a British king of Strathdyde, had in the
course of a raid in Ireland killed a number of Christian neophytes
on the very day of their baptism while still clad in white garments.
Othen had been carried off into slavery, and a deputation of
clergy which Patrick had sent to ask for their release had been
lubjccted to ridicule. In his Letter the saint in very strong
language urges the Christian subjecu of the British king not to
have any dealings with their ruler and his bloodthirsty followers
until full satisfaction should have been made. The text of this
letter occurs in a number of MSS. but is not contained in the
Book of Armagh. It b however certain that it was known in
the 7th century. A strange barbaric chant commonly known •%
the Lorica or Hymn of St Patrick b preserved in the Uber
kymnantm, Thb piece, called in Irish the Paed Fiada or " Cry
of the Deer," contains a rmmber of remarkable grammatical
forma, and the latest editors are of opinion that it may very well
be genuine. From such slender material it b not easy to form
a clear conception of the saint's personality. Hb wsa evidently
an iotensdy spiritual nature, and in addition to the cpialilics
which go to form a strong man of action he must have possessed
an enthusiasm which enabled him to surmount all dHficultics.
Hb imporUnce in the history of Ireland and the Irish Church
consbls in the fact that he brought Ireland into touch with
western Europe and more particolariy with Rome, and that he
Introduced Latin into Irdand as the language of the Church.
His work consbted largely in oigamang the Christian sodetics
which he found in czbtence on hb arrival, and in planting the
faith in regions sudi as the extreme west of Connaught which
had not yet come under the sway of the gospel
AuTnouTits. — ^Apart from the Letter an'd Epistle mentioned
above our chief •ourccs of Information with regard to the life
of St Patrick are contaiiicd in the Book of Armagh. The one Is
the memoir by TInch&n. a buhop who had been the disdple of
Bbhop Ultan of Ardbraccan in Meath (d. ^7). The first part of
this memoir, which was probably compiled about 670, deals with
the saint's work in Meath, the second with his activity in Connaught.
Various additions are appended to thb compibtion. and there are
itiU further additional notes. The other biography wss written
towards the end of the 7lh century by Muifthu Maccu Machtheni.
who dedicated his work to Bishop Acd of Slibte (d. 700). The first
portion dcab with Patrick's carrer down to his arrival in Ireland and
eonuina an unvarnished statement of fact. But when the story
"«c» to lidand Muircha'a narrative becomes full of, the mythkat
etement. TheioAucnoeof Muinka*s wofkcnolseifaceilnafltatv
biographies. ,Bury has shown ihat both Tircch&n and Myirchtf
drew from written material which cxislc<l in part at any rate in In^h.
Among btef lives we may mention the hymn Genoft Patraice. com-
monly attributed to Fbec. which b oonaidercd by the latest editors
to have been originally composed about tea Three anovymoos
Latin lives were pubh^cd by Coigan in his Tnai Tkatumclurfa
(Louvain, 1645). and there exists an iith<cntury Irish life in three
Crts pablishtMdf by Whitkry Stokes for the Rolls series (1887). A
tin tmnslation of a diflereM copy of this work, now lose, was nob-
Ushcd by Colosn. Lastly a life by an othorwiae unknown Irnh
writer named Probus occurs in the Basel edition of Bedc's »orks
(1563) and was reprinted by Coigan.
See J. B. Bury, The Life of St Patrick and his Ptaee in TTi^iory
(London. 1^5): J. H. Todd. St Patrick lheAf>ouU of Ireland (Dul Im,
i, Cwynn, Liber Ardmackanus; >Vhitley Stokes. The Tripcrtte
ife of SI Patrick (London. 1887); N.J. D. White, '"nie Wrilir^s
of St Patrick" (critical edition) in Procecdinit of the /t»yal Imk
Academy (1904). (E, C. Q.)
PATRICK, SIMOK (1676-1707), English divine, was bom at
Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, on the 8lh of September i6a6. He
entered (Queen's College, Cambridge, in 1644. and after taking
orders in 1651 became successively chaplain to Sir Waliex
St John and vicar of Baiicrsca, Surrey. He was afterwards
(1663) preferred to the rectory of St Paul's, (^veia (Urden,
London, where he continued to labour during the phguc. He
was appointed dean of Peterborough in 1679, and bishop of
Chichester in 1689, in which year he was employed, along with
others of the new bbhops, to settle the affairs of the Church in
Ireland. In 1691 he was translated to the soc of Ely, which he
held until his death on the 31st of May 1707. Hb sermons and
devotional writings, which are very numerous, were long held
in high estimation, and his Cpmmenlary on the Hisloricai end
Poetical Books of the Old Testament, in 10 vols., brought dov^n as
far as the Song of Solomon, was reprinted as recently as 1855.
Hb Friendly Debate between a Conformist and a Nonconform at
was a controversial tract which excited considerable feebng
at the time of its publication in 1668, but he lived long enough
to soothe by hb moderation and candour the exasperation it
had caused. He also contributed to a volume of Poems u^on
Divine and Moral Sukiccts (i 719).
The first collected editwn of hb works appeared at Oxford in 18^9
(9 vob.^ 8vo); a small Autobiography waa published abo at Oxlurd
in 1839.
PATRIZZI. FRANCESCO (Francbcus PATsmus) Us^<^
1597), Italian philosopher and scientbt, was bom at CUssa. in
Dalmatia, and died in Rome. He gained the patronage «>f the
bishop of Cyprus, who brought him to Venice, where hia abilities
were immediately recognized by hb appointment to the chair
of philosophy at Fcnara. He was subsequently invited 10
Rome by Clement VIII. In spite of hb almost incessant contro*
versics with the Aristotelians, he found time to make a com*
prchensive study of contemporary science. He published in
15 books a treatise on the New Geometry (1587), and works oa
history, rhetoric'aod the art of war. He studied andcnt theories
of music, and b said to have invented the thirtecn^yllable verse
known subsequently as versi marteilianL In hb philosophy he
was mainly concerned to defend Plato, against tbe followers id
Aristotle.
Hb two neat works. Discussionum peripaUticonm libri XV.
(Basel, 157 0« and Nooa de universis pkilosopkia (Basel, 1^1).
developetfthe view that, whereas Aristotle's teaching was in dirt<x
opposition to Christianity, f*lato. on the contrary, foeniiiadosted
the Christian icvelarion and prepared the way for iti acceptawr.
In tbe eariier treatise he attacks the life and character of Arbtotte.
impugns the aurhentlcity of almost all his works, and attempts to
refute- hb doctrines from a theologtcal standpoint. I n the tecmid and
greater work he goes back to the theories and methods of the lo«ui«
and the pie-S6cratic9 generally. His theory of the universe b that,
from Gcd there emanated Light which extends throughout sparr
and b the expbnation of all devefopment. This Light ia not cor-
poreal and yet is the fundamental rcaKty of things. Frooi L^ht
came Heat and Fluidirv: these three together with Space make ep
the elements oat of which all things are constnietcd. This cosmic
theory is a curious oombination of materialistic and abstract idas;
the influence of hb master Teleaio (g.».), generally f ^ ^
PATROCLiBS^PATRON AND. CLIENT
935
It not tfrooff eiMugb to oncfcoisf tris Mlitttnt diibclirf in tlw
tdeqiMcy oi pupttly icientific eqiUnatioo.
PATROCLES (e. 3x2-261 B.c.)i a Macedomln gtnttai and
writer on geogmpbical subjects, who lived during tfae reigns of
Seleucus I. and Antiochus I. When in command of the fleet
of Seleucus (285) he undertook a voyage of exploration on the
Caspian Sea to discover pdssible tnide routes, especially for
communication with the peoples of northern India. He came
to the conclusion that the Caspian was a gulf or inlet, and that it
was possible to enter it by sea from the Indian Ocean. The only
information a9 to his work (even the title is unknown) is derived
from Stral^}. After the death of Seleucus, Patrocles was sent
by his successor Antiochus to pu^ down a revolt in Asi:; Minor,
and tost his life In an engagement with the Bithynians.
. See Strabo it. 68, 74. xi. 508, xv. 689 ; Died. SiC. xLt, loo; Plutarch,
Demetrius, 47; Plinv, NfU. Hist. vt. 21: Photius, cod, >34 (on Mcm-
non); C W. M (lifer, Prapnenia kistoriconun mecarum. ii. 44a:
E. H. Bunbury. Hist, of Ancient Ceofircphy, vol. i. (1^9): WTW.
Tarn, " Patrocles ana the Oxo-Caspian Trade Route in Journal
cJHeOenic Studies^ vol. xxi. (1901).
PATROL (Fr. patrouHler^ connected with pctie, foot), a verb
meaning to move up and down or traverse a specified " round "
•r " beat " in a district in a town, camp or other place, or on a
stretch of water on a river or sea, for the purpose of watching
and protecting the same, or for reconnoitring the numbers or
positions of an enemy. As a substantive the term ia used of the
detachment of troops or police employed.
PATRON, a word of which the various meanings in European
languages are derived and transferred from that of the Lat.
;^(ra»f», whose position in Roman law and antiquities is treated
below (Patkon and Client). The most genoial application
of the word in these transferred senses is that of an ii^uenllal
supporter or protector; The earliest use of the word in English
appears to have been, in the special ecclesiastical sense of the
bolder of an advowson, the right of presentation to a bcneficet
From this meaning is deduced that of the person In whom lies
the right of presenting to public offices, privileges, &c., still
surviving in the title of the Patronage Secretary of the Treasury
in Great Britain. From the earliest Christian times the saints
took the place of the pagan tutelary deities (Z>» tutdares) and
were in this capacity called Melcres ox paironi^ patron^saints.
To them churches and other sacred buildings are dedicated, and
they are regarded as the protectors ahd guardians of countries,
towns, professions, trades and the like. Further, a person may
have a patron-saint, usually, the one on or near whose festival
lie has been born, or whose name has been taken in baptism.
A full list of saints, with the objects of the peculiar patronage of
each, is given in M. K, C. Walcott s Sacred Archaeology (1868].
PATRON AND CLIENT (Lat. palrouus, from paier^ father;
flienks or duentes, from dwre^ to obey), in Roman law. Clien-
tage appears to have' been an institution of most of the Graeco*
Italian peoples in early stages of their history; but it is in Rome
that we can most easily trace iu origin, progress and decay.
Until the reforms of Servius TuUius, the only citizens proper
were the members of the patridait and gentile houses; they alone
could participate in the solemniiics of the national religion, take
part in the government and defence of the state, contract
quiritarian marriage, hold property, and enjoy the protection
of tfae lawa^ But alongside of them was a gradually increasing
Doo-ciiisen population composed partly of slaves, partly of free-
men, who were nevertheless not admitted to burgess rights.
To the latter class belonged the clients, individuals who had
attached themselves in a position of dependence to the heads
of patrician houses as their patrons, in order thereby to secure
attachment to a icnj, which would involve a de Jacto freedom.
Mommscn held that the pUbs consisted originally of clients only;
but the earliest records of Rome reveal the possibility of a man
becoming a plebeian member of the Roman state without
assuming the dependent position of dientship (see Patmcians);
and long before the time of Servius TuUius the clients must
be regarded as a section only of the plebeian order, which also
contained members unattached to any patronus. The rcbtion-
ship of patron and client was ordinarily cx^tadby what, from the
cliMit's Mini of view, was taSkAraipika^ ad pqtrmumf from
that of the patron, tuueptio c/feii/i>-^e client being either a
person who had come to Rome as an exile, who had passed
through the asylum, or who bad belonged to a state which Rome
had overthrown* According to Dionysius and Plutarch, it was
one of the ear^ cares of RoohUus to regulate the relationship^
which, by their account of it» was esteemed a very intimate
one, imposing upon the patron duties only leas sacred than those
he owed 10 his chikiren and his ward, nioie urgent t han any he
could be called upon to perfenn lowaids his kinsmen, and whose
eegleci entailed the ptnalty of death {TeUumoni tacer esU),
He was. boand to provida bis client with the necessaries of life;
and it was a conunen practice to laalce him a grant during
pleasure of a small {dot of land to cultivate on his own account.
Fucthei; he bad to advise him n all his affain; to represent him
tnany trtuaaetions with third patties in which, as a non<itizeng
he could not act with effect; and, above ail things, to stand by
him, or rather be his subetitute, ia any litigation in which he
might beoome involved. The dieni in return had not only
generally to render his patron the respect and obedience due by
a.depeaidant, but, when he was in a position to do so and the
drcunstanoes of the patron required it, to render him pecuniary
assistance^ As time advanood and clients amassed wealth, we
find thja duty inasted upon in a gueat variety of forms, as ia
cencributiond towards the domies el a patron's daughteiv
tofwsrds the itaaom of a patron or any of his family who had
been taken Captive, towards the payment of pcaallies or fines
imposed upon a patron, even towards his aainteaaooe when he
had beoome ledncsd to poverty. Neither BMgbc give evidence
against the othet^^a nik we find still in obseirvaoce well en in
the ist oentory b.c^ when C. Hetfenhius declined to be a witness
agstaist C. Mariuson the ground that the family of the latter had
for generations been dienis of tfae Ueiennii (Pint. Mar. 5). The
dieht was regarded as a mhnr member (genli/icsitt) of bis patron's
gtm\ he was catitkd to essbt in its religious services^ and bound
to contribute tot the cost of them; he had t» folbw his patron to
battle on the order of the gcnr; he was subject to lu jurtsdidion
and dtsdpUne, and was entitled to burial in its coounoa aepulchrcw
And this was the oendition, not only of the cbcnt who personally
had attached hjouelf to a patna, but that also of bis desoen*
dants; the patronage and the clientage were alike bereditaiy^
The same rdatSonship was bekl to exist between a frecdman and
his former owner; for originally a skve did not 00 eaftaachiae<
meat become a dtlzen; it wss a defoOo freedom merely that be
enjoyed; his old owner was always oJled his patron, while be and
hto descendants were substantially h» the posithMi of cUentSi
and often eo designated.
In the two bundled years that ebpeed before the Servian
constKuttonal reforms, the numerksl strength of the clients,
whether in that condition by adplicqiia, enfrandusemeat or
descent, must have become considerable; and it wss from time
to time augmented by the retainers of distinguished immigraBts
admitted into the ranks of the patriciate. There seems also to
have been during this period a giinlual growth of virtual indepett-
dence on the part of the dients, and it is probable that their
precarious tenure of the soO bad in many cases odme to be
practically regarded as ownership, when a patron had not
asserted his right for generations. The exact nature of the privi-
leges conferred on the chents by Servius TuUius is not known.
Probably this king guaranteed to the whole plebeian order,
including the dients, the legal right of private ownership of
Roman land. At the same time he imposed upon the whole
Older the duty of serving in the army, which was now organised
on a basis of wealth. The dient had previously been liable to
military service at the command of the gear. Now he was
called upon to take his part in it as a member of the state. As
a natural corollary to this, all the plebeians seem to have been
enrolled in the tribes, snd after the institution of the plebeian
assembly (condKum ptebis) the dients, who formed a large part
of the order, secured a political influence which steadily fncre^ed.
It is not certain how soon they acquired the right to litigate in
person on their own behalf, but their possession of this right
9if>>
PATTEN— PATTESON
tfeems to be' {npiied !n tlie Xlt. Tables, ewl may btve been
granted them at an earlier dale. At any ntte after 449 B*C.
tbcre were no disabilities in private law involved in their status.
The relation of patron and client, it is true, still remained; the
patron could still exact from his dient respect, obedience and
service, and be and bis gau bad still an eventual right of succes*
dloB to a deceased client's esute. But the fiduciary duties of
the patron were greatly relaxed, and practically little more
was expected of him than that bo should continue to give his
dient his advice, and prevent him faBing into a condition of indi-
gence; sacer eslo ceased to be the penalty of pioteaion denied
Or withheld, its appUcation being limited to frauM faeta, which
in the language of the Tisbles meant positive injury inflicted or
damage done.
So matters remained darii^ tbe 4th, 3rd and md centuries.
In the 3nd and ist a variety of events contributed still further
to modify the relationship. The rapadty of patrons was
checked by the lex Cinda (passed by M. Cindus Alinientus,
tribune in 904 B.C.), which prohibited their talcing gifuof money
from ihdr clients; marriages between patron and client gradually
ceased to be regarded as unlawful, or as ineffectual to secure to
the issue the status of the patron father. At the same time the
lemaining political disabiUtiea of the dienu were removed by
tbdr enrolment in all the tribes Instead of only the four dty
tribes, and tbdr admission to the magistracy and the senate.
Herediury clientage ceased when a client attained to a oixule
dignity; and in the case of the descendanti of freedmen enfran>
chised in solemn forms it came to he limited to the first genenr-
tlon. Gradually but steadily one feature after another of the
old institution disappttoed, till by the end of tiie tst oentuiy it
had resolved itself into the limited relationship between patron
and freedman on the one hand, and the unlimited hoooraiy
relationship between the pinion who gave gratuitous advice on
questions of law and those who came to consult him on the other.
To have a large following of clients of this dass was a matter of
ambition to every man of mark in the end of. the republic; it
incfvased his Importance, and ensured him a band of zealous
agents in bis political schemes. But amid the rivalries of panics
and with the venality of the lower onlera, baser methods had
to be resorted to in order to maintain a patron's infltience; the
favour and support of his clients had to be purchased with some-
thing more substantial than mere advice. And so arose that
wretched and degrading clientage of the early empire, of which
Martial, who was not ashamed to confess himself a fu%l*rate
spedmcn of tbe breed, has given us such graphic descriptions;
gatherings of idlers, sycophants and spendthrifts, at tbe levees
and public appearances of those whom, in thdr fawning servility,
they addressed as lords and masters, but whom they abused
behind thdr backs as dose-fisted upstaTts--and aU for tbe sake
of the Mportula, the daily dole of a dinner, or of a few pence
wherewith to procure one. With the middle empire this disap-
peared; and when a rderence to patron and dient occun in
later times it is in the sense of counsd and client, the words
patron and advocate bdng used almost synaojrmottsly. It was
not so in the days of the great forensic orators. Tbe word
advocate, it is said, occurs only once in the singular in the pages
of Ciceio. But at a later period, when the bar had become a
profession, and the qualifications, admission, numbcra and fees
of counsel had become a matter of atatc regulation, oivooati
was the word usually emptoyed to designate the pleaders at
a class of professional men, each individual advocate, however,
being stiU spoken of as patron in reference to the litigant with
whose iatCRst he was entrusted. It is in this limited ooHnexion
that patron and cfient come uadct our notice In the latest
monuments of Itoman law.
LiTBKATURE.—On the clientage of cariy Rome see T.Mommsen.
•* Die rOmische Clicntd," Rom.Forstkmntai, i. 355 (BrrKn, 1864);
M. VotBt, **Ucbcr die Clicntd und Ubcninitat. in Ber. d. phiL
ktst9r. Claue d. konig^ sAcks^ GtstUuk, d. WistenstkaJUn (1S78,
pn. 147-219); J. Marauafdt. Privaitebm d. Romer, pix 196-200
(I cJpzig, 1879); M. VcHgt. Die Xtl. Tafrln.. Vu ^167-679 (Liipzi]*,
1883). Iiarncr literature is tiotvd in P. Wincms, fjt Droit fmbivc
99mMi% 4th cd., p. a6 (Ixwivain. iMo), Ua the dii'aragc af thevarly
ciNpirB see wr. A. Bsefeer, CmwIks. ^/tM» ■■•«
1849): L. Fricdlander. SilUmiucMckte Rms, u ai
1901): Marquardt. 0p, at. pp. 200^208. On the
Mc T. CreUet-Dumaaoau, L$ Borreau romain (Paris. 1858).
\^ • ba. ; A. sa. ^L./
PATTEN (adapted from Fr. ^in, in modern usage meaning
a " skate "; Med. Lat. patinus, Ilal. pauino^ of unknown origin;
cf. ptMe^ paw), a kind of shoe which, varying in form at different
times and places, raised the wearer from the ground in order
to keep the feet out of mud or wet. Pattens were necessaries
to women of all classes in the undeanod and unpaved streets of
the 16th, 17th and iSUi centuries. They may stiU be found in
use in rural parts of England. A wooden shoe or dog, a light
strapped shoe with a very thick sole of wood or cork, and, more
particularly, an iron ring supporting at a little distance from the
ground a wooden sole with a strap through which tbe fool slips,
have all been types which the patten has taken. An extraor-
dinary kind of '* patten " was fashioiuible in Italy and Spain in
the 1 6th or x7th centuries. This was the chopitte,^ a loose slipper
resting on a very thick sole of cork or wood. During the 17th
century at Venice ladles wore " chopines '* of exaggerated size.
Coryat, in his CruditUs, 1611 (vol. i. p. 400, ed. 1905), gives a
description of these Venetian "chapfncys." They were of
wood covered with red, white and ycltow leather, some gilt or
painted, and reached a height sometimes of half a yard. Ladies
wearing these exaggerated chopines had to be accompanied by
attendants to prevent them falling. There is a x6th century
Venetian " chopine " in the British Museum. The ** Patten-
makers" Company is one of the minor Livery companies of
LondoiL The patten-makcn were originally joined with the
" Pouch and Galocbe Makers," and are mentioned as early as
1400. They became a separate fraternity in 1469, but did not
obtai n a ch arter till 1670.
PATTER, properly a slang word for the secret or " cant *
language used by beggars, thieves, gipsies, &c., hence tbe fhrent
plausible talk that a cheap-jack employs to pass off his good«.
or a conjuror to cover up his tricks. It is thus used of any rap«d
manner of talking, and of a " patter-song," in which a very ljr|«
number of words have to be sung at high speed to fit them to the
music. The word, though in some of its senses affected by
'* patter," to make a scries of rapid strokes or pats, as of rain-
drops, is derived from the quick, mechanical repetitioQ ol tbe
Pate rnoste r, or Lord's Prayer.
PA1TBRN. a model, that which serves as an original froa
which similar objects may be made, or as an example or specimen;
in particular an artistic design serving as a sample or model,
hence the arrangement or grouping of lines, figures, 8tc, which
make up such a design. The word was taken from FY. pctnm,
Lat. patrtmus, a defender or protector. In medieval Latin
patroftus had the specific meaning of cxaipple, and in modem
French both meanings of patron and pall cm attach to palr*n.
** Patron *' in the sense of copy, example, began to be pro>
nounced and spelled in England as ** pattern " hi the t6ib
century.
PAITESOir, JOmr COLERIDGE (1827-1870. Eni^lsli mc»-
slonary, bishop of Melanesia, was bom in London on the tst
of April 1627, the eldest son of Sir John Patteson, justice of the
King's Bench, and Frances Duke Coleridge, a near idative of
Samuel Taylor Coleridge. He was educated at Ottery St Mary
and at Eton, where he distinguished himself on the cricket -fidd.
He entered BalHol College, Oxford, in 1845, graduated B.A ia
1848, and in 1852 became a fellow of Merton College. In 1853
he became curate of Alfingtdn, Devon, and in the following yrmr
he was onlained priest. He then joined George Augustus
Sclwyn, bishop of New Zealand, In a mission to the MeUncsiaa
islands. There he laboured with great success, visKing the
different islands of the group In the mission ship the ** Soatberft
Cross," and by his good sense and devotion winning tbe estcrm
and affection of the natives. His linguistic powers w«rt
■The word 16 taken fixHTi an obsolete French ekaplme or Spankh
ckapin.^nA in ofduulitful ori;ci*t- Thc^ftanish ehtpa.fhkx plate. Iku
lirrn Minnttd. The word HricH not orcur in li«ilun.i.h
flf ICO Itabaniacd in Ensiiah in snch foma
PATTI, ADELINA— PATTON
937
accption«i» «ul hb tpAt 9$ hnguagcs with tut. Ib
1S61 be was conaecnded bishop of MeUnesii, and fixed his
headquajrtcn at MoU. He was killed by natives ftt Nukapu,
in the Santa Cru2 group, on the 20th of September 1871, the
victim of a tngk error. The tradecs engaged bx the nefarious
traffic in Kanaka labour for Fiji and Queensland had taken to
personating missionaries in order to fadiitate their kidnapping;
Patteson was mistaken for one of these and killed. His murderers
evidently found out their mistake and repented of H, for the
bishop's bo4y was found at sea floating in a canoe, covered with
a palm fibre matting, and a* palm-branch in his hand. He is
thus zepfcsented in the bas-rdief erected in Mertoa College to his
aenoiy.
See L^$ by Chariotte M. Yonge (1873).
PATTI, ADEUNA JUAflA MABIA {Baboncss CedesstiOic]
(1843- ), the famous vocalist, daughter of an Italian singer,
Salvalore Patti, was bora at Madrid on the 19th of February
1843- Her mother, also a singer, was Spanish, being known
before her marriage as Signoia Barili. Both the parents of
Adclina went to America, where their daughter was uught
singing by Maurice Strakosch, who married Amelia Patti, an
elder sister. Gifted with a brilliant soprano voice, Adelina
Patti began her public career at the age of seven In the concert
halls of New York, where in 1859 she also made her first appear-
ance as Luda in Donizetti's opera, Lutia- di Lammermoor, On
the X4th of May x86i she sang as Amina in Bellini's opera La
SoHnatMbula at Covent Garden, and from this time she became
the leading operatic prima ^icfM, her appearances in London,
Paris and the other prindpal musical centres being a long
succession of triumphs, and her r61es covering all the great parts
in Italian opera. In x868 she married Henri, marquis de Caux,
a member of Napoleon III.'s household, from whom she was
divorced in 1885; she then married Nicolini, the tenor, who died
in 1898; and in 1899 she became the wife of Baron CederstrOm,
a Swede, who was naturalised as an Englishman. Madame
Patti ceased to appear on the operatic stage m public after the
'eighties, but at Craig-y-Nos, her castle in Wales, she built a
private theatre, and her occasional appearances at concerts at
the Albert Hall continued to attract enthusiastic audiences,
her singing of "Home, Sweet Home" becoming peculiariy
aasodated with tho«e events. Partly owing to her fine original
training, partly to her splendid method and partly to her
avoidance of Wagnerian r6les, Madame Patti wonderfully
pieservcd the freshness of her voice, and she will be remembered
as, after Jenny Lind, the greatest soprano of the X9th century.
PATTIy a town and episcopal see of Sicily, in the province of
Messina, 4a vl W. by S. of Messina by raO. Pop. (r9ox), 5473
(town), xoi99S (commune). The cathedral, founded about
X300, has been modemixed; it contains the tomb (restored In the
X7th century) of Adelasia, widow of Count Roger of Sidly. The
abandoned church of San Marco is built into the remains of a
Greek temple.
PATHSON* mark (x8f3-i884), Enfl^h author and rector of
Lincoln College, Oxford, was bom on the xoth of October 1813.
He was the son of the rector of Hauxwdl, Yorkshire, and was
privately educated by his father. In x83a he matriculated at
Oriel College, where he took his B.A. degree in X836 with second-
class honours. After other attempts to obtain "a feDowshlp,
be WIS elected hi 1839 to a Yoxkshire fdlowship at Lincoln, an
anti-Puseyite College. Pattison was at this time a Puseyite,
and greatly under the influence of J. H. Newnum, for whom he
worked, hdptug in the translation of Thomas Aquino's Catnta
Aufta, and writing in the British Critic and Ckrislian Remem-
hranetr. He was ordained priest in 1843, and in the same year
became tutor of Lincoln College, where he rapidly made a reputa-
tion as a dear and stimulating teacher and as a sympaUietic
friend of youth. The management of the college was practically
in his hands, and his reputation as a schohr became high in the
university. In 1851 the rectorship of Lincoln became vacant»
and it seemed ceruin that Pattison would be elected, but he lost
it by a diasgreeable intrigue. The disappointment was acute
and his health -snfleved. In 1855 he resigned the tutorship,
tiavelled fn Germany to faivestigate Continental systems of
education, and began his researches into the lives of Casaubon
and Scaliger, wfaidi occupied the renudnder of his life. In x86t
he was elected rector of Lincoln, marrying in the same year
Emilia Francis Strong (afterwards Lady Dilke). The rector
contributed largely to various reviews on literary subjects, and
took a considerable interest in social sdence, even preriding over
a section at a congress in X876. The routine of university
business he avoided with contempt, and refused the vice-chan-
cellorship. But while li^g the life of a student, he wss fond
of sodety, and espedally of the sodety of women. He died at
Harrogate on the 30th of July 1884. His biography of Isaac
Casmiibon appeared in X87S; MiUoH, in MacmiUan's EngBsh
Men of Letters series in X879. The i8th century, alike in its
literature and its theology, was a favourite study, as h iUustrated
by his contribution {Tendencies of Rdigious Ti»u(kt in En^nd^
i688*x7so) to theoncefamous Essays and Reviews (r86o), and by
his edition of Pope^s Essay on Man (1869). 8rc. His Sermons and
Colheied Essays, edited by Henry Nettleship, were published
posthumously (1889), as well as the Memoirs (1885), an auto-
biography deeply tinged with indancholy and bitterness. His
projected lafo of Scalifer was never finished. Mark Pattison
possessed an extraordinary distinction of mind. He was a true
scholar, who lived entirely in the things of the intellect. He
writes of himself, excusing the composition of his memoirs, that
he has known little or nothing of contemporary celebrities, and
that his memory is inaccurate: " All my energy was directed
upon one end — to improve myself, to form my own mind, to
sound things thoroughly, to free myself from the bondage of
unreason. . . If there is anything of interest in my story, it is as
a story of mental development" {Memoirs^ pp. r, .2). The
Memoirs is a rather morbid book, and Mark Pattison is merdless
to himself throughout. It is evident that he carried rationalism
in reUgion to an extent that seems harcOy consntent with his
position as a priest of the English Church.
Mark PatUaon's tenth and youngest sister was Dorothy
Wsmdiow Pattison (X839-X878), better known as Sister Doka,
the name she took In X864 on becoming a member of th^ Anglican
sisterhood of the Good Samaritan at Coatham, Yorkshire^ In
1865 she was sent as nurse to their cottsge hospital hi WabaU.
and from 1867 to 1877 she was in charge of a new hospital there.
She left the ^tethood in 1874, and thdr hospital in 1877, to
take charge of the municipal epidemic hospital, where the cases
were largely small-pox. She had meanwhife qualified hersdf
thoroughly ss a nurse and had acquired no mean skill as a sui^
geon. Her efforts greatly endeared her to those among whom
she worked, and after her death a memorial window was erected
in the parish churdi, and a mart>le portrait statue by F. J.
WiBiamspn in the prhxdpsl square of WalsalL
See Margaret LoosdakTs Sister Dora (1887 ed.).
PAITOR, FRANGII LAIIDBY (1843- ), American educa-
tionalist and theologian, wss bom in Warwick parish, Bermuda,
on the sand of January X843. He studied at Knox CoOege
and at the university of Toronto; graduated at Princeton
Theolo^cal Seminary in 1865; was ordained to the Presbyterian
ministry m June x86|; was pastor of the 84th Street Presby^
terian Church, New York City, in x86s-x867, of the Presby-
terian Church of Nyack, New York, fa) 1867-1870. of the South
Church, Brooklyn, in x87x,andof the Jefferson Park Presbyterian
Church, Chicago, in X874-X88X; and in x87a-x88x was professor
hi McCormicfc Senunary, Chicago. He wss moderator of the
General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in X878. In x88t-
x888 he was Stuart professor " of the relation of philosophy
and sdence to the Christian religion " (a chair founded for htm)
in Princeton Theolo^cal Seminaiy; hi X888-190S he was
president of the Coll^ of New Jersey, which hi X896 became
Princeton University; in 190a he became president of Princeton
Theological Seminary. He broo^t charges of heresy in X874
against David Swing, and was prosecuting attorney at Swing's
trial In X89X and x89a he was one of the opponents of
Dr Charles A. Briggs at the time of the Briggs heresy case.
Dr PattoD was an opponent of the xevision of the Confcsaioa
938
PAU— PAUL, THE APOSTLH
of Faith. He was editor, with Dr Briggs, of the Presb^fUrian
Reeiew, in tS8o-i883. He wrote TJU iHSpiration of Ike Scrip-
tures (1669), and Summary oj Christian DoUriru (1874).
PAD, a city of south-western France, chief town of the
department of Basses-Pyrin^ 66 m. £.S.£. of Bayonoe on
the southern railway to Toulouse. Pop. (1906), 30^315. It ia
situated on the border of a plateau 130 ft. above the right bank
of the Cave de Pau (a left-hand affluent of the Adour), at a height
of about 620 ft. above the sea. A small stream, the H£daa,
flowing in a deep ravine and crossed by several bridges, divides
the city into two parts. The modem importance of Pau is due
to its climate, which makes it a great winter health-resort. The
most striking characteristic is the stillness of the air, icflulting
from the peculiarly sheltered situation. The average rainfall
is about .33 in., and the mean winter temperature is 43^, the mean
for the year being 56°.
The town is built on a sandy soil, with the streets running east
and west. The Place Royale (in the centre of which stands
Nicolas Bernard Raggi's statue of Henry IV., with bas-reliefs
by Antoine Etcx) is admired for the view over the valley of the
Cave and the Pyrenees^ it is connected by the magnificent
Boulevard des Pyr£n6cs with the castle gardens. Beyond the
castle a park of thirty acres planted with beech trees stretches
along the high bank of the Gave. Access to the castle is obtained
by a stone bridge built under Louis XV.; this leads to the
entrance, which gives into a courtyard. On the left of the
entrance is the dot^jon or tour de Gaston Phoebus. On the right
are the lour wuoe, a modern erection, and the Tour de Montauzet
(Monte-Oiscau), the higher storeys of which were reached by
Udders; the Tour de Bilh^res faces north-west, the Tours de
Masdrcs south-west. Another tower between the castle and
the Gave, the Tour de la Monnaie, is in ruinsL
In the gardens to the west of the castle stand a statue of Gaston
Phoebus, count of Foix, and two porphyry vases presented by
Bernadotte king of Sweden, who was born at Pau. On the
ground-floor is the old hall of the estates of B£arn, 85 ft. long and
36 ft. wide, adorned with a white marble statue of Henry IV.,
and magnificent Flemish tapestries ordered by Francis I.
Several of the upper chambers are adorned with Flemish,
Bruascb or Gobelins tapestry, but the most interesting room is
that in which Henry IV. is said to have been bora, containing
his cradle made of a tortoise-shell, and a magnificent carved bed
of the time of Louis XII. The chorches of St Jacques and St
Martin in the Gothic style are both modern. The lycU occupies
a portion of the buildings of a Jesuit college founded in 1622.
The prefecture, the law-court and the hAtcl de ville present no
remarkable features. Pau is the seat of a court of appeal and a
court of assizes and has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of
commerce and a chamber of arts and manufaaures. There
are training colleges for both sexes, a- library, an art museum
and several Learned societies. Pau owes most of iU prosperity
to its visitors. The golf club, esublished 1856, has a course
of x8 holes, on the PUine de Billere, about a mile from the
town. Among the industrial establishments are flour-mills,
doth factories and unneries, and there is trade in wine, hams,
horses and doth.
Pau derives its name from the word pal, to allusbn to the
stakes which were set up on the site chosen for the town. It was
founded probably at the banning of the izth century by the
viscounU of B£arn. By the erection of the present castle in the
latter half of the 24th century, Gaston Phctbus made the town
a pUce of importance and after his death the viscounU of Bearn
visited it frequently. Gaston IV. granted a charter to the town
in 1464. Francois Phoebus, grandson and successor of Gaston,
became king of Navarre in 1479, and it was not until 15x2 that
the loss of Spanish Navarre caused the rulers of B^n to transfer
their residence from Pampduna to Pau, which till 1589 was their
seat of government. Margaret of Valois, who married Henri
d'Albret, made her court one of the most brilliant of the time.
la 1553 her daughter Jeanne d'Albret gave birth to Henry IV.
at Pau. It was the residence of Catherine, sister of Henry IV.,
who governed B^n in the name of her brother. In 1620
when French Navarve and B£tm were reduced to tlie faak of
province, the intendasts took up their qnarurs there la the
19th century Abd-d-Kader, during part ci his captivity, resided
in the castle*
PAUL, " the Apostle of the Gentiks," the first great ChrlstiaD
missionary and theologian. He hokls a phure in the history
of Christianity second only to that of the Founder himself. It
was no acddent that one who has been styled ** the second foonder
of Christianity " was bora and bred a Pharisee. Rather it was
through personal proof of the limitations of legal Judaism that
he came to distinguish so deariy between it and the Gospd bf
Christ, and thereby to present Christianity as the umversal
religion for man as man, not merdy a sect of Judaissn with
proselytes of its own. For this, and nothing less, was the issue
involved is the prohkm of the relation of Christiaaiiy to the
Jewish Law; and It was Paul who seuled it once aui for aU.
A modera Jew has said, " Jesus seeau to expand -and spiritu-
alise Judaism; Paul In some senses turns it upside down.**
The reason of this contrast is their respective attitudes to the
Law as the heart of Judaism. Jesus seems never to have
breathed theatmesphereof Rabbinic religion.^ Hence his was a
purdy positive reinterpcetation of the sphit of Old Testament
religion as a whole. His attitude to the Law was one of habitual
dutiiulness to its ordinances, combined with soverdgn freedom
towards its letter when the interests of its spirit so required
(cf. F. J. A. Hovt, Jttdaisiic Christianity, chap. iL). To this the
primitive apostles and their converts in the main adhered,
without seeing far into tbdr Master's prindphr in the matter;
nor did they fed any great straitening of the spirit by the letter
of the Mosaic, rather than the Rabbinic Law. But with Paul
it was otherwise. As Saol the Pharisee he had taken the Mosaic
Thorah as divine Law in the strictest sense, demanding perfect
inner and outer obedience; and hie had relied on it utteriy lor the
righteousness it was held able to confer. Hence when it gave
way beneath him as means of salvation-'nay, plunged him ever
more deeply into the Slough of Despond by bringing borne hb
inability to be righteous by doing righteousness^he was driven
to a reffolulionary attitude to the Law at method i^ juUtficatiaiu
" Through (the) Law " he " died unto (the) Law," that he
"might live unto God " (GaL iL 19). By this experience not
only Pharisaic Judaism, but the legid principle in religion alto-
gether, was turaed " upside down " within his own soul; and
of this iact his teaching and career as aa apostle wen the
outcome.
But Paul had in him other elements besides the Jewish, thoogh
these lay latent till after his conversion. As a native and dtiacn
of Tarsus, he had points of contact with Greek culture and senti-
ment which help to explain the sympathy and tact with whidi he
adapted his message to the Greek. As a Roman dtixen Ukrwiae.
conscious of membership m a world-wide system of law and
order which overrode local and racial differences, he could realije
the idea of a universal religious franchise, with a law axtd order
of its own. Both these factors in his training contributed to the
moulding of Paul the nu'ssionary sutesman. In ha mind the
conception of the Church as something catholic as the Roman
Empire first took shape; and through his wonderful hboars
the foundations of its actual realisation were firmly laid. la
giving some aocoimt of this man and of his teaching, we shall
expound the latter mainly as it emerges in the covne ot hii
personal career.
lietkod.^PaiuVn own letters are oar critical basn. as F. C Basr
and the Tobingen adiod made dear once for all. The book of Acei
and other aouices of infonnacion are to be used only so f cr as thry
* This, since the full success of the Maccabaean reaction more than
a century bdore, was determined by the Pharisaic notion of the Lav.
aa a rigorous sod technical method of atuiaii^ *' righteousness **
before God by correctness of icdigiotis conduct. But this ideal
reprcseoted omy one stream of the religion of the orinnal Ckasidwm,
or " pious ones of the Paalnis (see Assideans). Tm ampler form
in wntch thdr piety lived on in less official drclea, was that amicL;
which John the Baptist and Jesus himself were reared. It brrathes
in the more popular literature of edification represented by the
TtslumenU of th* Tiocloc FairioKks^ aa well aa in jUdie U ii
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
939
«f« coo^ible fHtii tbt letter^ « oar only ttrlctlx contenponry
documcntt. M ovr resuttt to-day are far more pontive than tho«e
of the TObiagen critics, this is diw partly to th« larger ninnber of
ktten nam generally acki»wledged as Paul's (some eight or ten),
•ad partly to a fuller knowledge both of Judaism and the Graeco-
Roman world. These are seen to have embraced more varitties
of religious thought and feeling than used to be assumed. -The
" fMUticutarist " tendency in Judaism was more limited than Baur
d; while there was even a ne-Christian gaostidsmf^both
•uppoaed
Jewish ai
and non-Jewish. Albrecht
AUkatk, Kirckt
^xnd cd., 1857) (Ud much to break through the hard-and-fast cate>
gories of the school in which he was trained, and in partkular showed
that Gentile Christians generally were far. from Pauline in their
modes of conceiving either Law or GospeL
CArMMl0fy.-~This has been discuaaed by Sir W. M. Ramsay
in PatHne and Other Siudias (1907). ud by C. H. Turner in Hastings's
Ditt. of thi BibU (article " Chronology of New Test."). Their results
agree in the main for the period when predsbn first becomes possible,
yu. between Paul's first missionary journey and his arrival in Rome.
Here Turner antedates Rammy by a year throughout. C. Clemen,
la hb PaulHt l 349-4I0, reaches rather differeat rtsults. The pivot
of the whole is Festus's succession to Felix as procurator, which
Turner places in 5S and Ramsay in 59, while they agree in excluding
56 (Blass and Harnack), 57 (Bacon), 60 (L^htfoot, Zahn). as well as
yet eariier and later extremes (Clemen argues for 61). On the
chronology from Paul's conversion down to the Relief visit (Actt
>D. to), c. 45-47, baldly two scholars agree; but on the whole the
tendency is to put his conversion rather eariier than was formerly
L PavTs life.'- "Saul, who Is also Paul." was "a Hebrew,
of Hebrews " bom, i.e, of strict Jewish origin, and of the
tribe of Benjamin (PhiL iiL 5; cf. 2 Cor. zi. as). Yet, as his
double name suggests, he was not reared on Jewish soil but
•mid the Dispersion, at Tarsus in Cillda, the son of a Roman
dlizen (Acts xxii. 2S; cf. xvi. 37, xzlii. a;)- " Saul," his Jewbb
name, was a natural one for a Benjamlte to bear, in memory
of Israel's first king. " Paul " was his name for the hon- Jewish
world, according to a -usage seen also in John Mark, Simeon
Niger, &c. Pauius was not an uncommon name in Syria and
eastern Asia Minor (see the Index nominum in Boeckh's Corp.
imscr. paec,)^ and was a natural one for the son of a Roman
citixen. Ramsey develops this point suggestively {Pauline
and Other Studits, ^ 65). *^ It is as certain that he had a Roman
name and spoke the Latin langiu^ge as it is that he was a Roman
dtizcn. If, for example's sake, we could think of him somc>
times as Gaius Julius Pauius— to give him a ponible and even
not improbable name — how completely woukl our view of him
be transformed* Much of what has been written about him
(•s a narrow, onesided Jew] would never have been written
tm TsriMs ^ ^^® ^^ mentioned his fuU name." Nor would
much of the same sort have beat written, if the
Influences due to his Tacsian dtisenship' (zzi. 39), viewed in
the Ught of the habits of Jewish life in Asian diiea, had been
kept in miod. Tarsus, it seems, was peculiarly successful " in
produdng an amalgamated society in which the Oriental and
Ocddental spirit in unison attained in some degree to a higher
plane of thought and action " (id., The Cities cf SL Paul, 89).
Accordingly it is natural that Paul's letters should bear traces
of Hellenic culture up to the level of a man of liberal education.
Whether he went beyond this to a first-hand study of philosophy,
particularly vf the Stoic type for which Tarsus as a university
was famous, Is open to question.' In any case Paul had learnt,
when be wrote his epistles, to value Greek " wisdom " at its
true worth — the suggestiveness and sanity of its best thoughts,
*Tbe ntetbod which reverses this rdation, using the **we"
Hassigm of Acts to discredit the epistles of Paul (as well as the rest
of Acts), b a mere lour de farcgt which has roccivcd artificial vogue
fcqr incorporation in the Eneydopaedia Bihlica, and to a less degree
in thd estcmal and partial article *' Saul of Tarsus " in the Jewish
Bacyclopaedia. The essential harmony of the epistlea and Aeis
has been shown afresh by A. Harnack, Die Apoelelg$sehkhte (1908).
* Probably aa member of the Jewish " tnbe " datii^ from the
Sdeudd cofony planted there in 171 b.c. (Ramsay).
• The main diflficulty in dcddmg on this, as on other points of
contact between PSul and HeHenism, is the faa that be certainty
(oC many of hb Greek ideas through the medium of Tudaeo'Greek
or Hellenistic litcmturo, like the Wisdom of Sttomon (cf. Ronwns I
iS-ii. fin.). It b dear from the way in which he uses the Greek
Bible, even where it diverges wrondy from the original* that he was
ffafKd on it rather than oa the Hebrew text.
Mwlth
but at the sama time its inadeqnacjr to meet thadeeper longings
of the human spiriL Abovo all he felt the mental and moni
shallowness of the verbal " show of wisdom " - which marked
current philosophical rhetoric
* Thanks to hb letters, we can form some idea of the character
and strength of the dement in Paul's early life due to Judaism.
Looking back, he says (PhiL iiL 4-7), " If any other
roan thlnketh to have confidence in the flesh, I yet
more. Circumdsed the eighth day, ... a Hebrew
of Hebrews; as touching the Law, a Pharisee; as touching
the ligfateoosaeas which b in the Law, foond blameless. Howbeit
what things were gain to me, these have I ooonted loss for
Christ." He came indeed to regard such inherited advantages
as in tbcmsdves things of " the flesh," natural lather than
spiritual (w. 4, 9). Yet as advantages, tending to awaken the
spirit's tldist for God, he did esteem them, sedng in them part
of the prcpaxaCkm vouchsafed by divine providence to himself
(Gal. 1. 1 5). Upon the " advanUge of the Jew," as " entrusted
with theotsdesof (Sod " (Rom. ifl. i seq.), hedwells in Rom. iL 17
in a way suggestive of his own youthful attitude to " the name
of a Jew." Thus we may imagine the eager boy in Tarsus,
aa d^ebping, under the instructions of a father strictly loyni
to the Law, and under the teaching of the ^nagogne, a typiod
Jewbh consciousness of the more serious and sensitive order.
A good deal depends on the age at which the young Said
passed from Tarsus to Jerusalem and the school ol GamalieL
If he fdt hb vocation as teacher of the Law at
the earliest possible age, thb great change may have X/«m1^^
come soon after hb fifteenth year, when Rabbinic
studies mii^t begin. Thb would wdl accord with the likelihood
that he never married. But in any case we must not eiaggerate
the contrast involved, since be cane from a Pharisaic home and
passed to sit at the feet of the leader of the more liberal Palesiinian
Rabbinism. The trandtion would simply accentuate the legal
dement in hb xdtgious life and outlook. Nor was it mere
personal acceptaaoe with God that floated before hb soul ss
the priae of such earnestness. The end of ends was a righteous
nation, worthy the fulfilment of the divine promises. But
thb too could oome only by obedience to the Law. Thus all
that the yoiug Pharisee cared for moat faxmg upon the Lav
of hb fathers.
Outwardly he obtauicd the god of kgd blamdesBncas as
few attained it; and for a time he may have felt a measure of
aelf-satidaction. But if so, a day came when the inner meaning
of the Law, as extending to the sphere of dedre and motive,
came home to him in stem power, and hb peace fled (Rom. viL
9). For sin in hb inner, red Ufe was nnsubdued; nay, it
seemed to grow over stronger, standing out raoie dearly
and defiantly as insight into the moral life grew by means ol
the Law. To the Lav he had been taught to look for righteous-
ness. In hb experience It proifed but the means to " knowledge
of sin," without a corresponding impulse towards obedience.
Not only did it make him realise the latent potdbilitics of evi
desire (" the evil heart," Kster ilora), it also made him aware
of a subtler evil, the reaction of self-will against the demands
of the Law. While one dement was in abiding harmony with
the will of God, the other waa in eqod sympathy with '* the
law of sin." Covld the Law achieve the sepaimtion, making
the raordpenon " die" to *' the flesh " and so escape iu sway 7
No, aaswesed Saul's experience: the Law nther adds power
to sin aa self-will (x Cor. sv. 56; Rom. viL ti, ij). Whence
then b delivanuioe to oone? It can only cone with the
Messianic age and ihnmgh Messiah. Tbe Law woidd reign
Inwardly as ootwaidly, bei«g " written en the heart " as
pnmbed la paophccy.
So may we conceive the podtion readied by SauL tboogk
not with full consciousness, before be came into oontaa with
Christianity. But as yet he did not realise that
"* through the Uw he had died to the Uw" {GtX, ■^•—
iL 29), much less the logicd bearing of this fact upon ^}
the nature and function of the Law. How then
would the mcBMge* '*J«» b the Messiah," strike auch •
940
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
SMflto
man? It would leein a blasphemous caricatuie of things
most sacred. It is doubtful whether he had heard Jesus Him-
B^ (a Cor. V. x6 has perhaps another meaning). He may
even have been absent from Jerusalem in the first days of
apostolic preaching, possibly as a rabbi in Tarsus. But if so,
his ardent nature soon brought him on the scene, ixr time at
least to hear Stephen and take part against him (Acts vii. 58, 60).
If the simple message of the first witnesses, that one whose life
and preadiing were largely out of harmony with the Law as
Saul understood it, had in fact been raised from the dead
by Israel's God and so vindicated — to the condemnation of
that generation of God's people— if this seemed to Saul mere
madness, what was he to say to Stephen's views as to the Law
and the people of the Law, both past and present? (see Stsprem).
Stephen could not be right in the views which still divided
them. Perish the thought 1 Perish too all those who upheld
the crucified Naxarene, the accursed of the Law 1 For His
dbith could mean but one of two things. Either He was
accursed of CSod also, 01^— awful alternative, yet inevitable to
Saul's logical mind — the Law relaUae to whicM He was aeeursed
was itself set aside. Saul turned from the suggestion as too
shocking to his pride alike in his people and in its divine Law,
lor him seriously to consider its alleged crcdentialsr-the Resur^
rection, and the supernatural power and goodness of Him whose
claims it was held to confirm. Why stay to weigh the eWdence
d Galilean common folk {Am-ka'Onlt), themselves lax in their
observance of Tkorak, when over against it stood the whole
weight of immemorial prescription, and the deliberate judgment
of the custodians of the Law as to this man as " a deceiver "?
No doubt they were self-deceived fanatics; But the logic of
the movement had at length declared itself through the mouth
of Stephen, and weak toleration must be abandoned.
So Saul was driven to persecute, driven by his acute sense
of the radical issue involved, and perhaps hoping to find relief
from his own bitter experience ^ such seal for the
^Law. Yet the ffoading of unsatisfied, intuitions
' did not cease. We may even suspect that Stephen's
philosophy of Israel's history had made an impression on him,
and was undermining his confidence in the infaUifaility of his
nation's religious authorities. If mistaken before, why not
again ? This granted possible, all turned on the evidence as
to the Resurrection of the cntdfied Prophet of Nazareth. Yet
though the joyous mien of His followers, even when confronted
with death, seemed to betoken a good conscience before CSod
which could hardly fail to impress him, Saul felt the statin of
the Law to be too grave an issue to depend on the probabilities
of human testimony. So he plunged on, in devotion to what
still seemed the cause of God against impugners of His Tbonkt
but not without his own doubts. He was, in fact, finding it
" halt] to kick against the goad " (Acts xxvi. 14) pHed in his
deeper consciousness, as he followed bis inherited and less
personal beliefs. He was, in language which he later applied
to his compatriots, loth to '* submit himself to the rSghteousneas
of God " (Rom. x. 3), when it came in a manner humbling to
his feelings. Still he was in the main honest (i Tim. t. 13),
and the Mndrances to his belief were exceptional. Direct
personal experience on the point on which all hinged, the alleged
divine vindication of Jesus as Messiah following on the legal
condemnation by the national authorities, was needful to open
up a clear exit from his religious impasM,
It was at this critical point in his inner history that, as he
neared Damascus on a mission of persecution, there was granted
nto vb** him— as he believed ever after In the face of all
miDama*' challenge — a vision of Jesus, in risen and glorified
^^ humanity, as objective as those to t^e original
witnesses with which in t Cor. xv. he classes it.
As to the sense in which tfkh vision, so momentous In Its
issues, may be regarded as " objective," the fdtowinK points deserve
notice. On the one hand it is generally agreed (i) tHat Paul dis-
tinguished this appearance of the risen Jesus from his other " visions
and revelations of the Lord," such as he refere to in 7 Cor. xii. I sqq.,
and classed it with those to the Twelve and others which 6rat created
the belief that Jesus had ben " raised from the dcui "k Ci) that
this belief included for Fsul a teansfonsed or sfrfiltualiaed body (d.
the note of time. " on the third day." and the argument in 1 Cor.
XV. la sqo., 3Ssqq.). his own vtsioo of which seems to colour hkco*'
ceprion oi the Resurrection body generally (PkiL iik ai, though he had
certain tiadittooal notions on the subject co start with: S, a Coc
V. I aqq. with A poc, BorucK xlix.-li., repreientingjeviik bdiff about
A.tK 7»-ioo, and see Dr R. H. Charies's cd.). Oa the other hand,
analogies furnished by religious psychotogy, iodudiag a suddca
vision amid lif ht and the hearing of a voice as aooompnaiawota
of leligiouB cnais in certain cases, affect our ability to take Saul's
consdousneia in the matter as a simple transcript of objective
facts. There is indeed reason to believe that the daxxliag light wm
such a fact, if it blinded Saul temporaiily (Acta is. B*I9; siod affected
his companions (xxii. 9, xxvi 14). But beyood this physical
pcdude to his visioo we cannot go critically. Thus the nature of
the connexion between the light as an objective antecedcsit* and
the vision subjective to Saul hiouelf. remains doubtful 00 the plane
of history. It is possible to penetrate further only by the aud of
faith, with or without specuUtions baaed on certain paychkal facta
more and more establishing themselves to scientific mink. RefigioaB
faith, dwelling on the unique iasues of the vision in the history of
Christianity and arguing from effccu to a cause as real aa themaeiv«%
tends to postulate the objectivity whkh Saul himself aaneits. Some
do so in an absolHte sense, in spite of the differenoes between Saul's
experience and that of his oomianions (Acta ix. 7, xxii. 9). Othcss
confine the objectivity to a divine act, produdog by special actkm
on Saul's bnin a vision not due simply to the antecedents in himsdf.
Thus it was not merely subjectiye, a mere vision in the aense of
hallucination, but an objective vision or genuine revelatioo of the
real, as Paul claimed. Such an objectivo>subiective revdatkw.
being hi this but a spedal form of what is involved in any real divine
revelation, accords tn general with modem research as to telepathy
and phantasms of distant or deceased persons. But, after all. the
main point for Paul's religious histocy— as well as Um basis of afl
theories of the vision — is the quesdon as to the degice of dtsoootxnuity
between his thought before and after the event. On this Paul is
clear and emphatic; nor can we here go behind the evidence of one
whose writings prove him a master in introspective refloctioik
** There was no possibility that he should by any pcocess of asete
thinking come to realize the truth '* as to Jesus, so rooted wen the
prejudices touching things divine which barred the way (see Ramsay,
PaiUitie and Other Studies, p. 18).
Important as Is the question as to the nature of the visioa
which changed Saul's career, it is iU spiritual content
which bears most. upon the story of his life. Jesus
was, in spite of all, God's Messiah, His Righteous ^
One, His Son, the type and ideal of righteousness
in man* through spiritual union with whom like righteous-
ness was to be attained, if at all. In a flash Saul's peisonal
problem as to acceptance with God and victory over sia was
changed. It became simply a question how spiritual anion
with the Messiah was' to come about. He had vanquished
and " condemned sin in the flesh " by His perfect obedience
(Rom. viii. 3, v. xo), of which the Cross was now seen to be the
crowning act. As for the Law aa means of jvstificatlon. it
was superseded by the very fact that Messiah bad realixed His
righteousness on another principle altogether than tbat of
" works of the Law," and had in consequence been crucified
by its action, as one already dead to it a« a diipauatiamt
principle. This meant that those united to Him by lakh wen
themselves sharers in His death to the Law is dispensatiooal
master and judge, and so were quit of ita dalma in that ncv
moral world into which they were raised as sharers also in Hia
Resurrection (Rom. vL i-viL 6). Henceforth they " lived uatn
God " in and through Messiah, by the seU-same Spirit by which
He had lived the sinless life (viii. 9).
Here we have at once Paul's myatidsm and bia dsstinc>
tive gospd In germ, though the full working out la '
directions came only gradually under the stimulus ^
of circumstances. But already the old regime j^..^
had dissolved. His first act was to make explicit,
through confession and baptism, his submisakm and adbcsioa
to Jesus as Messiah implicit in his cry from the ground, ** HI'Bxi
shall I do. Lord ? " Thereby he formally " washed away bis
sins " (Acts xxii. 16; cf. Rom. x 9). Then with ncfr-bon
enthusiasm he began boldly to proclaim in the tynnsogna
of Damascus that Jesus, whose followers he had ornne to rcot
out, waa verily the Messianic Son of God (ix. ao;cf. Matt. xvi. tt «
Yet ere long he himself felt the need for quiet in which to thiak
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
9+»
out the tlMOiy of Us new posilioB. He withdrew to leme
Kduded spot in the Tegion louth of Dssuucus, then vafoely
called Arabia <Gal. i. 17). Chief aauMig the jffoblema pressing
for reiaterpreution in the light of his recent experi-
nfttnZf *°^ '"•* ^ ****** ^ ^* ^^ ™ Gad's counsels.
uHtZwk While the Iaw could condemn, warn and in some
degrees restrain the sinner from overt sins, it could
not redeem or save him from the love of sin. In a word, it
could not " give life " (GaL iiL ax). Hence its direct remedial
action was quite secondary, its primary effect, and therefore
divine purpose, was to drive men humbly to seek God's grace.
It " shut up all unto (realised) disobedience, that God might
have mercy upon all '" (Rom. a.. $9; Gal. iiL as). Thus the
place of the Law in God's counsels waa episodic. The radical
egoism ot the natural man could be transcended, and self-
l^rying exchided, not by the law, with iu " law (prindple)
of works," but by the ^'kw of faith " (Rom. iii. 27), In fine,
the function of the Law was secondary, preparatory, temporary.
The reign of the Law closed when its work in shutting up men
to faith in Christ— the perfect form of faith, that of conscious
iODAhip — was accomplished. It had a high place of honour
as a dispensation for a limited end and time; but its day was
over when Jesus accepted crucifixion at its hands, and so psssed ,
on as the inauguratot of a new dispensation marked by a final
relation between man and Godt the filial, the Spirit of which
was already in the hearts of all Christian believen (Gal. iii
S3-iv. 7). Thus the Cross of Jesus was the satisfaction of the
claims of Law as a disptnseUon or divinely sanctioned method,
which had to be honoured even in tbe act of being transcended,
"that (xod might ht just (U. dispensationally consistent),
while justifying the believer in Jesus " on a fresh basis (Rom.
m. 26). Such a view did but *<esUblish tbe Uw" (v. 31)
within, its own proper sphere, while pointing beyond it to one
in which its final aim found fulfilment.
Here lay tbe revolutionary element in PauVs thought in
relation to Judaism, turning the latter " upside down " and
marking his gospel of! from the form in which Judaeo>
vMMrfVUM. Christians had hitherto apprehended the salvation
in Jesus tbe Christ. It was the result of profound
insight, and,, historically, it saved Christianity from being a
mere Jewish sect. But as it was conditioned by recoil from
an overdriven use of the Law in the circles in which Saul was
trained, so there was something one-sided in its emphasis on
the pathological workings of the Law upon human nature in
virtue of sinful egoism. Saul was the pioneer who secured
mankind for ever against bondage to religious legalism. He
it was who first detected that specific virus generated by Law
in the ''natural man," and also discovered the sovereign
antidote provided in Christ. Nor is it as though Paul, even
in those apologetic writings which present his antitheses to
Law in the sharpest form, had the Jewish Thcrak exclusively
in view. He deab with it rather as the classic type of law in
religion: it is really law qua Ulw, even the unwritten law in
conscience, as determining man's relations to God, that he has
in mind in his psychological criticism of its tendencies in the
human soul (see Sanday and Headlam, on Rom. ii. 13 seq.):
" NiU'mur in vetitum cupimusque negaU." This Is too often
overlooked by his Jewish critics. Paul felt nothing but reverence
for the Tkorah in what he took to be its proper place, as secondary
to faith and subordinate to Christ. In short, Paul first per-
ceived and set forth the principle of inspiration to God-likeness
by a personal ideal in place of obedience to an impersonal Law,
as co&ditioQ of salvation. Tbe former includes the hitter,
while safeguarding the filial quality of religious obedience.
The above seems to meet part of the criticism directed by fflodem
Jews affalnst Paul's theory of the Law. Other criticisms (cf. C. G.
Monufiore. Jewish Quarterly Review, vi. 438-474. xiiL 161-217) may
Just be noted, If Paul supports his theory by bad Scripture exegesis*
that is a common Rabbmic failing. If it be said that it is nK>n-
strous fo hold that God gave the Caw mainly for another end than
the ostensible one. vis. to lead to life by obedience, this holds so far;
but one cannot exclude from the divine purpose the nentive effect,
Tic promotion of self-knowledge in sinful man and the breaking
down of his setf^eonfidoBoe, eondltioos es s entia l to a mature
filial relation between noan and God. Nor did Paul deny the poettive
or directly beneficent, though limited, function of the Law. lo far
as it was viewed in the light of the grace of God. as by prophets,
pwlmists, and otliers who " walked humbly with God, not as
meriting His approval as of^ right by ** works of law.^* But. objects
the modem jew, the notbn of Rabbinic Judaism as generally
tainted by " I^Usm ** in any such sense, is a mere figment of Paul's.
Nevertheless it is unproven and improbable that - Paul unfairly
represents the freaulhtg Uniency in the Pharisaic Judaism of his own
day as " legalistic " in the bad sense. He is really the one cactant
wiiriPSn upon the point, ai- jiist defined, if we pxcepf certain apoca-
lytJiiL- ■fc^rjiintjs (wlii>w i'^id^.'neJt- racfiLTn Jfws, are atixitm* lo
dist-ounijn like the Apocaiypif of Baruch ana 4 Ezra, the btUT a(
which auKgntt that atnmidiy the humbling c^rct of the capiitrii: dC
JernsakiTi V3,i being felt. FinaLly' itie lanie ItbcnL Jew who cqiti-
plain^ that Paul tarn* Judabtim _" updd« down" by hts dortrinr
of the Law, ckei with appro vul hi^ vord-t, "' There if no {Jiftinction
beiwfcn Jew and Crwk, and add*, " Not Tilt ^t Paul had written
did the prophetic tinivcrsAli'im attain it« gOAl.'^ Surety the^ is a
vital conncxjDit beLwcen ihcx t«a (hingt. *' Univeiuliim " was
thr true i^uc of the higher tendency in Hebr3ibm» ai seen in
cerMsn oF Loci'* pfophet*. But k ww atuiotc! ooty ihronuh
Je^^'n q1 Ns-iE^R^th' nmd tiL-trnricaTly the main linL bctvcen lits
supra -V,^l unlverialtjiFn and its actual oDtcame in th<? Christian
CfiLiich was ihecx-PbaiiHe Saij)^ with hi^ ooti'kga] gotpcl
Said's conversion left Jesus the Christ as central to his new
world as the Law had been to his old. All, was summed up
in Christ, and Him crucified. This was to hhn the ^^^^
essence of Chrbtiaaity as distinct from Judaism. IfpSi
As, to the Jew, life was lived under the Law or in it
as native element, so the Christian life was '* in Christ " as
element and law of being. Christ simply replaced the Law as
form and medium of relations between God and man. In this
Paul went far beyond the older apostles, whose simpler attitude
to the Law had never suggested the problem of its dbpensational
relation to Messiah, though in fact they relied on Messiah
alone for justification before God. The logic of this, as Paul
later urged it onPeter of Antioch (Gal. ii. 15 sqq.), they did not
yet perceive. To him it was clear from the first. But the
contrast goes farther. The very form in which Jestis was
known to Saul by direct experience, namely, as a spiritual being,
in a body already glorified In virtue of a regnant " spirit of
holiness " — revealed by the Resurrection as the essence of His
personality (Rom. i. 4) — determined all his thought about Him.
To this even Jesus' earthly life, real as it was, was subordinate.
Paul was not indifferent to Jesus' words and deeds, as helping
to bring home in detail the spirit of Him who by resturection
was revealed as the Son of God; but apart from insight into
His redemptive work, knowledge of these things was of Uttle
religious moment. The extent of Paul's knowledge of the
historical Jesus has been much debated. Few think that he
had seen Jesus in the flesh; some even deny that he knew or cared
for more than the bare facts to which he alludes in his epistles—
the Davidic birth, the institution of the Supper, the Death and
Resurrection. But beyond bis express appeals to precepts of
•' the Lord " in 1 Cor. vii. 10, ix. 14 (cf. Rom. xii. 14), he " shows
a marked insight into the character of Jesus as it Is described
in the Gospels " (see 1 Coc x. 1 ; cf . PhD. ii. s-8). The sources
of such knowledge were no doubt oral, e.4. Peter (GaL L 18),
Barnabas, Mark, as well as collections of Jesus' words, along
vith connected incidents in His life, used la caleekcsis. Thus
Saul^ attitude to Jesus was fixed by his own experience. The
varied theoretic expressions found in his writings ^_, _
as to Christ's relations to God, to mankind, and {*]|]yyp^
even to the imiveise, were to him but corollaries iTi^tris»w>
of this. The most pcnistent element in his concep-
tion of Christ's person, via. as a heavenly being, who, though
God's Son, voluntarily humbled Himself and suffered in fulfil-
ment of God's will, and had in consequence been exalted to
fresh glory, took iU start from bi» own personal cxperienee,
although it faicluded the speculative postulate of pre-existence
in terms of some current Messianic form of thought. Paul's
theory expressed the deeper sense of the all-inclusive significance
of Christ, in keeping with his own experience. Hence, too,
all his distinctive thou^U on itUgion, aometixnci called
94.2
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
HlMeartr
" Paulinism " (ace below), were both experimental in origin
and capable of statemenr in terms of his Christ. To him the
Death and Resurrection of Christ were not isolated facts, nor
yet abstractions. To this man of faith the crucial fact of
Christ's Resurrectioa, in full spiritual humanity, had been
brought within his own experience,- so that here, and not in
any second-band facts touching Christ's earthly career, lay
the real and Verified basis of the whole Christian life. This
makes his gospel so individual, and at the same time so universal
— for those at least who at all share his religious experience.
It is unlikely that Saul began straightway to preach all his
ideas or even those most prominent in his epistles, which belong
only to some ten yean at the end of a ministry
^of some thirty. In particdar his special mission
to the Gentiles dawned on him only gradually.
No doubt as he looked back in writing Gal. i. 15 seq., he felt
that the final purpose of God in " revealing His Son in him "
had been that he " might preach Him among the Gentiles."
But this does not prove that he saw it all at once as involved
in " the heavenly vision." For one thing the contracted
horizon aflforded by the hope of a speedy second Advent
{Parousia) would limit his outlook materially. Then too he
was Intensely Jewish in feeling; and the probability Is that
he would begin to declare salvation through Christ alone, apart
from " works of the Law," to his compatriots. Only bitter
experience convinced him (Rom. ix. i sqq., x. t sqq.) that the
Jews as a people did not share his experience as to the Law,
and spumed their proffered birthright in Messiah.
Saul began his preaching in the synagogues of Damasois,
and made a deep impression, especially, we may suppose, after
his return from Arabia (Acts ix. 32; Gal. L 17). But finally
his Jewish opponents planned to do away with him, by the
connivance of the ethnaich of King Arclas (cf. 2 Cor. xi. 32 seq.).
Then came bis first visit to Jerusalem since his conversion,
in the third year from that event, for the purpose of making
the personal acquaintance of Peter (Gal. i. x8), presumably
to hear first-hand about Jesus' eartJUy ministiy and teach-
ing, as well as to make the leading apostle directly acquainted
with his own remarkable convenion and mission.^ It was
natural that Barnabas should help to break through thesuspidoo
with which the arch-persecutor was at first regarded; also that
such preaching as Saul did in Jerusalem should be directed to
the Hellenists, t.g, his Cilician compatriou (ix. 39; d. vi. 9).
This led to his having to leave suddenly, apparently after a
vision in the Temple which brought him fresh light as to the
scope of his future ministiy. During the ten or eleven years
at least " in the regions of Syria and Cilicia " which ensued,
it was still primarily to the Jews that he preached; for the news
of him which reached " the churches of Judaea " from time to
time (dxouoi^es ^com) was such that they " kept glorifying God "
in him ((xal. i. 21-23), as they certainly would not have done had
he all along addressed himself largely to Gentiles. His preach-
ing, that is, was for the most part confined to the synagogue
and its adherents of non-Jewish origin, whether drcumdsed
or not. Of Saul's actual history, however, during these obscure
years we gain only rare glimpses,' the first and most important
being in connexion with the foundation at Antioch of a mixed
Church of Jews and Gentiles. Whatever may have been the
first beginnings of this new departure (a question which depends
on the alternative readings* "Hellenisu" and "Greeks" iq
* Here C^Iatians (L 18 sqq.) emphasizes its own special points of
interest, in that Saul stayed only a fortnisht and saw of the apostolic
leaders none ave Peter and James the Lord's brother; whereas
Acts, in its popular account cm the more public side of his visit,
conveys a rather different effect, yet one not incompatible with what
he himself rebtes.
• It b likely that some at least of the five scourging in tynagoeues
lefened to ia 2 Cor. xi.24„be(ell him duriat thu perwd. Many Jews
would resent not only the preaching of a crucified Mcasbh, but abo
the fikhlrtg from them of tncir proselytes.
■ The present writer now believes that " Helbnists." the better
supported reading (see Acts), k yet secondary, bein{( due to assimib-
tion to preceding usage in vL i, ix. 39. and possibly also to mu-
interpieution of the turaing to the Gentiles in xiii. 46b
Acts zi. 30), a situation soon arose which Barnabas, who had
been sent from Jerusalem to supervise the work begun by certain
HeUenbt preachen. felt to call for Saul's co-opcratioD. He
sought him out in Tarsus, and " for a whole year " the two
enjoyed the hospitality of the Antiocheae Church and instructed
numerous ooaveru--induding not a few unctrcumctsed Gcatiles.
It b not clear how far Saul continued to reside in Antioch after
his first "whole year" of continuous work as colleague of
Barnabas. It no doubt remained hb headquarten.
But we may imagine Mm evangelizing also m the '"'
region between Antioch and Tarsus (Gal. i. 31; d.
Acu XV. 23, 41). Whibt so engaged, whether at
Antioch or elsewhere, he seems to have attained quite • frcah
sense of the degree to which Gentiles were destined to fonn an
integral part of that " Israel of God " which was bdng gathered
through faith in Jesus as the Christ (d. the name " Christiaos.**
Acts zi. 36). Writing about summer a.d. 56, he speaks of
having had an overpowering revebtion some thirteea yean
pievwusly (2 Car. xii. 2-4), that b. about 43-43, the very period
now in question. He says nothing, it b tnte, as to iu these;
but it can haidly have been unconnected with hb central
preoccupation, the scope of the Church, as set forth later ia
Eph. ii. II, iii. 13.
Saul's lebtions with the Jerusalem community between hb comts^
to Antioch and hb final relinquishing of it as his headquarter* about
A.D. 50 (a period of some ten years), form a crucbl pomt in hb tub*
sionary life. The extreme Tflbingen theory that Saul was now, and
even later, in sharp conflict with the leaders in Judaea, b a thing of
the past. But many problems remain, and what follow* b oflcted
only on its own merits, as seeming best to unify the relevant data
in the light of all we know of Paul as a man and a missionary. PoMta
of divergence from current views will be indicated as far as pmiihlr
Such a new revebtion would naturally lead to more definite
efforts to win Gentiles as such, and ihb again to hb scoood
visit to Jerusalem, some eleven year» after hb ^ ^
former vbit (or rather more than thirteen, if the SSS
interval in Gal. iL i be reckoned from that vbit hms^m
and not from his conversion). He would come to
feel the need of a dear understanding with Jerusalem tottchliic
hb gospel, " lest perchance he should run ia vain or have
already so run " (ii. 2). Saul was not the man to wait for a
foreseen evil to develop. " In accordance with a revdatiott "
he induced Barnabas to accompany him to a private coQicreoce
with the leaders in Jerusalem, to lay before them hb vm^
(ii. 2). I1ie date of this was c. 43-45- Hb aim was to confer
soldy with leaders (contrast Acts xv. 4, 12) like James and
Cephas and John, the " piUars " of the Jerusalem community.
But certain persons who showed such a spirit as to nsake ham
describe them as "pseudo-brethren." managed to b« present
and demanded the circumcision of Titus, a Greek whom Saul
had taken with him. In thb demand he saw a blow at tltt
heart of hb gospd for Gentiles, and woukl not give way. The
"pilbrs" theinsdves, too, felt that hb distinctive mbsioa
was boiud up with Gentile freedom from obUgation to the
Mosaic Law as such. They recognized Saul and Barnabas
as entrusted with a spedfic Gentile mission, parallel with their
own to Jews. Only, as pledge that the two should oot diverge
but remain sbter branches of Messiah's Ecdesb, tutil He
should return and remove all anomalies, they adced th^t the
Gentile mission should prove the genuineness * of its piety by
making it a habit to " remember the poor." Here was a proviso
which Saul was as eager as they could be to get carried out,
and thb he was able to prove ere long in the special ionn of
* How essential a mark of true i^ety such ooaduet was in tbecycn
of Jews at thb time b well known. A synoaym for alms(tvuig
was " rbhteousness " (d. Matt. vi. 1 seq.) : it is specblly pnused.
in the Pirke Abotk, along with Jlwrak and divine worship, aa the
"three things on which the worid rests": while in Bom Aaz&r«
10 b. we read, "As sin-offering makes atonement for Israd. so
alms for the Gentiles." In the Tight of this, confirmed by Acts x.
2. 4, in the case of Cornelius, it seems that the reference in Cat. ti la
is to deeds of charity generally, as a token of genuine piety ia
Messianic proselytes, just as in ordinary Jewish ones; lor Tt;e
primitiN'e Judaeo-Christian community was moat earnest on the
point : d. Acu iL 44 seq.. iv. 32*37.
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
943
Tk»PM4
ffdfef totlMpooriii Judafeft,itUdilieaBd Barnabas -fitly adii]ini«>
tefred in pcnon (Acts xi. 50, xiL 25). This relief visit took place
«bQUfc 45''46.* Having now rcaebed as understaw&ig with the
leaiierB in Jerosalcai. as to his nussion to tlie Gentiles Saul felt
aazioiui to break fresh ground, and probably broached
the subject to the local leaden. As they waited on
God for guidance, the Spirit through one of the
^ prophets " directed that Bamabaa and Saul be set apart for
•uch an enterprise; and this was done in solemn form (diu x-3).
Naturally Barnabas thought of his native Cyprus; and thither
they sailed, aboot spring a^ 47, with Mark {q.t.) as their
•asistant. That they had at least one other companion is
probable not only ftom the phrase " Paul and his company "
(xiii. 13), but also from the traces of eyewitness in the narrative
of Acu (see Lutt). Their work lay at first in synagogues.
But at PaphoB an unparalleled event occurred, to which due
prominence is given. The Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus,
• man whose wide religious interest showed itself in having
about his person a Jewiih ** prophet ** with magical pretensions,
sent for the new preachers. BarJestiS, the tMpts or wizard
(as his surname, Elymas, pn»babfy denotes), oppCMed the rivals
to his patron's attention; and this brought Saul decisively to
the front. His fitness for his part, as no mere Jew but in a
sense Roman fachig Roman, ts mdicated by the pdnted descrip-
tion, " Sanl, who Is also Pauhis." His intervention procured
the confusion of the mafia and the conversion of the prooonauL
This incident'--so significant o» the future in many ways^
marked the beginning of a new prominenccof Paul in the conduct
of the mission (cf. ** Paul and his company "). Further, on
leaving Cyprus the mission entered the region where PanI, not
Barnabas, was most at home. At Perga In Pamphylia a fresh
decision was reached as to the route now 10 be taken, and this
led to Mark's witbdfawing altogether (see Mass).
It doc« not seem that the personal factor weighed most with
Mark; rather it wee the nature of "the work" ittdf (xv. 38).
Perhaps it had been tacitly assumed that the mls^n wouU not
cross the Taurus range to the diflTcrent worid beyond, but keep
to the coast-lands south of that great natural barrier, which were
fen close relation with Antioch and Syria generally. Accordingly,
when Paul at last outlined the laiiser scheme, which had perhaps
bin in principle in his own mind all along. Mark recoiled from
its boldness The natural thing indcod was to evangelise in Pam-
l^ylta, a country in close relations with Cilicia and Syria. Why then
did Paul insist on pushing inland straight for the Taurus range and
the high table>land some 3600 ft. above sea>M;vel ? Not to evangelise
Pisidian Antioch. and the other cities io the south of Roman Gabtla
lying to the east of it: for Paul himself says that hb preachmg there
was due to sickness (Gal. iv. 11), seemingly when on his way to other
fields. These would be in the first instance certain cities in the
south-east of the Roman province of " Asia," where lews abounded
and had a large Gentile followina. Had the great aties of western
Asia, and partkrularly Ephesus (cf. xvi. 6^, been his primary aim,
he would have taken the easier and more direct route running west-
north-west through Laodicca. Sir W. M. Ramsay thinks that Paul
sought the Galatian highlands on purpose to get rid of mahurial
fever, contracted in the lowlands of Pamphylia. But Mark woukl
hardly have kft under these conditions. It seems better to suppose
tisBt It was only on the arduous journey to Antioch. amid " perils
of rivers, perils of robbers." or even after his arrival there, that
the malaria (if such It was) so developed as to reduce Paul to the
pitiable state, as of one smitten bv the wrath of sime deity, in which
be preached to the Galatiaas in the first instance (GaL iv. 13 seq.).
It was in the late summer or autumn of a.d. 46 or 47 that
Paul arrived in the Pisidian Antioch, a considerable Roman
colony. Its population was typical of the Graeco-
Oriental part of the empire. It included the native
Anatolian, the Greek, and the Jewish elements,* so
frequently found together in Asia Minor since the days of the
Sdeudd kings of the Hellenistic period, who used Jews as
colonists attached to their cause. The Anatolian ground^tock
had marked affinity with the Semitic peoples, though it was
* Sir W. M. Ramsay would identify the visit of Gal. ii. t-io with
the relief visit Itself (a view differing but little in effect from that
given above): but moat scholars identify it with Acts xv., in spite
of Gal. i. 33 seq. compared with Acta xL 30, xiL 35..
* For these, tneh- history and significance in connexion with each
of the cities studied, see Sir W. M. Ramsay, The Ciiia of Si Pawi
(1907)-
HtHfBJawl ia speech and eddcatbn* It is m thia Mgbt thil
we must view the enthusiasm with which Panl% oospel was
received (xiiL 44 sqq.; GaL iv. 14 seq.), and which Marked an
epoch in hia ministry to the Gentilss. It was here and now
that he uttered the memorable cxchunation: "it waa necessary
that the word of God shoold first be spoken to yon: seeing ye
thrust it fiom you, and judge yourselves unworthy of eurnal
life, Io, we turn to the Gentiles " (aiii. 46). Yet even so he did
net here and now give up all hope that the Jews of the Dispessioi)
with their more Uberal conception of Judaism, might be won
over to a spiritnal rather than a national fuliilinent of " tke
promise made to the Others-" by " the voices of the prophcta "
(xiii. 36-»8, 3S seq., 38 seq.). Primarily thia " turning to the
Gentiles" had for Ftail only a k)cal meaniag,aa he continued
to begin in each dty with the synagogue.* But the emphasis
laid on the incident in AcU shows that to one looking back it
had a mere far-reaching meaning, since henceforth Paul^ woik
was in fact to lie mainly among Gentiles.
Patd'a czperiencea were miicb the sam6 at loonlom, whither
he and Barnabas betook themselves when expelled fioti
Antiochene tenftory (probably after being loonrgcd by the
Uctors, a Cor. sL 35). There, too, Jews were at the bottom of
the tumult nised against the missionarieB ('* apostles," afv. 4,
14), which forced them to flee into the LycaoiiiBO Ptpe of the
province. In thia district, marked by the native pre-Gxcek
village system, they made Lystra and Derbe successively their
headquarters. In the former occurred the healing of the kme
man at the word of Paul (cf. Rom. sv. 0; a Cor. xK. xs; GaL
iii. 5), with its sequel in the naive worship offered to the atrangers
as gods mahifest in human form. The story, told in s few
graphic touches, sets before lis Paul as the tactful miasioiiafj^
meeting the needs of the simple Lycaonians with an elementary
natural theology. Again his werit was disturbed by Jews,
this time his old foes from Antioch and Iconlom, and he barely
escaped deatb—one of those " deaths oft " to which he refera
in a Car. xi. 33, a passage which shows how far AcU is fioift
exhausting the tale of Paul^ hardships and dangers, either in
Galatia or elsewhere (with xiv. i cf . a Tim. UL xi>. At Derbe»
the frontier dty of Galatia to the south-«ut, Patd was within
easy read! of Tarsos. his oM home. But the needs of his young
cotrverts drew him back to hct fresh dangers in Lystra, Icmdom
and Antiddi (where, however, new magistrates were now in
office), in order to encoorage " the disdpltt.** To give them the
support of fcsponsible oversight, the apostles procuied the
election of ** dders '* fai each church, probably on the modd
of the synagogue: for Paul had a due sense of the corporate
life of eadi k>cal brotherhood (Rom. xii. 4 seq.), and of the vahie
of recognised leaden and pastors (t Thcss. v. is seq.; x Cor. xvi.
IS seq.; cf. AcU xx. 17, aS). Then, passing through Pamphylia
they retuned to Antioch, and mportcd to a church meeting
" all that God had done with then, and how he had opened a
door of faith unto the Gentiles."
So ended Paul's first missionary journey known to us In
detail, the very first wherein his vocation as apostle of the
Gentiles took marked effect. So far Gentile believers n^mm'
had been a mere minority, not essentially affectmg ^f*
the Jewish character and atmosphere of the Messianic *''**
Ecdesia, any more than the pieaence of proselytes was thought
to affect Jndaisra even outside Palcatine. But all thia was
menaced by the work accomplished, apparently under divine
auspices* in Galatia. There undrcumdsed Gentiles formed
the majority of the hctrs to Messtaaic salvation, and if expansion
continued on these linca, the like would be true of the new larad
as a whole. Nay, a definite check to Jewish conversions would
result from the prejudice created by a large Influx of men not
eommitted to the Law by thdr baptism into Christ. Now that
the lof^ of facts was unfokUng ao as to jeopardiae the Law
• Natnmlly Paul wouM have a ffgufar addrSsa wMeh he oped with
minor variations in beginning his (nisaion in any local synagogue;
and this Luke has in substance pres e rved for us here. For its
autbentidty. see Sir W. M. Ramsay, op. tiL yn i
A. Sahatier. L'ApSir* Pad (3rd ed., 1896). p^ 89. f
drprndenne oo Stephen's speeoL
, for «tispn»f of
944-
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
m Mo, ft amM not bnt appetr to many Jewiab Chrittuna time
to recoDflider the situation, and boldly deny tiie reality of any
Gcntile'a^rtaon in Messianic salvation apart from dicumdsion
(aa binding to observance of the Law). So argued the stricter
aectlon, those with ?hari8aic antecedents, who boldly invaded
the beadquaxteis of the liberal mission at Antioch, and began
to teach the Gentile converU that drcunidsion and the Law
were matters of life and death to them. Paul and Barnabas
took up the gage; and as the judaizers no doubt claimed that
they had the Judaean Church at their back, the local church
felt that the issue would have to be decided in Jerusalem itself.
So they sent up Paul and Barnabas " and certain othen of their
number " <AcU zv. 2; contrsat GaL iL x seq.) to confer with *' the
apostles and elders " there. The fact that Paul consented to go
at all, to the seeming prejudice of his direct divine commission,
is best exphuned by his prior undeistandiBg with " the Pillan "
of the Judaean Church itself (Gal. ii. i-io). His objea was
twofold: to secure in the centre of Judaeo-Christianity that
public vindication of Gentile freedom from " the yoke of the
Law " on which he felt he could count, and at the same time to
save the Church of Christ from outward schism.
On the main issue there could be no compromise. It was
conoed^ laigely through the influence of Peter and James,
that the good pleasure of the Holy Spirit (zv. 2^), in possessing
Gentile hearts, settled the question. But as to the need of
considering age*]ong Jewish sentiment on points where divergent
practice would tend to prevent Jewish Christians from recog-
nising Gentile believen as brethren, as well aa place a needless
atumbling'block between Jews and a Messianic society in which
unlimited ** undeanness " was tolerated— K>n this compromise was
possible. The compromise was proposed by James (zv. 30 seq.)
and accepted by Paul. Indeed he had less to sacrifice than
the other side in the concordat. For his Gentile converts had
only to limit their freedom a little, in the cause of considerate
love; but their Jewish brethren had to surrender a loog-standing
superiority conferred by divinely instituted national law. For
while the law of Moses waa still observed by Jewish Christians,
in the case of Gentile proselytes to Messianic Judaism it was
to be waived, nnd a iMiitiii»iii of proselyt^ rules, indispensable
(zv. aS) to a type of piety* essentially common to all " in Christ,"
taken as sufficient. Of the *' abstinences " in question only that
touching bkMd (in its two forms) was really a ritual matter,
and it was one on which there was a good deal of scruple outside
Judaism. The other two were obvious deductions from funda-
mental Christian ideas, as well as elements of proselyte piety.
On the other hand, security against Gentile liberty undermining
Jewish-^Ihristtan observance of the Law was felt to exist in
the firmly rooted tradition of the synagogues of the Diaspora
(zv. si).
The above is only one reading of the case, though the rimplesL
Not a few scholan dispute that Paul could have been a pany to
•uch a concordat at all. and suf^wae that the letter embodying it
is a fiction, probably composed by the author of Acts. Others hold
that, if any such letter were ever sent, it was by James and the
lenisalera Church at a later date, without consulung PauL In fact
>t was thetr aolution of the deadlock to which ioterfeffence with
Peter's table-fellowship with Gentiles led in Aniioch after the Jcrusa-
lem'Conference; but the author of Acu unhistorically fused it with
the decision of that conference. Finally Hamack (Die ApoxUl-
geuhickU, IQ08, pp. 188 sqq.) maintains that theieference to " thin^
stiangled ** m an interpolation, not shared by eariy Western authori-
ties for the text, and that " bkxxl " meant originally homicide.
Hence the rules had no reference to food apart from constructive
idolatry. This theoiY— which does not remove the contradiction
with uil. ii. 10. on tne assumption that Acts. xv. >GaL ti. i*to-~
seems at once textuaUy improbable (feeliag in the East being
too anti-Jewish in the sub-apostolic age to aUow of such an
interpolation) and historically n eedl es s.
At no point in his career does Paul's greatness appear more
strikingly than now in his relations with Judaeo-Chrisliaoity.
Equally above the ioUnmair* temper which cannot see iu
* For this as the spirit of these rules, whatever their exact origin,
see Hort, Jydatstk Ckrigtiamty, pp. 68 sqq. They thus correspond
to the " eemembrance of the poor in the earlier agreemeot between
** the Pillan '* ami Paul in GaL ii. lOw
favoodte principle pnctladly Imited by othcn, and ft bov
opportunism which snatches at any oompronuse aa the line of
least resistance, he acted as a true nussionary suteB-|^arach»>
man, with his tye both on the larger future andflAsas^
on the limiting present. As be hlniidf obeyed thc^Nri^
principle of loving concern for othets good by oonforming to
certain Jewish forms of piety (x Cdr. iz. 19 seq., ta), as being a
Jew by training; so he was ready to enjoin on (kniflci, abort
of the point of compulsion, abstinence from blood aimply aa
a thing abhorrent to Jewish sentiment. His was the spirit of
a strong man, who can afford and loves to be generous for the
greater good of alL This is the key to his conduct all along,
leading him to intcmpt his work on two later occssiims
simpiy to keep in totich with Jerusalem by ooodhaioiy visits,
as prejudice against him rocuned owing to nnonn ci hk
free condua on hia (kntile missiona.
On the other hand, it was the opposite side of his chancier,
vis. inflexible courage in defence of vital princyle, that wnas
called into action soon after, owing to Peter's visit
to Antioch (the abrupt refeitnce to which in G«L
iL II probably means that the judaiaen were
making capital of it in Gelatin). There for a time Peter fell in
readily with the local custom whereby Jewish and Gentile
Christiana ate together. But thia was noie than waaiadnnAood
even by James to be involved in alliance of the two naiasiona.
It waa one thing not to force Judaism en Gentile Cbristinna;
it was another to sanction table-fcUowahip between (kntHe and
Jewish Christians, in consideration for the former aa brethren.
Let Peter, said James through his friends, remcmbci Judaean
feelings as welL Such a step wss in advance of ther convictMos;
and in any case it seemed wrong to break with the sentiment
of the Mother Church in Judaea for the comfort of Gentile
brethren on the spot, whom they had but recent^ ngnrded as
by nature *' unclean."
One man, however, saw further into both the logic and the
expediency of the case. Paul saw that by their very idiance
on Christ nther than the Law for justification, ^^
Jewish Christians had in principle set aside the Law fHHU,
as the divinely appointed means of righteousness:
that thereby they had virtually come down from their prerogn-
tive standing on the Law and classed themselves with *' sinners
of the Gentiles "; and finally that they had been led into this
by Jesus the Messiah Hinoiself. If that attitude were sinful
" then waa Christ the minister of sin." If righteousness depend
after all on the Law, then why did Christ die? This penetmtnig
analysis (Gal. il. 14-21) of the implications of Christian faith
was unanswerable as regards any legal observance as condition
of justification. But was it not possible that the degree of
sanctification to be hoped for depended, for Jews at knst, wpon
adhering as closely as possible to the old law of hoKnas? This
was probably the position of Peter and Barnabas and the rest,
as it was certainly the theory with which the judaiaets " be-
witched *' the Galatian converts for whose benefit Paul recoontn
the story (ilL x-3). But for it too he had an answer, in his
doctrine of an evangelical sanctificatu>n, homogeneous in nattire
and motives with the justification out of which it grows, an inii
from root (iii. 5, v. i^afi). But at Antioch be ***»f"iH his
protest to the vital matter of principle, the true relation of
Christ and the Law, and the deadly danger of confusing their
values and functions if both were to be treated as essential to
Christian faith. Thus a higher expediency, for Jews in partico-
lar, told against the expediency alleged on the other side; whale
as for expediency in relation to the Gentiles, it was a matter nor
only of Aniioch and the Jews and Gentiles there involved, b«t
also of the Roman world and the relative numbers of potential
converts from cither class in it. This point is not made esplaaa
in Gal. ii. 14 sqq.; but it was probably present to Paid'a mind
and added to the intensity of his feeling touching the gmvity of
the issue.
The standpoint of the EphtU to Uu Cataliams is of great " yfr f ■■*
in judging ot its historical retrospect. What Paul had to estatUh
in the fint instance was hia indepeodenoe up to the date of ha
PAUL, THE APQ3TI-B
^45
_j qI th^Gdatitnsr wMcb God lud obvioiuly ble«ed
.2, $), It b therefore natural to regard all related in chapters
L-a,, includins hb rebuke of Pleter, as prior to that caidinal fact.
Next the logic o( the cue, aa well aa hie eiplidt worda in L 33 M|q.,
rules out any visit to Jerusalem, inckidin^ the ralief visit to |udaea
of Acts xi. 30, nL as, between his first vistt and that of Cat ii. i sqq.
(this tdls against the common view that GaL 11. 1 sqq. "Acts xv.i.
Finally the reason why no explicit reference is made to the visit
of AcU XV. is that it was already familiar to his readers from his
own account <i it on hia second and recent visit to them (Acta
xvi. 4-6)» and was in fact the starting>point of the JMdaizers' case.
Aa rqards the " Galatians " addressed in this epistlie, we assume
with the majoritv of schdan, since Sir W* M. Ramsay's writings
on the subject, that they ware those evancdiied In Acta xiii.^ xiv.,
not in xvi 6. Acoordino^to the above leadiog of this epistle it was
written in the winter of Pauls first journey to Europe, c. 51-52, say
in Corinth (so Rendall, Zahn, Bacon), which would explain not only
the " so quickly " of L 6.. but also nis inability to hasten to their
side (iv. 3o). TMb last oonditwn seems to exclude as place of writing
both Antioch on the eve of the second (McCiiffert) ortbird (Ramsay)
missionary journey, and Ephcaus during Paul's long se^urn there.
The one seeming alternative, vis. Antioch on the eve m the conference
in Acts XV. (so V. Weber), is preferable only on the assumption that
the epistle excludes all knowledge of this event (as the present
writer formerly held).
Not long after this episode Paid proposed to Barnabas a
nsitatioD of the churches they had joiotly fouodbd. But
Bamabss, perhaps feeling move than befor.: the
difference in theif attitudes to tbe Law, made the
Otmi**- reinstatement of John Mark as their belper a
9iomT9m: condition of cooperation. To this Paul demurred
<m the ground that he could not be relied upon in all emec**
gendes; and tbe feeling caused by this difference as to Mark's
fitness was sufficient to cause Paul and Barnabas to take separate
fines. Each went to his own sphere of work, Barnabas to (Cyprus
and Paul towards Asia Minor, and we never again read of tbcm
as together, though Paul continued to refer to his old colleague
in kindly terms (i Cat, iz. 6 and CoL iv. io)» Paul found a
colleague in Silas (Silvanus), a " leading " man in the Jerusalem
church and a " prophet," but like himaeU a Roman dtiaan
(Acts xvi. 37, 39); and started, with the goodwill of the
Antiochene (fhurdi, probably in summer ajx 50. His way
lay through churches of Us own foundatioii, in one of which he
found a helper to replace Mark, Timothy of Lystra, who was to
be as a ion to him up to the very end. Confident in the ooncOiar*
toty spirit of both sides in the Concordat, and anxious to show
bow ready he was to consider Jewish feeling where Gentile
freedom was not involved, he drcumdaed this young semi-Jew
before taking him aa his associate into regions where work wouM
still lie largely among Jews. In a similar spirit be also oom<
mended " the resohitioos " of the Concordat to the observance
of his churches in Galatia, though the dtcular letter of the
conference did not make it apply to more than those of the
Syro-Cilkian region.
But while the Immediate result of this visit was good, the
secondary idroes were among tbe bitterest In Paul's fife,
jto^fnn owing to tbe unscrupulous action of judalsers
aasmm who, taking advantage of Us absence, soon began
^■'■'"'' a vigorous, but subtle, propaganda amongiit his
converts in this region. They represented Paul as having
changed Us policy In deference to the Jerusalem autboriu'cs,
to the extent of allowing that the Law had samt claim upon
GctttOe believers in tbe Jewish Messiah. Otherwise why were
tbe "abstinences" enjoined? Nay, more: these had been
put forward as a bare minimiim of what was expedient,
to judge from tbe practice of those tame Judaeaa authori-
ties. But if so, surely it must at least be necessary to
full Christian piety (GaL Hi. 3; cf. Peter's conduct at Antioch),
though not perhaps to a bare place in the coming kingdom.
Bad not Paul Umadf confessed tbe value of drcumdsioB
<v. ix) in tbe case of Timothy, the son of a Gentile father?
Aa for his earlier policy, it must have beoi due simp^ to a
wish to humour bis converts' prejudices (i. 10), to begin with.
At any rate the gospel they now brought was the authentic
Apostolic (jospd, and if Paul's did differ from it, so much
tbe worse for his gospel, since it could in no case claim to be
other than derived from theirs (L 1-9, ix seq.). How p U n sible
must such a plea have seemed to bMiQwrianoed (kntile converts,
" bewitching " their minds away from the central facu, Christ
crucified and the free gift of tbe spirit through faith in Him.
But how disingenuous as regards Paul's real position I Can
we wonder at his indignation as he wrote in repfy, and that be
was goaded on to pass, in his final peroration, a counter-judgment
upon their motives too sweepingly severs (vi. la seq.)? In any
case the grass abuse by the judaizers of Paul's promulgation
of the " a b stinences " in Galatia fully caplains his oontracy.
practice elsewhere.
Paul left, his Galatioa coovnts about autumn aj>, 501 ^Mund
for the adjaeent Asia. But not eyen yet was he to preach
tbeie, being diverted by something in whkh he saw ^
the diviae hand. Such as wbea^ on his way north-
wards throMgh the Phrygian region of Galatia,^ he '
tried to .enfter Bitbynia (where also were dties with a large
Jewish element), he was again turned aside by " the Spirit of
Jesus " (? a vision in the form of Jesus, avi.-7, d. xviii. 9, xxii*
I?)- Thus his course seemed open only westwards through
Mysia (northern ** Ada ") to the coast, which was reached at
Troas, tbe cUef pott in the north-west Aegesn for intercourse
between Asia and Macedonia. These were but sister provinces,
united by tbe easy pathway of the sea. Yet in sentiment and
in condicioosof work it was a new departure to which Paul found
himself summoned, when in a oight^vismn ** a certain Macedo-
nian " stood as if entreating Um: '* Come over into Macedonia
and help us." Here woa the positive guidance to which two
negative divine interventions hsd been leading up. Paul
hesitated not a moment, though the idea was bolder than that
of his oms tnistrated plan. *' Straightway," in the words of
Luke, **W9 sought to go forth into Macedonia, oonduding
that (jod had called us for to preach the Gospd unto them "
(xvL xo). So, at this cxudal point in Paul's mission to the
(}entiles, Luke seems to preserve the thrill of emotion which
passed from tbe leader to his companions, by bmking out into
the first person plittal (see Acts, for tbe psychologies! tatHef
than literary reason of thia " we," here and later).
The new missioa began at Philippi, a Roman eehma. Here
the Jewish settlement, in whkh as usual Paul sought first to
gain a fooling, nas a small one, consisting in the
main of wome»-*'wfao e^fofed much freedom in
Matedonian socfety. But tbe normal eitension of his work
was cut short by an inddeot characteristf c both of tbe a^e and
of the way in whldi the fortunes of the (Sospel were offeaed by
the vested interests around it* The stoiy of Paul's imprison-
ment, with the light it casts on Us quiet mastery of any siiuoiioni
is fsmlHar to its vivid dst|Ul.
After bdng thus " shamefully treated " in Philippi (i Tliess.
iL a), Paul passed on rapidly to ThesMlnniea* the real capital
of the p i c v iu ce aiKl an admfarabie centre of influence
(cf. X Thesk. i 8). In thb great seaport there war
at least one synagogue; and for thice- weeks he
there discussed from the scriptures the cardinal poinU hi
bis message (cL x Cor. zv. 3 seq.), *' that it behoved the
Christ to suffer and to fsm again from the dead," and
that accocdingly <* this Jesus . . « is tbe Christ " (avii. a
seq.). Some Jews betteved, «' and of the Godfearing Greeks "
(semipraBetytcs) a Isftge mnber, ioflnding not a few of
the kadn« women. There was slso successful work among
those who toned directly " from idols, to serve a («od living
and real " (x These. L 9).. This must have occupied several
weeks beyond those apedfied above (d. i Tbcssk L-ii.; ao4
the material help xeoehred noca than obo« from Philippic
PUL iv. x6).
But Jewish Jeslooqr was anosed partknlarly by tbe kss of
tbdr converts; and at length in alUanca with the rabble of tbe
market pbuse, it was able once more to cut short the preachers'
work among the («entiles. The charge made against them had
a serious ring, since it In volved not CBfy danger to publie order
>The regna to which soose tUak the Eoistle to the Golatiaiw
(tse M> was addiesssd-eo medifviag the elder ** North Galatian ^
theory of Bishop Ughtfoot and otben.
!*•■!■ I
946
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
hut treason tfainst the emperor (taesa mafeslas). Thtis at
Thessalonica Paul had experience of the imperiat system as
J rival to his gospel of the sovereignty of God and of
I His Christ, the true king of humanity Yet it is
A^ doubtful if he was thinking of this* when he wrote
to his converts touching " the mystery of lawlessness "
woricing towards its final conflict with the divine prmciple
also at work iu the worki. He seems in the whole passage
(3 Thesft. ii. 3-13) to view the empire in its positive aspect
as a system of law and order rather than in Its idolatry of ill
official head, the incarnation of woridly success and power, and
be alludes to both emperor and empire (6 seq.) as the force at
present restraining '* the mystery of lawleuness " (dyofila). This
phrase itself suggests something more abnormal than the world*
principle latent in paganism, such as *' the apostasy ** of God*s
own people, the Jewish nation, as once before under Antiochus
Epiphanes the prototype of '* the man of lawlessness " seated
in '* the temple of God " (v. 4), of whom the late emperor
Caliguhi might well seem a forerunner. Even so monstrous an
issue of Jewish refusal of God's truth, in Hiii Messiah, would be
but the climax of so unhallowed an alliance as that which existed
at ThessalouKS between Jewish unbelief and paganism, seeing
that the former was using the very Messianic idea itself to stir
up the latter against the followers of Jesus (Acts xvii. 7; cf.
X Thess. ii. is seq.). Paul and Sihs withdrew by night, and
began work in Beroea, a small city of Tbessaly, in the hope of
returning when excitement had subsided. But Jewish intriguers
from Thessalonica stirred up the populace with the old
charges, and Paul, as the prime actor, was forced to retire,
first to the coast (whence he may have thought of a secret
visit to Thessalonica, z Thess. Ii. 18; cf. iii. 5), and then by sea
to Athens.
At Athens he was consumed with anxiety, and sent word
to SOas and Timothy to join him with frerii news about his
" orphans '* in the faith. While waiting, however, he
felt compelled by the signs of idolatry on every hand
to preach his gospel. He began discussing in the qmagogue
with the Jews and their circle, and also io the Agora, after the
manner of the place, in informal debate with casual listeners.
The scope of his doctrine, the secret of right living, was such as
to attract the notice of the Epkureans and Stoics. But sta
actual contents seemed to them a strange farrago of familiar
Greek phrases and outlandish Ulk about a ceruin " Jesus" and
some power associated with him styled " the Resurrection."
To dear up this, the latest intellectual novelty of the Athenian
quidnuncs, they carry him off to " the Areopagus," probably
the council,* so called after its original place of meeting on Man*
HUl. This body seems still to have had in some sense charge
of r^igion and morals in Athens; and before it this itinerant
" sophist " seemed most likely to make his exact position plain.
A mark of authenticity Is the veiy f ruitlessness of Ids attempt
to adapt the gospel of Jesus to Greek " wisdom." One only of
fab audience, a member of the Areopagus, seems to have been
seriously impressed. The real effect of the episode was upon
Paul himself and his future ministry among typical Greeks.
Before Timothy's return Paul bad moved on to Corinth*
where he was to win success and to find material for sucbexperi'
ences, both when present and absent, 9» developed
the whole range of his powers of heart and mind,
(see CouKTHiANS, Epistles to the). Corinth was more typkal
of the Graeco-Roman world than any other dty, certainly et
those visited by Paul. In addltmn to iU large Jewi«h colony.
It had Oriental elemcnU of other kinds, especially mystic and
ecstatic cults; and its worship of Venus under semi-oriental
attributes added to the general sensuality of the moral atmo-
sphere. Over all was a veneer of Greek inuUect and polish;
> As Sir W. M. Ramsay argues in his Cities of St PaiJ, pp. 435--
^Thb to the vkw favoured by aidMeotoeists like Ernst Curtkit
CBxpositor, vii. 4. 436 sqq.) and Sir W. M. Ramsay. On the whole
It saitB the narrstive better than the view which leoaidt the HiM
of Ares wmply as a good spot for one of thoK xlMtorieal "dapkya"
In which .AtMaiMit dciigbted.'
for fn Its way Corfhth prided itself on its culture no lest tfaan did
Athens. No wonder that Paul's first feeling io this microcosm
was one of utter impotence. U iras *' in weakaoss, and in (ear,
and in much trembling,'* though in dauntless faith, that be
began a most fruitful ministry of a year and a half. His guiding
principle was to trust solely to the moral majesty of the gospel
of the Cross, declared in all aimplidiy as to its form ( 1 Cor. ii. 1
sqq.), not heeding Its fint impresshm upon the Jew of iatokfable
humiliation, and on the Greek of utter foOy (i xS sqq.) Most
gladly then would he preach in such a way that *' faith should
not stand in the wisdom of men, but in the power of Oxi"
(ii. 5), ** that no flesh should glory before Cod " (t. 29) How
central this was to his gospel, espedally as it defined itself over
against Greek seU-sufiidency of intellect, may be seen from
his whole conception of the " spiritual " man in his letters to
Corinth (esp. i Cor. Ii. i-lv. 7). Before his great work there
began, Paul gained two fresh feHow-workers, whose share ia
parts at least of his later ministry was very great, Aqufla, a
Jew of Pontus, and his Ulented wife Prisdila. Probatly they
were already Christians, and as they too were tent-makers Paul
shared thefr Imme and their wock. That he was often in
straitened drcumstancts Is proved by his having to aocepc aid
from Macedonia (a Cor. xL 9> cf- Mil- iv. is> On the arri\-al
of SUas and Timothy from that quarter, he began to pe«»ch
with yet nsore intensity, especially to cbe Jews (xviii. 5) A
breach with the synagogue soon followed. The definite turning
to the Gentiles met with much success, and Paul was encouraged
by a night vision to continue in Cbrinth for more than a year
longer An attempt of the Jewa (cf . x Thess. ii. 15 seq; s Thcsa.
iii. I seq.) to use Gallio, the new proconsul of Achaia, as a tool
against him, not only failed but recoiled upon themselves.
It waa during his first winter at Corinth, A.P. 5x^52,' that he
wrote his earliest exUnt missiooaxy letters (see above for Cala-
tians). Paul wrote not as a theologian but as the g^m
prince of missionaxies. His gospel wa* always in
essence the same; but the form and perspective
of its presentation varied with the training,
moral, of his heareis or converts. It was no abstnct, rigid
system, presented unifomnly to alL This wms ua a^axast
hasty ioferenees from sOenoe, in Judging of Paul's own tho««ht
at the time represented by any epistle, and so limits our attca^
to traee progress in his theology* But it beam also on our
estimate of Urn as a man and an apostle, full of sympatliy lor
others and asking froia them only such faith at cottld be leal
to them at the time..
His Thessalonian converts had net with much soda] |
tion. The bulk bdonged to the working dasa (iv. xs,
iii. xo^xs); and I^ul ouist have endeared himsdf to then by
sharing their lot and plying his own manual industry (Acts
xviii. 5). However haid his double toU of teacher tad test-
maker might be, no sordid suspidona, such as bis Jewish foe*
were ready to suggest (r Thess. ii. 9; 2 Thess. Hi. S), abould
gain any colour from hia conduct. He would be to his converts
as a father, and an embodiment of the new Christian cthks
which he pressed upon his spiritual children »s tbc eswential
" fruit of the Spirit/' and also as a deosonstration of the CSoapd
to " them that were without " (i. 7^x3; Cf. t. 6, iv. x aeq.).
The special perspectivt of bis first two epiatlcs is affected by
the brevity of his sUy at Thessalonica and the severity of
pcrsecutkm there. Owbg to the latter faa the Parooaia, aA
a vindication «f thdr cause, so near as reasonably to iafluence
conduct (v. X x), had naturally been prominent in his teachixt^
among them. So in these epbtles he deals with It more fully
than elsewhere (iv. 13 sqq.); and the moral fruits of tlw new
life in the Spirit ate here enjoined in a veiy direa mtnnrr
fiv. 1-8).
Wc need not suppose that Paul himself or his assistants used a
set o( rules as elaborate as the ** Two Ways " (of life aod Dmth)
* This date (and so Ramsay's chronology from this point) is ccor
firmed by a fresh inscription snowing that Gallio was oroconsul fro<»
S9-S3 («pring). rather thaa Si'Pi *ee Baspotit^ tot May 190^
pp. 467-469.
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
9+7
embodied. #4. in the Teaekmg 0/ At ilpMlfet.* But to judne from
the<e epistles (f Theas. 1 v. i seq. . 6 ; 2 Thess. li. 1 5 ; lU. 6) . and his refer-
«nce to the " type of teaching " (bearing on " sin. onto death," and
** obedfenoe. unto righteousnesa ") unto which the Roman Christians
bad been " committed " (Rom. vL 16 taq.), Paul gave to has converts
a fairly full outline of nioral instruction, similar at lost to that of
Judaeo-Christian missionaries (note too the rather uniform lists of
vices in Rom. i. 24 seq. ; 1 Cor. v. 10 seq. ; Gal. v. 19; Col. iii. 5; cf. E.
von DobschUta. Ckriuitm Life in Ou PrimUm Church, app. 6;.
What was distinctive of Patil's ethical teaching was not any
bck of positive precepts, but the intimate way in which he,
Paul at like his Master, infused them with the spirit in
BtMeai which and by which they were to be realked, aa
'^"•=*** aspects of the ideal of love to God axid man. He
was supremely concerned with the dynamic of conduct, as to
which his own experience made him the most inspiring of
teachers and the greatest interpreter of the mind of Christ.
The master motive on which he relied for all, was the imitation
of Christ in a peculiariy inward sense. To the believer Christ
was no mere external example, but was already within him as
the principle of his own new moral being. In virtue of the Holy
Spirit indwelling as the Spirit of Christ. Here lay the secret
of the new " power " so characteristic of the Gospel (Rom. i. 16),
a power adequate to realize even the enhanced moral ideal
revealed in Christ. The wonder of it was that this power
annulled the moral past, giving the once vicious an equal fra^Iom
with the " virtuous." To this sovereign, emandpating influence
ol God's Holy Spirit, antagonizing "the flesh" and all its works,
Paul confidently entrusted his converts for " sancUfication "
or progressive transformation (Col. iii. j, v. x6 sqq.) into ** the
image of Christ," the full actuality of tiie type already latent
in Christian faith. Such teaching is implidt in the Hicssalonian
letters; but it is explicit in the Epistle to the Galatians Here
he announces in the clearest accents the secret of Christian
conduct. " Walk by (the) Spirit, and desire of the flesh ye
shall not fulfil." " If we live by the Spirit, by the Spirit let us
also walk." " On the basis of freedom (from law as external
to the consdence) were ye caUed; only turn not freedom into
an opportunity for the flesh, but through love serve one another.
PmmtM Eor the whole Law stands fulfilled in this, Thou
Aath ghalt love thy neighbour as thyself" (v. 13 sqq., 25).
mim lM nhm , These are the watchwords of Paul's antinomianism,
which had grown out of the soil of his own stnct moral
discipline, where the ethical ideal had become an instinct
and a passion. But how would they be taken by raw Gentiles,
say in Corinth, untutored to self-denial whether in the things
o' sense or spirit? That their egoism often perverted Paul's
libertarianism into an apology for libertinism, in keeping with
current habits, as well as for selfish individualism in the use of
intellect or even " gifts of the Spirit," may be gathered from his
letters to Corinth (see Corinthuns, Epistles to the). What
here concerns us. however, is the splendidly positive way in
which Paul met such abuses, not by falling back upon legalism
as a " safeguard " against licence, but by reapplying the laws
of spirituality, both in relation to God as source of spiritual
gifts, and to God's people as the appointed sphere of thdr
exercise. He does not recede from his way of teaching; he
insists that they shall understand it and abide by its real obliga-
tions. But while thinking of Paul's work in Corinth, we must
note certain special religious conditions affecting both the
reception of his gospel and the way in which it was afterwards
conceived. Side by side with the religion of the dty and of the
family, both of them polytheistic and utilitarian in the mail},
stood the " mysteries " or esoteric cults, which were sought out
and participated in by the individual for the satisfaction of
essentially personal religious needs Clearly those trained by
such Mysteries would be more drawn than ordinary polytheists
to his gospel, with its doctrine of mystical yet real union with
the divine in Clirist. and would less than others find the Cross,
with its message of life through death, to be folly. Tliis being
» Yet compare " the Way " (Acts xix. 9, 23), or '• the Way of the
Lord '* (xviii. 25) as a name for Christianity on its practical side.
So Screius Paulus was " astonished at the Teaching {didacht) of the
Lord, jciil. 12; d. Tit. i. 8 seq.
ao, wa ibaU not be tiirpcted to find, ispedally at Cbriatli,
traces of. the reaction ol oonoeptiont proper to the Mysteries
upoo the ideas aad piactices of Paul's converu (cf. i Coi. xv. 29),
and even upon the laaguage in which he set forth Ua meaning
to them (see ii. 6 sqq.). Whether Paul himself was influenced
by such ideas, «.g. ui xclation to the Sacrameiits, is a futher
qiMstioa as to which opinioos are divided.*
After some eighteeo mwitha in Corinth, Paul fdt the time had
coBM to break Iresh ground now at btst perhaps at Ephesus,
the key to the province of Asia. With this in view ^^
he took with hua his feUow-workcn PrisdUa and jSmJ^Lm.
AquUa, and left tliem at Ephcsua while he himadf
visited Syria for ends of his own. That these ends were of high
import we may beeure, dae he would not have spent on them
a period of months when the door aeened already opeahig m
Asia (Acts zviiL tqr2\)» Acts gives no hint as to their nature,
save the sUtement that " he went up " from Caesarea to Jeru-
salem, " and aJoted the church," before he *! went down to
Afltiodi." But Paul's letters enable us to infer that he leHed
laridy on this visit for countexacdng rumours which represented
him as an aposute from Judaism.! After some suy m Antioch
Paul started befote autumn aj». 53 for his third great campaign,
the centra of which he had already chosen in Ephesos, where
PrisdUa and Aquila were hdping to prepare the ground.
Passing through south Galatia, whero he further fortified his con«
verU (xviii. 23), he would reach Ephesas before winter ck»ed in^
Alresdy his drcle of hdpers had gained a fresh .^^
member of great gifu, the Alexandrine Jew Apollos ^^^'^
(f .vOi who had been brought into fuller sympathy with the
Pauline fospd by Pdsdlla and Aquila, and who, learning from
them the situation in Corinth, volunteered to t^ to overcome
the prejudices of the Jews there (xviii. 24-28). At first Paul
tau^t in the synagogue,' until growing hostility drove him to
" separate the disdpio " and transfer his headquarters to '* the
school of Tyiannus." This was a lecture-room such as " io«
phists " or tkdifrs wen wont to hiro for thdr ** displays." The
diange was not only one of place, but also of style of discourae,
his appeal now being directly to the Gentiles, who would at
first regard Paul as a new lecturer on morals and religion. The
infiuence which went forth from thia centre radiated throughout
the whole province of Asia, partly through visitors to Ephcsus
on business or for worship st iu great temple, and partly through
Paul's lieutenants, such as Timothy and Epaphraa (Col. i. 7;
iv. 13). Witness to this extendve influence is aiiorded both
by the friendly conduct of certain " Asiarchs " at the time of
the riot (xix. 31), and by the fact that Paul later wrote a dmJar
letter to this region, the so<aUed Epistle to the Ephesisns.
This result was due not only to Paul's persuasive speech but
also to deeds of power,^ connected with the superhuman gifts
with which he felt himsdf to be endowed by the Spirit of God
(Acta xix. xk ; cf. Rom. xv. x8 seq.; a Cor. xii. 12). Nor can we
fed Paul's full greatness unless we renember that he was tried
by the searching lest of supcnonnsi psychical and physical
powers operating through hijn, and that he came through all
with an enhanced sense of the superiority of rational and moral
gifts, and of love as the crown end touchstone of all, aa well aa
with a deepened humility. That he sufcrod much ^^
before the finsl tumuli, due to his success affecting wHSmla.
trades dependent on the cult of the Ephesian
Artemis is implied In hb own words, " humanly speaking, I,
*The affirmative ia maintained by the io<aUca RdtgwHt-
teschtchtlkht SchvU in particular. Tne more general verdla is
' not proven."
* In this light his polling of his head before embarfcint at Cendireae
in roken of a vow of special •elf<oniecration (to be re d ee m ed at
the end of a month in Jerusalem itsdf ; d. Joaqihus, J^mitk Wv,
II XV. 1), is nenificant of his fcelinp as to the critical nature 01
the visit, including danger from Jrwwh fanaticism during a voyage
probably on the eve of a feast (say Pentecost), for which be went up
on bis later visit (Acta. xx. 16).
We may doubt whether Paul himself counCenaaced the oracticca
by which some believed that they drew magical virtue from hia
person (xviii. is). Bat he did perform what he. in oommonwith
his age, believed to be the exocdsm of evil spirits, as the story of
Sccva's sons itself implies (xix. 13 sqq.}.
^8
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
fiottgiit Ihe beaau at Ephens " (t Cor. !▼. $9), whidi may mcMi
that he was almost torn in pieces by mob fnry. It was perhaps
on this occasion that Aquila and his wile risked their lives for him
(Rom. zvL 3 seq.). Indeed be lived mach of Us time in Ephesus
as one under daily sentence of death, so constant was hia danger
<i Coc XV. 30 seq.; cf, iv. 9; a Cor. i. 94 hr. ^x x). But this almost
unbearable strain on his human frailty simply deepened his seme
of dependent union with Jesus, both in His death and victorious
life, and softened his strong nature into a wonderful gentleness
and sympathy with sufferhig in others (a Cor. i 4 sqq.). It
is no accident that it was from the midst of his Ephesfan experi-
ences that his Hymn of Love (z Cor. xiii. esp. 6-te, 13) sounded
forth. His own sptritnal life seems to have grown in Ephesus
more than at any other period since the em of his convenion.
Thb brings us to the most tragic episode in Paul*s career,
judged by h» own feelings, a psycholo|^cal crucifixion of wbicfa
7^ we have the vivid record in his correspondence
Cbftnkim with the Corinthian church. Reduced to lu simplest
^ ■"•'■■' terms the situation was as foUows. The Corinthian
church was suffering from the fermentation of ideas and
Idcab too heterogeneous for their powers of Christian assimi-
hition. Paul had laid the foundation, aftd others had built on
it with materials of varied kind and value (see Corjntbxans)«
Specially dangerous was the intellectual and moral reaction
of the typically Greek mind, starting from a deep seated
dualism between mind and matter, upon the facts sad doc-
trines of the Gospel. Its bsue was an exaggeration of Paul's
own cdlgious antithesis between "the flesh" and "the mind "
into a metaphysical dualism, so that the conduct of the body,
crudely identified with " the flesh," became a thing faidifferent for
the inner and higher life of the spirit illumined fay the Spirit of
God. There was not only divergent practice In morals and in
reUgioBS usage; there was also a spirit of faction threatening
to destroy the unity of church life, to which Paul attached the
greatest importance. To lead them to realise their unity in
Christ and in His spirit of love was the central aim of Paul's first
extant letter to this church. He rises sheer above every manl-
festatiott of the sectional element in man — whether Jewish,
Greek, intellectual, ritual, or ascetic— into the sphere of pure
reKgion, the devotion of the whole personah'ty to God and His
ends, as realized once for aU in Christ, the second Adam, the
archetype of divine sonsUp. It b his enforcement of this idea,
along with firm yet flexible application to the various disorders
and errors at Corinth of certain other of his fundamental prin-
ciples, such as the indwelling of the Holy Spirit in the individual
and the community, that makes this epistle so significant for
Paul's biography. Thus, while it gives a more complete picture
of a Pauline church than all other sources of knowledge put
together, it at the same time ilhistntes the rare balance of Paul's
mind. But neither this letter nor the influence of Timothy
(iv. 17), already on bis way to Corinth with Erastns via
Macedonia, on collection business (AcU xix. aa; 1 Cor. xvi. x seq.,
10 seq.>— nor even, as some think, of Paul himself in person
(a Cbr. ii. x; xii. 14, ax; xiii. z seq. V— brought about an under-
standing on certain points involving Paul's authonty. In this
oonnexian the presence of interk>pii^r Jewish " apostles " with
their claims for themselves and their insinuations as to Paul's
motives (2 Cor. xii. 14-16), greatly compficated and embitteRd
the situation on both sides.
When next the curtain zises, we gather that Paul had been
forced to write a letter of protest in a tone of severity fitted
#%«ffc«v«sto arouse his converts' better selves. It was in
ttrMmcf (act an ultimatum* that Titus carried to Corinth
tfoalb before Paul left Ephesus, his departure hastened
by the great tumult. On leaving for Macedonia he " exhorted "
the assembled disciples, and perhaps left timothy to
check the tendencies to error which he perceived at work
(xx. X. X Tim. i. 3). Then starting from Miletus, the chief port
hi the vicinity (cf. xx. r5),~whcre he had to leave Trophimus
> On the question whether this letter has been lost (as here
asMiRMd). or on the other hand has been pamallv pmerved io 2 Cor.
s.-xiii • G«e CoaxxTuiAMS.
owmg to sfdmcas (a TSm. iv. ao, prbbaUy a fragment from a
brief note to Timothy written soon alter^-^he readied Troas.
Hera he in te xid ed to evangelise pending the return of Titas
(t. Cor. ii. xa seq.). But though " a door '* of opportunity at
once opened to tdm, growing anxiety as to the reception of his
severe letter drove him forward to meet Titus half-way in Maoe>
donia. There "fightings without" were added to " f ean
within " (vii. 5), until at last hia meeting with Titus brought
unspeakable rdief . The bulk of the Corinthian church, in deep
remorse for the way in which they had wounded him who after
all was their " father " in Christ (x Cor. iv. 15), had come out
clearly as loyal to him, itot only in word but also in «i«*r;pii«y
on the arch offender, whose contumacious conduct (now repu-
diated by the church) had so grieved him, but for whom Paid is
now the first to bespeak loving treatment, " lest haply he be
swallowed up of excessive grief " (H. 3 sqq.; vii. xa). Accord-
ingly in his next letter his heart overflows 'with gjadness and
affection, yet not so as to blind his dear eye to the roots of
danger still remaining in the situation.
The interloping judairin^ miiwonaries (xL 4, Kq., X3, aa : cf . x. 7)
aie still on the spot, glonfyina themadvcs and alorying in their
wdcome on the field prepared by another's toils Cx. ia-18); whib
in the church itsdf tnere are moral abuses vet unredressed, eves
unacknowledged (xii. ao aeq.), on whkh Paul felt bound ttiU to pnm
for confesHon and penitence (xiit I sqq.), in spite of what sooie inigbt
braaenly insinuate, in reliance on his not having acted •unmanlT
on bis former visit, when the church as a whole was not heartily with
him. Hence Paul fek himself bound to act boldly (s. x-6). if aid
when on his arrival he found the obedience of the majority full and
complete (riL 6). It is to prepare the way for this (xiii. to) that
Paul, while roopgnizing in the main the church's foyal affection,
writes the second part of hb letter (x.-«iiL 10) in ao diifcreot a key.
striving to complete the reaction against his Toes, with their taunt
aa to his not daring openly to take an apostle's support from his
converts at Corinth (xi. la sqq.. xii. ix-18).
The Second Epistle to the Corinthians was written from na-
lippi or Thessalonica (ix. a); and Timothy joins in its opening
salutation. He had, it seems, been summoned to Paxil's sule
from Ephesus by a hurried note, written after Titus's return
from Corinth, in which he is informed that Erastus had remained
in Corinth (? as now dty-treasurcr, Rom. xvL 13), wbOc Pad
had been deprived also of the help of Trophimus, so that Timothy
was unexpectedly needed at his side (this is embedded in aa
alien context in a Tim. iv ao, ai*, see bdow). One reason at
least for Paul's need of Timothy is suggested by the reference
to Erastus (d. Acts xix. tt), viz. the business of the great
collection from his churches in Galatia, Asia, Macedonia and
Achaia This had been some time in progress and was to be
carried by delegates to Jerusalem on Paul's approaching vi>ii«
from which much was hoped in connexion with the unity of
Jewish aiui Gentile Christianity. Another may have been the
labour of inspecting the churches in those parts, which now
reached at least as far as, if not into, Illyricuro (Kom. xv. iq^.
In any case it was midwinter (56) before Paul became the guc&i
of the hospitable Gaius in Corinth (Rom. xvi. aj)
Touching the resettlement of local church affairs during
Paul's three months in Connlh, we know nothing. For us the
great event of this visit is the writing of that epistle n^ ^^m
which shows that his mmd was now bent on the !•(*•
extension of his mission westwards to the metropolis '^"■■'
of the empire itself. To Rome his thoughts had been turned
for many a year, but he had time and again checked the
impulse to visit it (Rom. xv. aa seq.) For the dty had long
been occupied by the Gospel in one form or another; and it was
a' point of honour with him to preach " where Christ was not
named," not to build on others' foundations (xv. ao). But tis
eye was now fixed on Spain, if not also on south Gaul. It was.
then, largely as basis for his mission to the western Mcditerrax^can
that Paul viewed Rome. Yet after all Rome was not like other
places, it was the focus of the world. Hence Paul could not
simply pass by it (i. ti seq.). Very tactfully does he now offer
his preliminary contributions to them — " by way of remiiKler,**
at least^emboldened thereto by the consdousness of a divine
commission to the Gentiles, proved by what be had been eaabicd
already to accomplish (xv. xs sqq.).
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
949
But how oottid Pftul tntite at lenlfih t6 « community he had
Qcvar visited? Not to dwell on what he might have gathered
from " Priaca and Aqaila," the wonderful list of aaluutioos by
name, often with brief chafacteriaations, proves how constant
was the flow of Christian life between the capital and provindai
cenCies like Ephcsua and Corinth. Bat, beyond all this, there
is the nature of the epistle itself as a great " traa for the times/!
applicable to the general situation at Rome^ but typical also of
the hour as reflected in Paul's conadousncas. . It has therefore
a profound biographical significance for Paul himself, summing
up all his thought so far, on the basis of his conversion as un^
Iblded by his experiences as an apostle. It is his philosophy
d religion and of history, the first worthy of the name, because
the first deep-based upon the coaceptioii of the unity of humanity,
aa related to God, its source and the determining factor in its
destiny. As such it also includes in broadest outline (viiL i8
sqq.) a philosophy of nature, as related to humanity, its crown
and key. Thus it is m effect a univeml philosophy in terms
of the moral ooder, which Paul, like every Hebrew; regarded
as the most real and significant element in the universe. At the
centre of this grand survey stands the Jewish race, the chosen
vessel for bearing God's treasure for mankind during the pro-
visional period of human history; and at its spiritual heart,
in turn, Jesus, Messiah of Israel, Saviour of mankind, in whom
the distinction between the special and general spheres of
revebtion is transcended, while the law, " the middle wall of
partition " between them, is broken down by the Cross.
Into the sweep of this high argument, as it is unfolded step
by step, with an organic completeness or exposition peculiar
to Romans among his writings (cf. Ephesians), there is wrought
not only the problem of the Jew and Gentile (still the burning
question of the time), but also the stubborn paradox of the
actual rejection of Israel's Messiah by the nation as a whole:
This forms a great appendix (ix.-xi.) to the more theoretic
part of the epistle, and lays bare Paul's mmost heart, showing
how truly a Jewish patriot he was. Even the categories in
which he grapples, without formal success, with the problem of
divine election and human responsibility, betray the Jew, to
firhom the final axioms are God's sovereignty and God's ri^teous-
sess. ■ Further into the contents of this most characteristic
writing it is not ours to go (see Romamb). Suffice it to say, he
who apprehends it, as the issue of a real religious experience,
already knows Paul as he knew himself and cared to be known.
He who masters its thought knows the Pauline theology. Some
indeed asnme that Paul ceased really to progress beyond the
point represented by Romans, and that certain of his later
writings, if they be his at all, show a certain enfeeblement of
grasp upon principle. But that is to confuse once more Paul's
personal theology with the forms of instruction which experience
showed him were expedient for the strengthening and develop-
ment of feeble or undeveloped moral types.
Yet while the horhton of the Roman epistle was so universal
In one sense. It was restricted in another. Owing to the fore>
shortening mfluence of the parcuaia hope, even Paul's programme
of a world-mission meant simply seizing certain centres of
influence, to serve as earnest of Messiah's possession of all man-
kind on His return to take His great power and reign. Evangel-
isation on the farther side of the parousta was the greater part
of the whole. So we gather from this very epistk^ as well as
from X Cor. zv. sj^as (and yet more deariy from CoL i. 33).
In other ways, too, the Christianity of Paul and his age was re-
lative to the parousia, both in theory and m practice (e^,
in iu " ascetic " or " other worldly " attitude to Ufe). This dif-
ference of perspective, and the ancient view of the world of
•piriu operating upon human life, are the chief things to be
allowed for m reading his epistles.
Thus viewing things, how eagerly Paul must have looked
wcitwards at this time. Yet his heart turned also to Judaea,
^_^ CMi'K'heie he felt hia line of march still threatened by
jJJ2j?"'the danger of disunion in the very Body of Christ.
At all cost this must be averted. The best hope
Jay in a practical exhibition of Gentile sympathy with the Mother
XA 16*
Church in Jeraaalem, such as would be to it a token of the Holy
Spirit as indwelling Paul's churches. The means for such a
thankoffering for benefits received ultimately from Jerusalem
(Rom. XV. 27) had been collected with much patient labour,
and the ddegates to accompany Paul with it had already
assembled at Corinth (xx. 4). Paul had intended to cross the
Aegean from Corinth with his party, by the direct route to
Syria. But a Jewish plot, probab^ to take effect t^gp^m.
on the voyage, caused him to start earlier by the jSLakJ!
longer land-route, as far as Philippi, whence, alte;*
waiting to observe the Days of the Unleavened Bread,*
he sailed to join his fellow-almoners at Troas. There is no
need to follow all the stages of what follows (see Ramsay, St
Paul the TraveUcr). But every personal touch is meant to teO,
even Paul's walk from Troas to Assos, perhaps for solitary
meditation, away from the crowded ship; and all serves to
heighten the feeling that it was the path to death that Paul was
akcady treading (xx. 33). This lies too at the heart of his
impressive fareweU to the Ephesian* elders, a discourse which
gives a vivid picture of his past ministry in Ephesus. Its burden,
as Luke is at pains to emphasize by his comment upon the
actual parting, is that " they should behold his face no more."
The scene was repeated at Tyre; while at Caesarea, the last stage
of all, the climax was reached, in Agabus's prophetic action
and the ensuing dissuasion of all those about him. But Paul,
though moved in his feelings, was not to be moved from his
purpose. The party went forward, taking the precaution to
secure Paula trusty host on the road to Jerusalem in the person
of Mnason, a Hellenist of Cyprus. He entered the holy city in
good time to show his loyalty to the Jewish Feast of Pentecost.
He was well received by James and the elders of the church.
So far scholars are agreed, since the " we " form of narrative
which began again at PhiUppi (xx. 5), reaches to ^
this point. But as to the historical value of what '
follows, before " we "" reappears with the start for Rome from
Caesarea there is krge diversity of opinion. The present
writer, holding that " we " is no exclusive mark of the eye-
witness, sees no reason to doubt the substantial accuracy of tha
narrative in Acts xxi. 19-xxvL* touching the Jewish outbreak
against Paul and its sequel. Its significance for Paul's life is
fairly clear, though we are not told what acceptance the Gentile
offering of loyal love met with in the Jerusalem church as a
whole. But that its, general effect upon the comity of the two
branches of the Messianic Ecdesia was good seems implied by
the serene tone of Paul's later references to the unity of the
Body (Eph. il 19-22; iii. 5 seq.). What does stand out dearly in
Acts is idl that bears on Paul's position as between the Jewish
and the Roman authorities. Here we observe a gradual shifting
of the charge against him, corresponding in part to the changes
of venue. The more local elements recede, and those of interest
to a Roman court emerge.
To the f ewish mob he is *' the man that tcochcth aO men every-
where against the People, and the Law, and thb place ; and moreover
he brought Greeks alio into the Temple " (xxi. 26). Before Felix.
TcrtuUus describes him as **a pestilent fellow, and a mover of
tumults among all the Jews throughout the world, and a ringleader
of the sect of the Naaarenes, who also tried to profane the Temple"
(«dv.
.). Similarly among " the many and grievous " offences
[ore Featua(xav.7seq.) we gather that one or more were
This is a valuable datum not only for Paul's own loyalty to the
Ckronoicgy).
' These chapters contain passages as vivid and circumstantial as
any in the *' we **' sections, /u to the speeches, their fidelity
naturally varies with the drcumsunees of delivery; but in all theie
is that whkh could not be Luke's free composition. The verislmtU-
tude Oi the demonstration of Paul's personal loyalty to fonns of
Jewt&b oicty in connexion with the four men under vows (xxi. 23-37)
IS complete, especially in view of Paul's own vow at Cenchreae and
his regard for Jewish feasts; and even Paul's non-rc
the high priest m what was not a regular session of th
(xxiii. a-s), is quite probable. Other points hardly 1
here; see iCJaowhog's TtsUm^ny o/St Faul» kct. xx.
950
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
" Bgaimt CaflMT,** «a treuon of one sort or ftnother. Thoqgii the
othere weighed with a procurator Uke Fdix (aiudou* to hunwur the
Jews cheaply) sufficiently to keep Paul (in the absence of bribes)
m prison for two years, it was the last class of charge that was most
dangerous, cspcciaUy when oooe the case was tcansfened from the
pray;ncial court to the appeal court at Rome. The last words of
Agrippa, ** This man could have been set at liberty had he not
appealed to Caesar/* are probably reaxded with a touch of tragic
irony.
But what of Faul himself during the two yeaxs at Caesaiea?
Tbough he must have been in correspondence with his churches,
^_ . at least through messengers, nothing from his pen
2JJJJJ^ has reached us. We can only infer from epistles
written later how much this period contributed to
his reflective life. The outlook was indeed stimulating to
thought. Near at hand Judaea was sliding rapidly down the
incline of lawlessness and fanatical resentment of Roman rule,
towards a catastrophe which to Paul's eye, trained by Jewish
Apocalyptic to regard certain things as signs of the days of
Antichrist, would seem to betoken the prelude of the Parousia
itself. Then, farther afield^ the growing confederacy of Messiah's
churches was stepping into the place vacated by *' Israel alter
the flesh," as the people ready for God's Messiah.
The journey to Rome calls for no detailed notice (see Ramsay,
St Paul Ike TravttUr). Its main interest for us is the impres^on
of nobility, courage and power which Paul conveyed to the
centurion Julius and his fellow-passengers generally; while the
enthiisiasm of the eyewitness* himself >nsibly reaches its climax
as dangers thicken and Paul rises above them all. At last Italy
is reached, and Paul is met by detachments of " brethren "
from Rome, who came as far as thirty and forty miles to welcome
him; " whom when Paul saw, he thanked God and took courage."
f ^ ^^ From Paul's letters, however, we gather that if he
looked for Qrmpathy from the Roman Christians,
he looked largely in vain. Whilst some welcomed and most
regarded him as indeed a champion of the Gospel whose fearicss
testimony even in bonds emboldened many, including the
judaizing section who wished him no good, to preach Jesus more
openly than before; few, if any, really showed- him brotherly
love or cared for the interests of Christ outside Rome that were
still on his heart (Phil. L xa-iy, it 3x). Such absorption in
their own local affairs struck Paul as strangely un-Cbristian in
spirit, and added (tisappointroent to his irksome confinement,
chained as he was by one wrist to a praetorian soldier night and
day. Yet be rose above it alL Only let " Cfazist be magnified "
in his body, whether by life or death. Tlien should he not be
ashamed, come what might.
The letter which makes us aware how things lay is Tlilippians,
the most devotional of all his writings and the most Christb'ke.
Tis^Wh I( is the perfect expression of personal '* Paulinism "
isPftAI^ in his maturer and more positive manner. It flows
^'■^ from bis heart as joyful thanks for tokens of
continued mindfulness of him recently received from his old
Philippian friends through Epaphroditus, one ol thdr number.
Touched and filled with spiritual joy the more that, save for his
own personal circle, love was so scant around him, he turns to
comfort his friends In their sorrow for him, out of the stores
of Divine consolation received through his own fresh sense of
seed (cf , a Cor. i. 3 sqq.). " Rejoice in the Lord " is its recurring
note. Here we get the word of the hour, both for Paul and for
his converts. The date of Philippians is an open question,
English scholars unding to place it early, while most foreign
scholars put it late in the " two years " ol Acta. The present
writer would place it last of those written doxiog the first year,
U. last of aU save a Tirootl^.
Of the remaining imprisonment epistles, the beautiful little
ftoce to Philemon touching his slave Onesimus casts fresh light
on Paul ** the Christian gentleman," by its humour and perfect
* That he regarded Paul as endowed with saperfaunan powers,
both of premonition and of healing (as in Malta), is evident, even if
in his mind, Uke that of most ancients, " the line liecween the
minculous and the providential ouite vamshes away '* — as B. W.
Bacon aa)-* {Story ^ St Paul, p. J 14) relative to icx\'iii. 3-5, comparing
a!«> the case of tutychus' ** insensibility." But il 90, why not
~nfy this to the caxtfaquake at PhlUppi a&>?
of tone. TIk two latBcr ones do not lecai aft
first sight to reflect his petsonality so nrneb as bia Lamntm
life as the lather oi duuches, and the way in Aai—
which he extended the lines of his gospel so aa to O^niA^^
bear on problems raised by ever Iresk reactkna iqwo it ol tbe
old traditions amid which his Asian converta still Uved. Both
aspects really blend; for the episOcs are addressed to chuxchcn
whicfa were feeling certain effects of the «**«*?i-^ calamity that
had overtaken him whom they in some sense legaided as
their founder, and aim at raising them to the wxitcr'a ova
higher standpoint (Eph. iii. 15, vi 19-92; Col. ii. t aeq.,iv. 8 aeq.).
It was just here that many of his AaiMn cooveita hesitated.
They did not realise the all-sufiiciency of Christ in the monl
sphere; and they viewed their rcktioos with tbe invisible worid
of ultimate or heavenly realities in keeping with this fact. They
traced the hand of beings belonging to the superaal sphero
in their earthly experiences of weal and woe. Hence they
dreamed of supplementing what they derived from Christ by
help from other spiritual beings. To judge from <^*J/it^tnt
(see s.v.) it was Urgely along the lines of Jewish thoofht (d. tbe
TestametUs of Ike Twetve PaMareks), modified by Greek and
other Pagan, ideas, that this tendency operated. For at ColoaMe
at least it issued in observance of ritual rules connected with the
protection of good angels against evil ones, as taught by a aevt
of theosophy, probably basing itself on a Icgrndaxy faaadUng
of pre>Mosaic Bible history in particular (cf. the Faatonls).
Paul does not discuss how far "guardian aagda" have any
function left them in view of the all-sufficiency ol Christ and
His Spirit lor believers. He obviously (Eph. vi. 11 aqq.) believed
in the reality of angelic foes, because this hypothois ^^r'tfnrd
for him certain moral phenomena; but he had really stripped
angelic helpers of all functions necessary to the Chratian.
Perhaps he was not sufficiently interested in the matter to think
it oat fully.
How does Paul deal with this situaUon of depresaed bidi and
hope as to tbe power of Christ to confer all needful to the perfect-
ing of the Christian's life on earth, in spite of the hostile forces,
visible and Invisible? All they need, he says, is to bold fast
the (Sospel which has already done so much for them — annoUing
tbe spedal privileges of the Jew, and quickening them as Gcntiks
" dead in sins " and under the full sway of the powers of ID. into
a life of filial access to God as Father. Of Christ's abiity to
achieve God's purpose in all things, the wonderful pt o gi e as of
His Church " in aU the world " is already witness (CoL L 8, 23).
Looking then to these things, visible to Christian gmam baaed
on spiritual experience, there is no cause for dcprosion at the
sufferings endured for Christ's sake by Christians, and feast of
all at his own. Both in Cofessians and " F|Jm^;«^|^ '* (naOy «
circular epistle to churches in Asia, including those ol tfe
Lycus valley and perhaps most of the Seven Chnichcs ol the
Apocalypse (see Epbeseans), he lays stress on ** love, whk^
is the bond of perfectncss," and on " unity of the Sp^it,** as
the atmosphere ol life worthy the vocation he «*'*ai^rt m
inspiring terms.
In this respect, as in nearly every other, these epistfes cxhflsst
marked affinity with the next gronp ri^irning to eoae Irom
Paul's pen, the so<aned Pastoral Epistles, the yi»i
supposed " moralism " ol which is often tirged i
against their authenticity. In both cases the ^
development is quite natural in Paul tbe misBBonaxy, ^
as it answers to growing delects among his
the sphere of conduct. Such enocs, idiile twofold in effect,
alike sprang from a defective sense lor ethics as the *•■*** wi
form of piety (x Tim. vi 3*11; a Tim. iii. s; cf* J**- ^ '?)
flowing from Christian faith. A merely inteUectoal la^ instead
of the genuinely Pauline type, involving enthusiaatxc moral
devotion to Christ, tended in practice either to a n e gati>t and
ritual piety, as at Cotaasae, or to moral laxity. The latter wan
sometimes defended on a dualistictheoiyol*' flesh "and" qxrit.*
as two realms radically opposed and moiaHy indepcndeBt.*
* Of thb we have a hint in the " empty wocxb ** eVuded to is
Eph. V. 6 (perhaps also tv. 14), probably ol the same aan. as in
PAUL, THE APOSTLl
95»
Paul meets both erron by lib doctrfiie of the "new man,*'
the new moral personality, God's workmanship, "created in
Christ Jesus for good works " (Eph. n. ro>, whose nature it is
to be fruitful unto holiness and love (cf. Gal. v. 6, vi. 15).
In the so-called Pastoral Epistles the same subject is handled
similarly, yet more summarily, as befits one writing instruc-
lions to friends familiar with the spirit behind the
JJJ2fc »*"^'*^* precepts. Allowing for this, and for the
special circumstances presupposed, there is no
more " moralism " about the " wholesome instruction " in the
Christian walk given in these epistles (i Tim. i. xo; cf. vi. 3;
9 Tim. iv. 3) than in the other group. " Moralism " is ethical
precept divorced from the Christian motive of grateful love,
or connected with the notion of salvation as " of works " rather
than prevenient grace. But of this there is no real trace in the
Pastorals, which are a type of letter by themselves, as regards
their recipients and certam of the aspects of church life with
which they deal. As dealing with methods of instruction and
organization, which must have occupied increasingly the atten-
tion of those responsible for the daily course of church Ufe^
they contain nothing inai^ropriate to the last two years of
Paul's life, when he was considering how his churches might
best be safeguarded from errors in thought and practice in his
absence or after his decease.
The main difficulties as to their substance have been imported by
anachronistic reading of them, and are falling to the ground with the
progress of exegesis and knowledge of the conditions of early church
life. Our real difficulties in conceiving the Pastorals as what they
purport to be, relate to their form, and " lie in the 6eld of language
ancf of ideas as embodied in languaee " (Hort. Jud. Christ, p. 131).
But these, even as regards style and syntax, are reduced to narrow
limits, when once due weight is given to the fresh analogies furnished
by the now admitted Imprisonment Epistles (see also Ramsay,
depositor, 1909). This ts specially the case with the use of new
words of religious import, like " Saviour " or " Deliverer " {Soter, of
Cod and Christ: see Eph. v. 23; Phil. iii. ao)— the idea of which
springs naturally from Paul's own outward state, as well as from the
trials of his readers; the " washing " or " laver " of baptism (Eph. v.
36; Tit. Iii. 5); the Gospel as a revealed " mystery " (Eph. passim,
esp. " the mystery " as ^' great," Eph. v. 32; 1 Tim. Hi, 16): and the
future '* appearing ** of Christ (so already in 2 Thcss. ii. 8; ct. Col. iii.
4). As to tne use of the last term for the incarnation in 2 Tinv i. to,
it has a parallel in the " was manifested " of 1 Tim. iii. 16. Kscif a
fragment of a Christian hymn of praise to Christ, such as is implied
i|i Eph. V. 19. and especially Col. iii. t6. Not only is the fragment in
question one in type with that in Eph. v. 14. but may even be part
of the same hymn. Nothing could be more natural than for Paul
to weave' into nis epistle to Timothy the religious phraseology actu-
ally current among Pauline Christians in Asia, as we see htm doing
in his repeated citations of the hortatory parts of their hymnology,
with the formula "Faithful is the (familiar) saying" (i. 15, iii. i.
t6, iv. 10 : cf. 7 Tim. ii. 11 scq.). All this borrowed language, and
much more that is virtually the parlance of the Asian churches,
helps to explain a comparative lack of the distinctively Pauline
clement even in letters which contain highly characteristic {xissaees.
Hence there seem no insuperable dlfhculties to the authcntidty ofall
three epistles — which most scholars recognize as at least partly
from Paul's pen, though they disagree as to the exact limits of the
genuine fragments— if only a natural historic setting can be found
for them in Paul's life. But there is a general assumption that this
cannot be found within the limits allowed by Acts. Accordingly
Some reiect the situations implied in them as on the whole un-
historical, while others oostulate a period in Paul's life of which
Acts gives no hint, U it does not exclude it. This theory of a release
after the " two whole years " with which Acts closes, and of a second
imprisonment before the end really came, bases itsdf partly on the
personal notices in the Pastomls themselves (for a suggested itinerary
see e.g. Lightfoot, Biblical Essays), often full of vensimilitude. and
partly on tradition. As regards the latter, the only evidence of
real weight is the reference In a highly rhetorical passage of the
Epistle of Clement (c. a.d. 96) to Paulas having come in his universal
ministry, in East and West alike. " to the bound of the West."
But. erantine that Spain be meant, there is no sign that Clement
thought of this visit as following on an imprisonment^ in Rome,
t Cor. vi. 19-14, ji**t as the denial by Hymenaeus and Philctus in
• Tiao. ii. 1 7 seq. of any resunractiont save that of the spirit in convcr-
■ion (d. Eph. v. 14), finds its earlier paralkl in 1 Cor. xv. i2, 3a-M-
> Add the fact that dement (en. vi.) oonorives Paul as being
j0iMed in the place of reward by dm Neronian martyrs, and therefore
aa martyred not later than aummcr 64. No theory of the Pastorals.
tlierafoiie. based on Oenent^a witoess« cm place Paul's death after
imther than as falHiur d bwe^ te e faliiacMeer, ehftply onflie
of RoRu xv. »9: while nowhere do the Pastorals uiemselvi
to any journey west of Rome. Further no early tradition is dear
enough to override the almost certain implication of Acts (xx. 25 and
38, read in the light of the clodng chapters, and especially of xxvi. 3t.
-*■■-'■ 'T that the appeal to Caesar was a fatal step) that p^M
ited Asia after his farewell at Miletus. Aocordmgly room
for the eptttles must be found, if at all. before the spring oif 62 in
keeping with Ads.' The following Is an attempt to show how this
may be done.
The pastoral epistles reveal certain spectal aspects of Paul's
life and worit in Rome during the '* two years " of AcU zzvili. fin.
Addressed to intitnate associates, they show him in
the act of caring for his churches by deputy. In fSuu
the case of Titus, Indeed, the churches in question
were apparently not of Paul's own foundation, bat those 1ft
whose welfare be had become interested while sheltering on his
voyage to Rome at Fair Havens in Crete (Acts xxvii. 8 seq.).
This spot was nigh to a dty named Lasea; and as they were
detained " a considerable time," for men eager to be gone, we
may well imagine Paul coming into touch with the local Chris-
tians and leaving Titus (whose presence is never alluded to in
Acts, even when proved by Paul's letters) to set in order the
defective conditions prevailing among them (Tit. L s). Now,
about early summer 60, we seem to see him writing further
histructions, on the basis of reports received from Titos. There
is no talk of a journey to Spain, atid to Judge from Paul's pUft
to winter at Kicopolis (iii. tj) he expects his case to come
on top late in autumn to admit of the visit to Asia which he
had in mind only shortly before, as it seems, when referring
more indefinitely to his hopes in r Tim. iii. 14, iv. 13. Possibly
his further reference in iii. 13 to ApoHos and Zcnas** the lawyer"
(bearers of the letter), as on a journey of urgency, may mean
that a date for his trial was fixed in the interval, and that he
was sending to the East to collect counter-evidence to that of
the Jews of Asia (Acts xxi. 27; cf. the later plaint in 3 Tim. Lis,
that " all in Asia " had " turned their backs on him ").
Paul's appeal case was not a safe topic for correspondence
(cf. Col. iv. 7 seq.), and we gather little directly on the pomt from
his epistles. The long delay In Its bearing would be due in
part to the accusers' desire to collect evidence suifident to
ensure success even before a tribunal thought to be less amenabte
to Jewish influence than a procurator's; and, once the first
summer was past, the wintry sea (mare dauswn) wouM postpone
things for another six months. The delay seems to have been
unexpected by Paul, and to have led him to mistaken forecasts
during his first half year in Rome, in x Tim,, Titus and Philemon.
Somewhat later he expressed himself more guardedly (Phil.
ii. 23 seq.; cf. i. 25). As to the charges on which all came to
turn, we are left to intrinsic probabiliUes. They were no doubt
those serious from the Roman rather than Jewish standpoint,
viz. endangering public law and order by exciting the Jews
throughout the world on religious matters, and fostering treason
against the imperial cult generally (d. the charge at Thessa-
lonica). In defence Paul would urge the privileged position
of a Jewish monotheist, and the Jews would be at pains to
diflcrcntiate Chrisliaiiily from Judaism, and so deprive it of
the status of a legally recognized religion {rdigio licita). If
they succeeded here, Paul's condemnation was only a matter
of time. This is the most probable issue of the case {pau
Sir W. M. Ramsay and others), both a priori and in the light
of later phenomena, eg. i PeU (which In 62-63 seems to impfy
a recent impulse to persecution for the Name).
The rather earlier but vaguer situation Implied In i Tim.
is as follows. At the moment of Paul's appeal from Caesarea
to Rome Timothy was perhaps on duty in Ephesus. | j^^^
There be would receive a message from Paul, possibly
thiough Aristarchus (Acts szvii. a, 5 seq.), in terms of good
hope as to his appeal. Timothy would in turn send word as
to the situation in Ephesus, and at the same time express his
desire to hasten to Paul's side. This would lead Paul, m
< Also with 1 Pet., if Dr H. B. Swete {Comm. am St Uarh, 189!.
p. xvii.) b right in saying that it implies Paul's death; for I Pat.
probably dates from 6»-63 (see Or Hort's Cmwhi.).
95«
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
•mdiBg Um ft letter of taoonst^emtolttaid tptd&c imtnictioDS,
to open with a sentence (cfa&racteristkftlly wanting a gram-
matical oonduaion) in which he recalls a parallel case, where
he had exhorted Timothy to "stay on" In Ephesus* (t.«. in
AJD, 56). Nor was the need less urgent now, owing to Judaic
* fables" toaching the primitive period of biblical history
(" genealogies "), meant to bear on certain parts of the Law
(i. 4-7) as of universal religious validity. At Ephesus (as also
in Crete) much the same type of Judaism as was re-emexging
at ColoBsae was reacting on local Christianity; while here and
there were traces of du Jistic antinomian theory (see i. zg seq.;
cf. 7 Tun. jL 17 seq.). The general need of the hour was whole-
some Christian ethics applied all round, supported by firmer
organisation in diurch life, especially with a view to check
irresponsible teaching (x Tim. v. 17, vi. 3; Tit. i. 9-11; a Tim.
ii. 9, iv. 3). To the special local problems Paul addresses
himself in this letter, but above all to the bradng of Timothy's
somewhat sensitive nature to face the opposition which he
must encounter as a Christian leader at such a time (note the
similes of the soldier and athlete, both of whom face hardship
ceadily, as part of their profession, i. 18, v. 8 sqq., vi. 12 seq., 20;
3 Tim. U. 3 sqq., iv. 5). In this connexion occur also certain
autobiographic psssages, as well as solemn ai&rmations of his
own divine commission {e^. I z, xi sqq., iL 7), the aim of which
is to reassure his disciple that his gospel will bear all the strain
that is being put upon it, or can be in the future (cf. Eph. vi.
Z9 seq. for ^ this). Here Paul is answering challenges which
he knows are being made in Timothy's hearing on every side,
especially now that the apostle seemed less likely to return to
Asia. He himself does not flinch, because he knows he had
not run save " at the command of God " (i. z), after being
wondroosly changed from his former self (L Z2 sqq.). Thus
as to the authority of the Gospel " committed to his charge,"
however much it may be called in question (L xo seq., ii. 7)*
he has no shadow of doubt.
When the curtain rises for the last time, it is on the morrow
of the long-expected hearing of Paul's appeaL The case stands
ITtasttr wJJoumed, but he is no longer under any illusion
as to its final issue. His one comfort is that by
the Lord's support he had been delivered from the greatest
danger, " the mouth of the lion " ready to " swallaw up '*
(cf. z PeL V. 8) his soul through craven fear, as he stood
solitary before Caesar. From that the Lord had rescued him,
and would yet rescue hihi from every " work of ill " (a Tim.
iv. z6-i8). Yet his earthly work is done (iv. 6 seq.). So he
writes to Timothy, his " beloved child," whom now he longs
to see once more. But lest this should not be granted him, he
prefixes to the summons a last will and testament, which may
help Timothy to rise above the dismay which his death at the
hands of Roman law is bound to cause. Let Timothy take
up the Gospel torch as it falls from his own dying hand, and " do
the work of an Evangelist," heeding not the hardship. Then
after providing for the Gospel, he turns to more personal interests.
" Hasten to me with all speed," he says in effect, " for I am all
alone, save for Luke. My other trusty friends are away on
various missions, and Dcmas has deserted the sinking ship.
Tychicus I had already sent to Ephesus; he will replace you.
Pick up Mark and bring him with you— he is so helpful. Bring
my cloak, papers and books [copies of the Scriptures], lying
in Carpus's hands at Troas"*— perhaps since Acts xx. 6 sqq.
" Alexander the bronze-worker [an old Jewish foe at Ephesus,
Acts xix. 33] did me many a bad turn in my case {his case is in
the Lord's hands) ; be on thy guard against him." Then follow
allusions to Paul's " first defence," unsupported by such as might
• It is quite likely that Timothy left Ephesus for Rome before
recciviog z Tim., since he was with Paul when Coloasians and
PhilippUns were written, the farmer at least in the somacr ol 60
(loe rnilcia. 32).
* It leems beat to Uke iv. 13-Z5 as aO part of thb letter, rather
than as part of the note from which iv. ao. ai» probably comet
(mc above). The homely details follow naturally enough on the
reference to Mark; while the reference to Alexander m 10 far borne
oat by Heb. xiii. 23. which suggcaU that Tunothy was accused
on hit arrival in Rome.
have appeared on Ms liehstf (espedally frtbi Asia; cf. i is);
and next salutations to Prisca and Aqoiia, and to the hooac of
Oocsiphorusr-«n Ephesian who had sought Paul out in Rome
(i. Z6-18).
So the curtain falls for the last time. But Paul's fate b
hardly obscure. He himself saw that the charge against him,
unrebuttcd by independent evidence, must being him to the
executioner's sword, the last penalty for a RomaB dtiseii.
With this late and-centuxy tzadilioo agrees (TeztuUian, De
praeser. haer, 36), turning the very spot on the Ostiao Way,
marked by a martyr-memorial {tropaUn, Caius «>. Euseb. ii. 25),
probably at the modem Tre Fontane, some three xniks from
Rome, But the traditional date (June 29) reaches as only, oa
far later authority. Acts simply suggests the first half of ajt.
62; and we may imagine Timothy reaching Rom? in time to
share Paul's last days (cf. Heb. xiii. a3).
Early Tndiiiam has little to say about Paul. Poasibly the earliest*
reference outside the New Testament is a Christian addition tp
the Testament ef Benjamin, xi., which describes a Bcnjamite as
" enlightening with new knowledge the Gentiles." The notice in
Clement's epistle (ch. v.) to Paul's having borne bonds
. _.. , __Jycafp(il .- _
deprecates the notion that he, or any other like him. could rival
" the wisdom of the blessed and glonous Paul,** and refers to his
letter(s) to the Philippiana. The Acts ^ Paid, composed not long
after a.o. z 50 by an Asian incsbsrter, in oider to gkirify Paul by
supplementing Luke's story, is stnldng evidence of the regard felt
for him in certain circles; but it contains (so far as extant in the
Coptic which also enabin us to identify other documents as cmce
rarts of these Acta) no fresh data, unless the epiaode dealing with
Paul and Thekla echoes an original tradition bdonging to Iconiuas
and Pisidian Antioch. Its description of Paul as *' a man small in
siae. bald, bow-lesged. sturdy, with eyebrows meeting and a slightly
prominent noae, full of grace " in expressioa«niay or ouy not be
based on kxal memories (see 2 Cor. x. zo; cf. Did. CkrisL Antiq, ii.,
1631, for early representationa of him). The hostile OMception of
htm lying behind the Simon of our Oeroentine literature (g.v.)
has no hUtoric value; and the nme may be said of all traditions not
to be traced earlier than the Ard century (d. R. A. Upsius, Dia
apokr. Apostdgeuk. «.i.w.,and C. Clemen, Panlus, L 33t sqq.)*
PauTs personality is one of the most striking in hittory. No
character of the distant past is known to us more fully, both from
within and fipm without, thanks hiraely to the self-fcvrajing quality
of his letters. His was a deep, complex, many-sided nature, varyiim
widely in mood, yet all so concentrated by moral unity of purpose
that the variety of gift and eenubility is apt to escape notice.
During his career every faculty comes into play, and we realise how
largdy human he was. *' Even though Paul was an apostle," says
Chryaostom, " atiU he was a man.** A true picture of him must
preserve the vital unity in which these two aipects appear in our
sources. To judge him save through that vocation which he himsdf
felt to determine all his being, is to fall into unreality. To view htoa
as a mere individual ta vain. He cannot be judged entirely by com>
mon standards, whether rdigious or ethical; for owing to his vocatioa
his personality had an universal import which must needs put him
out of ordinary human perqiective at certain points. Further. w«
must allow (or his limited temporal horizon, shut in for practical
purposes by a near Parouaia, conceived as bringing ordinary history
to an abrupt close, and the hope of which foreshortened all issues.
Bearing thu in mind, we shall wonder, not so much at any other*
worldly spirit or peremptoriness of tone, which were positive duties
under such conditions, but rather at the sanity of temper and moral
judgment which mark the apostle amid his oonsummg seal ** by
to save some *' from " the wrath " soon to be reveaird
against sin and unrighteouaneas (1 Thos. L to; Rom. 1. 18). We
must remember too that he lived in an atmosphere of intense ** en>
thusiasm," in the most literal sense, among those who felt that " the
powera of the coming age ** (Heb. vL 4 seq.) were already at work
m " the sainu." men p o ss e ss > d by the divine afllatus and made as tt
were but organs of the Spirit of Cod. Viewed in such an environ*
roent, Paul is seen to have been a great steadying influence, insisting
on character as the normal fruit ol the Spirit and the real ground ol
human worth (1 Cor. xiiL 1-3): insisting also that
by the
Spirit did not supersede responsibility for setf-control (xiv. X2 seq.},
and that the element of conscious reason was superior to blind ecstai
ecstasy
(xiv. t soq.). He spoke from full personal experience ; for he eacrcisrd
evcrygiitonthelistiniCbr.xiLS. Yet with dear and evcr-growinK
emptuuis he defined spirituality in moral terms, those of the will
informed by love like that of Christ. How great this service was.
none can say. It waa hb balanced attitude to the operationa of the
Spirit— outwardly the most distinctive thing in Christianity, am
companed srith ludaisni'-an attitude at once l e v ere nt and reaanK
a^ that saved the Chinch Iram fanaticism on the one hand ot
PAUL, THE APOSTLl
953
■ionigini on the other. It iMi fab o«b eiptrieace as a i
•eckcr after righteousoeu whkh gave him the key to th
preutioo ol Jeans the Christ as at once aKxat ideal, master motive
and immaoeat principle of life at work in the soul by the Spirit
which was peculiarly nis own and may be styled hie ethical mysti-
cism. This was bis main contribution to Christianity; and aa depend-
ing on his personal experience, it was bound up cloael^ with his
personality— « fact whxh makes his direct influence, while intense,
yet rather limited in iuarea of appeaL
At the root of Phura nature lay the Hebrew capacity for pemnal
devotion to the Divine as moral perfection, to an unbounded decree.
It found its object in a concrete form, stirring both imagination and
affections, in Jesus the Christ. '* the image of the invisible Cod "
whose spiritual glory man was created to reflect. This instinct for
hkal devotion seems never to have been diverted* even for a season,
into a single human channel, in the bve df woman. From his early
CNith his soul was preoccupied by a passion for God and His will m
is people. This he came to regard as a spedai divine sift or voca-
tion (l Cor. vii. 7 ) , imposing on iu p ossessor, in the face of the world's
needs (cf. 39-31). a higher duty than could be fulfilled within the
conditions of the closes, of human relations Q2-3S)- But the tender*
•ess and chivalrous sclf-sscrifioe which found no vent in the ordinary
channel came to pour itself forth in an absorbing kive for his churches,
whkh were to him as hb own spouse, though his aim was rather to
"present them as a pure viigin to Chrik " U Cor xi. 2). This
educated hb human aHoctions. and softened the outlines of a nature
inflexibly loyal to principle and absorbed with the divine aspect of
life. Thu8itwasthrougl>"thek>veof Christ **constiaining him to
look at all, as it were, through Christ's eycs^ that Pkul came to knre
men even to the point of a self-foraetfukuas that seemed to some
hardly sane (a Cor. v. ly-tf^i cL Mark iu. 21. " He b beskle him-
self "). So too his proud, strong-willed spirit gnduaUy put on
'* the meekness and condHatociness of Christ ' tt> such a di^pecthat
during the Corinthian troubles bis critics cootrssted the vigour of
hb letters with the seeming feebleness of hb outwaid bearing
(3 Cor. X. 1, 10).
There b no good cvklenoe that hts presence was physically weak
or unimpressive, even if hb suture was small, as tradition has it
(see above; cf . AcU xiv. 12). Nor b there any sign that he bore
habitual traces of those periodic attacks of lome nervous affection^-
•Hied to epilepsy.* but apparently not involving lossof oonsciousoces
•^^0 which, as dating from a certain overpowering trance about
43-43. be refeim in a Cor. xiL 7 sqq. These were roost humiUating
«hile they lasted jcf . Gal. W. 14). But they seem not to have drained
whkh
COI. U 291, aau won now cuccuwiy wmcb um •«* wv»mw. m uui
(fl COr. xiL 9 sea.).
Not only uidPliul a eupemormal spiritual force, marked by a
combinatkm of religious inspiration and reasoning powelr, -
made him Impressive both as speaker and writer, he had also a _
fbr adaptation to varied mental conditions, due partly lo hb
Hellenistk training, but also to the fact- that hb message m one
aot of the letter but of spirit and power (cf. a Coc; lu. 4.«Qq-)'* This
showed itself as tact in relation to indlviduab and specul audiences,
and as suteeamnlike breadth of view in handling huge problems of
principle, such as were constantly emerging in rebtioo to the Jewish
•ad (Sentile types of Chrbtbnity. "nd agam as to the Chnstma
attitude to the pagan state CRom. xiU. I sqq.). He cximbined grasp
with vital flexi^Uty in a degree whkh made him the prince of
Huasionaries, He was the prophet in the originality of hb message:
he was the theotogjan in the leflcctive interpretatkm whkh he pwc
to it, in terms denVed mainly from a profound knowkdge of Jewish
fhouht, Hbemlised by contact with another worid, the Graeco*
Roman ; but abovt all he was the misstonary in the attitude in whieh
he stood to his gospel and to men as its subjects. There was in him
•othl0g doetrimoirtz to that, afoug with the legal attitude, he had
been cnidfied with Christ, for both betongcd to " the radiments of
the worW ** of sense (I Cor. xm. 8 sqq. : a Cor. X. 4 seq. ; Col. H. 20 seo. ;
PhlLiv.?). Accordingly he was great as an organixer of a new order
amonr his Gentile churches, where much was kft to k>cal Instinct
Informed by the one Spirit, while yet be jealously cared for such
unity in usages as seemed needful to the embodiment of the one life
of the &>iritln all, Jew and (3entile alike (1 Cor. iv. 17, xv. ^, 36).
In particular he showed hb Christbn largeness in his exertums to
keep in communion the two sections of (Hirist's people, to the pomt
of nsUng hb life for thb end. , . ^ , „
In hb more personal rebtions he had the power of f eehng and
inspiring friendship of the noblest order, a eomrwteship "In Christ *
which 0b hb btten with delightful touches of kiyaf affection and
bust, even of playfuUiess on occasion fPhilem.). He was a man of
boart, with npUl alternations of mood, with nothing of the Stou:
» See Lightfoot. CalaHans, pp. \S% son., who cites King Alfred as a
paralleirSBld HasHngs's Dia. ^jfi* uL toi. Sir W M. Ramsay.
^Fmi Ihff Tnmtkr, m. 94 tOQ-. I*«^«r» ■ •»«*• ^ **."»*»*
malarial fever." coMicffting it specially with the attack aentuMMd
in hb self •nlaster1^ wUeb was •• aequirad gOMCb rooted in the
" peace of God " (PhiL iv. 7. 10-13). Indeed it was in hb impetuous,
choleric temperament that there lurked *' the last infirmity *' of hb
soul, whkh at tihies betrayed him into vehemence of expression
(Acts xxiL 4 seq.) and a sweeping harshness of judgment (cf . 2 Cor. viL
9 seq.), especially where he had detected disingenuous conduct in
those who were interfering with hb work for Chnst or imputing base
motives to himself, like the judaizen in Galatia and Coriotn (cf.
Phil, ill 2). As to the charge of egoism, based on the emphasis hie
bys 00 his own person as medium of Christ's mind and will, it
can hold only so far as Peul can be shown to do thb gratuitously, ami
not really in the interests of hb vocation. By thb btter standard
alone can an apostle be judged.' Paul b caraul, moreover, to dis-
andhis voca
tinguish hb ordinary a
I vocatkmal self (2 Cor. xil. 9), as well
as what he says as quoting Christ, as ^leaking qma apostle (1 Cor.
vtu 10. 12), and again as simply one found "faithful " (ib. 25).
Such b not the way of egoists or tanatks.
In his Bpuiies Paul found a fitting vehkie for his pcrsooality.
whereby to speak not only to his own see but also to kwdred souls
all down the ages, so oooung to spiritual life agsin and again, when
buned under convention and tradition. For the letter b the most
spontaneous form of writuig, nearest in nature to convenatkm.
and leaving personality most free. No doubt Pkul's ktten followed
current forms (cf. G. A. Debsmann, BibU StudHs, 1901, ch. i.).
But he transfigured what he used by the new fullness of meaning
infused into address, sahieetwn, final messages and benediction.
Ui» ktten are uideod " the life-btood of a aobb spirit." poured forth
to nourish iu spiritual offspring (cf . 1 These. U. 7 seq.). They are data
for hM Lift and form inddcnuUy an immovable critical basb for
historical Christiamty. on which the hypcrcriticism of Van Manen
and othen (see Eiuy, bMtia, sji. " Paul ") can make no real iro-
pressmn. On the other hand, as the sources of our knowledge of
'* Paulinbm," they impose by their very form certain limits to our
effort to reduce hb thought to system. Canon R. J KnowUng's
Witnm «f tkt E/tstUs (1892) and The Testtmon^of St Faml to CknH
fullsum
( 1905) cohcasn full summaries of all bearing on Pteurs epistles. The
history of the collection of Paul's ktters into a corput styled " The
ApostW." for readlngin Christbn worriiip. b very significant, so far
as we can trsce it. The reference in 2 Pet. iii. is seq would be of
high value, were the date of 2 Pet. itself not so deubtf uL The first
definite notice we poss e ss of a camm of Pauline epistles b that of the
ultra-Pauline Maroon, who used fen Pauline epistles (e. lao). Cer-
um apocryphal Paaline epistles appeared in early times, beginning
wirh one To the Alexandrimes, forged in the interests of Marcionism
(Canon Murat). and an exchange of ktters between the Corinthbns
and PlanI, orieinaUy pan of the Aela Fault (ed. C. Schmklt.s>p. 145-
160). For tbe forged correspondence between Piiul and Seneca,
see Lightfoot. FkUtfptans, pp. 329-333.
n. PaWfntrM.— Of recent years the ambiguity luillog ia
thb term, as lued to describe Paul's teaching as • wbole, has
been fully realised, and efforts have been made to distinguish
what b distinctive and essential from what is traditional in form
and celative in importance. For Paul, if'" the first Christian'
IbeologiaB," was no systematk theologian. Hb mind wst
fundamentally semitk. It seised on one truth at a time,
penetrating to the underlying principle with extraordinary
power and viewing it successively from various sides. But,
unlike a Creek thinker, he did not labour to reduce the sum
of his principles to formal harmony ia a system. In the absence
of such critical testing of hb thought by Paul himself, we must
observe hb relative emphasis and the varying causes of this»
whether penonal convictk>n or external occasion. Even when
thb b done it still remains to ask how much icpt e sen ts direct
spiritual vision, due to " revelation," and how much traditional
forms of thought or imagination, adopted by him as the most
natural vehicle of expression occurring to bb mind ia a given
mental environment. That Psul himself was conscious of the
limitations here implied, b dear from what he says la i Co«.
xiii. 9 sqq. as to the transience of tbe conceptions used by
himsdf and others to body iortb divine ideas' and relations.
After all, hb was the theology of • prophet rather than a
philosopher. Hence we have to dbtingubh what may be
styled "personal Paulinbm," the generalizatbn of hb own
religious experience, from hb apoloffetic ei^Miaition of it over
against current Pharisaic Judaism if largely In its terms and
also from the speculative setting which it took on in hb mind,
as hb experience enlarged and the thoughts of hb converts
suggested fresh points of view.
It is mainly in this last sphere that development b traceable
in PauHnism. Some idea of its nature and extent has already
been given in conacxioa with Paul's life. IXoaeaust attenpi
954
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
to rcpradoce tlie PftuBne " s^em ** ts ■ whole, it is best to take
the fonn in which it appears in the Epistle to the Romans,
and then supplement it with the fresh elements in the later
epistles (so Car as these seem really to be in terms of the writer's
thought, rather than his readers'), instead of constrocting an
amalgam from the whole range of his epistles taken pro-
miscuously. PauUnism, in the widest sense,^ includes much
that is not distinaiveiy his at all; what can here be given is
confined to Paul's specific contribution to Christianity.
i. PauUnism proper springs frdtai an absorbing passion for a
righteousness r^ from the heart outwards, real bNore Cod. This
oould not be satisfied by " works o( the Law." •.«. deeds prompted
by the categorical imperative of Law. itself viewed as the will of
Cod and supported by sancuoos of reward and penalty Two things
hindered; '^ the flesh." the sensuous element in human nature,
positively prone to sm since the first man's trespass introduced an
actual bias to evil (Rom. v. li, 14, 19) : and (the) Law itself, a form
of divine claim which acted on man's sinful nature as a challenge and
irritant to his egoism, so breeding either positive rebelUoo or self-
confident pride, but in neither case real nghteousoess before Cod
Thus the main effect of Law was negative: it brought to light the
sin latent in " the flesh." «.«. the personality as oondttioned by the
post-Adamic Bcah, From this delivcnnce coukl come only by
divine interposition or redemption, achieving at once reconciliation
and regeneration by the removal of guilt and the creatioo of a new
moral dynamic Justification, then, or the placing of man in a state
in which God could reckon him radically righteous, must be due to
" grace " apart altogether from " works of law " and their desert.
The medium of such grace waa the Christ, in whom the claims of the
dispensation of Law. in its tyoical form as the lewish Tkorah, were
satisfied by death, while the Resurrection set the seal of God's ap>
proval upon Christ's fulfilment of rishteousnesa (Rom. v. 17-19;
1 Cor XV. 17) on the new and higher plane of filial obedience by love
CO God aa Father.
Thus what the Law could not 00, in its weakness in relation to the
flesh, had been divindy achieved by Cod's Son. the Messiah, in
virtue of ** the Spirit of bfe " in Him. which annulled '* sin and
death " in human nature (Rom. vUi. 2-4). first in the flesh of Christ
Himself as second Adam, and then in the humanity which shouM
be united to Him as ^iritual Hoad (i Cor. xv 45). This union was
affected by faith, a profound receptivity whereby the personality of
the Saviour became aa it were the germ of the new moral personality
of the believer. He was " in Chnst " and Christ " in nim " by a
mutual H>iritual interpenetration. begun on Christ's side by^ vica*
rious self-sacrificing love, and consummated on the believer's side by
self-surrendering trust under the influence of the Spirit of Cod and
Christ (Gal. ii. so*. Rom. viii. 9. 15 seq.).
Such mystic union by faith (cf . Eph. lii. 16-19) Is the very '
_ , having two main aspectsi In its initial aspect, it is the
real basis of justiiication (aa radical sanctification) and regeneration;
In its abiding aspect, .it is the secret of progressive sanctification or
asshnilation to the image of Christ. Himself " the image of Cod.'*
To the one aspect corresponds the initial rite of baptism ; to the other
the recnnfog rite of communion in the Lord's Supper, These have
both an essentially corporate significance. It is asmembers of the
mystkal Body of Christ— or rather of the mystic Christ, consisting
of Christ the Head and of His Body the Church— that believers,
already united to the Head by faith, partake in these sacraments
<l Cor. xii. IS seq.. %. t6 seq.). , ^ , . , , ^.
The keystone of all this is the Christ of Cod, the glonfied Chnst
who appeared to Paul at his conversion, and in the rays of whose
heavenly glory the earthly Ufe of Icsos of Nazareth was ever seen.
Here, as elsewhere, the mode of Paul's convcTsion determined Ws
m^ t. JZa^—^^Al^A.m^ k!^ ' * r«»»... «.l.i^» ^t •!..&
tive. It differentiated his
from that of the
older jiidaeo>Christianity, which always started from the canbly
manifestation, while it looked fixedly forward to the future mani-
festation in gloty (of which the Resurrection appcarences were the
fore^lcams). To PSul the gkmfied Jesus or spirit-Christ (i Cor.
sv. 45: a Cor. Ui. 18) of his vision became the Christ mystkal
of permanent, present Christian faith and experience. In union
with Him the believer waa already essentially " saved," because
possessed of Christ's spirit of Sonship (Rom. vili. 9, 14-17. 3o).
although his redemption was not complete until the body was in-
cluded, like the soul, in the penetrating " life " of the Spirit (viiL
a -4$, 10 sen.). Aooofdingly he shifted the centre of mavity in
iristian faith decisively from the future aspect of the Kingdom,
to the prejient Ufe of rfghteousness enjoyed by believers through
•' the first-f raits of dte S^t " in them. Here hiy his great advance
on Jodaeo^hristiaalty, with iu preponderant eschatokipcal em-
■ * \ with a more external conception of Jesus, as Jewish
, I of relation to Jiim. To this mode of thoucht Chnst
was not the very principle of the new filial righteousness. In a word,
while Tudaeo<:hristianity only implicitly or unconsciously tran-
•oendcd kvsSsra, FisoHnism did so explkatly and coosdously, thus
« One of the best critkal sumraariea of " Piuttne Theology"
•^*» *^ S. Uatckia the Aicy. BfiL 9th ad..
_ e (otdrek For PimTs i^KgiMi «m CMrtaeeNile
in a sense unknown liefore. Compared with this, his distiactive
attitdde of soul to Chnst. the exact metaphysical oonocpcion he
lonned of Chnst's p i n ejusieu ce was secondary and conditMiied by
inherited modes of thought. His own spedficcootrflMtioo was ha
in cainng rauimisn ^.nnsaioentzK. one
» its relation to the Gospel prochumed by
eived himself as utterly dependent for his
hrist, is not in doubt, but only how far he
of Christ's complete retigibos eflkacy.
Him »M tasinriiiMy Divine, the Son of Cod tn the
Goooeivable under human conditions.
iL Jesus and Paul.— In calttng PauUnism *' Christooentzk.'* one
raises the question aa to Its relation \ ' " '
Jeaoa. That Fkul com«i«cd ' '
gospel upon Jesus the Christ, _,
uncooacaously modified the Gospel by makiag Christ iu subject
matter nther than its revealer. in one aspect this b but the
question as to Psul'a attitude to the historic Jesus over again: yet
tt is more. Granting that Paul felt his gospel to be in rssfiiliil
agreement with the words and deeds of Jesus of Nasaieth. aa knows
to him, it remains to ask whether be did not put all into so fresh «
perspective as to change the relative emphasis on points central to
the teaching of Jesus, and so alter its spirit. A school of writers,
by BO means unappredative of Paul as they understand him, el
srhom W. Wrede may be taken as example, answer that Paul so
changed Christianity aa to become its " second founder "-—the real
founder of ecclesiastical Christianity as distinct from the Chriuianity
of Jesus. They say, " cither Jesus or Paul; it cannot be both at
once." They urge not only that Paatinism is involved in certain
" mythological " conceptions, by Its view of sin, of redemption and
of the pie>existent celestial person of the Redeemer; bnt also that,
apart from the Rabbink and anti-Rabfaink eleroent in Paul, hia
whole mystical attitude towards Christ as the medium of ledcmptioa
(an idea borrowed, ihey say, not from Jesos Himself but from thn
religion of the Mysteries) is alkn to the aunuy and sane t^r^ipg ol
Jeans aa to Cod and man. and their true relationa.
The essential issue here is this. Could Jesus the Meanah set fortk
the Coepd in the same perspective aa a devoted disciple of His?
Must not the personal embodiment of the life of the Messiaak king*
dom by Jesos Himself, and so Hk personalitiK. become the prime
medium through which this life in its essential featnrea. and
especially in its spirit of devoted knre. atuina and «>*;■■#«;«> its bold
upon the soub of men ? SureW the new life must appear most
fuUy and movingly sub specie Chnsii: and the wmtalM Cknsti^
in an inner sense which finds in Him the very principle of the new
Christian conaciouaness aa to Ox) and man. must he the moat
direct and morally potent means to the realisation of the Chrisu
type. Thus to say that Pauhnism is practically and proximately
'^Christooentrk." u not to deny that it is ultimately and toeoretically
'* Theocentric," if only Christ be regarded as the revealer of Cod the
Father, and that in virtue of a spedal oommnni^ of nature with
Him as Son. It may be questioned whether Paul attained, or
indeed had within his reach in that a^ the best intellectual equiva-
lent of his religious intuition of Chnst as " mediator between God
and man." But it is another matter to questfam whether his intui-
tion that the personality of the Christ Himself waa the secret of the
Miritual power btent in His Gospel, be a true interpretation of thn
(iospcl as it appears even b the Synoptics.* Thus the truth seems ui
lie rather with those who see in Paul ' Jesus's most genuine disci^ **
(H. Wcinel}, the one who best understood and reproduced His
thought. True. Jesus's Gospel is one seen through the sinless co»-
sdousness of the Saviour, while Paul's is one seni through the eyes
of a conscious sinner. But that is the perqwctive in which mankind
, by>
restoring Jesus s own stress upon " etenuJ life as present rather
than future, and that on lines other than those of obedience to n
divine law, Paul saved Christianity from a judaiaing of the univmal
and spiritual religion with which Jesus had in fact inspired His
persoMtl disciples, but which they had not been able to grasp.
No -loubt there is another side to all this, the side of Paul's idio-
syncrusy, both religiously and as a thinker. The peculiar depth and
form 01 Paul's religious experience, especially as rKards sin. have
proved a limiution to nis direa and full inmience. While
'* numberiess men have discovered themselves in reading f^ul."
more have not been " found ' by him; and of those who have fdk
the religious ^>peal of hb writings, not a few have gravely misunder-
stood the thecwetk setting of hb message. Indeed misundenaanding,
one way or another, was Paul's usual lot in the ancient Church,*
as rmrds hb most distinctive ideas, due psrtly to the difficult form
in which mm of those kleas were couched. Hut to say thb b Gttle
more than saying that Paolinism b a less universal form of the Gomel
than that given it by his Master Jesus Christ. To do full justxw
■ The whole history of Christianity is proof that the persooality
of Jesos has counted for more m prodncuig Christians than km
tenching per u, that is, hb Cospd fn the narrower sense. And it
was Paul, not the older apostles, who first concentrated sttentiott
on that personality as the type and pledge of man's poientia] no»*
•See S. Means, Saimt Pmd aud Ike amle-Nkene Omtk UMX
PAUL (POPES)
^55
to PlinliniHH ia thi» respect, we most comfwe it wHh otiwr
iateipretations of Jetus and His Cocpel ia the zgt immttdntely
ensuing. At the one extreme stands Judaeo-Chnstianity (so far
«a uninfluenced by Pkul), with iu ultra<on8enratiam and un-
developed spiritualtty: at the other Gnosticism, with its ultra-
qiiritualiani, born o( a rigid dualism aad defective sense for htitoncal
Gootinuity in revelation. Between them stands Paul, blending
the positive ideas of both in a religious unity of immense ethi-
cal power and initiative; while the oiher and intermediate types
represented in the New Testament--by i Peter. Hebrews and the
Jghanaine writing^i— all testify to his pervasive iaflueaoe.
LiTBitATURB.*-For tUs in anything like tu imnense lange, refer-
ence may be made to the articles " Paul " in Hastings's DtO. Btbit,
the Ency. Bib., A. Hauck's ReaknnUMdU (Zahn) : to R. J. Know-
ling's WilHiss IP/ the RpUOts (1892) and The TesHmony of St Paul to
Christ (1905). and C. Clemen. Patdtis (1904). the footnotes of which
are a mute of information on this subject. Besides these, the
leading works on New Testament introduction or theology and
on the apostolic ase deal largely with Paul, and often contain biblio*
graphtes. The following works may be taken as fairly typical :—
I. For Paul's Life: A. Neander, Gesch. der Pflanmng . . , der
ehrisU. Kirche, vol. i. (4th ed., 1847; Eng. trans, in BohiTs Library),
and Lives by F. C. Baur (1845, 1866) ; C. V. Lechler. Das apost. . . .
ZtttaUtr (f8«i; 3rd ed., 1885: Eng. trans. 1886); £. Renan (1869):
T. Lewin (1851. 1874. rich in archaeol(»y) ; Convbeare and Howsoo
(1851 and later) ; H. Ewald-, History of Israd (vof. vi., yd ed., 1868);
M. Krenkel (1869): A. Hausrath (and ed.. 1872); F. W. Farrar
(1879): A. Sabaticr (2nd ed., 1881); K. Schmidt, Die Apostdgesch.
(vol. 1., 1 88a): C. Weixsicker, Das apost. ZtitalUr (1886; Eng. trans..
1894): W. M. Ramsay. Si Paul ike TroKOer and Roman Citizen
CtGb) ; A. C. McGiffert, TU Apostolic Age (1897) : O. Cone (1898) ;
C Clemen (1904) ; B. W. Bacon (1905). Some 01 these deal largely
with Paul's teaching.
a. For Paul's Teaekingz L. Usteri, Die Bntwiekelunt des paedi-
duhen Ukrbegriffs (1834; 6th ed. i8si): Baur's Panlvs (1845. x866) ;
A. RltschL Du Enistek, d. allkaik. Kirche (and ed.. 1857); E. Rcuss.
A. RltschL Die Enistek. d. aUkath. Kirch* (and ed.. 1857); E. Hcuss.
^tst: de la thiol, ckrit. au sOcle apostolique, tome ti. C3rd ed., 1864:
Eng. trans.. 1873): B. Jowett. essays In his Epistles of St Paid to
ikerkees., 6fc. (and ed.. 1859); C. Hobten. Zum Beang. d. Pautms u.
Petrms (1868). &c.; I. B: Licbtfoot. dissertations in hit Commentariesi
Matthew Arnold, $1 Paul and Prolettantism (1870)1 O. Pfleiderer.
Der Paulinismus (1873: Eng. trans. 1877). also Hibbert Lecture
(1885) and Das Urehrisientum. vol. I. (2nd ed.. 1902; Ene. tran^..
1907); A. Sabatier. L'ApStre Paul (1881); E. M6n<goz. U Piehi et la
ridempti&n d'ajfrks S, Paul (i88a): J. F. CUrke. The Ideas oi the
AposUe Paul (1884): C. B. Stevens, The PasUine Theology (i^a);
A. B Bruce. St Paul's Conception of Christianity (1894) • ^- ^ Everett.
The Gospel of Paul', G. Matheson. The Sptritual Development 01
••**•• ' - ^ - . ' ~ g). briel
(also his
The Gospel of Paul', G. Matheson. The Spiritual Devehpmet
St Paul; P. Peine, Das gesettfrae Evang. des Paulus (1899); 1
sketches by W. Bousset. H. Weinel. W. Wrcde. P. Wemie (alsc
_ , . , Is
dnfingfi unserer Rdinen. 1901 ; Eng. transi., 1904). and A. JikUcher
Qn Die Kultur der Cegenwart, 1905. I. iv. i. 69-97) ; but espedally
W. Sanday. article -Paul" in Diet, of Christ and the Gospels (1908).
where the Kterature bearing on *' Jesus and F*aul ** will be found.
For commentaries, see under the several epistles. (J. V. BO
PAUL (pAtJirs). the name of five popes.
Paul I., pope from 757 to 767, succeeded his brother Stephen
ni. on the 29th of May 757. His pontificate was chicBy
rrmarkable for his close alliance with Pippin, king of the Franks,
to whom he made a present of books highly significant of the
intellectual poverty of the times; and for his unsuccessful
endeavours to effect a recondliatfen with the iconoclastic
emperor of the East, Constantine Copronymus. He died on
the 28th of June 767. His successor was Stephen IV.
Paul II. (Pictro Barbo), pope from the 30th of August
1464 to the 26th of July 1471. was bom at Venice in 1417.
Intended for a business career, he took orders during the pon-
tificate of his uncle, Eugenius IV., and was appointed suc-
cessively archdeacon of Bologna, bishop of Cervia, bishop of
Piacenra. protonotary of the Roman Church, and in 2440
cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria Nuova. He was made cardinal-
priest of Sta Cecilia, then of St Marco by Nicholas V., was a
favourite of Calixtus III and was unanimously and unexpectedly
elected the successor of Plus II. He immediately declared that
election " capitulations," which cardinals bad long been in
the habit of affirming as rules of conduct for future popes,
could affect a new pope only as counsels, not as binding obliga-
tions. He opposed with some success the domineering policy
of the Venetian government in Italian affairs. His repealed
condemnations of the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges resulted
in strained relations with Louis XI. of Fr.^nce. He pronounced
•xcomBunkaf ion tnd deposition against King George Podiebrad
on the 23rd of December 1466 for ivfbsal io enforce the Basel
agreement against the Utraqnisis, and prevailed on Matthias
Corvinos, king of Hungary, to declare war against him on the
jist of March 1468. Matthias was not particularly successful,
but George Podiebrad died on the aand of March 1471. Tlie
pope carried on fruitless negotiations (1469) ^ith the emperor
Frederick III. for a crusade against the Turks. Paul endea-
voured to make drastic reforms in the curia, and abolished the
college of abbrevbtoTs (1466), but this caQed forth violent
protests from the historian Platlna, one of their number and
subsequently librarian tmder Sixtus IV., who is responsible
for the fiction that Paul was an illiterate persecutor of learning.
It is true that the pope suppressed the Roman academy, but on
religious grounds. On the other hand he was friendly to
Christian scholars; he restored many ancient monuments;
made a magnificent eollection of antiquities and works of art;
built the P^daaao di St Marco, now the Palazzo di Venexia; and
probably first Introduced printing into Rome. Paul embellished
the costume of the cardinals, collected jewels for his own adorn-
ment, provided games and food for the Roman people and
practically Instituted the camivaL He began in 1469 a revision
of the Roman sututes of i363->a work which was not completed
until 1490. Paul esublished the special tax called the qutn-
dennium m 1470^ and by bull of the same year (April 19)
announced the jubilee for every twenty-five years. He began
negotiations with Ivan III. for the union of the Russian Church
with the Roman see. Paul was undoubtedly not a man of
qukk parts or unusual views, but he was handsome, attractive,
stren^willed, and has never been accused of promoting nephews
or favourites. He died very suddenly, probably of apoplexy,
on the 26th of July, 1471, and was succeeded by Sixtus IV.
The principal con te mporary lives of Paul II„ indtidiog that by
Platina, are tn L. Muratori. Rerum iial. scriptores, iu. pt. 2. and
in Raynaldus, Annales eedesiastiei ( 1464-147 1)* The inventocy
of his personal effects, published by E. Mtkntt (Us Arts, iu, 1875;,
is a valuable document for the history of art. See also L. Pastor.
History of the Popes, vol. iv.; trans, by F. I. Aatrobus (London,
1898). NT. Creighton. History of the Papacy, vol. Iv. (London. 1901):
F. Grcgorovius. Rome m the Middle Afes. vol. vii. (trans, by Mrs C. W.
Hamilton, London. 1900-1902)*. H. L*£pinois, Paul II., F. Palacky.
CeschichU von Bdhmen, Bd.
r2):H. L'Ep
IV.-V. (Pn
sue, 1860-186O; Aus den
Annalen-Regtstern der Pdpste Eugen IV., Pius II., Paul II.. u.
Sixtus IV., ed. by K. Hayn (Cologne. 1896). There is sn excel-
lent artk:le by C. Benrath in HaucVs, RealeneyUopddie (3rd cd.),
vol. XV. (C. kL Ha.)
pAtn. m. (Alessandro F^niese)t pope from 1534 to 1549. was
bom on the 28th of February 1468, of an old and distinguished
family. As a pupQ of the famous Pomponius Laetus, and,
subsequently, as a member of the drde of Cosmo de' Medici,
he received a finished education. From Florence he passed
to Rome, and became the father of at least two children, later
legitimized. Upon entering the service of the Church, however,
he lived more circumspectly. His advancement was rapid.
To the h'aison between his sister Giulta Famese O^ini and
Alexander VI. he owed his cardinal's hat; but the steady
favtnir which he enjoyed under successive popes was due to
his own cleverness and capacity for affairs. His electron to
the papacy, on the 13th of October 1 534, to succeed Clement VII.,
was virtuaUy without opposition.
The pontificate of Paul III. forma a turning-point in the
history of the papacy. The situation at his accession was
grave and complex: the steady growth of Protestantism, the
preponderant power of the emperor and his prolonged wars
with France, the advances of the Turks, the uncertain mind
of the Church itself^all conspired to prt>duce a problem involved
and delicate. Paul was shrewd, calculatmg, tenacious; but
on the other hand over-cautious, and inclined rather lo temporize
than to strike at the critical moment. His instincts and
ambitions were those of a secular prince of the Renaissance;
but circumstances forced him to become the patron of reform.
By the promotion to the cardinalate of such men as Contarint,
Caraffe. Pole and Morone, and the appointment of a commission
to report upon existing evils and their remedy, the way was
opened for reform; while by the Enttoduction of the InquI&iiioD
9S6
PAUL (POP£S)
Into Itftly <tS4t), the ttfiHwImiwit of the cemonhip and the
Index (iS43)r and the sMwoval ol the Society of Jesus (i54o)t
ncBt effideot aceodes were let on foot for combating heresy.
But in the matter of a general council, so uxveotly desired tqr
the emperor, Paul showed himself irreaoluie and procra»*
tinating. Hnally on the i$th of December iS45 the Council
amembled in Trent; but when the victories of Charles V. seemed
to .threaten its independence it was transferred to Bologna
(March 1547) and not long afterwards suspended (Sept. 1540).
He concluded the truce ol Nice (15^) between Charles and
Francis, and contracted an alliance with each. But the peace
of Crcspy and the emperor's negotiations with the Protestants
(1544) turned him a^unst Charles, and he was suspected of
desiring his defeat in the Schmallcaldic War. The most de-
plorable weakness of Paul Wtt his nepotism. Parma and
Piacenza, states of the Church, he bestowed upon his natural
son Pier Luigi (1545)* But in 1549 Pier Luigi was assassinated
by his outraged subjects, and the emperor thereupon claimed
the two duchies for his son-in-law Ottavio Famese, Paul's
grandson. This led to a famOy quarrel which greatfy embittered
the last days of the pope and hastened his death (Nov. zo, 1549)-
Parma and Piacenza continued to be a bone of oontentioo for
two hundred and fifty yean.
Paul was gifted and cultured, a lover and patron of art. He
began the famous Famese Palace; constructed the Sala Regia in
the Vatican; commissioned Michelangelo to paint the '*Last
Judgment," and to resume work upon St Peter's; and other-
wise adorned the dty. Ea^y-going, luxurious, worldly-minded,
Paul was not in full sympathy with the prevailing influences
about him.
See Panvinto, continoator of Platina, De viHs ponHff, rom.;
Ciaconiui, Vilat et res gestae summoruM fontiff. rom, (Rome.
i6oi-i6oa, both contemporaries of Paul
OuirinI, /iiMf0
0tlimi . . . pontif. txpressa m wesHs PamU III. (Brixen, 1745);
Kanfce, Popes (Eng. tfaiu., Austin), i. 243 teq.; v. Reumoot, Cesck,
der Stadt Ram.^ iii. 2, 471 seq.. 716 leq. ; Brosch, Cesck, des Kirekett'
statues (1880), I i6a Mq.; Ehses, " Kirchliche Reformsrbriten umer
Paul ill. vor dem Trienter Konrii/' R»m, Quarlatsckrift (1901), xv.
153 «q- : CapaMO, la Poiaica di paPa Paolo JJL eVItalta (Camerino,
1901): and abo the cxtennve bibliography in Heraog-Hauck,
ReaUucyklopSdie, SM, " Paul III."
Paul IV. (Giovanni Pietro Caraffa), pope from 1555 to
X5S9. was bom on the aSth of June 1476, of a noble Neapolitan
family. His ecclesiastical preferment he owed to the influence
of an uncle, Cardinal Oliviero Caraffa. Having filled the post
of nundo in England and Spain, he served successive popes as
adviser in matters perUining to heresy and reform. But he
resigned his benefices, and, in conjunction with Cajetan, founded
the order of the Theatines (1524) with the object of promoting
personal piety and of combating heresy by preaching. In
1536 Paul III. made him cardinal-archbishop of Naples and
a member of the reform commission. After the failure of
Conurini's attempt at reconciliation with the Protestants
(1541) the papacy committed itself to the reaction advocated
by Caraffa; the Inquisition and censorship were set up (i54>t
1543), and the extermination of heresy in Italy undertaken
with vigour. Elected pope, on the ajnl of May 15SS. in the
face of the veto of the emperor, Paul regarded Ids elevation as
the work of God. With his defects of temper, his violent
antipathies, his extravagant notion of papal prerogative, his
pontificate was filled with strife. Blinded by ungovernable
hatred he joined with France (1555) in order to drive the
" accursed Spaniards " from Italy. But the victory of Philip 11.
at St Quentin (1557) and the threatening advance of Alva
upon Rome forced him to come to terms and to abandon his
French alliance. He denounced the peace of Augsburg as a
pact with heresy; nor would he recognise the abdication of
Charics V. and the election of Ferdinand. By insisting upon the
restitution of the confiscated church-lands, assuming to regard
England as a papal fief, requiring Elizabeth, whose legitimacy
he aspersed, to submit her claims to him, he raised insuperable
obstacles to the return of England to the Church of Rome.
Paul's attitude towards nepotism was at variance with his
character as a reformer. An unworthy nephew. Carlo Caraffa,
was made canftsal, tad other idatfwes were invested irfth the
duchies of PaEano and MootebeOo. It was Paul's hope in this
way to acquire a support in his war with the Spaniards. But
the defeat of his plana disillusioned him, and he turned to
reform. A stricter life was inti«dnccd into the papal court;
the regular observance of the services of the Church was enjoined;
many of the grosser abuses were prohibited. These measures
only increased Paul'a unpopularity, so that when he died, on
the i8th of Augnat 1559, the Romans vented their hatred by
demolishing hb statue, libeeating the priaoaeis of the laqnisitioii,
and scattering its papers. Paul's want of political wisdom,
and his ^orance of human nature aroused antafonisms fatal
to the success of his cause.
See Panvinio, continuator of Platina, De wNr pontif. rMi.;
Ciaconius, VUa$ et res gestae summerwm Poatif. rom» ^ome,
1601-1602, both contemporaries of Paul IV.); Caraccioli. De ttis
Pavli IV, PM, (Cologne. x6i3; for criticism ace HisL Zeitsehr.,
xliv. 460 SCO.), whose rich collection of materials was used by
Bromau, Vtta di Paola IV. (Ravenna, 1749). aad Sanm. Urn
Question ital. an seitihne sihele (Paris. 1861). See abo Caculdow
Vita del pontifice Paolo Qnarto (Modena. 1618): Ranke. Pefes (Eng.
trans, by Austin). L aSiS aeq. (an excellent sketch); v. Renmont,
Gesck. der Stadt Rom,, iii. a. 313 acq. and Bearath, " G. P. Caraffa
tt. d. reformatoriache Bcwnung seiner Zcit.," in Jakrh. fur proL
TkeoL (1878). vol. L: AnceC Dugraee et proeks dits Caraffa (1909):
Paiti V. (C^millo Borghese), successor of Leo XL, was bocn
in Rome on the 17th of September 1553, of a noble family.
He studied in Penigia and I^ulua, became a canon lawyer, and
was vice4egate in Bologna. As a reward of a successful missloo
to Spain Clement VIII. made him cardinal (1596) and later
vicar in Rome and inquisitor. Elevated to the papacy, on the
x6th of May 1605, his extreme conception of papal prerogative^
his arrogance and obstinacy, hb perverse im^enoe upon thtf
theoretkal and disregard of the actual, made strife faievitable.
He provoked disputes with the Italian states over ecclesiastical
rights. Savoy, Genoa, Tuscany and Naples, wishing to avoid
aN. rupture, yielded; but Venice resisud. The republic stood
upon her right to judge all her subjects, and by her demands
touching benefices, tithes and papal bulls showed her detcr«
mination to be supreme in her own territory. Excommunicatioa
and interdict (April x 7, 1606) were met with defiance^ The cause
of the republic was brilliantly advocated by Fra Paob Saipi,
counsellor of state; the defenders of the papal theory were
Cardinals Baronitis and Bellarmine. The pope talked cC
cocrdon by arms: but Spain, to whom he looked for support,
refused to be drawn Into war, and the quarrel was finally
settled by the mediation of France (March aa, 1607). Not-
withsunding certain concessions, the victory remained with
the repubUc (see Sakh).
Paul became involved in a quarrel with England also. After
the Gunpowder Plot parliament required a new oath of alle>
gunce to the king and a denial of .the right of the pope to
depose him or release his subjects from their obedience. Paul
forbade Roman Catholics to take the oath; but to no purpose,
beyond stirring up a literary controversy. By his condemnatioo
of Gallicanism (1613) Paul angered France, and provoked tKe
defiant declaration of the states general of 16x4 tHat the king
held his crown from God alone.
Paul encouraged missions, confirmed many new congregations
and brotherhoods, authorised a new version of the Ritual, and
canonized Carlo Borromeo. His devotion to the interests of
his family exceeded all bounds, and they became enormously
wealthy. Paul began the famous Villa Borghese; enlarged the
Quirinal and Vatican; completed the nave, facade and portico
of St Peter's; erected the Borghese Chapel in Sta Maria
Maggiore; and restored the aqueduct of Augustus sikI Trajan
(" Acqua Paolina "). He also added to the Vatican library,
and began a collection of antiquities. Paul died on the aSth
of January 1621, and was succeeded by Gregory XV.
See Bzovius (Bxow«ki), De vita Pauli V. (Rome. i6as: <
in Plarina. De vitit pontiff, rom.. cd. 1626), who depicts Faat as a
. ^ ImibHct • • • ... K. ^.
of CiaconiuA. Vitae et res gestae snmmarum porUij
pnrajpn of all
of CiaconiuA. 1
temporary of the pope)
ibfic and private virtues; Vtrorelli. c
r gestae snmmarum pontiff, rom. (a co»>
Goujct. HuL dm pmhfm da f'm^ K.
PAUL t—VAXJL OF SAMOSATA
957
(1765); Rafifcew Fates (Enr tant. by Auflin). il. 330 teq^ iit. 7>jKq. :
V. Reumont, Gtuk. der Stadi Rom, in. 3^ 605 acq.: Broach. Cesck
4es KtrckenstaaUs (1880), 1. ^l acq. The Venetian version of the
quarrel with the pope was written by Sarpi (subaequently translated
Into English. London. 1626) , see also Cornet. Paolo V et la rtPuh
vemda (Vienna, 1859): and Trolbpe. Paid Ike Popf and Paul the
Fnaw (London, i860). An extensive biography will be found u
Henog-Hauck. KeaUncylkopddu, «.v. " Paul V.'^ (T. F, C.)
PAUL I. (i7S4«i8di), emperor of Russia, was born in the
Summer Palace tn' St Peteisburg on the tst of October (n s )
— the 30th of September by the Russian calendar— 1754. He
was the son of the grand duchess, afterwards empress, Catherine-
According to a scandalous report his father was not her husband
the grand duke Peter, afterwards emperor, but one Colonel
Soltykov There b probably no foundation for this story
except gossip, and the cymad malice of Catherine During
his infancy he was taken from the care of his mother by the
empress Elizabeth, whose ill-judged fondness is bebeved to
have injured his health. As a boy he was reported to be
intelligent and good-lookmg. His extreme uglmess in later
life IS attributed to an attack of typhos, from which he suffered
ih 1771. It has been asserted that bis mother hated bim.
and was only restrained from putting him to death while ho^was
still ^ boy by the fear of what the consequences of another
palace crime might be to herself Lord Buckinghamshire,
the English ambassador at her court, expressed this opinion
«s early as 17O4. In fact, however, the evidence goes to show
that the empress, who was at all times very fond of chJdrea,
treated Paul with kindness. He was put in charge of a trust-
worthy governor, Nikita Panin. and of competent tutors.
Her dissolute court was a bad home for a boy who was to be
the sovereign, but Catherine took great trouble to arrange
bis first marriage with Wtlhelmina of Darmstadt, who was
renamed in Russia Nathalie Alex^evna. in 1773. She allowed
him to attend the council in order that he might be trained
for his work as emperor. His tutor Poroshin complained of
him that he was "always in a hurry," acting and speaking
without thinking. After bis first marriage he began to engage
in intrigues. He suspected his mother of intending to kill
bim, and onoe openly accused her of causing broken glass to
be mingled with his food. Yet. though his mother removed
him from the council and began to keep him at a distance,
her actions were not unkind. The use maide of his name by the
rebel Pugachev in 1775 tended no doubt to render his position
more difficult. When his wife died in childbirth in that year
his mother arranged another marriage with the beautiful Sophia
Dorothea of Wtirttcmberg. renamed in Russia Maria Feodorovna.
On the birth of his first child in 1777 she gave hfm an estate,
Favlovsk. Paul and his wife were aOowed to travel through
western Europe In 1 781-1782. In 1783 the empress gave
him another estate at Gatchina, where he was allowed to
maintain t brigade of soldiers whom he drilled on the Prussian
model. As Paul grew his character became steadily degraded.
He was not incapable of affection nor without generous impulses,
but he was flighty, passionate in a childish way. and when
angry capable of cruelty. The affectwn he had for his wife
turned to suspicion. He fell under the influence of two of
his wife's maids of honour in succession, Nelidov and Lapuknin,
fend of his barber, a Turkish slave named Korobsov. For
some years before Catherine died it was obvious that he was
hovering on the border of insanity. Catherine contemplated
setting hjm aside in favour of his son Alexander, to whom she
was attached. Paul was aware of his mother's half-intention —
for it does not appear to have been more— ^nd t)ecame increas-
ingly suspicious of his wife and children, whom he rendered
perfectly miserable. No definite step was taken to set him
aside, probably because nothing would be effective short of
putting him to death, and Catherine shrank from the extreme
course. When she was seized with apoplexy he was free to
destroy the will by which she left the crown to Alexander, if
any such wilt was ever made. The four and a half years of
Paul's rule in Russia were unquestionably the reign of a madman.
The ezdtcmetit of the change from his retired life in Gatchina
to omnipotence diovt him below thjs Ihie of uisanity. Wh
conduct of the foreign affairs of Russia plunged the counliy
first Into the second coalition against France in 1778, and then
into the armed neutrality against Great Britain in i8oz. la
both cases he acted on personal pique, quarrelling with France
because be took a sentimental interest in the Order of Malta,
and then with England because he was flattered by Napoleon.
But his political follies might have been condoned. What
was unpardonable was that he treated the people about him
like a shah, or one of the craziest of the Roman emperors. He
began by repealing Catherine's law which exempted the free
classes of the population of Russia from corporal punishment
and mutilation. Nobody could feel himself safe from exile
or brutal ill-treatment at any moment- If Russia had possessed
any political institution except the tsardom he would have been
put under restraint. But the country was not sufficiently
civilized to deal with Paul as the Portuguese had dealt with
Alphonso VI , a very similar person, in 1667. In Russia as in
medieval Europe there was no safe prison for a deposed ruler. A
conspiracy was organized, some months before it was executed,
by Counts Pahlen and Panin, and a half-Spamsh, half-
Neapolitan adventurer. Admiral Ribas. The death of Ribas
delayed the execution On the night of the nth of March
1801 Paul was murdered in his bedroom in the St Michael
Palace by a band of dismissed officers headed by General
Bennigsen, a Hanoverian in the Russian service. They burst
into hb bedroom after supping together and when flushed with
drink. The conspirators forced him to the table, and tried
to compel him to sign his abdication. Paul offered some
resistance, and one of the assassins struck him with a sword,
and he was then strangled and trampled to death. He wis
succeeded by his son, the emperor Alexander I., who was
actually in the palace, and to whom Nicholas Zubov, one of
the assassins, announced his accession.
See, for Paul's early life. K. Waliasewski. Autour d^un IrSru
(Paris. 1894). or the English translation. Tht Story of a Tkroitt
(London. 1895). and P. hflonine. Paid L do Russm avatU Carinememt
(f^rts, I907}- For his reign. T. Schicmann, Guckuhte Russlattds
unUr NiMaus I. (Berlin. 1904). voL L and Dio Ermordtmi PauU,
by the same author (Berlin. 1902).
PAUL OP SAMOSATA, patriarch of Antioch (260-272), was,
if we may credit the encycUcal letter of his ecclesiastical
opponents preserved in Euscbius*s History, bk v|L ch. 30,
of humble origin. He was certainly bom farther east at
Samosata, and may have owed his promotion in the Church
to Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. The letter just mentioned is
the only indisputably contemporary document concerning
him and was addressed to Dionysius and Maximus, respectively
bishops of Rome and Alexandria, by seventy bishops, priests
and deacons, who attended a synod at Antioch in 2(^9 and
deposed PauL Their sentence, however, did not take effect
until late in 272. when the emperor Aurelian, having defeated
Zenobia and anxious to impose upon Syria the dogmatic
system fashionable in Rome, deposed Paul and allowed the
rival candidate Domnus to take his place and emoluments.
Thus it was a pagan emperor who in this momentous dispute
ultimately determined what was orthodox and what was not;
and the advanced Christology to which he gave his preference
has ever since been upheld as the ofiidal orthodoxy of the Church.
Aurelian's policy moreover was in effect a recognition of the
Roman bishop's pretension to be arbiter for the whole Church
in matters of faith and dogma.
Scholars will pay little heed to the charges of rapacity,
extortion, pomp and luxury made against Paul by the authors
of this letter. It also accuses him not only of consorting
himself with two "sisters" of ripe age and fair to look upon;
but of allowing his presbyters and deacons also to contract
Platonic unions wf th Christian ladies. No actual lapses how-
ever from chastity are alleged, and it is only complained that
suspicions were aroused, apparently among the pagans.
The real gravamen against Paul seems* to have been that he
clung to a Christology which. was become archaic and had
in Rome and Alexandria already fallen into the background.
958
PAULDING— PAULET
Paul's heresy Uy prfaicipally In his insistence on the genuine
humanity of Jesus of Nasareth. in contrast with the rising
orthodoxy which merged his human consciousness in the
divine Logos. It is best to give Paul's beliefs in his own words;
and the following sentences are translated from Paul's Dis-
tmtrses to Sainnus, of which frugments are prrserved in a work
against heresies ascribed to Anasusius, and printed by Angelo
Mai:—
I. " Having been anomted by the Holy Spirit he received the
title of Ike anoinUd (t.e. Christos), Buffering in aecordancc with
his nature, working wonders in accordance with grace. For in
fixity and resoluteness of character he likened himself to Cod;
and having kept himself free from sin was united with God. and
was empowered to grasp as it %vere the power and authority of
wonders. By these he was shown to possess over and above the
will, one and the same activity (with Cod)« and won the title of
Redeemer and Saviour of our race."
II. "The Saviour became holy and just: and by struggTc and
hard work overcame the sins of our forefather. By these means
he succeeded in perfecting himself, and was through his moral
excellence united with Goo, having attained to unity and sameness
of will and energy (».e. activity) with Him through his advances in
the path of good deeds. This will be preserved inseparable (from
the Divine), and so inherited the name which is above all names,
the prize of love and alTectMn vouchsafed in grace to him."
I f 1. " The different natures and the diftercnt persons admit of
union in one way abne, namely in the way of a complete agreement
in respect of will, and thereby is rcveaira the One (or Monad) in
activity in the case of those (wilts) which have coalesced in the
manner described."
i IV. " We do not award praise to beings whk:h submit merely
in virtue of their nature; but we do award high praise to beings
which submit because their attitude is one oilovc; and so sub-
mitting because their inspiring motive is one and the same, they
are confirmed and strengthened by one and the same indwelling
power, of which the force ever grows, so that it never o^ascs to
stir. It was in virtue of this love that the Saviour coalesced with
Cod. so as to admit of no divorce from Him. but for all ages to
retain one and the same will and activity with Him, an activity
perpetually at work in the manifestation of good."
V. " Wonder not that the Saviour had one will with OxJ. For
as nature manifesu the substance of the many to subsist as one
and the same, so the attitude of k>ve produces in the many an
unity and sameness of will which is manifested by unity and same-
ness of approval and well-pltasingness."
From other fairly attested sources we Infer that Paul regarded
the baptism as a landmark indicative of a great stage in the
moral advance of jesus. But it was a man and not the divine
Logos which was born of Mary. Jesus was a man who came
to be God, rather than God become man. Paul's Christology
therefore was of the Adoptionist type, which we find among
the primitive Ebionitc Christians of Judaea, in Hennas, Theo-
dotus and Arteraon of Rome, and in Archclaus the opponent
of Mani, and in the other great doctors of the Syrian Church
of the 4th and 5th centuries. Lucian the great exegcte of
Antioch and his school derived their inspiration from Paul,
and he was through Lucian a forefather of Arianism. Probably
the Paulicians of Armenia continued his tradition, and hence
their name (see Pauuoaks).
Paul of Samosata represented the high*water mark of Christian
speculation; and it is deplorable that the fanaticism of his own
and of succeeding generations has left us nothing but a few
scattered fragments of his writings. Already at the Council
of Nicaea In 325 the Pauliani were put outside the Church and
condemned to be rebaptlzed. It is interesting to note that
at the synod of Antioch the use of the word consuhstantial
to denote the relation of God the Father to the divine Son or
Logos was condemned, although it afterwards became at the
Coundl of Nicaea the watchword of the orthodox faction.
LiTERATOtE.— Adolph Hamack, History of Tfofma, vol ili.;
Gieselcr's Ompendiiem of Ecclesiastical History (Edinburgh. 1854).
vol. i.; Routh, Rtiitfuiae saerae, vol. tii.; F. C. Conybearc. Key of
Truth (Oxford): Heie\e, Histdry of the Christian CowuUs (Edinburgh.
|87>), voL i.-, C3u Bigg, The Origins of ChriilaanUy (Oxford, 1909).
ch. axxv. (F. C, C.)
PAULDIKO, JAMES KIRKB (1778-1860), American writer
and politician, was bom in Dutchess county, New York, on the
sand of August 1778. After a brief course at a village school,
he temovtd in x8oo to liew York Dty, where in connexion
with his brocher-in-law, Wflfiam Irviflu:. and Wa^ngtott Itviog,
he began in January 1807 a series of short lightly humorous
articles, under the title of The Salmagundi Papers. In 1814
he published a political pamphlet, "The United Suics and
England,*' which attracted the notice of President Madison,
who in 181$ appointed him secretary to the board of navy
commissioners, which position he held until November 1823.
Subsequently Paulding was navy agent in New York City from
1825 to t8j7, and from 1837 to 1S41 was secretary of the navy
in the cabinet of President Van Buren. From 1841 until his
death on the 6lh of April 1860 he lived near Hyde Park, in
Dutchess county, New York, Although much of his literary
work consisted of political journalism, he yet found time to
write a large number of essays, poems and tales. From his
father, an active revolutionary patriot, Paulding inherited
strong anti-British sentiments. He was among the first dis*
tinctlvcly American writers, and protested vigorously against
intellectual thraldom to the mother-country. As a prose
writer be is chaste and degant. generally just, and realistically
descriptive. As a poet he b gracefully commonplace, and the
only Unes by Paulding which survive in popular memory are
the familiar—
" Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers;
Where is the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked ?**
which may be found in Koningsmarke.
The foflowing is a partial list of hb writings: The Dhertimg History
of John BuU and Brother Jomthan (i8ia); The Lap oj Ike SceUuh
Fiddle (1813), a good-natured parody on The Layofthetasl Minstrel:
Letters from the South (1817}: The Backwoodsman: a Poem (1818)*
Salmagundi (2nd series, 1819-1820); A Sketch of (M England, by
a New England Han (1822): Koningsmarke^ the Long Ftmne (1833),
a quiz on the romantic school of Walter Scott: John BuU im America;
or Uie Neso Munchausen (1824), a broad caricature of the cariy type
of British traveller in America; The Merry Tales of the Three Wise
Men of Gotham (1826); Chronicler of Ike City of Gotham, from the
Papers of a Retired Common Councilman (1830): The Dniekman's
Ftreside (f830: Westward Hot (1832}, A Life of Washingfmi (1835).
ably and gracefully writtco; Slavery in ike Untied States (1836). ta
which he defends slavery as an institution; The Book of Saint
Nicholas (i R37). a scries 01 stories of the old Dutch settlers: A meriean
Comedies (1847). the joint production of himself and his son WUItaai
J. Pauklingi and The PuriloM and his Daughter (i8|0). The aan«
son also published an edition of Paulding s Select Works (4 vols^
1 867- 1 868), and a biography called Literary Life of James K.
Pauldtng (New Yoric. 1867).
PAULET, PouLETT or Powlett, an English family of an
ancient Somersetshire stock, taking a surname from the parish
of Pawlett near Bridgwater. They advanced themselves by
a series of marriages with heirs, acquiring manors and Lands
in Somersetshire, Wiltshire, Devonshire and Hampshire. A
match with a Dcnebaud early in the isih century brought the
manor of Hinton St George, still the seat 0/ the elder line, the
earls Poulell. An ancestor of this branch. Sir Amtas Pouklt
or Paulet (d. 2557), knighted in 1487 after the battle of Stoke,
was treasurer of the Middle Temple in 1521, when Wolsey. in
revenge for a& indignity suffered at the knight's hands «hen
tl^ future chancellor was a young parson at Limington, forbade
his leaving London without leave. To propitiate the cardinal.
Sir Aroias, rebuilding the Middle Temple gale, decorated it
with the cardinal's arms and badge. Sir Hugh Toulett, his
eldest son, a soldier who had distinguished himself ia 1544 at
Boulogne in the king's presence, had, in 1551, a patent of the
captaincy of Jersey with the governance of Montorgucll Castle.
His wisdom and experience in the wars made Queen Elizabeth
employ him at Havre in 1562 as adviser to the earl of Warwick.
He died in 1572, having married, as his second wife, the wealthy
widow of Sir Thomas Pope, founder of Trinity College, Oxford.
Sir Amias Poulett (1536-1588), Sir Hugh's son and heir b^* a
first marriage, is famous as the puritan knight into whose
charge at Tuibury jind Chartley was given the queen of
Scots. After his prisoner's sentence at Fotheringhay. be beset
Elizabeth's nunisters with messages advising her execution, but
he firmly withstood ** with great gtief and bitterness," the sug-
gestion that she should be put to death secretly, saying that
God and the law forbade. Sir Anthony Poulett (156^1600),
PAULI— PAULICIANS
hk tidest snrviving lon, iuooeeded hiRi as governor of Jersey
•ad wauB lather of Joho Foulect (1586-1649) to whom Charles I.
Id 1617 gikve a patent of peerage as Lord Poulelt of Hinton
St Geoige. In apite of the puritan opinioDS of his family he
declared for the king, raising Cor the royal army a brigade
which he led in Dorsetshire and Devonshire. He was taken
pnaoner for the second time at the fall of Exeter in 1646 and
luffeied a heavy fine. His eldest son John, the second Lord
P6ntett (1615-1665) was taken with his father at Exeter
Jobn, the fourth Lord Poulett (1665-1743), having been a
ttounissioner for the xihion, was created in 1706 Viscount
HiDCon of Hinton St George and Earl Poulett. In 1710-1711
he was first lord of the treasury and nominal head of ui adminis-
liatioB cottroUed by Harley. A garter was given him in 1713
A moderate Tory, his pbces were taken from him at the accession
oi the house of Brunswick. The fifth earl (d. 1864) re-settled
the family estates in 1853 in order to bar the inheritance of one
WiUtam Tumour Thomas Pbulett who, although bom in wedlock
of the wife of the earl's cousin William Henry Poulett, was
repudiated by her husband, afterwards the sixth earl. In
190J the lixih earl's son by a third marriage established his
claim to the peerage, and in 1909 judgment was given against
the chum of William Tumour Thomas Poulett, then styling
himself Earl Poulett.
A younger line of the Paulets, sprang from William Paulet
of Meloombe. serjeant-at-law (d. 1435), reached higner honours
than an earidbm. William Paulet. by his marriage with
Eleanor Delaniare (d. 1413), daughter of Philip Delamare and
heir of her brother, acquired for his descendants Fishcrton
Delamare in Wiltshire and Nunncy Castle in Somerset Their
son Sir John Paulet married Constance, daughter and coheir
of Hugh Poynings, son and heir of Sir Thomas Poynings, Lord
St John of Basing. Through this marnage came the lordship
and manor of Basing, and the manor of Amport or Ham Port
which Is still with the descendants of Hugh de Port, its Norman
lord at the time of the Domesday Survey. Sir John Paulet
of Basing, by his cousin Alice Paulet of the Hinton line (hts
wife in or before 1467), was father of Sir William Paulet. who,
during a very long and supple career as a statesman In four
reigns^** I am sprung," he said, ** from the willow and not
from the oak "'— raised his house to a marquessatc. Henry VIII.
rewarded his diplomatic and judicial services and his campaign
against the Pilgrims of Grace with the site and lands of Nctley
Abbey, the revival of the St John barony, a garter and many
Mgh offices. The king's death found him lord president of
the council and one of the executors of the famous will of the
sovereign. The fall of the protector Sometset gave him the
l«rd trcasurershtp and a patent of the earldom of Wiltshire.
He shared the advancement of Norlhumbcrland and was created
in 1551 marquess of Winchester, but. alihough he dcUvcrcd
the crown jewels to the Lady Jane in 1 553, he was with the lords
at Baynard Castle who proclaimed Queen Mary. In spite of
his great age he was in the saddle at the proclamation of Mary's
successor and was speaker in two Elizabethan parliaments.
Only his death in 1572 drove from oATkc this tenacious treasurer,
whose age may have been nigh upon a hundred years.
His princely house at Basing was held for King Charles by
Joho. the fifth marquess, whose diamond had scratched " Aimcz
Loyauii " upon every pane of its windows. Looking on a
main road. Basing, with its little garrison of desperate cavaliers,
bcid out for two years ngninst siege and assault, and its shattered
walls were in flames about its gallant master when Cromwell
himself stormed an entry. The old cavaUcr marquess died in
i675« his great losses unrecompensed, and his son Charies. a
morose extravagant, had the dukedom of Bolton in 1689 for
his desertfon of the Stuart cause. This new title was taken
from the Bolton estates of the Scropcs. Lord Wmchcster having
married a natural daughter of Emmanuel, earl of Sundcriand,
the last Lord Scrope of Bolton. Charles, second duke of
Bolton (1661-1722). ifras made lord-Ueulcnani of Ireland in
1717. A third Charles, the 3rd duke, is remembered as an
fipgoutnt of Sir Robert Walpole and as the husband of Lavinia
959
FentoB, the Polly Peacbum of Gay's openu The $Ixth and
last duke of Bolton^ an admiral of undistinguished services^
died in 1794 without legitimate issue. His dukedom became
extina, and Bolton Castle again passed by bequest to' an
illegitimate daughter of the fifth duke, upon whom it had been
entailed with the greater part of the ducal estates. (0. Ba.)
PAUU, RBINHOLO (1823-1882), German historian, was bora
in Berlin on the 25th of May 1823. He. was educated at the
universities of Bonn and Berlm, went to England in 1847. and
became private secreury to Bazon von Bunsen, the Prussian
ambassador in London. Returning to Germany in 1855 he
was professor of history successively at the universities of
Rostock, Tiibingen (which he left ini 866 because of his political
views), Marburg and Gottingen. He retained his chair at
Gttttingcn until his death at Bremen on the 3rd of June i88a.
He was a careful and industrious student t>f the &igUsh.recordfly
and his writings are almost wholly devoted to English history.
His first work, Kdnir Aeljred und seine Stdluni in der CesckichU
EHglattds (Bcriin. 1851). was folbwed by monographs on Bisehaf
Cnsuuste und Adam von Marsh (Tabingcn, 1 864). and on Simm
von Uontfort (Tabingcn. 1867). He conimued \, M. Lappenberg's
Ceschichle ton England from 1154 to IJ509 (Gotha. 185^-1858), and
Lntland from 1154 to 1509 (Ootha. 185^-1;
himself wrote a Ceschichte Engjtands (Leipzig, 1864-18751.
«ith the period between 1814 and 1852. Two volumes of historical
essays. Btider a us AH'England (Gotha. i860 and 1876), and Au/sAtat
tur engftschen Geschichie (Leipxig, 1869 and 1883). and numerous
historical articles in German periodicals came from his pen; and
he edited several of the English chroniclers for the MoMumenta
Cermaniae ktslorua.
See R. Pauli, Lebenserinnerungpn, edited by E. Pauli (Halle.
1895). and the sketch of his life prcfipced to O. Hartwig's edition of
his Aujiatu (Leipzig. 1883).
PAUilCIANS. an evangelical Christian Church spread over
Asia Minor and Armenia from the sth century onwards. The
first Armenian writer who notices them is the patriarch Nenes IL
in an encychcal of 553,* where he condemns those " who share
with Neslorians in. belief and prayer, and take their bread*
offerings to their shrines and receive communion from them,
as if from the ministers of the oblations of the Paultcians."
The patriarch John IV. (e. 728)* states that Nerses, hit prede-
cessor, had chastised the sect, but ineffectually i and that after
his death (r. 554) they had continued to lurk in Armenia, where,
reinforeed by Iconoclasts driven out of Albania of the Caucasus,
they had settled m the region of Djirka, probably near Lake
Van. In his 31st canon John identifies them with the Mca-
salians, as does the Armenian Gregory of Narek (c. 950). In
Albania they were always numerous. We come now to
Greek sources. An amonymous account was written perhaps
as early as 840 and incorporated in the CItronicon of Georgius
Monachus. This (known as Esc.) was edited by J. Friedrich
in the Munich Academy Sittungsbcrichte (1896), from a ioth<
century Escorial codex (Plut. 1, No i) It was also used by
Photius (c 867), bL i , chs. i-io of his Htsioria Mantckearumt
who, having held an inquisition of Pauhcians in Constantinople
was able to supplement Esc with a few additional details;
and by Petrus Siculus (c. 868). The lattei visited the PauKcian
fortress Tephrike to treat for the release of Byzantine prisoners.
His History of the Itaniclieans is dedicated to the archbishop
of Bulgaria, whither the PauUcians were sending missionaries.
Zigabenus (c. 1100), in his Panopiitt, uses beside Esc. an
independent source.
The Paulidans were, according to Esc, Manlcheans, so
called after Paul of Samosata iq.v.), son of a Manichean woman
Callinice. She sent him and her other son John to Armenia
as mlssioruries, and they settled at the village of Episparis,
or "seedplot," in Phanarea. One Const antine, however, of
Mananali, a canton on the western Euphrates 60-70 m. west
of Erzerum. was regarded by the Paulidans as their real founder.
He based his teaching on the Gospels and the Epistles of Paul,
repudiating other scriptures; and taking the Pauline name of
Siivanus. organized churches in Castrum Colonias and Cibossa,
which he called Macedonia, after Paul's congregation of that
■ In the Armenian LeUerbook of the Patriareks (Tifiis, 1901). p. 73.
* opera (Vtactiae, 1834), p. 89.
960
PAULICIANS
luune. His soccdaoiB vere Simeon, caUed Titus; GcgMsius,
an Annenian, called Tlmothetis; Jose|>b, called Epaphroditus;
Zachariah, rejected by some; Baanes, accused of immoral
teaching; lastly Sergius, called Tychicus. As Cibowa, so their
other congregations were renamed, Mananali as Achaea, Argaeum
and Cynoschdra as Colossae, Mopsuestia as £phesus,and so on.
Photius and Petrus Siculus supply a few dates and events.
Constantine was martyred 684 by Simeon whom Constsntine
Pogonatus had sent to repress the movement. His victim's
death so impressed him that he was converted, became head
of the sect, and was martyred in 690 by Justinian II. About
702 Paul the Armenian, who had fled to Episparis, became
bead of the church. His son Gegnesius in 723 was taken to
Constantinople, where he won over to his opinions the iconoclast
emperor, Leo the Isaurian. He died in 74s, and was succeeded
by Joseph, who evangelised Phrygia and died near Antioch
of Pisidia in 775. In 75s Constantine V. transplanted many
Paulidans from Germanida, Dolich£, Mclitene, and Theodosiu-
polis (ErzerOm), to Thrace, to defend the empire from Bulgarians
and Sctavonians. Early in the 9th century Sergius, greatest
Of the leaders, profiting by the tolerance of the emperor Nice-
phorus, began that ministry which, in one of the epistles
canoniaed by the sect, but lost, he describes thus: "I have
tun from east to west, and from north to sooth, till my knees
were weary, preaching the gospel of Christ." The iconoclast
emperor Leo V., an Armenian, persecuted the sect afresh, and
provoked a rising at Cynoschdra, whence many fled into Saracen
territory to Argaeum near Melitene. For the next 50 years they
continued to raid the Byzantine empire, although Sergius
condemned retaliation. The empress Theodora (842-857) hung,
crucified, beheaded or drowned some 100,000 of them, and
drove yet more over the frontier, where from Argaeum, Amara,
Tephrik^ and other stiongholds their generals Karbeas and
Chrysochdr harried the empire, until 873, when the emperor
Basil slew Chrysocheir and took Tephrik£.
Their sect ftowever continued to spread in Bulgaria, where
in 969 John Zimiskes settled a new colony of them at Phih'ppo-
polis. Here Frederick Barbarossa found them in strength in
1189. In Armenia they reformed their ranks about 821 at
Thonrak (Tendarek) near Diadin, and were numerous all along
the eastern Euphrates and in Albania. In this region Smbat,
of the great Bagraduni clan, reorganized their Church, and was
succeeded during a space of 170 or 200 years by seven leaders,
enumerated by the Armenian Grigor Magistros, who as duke
of Mesopotamia under Constantine Monomachos harried them
about 1x40. Fifty years later they were numerous in Syria and
Cilicia, according to the Armenian bishops Nerses the Graceful
and Nerses of Lambron. In the loth century Gregory of
Narek wrote against them in Armenian, and in the nth
Aristaces of Lasliveirt and Paul of Taron in the same tongue.
During these later centuries their propaganda embraced all
Armenia. The crusaders found them everywhere in Syria and
Palestine, and corrupted their name to Publicani, under which
name, often absurdly conjoined with Sadducaei. we find them
during the ages foUowiag the crusades scattered all over Europe
After 1200 we can find no notice of them in Armenian writers
until the i8th century, when they reappear in their old haunts.
In 1828 a colony of ihcm settled in Russian Armenia, bringing
with them a book called the Key oj rru/Zt, which contains their
rites of name-giving, baptism and electiott, compiled from old
MSS.,* we know tiot when.
* That this is so. is proved by the presence of a doublet in the
text of the riie of baptism, the wonis " But the penitent " on
p. 96. as far as " over the person baptised " on p. 97. repeating in
aulMtanoe the words " Next the elect one " on p. 97 to ' am well-
pleased " on p. 98. This rite therefore was compiled from at
least two eariier MSS. In the colophon also the compiler (as he
calls himself) excuses the errors of onhosraphy and grammar on
the ground that they are not due to himself but to eariier and ig-
nocint copyists. The division (often inept) of the text into chapters,
the references to chapter and verse of a printed N T., and sundry
pious stanzas which interrupt the context, are due to a later editor,
perham to the copyist of the existing text of 1782. The controveisial
introduction is later than the Crusades; but the rituals, as far as
Regarding PauUdin beliefs we havs little exetpt hoitJfe
evidence, which needs sifting. Esc. gives these partkoiacs.^^
1. They anathematized Mani, yet were daalisu and affinncd
two principles— one the heavenly Father, who nilcs not this
world but the world to come; the other an evii demiurge,
k)rd and god of this world, who made all flesh. The good
god croattti angds only. The Romans {jLe, the Bjrxantincs)
erred in confusing these two first principles. Similady the
Armenian writer Gregory Magistros (c. 1040) aoaiscs the
Thonraki of teaching that "Moses saw not God, but ihit
devil," and infers thence that they held SaUn to be creator
of heaven and earth, as well as of ouukind. The Kty •/ Truth
teaches that after the fall Adam tod Eve and their children
were slaves of Satan until the advent of the aesrft|r created
Adam, Jesus Christ. Except Gregory Magstroe none of the
Armenian sources lays stress on the dualism of the BauIiciBii&.
John IV. does not hint at it.
2. They blasphemed the Viigixl, allegorising her as the epper
Jerusalem in which the Lord came in and went out, ^mI
denying that he was really made flesh of her. John IV.
records that in the orthodox Armenian Church o£ the 7th
century many held Christ to have beea made flesh s'n, but not
0/, the Virgin; and Annemaa hymns call the Virgin aootbcr
church at once Theotokos and heavenly JervsaltaL It js
practically certain that Paulicians held this view.
3. They allegorised the Eucharist and explained away the
bread and wine of which Jesus said to His apostles, " Take, eat and
drink," as mere words of Christ, and denied that we ought to
offer bread and wine as a sacrifice;
Such allcgoriaation meets us already in Origen, Easdiius and
other early fathers, and is quite compatible widi that use of a
material Eucharist which Nerses II. attests among the Paolidaia
of the early 6th century, and for which the Key oj TnOk provides
a form. The Thonraki, according to Gregory Magistros^ held
that " Jesus in the evening meal, spoke not of an offering of
the mass, but of every table." We infer that the PanUctans
merely rejected the Bucharisiic rites and doctrine of the Greeks.
According to Gregory Magistros the Thonraki would say:
" We are no worshippers of matter, but of God; we reckon
the cross and the church and the priestly lobes and the sacrifice
of mass an for nothing, and only lay stress 00 the inner sense.'*
4. They assailed the cross, saying that Christ is cross^ and
that we ought not to worship the tree, because it is a cursed
instrument. John IV. and other Armenian writers report the
same of the Armenian Paulicians or Thonraki, and add that they
smashed up crosses when they could.
5. They repudiated Peter, calling him a denier of Christ.
and would not accept his rq»entance and tears.* So Grcgocy
the language is concerned, nJay belong to the remote age which
alone suits the adoptionist Christology of the prayers.
> in a fragmentary Syriac homily by Mar Jocfaanis, found in a
Sinai MS. written not later than the loth century and edited by
J. F. Stenning and F. C. Burkitt, Anetdota oxoh. (Clarcndos
Press, 1896), the same hostility to Peter is expressed. Compare
the followins passages: "O Petros, thou wast convict^ of foolt
by PaukM tny colleague. How do men aay that npon Pecros 1
have built the churchr
" The Lord said not to him. upon thee I build the church, but he
said, upon this rock (the which is the body wherewith the Lord «-as
dothed) I build my church. . . . Behold, I have made thee know
from the N.T. that that rock was the Mesdah.
" O Petros. after that thou didst receive the keys of heaven.
and the Lord was seen by thee after he rose from the dead, tkoa
didst let go of the keys, and thy wase is agreed with thy master
when thou saidst to him, Behold we nave let goof everythinffaivJ
have come after thee. What then shall be to ns? Ana the Lord
said to him, Ve shall be sitting on twelve thrones and judging the
tribes of Israel. And after all those su^ns, O Petros, thou wentcst
away again to the former catching of fuh. Wast thou ashamed of
mo. O Petros? "
Vet the same homUist " concemmg the one who is made a nriat,"*
writes thus: " Lo. thou seest the piriefct of the people, with what
care the Lord instructed Peter! He said not to hhn once and
stopped, but three times. Feed my sheep." The Syrtac text k
rendered from a Creek original of unknown age. whkJi from its
complete correspondence with the Key ef Truth may be jedged tn
have been a Pauliciaa writing.
PAUUCIANS
961
Magiftm niiorti tlie Thomikl as iajring, " Wd love Baul
and euncxate PteUr." But in the Key of TnUk there b little
txvfie of ezUeme hostility to Fetev. It raciely wurne Ui that
otf the apoetks coaatitvU the Church nniventi and not Peter
alone; and in the rite of election, «.(. of laying on of hands and
ftoeption ol the Spirit, the reader who is being elected assumes
the ritual name of Peter. An identical rite existed among
the 13th centttiy Cathars (f.«.)» tnd in the Celtic church of
Gildas every presbyter was a Peter.
6. The monkish garb was revealed by Satan to Peter at the
baptism, ^friien it was the devil, the ruler of this woild, who,
so costumed, leaned forward and said, This is my beloved soh.
The same hatred of monkery cfaanctcrised the TbontaU and
inspires the Kay of Truth, The other statements are nowhere
* 7. They called their meetings the Catholic Church, and the
places they met in pUces of prayer, irpoamrx«L The Thonrakl
equally denied the name of church to buHdingi of wood or stone,
and called themselves the Catholic Church.
8. Th^ explained away baptisms as ** words of the Holy
Gospel," citing the text " I am the living water." So the
nottiaki taught that the baptismal water of the Church was
" mere bath*water," t.e. they denied it the character of a reserved
sacrament. But there is no evidence that they eschewed water-
baptism. The modem Thonraki bsptise in rivers, and in the
nth century when Gregory asked them why they did not allow
themselves to be baptised, they answered: " Ye do not under^
stand the mysteiy of baptism; we are in 00 hurry to be baptixed,
for baptism is death." They no doubt deferred the baptism
which is death to sin, perhaps because, like the Cathais, they
held post'bapUsmal sin to be unforgivable.
g. They permitted external conformity with the dominant
Charch, and held that Christ would forgive it. The same
txait is reported of the Thonrski and of the real Manicheans.
la Tbc^ rejected the orders of the Church, and had only
two grades of clergy, namely, assodate itinerants {mfMiipuHt
Acts xix. 99) and copyists (ivr^ipox). A dais of AsUOi (d^raroi)
is also mentioned by Photius, i. 34, whom Neander regards
as elect disdpks of Serious. They called their four original
founders apostles and propbetsr— titles given also in the /C«y
of TriOk to the dea one. The Syneedemi and Notarii dressed
IBce other people; the Thonraki also scorned priestly vestments.
II. Thdr canon induded only the ** Goq)d and Apostle,"
of which they respected the text, but distorted the meaning.
Gregory Magistroe, as we have seen, attests their predilection
for the apostle Paul, and Speaks of their perpetually " quoting
the Gospd and the Apostolon." These statementt do not
warrant us in supposing that they rejected i and 3 Peter, though
other Greek sources allege it The "Gospd and Apostle"
was a comprehensive term for the whok of the New Testament
(except perhaps Revelation), as read in church.
13. Their Cbristology was as follows: Cod out of k>ve for
mankind called up an angel and communicated to him his desire
and counsel; then he bade him go down to earth and be bom
of woman. . . . And he bestowed on the angd so commissioned
the title of Son, and foretold for him insults, blasphemies,
sufferings and cniciiixion. Then the angel undertook to do
what was enjoined, but God added to the sufferings also death.
However, the angel, on hearing of the resurrection, cast away
fear and accepted death as well; and came down and was bora
of Mary, and named himsdf son of God according to the grace
given him from God; and he fulfilled all the command, and was
crucified and buried, rose again and was taken up into heaven.
Christ was only a creature (xrl^^ia), and obuined the title of
Christ the Son of God in the reign of Octavius Caesar by way
of grace and remuneration for fulfilment of the command.
The scheme of salvation here set forth recurs among the Latin
Cathars. It resembles that of the Key of Truths in so far as
Jesus is Christ and Son of God by way of grace and reward
for faithful fulfilment of God's command. But the Key lays
more stress on the baptism. " Then, it says, he became Saviour
of us sinners, then he was filled with the Godhead; then he was
sealed, then anointed; Chen was he called by the voTce, then he
became the loved one." In this scheme therefore the Baptism
occupies the same place which the Birth does in the other,
but both are adoptionist^
The main difference then between the Greek and Armenian
accounU of the Paulicians is that the former make more of their
duahsm. Yet this did not probably go beyond the dualism of
the New Tettament itsdf. They made the most of Paul's
antithesis between Uw and grace, bondage to Satan and freedom
of the Spirit. Jestis was a new Adam and a fresh beginning,
in so far as he was made flesh in and not of his mother, to whom,
aa both Etc. and the Key insist, Jesus particulariy denied
blessedness and hbnonr (Maik iil. 31-35), limiting true kinship
with himself to those who shaO do the will of God. The account
of Christ's flesh is torn out of the Key, but it is affirmed that it
was at the baptism that ** he put on that primal raiment <A
light which Adam lost in the garden." And this view we also
meet with in Armenian fathen accounted orthodox.
The Armenian fathers held that Jesus, unlike other men^
possessed inoomiptible flesh, made of ethereal fire, and so far
they shared the main heresy of the Paulidans. In many of
their homllica Christ's baptism Is also regarded as his regeneration
by water and sphit, and tMs view almost transcends the modest
adoptionism of the Thonraki as revealed in the Key of ThOk,
What was the origin of the name Paulidan ? The word b
of Armenian formation and sigm'fles a son of Paufik or of Uttle
Paul; the termination -^k must here have originally expressed
scorn and contempt. Who then was this Paul? "Paulidans
from a certahi Paul of Samosata,^' says Es& '* Here then
you see the Paulicians, who gDt thcSr poison from Paul of
Samosata," says Gregory Magistros. They were thus identified
with the old party of the PatUiant, condemned at the first
OMmdl of Nice in 325, and diffused in Syria a centuiy later.
They called themselves the Apostolic Cathoh'c Church, but
bearing themselves nicknamed Paulicians by their enemies,
probably interpreted the name in the sense of "followers of
St Paul." Cdrtain features of Paulidanism noted by Photius
and Petrus Slcuhis are omitted in Esc. One of these is the
Christhood of the fully initiated, who as such ceased to be mere
" hearers " (attdieuies) and themsdves became vehicles of the
Holy Spirit. As Jesus anointed by the Spirit became the
Christ, so they became christs. So Gregory of Narck upbraids
the Thonraki for their " anthropolatrous apostasy, thdr self-
conferred contemptible priesthood which is a likening of
themselves to Satan" (« Christ in Thonraki parlance). And
he repeats the taunt which the Arab Emir addressed to Smbat
their leader, as he led hhn to execution: " If Christ rose on the
third day, then since you call yoursdf Christ, I will slay yon
and bury you; and if you ShaB come to life again after thirty
days, then I will know you are Christ, even though you take
so many days over your resurrection." Similarly (in a roth*
century form of renundation of Bogomfl error preserved in a
Vienna codex*) we hear of Peter "the founder of the heresy
of the Messalians or Lycopetrians or Fundaitae and Bogomxls
whp called himself Christ and promised to rise again after death."
Of this Peter, Tychichus <? Sergios) is reported in the same
document to have been fellow initiate and disdple.
Because they legardcd thdr Perfect or Elect ones as Christs
and anointed with the Sphit, the medieval Cathan regularly
adored them. So it was with Cdtic saints, and Adamnan,
in his life of St Columba, 1. 37, teDs how the brethren alter
listening to St Baithene, " still kneeling, with joy naspeakabfe,
and with hands ^read out to heaven, venerated Christ in the
holy and blessed man." So in ch. 44 of the same boolL we
read how a humble stranger ** worshipped Christ in the holy
man " (».e. St Columba); but such veneration was due to every
presbyter. In 1837 we read of how an dect one of the Thonrski
sect in Russian Armenia addressed his followers thus: " Lo, I
am the cross: on my two hands light tapers, and give me
adoration. For I am able to give you salvation, as much as the
*Cod. ched. gr. ^. fd. 3>. edhed by ThalMcsy.in WismoA^
MittktU, urns Bmimm (Vienna. 189$).
962
PAUUNUS^ OP NOLA
<* .ttUivm MOiM IK. «f Ek. '"They bkufkeme the
ay», Hjriac Uot tht OinH » s ooffc" Jht CkrigL
tkvt fjot^ vfao« a» the Caihan '^^^.i pui k, bsviag be
4r xcftwe- * Puacku in the AcA, UMad% m pnytr vkk ha
«a*jb «Uiprryl in the i0rai oi « croaiw vlide the co«i]BnS>i«oa
«4 k<ea«» «r awdJewIn adove the Chrift ia htm. The laoie
«rv» that the ptxfea ooc» axe chmu as haviqg received the
I'tfaiJcU » mtH «U.b ia caHy Chmiiaa docaflwsU, aad Jijil
scu'vi/ca aawng the SyuMC-^tnkmg, ahtphtrdt on the hiBs
uynhUUu^Ua. Thcac have their chnria^ and Dr E. A. WaOis
Ii.»d9e, to whpA the proeat writer owes hs ioiofaBa<Mi, «as
abovo the ftrcaoi ia whkhHhctr htf. chaH had bcea haptirrd
la OMdcra Ritsiia abo tarvivea a lect «f Bfieontla called
CkritUw u M t c k i m a^ bacuve aoe BMober oi it is adored by the
rru as Christ. It aras becanie thcj beJaevcd t hea w d ves to have
livtof chrisu aooof thcas that the Pauhdaos retcctad the
/r'uh wonbip al a autcrial crosa, in which orthodot Aracmaa
priestf iaMciocd they had by pcayert and aiioiattoci cooiacd
the Spirit of Christ. It h also likdy cnoufh that they did
iKxt cooMdcr seasiMe ontter to be a vehicle worthy to eooiaJii
divioc effluence and holy virtues, and hacw that such rites
ircre aliea to early Christianity. The former scruple, however,
was not confined to Paolicians, for it inspires the answer made
hy Eusebios, bishop of Thesaalonica, to the emperor Maaiice,
when the latter asked to have relics sent to him of Demetrius
the patron saiat of that city. It runs thus: " While informing
your Reverence of the faith of the Thessalonicans and of the
miracles wrought among them, I must yet, in respect of this
request of yours, remark that the faith of the ciiy is not of such
a kind as that the people desire to wotship Cod and to honour
bit sslats by means of anything sensible. For they have
received the faith from the Lord's holy testimonies, to the
effect that Cod is a spirit, and that those who worship him
must worship him in spirit and in truth."* Manicheans,
bogomils, Cathars and Paulidans for like reasons denied the
name of church to material constructions of wood and stone.
Among the later Cathars of Europe we find the repudiation of
marriafe defended 00 the ground that the only true marriage
is of Christ with his bride the Virgin church, and perhaps this
is why Paulicians and Thonraki would not make of marriage
a religious rite or sacrament.
• Did the Paulicians, like the bter Cathars (who in so much
resembled them), reject water baptism? And must we so
interpret clause ix. of Esc? Perhaps they merely rejected
Ibe idea that the ffttmen or divine grace can be confined by
priestly consecration in water and by mere washing be imparted
(o persons baptized. The Key of Truth regards the water
as a washing of ibe body, and sees in the rite no optu operatumt
but an essentially spiritual rite in which " the king releases
certain rulers* from the prison of sin, the Son calls them u>
himself and comforts them with great words, and the Holy Spirit
of the king forthwith comes and crowns them, and dwells in
them for ever." For this reason the Thonraki adhere to adult
baptism, which in ancient wise they confer at thirty ytus of
age or later, and have retained in its primitive significance the
rite of giving a Christian name to a child on the eighth day
from birth. It is hardly likely that the Thonraki of the 10th
century would have rejected waur-baptism and yet have
retained unciion with holy oil; this Crcgoiy MagisUos attcsU
they did, but he is an uordiable witness.
* " dan ciner der Sektierer von den andem •!« Christua vervhrt
wocdc," K. K. Grass, Dm rusiiseken SekUn (Leipzig, 1906). Bd. 1.
Livf- 3.
* From Monuments 9/ Early CkristUMtty, by F. C. Conybcare
(London. 1894), p. 349.
•The term " ruferi " appeatn to be derived from Manichean
spcrulation, or from the same cycle of myth which b reflected in
t Cor. ii. 6. 6. The title "cfcct one, used by the Armenian
Paulicians also has a Manichean ring, h may be that under sireu
of common prrsecutlon there was a certain fusion in Armenia of
Pautiani and Manicheans. The wntines and tenets of Mani were
wiiloly difTuaed there. Such a fusion is probably reflected in the
K*y of Truth.
U m Iftea «■ the vhefe |
ofled Thiai 1 1 f. by the Caeeks by t^ i
the niiiai of a primitive j
in the cut aad already <
■aae «f FoUmmi by the cooaal of Nice ia 3x5. A 1
AimiwiB Caiho&oaa of the 7th ccntwy amwed iaaac has pre*
acrwBdlaisadoamestwhkhsaaKaptheirtcaeia.« Hea
it as a sort of rtimcti* «d ^ktmdmm of Chrittjaas wrko
aMdd life and cak 00 Chrktaad his apaaka, 1
by later chaech traifcir>in It turn, thas: (1)
ihsrty yean old when he woa haired Thcsciavc they haptiae
oooaeoatiheisthirtyycaiaaf asEL (2) Christ, ater hapi iiiaa,
waa aet aaoinifld with aaynh aor with holy oA, theRfoee fat
them not be anointed with mynh or holy oiL (3) Christ was
■at baptised in a ioot, bat in a river. Thenfoie, let chcB mot
be baptised ia a fcnt. (4) Chrnt, when he was abott to be
baptiaied, did mt ledtc the cxced of the 318 fathcia of Nioe^
therefore shall they imt naake pmCeamM of it. (5) Cbnsa
when about to be hapniied, was mt fint made t» tva to the
west and rcnoancc the devil and blow afxm him, um w^m l«
turn to the east and make a cwnpart with God. For he una
hhnsclf troe God^ So let them aat impose these thin^ oa
those to be baptized. (6) Chritt, after he hml been haniiTrrf,
did BOt partake of his owa body. Nor let theai so partake oft
it. (7) Chrirt, after he was baptised, lasted 40 days and
only that; and for 120 yean swch was the ttaditioa whidb
prevailed in the Chmch. We, however, fut 50 days bef oee
Paacha. (<) Christ did m>t band down to us the rearhi^
to Gcicbtaie the mystery of the oueriag of bread ia fharrh,
but in an ordinary bouse and sitting at a ^ 'on i mrin table. So
then let them not offer the sacrifice of bread ia charcfaea.
(9) It was after sapper, when Ins disciples were atted, that
Chrisi gave them to eat of his own body. Thercfaie let thcaa
first eat meats and be sated, and then let them partake of
the mysteries. (10) Christ, although he waa crucified lor oa,
yet did not command us to adore the crass, aa the Gospel
tcstifiesu Let them therefore not adore the ansa. (11) The
cross waa of wood. Let them therefore not adore a croaa of
gold or silver or bronae or stone. (la) Christ ^
humeral nor amice oor maniple nor stole a
Therefore let them not wear these gannents. (13) Christ did
not institute the prayers of the liturgy oc the Hdy Epiphanies,
and all the other prayers for every action and every hoar.
Let them therefore not repeat them, iM>r be hallowed by anch
prayers. (14) Christ did not lay hands on patriarchs and
metropolitans and bishops and peesbsrien and drsroas and
monks, nor ordain their several prayers. Let them thcrefoce
not he ordained nor blessed with these prayers. (r$) Christ did
m>t enjoin the building of churches and the furnishing of holy
tables, and their anointing with myrrh and hallowing with a
myriad of prayers, hti them not do it either. (t6) Christ did
not fast on the fourth day of the week and on the Pa^kHL
Let them not fast either. (17) Christ did not bid us pray
towards the easL Neither shail they pray towards the east.
LiTBaATVRE. — Beside the works mentwned in the text ace
J. C. L. Gicsclcr. Ecclesiastical History, ii. 208 (Edinbureh, 1 848)
and " Untersuchungcn fiber die Ceschichte der Paulicianer in TkeaL
Studien a. Kritihen, Heft I. a. 79 (Jahrg.. 1829): Neaoder, fiodcri^
astiaU Hislitry^ wolob v. ami vk] Moshetm'a Ecdesuutkal History,
Century IX. ii. 5; G. F)nUY,_^ History ^S "^' "
and iii.; Gibbooj His' - ■ ~ ■•
Empire, (' "
cha. i.
i«93)l
r69a): BaMi Sarktaean, A Sttuh qf the Uomcheo-PauHciost Heresy
of the Thonraki (Venice, San Laaaro, J 893, ia Armenian); F. C
Conybearc, The Key of Truth (Oxford. 1898). (F. C, C.)
PAUUNUS, SAINT, or Nola (355-431). Pontius Meropius
Anicius Paulinus. who was successivdy a consul, a monk and a
<Sce Fr. Combefis, Historic kerttiae monatkditamm cot. M7
(Paris, 1648). col. 417. In the printed text this document, entitled
An Invective Afamst the Armenians, is dated 800 years after
Constant ine. hot the author liaac CathoUcoa almost
belooaed to the aadiar tiaNi
^, G. Finlay, History ^ Crotce, voU. li,
.... . Jjistory 0/ the Decline ond Fall ef the Xomeu
nre, ch. tiv.; tgn. von Ddllingcr. Sektenjeschichte 4es Mittdalten,
'%.An.\ Karapet Ter-Mkhrttschian, Die Pantikioner fLeipa^,
,); Ariak Ter Mikehan, Die amumsclu Kireke (Leipaig.
PAULINUS— PAULUS, H. E. G.
963
UAnp, was bom at Bocdeavx Ih ajd. 353- Ha fother, pnufeetm
praetorio in Gaul, was a man of great wealth, who eatnisted
his son's education, with the best of results, to Ausonius. In
378 PauJinus was raised to the rank of emsui suffeeius, and in ue
following year be appears to have been sent as amsuiaris into
Campania. It was at this period, while present at a festival of
St Felix of NoU, that he entered upon his lifelong devotion to
the cult of that saint. He had married a wealthy Spanish lady
named Therasia; this happy union was clouded by the doUb
in infancy of their only child— a bereavement which, combined
with the many disasters by whkb the empire was being visited,
did much to foster in them that world-weariness to which they
afterwards gave such emphatic expression. From ' Campania
PauUnus returned to his native place and came into correspond
dence or personal intimacy with men like Martin of Tours and
Ambrose of Milan, and ultimately (about 389) he was formally
teceived into the church by bishop Delphinus of Bordeaux,
whence shortly afterwards he withdrew with bis wife beyond
the Pyrenees. The asceticism of Paulinus and his liberality
towards the poor soon brought him into great repute; and whtli
he was spending Christmas at Barcelona the people insisted on
his being forthwith ordained to the priesthood. The irregularity
of this step, however, was resented by many of the clergy, and
the occurrence is still passed lightly over by his Roman Catholic
panegyrists. In the following year he went into Italy, and after
visiting Ambrose at Milan and Siricius at Rome—the latter of
whom received him somewhat coldly — he proceeded into
Campania, where, in the neighbourhood of Nola, he settled among
the rude structures which he had caused to be built around the
tomb and relics of his patron saint. With Therasia (now a
sister, not a wife), while leading a life of rigid asceticism, he
devoted the whole of his vast wealth to the entertainment of
needy pilgrims, to payment of the debts of the insolvent, and to
public works of utility or ornament; besides building basilicas
at Fondi and Nola, he provided the latter place with a much-
needed aqueduct. At the next vacancy, not later than 40Q,
he succeeded to the bishopric of Nola, and this office he held
with ever-increasing honour until his death, which occurred
shortly after that of Augustine, whose friend he was, in 431-
He IS commemorated by the Church of Rome on the 32nd of
June.
The extant writings of PauKnus consist of some fifty Ephtolae,
addressed to Sulpicius Scverus, Delphinus, Augustine, Jerome
And others; thirty-two Carmino in a great variety of metre,
including a series of hexameter " natales," begun about 393 and
continued annually in honour of the festival of St Felix, metrical
epistles to Ausonius and Gcsiidius, and paraphrases of three
psalms; and a Passio S. Ceneiii. They reveal to us a kindly and
cheerful soul, well versed in the literary accomplishments of the
period, but without any strength of intellectual grasp and
peculiariy prone to superstition.
His works were edited by Rosweyde and Fronton le Due in 162s
(Antwerp. Svo), and their text was reprinted in the BiU, max.
pair. (1677). The next editor was Le Brun dcs Marrttes (a vols.
4to. Paris, 1685). whose text was reproduced in substance by Mura>
tori (Verona, 1736). and reprnted by Migne. The pocma and
letters are edited in the Vienna Corfna stripl. eetl. tal. vol. xxviii.
See also P. Reinclt. Stmdien uber 4t€ Brieje d. h. Paidin «m i\Wa
Breslau, 1904) and other literature deed in Herzog-Hauck, Rut-
gmyJu /mt prot. Tkeck vol. xv.
PAUUNUS (d. 644), first bishop of the Northumbrians and
archbishop of York, was sent to England by Pope Gregory I.
in 6oi to Assist Augusthie in his mission. He was consecrated
by Justus of Canterbury in 625 and escorted ;£thelberg, daughter
of ^Ethelberht, to the Northumbrian king Edwin (9.9.). In
627 Edwin was baptized and assigned York to PauUnus as
his see. It was at Lincoln that he consecratoj Honorios as
archbishop of Canterbury. In 633 Edwin was sfain at
Hatfield Chase and PauUnus retired to Kent, where he became
bishop of Rochester. The pallium was not sent him until
634, when he had withdrawn from his province. He died
in 644.
Sec Bede, BtOoria eccUsiaUka (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896).
PAUUMUS; GA1U8 SUBfONIUS <fst centnry a.o.), Roman
general. In 42, during the reign of Claudius, he put down a
revolt in Maufetania, and was the first of the Romans to cros
the Atks range. He subsequently wrote an account of his
experiences. From 59-62 he commanded in Britain, and,
after a Bcvere defeat, finally crushed the loeni under Boadkea
(Bottdioca). A complaint having been mode to the emperor
that he was needlessly protracting hostiUties, he was recaUed,
but he was consul (for the second time) in 66. During the civfl
war he fought on the side of Otfao against VitelUus, and obtained
a considerable success against Aulus Coedna Alienus (one of the
Vitellian generals) near Cremona, but did not follow it up.
When Coedna had been joined by Fabius Valens, Paulinus
advised his ooUeagues not to risk a decisive battle, but his advice
was disregarded, and Otho {q.v.) was utteriy defeated at Bedria-
cum. After VitelUus had been proclaim^ emperor, PauUnus
asserted that it was in consequence of his own treachery tbat
Otho's army had been defeated. ViteUius pretended to believe
this, and eventually pardoned PauUnus, after which nothing
further is heard of bira.
See Ck> Cassius Ini. 7~x»; Tacitus, Annals, xnr. 30-39, ffislories,
i. 87, 90, ii. 33-41, 44« 60: PUny, NaL HisL v. i; Phitorch, Qrte.
7.«.
PAULSEN, FRIBDRICH (1846-1908), German philosopher and
educationalist, was born at Langenhom (Schlcswig) and educated
at Eriangen, Bonn and Berlin, where he became extraordinary
professor of philosophy and pedagogy fn 1878. In 1896 he
succeeded Eduard Zeller as professor of moral philosophy at
BerUn. He died on the X4th of August 1908. He was the
greatest of the pupils of G. T. Fechner, to whose doctrine o<
panpsychism he gave great prominence by his BinUitnng in die
Philosophk (1892; 7ih ed., 1900; Eng. trans., 1895). He went,
however, considerably beyond Fechner in attempting to give
an epistemological account of our knowledge of the psycho-
physical. Admitting Kant's hypothesis that by inner sense
we are conscious of mental states only, he holds that this
consciousness constitutes a knowledge of the '* ihing-in-iisdf "
—which Kant denies. Soul is, therefore, a practical reality
which Paulsen, with Schopenhauer, regards as known by the act
of " will." But this " wiU** is neither rational desire, unconsdous
irrational will, nor conscious intcUigcnt wiU, but an instinct, a
*' wiU to Uve" (Zielstrebigkeit), often subconscious, pursuing ends,
indeed, but without reasoning as to means. This conception
of wiU, though consistent and convenient to the main thesis,
must be rigidly distinguished from the ordinary significance of
will, i.e. rational desire. Paulsen is almost better known for
his educational writings than as a pure phUosopher. His
German Education, Past and Present (Eng. trans., by L Lorenx,
1907) is a work of great value.
Among his other works arc: Versuch finer Entvnchelutuueschichte
d. Kaniischen Erkenntnislkeorie (Leipzig, 1 875) ; Im. Kant (1808. 1809);
"Gnlndung Organization und LebcnsonJnungrn der dcutschen
Untvcnitaien im Mittelatter" (in Sybd's //tit«f. Ztkukt. vd. xhr.
1881) : Ctsch, d, geiekrtn Unterrichls aitf d, dtnmktn SchnUn und
UnitersitaUn (1885. 1896): SyOemder Eikik (1889. 1899; Eng. trans,
(partiall iSoo); Dts Keattymnasium u. d. humanist. ^MKiff (1889);
Kant d. Phths. d. ProUstantisnna (1899); Srkopenhauer, Hamlet u.
MefUstcpkeles (1900) ; Pkilosopkia mitUant ( 1900, 1901} : Parkipolitik
«. Moral (1900).
PAULUS, HEINRtCH BBSRHARD GOTTLOB (1761-1851).
German rationalistic theologian, was born at Leonberg, near
Stuttgart, on the ist of September 1761. His father, a Lutheran
clerryman at Leonberg, dabbled in spiritualism, and was
deprived of his Uving in 1771. Paulus was educated in the
seminary at Ttibir>gen, was three years master fn a German
school, and then spent two years in travelling through England,
Germany, Holland and France. In 1789 he was chosen professor
ordinarius of Oriental languages at Jena. Here he lived in close
Intercourse with Schiller, Goethe, Herder and the most dis-
tinguished literary men of the time. In 1793 he succeeded
Johann Christoph Ddderlein (1745-1793) as professor of ^IQ-
getical theology. His special work was the exposition of lli^
Old and New Tcsuments in the light of his great Oriental letfta'
964 PAULUS, LUaUS AEMILIUS— PAULUS DIACONUS
and aooording to his duuvcteristk principle of ^ '. fiatufal expbuiA-
tioiL" In hh explanation of the Gospel narratives Paulus
sought to remove what other interpreters regarded as mirades
from the Bible by distinguishing between the fad related and
the author's opinum of it, by seeking a natural^c ezegesb of a
narrative, e^. that M r^ BaSaaaifi (Matt. nv. 2$) means
^ tk« share and not en Ike seat by supplying circumstances
omitted by the author, by remembering that the author produces
as miracles occurrences which can now be explained otherwise,
«^. exordsffls. His Life of Jesus (1828) is a synoptical tranv
lation of the Gospels, prefaced by an account of the preparation
for the Christ and a brief summary of His history, and accom>
panied by very short explanations interwoven m the translation.
The form of the work was fatal to its success, and the subsequent
Exegetisckes Handbuch rendered it quite superfluous. In this
Hasidkuck Paulus really contributed much to a true interpreta-
tion of tl^e Gospel narratives. In 1803 he became professor of
theok>gy and Ccnsislwialrat at WUrsburg. After this he filled
various posts in south Germany— school director at Bamberg
(1807), Nuremberg (x8o8), Ansbach (18x0)— until he became
professor of exegesis and church history at Hddelberg (181 x-
1844). He died on the xoth of August 185X.
His chief exegetical works are his PkUotogisch'kntiscker vni
kistorischer Kommeniar v^ das Neiu Testament (4 vols.. 1800-
1804); Pkilotoiiscker Clavis Hber die Psalmen (1791); and Philo'
ictiuher Ctams aber Jesaias (1793); and partkularly his Bxegetisckes
Handimck Hber die drei ersten EKutidiem (3 vols., 1830-1833; 2nd
ed., 1841-1842), He also edited a collected smaU edition of Barucb
Spinoza's works (1803-1803), a cotlcction of the most noted Eastern
travels (i 792-1803), F. W. I. SchcUing's Vorlesungen Hher da
Offenbaruttt (1843). and published Skixsen aus mtiner BildungS'
wtd Ukenst/esckickU (1839). See Kari Reichlin-Meldceg» H, B. G.
Paulus una seiue Zeit (1853), and article in Hcrzog-Hauck. Real-
encyUcpidie; cf. F. Lichtenberger, History of German TkeUoiy
in tke Ninetetuik Century, pp. 21-24.
PAULUS (older form Paullus), LUCIUS AEWLIUS, sur-
named Macedonicus (c. 229-160 b.c.), Roman general, a member
of a patrician family of the Aemilian gens, son of the consul of the
same name who fell at (Unnae. As consul for the second time
(x68) he was entrusted with the command in the Macedonian
War, which the incapacity of previotis generals had allowed to
drag on for three years. He brought the war to a speedy
termination by the baiUc of Pydna, fought on the 22nd of June
(Julian calendar) 168. Macedonia was henceforward a Roman
province, and Paulus, having made a tour through Greece, with
the assistance of ten Roman commissioners arranged the affairs
of the country. He enjoyed a magnificent triumph, which lasted
three days and was graced by the presence of the captive king
Perseus and his three children. He lost his two sons by his
second wife, and was thus left without a son to bear his name,
his two sons by his first wife having been adopted into the
Fabian and Cornelian gentes. Paulus was censor in 164, and
died in x6o after a long illness. At the funeral games exhibited
in his honour the Uecyra of Terence was acted for the second
and the Adeipki for the first time. An aristocrat to the back-
bone, he was yrt beloved by the people. Of the vast sums
brought by him into the Roman treasury from Spain and Mace-
donia he kept nothing to himself, and at his death his property
scarcely sufficed to pay his wife's dowry. As a general he waa a
strict disciplinarian; as an augur he discharged his duties with
care and exactness. He was greatly in sympathy with Greek
learning and art, and was a friend of the historian Polybius.
See Plutarch, Aemilius Paulus; Uvy xliv. 17-xlvi. 41; Polybiui
xxtx.-xxxii.
PAULUS, sumamed SiLENTiAitius ("the silentiary," one of
the ushers appointed to maintain silence within the imperial
palace), Greek poet, contemporary and friend of Agathias,
during the reign of Justinian. In addition to some 80 epigrams,
chiefly erotic and panegyric in character, preserved in the Greek
Anthology, there is extant by him a description (tc^paatf) of
the church of St Sophia, and of its pulpit (cmi/Suv), in all some
X300 hexameters after the style of Nonnus, with short iambic
dedications to Justinian. The poem was recited at the second
dedication of the church (a.o. 562), in the cpiscnpal h? 11 of the
patriarchate. The poena are of impoitaaoe for tba hhMty d
Byaantine art in the 6th century. Another poem (abo preKrved
in the Anthology) oa the warm baths of Pytbia in Bithynaa,
written in the Anacreontic rhythm, has ««-»*»^— *■ bcca
attributed to him.
BiBUOGEAraT.— Ed. €t the poems on St Sophia, by I. Bddnr
in the Bonn Corpus scriptorum kisL ky^ (1837). iodudiog tiK
descriptions of the church by Du Cange and Banduri. and n
J. P. Migne, Patrolotia graeca^ facxxvu; metrical traosUtions»
with commentary, by C. W. KortQm (1634). and J. j. Kreutser
(1875): poem on the Baths in G. E. Lesang. Zuf GesekkMa m^
Literature i. 5 (1773); see also Mciiaa-Genaat, De Paah SHemtimrm
(Leipzig, 1889).
PAULUS DUCOKUS. or Wabmefsidi, or Casdocmbs
{c 720-C. 800), the historian of the Lombards, belonged toa noble
Lombard family and flourished in the 8th century. An ancestor
named Leupichis entered Italy in the train of Alboin and received
lands at or near Forum Julii (Friuli). During an invasion the
Avars swept off the five sons of this warrior into lUyria, but one»
his n amesake, returned to Italy and restored the ruined fortunes
of his house. The grandson of the younger Leupichis was
Wamefrid, who by his wife Theodelinda bc^me the father of
Paulus. Bom between 720 and 725 Paulus received an excep-
tionally good education, probably at the court of the Lombard
king Ratchis in Pavia, learning from a teacher named Flavian the
rudiments of Greek. It is probable that he was secretary to the
Lombard king Dcsiderius, the successor of Rauhia; it is ocrtain
that this king's daughter Adelperga waa his pupiL After
Adelpcrga had married Arichis, duke of Beneveato, Paulus at
her request wrote his continuation of Eutropiua. It is possible
that he took refuge at Bensvento when Pavia was taken by
Chariemagne in 774, but it is much more likely that his residence
there was anterior to this event by sevenl years. Soon he
entered a monastery on the lake of (}<mio, and before 782 he had
become an inmate of the great Benedictine house of Monte
Cas^o, where he made the acquaintance of Chaxieinagne.
About 776 his brother Arichis had been carried as a prisoner to
France, and when five years Uter the Prankish king visited
Rome, Paulus successfully wrote to him on behalf of the captive
His literary attainmenu attracted the notice of Charlemagne^
and Paulus became a potent factor in the Carolingian renaissance.
In 787 he returned to Italy and to Monte Cassino, where he died
on the 13th of April in one of the years between 794 and 800.
His surname Diaconus, or I^vita, shows that he took orders as n
deacon; and some think he was a monk before the fall of the
Lombard kingdom.
The diid work of Paulus is his Hislcrm geiUis Langwhatdeium,
This incomplete history in six books was written after 787 and
deals with the story 01 the Lombards from 568 to the death of
King Liutprand in 747. The story is told from the point of vjrw
of a Lombard patnot and is espectaily valuable for the illations
between the Franks and the Lombards. Paulus osed the docunrot
called the Origo gentis Lar^obardM^um, the liber peetlifjialis, the
lost history of Secundus of Trent, and the lost annals of Benevcnto;
he made a free use of Bcde. Gregory of Tours and Isidore of Seville.
In some respects he suggests a compaiison with lordaoes, but ta
learning and literary honesty is greatly the sapenor of the Goth.
Of the Hisloria there are about a hundred manuscripcs cuanc
It was largely used by subsetfuent writers, was often coatxaaed,
and was first printed in Paris in 1514. It has been translaied ibco
English, German, French and Italian, the English tiainlatieQ
being by W. D. Foolke (Philadelphia, 1807). and the Genaaa by
O. Abd and R. Jacobi (Leipzig, 1878). Among the editaeos of tha
Latin the best is that edttad by L. Bcthmann and G. Waits, in the
Monumenta Cermaniae kiUoriea. Scripiwes rerum langekardicarmm
(Hanover, 1878).
Cognate wtth this work is Paulus's Histeria romam; a oostiaaa-
tion of the Breoiarium uf Eutropius. This was compiled bet w e e s
766 and 771. at Benevcnta The stoiy runs that Paulus advised
Adelperga to read Eutropius. She did so. but complained that
this heathen writer said nothing about ecdcsiasticaJ affairs and
stopped with the accession of the emperor Valens in 364: con
•equencly Paulus interwove extracts from the Scriptures/irom the
ecclesiastical historians and from other sources with £utrop*ux
and added six books» thus bringing the history down to 553- Tri*
work has little value. althoUf;n ft was very popular duruig the
middle ages. It has been edited by H Droyarn and pabliahed va
the Monumenta Germaniae Ustorica. Auctores antiauisnwtt, Bd ii.
(1879).
PAUL VERONESE
9^5
FMw wnte «t tbe reqimt oT Angitnm. biAop oT Mets (<L TOiX
a butory id tlie buhoM of M«U to 766, the first work oCtU kiod
north <i the Atpe. ThU (Tote e/nscoborum metkruium » pub-
lished in Bd. U. of the Monuments Cennantae ktstonca Scrtb-
tcm, and has been trinalatcd into German (Leipzig. iS8o>. He
alio wrote many IcCten. venca and epitaphe, includins thow of
Dulce Arichis and of many membcra of the Carokngun lamity.
Some of the Iciccrs ate publithed with the Historia Langabardorum
in the Monn,tuHta; the pDcms and cpiuphs edited bv E. DQmmler
will be f«und in the Poetat tatmi am uirolini, Bd. i: (Berlin.
1881; Fresh material having come to lights a new edition of the
poems' (X>i« GedUkU dts Paulus Diacanut) has been edited by Karl
Neff (Munich, 1908). While in France Paulus^waa requested by
Charlemagne to compile a collection of homilies. He executed
this after his return to Monte Cassino. and it was largely used in
the Franhash chnrchca. A tile of Pbpe Cregoiy the Great has also
been attributed to him.
See C. Cipolla, Note hibliopajuhe drca Vodiema ccnditumt deM
studi critici std testo ddle ofert di Paolo Diacono (Venice, 1901) :
the AUi € memorie dd congresro storko tenvto in CividaU (Udtne,
moo): p. Oahn, Lan^oharduchg Stadien, Bd. L (Leipsig. 1S76);
W. Wattenbach. DeuUehlands. CeKkieklsqjuUen, Bd. L (Berlin.
1904); A. Hauck, KirfkeneuckuhU DeulscUands, Bd. iL f Leipzig.
1898): P. d«l Giudice. Studi di sUfria e diriUo (Milan, 1889); and
U. Balzani. Le Crotuuke Ualiane nd medio evo (Milan, 1884).
PAUL VBR0NE8B (152S-1588), the name ordinarily given to
Paolo Caliari, or Cagliari, the latest of the great cycle of pointers
of the Venetian school, who was born in Verona in 1528 according
to Zanetti and otheis, or in 1533 according to Ridolfi. His
father, (jabride Caliari, a sculptor, began to train Paolo to his
own profession. The boy, however, showed more propensity
to painting, and was therefore transferred to his uncle, the
painter Antonio Badile, whose daughter he eventually married.
According to Vasari, he was the pupil of Giovanni Carotto, a
painter proficient in architecture and perspective; this
statement remains unconfirmed. Paolo, fn his eariy years,
applied htimsdf to copying from the engravings of Albert DOrer
and the drawings of Parmigiano. He did some wotit in Verona,
but found there little outlet for his abilities, the field being
pretty well occupied hf Ligozzi, Battista dal Moro, Paolo'
Farinato, Domenico Ricdo, Brusasord and other artists.
Cardinal Ercole Gonzaga took him, when barely twenty years of
age, to Mantua, along with the three last-named painters, to
execute in the cathedral a picture of the " Temptation of St
Anthony "; here Caliari was considered to excel his competitors
Returning to Verona, he found himself exposed to some envy and
ill-wilL Hence he formed an artistic partnership with Battista
Zelotti, and they painted together !n the territories of Vicenza
and TkeviBO. Finally Paolo went on to Veu'ce. In this city his
first pictures were executed, in 1555, in the sacristy and church
ol Si Sebastiano, an uncle of his being prior of the monastery.
The subjects on the vaulting are taken from the history of
Esther; and these excited so much admiration that henceforward
Caliari, aged about twenty-eight, ranked almost on a par with
Tintoretto, aged about forty-five, or With Titian, who was in his
eightieth year. Besides the Esther subjects, these buildings
contain his pictures of the '* Baptism of Christ," the ** Martyrdom
of St Marcus and St Marcellinus," the " Martyrdom of St Sebas-
tian/' ftc As regards this last-named work, dating towards
1563, there is a vague tradition that Caliari painted it when he
had taken refuge in the monastery. He entered into a competi-
tion for punting the ccilmg of the library of St Mark, and not
only obtained the commission but executed it with so much
power that his very rivals voted him the golden chain which had
been tendered as an honorary distinction. At one time he
returned to Verona, and painted the " Banquet in the House of
Simon the Pharisee, with Jesus and Mary Magdalene"— a
picture now in Turin. In 1560, however, he was in Venice
mgain, working partly in the S. Sebastiano buildings and partly
in the ducal palace. He vblted Rome in 1563, in the suite of
Girolamo Grimani, the Venetian ambassador, and studied the
works of Raphael and Michelangelo, and especially the antique.
Returning to Venice, he was overwhelmed with commissions.
He was compelled to decline an invitation from Philip II. to go
to Spain knd assist ha decorating the EsCoriaL One of his
pictures of this period is the famous '* Vem'ce. Queen of the
Sea/' ih the dncal palace. He died in Ve&ice on the aotb (or
perhaps 19th) of ApiS"isM, and wis iMiiied in tlia church of
S. Sebastiano, a vionument being set up to hia there by his two
sons, Gabriefe and Cario, and Mi brother, Benedetto, all of them
painters.
Beyond his magidfieent petforaiances as a painter, the known
incidents in the life of Paul Veronese are very few. He was
honoured and loved, being kind, amiable, generous and an
excellent father. His person b well known from the portraits
left by himself and others: he was a dark man, rather good-
looking than otherwise, somewhat bald in eariy middle age, and
with nothing to mark an exceptional energy or turn of character
In his works the first quality which strikes one is their palatial
splendour. The pictorial inspiration is. entirely that of the
piercing and comprehens*ve eye and the magical hand— not of
the mind. The human form and face are given with decorous
comeliness, often with beauty; but of individual apposite
expression there is next to none. In fact, Paolo Veronese is
pre-eminently a painter working pictorially, and in no wise
amenable to a literary or rationalizing standard. He enjoys
a sight much as Ariosto enjoys a story, and disphiys it In form
and colour with a zest like that of Ariosto for language and
verse. He was supreme in representing, without huddling or
confusion, numerous figures in a luminous and diffused atmo-
sphere, while in richness of draperies and transparency of shadows
he surpassed all the other Venetians or Italians. In gifts of this
■ kind Rubens alone could be pitted against him. In the modera-
tion of art combined with its profusion he far excelled Rubens;
for, dazzling aS is the first Impression of a great work by Veronese,
there is in h, in reality, as much of soberness and serenity as of
exuberance. By variety and apposition he produces a most
brilliant effect of cok>ur; and yet his hues are seldom bright.
He hoards his primary tints and his hig|i lights. He very rsxely
produced small pictures: the spadous was his element.
Of all Veronese's paintings tl\e one which has obtained the
greatest world-wide celebrity is the vast ** Marriage- at Cana,"
now in the Louvre. It contains about a hundred and twenty
figures or ^eadi— those In the foreground being larger than life.
Several of them are portraits. Among the penonages specified
(some of them probably without suffident reason) are the Mar-
quis del Vasto, Queen Eleanor of France, Francis I., Queen Mary
of England, Sultan Soleyman I., Vittoria Colonna, Charics V.,
Tintoretto, Titian, the elder Bassano, Benedetto Caliari and
Paolo Veronese himself (the figure playing the viol), k is
Impossible to look a^t this picture without astonishment. The
only point of view from which It fails is that of the New TesU-
ment narrative; for there Is no relation between the Galilean
wfdding and Veronese's court-banquet. This stupendous per-
formance was executed for the refectory of the monastery of
S. Giorgio Maggiore in Venice, the contract for It being signed
in June 1562 and the picture completed In September r^63.
Its price was 324 silver ducats (**£i6o), along with the artist'ii
living expenses and a tun of wine. There are five other great
banquet-pictures by Caliari, only inferior in scale and exoellenoe
to this of Cana. One of them is also In the L^uvre^ a ^ Feast
In the House of Simon the Pharisee/' painted towards 1570-1575
for the refectory of the Servites in Venice. A different version
of the same theme Is in the Brera Gallery of Milan. " The Feast
of Simon the Leper" (1570) was done for the refectoiy of the
monks of St Sebastian, and the '* Feast of Levi " (St Matthew)
(1573)1 now In the Venetian academy, for the refectoiy of the
monks of St John and St Paul In each Instance the price
barely exceeded the cost of the materials. The Louvre contains
ten other specimens of Veronese, notably the *' Susanna and
the Elders" .and the " Supper at Emmaus." In the National
Gallery, London, are ten examples. The most beautiful Is
** St Helena's Vision of the Cross,'' founded upon an engraving
by Marcantonio after a drawing supposed to be the work of
RaphaeL Far more famous than this is the " Family of Darius
at the Feet of Alexander the Great after the Battle of Issus"—
the captivA having mistaken Hephacstion for Alexander. It
was bought for £13,560, and has even been termed (vecy un-
Masodably) the most celebrated of all Veronese's wotks. T^
966
PAUMOTU— PAUNCEFOTB, BARON
priocipa] ficurcs tre portraits of iht Pis^ famOy. It is said
thai Caliari was accidentally detained at the Pisani villa at Este,
and there painted thb work, and. on quitting, told the family
that he hod left behind him an equivalent for his courteous
cniertainnienu Another piaure in the National Gallery,
" Europa and the Bull/' is a study for the lar^e painting in the
imperial gallery of Vienna, and resembles one in the ducal palace
of Venice. The Venetian academy contains fourteen works by
Veronese. One of the finest is a compazativcly small picture
of the Bailie of Lcpanto, with Christ in heaven pouring light
upon the Christian floei and darkness on the Turkish. In the
UflSzi Gallery of Florence are two specimens of exceptional
beauty— the ** Annunciation " and ** Esther Presenting herself
to Ahasuerus*' ; for dcUcacy and charm this biter work yields
to nothing thai the master produced. In Verona " St George
and St Julian," in Brescia the " l^lartyrdoro of St Afra," and in
Padua the ** Martyrdom of St Justina" are works of leading
renown. Cdebraied frescoes by Caliari are in four villas
near Venice, more especially the Villa Masiera. His drawings
are very fine, and he took pleasure at times in engraving on
copper.
The brother and sons of Paolo already mentioned^ and Battista
2^1oUi, were his principal assistants and followers. Benedetto
Caliari, the brother, who was about ten yean younger than
Paolo, is reputed to have had a very large share in the architec-
tural backgrounds which form so conspicuous a feature in Paolo's
compositions. If ihis is not overstated, it must be allowed that
a substantial share in Paolo's fame accrues to Benedetto; for
not only are the backgrounds admirably schemed and limned,
but they govern to a large extent the invention and distribution
of ihc groups. Of the two sons Carb (or Carletto), the younger,
is the belief known. He was bom in 1570, and was sent to
study under Bassano. He produced various noticeable works,
and died young in 1596. Gabricle, born in 1568, attended, aflcr
Carlo's death, almost entirely to commercial affairs; his works
in painting are rare. All three were occupied after the death of
Paolo in (imshing his pictures left uncompleted.
See Ridolfi. Le Aferasigtie deW arte, &c: Dal Pozzo. VUe ie*
^ttori veroMsi, ftc; Zanctti, Delia PUtara venenana, &c.; and
Lanzt; also, among recent works, the biographies 'by C. Yriarte
(|8M>: F. H. Md&ncr (1^7): and Mrs Arthur B«U (iJg4J-
PAUtfOTU, TuAMOTU, or Low AKcmpEUiCO, a broad belt
of 78 alolls in the Pacific Ocean, belonging to France, between
14" and 24* S., and 131** and 149** W. They trend in irregular
lines in a north-west and south-west direction, the major axis of
the group extending over 1300 m. The largest atoU, Rangiroa,
with a Ugoon 45 m. long by 15 wide, is made up of twenty islets.
Fakarava, the next in size, consists of fifteen islets, and its oblong
lagoon affords the best anchorage in the group. Hau has fifty
islets, and its lagoon is dangerously studded with coral The
symmetrically placed eleven islets of Anaa suggested to Captain
Cook the name of Chain Island. Heavy storms sometimes
greatly alt^r the form of the atoUs. The first discovery of part
of the archipelago was made by the Spaniard Pedro Fernandez
Quiros in 1606. Many navigators subsequently discovered or
rediscovered various parts of the group — ^among them may be
mentioned Jacob Lemaire and WUlem Schou\en (i6j6), John
Byron (1765), Philip Carteret (1767), Louis Antoine de Bougain-
ville (1768), Capuin James Cook (1769), Lieutenant Bligh (1793).
CapUin Wilson of the " Duff " (1707). Otto von Kotzebue (1815
and 1824), Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen (1819^x820) and
Charles Wilkes (1839) who made a detailed survey of the islands.
As a result almost all the Islands bear alternative names.
The dates given are thos^ of first discovery. In the north-west
part of the chain are Rangiroa (Vliegen, Deans or Nairsa, this
part of the group bearing the name of the Palliser Islands);
Fakarava (Wiigcnstein, 1819), the seat of the French resident;
Anaa (Chain. 1769), Makemo (Makima. Phillips, Kutusov, 1803),
Hau (Hao, Harp, Bow, 1768). North and east of these are
l^Ianihi (Oabc, Watcilandt. 1616), Tikci (Romanzov, 1815), the
Disappointment group (1765) of which Napuka is the chief
island, Fukapuka (Hcnuake, Hoodcn, Bog. x6i6). Raroia
(Borday de ToUy, 1820), AngaUQ (Ahangato, Ankcher, iSjo).
Akahaina (Fakaina, Predpriatie. 1824), Tatakoto (Narcissus.
Egmont, Gierke, 1774), Pukaniha (Serle, 1797). In the southern
part of the archipelago are Hereheretui (Bligb. Santablo, 1606),
the Duke of Cloocestcr group (1767), TemaUngi (Bliglr Lagoor
179a). Mararoa (Braburgh, Matflda, 1767), the Actaeon cc
Ampbitrite group (discovered by the Tahitian tradii^ vessel
"Amphitritc" in 1833), MaruLea (Lord Hood, 1791), and the
Gambler or Mangaiwa group (1797), of which Mangareva
(Gambler, Peard) is the chief member. To the sooth again are:
Pitcaim iqj9.), Ducie, and a few other islets, which are British
and do not properiy belong to the Paumoiu Archipehgo. The
Garobier Islands are a duster of four larger and nuuiy smaUer
volcanic islets, enclosed in one wide reef. The wooded crags of
Mangareva, the largest islet, s ra. in length, rise to a height of
1315 ft. and are covered with a rich vegeuiion, quite Tahitian
in character; but, as in the other Paumotus, thece is a dearth of
animal life.
The climate of the islands is healthy, and they have a lower
mean temperature than Tahiti. The easterly trade winds
prevaiL Rain and fogs occur even during the dry season. The
stormy season lasts from November to March, when devastating
hurricanes arc not uncommon and a south-westerly swell reodeis
the western shores dangerous. Planu and animals are scantily
represented. (^o<nut palms and the pandanus thrive oa
many of the islets, and the bread-fruit, banana, pine-apple,
water-melon and yam have been introduced from Tahiti into the
western islands. Mammals are represented by a few rats;
among land-birds parakeets, thrushes and doves are DOtkeable;
and of reptiles there are only lizards. Insects are scarce. But
the sea and lagoons teem with turtle, fish, molluscs^ crustaceans
and zoophytes. Coral is luxuriant everywhere. From the
abundance of pearl oysters the archipelago gets its traders* name
of Pearl Islands.
The Paumotus are sparaely inhabited by a fine strong race oC
Polynesians, more muscular and mostly darker-skinned than
that inhabiting Tahiti. In the west considerable intermixture
with other races has taken place. In physique, language, rcligioa
and customs the Gambler Islanders cbsely resemble the Raro-
tongans. The pearl fisheries in the rocky and surf watecs
are a source of revenue, the pearls being sold in Tahiti. The
best harbour of the group is tliat of Fakarava, which, together
with Mangareva, is open to trade.
The bnd area of the entire group is about 330 sq. m., and
the population is about 6000. The group passed under the
protection of France in x844i uid was annexed in i88x,
forming part of the dependency of Tahiti.
PAUNCEF0TEL JtUAN PAUNCEFOTB. xsT Bakom (ift^S-
1902), English diplomatist, third son of Robert Pauncefote c£
Preston Court, Gloucestershire, was bom on the I3lh of Septem-
ber 1828. He was educated at Marlborough, Paris and Geneva,
and called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1852. He was for a
short time secretary to Sir William Molcsworth, secrcury for
the colom'es, and in 1862 went out to Hong-Kong, where he was
made attorney-general (1865) and then chief justice oC the
supreme court. He was appointed chief juslice oiF the Leeward
Islands in 1873, and, returning to England in the next year,
became one of the legal advisers to the colonial office. Two
years later he received a similar appointment in the Corciga
office, and in 1882 was made permanent under-sccrciary of state
for foreign affairs. In 1885 he was one of the delegates to the
Suez Canal international commission, and received the G.CM.G.
and the K.C.B. Lord Salisbury departed from precedent in
choosing him to succeed Sir Liond Sackville-West as British
minister at Washington in 1889, but the event showed that his
knowledge of international law made up for any lack of the
ordinary diplomatic training. He did much during bis term ol
office to maintain friendly relations between the two countries^
especially during the Venezuelan crisis. The Bering Sea fishery
dispute (1890-1892) was successfully negotiated by him; he
arranged a draft treaty for Anglo-American arbitration, whiJIs
was, however, quashed by the Senate; and carried throu^
PAUPERISM—PAUSANIAS
967
the levistoit of the Cbyttai-Miter TVetty bn tbe rabject df ihe
Paomma Canal. In 1895 tbe Britinh mmbter al Washington was
raised to Ihe rank of ambasaaddr, lytci Sir Julian rattncdole
tiecanic the doyen of the diptomatic coqit. He died on the
26th of May 1903 at Washingtoa. He had been made Baron
Fauncefbte of Preston in 1899 to lecognitjon of his services at
tbe Peace Conference at the Hague, and he was a member of
tbe Court of Arbiiration which itsuUcd from the confieicnce.
PAUPERISM (lAt. pauper^ poor), a term meaning genotally
tbe state of being poor, pover^; but.m English nsage particu>
larly the oonditioa of being a " pauper/' ix, \n receipt o( relief
admiaisteied under the poor few. in this sense the word is
to be .distinguished from " poverty." A penoa io be relieved
under, tbe poor law must be a destitute peaon, and the moment
he has been relieved be becomes a pauper, And as such incurs
certain civil disabilities. Statistics dealing with the state of
panperism in this sense convey not the amount of destitution
actually prevalent, but the particulaa of people in receipt of
poor law relief.
PAVSANIAS (5th century B.C.), Spartan reifent- and com-
mander, of the Agiad family, son oif Clcombrotus and nephew of
Leonidas, the hero of Thermopylae. Upon the death of the
Utter in 4S9 b.c. bis son Pleistarchus became king, but as he was
still a minor the regency devolved first on Leonidas's brother
Clcombrotus, and after his death in 479 on Pausanias. He first
distinguished himself as commander of the combined Greek
forces in tbe victory of Plataca. In 47ft be was appointed
admiral of the Greek fleet, and succeeded in reducing the grcatcr
part of Cyprus, the st^tegic key of the Levant, and in capturing
Bysantium from the Fenians, thus securing the command of
the Bosporus, and of the route by which Darius had invaded
Europe. But he entered into treacherous negotiations with the
Persian Ungj and his adoption of Oriental dress and customs,
and his haughty behaviour to tbe Greeks under his command,
roused their resentment and suspicion (see DfiitAN League).
Pausanias was lecallcd by the ephors and, though acquitted
on the main charge of Mcdism, was not again sent out in any
official position. He rctamed to Byzantium, nevertheless,
in a ship of Hermione and seised that town and, apparently,
Sestos also. He was dislodged from both by the Athenians,
to whom the allies had transferred from SparU the naval
hegemony. For some time he lived at Cleonac in the Tread,
carrying on negotiations with Xemcs, but was again recalled
to Sparu, where he incited the helots to revolt. When his
schemes were almost matured, the evidence of a confidential
slave led to the discovery of his plot by the ephocs. Be fled to
the sanctuary of Athena Chaldoecus on the Spartan Acropolis:
there he was immured, and when starvation and expomre had
all but done their work he was dragged out to die. This crime
against religion the state subsequently expiated by tbe burial
of his body at the spot where he died and the dedication of two
bronze- statues. To commemorate Leonidas and Pansknias a
yearly festival was held, at which speeches were made extolling
thdr victories; this was still celebrated when the geographer
Pausanias visited Sparta more than six centuries hitcr (Paus.
Ill; 14). The date of the regent's death probably falls in 471 or
470. though some assign it to a later date on a very doubtful
statement of Justin (ix. i) that Pausanias held fiyzantiom for
•even years.
See Herodotus v. 3s. Ix. 10-88: Thucydidca {.94*^ 128-134.
u. 71, 7>. iii. 58: Diodocus Siculus xl« 39*47;.54* Cornelius Ncpos,
PaMMioi: lustin ii. is. ix. 1. 3: Pauaaoias lu. 4* I4« I7> I^Dlyacnus
viii. 51: Amtodcmus u., iv.. vi.-viii.: Athenacus xii. 53s£t SJ^A;
Plourch. Cimoub, TkemittoUea a3. Aristidtf il-JO, 33: N. Hanske,
Utber dot iUmiginitnku PauaanUi (Leipsig. 1873). (M. N. T.)
PAUSANIAS, Greek traveller and geographer of tbe and
century a.d., lived In the times of Hadrian, Antoninus Plus and
Marcus AureUus. He was probably a native of Lydia, and was
possibly born at Magnesia ad SIpylum; he was ccrtsinly inter-
cated in Pergomum and familiar with the western coast of Asia
Minor: hot his travels extended far beyond the limits of Ionia.
Before vititiog Greece he had been to Aatioch, Jeppa and
Jerusalem,* and to the honhi of the ifver Jordan. In Egypt
he had seen tlie pyramids and had beard the music of the voati
Mcmnon, while at the temple of Ammon he had been shown the
hymn once sent to that shriac by Pindar. He had taken note
of the fortifications of Rhodes and Bysantium, had visited
Thessaly, and had gaaed on the rivulet of " blue water " beside
the pass of Tfaermopylaek In Macedonia he had almost certainly
viewed the traditional tomb of Orpheus, while in Epirus be was
familiar with the oracular oak of Dodona, and with the streams
of Acheron and Gocytus. Crossing over to luly, he had seen
something of the cities of Campania^ and of the wonders of
Rome.
Haa DewriptUn e/ Gnut (irtpUrrmt r^ 'EX^6ier) takes the
form of a tour in the Peloponnesus and in part of northern
Greece. It is divided into ten books: (i.)' Attica and Megara;
(ii.) ArgoUs, including Msrcenae, Tlryns and Epidaunis; (iii.)
Laconia; (iv.) Messenia; (v.) and (vi.) Elis, including Olympta;
(vii.) Achoea; (viii.) Arcadia; (ix.) Boeetia, and (z.) Phods,
including Delphi.
Book i. was written after Hcrodes Atticus had built the
Athenian Stadium (a.o. c. 143), but before he had built the
Odeum (c. i6o->i6i). There is reason to believe that thisbook was
published some years before the rest. The statement in book v.
(1, 2), that 317 yesrs had elapsed since tbe restoration of Corinth
(44 B.C.), shows that Pausanias was engaged on his account oC
Elis in the year a.d. 174, during the reign of Marcus Auielius.
He repeotedly rcfera to buildings erected by Hadrian, who died
in A.O: 138. He had lived in' that emperor's time, but had not
actually seen that emperor's favourite, AntinoCbi, who died
about 130* He mentions the wan of Antoninus Pius agsunst
tbe Moors, and of Mareus AureKus (in and after a.a. t66)
against the Germans (viil. 43). The faitest event which he
records is the incursion of the robber-horde of the Costobocft
(ajd^ c. 176; X. 34, 5). Book i. having been pubKsbed before
i6ob and books vi.^x. after 174, the composition of the whole
must have extended over more than fourteen years.
Tbe work has no formal preface or conclusion. It suddenly
begins with the promontory of Sunium, the first point In Attica
that would be seen by tbe voyager from the shores of Asia
Minor, and it ends abruptly with an anecdote of a blind man
of Kaupactus. Tbe author's general aim may be inferred from
his saying at the doss of bis account of Athens and Attica:
'* Such (in my opinion) are the moU famout of the Athenian
Uadiliotu and sigkls; from the mass of materkb I have aimed
from the outset at selecting the really n^taBU ** (I. 39, 3). It is
possibly in the hope of giving variety and interest to the topo-
graphical details of Athens that the author inte rap e i ses them
with lengthy historical disquisitions; but the result is that the
modem reader is tempted to omit the " history " and to hasten
on to the *' topoRraphy,** on which the author is now a primary
authocity. In the subsequent books he introduces two improve-
menu. His account of each important dty begins with a sketch
of its history: and, in bis subsequent descriptions, he adopts e
strictly topographical order. He takes the nearest road from
the frontier to the capital; he there makes for the central point,
€.t. the maricet-ploce, and describes In succession the several
streets radiating from that centre. Similarly, in tbe surfounding
district, he foOowt the principal roads in succession, returning
to the capital In each cose, until, at the end of the last road, he
cressca the frontier for the nest district. In the later books he
supplies OS with a few glimpses into the daily life of the inhabi-
tants. He is constantly describing ceremonial rites or super-
stitioni customs. Be frequently introduces natntives from
the domain of histonr and of legend and folk-loie; and it is only
*■ The tomb of ifctona at Jerumkn. which PausaoiaB viaL t6.
4-5. compares with the Mauaolcum, is mentioned by Joaephus,
^■1. XX. 4.3: Mlhd. V. 3. 3: 3, 3; 4. 3: fand Euscbuis. HS.
it. 13. 3. Helen, the daughter or laatnt. king of Adiabene. feni
jMiukn Volkts, 3fd ed.. CL i3o-i33: view of tomb Ui PiOmutm
Fwhnmt, L 1^ ^
968
PAUSANmS
rarely t&at he allows us to ice soniekBinK of the acebery. But,
happily, be notices the pine-trees on the sandy coast of Elis, the
deer aind the wild boars in the oak-woods of PheUoC, and Ike
crows amid the giant oak-trees of Alalcooienae. lie tells us
that " there is no fairer river than the Ladon," " no leeds grow
80 tall as those in the Boeotian Ascents," and the rain that
deluges the fallow plain of Mantinea vanishes into a chasm to
rise again elsewhere. It is mainly in the last three books that
he touches on the products of nature, the wild strawbeiries
of Helkon« the date*palms of Auhs, and the oGve-oil of Tithorca,
as well as the bustards of Pbods, the tortoises of Arcadia and
the " white blackbirds " of Cyllene. He is rather reticent aa to
the chancier of the roads, but he records, with the gratiludi of
a traveller^ the fact that the narrow and perilous cornice of the
Scironian way along the coast of Mcgara had been made w^der
and safer by Hadrian. He is inspired by a patriotic interest
in the ancient gtories of Greece, recognizing in Athens all that
was best in the old Greek life, and lamenting the ruin t)iat bad
befallen the land on the fatal field of Chaeronea. He is most at
home in describing the religious art and architecture of Olympia
and of Delphi; but, even in the most secluded regions of Greece,
he is fascinated by all kinds of quaint and primitive images of
the gods, by holy reUcs and many other sacred and mysterious
things. He is interested in visiting the battlefields of Marathon
and jPUtaea, and in viewing the Athenian trophy on the island
of Salamis, the grave Of Demosthenes at Calauria, of Leonidas
at Sparta, of Epaminondas at Mantinea, and the colossal lion
guarding the tomb of the Tbebana on the Boeotian plain* At
Thebes itself he views the shidds of those who died at Leuctra,
and the ruins of the house of Pindar; the statues of Hcsiod and
Anon, of Thamyris and Orpheus* in the grove of the MiUfcs on
Helicon; the portrait of Corinna at Tanagra, and of PoIyUus in
the cities of Arcadia. At Olympia he takes note of the ancient
quoit of Iphitus inscribed with the terms of the Olympic truce,
the tablets recording treaties between Athens and other Grecian
states, the .memorials of the victoijca of the Greeks at Plataea,
of the Spartans at Tanagm, of the Meascnians at Naupoctus,
and even those of Philip at Chaeronea and of Mummius at
Corinth. At Delphi^ as he climbs the sacred way to the shrine
of ApoUOk he marks the trophies of the viclotiea of the Aibenians
at Marathon and on the Eurymcdon, of the noited Greeks at
Artemisium, Salamis and PLataea, of the Spartans at Aegos-
potami, of the Thcbans at Leuctra, and the shields dedicated
in memory of the repulse and defeat of the Ganb at Delphi
itseff. At Athens, he sees pictures of historic battles, portraitk
of famous poets, orators, statesmen and philosopheis, and
inscriptions recording the laws of Sokm; on the Acropolis, the
trophy of the Persian wars, the great bronae statue of Athena;
at the entrance to the harbour of the Pciraeua, the grave of
Themistodes; and, outside the dty, the monumenU of Harmodius
and Aristogeiton, of Geisthenes and Pericles, of Conon and
Timotheus, and of all the Athenians who fell in battle, except
the heroes of Marathon," for these, as a need of valour, were
buried on the field."
In the topographical part of his woifc« he is fond of digreisioas
on the wonders of nature, the signs that herald the approach
of an earthquake, the phenomena of the tides, the ice-bound seas
of the north, and the noonday sun which at the summer solstice
casts no shadow at Syene. While he never doubts the ezisience
of the gods and heroes, he sometimes criticizes the mjrths and
l^ends relating to them. His main Interest is in the wtontmenU
of ancieni art, and he prefers the works of the 5th and 4th
centuries B.c. to those of later times. At Delphi he admires
the pictures of Polygnotus, closing the seven chapters of his
minuU description with the appreciative phrase: "so varied
and beautKul is the painting of the Thasian artist " (z. 31, 3).
In sculpture his taste is 00 less severe. E^en In the " uncouth "
work of Daedalus, he recognizes *'a touch of the divine"
Oi> 4t s)* Ia architecture, he admires the prehistoric walls of
Tiryiis, and the " Treasury of Minyas,** the Athenian Propylaea,
the theatre of Epidaurus, the temples of Bassae and Tegca. the
walls of Me&sene, the' Odeum at Patrae. as well aa the HiWi*ME
of the same name lately Inflt at^ Athens by Hnodea Attkos
<vii. 20, 6), and finally the Stadium which that moniticeot
Athenian had faced with white marble from the quarries of
Fcntelicui. His descriptions of the monttmcnts 4>f art are
plain and unadorned; they bear the impress of reahty, aad their
accuracy is confirmed by the extant remains. He is perfectly
frank in his oonf esaons of ignoianoe. When he quotes a book
at sooond hand he takes pains to say so.
He has been well described by J. G. Frazer as " & man made
of common stuf and cast in a common raoukl; his intclUgeace
aad abilities seem to have been Uttk above the avesafe, bis
opinions not Very different from those o( his cootenapofaries."
His literary style is "plain and nnadocned yet heavy aad
laboured"; it is not cardessor skyvcnty; the 'author triad to
write well, but his "sentcnoes an dmid of dqrthni and
harmony " {Imtndueiiom, pp. xliz., brix.).
In considering hu use of previous writers, we moat draw a
distinction between the Mslarkal and the datnpHtc parts of hia
work. In the former it was necessary lot him to depend 00
written or oral testimony; in the hitter it was txA. In the
historical passages, his principal poetic authority h Homer; be
frequently quotes the Theonny of Hesiod, and he often refers
to Pindar and Aeschylus. Hb writings are full of echoes «(
Herodotus, and his debt to Thucydidcs and Xenophon extends
beyond the isolated mention ol their names (L 3, 4; vi 19, 5).
He has carefully studied the Ekan register of the Ofynpic
victors; be makes large use of inscriptions, and hss geaeraUy
examined them with care and.oopied them with acconcy. la
the docriptive portion the question arises whether he dcdved
his knowledge from personal obseivaUon, or fiom hooka, or
from both. He does not profess to have seen evaythi^» but
he does not aicknowledge that he has bonowcd any of his
descriptions from previous writers. He " cannot oommeiid the
men who took the measuremeiUs " of the Zeus at Oiympia
(v. I'r, 9). " A certain writer," who staAcs that a partic^ilar
spring is the source of an Arcadian river, " cannot have seen the
qiring himself, or spoken with any one who had; I have doae
both " (viii. 41, 10). There are fifty poasages in which he
either directly states. or implies that he had Men the thioga
that he describes. All of these have been carefully coUecied
and examined by R. Hebcrdey (1894), who, by using a distinctive
type in marking on a map the plaoes " seen " by Pausaniaa» and
by joining those places by lines representing the routes described
by him, has shown the lar^ extent of the author's travebia
Greece. The complicated coast of Hermionb has^ however, beim
inoortectly described <ii. 34* 6 seq.), and there is some ooofuaioB
in the account of the three roaids leading to the north, froos
Lepreils, in the extreme south of EUs <v. 5, 3).
A greater difficulty has long been fdt In connerion with the
*' Enncscninos cpisDde *' in the description of Athens (i. 8, 6, aad
14, 1-6). In the midst of the aoooont of the marktf-phwe, noitb*
west of the Acropolis, the reader is inMipotveA to the foostaia
of Enneacrunus and to some buildings in its neighbourhood, and it
suddenly brought back to the market-place. It lias bten naturally
a«umed that the Enneacrunus can only be the foontaio of that
in the bod of the lliasoa. If so, the descriptioii of '
fountain is oet of pbce. and its insertion at this poiat has bcoi
ascr&ed rither to 'some confusion in the author's, notes or to a
dislocation in the text. On the other hand, it has been tuegested
that the description may really refer to aome other (ouatau near
the market-place, which was shown to Pausanias aa the EanencmMi.
Thus it has been held by Dr Dfirpfdd that the name Enaeacnmaa
was originally applied to a spring west of the Acsopotis, that the
old name of this epring, CaUirrhoC, had been abandoned tram the
time when Peisistratus converted it into a "fountain with amr
fcts," and that the names CallirrhoS and Enoeacnimn were aftcr>
wards transferred xa another fountain In the bed of the lliasna.
The evidence of hb own excavatkNW has led him to olaoet „ _
Enneacrunus near the eastern foot of the hill of the Pnym, and t»
identify cerutn adjacent remains with the baSldlagB meotioccd
by Pauiaalas. If this opinion is correct, the account of the Enaaa-
crunus. and the neighbouring baildingiL in Pauaanias, ceases t»
bean " episode," andtana into the natural sequence of the narnatiw.
(The ** episode ** has been fully discussed by the expowodcra. aad
transhton of Pausanias, and by the writcra on the topOMaphy ef
Athens. Dr Ddrpfeld's views are deariy set forth in Miaa J. E.
Harrison's PnmUim AAens (1906). A. MaUmn's paper CViaw^
PAUSIASr-PAVEMENT
969
f906),'«fckk 1 ■ a Mammon vi tlw teRt, hat been anmwed
by DArpTckl (JVodutuchrift /w U PkUolope (1907). P- 940 aeq.).
Tbe account of the law conrts of Athens aod of the altan at
Olynpia may have been derived from monographs on those
sobjccts. In both cases the author depaits Jrom his usual
method of following the order of pboe, and deals with a group of
monuments bdonging to the same class. But in the extant
literature of antiquity (as J. G. Frazer has shown) no passage
has been found agreeing in form or substams so dotdy with
the description in Pausanias as to make it probable that.be copied
it. The theory that Pavsantas borrowed largely from Poiemon
of Ilium, who flourished about aoo-177 ex., an4 wrote on the
Acropolis and the eponymous heroes of Athens, on the treasuries
of DeCphi, and on other antiquarian topics, wai incideotally
suggested by Preller In his edition of the fragmenU (1858), and
was revived by Professor von Wilamowitz-MoeUendorif in 1877
(Hermes, xil. 346). It was subsequentky maintained by A.
Kalkmann (i836) that Pausanias slavishly copied from Pblemon
the best part of his descriptions of Athens, Delphi and CHympla,
and described those places, not as they were in his own age, but
as they had been in that of Poiemon, some 300 years before. It
is alleged that, in the notices of the monuments on the Acrbpolis
of Athens, and of the sculptors and the athlete^utues of
Olympia, the lower limit of Pausanias is practicaily rso B.C.;
it is inferred that the anthority followed by him ended with
this date, and it is moro than suggested that his sole authority
was Poiemon. But the comparative neglect of works later than
150 B.C. might also be explained by the fact that the indepen-
dence of Greece came to an end in 146. And, further, it so
happens that Pausanias icfers to very few sculpton for the 140
years ('2^ts6 b.c.) before the age of his supposed authority,
while some of the sculptors represented at Olympia have since
been placed after that date, and not a few of the Athenian
monuments described by Pausanias belong to the period between
that date and the accession of Hadrian, or, approximateiy, the
period between about 166 b.c and a.d. tr7 (Gurliu, Ober
PausoHtaSt pp. xt7 seq., 194 seq., iST^t&r). Moro than one
hundred extracts from, or reference to, the works of Pokmon
have come down to us, and it has beien shown by Mr Fiaxcr that
"the existing fragments hardly justify os In supposing that
Pausanias was acquainted with the writings of his learned
predecessor; certainly they lend no countenance to the view
that he borrowed descriptions of places and monuments from
them." Again, it has been urged that hte beief descriptioa of
the Peiraeus is not true of his own time, as it had been burnt
by Sulla (86 B.C.), and was still lying desolate in the age of
Augustus, but his account of the buildings and monuments has
been confirmed by an inscription oonjeotuially ascribed to the
time of Pausanias (Fraxer il. 14 seq.). It has also been stated
that the description of Arcadia must have been borrowed from
far earlier writers, because Strabo (p. 388) says that most of
the famous cities of that land had either ceased to exist or had
left hardly a trace behind them; but the evidence of cdns ha^
proved that at least seven of the eleven cities described by
Pausanias were stUl in existence long after the death of Straba
It has further been assumed that his account of the temple of
Apollo at Delphi is *' Irreconcilable with the remmiis of the
building " and with the inscriptions recently discovered by the
French archaeologists. We are told that Pausanias describes
the temple of the 6th century b«. as if it still existed in his own
time. On the contrary, he sUtcs that the first sculptures for
the g^les were executed by a pupil of Calamis, the pupil of a
sculptor still at work in 497 B.G., and the shields that he saw
fospended on the architrave were captured from the Gaub
ill 279. Agabiv his description of New Corinth, built in 44 B.C.,
inore than a eentury after the time of Poiemon, is most mimiU
and systematic, and it Is confirmed by coins of the bnperial age.
In at least one important point Pausanias compares favoumbly
with Stmbo. While Strabo erroneously dedam that not a
vestige of Mycenae remains, Pausaniu gives a brief but accurate
description of the Lion-gate and the existing drcuit-wali of the
Acropolfe. with a notice of the tomfaa " within the wall " (it 16,
5-7),anotieewhkhkdtotbeirdktaveiybySehUemann. InaU
parts of Greece the accuracy of his descriptioBS has been proved by
the remains of the buikUngs which he describes; and a few unim*
portant mistakes (in v. 10^ 6 and 9; viii. 37, 3, and 45* 5)> and
some slight carelessness in copying inscriptions, do not lend any
colour to an ampuUdon of bad faith. It has been sutedwith
perfect justice by FVaxer (p. xcv. seq.) that " without him the
ruins of Greece would for the nmst part be a labyrinth without a
clue, a riddle without an answer." " His book furnishes the
clue to the labyrinth, the answer to many riddles. It will be
studied so long as ancient Greece shall continue to engage the
attention and awaken the interest of mankimL"
Editions.— Siebolis (Ldpcfe. i8aa); Schubact anl Wals (1838):
Teubner texts, Schubart (1803), and Spiro (IQ03). Text. Utm
translation aod index. L. Dtndorf (Didot. Pans, 1845): text and
Gorman commentary, Hitzig and Biamncr, books L-uc, already
publtshcd in five parts (Leipzig, 1896-1907). Special editioo of
DesaipUo ateis Alkenarum. Otto Jahn (Boon, i860), ^rd ed.. With
map» and plans, &c., A. MichaeUs (1901). F. Imhoof-Blumcr and
Percy Gardner, " Numismatic Commentary on Pausanias, first pub-
lished in Journal of Heltenic Studies, vi.-viii. (i 885-1887); Jf. G.
Frazer, Pausanias's Descriptum of Creeee, In six vols., introductkm
and translation (vol. L). commenury (vols. iL-^.), naps and index
(yoL vi.) (Macnullao, London. 1898); introduction reprinted in
Fraxer'a Pausanias and other Creek Sketches (1900).
Special Literature.— Wernicke, De Pausaniae studiis hero-
doleis (Berlin, 1884): WSamowitz. ** Thukydkleslcgende.** ia
Hermes (1877), xii J46; P. Hirt, De fomtihus Pasuaniae m Eiiads
(GreifswaU. 187.8); A. Flaicb, in Baumeistcr's DernkmOtert sj^
"Olympia. 90 PP* (1887); A. Kalkmann, Pausanias der Periegei
(Berlin, 1886). and in Archdohrischer Anseiger (1895). p. la ; opposed
by W. Guriitt, Ober Pausanias (Graz, 1890), 494 pp.; Bencker,
Anteil der Perietese an der KmutuhriflsteUeret (1890), and R.
Heberdey* Die Reisen des Pausamm i» Criechemand, with two
maca (Vienna, 189^).
The present writer Is much indebted to Guriitt's comprehen-
sive monograph, and to the admirable Introduction prenxed to
J. G. Fraxcr's excdient Traaslation and Commentary. See also
C. Robert, Pwsanias als SckriftsleUer (Beriin, 1909). (J. E. S.*)
PAUSIAS, a Greek painter of the 4th century, of the school
of Skyon. He introduced the custom of painting ceilings
Of hoinea. His great merit appears to have lain m the better
rendering of foreshortening. The words in which Pliny (xxxv.
127) describes a bull painted by him should be quoted: " Wishmg
to display the length of the buB's body, he painted it from the
front, not in profile, and yet fully indicated its measure. Again,
while others fill in with white the high lights, and point m black
what is less salient, her painted the whole' bull of dark colour, and
gave substance to the shadow out of the shadow itself, with great
skill making his figures stand out from a flat background, and
indkating their shape when foreshortened." This passage weU
marks the state of painting at the time.
PAVANB, Pavan or Pavin, the name of a slow statdy dance
of the i6th and X7th oentta'ic8b The word has been variously
derived: (z) from Lat. pa»o, peacock; the dancers, as they whed
and turn, spread out their long cloaks, which they retained in
this dance, like the tail of the bird; (a) from Padovaaa, tjc. q£
Padua, in Italy; the dance, however, is usually taken to have
oome from Spain. As an instrumental composition, common in
the t6th and X7th centuries, the ** pavane " was usually followed
by the quick and lively " galUard," as the " gigue " foUowed
the *' saraband " in the later suite (see Dakc^
PAVBMEMT (Lat. pa»imetUum, a floor beaten or lommed
hard, from paeire, to beat), a term originally applied to the
covering of a rood or pathway with some durable material, and
10 used of the paved footway at the side of a street— the "side-
walk " as opposed to the roadway proper. The term is also
extended to the interior floor of churches and public buildings.
It is probable that the earliest pavemenU consisted only q£
nmmed day, as in the " beehive " tombs of Mycenae, or of
cement or stucco decorated with lines in cbkNired marbles, such
as those mentioned in the Book of Esther (vL 1) in the palace U
Susa. W. M. Flinders Petrie discovered at TeO d' Amama hi the
paUce of Akhenaton the remains of a stucco pavement, decorated
with foliage, flowen, birds, 8te., and a complete naturalistic
treatment. The threshold of the doors of the Assyrian palaces
were of stone cttvtd with potteins hi imitatioB of thoM fe ft
97©
PAVIA
cmipet. Tbe pavcmetits of Giedc tenqtle* vera dtlufr In sConc
or marble, and at Olympia the pronaot of the temple of Zens was
laid in mosaic representing tiitons, and the floor of the moot was
in coloured marbles. The Roman pavements were invariably
in mosaic, sometimes of a very elaborate nature, as in the House
of the Faun at Pompeii, where the mosaic represented the battle
of Issus between Alexander the Great and Oarius III., a repro-
duction probably of some Greek painting of the period. In
Rome the palaces on the Palatine Hill and the thermae were all
paved with mosaic, and numerous pavements have been found
in Carthage, many of which ^re in the British Museum, as are
also examples from the Roman vUlaS to England. Perhaps the
richest Roman pavements outside Italy are those at Trftves in
Germany. The Roman tradition was continued by the Byzan-
tine architects, who, throughout the East, paved their churches
with mosaics, frequently of the same design and execution as
those of the Romans, but with Christian symtwls. The churches
of the llomanesqae, Gothic and Renaissance periods were all
paved in marble, but of a different character from those of the
eariier period (see Mosaic).
PAYIA (anc. Ticinum^ q.v.)^ a town of Lombardy, Italy,
capital of the province of Pavia, situated on tbe Ticino about
a m. above its junction with the Po, 32| m. S. of Milan by rail,
953 ^t* nbove sea-level. Pop. (1906), 38,796 (town), 36,424
(commune). On the right bank of the river lies the small
suburb of Borgo Ticino, connected with the town by a remark'
able covered bridge dating from t35i-i3S4' In 1872 the city
ceased to be a fortress, and the bastions- have been transformed
Into boulevards and public gardens. The church of San
Micheic Maggiore is one ol the finest specimens of the Lombard
style in existence, and as it was within its walls that the crown
was placed on the head of those " kings of Italy " from whom
the bouse of Savoy claims descent it was by royal decree of
1863 given the title of Basilica Reale. S. Michele (for plan
see Architectubb: ^R^manesqut and GoUtic in Italy) was
originally constructed under the Lombard kings, but was burnt
In 1004, and the present building dates from the latter part of
the X ith (crypt, choir and transepts) and the first half of the 1 2th
centuries (facade and nave with two aisles), and was completed
in 1x55. The lower part of the facade is adorned with three
fine portals and with reliefs of a fantastic kind in sandstone,
arranged In horizontal bands, and has arcading under the gable.
The dome is octagonal. The interior is vaulted and has eight
pillars, supporting double round arches. The interior has a
mosaic pavement of the i3tb-t3th centuries. The cathedral
church of San Martino is a Renaissance building begun in 1488
by Cristoforo Rocchi; It is a vast " central " structure, finely
designed, with four arms, which remained for centuries unfinished
until the dome (only surpassed by those of St Peter at Rome
and the cathedral at Florence) and facade were completed in
1898 according to Rocchi's still extant model; adjoining the
church is the massive Torre Maggiore, 358 ft. high, which is
mentioned as early as X330L The upper part is due to Pellegrino
Tibaldi (1583V The cathedral contains the tomb of S. Syrus,
first bishop of Pavia (2nd century); an altar-piece (1521), the
best work of Giampietino (Rlzzi), a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci;
and another, the masterpiece of Bernardino Gatti of Parma
(xS3t). The church of S. Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, the origin of
which dates from tbe beginning of the 6th (?) century, but which
as it stands was consecrated in x 13 2, is very similar to S. Michde
in respect of its facade (though it has not the elaborate sculptures),
dome and mosaic pavements. The use of disks of majoUca may
be noted in the decoration of the exterior. It has been carefully
restored. It served as the burial place of the Lombard king
Liutpraad (711-744), whose bones were found there in 1896
<R. Majocchi in Nwno bullctimo (Tarckedogia criiliana, 1896,
p. 139). The Area di S. Agostino (after 1362) isa sumptuous tomb
containing the relics of S. Augustine of Hippo brought hither
by Uutprand from Sardinia. It was only restored to this.
Its original position, from the cathedral when the chur^ itself
was restored.
Tha church of S. Mariui dd CatBiine is eHenally one of the
most beautiful of the brick Cethic chukvbet in noitkem Italy sad
dates from 1273 (or 1373?). S. Francesco has abo a good facade
after that of Chlaimvalle near MHan. The choith of S. Maria dt
Canepanova with ha small domfr was designed by Bramanie.
Near it are three uU, slender brick lowers of the Gothic period.
S. Taodoro with a iith<eotury exterior has frescoes by Bar-
tolommeo Suardi (Bramantiao) after 1507. Outside the town
on the west be the churehes-of S. Salvatore (foonded in the
7th century but rebuilt in the tsth and i6th), and of S. Laofranc
(or the Holy SegMikhre, 12th century) with the fine tomb of
Bishop Lanfranco Beccari <d. 1 189) by Giovanid Antonio Amede»
(1498), one of the best Lombard sculptors and architects of
this pnkxl (1447-1582) and a native of Pavia, which has a few
other works by him. He was for eighteen years in charge of
the work at the Certosa. Interesting medieval views of Pavia
exist in the churches of S. Teodoro and & Salvatore; the
former dating from 1522 has been published by P. Moirsghi
in BuUattimo sl§rieo pofue (1893), i. 41 sqq. (S^ Mageniaa
/ Visc&nli a gli Sfana nd taUdi9 di Favid (Milan, 1884). for
other medieval pUna.)
Of the secular buildings the most noteworthy is the university
founded by Qaleszzo U. in 1361 on the site of a law Khooi
probably founded by Lahfranc (d. 1089)* though we Und. Pavia
a centre of study as eariy as a.d^ 825. The present imposing
building was begun by Lodovico il Moro in 1490; in the Kbrary
are preserved some of the ashes of Columbus, who was a student
here. Volta made here his first electrical experiments. For
the maintenance of a number of poor students there are two
subsidiary colleges, tlie Borromeo and the Ghislieri founded by
S. Cario Borromeo (1563) and Pope Pius V. (1569): of the btier
a colossal bronze statue has been erected in the piazxa before bis
college. The university of Pavia has long been famous as a
medical school, and has the oldest anatomical cabinet in Italy ; in
addition it has a natural history museum founded under Spallan-
zini in 177a, a botanical garden, begun in X774. and excellent
geological, palaeontological and mineralogical collections.
The old castle of the Visconti built in 1360 for Galeasxo U. is
used as barrscks. The Museo Civico is housed in tbe Palazzo
Malaspina and contains many interesting national relics and
a small picture g*llery, with a large collection of offprints on
paper from niello plates, including a very fine " Fountain of
Love *' by Antonio PolUinolo; another fine' eld palace, the
Palazzo Mezsabarba, is now used as the Municipiob
Pavia has a number of iron-Joundries, mnitary engineering
and electrical production works, and other factories, as wcU
as a larip! covered market, built in rS82. Pavia lies on the
main line from Milan to Genoa (which crosses the Ticino by a
bridge half a mile long, and shortly afterwards the Po), with
sereral branch lines. Batf«s from Pavia can pass down tbe
Po to tbe Adriatic or to Milan by canal. Five miles north oi
Pavia IS the Carthusian monastery of Certosa di Pavia, one of
the most magnificent in the worid. Its founder Gian Galcazxo
Visconti (also the founder of Milan Cathedral) laid the first
stone in August 1396, aiKl the nave was then begun in the
Gothic style, but was not completed until 1465. However
the influence of the Early Renaissance had meanwhile bcconie
supreme throughout Italy, and the rest of the church with its
external arcaded galleries and lofty pinnacles (including the
fine dome) and the dobters were executed in the new st>)e
under Guiniforte Solari (1453--1481) with details in terra-coiu
of great beauty and richness. Giovanni Antonio Amedeo was
chief architea in X48i-i499» and the lower part of the facade was
finished in 1507. It is perhaps the finest piece of elaborate and
richly adorned Renaissance architecture in existence, and is the
work of a number of different artists* In the south transrpc
of the churdi is the tomb of the founder; the figure of GaJeazao
guarded by angels lies under a marble canopy, with the Madonna
in a niche above. It was begun in X494'i497 by Giovaxud
Cristoforo Romano and Benedetto Briosco, but was not fintsbcd
until X 562. In the north transept is the tond> of Lodovico Sf orza,
il Moro, and his wife, the figures on which wen brought from
Solaria della Grasle in 1 564 when the monument of the prince in
PAVIA Y ALBUQUERQUE— PAVIS
971
tBat church vas broken up and lold; these sUtues aie considered
to be one o{ the chief works of Crbtofoio Solari The church
contains numerous other works of art. An elegant portal
leads from the church into the snutll cloister, which has a pretty
garden in the centre; the tem<otta omamenu surmounting
the slender marble piUaxs are the work of Rinaldo de Stauris
(1463*1478)1 who ciecutcd similar decorations in the great
ck>ister. This cloister is 412 ft. long by 334 ft. wide and contains
34 cells of the monks, pleasant little three-roomed houses each
with its own garden. Within the confines of the monastery is the
Palano Ducale which since 1901 has been occupied by the Ccrtosa
museum. The Carthusian monks, to whom the monastery
was entrtisted by the founder, were bound to employ K certain
proportion of their annual revenue in prosecuting the work till
its completion, and even after 1542 the monks continued
voluntarily to expend large sums on further decoration. The
Certosa di Pavia is thus a practical textbook of Italian art for
wellnigh three centuries. The Carthusians were expelled in 1782
by the emperor Joseph II., and after being held by the Cistercians
in 1784 and the Carmelites in 1789 the monastery was closed in
18 la In 1843 the Certosa was restored to the Carthusians
and was exempted from confiscation in 1866, but it has since
been declared a national monument
Histcry.—Fct earlier period see 'nciKUM. Under the name
Papia (Pavia) the dty became, as the capital of the Lombard
kingdom, one of the leading cities of Italy. By the conquest
of Pavia and the capture of Desiderius in 774 Charlemagne
completely destroyed the Lombard supremacy; but the city
continued to be the centre of the Carolingian power in Italy,
and a royal residence wils built in the neighbourhood (Cor-
teolona on the Olona). It was in San Michele Maggiore in
Pavia that Berengar of Friuli, and his quasi-regal successors
down to Berengar II. and Adalbert II., were crowned " kings
of Italy.*' Under the reign of the first the city was sacked and
burned by the Hungarians, and the bishop was among those
who perished. At Pavia was celebrated In 951 the marriage of
Otto I. and Adelheid (Adelaide), which exercised so important an
Influence on the relations of the empire and Italy; but, when the
succession to the crown of Italy came to be disputed between the
emperor Henry II. and Arduin of Ivrea, the dty sided strongly
with the latter. Laid in ruins by Henry, who was attacked
by the dtizens on the night after his coronation in 1004, it was
none the less ready to close its gates on (Conrad the Salic in 1026.
In the nth and 12th centuries we find Pavia called the ** Second
Rome." The jealousy between Pavia and Milan having in
1056 broken out into open war, Pavia had recourse to the hated
emperors, though she seems to have taken no part in the battle
of Legnano; and for the most part she remained attached to
the Ghibelline party till the Utter part of the 14th century.
From 1360, when (Saleazzo was appointed imperial vicar by
Charies IV., Pavia became practically a possession of the Visconti
family and in due course formed part of the duchy of Milan.
For its insurrection against the French garrison in 1499 it paid
a terrible penalty in 1500, and hi 1512, after the victory of
Ravenna, Pavia presented to Loub XII., as a sign of fidelity, a
magnificent standard: this however fell into the hands of Swiss
mercenaries and was sent to Fribourg as a trophy of war (it
no longer exists). Having been strongly'fortified by Charles V.,
the dty was in 1535 able to bid defiance to Francis I., who was
so disastrously beaten in the vicinity, but two years later the
French under Lautrec subjected it to a sack of seven days. In
1655 Prince Thomas of Savoy bivested Pavia with an army
of 20,000 Frenchmen, but had to withdraw after 52 days'
tiege. The Aus^rians under Prince Eugene occupied It in 1706,
the French in 1733 and the French and Spaniards in 1743;
and the Austrians were again in possession from 1746 till 1796.
In May of that year ft was seized by Napoleon, who, to punish
it for an insurrection, condemned it to three days' pillage.
In 1814 it became Austrian once more. The revolutionary
movement of February 1848 was crushed by the Austrians and
the university was dosed; and, though the Sardinian forces
obtained ponession in March, the Austrians soon ncovend
their ground. It was not till 1859 that Pavia passed with the
rest of Lombardy to the Sardinian crown.
At several periods Pavia has been the centre of great intel-
lectual activity. It was according to tradition in a tower which,
prevknis to 1584, stood near the church of the Annunziata that
Boethius wrote his De consUatione pkilo$opkiae\ the leg^
school of Pavia was rendered celebrated in the nth century by
Lanfnnc (afterwards archbishop of Canterbury); Petrarch was
frequently here as the guest of Galeaxzo II., and his grandson
died and was buried here. Columbus studied at the university
about 1465; and printing was introduced m 1471. Two of the
bishops of Pavia were raised to the papal throne as John XIV.
and Julius III. Lanfranc, Pope John XIV., Porta the anatomist
and Cremona the mathematidan were born in the dty.
See C. Ddl' Acqua, Cuida iUustnUa di Pavia (Pavia, 1900), and
rcfs. there given; L. Beltrami, La Ckarlreuse d* Fmie (Milan. 1899):
SUma documfHiala deUa Certosa di Pama (Milan. 1896). (T. As.)
PAVIA T AIBUQUBRQUB, MANUEL (1828-1895), Spanish
general, was born at C^iz on the 2nd of August 1828. He was
the son of Admiral Pavia, a naval officer of some note in the
early part of the X9th century. He entered the Royal Artillery
College at Segovia in 1841; became a lieutenant in 1846, a captain
in 1855 and major in 1862. Three years later he joined the
staff of Marshal Prim, and took part in the two unsuccessful
revolutionary movements concerted by Prim in 1866, and,
after two years of exile, in the successful revolution of 1868.
Pavia showed much vigour against the republican risings in
the southern provinces; the governments of King Amadeus
of Savoy, from 1871 to 1873, also showed him much favour.
After the abdication of that prince, General Pavia put down
the Carilsts and the cantonal insurrections of the chief towns
of the south. On three occasions during the eventful year
1873, as captain-general of Madrid, he offered his services to put
an end to the anarchy that was raging in the provinces and to
the disorganization prevalent in the Cortes. To all he used
the same arguments, namely, that they had to choose between
an Alphonsist restoration or a dictatorial, military and political
republic, which would rally round its standard all the most con-
servative groups that had made the revolution of 1868. This he
hoped to realize with Castclar, but the pbn was interrupted by the
military pronunciamiento for the purpose of dissolving the Cortes
of 1873. As soon as the federal Cortes had defeated Castelar,
Pavia made his coup (Titttt of the 3rd of January 1874, and
after the pronunciamiento was absolute master of the situation,
but having no personal ambition, he sent for Marshal Serrano
to form a government with Sagasta, Martos, UUoa and other
Conservatives and Radicals of the revolution. Pavia sat in
the Cortes of the Restoration several times, and once defended
himself skilfully against Emilio Castclar, who upbraided him
for the part he had played on the 3rd of January 1874. He
died suddenly on the 4tfa of January 1895.
PAVILION, propcriy a tent, a Ute use of Lat. papilio, butlerfly,
from which the word is derived through the French. The
term is chiefly used of a tent with a high pitched roof, a smaU
detached building used as a summer-house, &c., and particulariy
for a building attached to a recreation ground for the use of
players and members. In architecture the term pavilion is
specifically applied to a portion of a building which pro*
jects from the sides or central part. It is a characteristic of
French renaissance architecture. Where the buildings of 1^
large institution are broken up into detached portions, as in
St Thomas's Hospital. London, the term is gerterally applied to
such detached buildings.
For the musical instrument known as the Chinese pavilion or
Jingling johnny, ice Chinese Pavilion.
PAVI8, or Pavise, a krge convex shield, some 4 to 5 ft*
high and suffidently broad to cover the entire body, used
in medieval warfare, as a protection against arrows and other
missiles. The word appears in innumerable forms in Old French,
Italian and Medieval Latin, and is probably to be referred to
Pavia, in Italy, where such shields were made. The term
** pavisade " or " pavesade " was used of a porubk screen ol
972
PAVLOVO— PAWNBROKINQ
hurdles behind which archecs night find protecUpn, o)r of a
similar defensive screen formed by linking togefcher " pavises,"
especially on board a ship of war extending along the bulwarks,
and hence in later times of a canvas screen similarly placed
to conceal the rowers in a galley or the sailors on other types of
ships.
PAVLOVOi a town of Russia, in the govcmmeht of Nizhniy-
Novgorod, 43 m. S.W. of the town of Nishniy-Novgorod, on
the Oka river. Pop. (1897), 12,200. It is the centre of a con-
siderable cutlery, hardware and locksmith trade, which, carried
on since the i-jih century in cottages and small workshops,
engages, besides Pavlovo itself, no less than 120 villages. There
arc also steel works and cotton, silk, soap and match factories.
Pavlovo has a museum of cutlery models and a library.
PAVLOVO POSAD, or Vokhma, a town of Russia, in the
government of Moscow, 41 m. by rail £. of the dty of Moscow,
on the Klyazma river. Pop. (1897), 10,02a It is the centre
of a manufacturing district, with silk, cotton and wooUen mills,
and dyeing and printing works.
PAVLOVSK, a town of Russia, in the government of St
Petersburg 17 m. by rail S. of the city of St Petersburg. Pop.
(1897), 4949. It has an imperial caslle (1782-1803) standing in
a beautiful park and containing a smaU fine art museum and
gallery. In the vicinity arc smaller imperial palaces and summer
residences of St Petersburg families.
PAWN, (i) A pledge, an object left in the charge of another,
as security for the repayment of money lent, for a debt or
for the performance of some obligation (see Pawnbrokinc).
The word is an adaptation of O. Fr. pan, pledge, plunder, spoU.
This has usually been identified with pan, from Lat. pannus^
piece of cloth. The Teutonic words for pledge — such as Du.
pand, Ger. Pfat^ have been also traced to the same source;
on the other hand these Teutonic forms have been connecied
with the word which appears in 0. £ng. as peifding, a peony,
Ger. Pfennig, but this too has been referred to pannus, (2) The
smallest piece on the chessboard. This, in its early forms,
poun, pawn, &c., is taken from Fr. poon or paon, variants of
pe<m, Med. Lat. pedo, pedonis, a foot soldier, from pes, foot.
PAWNBROKINC (O. Fr. pan^ pledge, piece, from Lat. pannus;
for " broking " see Broker), the business of lending money on
the^security of goods taken in pledge. If we desire to trace
with minuteness the history of pawnbroking, we must go back
to the earliest ages of the world, since the bu^ness of lending
money on portable security (see Money-ixndimc, and Usury)
is one of the most andcnt of human occupations. The Mosaic
Law struck at the root of pawnbroking as a profitable business,
since it forbade the taking of interest from a poor borrower,
while no Jew was to pay another for timely accommodation.
And it is curious to reflect that, although the Jew was the almost
universal usurer and money-lender upon security of the middle
ages, it is now very rare in Great Britain to find a Hebrew
pawnbroker.
In China the pawnshop was probably as familiar two or three
thousand years ago as it is to-day, apd its conduct is still regulated
quite as strictly as in England. The Chinese conditions, loo,
are decidedly favourable to the borrower. He may, as a rule,
take three years to redeem his property, and he cannot be
charged a higher rate than 3% per annum—a regulation which
would close every pawnshop in England in a month. Both Rome
and Greece were as familiar with the operation of pawning as the
modem poor ail the worid over; indeed, from the Roman
jurisprudence most of the contemporary bw on the subject is
derived. The chief difference between Roman and English
law is that under the former certain things, such as wearing
apparel, furniture, and instruments of tillage, could not be
pledged, whereas there is no such restriction in English legisla-
tion. The emperor Augustus converted the surplus arising to
the state from the confiscated property of criminals into a
fund from which sums of money were lent, without
^aigHu interest, to those who could pledge valuables equal
to double the amount borrowed. It was, indeed, in
Italy, and in more modern times, that the pledge system which
Is now almost universal on the continent of Buxope afOKi. In
its origin that system was purely benevolent, the eaiiy mcMti
de pUU established by the authority of the popes kndiag
money to the poor only, without interest, on the sole comiitaon
of the advances being covered by the value of the pledigea.
This was virtually the Augustan system, but it is. obvious that
an institution which costs money to manage and derives no
income from iu operations must either limit its usefulness to
the extent of the voluntary support it can conunand, or must
come to a speedy end. Thus as early as x 198 something of the
kind was surted at Freising in Bavaria; while in 1350 a similar
endeavour was made at Salins in Franche Comt£, where interest
at the rat« of 7) % was charged. Nor was England backward,
for in 1361 Michael Northbury, or de Northborough, bishop
of London, bequeathed 1000 silver marks for the establishment
of a free pawnshop. These primitive efforts, like the later
Italian ones, all failed. The Vatican was therefore ooostrmined
to allow the Sacri nonti di pi^tA'-no satisfactocy derivation
of the phrase has yet been suggested--to cha^ sufl^ent
interest to their customers to enable them to defray expenses.
Thereupon a feamed and tedious controversy arose upon the
lawfulness of charging interest, which was only finally set at
rest by Pope Leo X., who, in the tenth sitting of the Council
of the Latcran, declared that the pawnshop was a lawful and
valuable institution, and threatened with exGomrounication those
who should presume to express doubts on the subject. The
Council of Trent infercntially confirmed this decision, and at a
somewhat later date we find St Charks Borromeo counselling
the establishment of state or municipal pawnshops.
Long before this, however, moati di pietA diargiog interest
for their loans had become common in Italy. The date of their
establishment was not later than 1464, when the
earliest of which there appears to be any record in ^^mA
that country— it was at Orvieto^was confirmed by
Pius 11. Three years later another was opened at PenifU
by the efforu of two Franciscans, Barnabus lateramnensis aikd
Fortunatus de Copolis. They collected the necessary capital by
preaching, and the Perugian pawnshop was opened with such
success that there was a substantial balance of profit at tbe
end of the first year. The Dominicans endeavoui«d to preach
down the " lending-house," but without avail Viterbo obtained
one of X469, and Sixtus IV. confirmed another to his native
town in Savons in 1479. After the death of Brother Barnabus
in I474> a strong impulse was given to the creation of these
establishments by the preaching of another Franciscan, Father
Bernandino di Feltre, who was in due course canonised. By
his efforts monti di pieii were opened at Assisi, Mantua, Parma,
Lucca, Piacenza, Padua, Viccoza, Pavia and a number of pbccs
of less importance. At Florence the veiled opposition of the
municipality and the open hostility of the Jews prevailed against
him, and it was reserved to Savonarola, who was a Dominican,
to create the first Florentine pawnshop, ai ter the local theologians
had declared that there was **no sin, even venial," in charging
interest. The readiness of the pop^s to give permission for
pawnshops all over Italy, makes it the more remarkable that
the papal capital possessed nothing of the kind until 1539. and
even then owed the convenience to a Franciscan. From Italy
the pawnshop spread gradually aU over Europe. Augsburg
adopted the system in 1591, Nuremberg copied the Aogsboig
regulations in x6i8, and by 1622 it was established at Amsterdam,
Brussels, Antwerp and GhenL Madrid followed suit in 1705.
when a priest opened a charitable pawnshop with a capital of
fivepence taken from an alms-box.
The institution was, however, very slow in obtaining a footi&g
in France. It was adopted at Avignon in 1577, and at Arras
in 16 34. The doctors of the once powerful Sorbonne 1^,^^^^^
could not reconcile themselves to the lawfulness JT gZllJl '^
of interest, and when a pawnshop was opened in
Paris in t6s6, it bad to be dosed within a year. Then it
was that Jean Boucher published his Difenu dts m^nts dt
p'Uti, Marseilles obtained one In 1695; l>ut it was not unttl
1777 that the first moot de pi£t6 wu founded in Paris by
PAWNBROKING
973
anal
royal patent The suHttici which have been pfeaerved i«Ia«
five to the businest done in the first few yean of U« esditeace
show that in the twelve yean between 1777 and the Revolution,
,the aveiage value of the pledges was 42 francs 50 centimes,
wfaicb is double the present average. The faiterest charged
was xo% per annum, and large pivfita were tnsde apon the
sixteen miUion Ihnes that were lent every year. The National
Assembly, in an evil moment, destrojred the monopoly of the
Riont de pi^6, but it straggled On until 179s, when the competi-
tion of the money*lenden compelled it to dose its doors. So
great, however, were the eatortions of the usurers that the people
began to clamour for its reopening, and in July 1797 it recom-
menced business with a fund of £20,000 found by five private
capitalists. At first it charged interest at the rate of 56% per
annum, which was gradually reduced, the gradations being 30,
S4, 18, IS, and finally 12% in 1804. In 1806 it fell to 9%,
and in 1887 to 7 %. In 1806 Napoleon I. re-established its
monopoly, while Napoleon III., as prince-president, regulated
it by new laws that are still in force. In Paris the pledge-shop
is, in effect, a department of the administration; in the FVench
provinces it is a municipal monopoly; and this remark Jiolds
good, with modifications, for most parts of the continent of
Europe.
In England the pawnbroker, Kke so many other distinguished
personages, " came in with the Conqueror.*' From that time,
indeed, to the famous legislation of Edward I., the Jew
money-lender was the only pawnbroker. Yet, despite
the valuable services which the class rendered, not
infrequently to the Crown itself, the usurer was treated with
studied cruelty— Sir Walter Scott's Isaac of York was no mere
creation of fiction. These barbarities, by diminishing the
^number of Jews in the country, had, long before Edward's
decree of banishment, begun to make it worth (he while of the
Lombard merchants to settle in England. It is now as wcU
cstabfished as anything of the kind can be that the three golden
balb, which have for so long been the trade sign of the pawn-
broker, weie the symbol which these Lombard merchants hung
up in front of their bouses, and not, as has often been suggested,
the arms of the Medici family. It has, indeed, been conjectured
that the golden balls were originally three flat yellow effigies
of byzants, or gold coins, laid heraldically upon a sable field,
but that they were presently converted into balls the better
to attract attention. In 1338 Edward III. pawned his jewels
to the Lombards to raise money for his war with France. An
equally great king— Henry V.— did much the same in 1415.
The Lombards were not a popular class, and Henry VII.
harried them a good deal. In the very first year of James I.
" An Act against Broken " was passed and remained on the
statute-book until Queen Victoria had been thirty-five yean
on the throne. It was aimed at "counterfeit broken," of
whom there were then many in London. This type of broker
was evidently regarded as a mere receiver of stolen goods, for
the act provided that " no sale or pawn of any stolen jewels,
plate or other goods to any pawnbroker in London, Westminster
or Southwark shall alter the property therein," and that
" pawnbroken refusing to produce goods to their owner from
whom stolen shall forfeit double the value."
In the time of Charies I. there was another act which made
it quite clear that the pawnbroker was not deemed to be a very
respectable or trustworthy person. Nevertheless a plan was
mooted for setting that king up in the business. The Civil War
was approaching and supplies were badly needed, when a too
ingenious Royalist proposed the establishment of a state '* pawn-
house:" The preamble of the scheme recited how " the intoler-
able injuries done to the poore subjects by broken and usuren
that take 30, 40, 50, 60, and more in the hundredth, may be
remedied aad redressed, the poor thereby greatly relieved and
eased, and His Majestic much benefited." That the king would
have been " much benefited " » obvious, since he was to enjoy
two-thirds of the profits, while the working capital of £100,000
was to be found by the city of London. The reform of what
Shakespeare calls " broking pawn " was in the air at that time,
although nothing ever came of ft, and In the eaify days of the
commonwealth it was proposed to establish a kind of mont de
pi6t^ The idea was emphasised in a pamphlet of 165 1 entitled
Obsenaiwns mamfesUnf the Convenieney and Cmmudily of
Mount FiOiyes, or Fmblie Baneksfor Relief of the Poor or Oikert
in Distress, upon Pawns. No doubt many a ruined cavalier would
have been glad enough of some such means of raising money,
bat this radical change in the principles of English pawnbroking
was never brought about. It is said that the Bank of England,
under its charter, has power to establish pawnshops; and we
learn from A Short History of Ike Bank of EngUmd^ published
in its very early days, that It was the intentfon of the directors,
" for the ease of the poor," to institute " a Lombard " " for
small pawns at a penny a pound interest per month."
Throughout both the 17th and i8th centuries the general
suspicion of the pawnbroker appean to have been only too
well founded. It would appear from the references Fielding
makes to the subject in Amelia, which was written when
George 11. was on the throne, that, taken in the mass, he was not
a very scrapulous tradesman. Down to about that time it had
been customary for publicans to lend money on pledges that
their custonien might have the means of drinking, but the
practice was at last stopped by act of parliament. Nor was
respect for the honesty of the business increased by the attempt
of " The Charitable Corporation " to conduct pawnbroking on
a large scale. Established by charter In 1707, " this nefarious
corporation," as Smollett called it, was a swindle on a large
scale. The directon gambled wildly with the shareholden*
money, and in the end the common council of the city of London
petitioned parliament for the dissolution of this dishonest
concern, on the grotmd that "the corporation, by affording
an easy method of raising money upon valuables, furnishes
the thief and pickpocket with a better opportunity of selling
their stolen goods, and enables an intending bankrupt to dispose
of the goods he buys on credit for ready money, to the defraud-
ing of his credilon." When the concern collapsed in X73i~its
cashier was Mr George Robinson, M .P. for Marlow. In company
with another principal official he disappeared, less than £30,000
being left of a capital which had once been twenty times as
much.
The pawnbroker's licence dates from 1785, the duty being
fixed at £10 in London and £5 in the country; and at the same
time the Interest chargeable was settled at |% per Moden
month, the duration of loans being confined to one *«»"**Jjjm
year. Five yean later the interest on advances'" ''■^■•^
over £2 and under £10 was raised to 15%. The modern
history of legislation affecting pawnbroking begins, however,
in 1800, when the act of 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 99 (1800) was
passed, in great measure by the influence of Lord Eldon, who
never made any secret of the fact that, when he was a young
barrister without briefs, he had often been indebted to the
timely aid of the pawnshop. TTie pawnbroken were grateful,
and for many yean after Lord Eldon's death they continued
to drink his health at their trade dinnen. The measure increased
the rate of interest to a halfpenny per half-crown per montlu
or fourpence in the pound per mensem— that is to say, ao%
per annum. Loans were to be granted for a year, although
pledges might be redeemed up to fifteen months, and the fint
week of the second month was not to count for interest. The
act worked well, on the whole, for three-quarten of a century,
but it was thrice found necessary to amend it. Thus in 1815
the licence duties were raised to £15 and £7, xos.for London
and the country respectively; another act of 1840 abolished
the reward to the "common informer" for reporting illegal
rates of interest; while in i860 the pawnbroker was empowered
to charge a halfpenny for the pawn-ticket when the loan was
under five shillings. As time went on, however, the main
provisions of the act of 1800 were found to be very irksome,
and the Pawnbroken' National Association and Uie Pawn-
broken' Defence Association worked hard to obtain a liberal
revision of the law. It was argued that the usury laws
had t>een abolished for the whole of the community with ihc
974
PAWNBROKING
■ingle czccptibn of tbt pftwnbnlfer who advanced less than
£10. The b'mitations of the act of 1800 interfered so considerably
with the pawnbrokers' proSts that, it was aigued, they could
not afford to lend money on bulky articles requiring extensive
storage room. In 1870 the House of Commons appointed a
Select Committee on Pawnbrokers, and it was stated in evidence
before that body that in the previous year 307,780,000 pledges
were lodged, of which between thirty and forty millions were
lodged in London. The average value of pledges appeared to
be about 4s., and the proportion of articles pawned dishonestly
was found to be only x in 14,000. Later ofBcial statistics show
that of the forfeited pledges sold in London less than so per
million are claimed by the police.
The result of the Select Committee was the Pawnbrokers
Act of 1872, which repealed, altered and consolidated all previous
legislation on the subject, and b still the measure which regulates
the relations between the public and the " brokers of pawn."
Based mainly upon the Irish law passed by the Union Parliament
it put an end to the old irritating restrictions, and reduced the
annual tax in London from £15 to the £7, los. paid in the
provinces. By the provisbns of the act (which does not affect
k>ans above £10), a pledge is redeemable w^ithin one year, and
seven days of grace added to the year. Pledges pawned for
los. or under and not redeemed in time become the property
of the pawnbroker, but pledges above xos. arc redeemable until
sale, which must be by public auction. In addition to one
halfpenny for the pawn-ticket — ^which is sometimes not charged
for very small pawns— the pawnbroker is entitled to charge as
interest one halfpenny per month on every as. or part of as.
lent where the loan is under 40s., and on every as. 6d. where
the k>an is above 408. " Special contracts " may be made where
the k>an is above 408. at a rate of interest agreed upon between
lender and borrower. Unlawful pawning of goods not the
property of the pawner, and taking in pawn any article from
a person under the age of twelve, or intoxicated, or any linen,
or apparel or unfinished goods or materials entrusted lo wash,
make up, &c, arc, ifiUr alia^ made offences punishable by
summary conviction. A new pawnbroker must produce a
magistrate's certificate before he can receive a licence; but the
permit cannot be refused if the appUcant gives sufficient evidence
that he is a person of good character. The word " pawnbroker "
must always be inscribed in large letters over the door of the
shop. Elaborate provisions are made to safeguard the Interesu
of borrowers whose unredeemed pledges are sold under the act.
Thus the sales by auction may take place only on the first
Monday of January, April, July and October, and on the follow-
ing days should one not be sufficient. This legislation was,
no doubt, favourable to the pawnbroker rather than to the
borrower. The annual interest on loans of as. had been increased
by successive acts of parliament from the 6% at which it stood
in 1784 to 2$% in 1800, and to 37 in i860— a rate which was
continued by the measure of 187a. The annual interest upon
a loan of half-a-crown is now 260%, as compared with 173 in
i860 and 86 in 1784; while the extreme point is reached In the
case of a loan of is. for three days, in which case the interest
Is at the rate of 1014% per annum. An English mont de pi£t£
was once projected by the Salvation Army, and in 1894 the
London County Council considered the practicability of municipal
effort on similar lines; but in neither case was anything done.
The growth of pawnbroking in Scotland, where the law as
to pledge agrees generally with that of England, is remarkable.
Early in the 19th century there was only one pawn-
broker in that country, and in 1833 the number
reached only 5 a. Even in 1865 there were no more
than 31 a. It is probable that at the present moment Glasgow
and Edinburgh together contain nearly as many as that
total. In Ireland the rates for bans are practically identical
with those charged in England, but a penny instead of a
halfpenny is paid for the ticket. Articles pledged for less
than £1 must be redeemed within six months, but nine months
are allowed when the amount is between 305. and £a. For sums
over £a the period a a year, as in England. In Irdand, too,
a fraction of a month is calcnlaled as a full month for pum u ges
of interest, whereas in England, after the first month, fortnights
are recogniaed. In 1838 there was an endeavour to establish
moots de pi6t4 in Ireland, but the scheme was so unsncccs^ul
that in 1841 the eight charitable pawnshops that had been opeoed
had a total adverw balance of £5340. But 1847 only three
were left, and eventually they coUapscd likewise.
The pawnbroker in the United States is, generally spealcing,
subject to considerable legal restriction, but violalions of the
laws and ordinances are frequent. Each state haa
its own regulations, but those of New York and Mas-
sachusetts may be taken as fairly representative.
*' Brokers of pawn '* are usually licensed by the mayon, or by
the mayorsand aldermen, but in Boston the police commis&ionen
are the licensing authority. In the state of New York penniu
are renewable annually on payment of $500, and the pawnbroker
must file a bond with the mayor, executed by himself and two
responsible sureties, in the sum of $10,000. The business is
conducted on much the same lines as in England, and the rate
of interest is 3% per month for the first six months, and a'o
monthly afterwards. Where, however, the loan exceeds 1 100
the rates are 2 and 1% respectively. To exact higher rates
is a misdemeanour. Unredeemed pledges may be sold at the
end of a year. Pawnbrokers are not alk>wed to engage in any
kind of second-hand business. New York contains one pawn-
shop to every xa,ooo inhabitants, and most of the pawnbrokers
are Jews. In the state of Massachusetts unredeemed p1ed;:«^
may be sold four noonths after the date of deposit. The Uoensin ^
authority may fix the rate of interest, which may vary for
different amounts, and in Boston every pawnbroker is bound
to furnish to the police daily a list of the pledges taken in during
the preceding twenty-four hours, qwdfying the hour of each
transactk>n and the amount lent.
The fact that on the continent of Europe monts de pi^t^ are
almost invariably either a state or a municipal monopoly
necessarily places them upon an eatirely different „ ^^
footing from the British pawnshop, but, compared STirtilpa
with the English system, the foreign is very elabor-
ate and rather cumbersome. Moreover, in addition to being
slow in its operation, it is, generally speaking, based upon the
supposition that the borrower carries in his pockets " papers **
testifying to his identity. On the other hand, it is argued that the
English borrower of more than £a Is at the mercy of the pawn-
broker in the matter of interest, that sura being the highest for
which a legal b'mit of interest is fixed. The rate of interest upon
a '* special contract " may be, and often is, high. For the matter
of that, indeed, this system of obtaining loans is always expensive,
either in actual interest or in collatenl disadvantages, whether
the lender be a pawnbroker intent upon profit, or the official
of a mont de pxhL In Paris the rate charged is 7%, and even
then the business is conducted at a loss except in regard to long
and valuable pledges. Some of the French provincial rates
arc as high as ia%, but in almost eveiy case they are less than
they were prior to the legislation of 1851 and 185 a. The French
establishments can only be created by decree of the president
of the Republic, with the consent of the local consell communat
In Paris the prefect of the Seine presides over the business; in
the provinces the mayor is the president. The administratis^
council is drawn one-third each from the conseil communal,
the governors of charitable societies, and the townspeople.
A large proportion of the capita] required for conducting the
institutions has to be raised by loan, while some part of the
property they possess is the product of gifts and legacies. The
profits of the Paris mont de pi6t£ are paid over to the '* Asstsunoe
Publique," the comprehensive term used by France to indicate
the body of diariuble fbondatkms. Originally thb was the
rule throughout France, but now many of them are eotlrely
independent of the chariuble institutions. Counting the bead
office, the branches and the auxiUafy shops, the Paris cslmbbsk-
ment has its doors open in some fifty or sixty districu; but the
vohime of its annual business is infinitely smaller than that
transacted by the London pawnbrokers. The aaaouat to be
PAWNBROKING
975
advtaccd bgr s uranidpal pawnshop is fixed by an offieuJ caBed
the commisaoin'PHstuf, who is compelled to load tlie scales
against the bonower, since, should the ^Icdve remain unredeemed
and bt sold for less than was lent upon it, be has to make good
the difference. This official b paid at the rate of i% upon
loans and renewals, and 3% on the amount obtained by the
sales of forfeited pledges. This is obviously the weakest part
of the French systenL The Paris mont de pi6t6 undertakes
to lend foui^iifths of the intrinsic value of articles made from the
preckniB meub, and two-thirds of that of other articles. The
maximum and minimum that may be advanced arc also fixed.
The latter varies in different paru of the countiy from one to
three franco and the former from a very small sum to the lo^eoo
francs which » the rule in Paris. Loans are granted for twelve
months with right of renewal, and unredeemed pledges may
then be sold by auction, but the proceeds may be daimed by
the borrower at any time within three years. Pledges may be
redeemed by insulments.
Somewhere between forty and fifty Fiendi towns poMcts muni-
cipal pawashopa^ a few of which, like those of Grenoble and Mont*
pellier, having been endowed, cbarae no isterest* Elsewhere the
rate varies from nU in oomc towns, for very small pledges, to 10%.
The constant tendency throughout France has been to reduce the
rate. The great estabuahment in Paris obtains part of iu working
capital — ^rcaervca and surplus formii - ^ • • •
moncv at a rate \'arying from a
time for which the loan is made. .
Parts mont de pi6t6 makes advances upon securities at 6%, plus
a duty of 5 centimes upon every hundred francs. The maximum
that can be lent in this way b £3a Up to &>% b lent on the.fsce
\ ana on * ... —
wming the baUnce^y borrowing
t to i% according to the kngth ctf
^ Under a law passed in 1801 the
value of government stock 1
I its own bonds, and 75% upon
other Mcuritics; but 60% only ooay be advanced on railway shares.
These advances are made for six months. Persons wishing to
borrow a larger sum than sixteen francs from the Paris mont de
pi4tA have to produce their papen of identity. In every case
a numbered metal cheek b givento the ciMtomer. and a duplicate
is attached to the article itsdL The appraising clerics decide upon
the sum that can be lent, and the amount is called out with the
number. U the borrower b dissatisfied he can take away hb
property, but if he accepts the offer he has to give full particubra
of nis name, address and oociqiation. The expats cakubte that
cverv transaction involving less than twenty-two francs results
in a loss to the Paris mont de piet^, while it b only those exceeding
eighty-five francs which can be counted upon to be invariably
profitable. The average loan b under thirty franca.
The borrowing of money on the security of goods depodted
has been the subject of minute regtilations in the Low Countries
from an eariy date. So far back as the year t6oo
the "archdukes" Albert and Isabelhi, governors
of the Spanish Netherlands under Ph3ip III.,
reduced the lawful rate of interest from 32! to 3i}%; but
since extortion continued they introduced the mont de pi6t€
in 1618, and, as we have already seen, in the course of a
dozen years the institution was established in all the populous
Belgian towns, with one or two exceptions. The interest
chargeable to borrowers was fixed originally at 15%, but was
shortly afterwards reduced, to be again increased to nearly the
old level. Meanwhile various towns possessed charitable funds
for gratuitous loans, apart from the official institutions. Shortly
after the mont de pi6t£ was introduced in the Spanbh provinces,
the prince-bbhop of Liige (Ferdinand of Bavaria) followed
the example set by the archdukes. He ordained that the net
profits were to accumulate, and the Interest upon the fund to
be used in reduction of the charges. The original rate was 15%,
when the Lombard money-lenders had been charging 43; but
the prince-bbhop's monts de pi6t6 were so successful that for
many years their rate of mterest did not exceed 5%-^t was,
indeed, not until 178S that it was increased by one-half. . These
flourishing institutions, along with those in Belgium proper,
were ruined by the French Revolution. They were, however,
re-established under French dominion, and for many years the
laws governing them were constantly altered by the French,
Dutch and Belgian governments in turn. The whole subject
b now regubted by a law of 1848, supplemented by a new
constitutran for the Brussels mont de pi6t6 dating from 1891.
The working capital of these ofKrial paWn^iops i* fumirficd by
charitable instiMtions or the municipalui(% but the Bniaitb oue
p ooo e sii o s a certain ei|>ilal of its own in additioiv The rate of
mterest charged in various paru of the country varies from 4 to
16%, but in Brussels it is usually less than half the maximum.
The management b very simibr to that of the French monts de
pidid, but the arrongemeott are mi|ch more favtninbfe to the
borrower. The ordinarv limit of baas b £130. In Antwerp
there b an " anonymous ' pawnshop, where the customer need not
Eive hb name or^ any other particulars. In Holland private pawn*
rokers fk)urish side by side with the municipal '^ Banloen van
Leening," nor are there any limitations upon the interest that
may be charged. The rules of the -olBcial institutkms are very
siroibr to those of the monts de pi^tA in the Latin countries, and
unredeemed pledges are sold publicly fifteen months after being
pawned. A fargc proportion or the advances are made upon gold
and diamonds: workmen's tools are not uken la pledge, and the
amoum lent varies from 8d. upwardsk On condition of finding
such sum of money as may be reouired for working capital over
and above loans from public institutions, and the " caution money **
deposited by the city officials, the municipality receives the probta
Pawnbcoking in Germany b conducted at once by the state,
by the municipalities^ and by private enterprise; but of all these
Institutions the state loan office in Berlin b (he most .
interesting. It dales from x8i34. and tbe working ^SA^Ste
capiul was found, and still conlinueK to be in pari
provided, by the Prussian State Bank. Tbe proiils are in*
vested, and the interest devoted to charitable purposes. The
maximum and minimum rales of interest ace fived, but the
rate varies, and often stands at about xa%. Two*thfids of
the estimated value b-ihe usual extent of a lean; fouf-fifths
b advanced 00 silver, and five-sixths on fine 0old. Stale and
municipal bonds may be pledged up to a naaimttm of £150^
the advance being 80% of the value, and a fixed Interest, of
6% b charged upon thcae securities^ The values are fixed by
p«ofessmnal vahien^ who^re liable to nsake (pod any loss that
may icault from ovegr<estimation» The bulk of Ihe ioans are
aader £5, and the sute office b used leas by the poor than by the
middle dassea. Loans run for six months, but a further six
months' grace b allowed forredemptioB belore Ihe article pledged
can be sold by auctkm. . The net annual profit usually amounu
to little more than 1 % upon Ihe capital employed. The pawie
broking laws of AusirbrHungaiy are veiy similar to those which
pievail- in England. Fmo Itmde exists, and the private trader,
who does most of the busincssb has to obtain a govemnent
cMiceaik>n and deposit cautie«-money varying in aBMunt from
£80 to £jBoo, acooidtng to the siae of the town. He has, how*
ever, to compete with the asonts de pifti or VeiBatacBttet,
which are sometimes municipal and sometimes sute insiitiiiioai<
The chief of these b the imperial pawn oflke of Vienna, which
was founded with charitable objects by the emperor Joseph L
in 1707, and one-half of the annual surplus has still to be paid
Over to the Vienna poor fund. Here, as in Berlin, the profits
are relatively small. Interest b charged at the uniCom rate
of to%, which b calculated In fortnightly periods, however
speedily redemption may follow upon pawning. For smaU
baas varying from two to three kronen, s% <»ly b charged.
The Hungarian state and munidpal institutions appear, on the
whole, to compete somewhat more successfully with the private
firms than b the case h» Vienna.
In Italy, the " oountiy of origia " of the nont de pift£, the
institution still flourishes. It is, as a rule, managed by a com*
mittee or commission, and the regubtions follow j^^^
pretty closely the lines of Ihe one in Rome, which ^^:
never lends leas than xod. or more than £40. Four-fifths of the
value b lent upon gold, silver and jewels, and two-thirds upon
other articles. The interest, which b reckoned monthly, varies
with the amount of the loan from 5 to 7%, but no interest b
changeable upon loans up lo s lire. A ban runs for six maaths,
and may be renewed for siniilar periods up to a maximum of
five years. If the renewal docs not take place within a fortnight
of the expiration of the ticket, the pledge b sold, any surplus
there may be being paid to the pawner. When more than
10 lire b lent there b a charge of i % for the ticket. Agencies
of the mont de pi6t£ are scattered about Rome, and carry on
their business under the same rules as the central office, with
the disadvantage lo the borrower that he has to pay an ** agent's
976
PAWNEE—PAWTUCKET
tee ** of 2%, wMch ii dedocied from tbe loan. Private pawn,
shops also exist in Italy, under police authority; but they charige
very high interest.
The moats de pifti in Spain have for a generation past been
{oseparably connected with the savings banks. We have already
• seen that theinstitution owes its ori^n in that country
' to the charitable exertions of a priest who charged
no interest, and the system grew until in 184c a
century after his death, the mont de pi€t£ began to receive the
sums deposited in the savings bank, which had just been esub-
Ushed, for which it paid 5% intercsL In 1869 the two institu-
tions were united. This official pawnshop chaises 6% upon
advances which run for periods varying fmai four to twdve
months, according to the nature of the article pledged, and a
further month's grace is allowed before the pledges are sold by
auction. Private pawnbrokers are also very numerous, espe-
cially in Madrid; but their usual charges amount to about 60%
per annum. They appear, however, to derive advantage from
making larger advances than their official rivals, and from doing
business during more convenient hours. In Portugal the monte
pio is an amalgamation of bank, benefit society and pawnshop.
Its businett consists chiefly in lending money upon markeuble
•ecurities, but it also makes advances upon plate, jewelry and
picdoas stones, and it employs officially licensed valuers. The
nte of interest varies with the bank rate, which it slightly
exceeds, and the amount advanced upon each article is about
thfte-fourths of its certified value. There is in Portugal a
second class of loan establishment answering exactly to the
English pawnshop). The pawnbroker b compelled to deposit
a sum, in acceptable securities, equal to the capital he proposes
to embark, and the register of his transactions must be sub>
mitted <|uarterly to the chief of the police for examinatioB.
As icgaids small transactions, there appears to be no legal
Hmit to the rate of interest. The sale of unredeemed pledges
is fovened by the law affecting the " monte pio geraL"
In Russia the sute isaintains two pawabioUng establisli-
one at St Petersburg and the other at Moscow, bit
only articles of gold and silver, psedous stones
and ingoU of the precious metals are accepted by
Advances are mado^upon such securities at 6% per
, and the amounts ol the loans are offidaUy limited.
Loans run for twelve months, with a moathls gnoe before
ouedcemcd pledges are put up to auction. T^ bulk of this
dsssof business in Russia is, however, oondocted by private
companies, which advance money upon all descriptions of
movable property except stocks and aharca. Tbe interest
charged ib not allowed to exceed 1% per month, but there is
an additional charge of |% per momh for **insinanoe and
»ie keeping." The loan runs for a year, with two months'
gnce for redemptwa before sale. There are also a certain
number of pawnshops conducted by individuak, who find it
very difficult to compete with the companies. These shops can
only be opened by a police permit, whidi rans for five years, and
security, varying from £100 to £700^ has to be deposited; a%
per month is the Hmit of interest .fixed, and two montW
grace is aUowed for redemptioB after the period for which an
article is pledged.
Pawnbroking in Denmark dates from 1753, when the Royal
Naval Hospital was granted the monopoly of advancing
^. ^ ' money on pledges and of diargii^ higher iaterest
al!j£v9w ^^^'^ *^ ^^ permitted. The duniion of a loan
b three months, renewah bcang allowed. The oU
law was extended in 1867. and toow all p awnhw ke rs have to
be lieensed by the muaidpalities and to pay a saiaB aaaual
licence fee. Tie nte of interest vaiim from 6 to 13% acooRiBg
to the aesount of the loan, which m«t not be leas than rd^
and unredeeesed piedges most he said by anctioaL In Swedes
there are no special statutes affecting pawnbrekiag. with the
exception of a prodamatioa by the gorcmor of Stockholm pn>-
hibtting the lending of money upon articles whtch any be sns-
pected of having been stolen, lodividaab still carry on the
I a small scale, but (ha hulk of it b now coMlactfld b]r
companies, which gilre geaerd satisfaction. For
there was in Stockholm a municipal csublishnsent chan;^|
to% for loans paid out of the dty funds. Tlie cost of zdie^a^
tiation was, however, so great that there was an annual b«,
upon its working, and the opportunity was taken to abolA,
it when, in 1880, a private company was formed called ib
"Pant Aktie Bank/' to lend money on furniture and ^tir.%
apparel at the rate of 3 tee per krone a month, and s die p«
krone a nionth on gold« silver and other valuables: a kro3<
which equab is. iid.» nrmfsins 100 tee. Some years later lal
opposition was started which charged only half these rau%]
with the result that tbe origiaal enterprise reduced its interdl,
to the same level, fhaiging, however, s dre per krone per metbcai;
for bulky artidm— a figure which b now usual for pledges il,
that desoiptioQ. The money b lent for three months, and H
the end of five months the pledge, if uiuredeemed, is sokJ b§
auction under very carefully prescribed conditions. In Komf
a police licence b required for lending money on pawn wheie
the amount advanced doss not exceed £4, los. Beyond that
sum no licence b neocssaiy, but the interest chained must not
exceed such a rate as the king may dedde.
The fate of pawnbroking in Switzerland appears to be oot
very dissimibr from that of the Jew who b fabled to ba>t
once started in businem at Abcsdoen. Meverthdesa ^ ff,„fc,dr
the cantons of Bern and Zdridi have elaborate
laws for the regulation of the business. In Zliridi tU
broker must be licensed by the cantonal government, asd
the permit can he refused only u4ien the apptirant b ** knova
to be a person undeserving of confidence.** Regular booa
have to be kept, which must be at all rimes open to tbe inspection
of the police, and not more than x% interest per inontb muit
be charged. A loan raaa for alx months, and anredecmed
pledges may be sold by auctioo a month after the expcrataon of
the fixed period, and then the sale must take place in tbe panak
in which the artjde was pledged. No more than two persazs
at a time have ever been licenied under thb law, tbe bosines
being unprofitable owing to tbe low nte of mtcrest. In t:<
canton of Bern there were once two pawnfarakcn. One d:^:
and the other put up hb shutters. The Zurich «^-"*^' bink^
however, conduc t s a pawnbroking department, whicb lendi
nothing under 48. or over £40 without the special sanftinn of the
bankcommissbn. Loans must not exceed two-thirds of tbe tr^de
value of the pledge, but 80% may be lent npoo tbe intiissx
value of gold and silver articles. The wrshfahfrat makes
practically no profit. The Swim disinrlmatioa to fo to tbe
pawnshop is, perhaps, aooounted lor in aonm mtasuia by tbe
growing number of deabn in second-hand articles, to wb^^
peisoos in want of ready money scO ootij^t sacb tbn^ «i
are usually pledged, in the hope of suhoeqiaenftlj boyi^c ibea
back. Since, however, the dealer b at liberty to ask bis ow
price ibr repurchase, the expect ation b often iUBSOfy. nad can
usually be fulfilled only upon ruinous terms. 0- P--Bl )
PAWNSB (perhaps from the native word for * honw* in afi^ -£
to their scalping lock, which was "dressed" so as to *y- -_
straight up), a tribe of North-American Imfiaaa of Cftdi2o;.r
stock. They formcrty lived on the Platte river ia Xcbea«<4^
They caU themselves SkikiksikUks (" men of meat "V T^-->
were a brave, war-loving tribe, whose history was one of cocr-
strife with their Beighboum. In 1823 their viffage was W.^ -.
by the Ddawaies, and ia 183S the tribe suffcscd le w ciUy •
small-pox, the death-roll being, it b said, sooo. By tzcx.« *
1833 they had ceded thdr territory south of the Vtaxir. ar *
iSs8 they surrendered aU their remaining land exo^ & sr- -
00 the Loup River. Here thqr lived till 1874, wbea tbe> m- .-
to a reservation ia Indian Teniioiy (now OUahona), wins i>.r?
now are.
PAVIUCUr, a dty of Providence oouaty, Rbo^k IsLs^ '.
U.S^, oa the Bbckstone livcr (known below the Paw:*a.. & -
Falls here as the P^wtucket or Scekonk ihrer), 4 m. X ..
Pro>iden€c and near the dty of Central Fals ^^
state census). 43.381, of whom M^^fig were forei^n-boaL. Ba^' _.<>
mg 427J C^hsh, i«S4 Irish, ajofi French Canadbii^ amd -..^
PAX-i-PAYMASTER-GENERAL
977
Tatm
Scotch; (x9io)« 51,692. Pawtucket is served by the New YeA»
New Haven & Hartford railroad; and the river is navigable
below the falls. The dty lies on both sides of the river and its
land area in 1906 was nearly 8*6 m. The east bank of the river
rises quite abruptly 15-30 ft., but back of this the surface is
level or only ali^tiy undulating. On the west side the Surface
is more divenified. The Blackstone River here makes a
picturesque plunge of nearly 50 ft. (Pawtucket Falls) over an
irregular mass of rocks, providing a good water-power. The
most attractive public building is the Sayles Memorial library,
erected (1899-1902) by Frederick Clark Sayles (1835-1902) in
memory of his wife. The city has a park of 181 acres in the
east en4, a park of 55 acres on the west side, thrde small parks
near the business centre, a soldiers' monument, a home for the
aged, an emergency hospital, and a state armoury. Manu-
facturing is the principal industry, and the value of the factory
products increased from $19,271,581 in 1900 to $25,846,899
in 1905, or 34*1%' More than one-half the value for 1905
was represented by textiles. Other important manufactures
in 1905 were foundry and machine-shop products, packed meats«
and electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies. The commerce
of the city has been much increased by the deepening and
widening of the channel of the Pawtucket river by the United
States government. In 1867 the river could not be navigated
at low water by boats drawing more than s ft. of water, but
by March 1905 the government had constructed a channel
loo ft. wide and 12 ft. deep at low water, and Congress had
passed an act for increasing the depth to 16 ft.; in 1907 the
Federal Congress and the general assembly of the state made
appropriations to complete the work.
That portion of Pawtucket which lies east of the river was
originally a part of the township of Rehoboth, Massachusetts,
but in 18 X a the township of Seekookwasset apart from Rehoboth,
in X828 the township of Pawtucket was set apart from Seckonk,
and in 1 86 2 almost all of the Massachusetts township of Pawtucket
was transferred to Rhode Island. The portion west of the river
was taken from the township of North Providence and annexed
to the township of Pawtucket in 1874, and in 1885 Pawtucket
was chartered as a city. The first settlement within the present
city limits was made about 1670 on the west side by Joseph Jenks
(e. x63»-t7i7), a manufacturer of domestic iron implements.
His manufactoty was destroyed during King Philip's War,
but he rebuilt It, and until a century later the industries on
the fmt side were managed largely by his family. In 1790
Samuel Slater reproduced here the Arkwright machinery for
the manufacture of cotton goods; this was the first manufactory
of the kind that had any considerable success in the United
Sutes. and his old mill is still standing in Mill Street.
See R. Grieve, An lUustroUd History ^ Ptuatiuket, Central FaUSr
amd Vicinity (Pawtucket, i897)-
PAZ (Lat. for " peace "), the name given In ecclesiastical usage
to a small panel or tablet decorated usually with a representa-
tion of the Crucifixion, which in the Roman ritual was liisaed
at the eucharistic service by the celebrating priest, then by
the other priests and deacons, and then by the congregation.
Tlie " Pax " b abo known by the names oscnlatoritany iabnta
paeit and pax-bred (t.e. " pax>4)00Td "). The use of the " pax "
dates from the X3th century, and it is said to have been first
Introduced in England in 1250 by Archbishop WalUr of York.
It took the place of the actual " kisa of peace ** (osadum samctuwh
or osenlum paeit) which was in the Roman Mass given by the
bishop to the priests* and took place after the consecration
and before communion. In the Greek Church the kiss (cMrv,
AtfraoyiAt) takes place at the beginning of the service, and now
consisu ia the celebrating priest kissing the oblation and the
deacon kissfaig his stole (see F. £. Brightman, IMurgits Baskm
atid WeOem^ 1896). Owing to disputes over qne^ions of
precedence the kissing ef the pax at the service of the Mass
waa given up. It is atill used at times of prayer by religious
eomnmiities or societies^ In the 15th and 16th centuries
much artistic skill was laviriied 00 the pax, and beautiful
tfxainplM of enaxBcUed paxes with chased gold and silver frames
are in the British Museum. Though the Crucifixion Is most
usually represented, other religious subjecu, such as the Virgin
and Child, the Annunciation, the figures of patron saints and
the like, are found. In the " Inventarie of the Plate, Jewells
...and other Ornaments appertayning to the Cathcdrall
Chuicfae of Sa^ncte Paulein London," 1552, we find two paxes
mentioned; one "with the ymage of the Crucifix and of Marie
and John all gylte with the Sonn alsoe and the Moone, the
backsyde whereof is crymosin velvett," and another '* with
the ymage of our Ladle sett aboughte with x greate stones the
backsyde whereof is grene velvett " {Hierurg^ angficatu, pt. L,
t9oa).
PAXO (PaxosJ, one of the Ionian Islands {qjt.\ about 8 m.
S. of the southern extremity of Corfu, is a hilly mass of limestone
5 m. long by 2 broad, and not more than 600 ft. high. Pop;
about 5000. Though it has only a single stream and a few springs,
and the inhabitants were often obliged, before the Russians
and English provided them with cisterns, to bring water, from
the mainland, Paxo is well clothed with olives, which produce oil
of the very highest quality. Galon (or, less correctly. Gala), the
principal village^ lies on the east coast, and has a small harbour.
Towards the cent re, on an eminence, stands Papandi, the residence
of the bishop of Paxo, and throughout the ishuid are scattered
a large number of churches, whose belfries add greatly to the
picturesqueness of the views. On the west and south-west
coasts axe some remarkable caverns, of which an account will be
found in Davy's Ionian Islands, L 66-71. Andent writers —
POlybius, PUny, &c.— do not mention Paxos by itself, but apply
the plural form Paxi (IIa{df) to Paxos and the smaller island
which is now known sa Antipaxo (the Propaxosof the Antonino
Uinerary)^ Paxos is the scene of the curious legend, recorded
in Plutarch's De defodu onadortm, of the cxy " Pan is dead "
fsee Pan)
PAXTON, SIR JOSEPH (X80X-X865), English architect and
ornamental gardener, waa bom of humble parents at Milton
Brjrant, near Wobum, Bedfordshire, on the 3rd of August x8of ,
and was educated at the grammar school of that town. Having
served his apprenticeship as gardener from the age of fifteen,
and himself opnatnicted a brgc Uke when gardener to Battlesden
in iSat, he was in 1823 employed in the arboretum at Chiswick,
the seat of the duke of Devonshire, and eventually became
st<t>eiintendent of the duke's gardens and grounds at Clutsworth,
and manager of his Derbyshire estates. In 1836 he began to
erect a grand oooservatory 300 ft. in length, which waa finished
in 1840^ and formed the niodel for the Great Exhibition building
of 1 851. In this year Paxton received the honour of knighthood.
Perhaps his most interesting design was that for the mansion
of Baron James dc Rothschild at Ferri&res in France, but he
•designed many other important buildings. His venatUity
was shown in his oiganixation of the Army Works Corps
which served in the Crimea, his excellent capacity as a man of
business in railway management, and his enterprising experi«
ments in fioriculture. In 1854 he waa chosen M.P. for Coventry,
which he continued to represent in the Liberal interest till his
death at Sydenham on the 8th of June X865. Paxton waa
elected in 1826 a fellow of the Horticultural Society. In the
following year he married Sarah Bown. In X833 he became a
fellow of the Liimean Society, and in 1844 he was made a knight
of the order of St Vladimir by the emperor of Russia.
He was the author of seven] oontributwns to the literature
of horticulture, iacluding a Procticai Treatiso on Ike CuUuro of tko
Dahlia (1838), and a Pocket Botanical Dictionary (ist ed.. 1840).
He also edited the Cottage Calendar, the HorticnfturaS Register and
the Botanical Magazine.
PAYMASTER-OENERAU in England, a public officer and
a member of the ministry for the time being. The office was,
l»y sUtntes passed in X835 and 1848, consolidated with other
offices through which moneys voted by parliament were pre-
viously paid. The paymaster-general is appointed by sign
manual warrant, he Is unpaid, and does not require to offer himself
for reflection on acceptance of office. The money appropriated
by parliament for the varioua services of the country is placed
978
PAYMENT—PAYMENT OF MEMBERS
by order of the Treuiuy to the aaxmnt of the paymaster-
general, and a communication to that effect made to the
comptroller and auditor-general. The paymaster-general then
makes all payments required by the various departments in
accordance with the parliamentary vot& The duties of the
office are carried out by a permanent staff, headed by an
assistant paymaster-general, acting on poweis granted by the
payraaster-generaL
PAYMENT (Fr. paiemenl, from payer, to pay; Lat. paeart,
to appease, pax, peace), the performance of an obligation^
the (tischaige of a sum due in money or the equivalent of money.
In law, in order that payment may extinguish the obligation
it is necessary that it should be made at a proper time and place,
in a proper manner, and by and to a proper person. If the
sum' due be not paid at the appointed time, the creditor is
entitled to sue the debtor at once, in spite of the readiness of
the latter to pay at a later date, subjoa, in the case of bills and
notes, to the allowance of days of grace. In the common case
of sale of goods for ready money, a right to the goods vests at
once upon sale in the purchaser, a right to the price in the seller;
but the seller need not prnrt withthe goods tUlpaymentof theprice.
Payment may be made at any time of the day upon which
it falb due, except in the case of mercantile contracts, where
the creditor is not bound to wait for payment beyond the usual
hours of mercantile business. If no fUace be fixed for payment,
the debtor is bound to find, or to use reasonable means to find,
the creditor, imkss the latter be abroad. Payment must be
made in money which is a legal tender (see below), unless the
creditor waivs his right to payment in money by accepting some
other mode of payment, as a n^potiable instrument or a tnuufer
of credit. If the payment be by negotiable instrument, the
instrument may operate either aa an absolute or as a conditional
discharge. In the ordinary case of payment by cheque the
creditor accepts the cheque conditionally upon its being
honoured; if it be dishonoured, he is remitted to his original
righu. If payment be made through the post, in a letter
properly directed, and it be lost, the debt is discharged if there
was a direction so to transmit the money. The creditor has a,
right to payment in full, and is not boimd to accept part payment
unless by special agreement. Part payment is sufficient to take
the debt out of the Statute of Limitation. It is a technical
rule of EngUsh law that payment of a smaller sum, even though
accepted by the creditor in full satisfaction, is no defence to a
subsequent action for the debt. The reason of this rule seems
to be that there is no consideration for the creditor foregoing
his right to full payment. In- order that payment of a smaller
sum may satisfy the debt, it must be made by a person other
than the person originally liable, or at an eariier date, or at
another piace, or in another manner than the date, piace, or
manner contracted for. Thus a bill or note may be satisfied
by money to a less amount, or a money debt by a bill or note
to a less amount; a debt of £roo camot be discharged by pay-
ment of £90 (unless the creditor execute a release under seal),
though it may be discharged by payment of £10 before the day
appointed, or by a bill for £10. Payment must in general be
rnade by the debtor or his agent, or by a stranger to the contract
with the assent of the debtor. If payment be made by a stranger
without the assent of the debtor, it seems uncertain how far
English law regards such payment as a satisfaction of the debt.
If the debtor ratify the payment, it then undoubtedly becomes
a satisfaction. Payment must be made to the creditor or his
agent. A bona fide payment to an apparent agent may be
good, though he has La faa no authority to receive it. Such
payment will usually be good where the authority of the agent
has been countermanded without mtice to the debtor. The
fact of payment may be presumed, as from lapse of time. Thus
payment of a testator's debu is generally presumed after twenty
years. A written receipt is only presumptive and not condnsivie
evidence of payment. By the Stamp Act 1891 a duty of one
penny is imposed upon a receipt for or upon the payment of
moucy amounting to £2 or upwards, and alao a fine of £to
Bpon any person who, in any case where a leceipt wonld be
liable to duty, refuses to i|ve a reeeipt doly flttttped. Iff pty-
ment be made under a mbtake of fact, it may be recovered,
but it is otherwiM if it be made under a mistaike of law, for it is
a maxim of law that tgn&ranUa iegis nemimtm exeusoL Money
paid under compulsion of law, even though not due, cannot
generally be veoovered where there has been iu> faaad or extor-
tion. For appropriation of payments see AmtoraiAiioK.
Puymgni tnlo and Out ^ C»«rf.~Moaey is generairy uud intQ
conn to abide the resuk 01 pending litigatkNi, as wlitfe K*%»*i**-
has aheady begun, as security for cotts or as a defence or partial
defence to a claim. Payment into^ court does not necessarily
I and slander) operate as an admi&^^ioa
(except in actions for Ub _^ _, _
of itabilicy. Payment into <o«Ht b regulated by the ittUr of tkt
Supreuti Cottr^ 0» xxit. The fact that nooey has bees paid iato
court may not be mendoned to a juiy. Money may aoawiifcnes
be paid into court where no litigation is pending, as in the caic of
trustees. Payment of money out of court is obtained by the order
Of the court upon petition or summons or otherwise, or simply on
the request or the written authority of the person entitled w it.
PaymcrU of Wagu.^Tbt^ paymeat of wages to labourers and
workmen otnerwise than in coin js prohibited. See LAftoca
Legislation: Truck. Domestic or agricultural servants ore ex-
cepted. Payment of wages in puti&e>hoases (except in the cose of
domestic servants) b ill^dk
' r<ra4^.— This it payment duly pcxyfTersd to a creditor, but rea-
denxl abortive by the act of the creditor. In order that a tender
may be good in law it must as a rule be made under circumstancxs
which would make it a good payment if accepted. The money
tendered must be a legal tcodcr. umcss the cralitor waive his right
to a legal tender, as where he objects to the amount and not tbe
mode 01 tender. Bank of England notes are bgol tender for any
sum above £5, except by the bank itself. Col<r is legal tender to
any amount^ silver up to 40s., bronze up to is. (Coinage Act 1870).
Any gold cotnajse, whether British, cotoaial or foreign, nuy be
made legal tender by prodamatioa. The effect of tender b noe
to discharge the debt, but to enable the debtor, when sued for the
debt, to pay the money into court and to get judgment for the
costs of his defence^
Stotland.—Tbt law of Scotland as to paynent agrees ia mum
points with that of England. Where a debt b constittiied by writ
payment cannot be proved by witnesses: where it b not consti-
tuted by writ, payment to the amount Of £loo Scots may be pro\t'd
by witnesses; beyond that amount it can only be proved t^ writ
or oath of party. The term tender seems to be strictly applied
idicial offer of a sum (or damaies and exoeases n«de \>y
the dcbiur
„ - „ legal tender
Scotland or la Ireland.
Uniud States,*^\n the United States the law as a ndc docs not
materially differ from English law. In some sutc^ how e v er .
money may be recovered, even when it has been paid under a mi>>
take of law. The oucstion of legal tender has been an injjpirtaat
one. In i86aand 1863 Congress passed acts making treasury notr»
legal tender (see Gbkbnbacks). After much Utigstion, the Supreme
Court of the United ^utes decided in 1871 (iCfiox v. Ut) m favour
of the constitutionality of these acts, both as to contracts made
before and after they were passed. These notes are legal tcnd.r
for all purposes except duties on imports and interest on the putHc
debt. All gold coins and standard ^ver ddlars are legal teiKier to
any amount. Silver coins below the denominatkm 01 a doUar are
legal tender up to Sio, and cent and s-cent pieces kgal tender
to an amount not exceeding 25 cents. It falls excluavely withii
the jurisdiction of Congress to declare paper or copper money
a legal tender. By the constitution of the United States. " no
sure shall . » . make anything but gold and silver con a
tender in payment of debts ^' (art. i. f 10), {T. A. I.)
PATMENT OF MEHBERS. From time to time proposals
have been made to ntintroduoe in the English parliamentary
system a practice wluch h almost uiuveisally adopted in other
countries, that of paying a state salary to members of the
legislative body. In the earlier histeiy of tbe EngUsfa parlia-
ment the paymedl of commoners or representatives of the
people was for long the practice. They had first been sammotted
to the great ooondl of the realm in I265 in the teign of Hcmy UI.
The shires aad boroughs they represented paid them for
their services, and rein^bursed the expenses they wcsc put to
in journeying to and from the place of meeting. In 1393, by
a statute of Edward II., the salary- of a knight waa fixed at 4s.
a day, and that of a dtiien or burgher at aa. a day. These
payments oeuld be enforced by writs issued after the disBohttioa
of each parliament, and there are many instances of the asue
of stich writs down to the reign of Henry VIII. ; while the last
known instaaoe is thaioi one Thomas King, who la ififti obcaioed
PAYMENT OF MEMBERS
979
A^writ for lib salary against the eorpontioii of Harwidi. The
practice of the payment of memben of parliament gradually
fe]l into desuetude, and in the second parliameDt of Charles II.
strong disapproval was expressed of the practice. lu gradual
abandonment was due first to the difficulty of securing repre-
sentatives in the early parliaments. Men of business were
unwilling to detach themselves ftom their affain, as travel
was slow and dangerous; in addition to the perils of the journey
there was the almost certain knowledge that a safe return from
parliament would be followed by the ill will of the member's
neighbours^ for every meeting of parliament was but a device
on the part of the sovereign for inflicting some new form of
taxation, and a refusal to vote such taxation was but to incur
the royal displeasure. The towns themselves were equally
disinclined to bear the burden of their member's maintcnanee,
and some even went so far as to obtain their disfranchisement.
In the second place, the growing influence of parliament in
the x6th century brought about a revulsion of feeling aa to
parliamentary services, and the increase in the number of
candidates led first to bargafaiing «n their part in the shape
of undertaking to accept reduced wages and expenses, and^
finally, to forego all. A step further was reached when the
constituency bargained as to what it should receive from iu
representative, resulting in wholesale bribery, which required
legislation to end it (see Comupt PstAcncxs).
In England, the House of Commons has on varions occa-
sions carried resolutions In favour of the principle, moreeqiedaUy
on the S4th ef March 1893 (by 776 votes to 329), and on the
33nd of March 1895 (by 176 to 158). On these occasions the
resolutions simply specified an " adequate allowance "; but on
the 7th of March t9o6 a resolution was carried (by 348 votes to
no) in favour of an allowance " at the rate of £300 per annum."
Appended are the salaries paid to legislators in various
countries in 1910.
BbITISH COLONtZS
Spulh i4/r»ca.— Before the South Africa Act 1909, wWch
brought about the union of Cape Colony, Naul, Orange River
Colony and the Transvaal, each colony had its own legislature.
For purposes of comparison, the sal^iries which were paid to the
members of these state legislatures are given below. The act
of 190^ reduced the colonies U» the position of dependent
provinces, entrusted only with local administration by means of
provincial councils. The act ot 1909 (S 76) enacts that the
members of provincial councils shall receive such allowances as
shall be determined by the governor-general in council. Mem-
bers of the new South African legislature receive £400 a year,
subject to a deduction of £3 a day for each day*s non-attendance.
Capf Colcny. — Members of cither house were paid 2 is. a day.
and those residing more ilian 15 m. from Cape Town an additional
15s. a day, for a period not exceeding 90 days.
iVdia/.— •Members of ihc legislature were not paid, but those
rrsidinir more than » m. from the vat of government received a
travelling allowance of £1 a day during rhc session.
Oranu Kitrr Cohny—M tnc end of ihc session each member
received f 1 50. and an additional l» forcach day of actual attendance,
but not more than £300 in all.
Tromipooi Ccionyj^M in (he Ocange River Colony.
Cfl«flrf<i.— Federal government. Members of both houses are
paid $3500 per session, but subject to a deduction of Si 5 a day
for each day of non-aiicndance.
Ontario — Members of the Legislative Assembly are paid mflea(*e
and an allowance of S6 a day (or 30 days, with a maximum of Si 000.
^iirArr.*— Mevibcrs of the Ucytslative AaMmbly are paid (6 a
day during the seision.
Nwa 5cWto.— Members are paid an indemnity of fsoo for the
•iesMon.
Nrm iy^Mvlrl.— Memben of the Legislative Assembly receive
$500 per session and travelling expenses.
itf<i«i/a^a.— Membef> of the Legislative Assembly receive $1000
per session and travelling expenses.
Bnlitk Co/vmfrfo.— Members of the Legi4atfive AssMnMy moHw
%1200 per session and travelling expenses.
Pnntt ILdward Jtland.—Mcmbcn of the Legislative Assembly
' Quebec and Nova Scotia have caeh iwocbunbera. The other
Canadian provinces have only one chamber.
fKdvt* $160 per nanam and timvclUag expcnsei, with an additional
$12 for poatage.
Australian C ommonw e aU kj-^Mcmhcn of parliament receive
£600 per annum. .
New South H'o/rf.— Members of the Legislative Assembly leeeivc
£300 per annum, and free travel over all government railways and
tramways. They are also given official stamped envelopes for their
postage purposes.
V'tcloria.— Members of the Legislative Assembly receive £300 per
annum and free passes over all railways.
g m w iJ/ a arf. -^Membera of the Legislative Assembly receive £300
per annum, with travelling expenses.
South Australia^ — Members both of the Legislative Council and
of the House of Assembly receive £300 per annum and free passes
over all government railways.
Western Austraiia. — Members of the Legislative Council receive
£300 a year and free travel on all government railways.
r<Mmastti.<^Mcmboni of both houses receive £100 a year and
free railway passes.
Ntw Zealand ^Members of the Legislative Council ire paid
£300 per annum. Members of the Uotiae of RepresenUtivcs
are paid £35 a month.
United States
Federai CMummaif.— Senators, representatives or delegates
receive I7500 a year, and travelling expenses.
Alabama. — There is a sessbn once in four years, such session being
limited to 50 days, during which senators and representatives
receive I4 a day and mileage.
AriMoma Territory. — ^A Dtennial session of 60 days* duration,
during which mcmbera of the council and representatives receive
$4 a day and mileage.
Arkansas has a biennial session of 60 days* duration, for which
senators and roprcsenutives receive $6 a day and mileage.
California's legislature meets biennially, but there is no fixed len^h
for the session. Senators and memben of the Assembly receive
Siooo and mileaj^ for the term.
Colorado's session is biennial and limited to 90 days. Senators
and representatives receive $7 a day and mileage during session.
Comne€lkut gives senators and representatives $300 and mileage
for their term of two years.
Delaware has biennial sessions of 60 days, and may have extra
sessions limited to ^o days. Senators and representatives receive
$S a day during sessions.
Florida has biennial sessions of 60 days. Senators and repre-
sentatives receive $6 a day during the session and mileage.
Ceoriia has annual sessions limited to 50 days. Senators and
representatives receive $4 a day and mileage.
Idaho's senators and representatives receive rotleage and $5 a
day during the session, which is biennial.
Illinois has a biennial session, for which senators and reprc-
■entatives receive (1000 a year and mileage. For extraordinary
sessions they receive (5 a day.
Indiana has biennial sessions limited to 60 days. Senators and
representatives receive $6 a day and mileage.
Iowa has biennial sessions of unlimited length. Senators and
representatives receive S550 for the session, with mileage.
Kansas has biennial sessions limited to 50 days. Senators and
representatives receive $3 a day during the session, with mileage.
Kentucky has biennial sessions limited to 60 days. Senators
and representatives receive (^ a day and mileage.
L<niisiana has biennial seseions limited to 60 days. Senators and
representatix-cs receive Ss a day during the session with mileage.
Maine's senators and representatives receive %\ao a year and
mileage. Sessions are biennial and of no fixed length.
Maryland has biennial sessions limited to 90 days. Senators
and delegates receive $s a day during the session and mileage.
Massachusetts has an annual session, for which senators and
representatives receive each a lump sum of (750 and mileage.
Miehig&n has bicnntal scssiona not of fixed length, and senators
and representatives are paid 8S00 a year and mileage.
Minnesota has biennial sessions limited to 90 days. Senators
and representatives receive $1000 a year besides limited travelling
expenses.
Mississippi has a session every four years, unUmited in length.
Special sesstons. also, limited to 30 days, are held in alternate years.
Senators and repiesentatives rrccive a sum of S400 for eaih scss^ioiu
Missouri has biennial sessions of no fixrd length. Senators and
representatives receive (5 a day for the first 70 days of each session,
and f I a day for each succeeding day.
Montana has biennial sessions hmtted to 60 days. Senators
and representatives receive 5i3 a day during session.
Nebraska has biennial se9^«ions unfimirnl in length. Senatof^
and rrpresentatives are paid S$ a day and mileage (lO cents a
mile) for not- more than 60 days of any one session. If extra-
ordinary sesMont are held the tmal days paid for must not exceed
100 durii^ the two jrears for which they mi.
980
PAYMENT OF MEMBERS
Nevada has biennU teaiam Badted to €0 dayi» bat special
•essions limited to ao days may be held. Senators and repre*
sentatives receive |to a day and mileage during sessiona.
New Hampshire has biennial sessions, which last until prorogued
by the governor. The duration is usually about three months.
Senators ami representatives receive $200 for the session and
mileage.
New Jersey has an annual session, unlimited in length. Senators
and members of the General Assembly receive $500 a year.
New Mexico has biennial sessions of 60 days. Members of the
Council and representatives receive $4 a day.
New York has an annual session. Members of the Senate and
of the Assembly receive lisoo a year.
North Carolina has biennud sessions limited to 60 days. Senators
and representatives receive $4 a day during the session and
mileage.
North Ddtota has biennial sessions limited to 60 days. Senators
and representatives receive 55 a day during the session and mileage.
Ohio has biennial sessions not umited in length. Senators and
lepresenutives receive Ixooo a year.
Oklahoma has biennial sessions. Senators and representatives
receive $6 a day for the first 60 day»— thcieaf ter |a a day— ,and
mileage (10 cents a mile).
Oregon has biennial sessions limited to 340 days. Senators and
representatives receive I3 a day during the session and mileage.
' Pennsylvania has biennial sessions. Senators and representatives
receive 91500 for the session with mileage, with aa extra allowance
of I150 for stationery and postage.
Rhode Island has an annual session unlimited in length. Senatora
and representatives receive $5 a day during the session.
Sonm Carolina has an annual session unlimited in length. Senatora
fitA remesentatives receive $4 a day for the first 40 days.
Souk Dakota has biennial sessions of 60 days. Senatora and
/eprcsentatives receive I5 for each day's attendance, and travelling
expenses*
Tennessee has biennial scions. Senatora and repre s en tatives
receive $4 a day for not more than 75 days a session and mileage
(16 cents a mile). If absent they do not receive pay, unless they are
physically unable to be present.
.Texas has biennial sessions, unlimited in length. Senatora and
representatives receive mileage and $^ a day for the first 60 days of
the session;. for succecdin]^ days ^2 a day.
Utah has biennial sessions limited to 60 day*. Senatora and
representatives receive $4 a day during the session and mileage^
Vermont has biennial sesnons unlimited in length. Senatora
and representatives receive I4 a day during the session and mileage.
Virginia falls biennial sessions limited to 60 days. Senatora and
delesates receive $500 for the session and mileage.
Washington has biennial sessions limited to 60 days. Senatora
and representatives receive $5 A day for each days attendance
and travelling expenses.
West Virginia has biennial ses^ons limited to 45 days, which can
be added to by a two-thirds majority. Senatora and delegates
receive $4 a day during the session and mileage.
I Wisconsin has biennial sessions. Senatora and membera of the
Assembly receive $500 for the session, and travellii^ expenses at
the rate of 10 cents a mile.
Wyoming has biennial sessions limited to 40 days. Senatora
and representatives receive $8 a day during the sesrion and
mileage.
FOUICN COUMTSIES
Argentina.— 'Boih senatora (30) and members of tbe Houie of
Deputies (120) receive £to6o a year.
i4i«/rk».— Members of thc.Lower House (516) receive 168. 8d,
for each day's attendance, with travclb'ng expenses.
Be/;iMm.— Membera of the Chamber of Representatives (x66)
receive £160 a year and a free pass over railways.
Bofivia.—SensLioTs (16) and deputies (69) receive £40 a month
during sessions, which last from 60 to 90 days.
Bulgaria. — Merobera of the Legislature receive xGs. a day
during the session, which nominally lasts from the xsth oif
October to the 1 5th of December.
Denmark. ^-hUmhcn both of the Landsthing (66) and of tbe
Folkething (114) receive lis. id. a day for the first six months
of the session, and 6s 8d. for each additional day of the session.
Tbey receive also second-class free passes an all railways.
Frame. — Members of both tbe Senate (joo) and of the
Chamber of Deputies (584) receive £600 a year.
German Empire. — Membera both of the Bundesrat (58) and
of the Rcichsiag (397) receive £1 50 for the session, but have
deducted £t lor each day's abeenoe. ' They tecdf« ako free
passes over the German railways during the session.
Baden pays memben of its Second Chamber and sucfa members
of the Upper Chamber as have not got hereditaiy seats las. a day
and travelling expenses, but to those membeis who reside in the
capital pa. a day only.
Baoaria pays members of Che Lower House (163) £x8o for a
regular session. They are also allowed free tcavel over the
government railways^
tf«n».*-'MembeiB of the Second Chamber (50) and non*
hereditaiy memben of tbe Upper Chamber who reside mote
than xi m. from tbe pUce of meeting receive gs. a day and
3S. for each night, besides a refund of their traveling expenses.
Pnusia. — ^^lembers of the Lower f^bambfr (433) xeccive
tCBvelling e3q>en8cs and diet money (according to a fixed scale)
of X5S. a day.
Saxe-Cobnrg.—Mtmhen of the Second Chamber Rsdlng in
Coburg or Gotfaa receive 6s. a day; other membeis receive xos.
a day and travdUx^ expenses.
5a»}iiy.— Members of tbe Second Chamber (89) aisd aoik-
hereditaiy members of the Upper Chamber receive x». a day
(6s. a day if they live In tbe place of meetiog) and aa allowance
for trayelUng.
(Tiirtfm&erg.— Memben of both chamben receive xss. a day
for actual attendance; also free passes over the xailwaya.
GrwM.— The memben (235) receive £72 for the session, also
free passes on railway and steamship lino.
Hungary.— idfxnhea «f tbe House of Represenutlves (453)
receive £200 a year, with allowance of £66 X3S. for house renL
Italy, — Memben of the Legislature receive no payment,
although attempts have been made from 1862 onwards to intro-
duce pajrment of memben. It was last brought forward in x 908.
the amount suggested being S4S. for every silting attended.
Japan. — Memben of the House of Representatives (379) and
non-hereditary memben of the House of Peen receive £210 a
year, besides travelling expenses.
J/«XM».— Both senatora (56) and represenUtives C340) receive
13000 a year.
Netherlands. — ^Memben of the Fint Chamber ($0) not residing
in the Hague receive x6s. 8d. a day during the session; members
of the Second Chamber (xoo) receive £x66 a year, besides trav^
ling expenses.
JVoneoy.— Memben of the Storting (X23) receive X3S. 4d. a day
during the session, besides travelling expenses.
Paraguay. — Both senatora and deputies receive £200 a year.
Portugal. — l5eputieshavc been unpaid since 1892, but deputies
for the colonies, whose homes are in the colonics, receive £20 a
montb or X3S. 4d. a day during sittings of the Chamber, and £10
a month when the Chamber is not sitting.
Rumania. — Both senaton (120) and deputies (183) receive
168. 8d. for each day of attendance, besides free rsihray pf^***^
i^ffxjja.— Memben of the Dtmia receive sxs. a day duzxng ih«
session, and travelling expenses.
SsrvM.— Deputies (120) recdve xsa. a day and travelUns
expenses.
Spain.— 'i&tmhen of the Legislature lecdve no sabxy, but
dq>utiea on their election receive a railwjiy ticket for 2480 m.
tiaveL
5ved«ii.^Memben of both the Fint Chamber (150) and the
Second Chamber (230) receive £66 for each session of 4 Boontfas,
besides travelling expenses.
SvitMerland. — Memben of the State Council are paid by tbe
canton they represent, and their salary varies acooiding to th«
wealth or liberality of the canton. Tbe salary ranges thus from
rxs 6d to 25s. a day, the average of the whole being x6a. a ^^y.
Membera of the National Council (167) are paid from Fe«lcx^
funds. They receive 1 6s. 8d. a day for each day they are pnsen t,
with tra veiling expenses. (T. \^ 1. j
BMO 07 TWSNTICTB V0LI71CB.
81
UOIST
S3
00<l
6021
REFERENCE
BOOK
THIS BOOK
DOES NOT
CIRCULATE
3 blDS D71 laS HAH
CECIL H. GREEN LIBRARY
STANFORD UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES
STANFORD, CALIFORNIA 94305-6004
(650) 723-1493
grncircOsulmoil. Stanford. adu
All books are subject to recall.
DATE DUE
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11